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STATE OF NEW YORK— DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

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Pewee RS “INSTITUTES

RECORD FOR EAR 1900 NEW YORE
BO LAN: ; a.
GAI
C. A. WIETING : : Bf Commissioner of Agriculture
F. E. DAWLEY . . ° . : - Director of Institutes

TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE, JANUARY 9, 1901,

ALBANY:

JAMES B, LYON, STATE PRINTER,
1901.

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Diet Ol, Parmera Institutes \oic s's'ne's sie vole iss slow eicrele ae Se COME eee ey Se
MESON BOK sis. ciesictenreta oitt art sloleteis ss ofa cath ek a le BUS backer etions a eo 1-191
Orchardsand Smalls Wreuits ord a Sisrerte haere myst ledeeaiele cishsiehets ce, \evereteneiees 1-19
RUA SHR AML CUMS PLANO ef aio, 6 op sys ieteyetay otek theme oaue ranctelteus iehcals lease ceein\e oraee 19-24

Sites ePmeilnpe Corn, i, Ahisc 2 edie kee tate ake wees * Bet ees: 24-36
PASHTUN EEO OC maaetete alae tenets. ciyis iit taral occa CRMs ete ak eatin cloner ee al amet nls uacedl & toot 37-58
(CHONG Ati not erase Fabe gaia (dere eifelsioke SET Cees ge. e.21 wi ov ohane sciesustaraseretstetok DO Oe

HIM Orgel) cailicygeeerseetoNenenerey chsh or ols) chai oy sisi stoudtis ener rrete atanete Greve tials te, rare eerie 62-72

ANTE UIEY ss GBA ors OOO DED EO CIFIC EIIOD 6 CSD OOD EE Oooo an Dime cee 12-17
METER CHES cero haste etcrereid i whic! <fovestt aSnise €) Pete) aiatadsterie vial. als) a,/0i9 ec Jo; 0 <caie sates 77-83
SIMD 2 aso os cenec uc coneaes senouDe \ode Dogan pom ONaoOCD a 83-90
MTS COM AMEO US Mes wleratey Sekar sia Aci chiagarrss aval evajager sie) secisisle’ stoi ei evs\ ojotsierese som einer 90-125

ati lawire and ob eRtUUZeLS or) acterc[epeieieieieis <is)«ists.s/e\e'e 81,0) 105-00 oi 125-135
\W@igria yh IAT MNES Reo 4 coo cgomddGs Doo an eCogaDOUCOOOUGdEc 135-143

AN DOUG LEO Ssolbeobdol do cuddmOpmooonnondgoonodeo OAs odaddont 143-146
Milikvand its Meroduchsl waar: © «\- Bind UciO tA CD aDRGOGo 146-154

IPI 5 TAG OOS So dG0.6 6 O:0 DOO One DOEIOIOD clo o-co 0 cc CiccRaDIRTIO 155-158

1 IES! Lae BAO ric OC mnIO a eo menoorn pepe EOC 008.5 SO BORED OrCe 158-161
(GHRISOS: 6 6 i910 68.000 00.000 UDUUDODY DODICUU PEED O05 AG Foam Od & 161-163

BP OMUGIay cM UU reratercyste stoi stevoileler eval sever ef slaieveisio/s, ss sis ats egenelsie sats an oneal ays 163-191

How to Fit Fowl for the Show-room, by J. H. Drevenstedt...... 164

Buildin eee Ol Guypw rl OUSES pw s)=) alcr-ter cheno et rerio ee tatieys crtnlor reefers 173

OSE) Baha fam cantons a. Carve Oc a Sc SIRO ace yore DORA GRD OOD 176

BUUIEKC YS ie sir stvsi cuss sr ote) sel sia) ake voterelelovera¥esers/ohs..oje >. latatisns Srcer ene uale sNoreuatel 179

General Management .................- Soo uo docogauodoCbahaT 180
Incubating and Brooding ............ oddddondoOOsaodadone OnE 182

“The Kgg-Laying Type” (Illustrated), te I. BY RCo ec jocks 184
Weterinaby= Denar bien vrata. ttereaal ts iche rer -ulshero.s lu-fcike lope seus 186-191

The Composition and Use of Fertilizers, Dr. L. L. Van Slyke.......... 192-325
Pines. why Word.) WOO * 5. re fiche nue acne a sles AEA ROCR TD OE CeCe OLD
Breeding Poultry from a Fancier’s Standpoint, T. P. IMME CTEM S Gaboaeo for 330
Wihatishallt Doi? by Misspitelen Reed, ABs 2i5. (cs. ec cece ot ee tee. ODM
Why the Boy Leaves the Farm, Mrs. C. A. U. McCarthy............... 344
The Farm as a Place of Business, by John Jeannin, Jr. ............... 349
Bet Vealein oe Vary “Ale SULIUM: sensi shevss opelobensietnera/eieiol ac 'oierel rey cual oc steratarolete a OOS
Keeping up with the Times, Miss Bertha Tuckerman...........6-++++00- 360
Barn Construction and Sanitation, by H. E. Cook...........0..eeeeeeaee 364
>Home iinteson the Harm, aby: Mrs: die IMOS@S = msi cieie avcistessiels clocks « © + mrerae 370
peAadseton success, by Martin BE, Wee! o.c..52 is ete leystee oc. cei a0 sjr0le 0s rs alo elias 373
- Social Life on the Farm, by Mrs. J. E. Middaugh ................+..- 376
eemiunye byt Mrs: Tabbie “MeGuinness” <.. 2.5 is f+. + cnes ew vistors 2 Soames 380
“Home Life on the Farm, by Miss Maggie S. Keeler...............e00 384
Seatekiavan New York, by F. Hi. Dawley... .5.2.% 660. cccecoedecaenens .. 389

iil.

iv ConTENTs.

Temperature and Moisture in Relation to Cheese-Ripening, by L. L. Van

ol Od odo ag ae) 8 eR Vereen ain ee ripe - iar Maa R ci Benen io rec 413
History and Influence of the New York State Dairymen’s Association,

yp bs Gillbertigecreveptete te tere telat) deta) <l-feaeietalotevenslatehst-relle Ss gooe ener eres 424
Dairy Bacteriology, by Prof. H. A. Harding «0.0... .cccccsse sce ceewesms 431
The Evolution of Dairying, by Jared Van Wagenen, Jr. .........-+.0-- 433
The Next Step in the Education of the l'armer, by W. H. Jordan........ 443
The Silo and the Material to Fill It, by Prof. I. P. Roberts ............ 460

The Progress of Dairy Farming in Canada, by Prof. James Robertson.... 465

List of Farmers’ Institutes for 1900.

Place. County. Date.
Magi EIAVeTION.d25.4:.torchetetehaieters eres ere (OR ACE ORE anenn Sas Cicuer eras Jan O32
Richiield MS PENGS: tjcliefel-rele ele e's © Otsegoyareetetaals cic tt atl. Jan. 3-4
Wines HOM ore cttnnteharer bet ssavatate?ars aS eas (CER IEES LBound eno eo noe Jan 4
NViOlC OUTER A Gir theterstoreretelolelareta see Wiarymetmac sicher tas otk: Jan 5-6
eos yAlle., iiccicsctetereteteie'e'ee ve ee VAIS SO MR topo otal fatal aietctan st hs Jan. 5-6
POU Siete, chavs teketoketetors teteve's are stele ve WV VACA Het tela fale lelete Wisco Jan 8-9
SoutmeNew Berlin: «1:2. 06.5 6. CHEUAHSON Ste tterlera sn ote Jan. 8-9
LoS i ee ee aa Vine rete forstct.f. ote ts anets tate Jan 10
MPU TER Nh io, ie ee ates. jesse ore OESCIOP EH ee tolte Stetetets tote ohe Jan. 10-11
REHSEOTO, 25. \cmnreiten Gas ee os oe WVEOHIC OG It F-f.foiafata'a af afa's'a's ate Jan. 11-12
SCHENEVUS reuse aed ee een cs ESE SEA ols ass wletore vile Jan i
Rontlandiviller sc diac cciclec ccs.c 0c sone BEB OM a o's os wal iietats ats Jan. 12-13
LEA A ae 2 1 (GR cea mani cicihe Jan 13
yndowville «2.222 5..02.ceesieees Oplensim® 27/5). )u/0'=)s « slaei>.- als Jan 13
VATISOWMVAILG! ko. tcckove sche cts eee URE TA, ©% b ot Uo ule 3m oi kade Jan. 15-16
Bhorry Valley? «i003, ss s/naletie ss OUSO Spe Ooi cinicnorna Jan. 15-16
INE 055.44 hans ka eee Scliainamien fy, a /ateiielarae ss (a 6 Jan 16
ppencerport: 22.5525 425s e000. Monroe™ Sr. sees o/s se Jan. 17-18
MieRAO ye task tht Shs ce es Jed NF ity kek didi, 63a RCT Jan 18
GDEEGMOOS 5 4.5 54 0505.55.50 ce oe ee Selohan eyes ee se ses ove “er Jan 18
RI LOHNCN L.. Gt5iz ct..2 are Sade wae sles A Daniy,.: antes 2 scree cee Jan 18
bethlehemCentre® .s2.53.2...0+ Albany ..............-- Jan. 19-20
IW ato edee holed OIG DASARI aoe 7 cu Gombe Jan. 19-20
West Sard Wakes 45.6.6.2.64.0.5:0.c00 010 Rensselaer Nec.oerec sclae ere Jan. 19-20
OMIA KER SECC! £.5:5-5.6 sie: sidsk:aueis oie rece Sclteneetadiy” (0. scjaisls sieve! <= Jan. 19-20
veMnedd tes Ae kat to 6 fe steele Sufioikees sere aeevecoce cisternae Jan. 22-23
MUG EMRE Pa aj ol cisicloluie'oToisishd/steleneiece Genesee ........20220--- Jan. 22-23
MEW MIGINE ts 2.5, 551s, 8)2:6.0/0.0.4,508 Adie-ere Albany .......eseees-- Jan. 22-23
AME RO PUBS 9.5/0 5,0, 502.68 :cteie.d4,sdiele « Suffolkes2 arcane oeure Jan 24
MUGPHEMENS moses. dea. ced celvee (MiGarOGias occ e nee cinee sm Jan. 24-25
Wigorhieesvilles....scs0se cde ciews ANUBATIY’ “Srrcegiie ss pews ce ai. aa
PGi hap LON <./ nce bees eo aae Suffolk. ... sc.seeeeeeee- Jan 25
eden. soi oaaass vem eciree ce Wyoming ....eeeeeeeee Jan. 25-26
Ithaea ..... Gh ies sintaveen Suoteronioers Tompkins .......++++++- Jan. 25-26
Horthport® ..55.0...6 S caeacerne Sous cic a lacie cw ae ors Jan 26
PAN OH AR oes ca wis brs Ary, See ie OrleanS 2 oc s cee cecacas Jan. 26-27
Bratie Coreen bliSii, .s;siesereig oralarsvere sieve IRGIRKGE2 BoogoogoDoCoC Jan. 26-27
RV Via SEU Wales tittio.s,ciciieie-aysis\ersiaye: Oisjevone VAN “congmooopooDn Jan. 26-27
GamsevOonte <4 5.ch0 na kae ewe cl’ Saratordy ccc swcsiisis cies Jan. 29-30
Spring Valley ..... Sas aaittine ces Rockland ....ccescesees Jan. 29-30
RIE NINE! 2 2. 5)s)5j0:ceayereiecoie: onesie. 0s Whee son gosocoopoCondobd Jan. 29-30
PTT GTC ENLON ti srcsesendicvevesececevers Soeur Silinebl padacoodeac Jan. 31, Feb. 1
Franklinville ...... OCR OSC Cattaraugus.........- Jan. 31, Feb. 1
Greenfield Centre ..... donaacooc SHRBREDE osoodnbpodc Jan. 31, Feb. 1
THISaGh, «soe bo Gono poo OOOUD UDO OnenninS 6.0 4n00D000KC000 Feb. 2-3
OIG sgh uooeddupeopdodooGUBOS CattAraUeis Ast. cece scat Feb. 2-3
SUVS ME eet US heis. 272, sreie7e/e0dvexe10 everelotere ShimiGhen aooonddooconcGc Feb. 2-3
AGllerstmlielilSie=, sieseieieterets cv onc olevolene)s Whirl 6 jn adoo0nodnc Gos Feb. 5-6
PMG OUICR TS leis cs ece. cde seis .c ete Allevanty, <sc10. cee encencse Feb. 5-6
Washingtonville .........6+- dere OLANGOI Fae les vie a sn isiaies Feb. 5-6
Centreville .......++, aeitatasiers Allepanty “is csiccme sateete sie! Heve 7

v.

vi Bureau or Farmers’ INstirures.

FARMERS’ INSTITUTES — (Continued).

SS —————

Place. County. Date.

New MOD: a cucutGeelsimie tte o deus New (¥ Orky 23 etic ctclacte pieiets Feb. 7-8
Rort Ann’... .. S Wieis oataierenere ens aiareier stats Washington ..... Seinweece eb. wi=s
DSW; Fel 5 Ee gin (0) Yo ere ery sere eo Tio Washington! <2). 11s «eee Heb: 8
BI aos ky oon we Seger ts ose a nde facatersyaterele Wyomitige \.ei-ttare ayes aPC Deano O
Gam brid Gy wsjereiise sisys els o.com wirielchetate Washington .......<.... Heb. =10
tS Hctl Seer tereparete anew othe aie wayoeteahace wists Dutchess; "eet shcralotet stereiets Feb. 9-10
AN ASOT AUER eis 5 cf <n07-) rie iois) steherotatelshoiets NVC OATIVAVetersietaueterstetete Mago Jel 10
IGACHIVALTE iets ats. stares owas 'e ois Beton Steuben’.4.. sos creer hae eb 12
IOOSIC a SMAIISD sey ciate a1siche ole ioerou lero de Rensselaer ....... Bia cee Ln eels)
ERGO H COLA erent ciele n/elalie suc fe lela) sroheperst Pome cnchn Aa aga pqadadads Feb. 12-13
PATI OVED pi tersie si «okays oloisie’ (orale. e\epelsietedetens Alec amiyaiere i teieterrs oe s.ns) phieb: 13
Panter SOMValle . .i.i\e so cece ee cicieisns are Schenectadivarsnsreeiiiiee Feb. 14
Bedford goudtlOW, . .... «essie ie eke chajersternre Westchester ....... este aeeb: 14
pea HONG Perec) aye shclie ciate (elele ote enelclieiaterenete Steuben! cre ciees site ..-. Feb. 14-15
LMGICTINE OS os Binnie SB IGO GO DIDIDIG BOC D OO Dutchess. crete. tate tate Feb. 14-15
REE AGB one OaGanOo OOo ono uilS Montgomery ........ De eouiebs 15
me elaine sw .. sscr are sx soles Dutchess sacar: csossess BeDaoadn
OTTTTENS S6G oe ne nin Boo ato bor Steuben! lesa sters eee ost MED nC 7
DmlhiuyalGE Sane anspoasoopea ap OSs ol AMOI MEONANIOY Gooasocenssc Feb. 16-17
SEY GuEN Beas Sooaronob oecndco>oSolS cdr Steuben: we kisser, aveictetor ot Feb. 19
Ryural “Grove 222.265. ce cee ccs sine Monteomieny,ey)t--leiysistrel Feb. 19
PEINTIOUECKS soieistorels one eel alemovensrs' Oisxeierejsitene Dutchess. 24.5 seen Feb. 19-20
PASCO able forte ipne eis ieies > evevercievereloyelakonene Steuben: Joep eee Feb. 20
VOUISLONUE cicieeiese cles. «. olcie i: nis leropsueharaie Bra ton) s.,<\<0a re orotate Feb. 20-21
IPPC TAO CAdChih ogo SOOM EmO EOC. 0600.0 Columbia soos sane Mebse2022i
PAVOMIA SGA GLOM 1 . ole:e y+ + -rolaystatetoolele Tiavingston) sce eaters Feb. 21-22
Winnie mn ee oadoommadodcs 55.0. IEG OT stacey cueleverey-rekereenenenets Feb. 22
Wiest. Elenriebta +... = cicleitlerorpionereeel Monnoeueesonee eee ae ebebsee2=28
(Clawhavailices Gun soen wenddin do0oac wrossiea.) CAIDA TY seis 0 oe ferclolovenetetonekerene Feb. 23-24
Whitt RiO Sone ee ta cao Giese acc ooo Or Monroe? wdcc cts eee Feb. 23-24
Norway Malaita ie Fate scleioreverevelehety shebsteneketaiete Herkimer ..... ree tek oe wae Nebweeaee
GiittOWMeS DEMOS. cece eile ome ereiel oral Ontario) = eee eee eee ebb
BUNTEINT SaaS csaynye sokv is via aetc a, Cle vexepolebelenonenete Ti@WiS! » fo-ne's ectelstereterene wee. Heb: 26=27
MEO WoWLLN Gay aahc'vo are: et eve-srai ale eve ss enetere jaicese, HuAWIS saute Lee Feb. 27-28
WOPEONACEN es crar cl a hel ee elon tabaler: Wiewias co. ee eee Feb. 28, March 1
EaligpMGOrners! sa se:c avers ore arate NS Ontario see eee Feb. 28, March 1
GATIIOCTU 8 hyo 6 rain (a eis helene aietoeene siovetbie: . ONECIO A eter eee eee March 1-2
MPETAN AYAUING ra ais ois, on0 o.0 eevee lorereleelaieiekenene NWiatesd So ae. eee March 9-3
ary CUBE WING. ash ¢c0cs15 fet» wieretolsions Son oor Ononda (ot aA SO erence March 9-3
Higginsville g's.eliae eso) e ile jeAbip ohelaistojevetate Oneida... eae Mareh 3
PING ONG pera sis a. orate aie ole e che. clsuere olde raiale Schuvler!... eee March =
DOE AMCSMINTIES!: 5.10 wr adocele eects lererehchepeueers Onondaga, sss e eee March 5-6
\WiGhi Seeman moomeonicas Osc op aC #7 AS CONEVEGR | sxalrcveroeter eee Mareh 6-7
Scipioville bm oles 0/2 0/6.» os 0. 0 6 Olelepi sie oe Cayuga 2 ar ee March 1
Mia eo bi: Quunion modigOaGlgrad oc > Oo: ORYUGR) Secisee os eee Mareh 8
INOEE HELGGUOR. on ¢cc5.aiovare avscere eoncertearctete Sehuyl OP So ieee Cee Mareh 8
(RGA GID) ANNA Ss 25 tasiesm co fose) airs; Slerelete siete of. Schinyler uessase gee eee March g
Re RY CXICE teapots ccc etal ol <lolne nictegateelnale Cage > an eee ... March 9
WW GL ONG ess fais, « «.07s i stare sichapey uneeyeteloces Chemimnetercacrerscrice Mareh 9-10
SRY OLOD coe Ne crate ee hie id -sies OUT aeons eee Tompkins ce Ate ee ee March 9-10
VIG VOENGRGr ois crers ers oeieleie eo sietaeeiare Seneca ivan «oro otter March 12
Dryden ........seeeeseeereeesceaes Tompkins = %s:sisis = eieenee March 12-13
MA ASR cise Shvaree dies Ghatt atta Chemung -. i. <2 westeee March 12-13
Tioga Centre ..........-..se08 cisiaiela? DLO ee eeee eee ..... March 12-13
BBG AIING ste ob s0 00 vo, ons Sere et ee tes THOS, © ws:0, 0. Aa 3 Oe March 13-14
TECRUACHDNEG: |. osm wa solic cca aed SCMWVLEL vs <iais's eras Ceerae March 13-14
NL Dee a PIS a ope re he Dy é, SMO gainer «sie 0, oie or LCD LE
PUUDAMOVULE sie a o's sis eceak sete --es Tompkins ............ March 15-16

List or Merertyas. vil

FARMERS’ INSTITUTES — (Continued).

Place. County. Date.

PUG eect = f.ta 5.8 aa): s, ==,5,6 sh vsialaherpyo Schuyler. ers cucrcracrere March 15-16
WORST GIR aan 2) a4 i, 4) = «14 ajbhelelsviretn’s SUG EAG as cabot so, 6 aie apse March 15-16
Syracuse Farmers’ Club ...........- ONOUGAI AN (eee ise » eipictele March 17
2 So |S a oar ane a Chautauqua .......... March 17
Ransomville Farmers’ Club ......... DUT PANEL aor aleha) atetctalere\e ia April 18
Peg ADOPT 0 Sac arias) 6 <'4, 0.0 «'6 di pcerels Sieh. HC MORATIO: . isnaterals stopeneld «) « June 15
Beachville ....... Dpiaie\eeinioyss\ejaidia wats Ge POLCUUEN ec's entireties <s: =\« July 25
RCE AAEM EN rao) oia' a! o)aie) a) -c-a4's ateuiytesere's eh ONGHM ACR: ceeige wearers wire seid IES: 9
J DCW Cat) CS RE ROOT DODO RE ICSC Onondaga wec/eretverecseic.ciers Aug. 10
Thousand sland Park ... 2... ssa001 PEMET SOM oes aretsretcderelepaieieists Aug, 14
CHaEUCOnUee aio tac ayy ats cs-1 5 oe ctaw oioreteuers Sar LR COO WA one repcneneielciers”siers Aug. 15
IMIR S ees UION oe 2 ola la 0:5 «esterase ssyevsl DVUGCH ORS? e Tereesk: icra araes Aug. 15
West Sand Lake ...... coosuadoDuadS FRENSSEL ACTA ara crererere.cierereiars Aug. 16
Warnerville ....... adoodgouusse beac SEHOHANIG! Saasicisiersleiele: oes Aug. 16
Mamliuseit? 3.5 -.. 2% o:0 a Gnodooote ce Patc ONONEASA vros afelcie'eieiaisye ees Aug. 16
SUT EAD ICO) 5106 mia) nie ereie'« « «ole sie eve WESCBO tee sinleteraie sietorers eras 92 AIG. 17
Maryland ...... BiolelatataierorarcVel-\atote/aterets OLSemOol ee aterchats ctersiersteveie. sis Aug. Vi
WVCSEPUUMeTIS| 1-1. cietclelaia aleicte eiefele ale asics USER aa bou on ono spoode Aug. 18
Selryler Pals. sea cice cies cciads 0% siereimieg CC UMNNEOOA, ot let acate ah cia) ateie ae ¢ Aug. 23
Tulley Lake ..... eferetetel clove stelarerenlomters Dito by Gee onoaerc Aug. 25
GAS POU tw aia syoscie! cals, <fole (ais eraisveusxeyapspoistere.s INA AANA ee arse! stot stale soussersiets Aug. 25
WEPCC RICE MEAT ICs 5c clela) cici=-) 1-)-) aera el aieionals Orleans ..... ofersvetercieteretere Aug. 27
ESS PsA oj ctelot 3) 272) 5) 21 oe) </'aia) cher anedetieteyal © oJ CI ERBOM trian 0,0, 50, afar of, 6: * Aug. 29
(Ojroese alts AG agen toedcoocuacded Dutchess euirisiiacies = Sept. 8
ENA OI cing civ'6'n'o ein 9) 0 n/a intel oiate esis Dutchesry raya aesrtares, » Sept. 19
ADEYVUNI I Keiorat oielotsial ere \eloteiste oielel ales ei sie RraePPLC WIS) 2 ccpralavetmmarmny ete 5! aes Sept. 29
\iatistorn BCA Gage AbCOe UO eA Cen O.O Gece OATS: , oateagatats ale o¢01 Sept. 29
WGMET HOMeneraarchelaiatsy steterersatstore evelere's:'ss sve SMACHOUATIO sayectctvars' a a\eiapa ma Oct. 10
Presto, HOUOW! os\c0% c'ecee stesso sis See UDRILY. « -s al ccale wheres pret ae ebleCu ea
Mri aeeectstelslels ite e's 6 -Soce0ne SD OUCG BIG) Satara Coe OnOoace Dec. 3-4
Winlatl doedediacoboddanuocdan Bie ereleren ets) MULWEENCC! ctsicysicre/ere cis Dec. 3-4
\Witelingay Snobooogooodac Sloletersie sieteresie Sb.) LA WEENCE! sl, clare »cle)e'- Dee. 5-6
Hl tet PAMITOTA Ea) sie! ohc) ce) +10 eleieie)aeleie/e\0/n © Lie eS rica Bec ORO oeree Dec. 5-6
IGRI 6 és poadOe OU ODOODOOOUODOOMOr (SIL) AES onradae poeedre Dec. 5-6
Hensonville) cscs icine cae selefaletoislelols CMmewGh ocgencponconb0OKs Dec. 5-6
TAT ELU Ui alayeyeieis ele ole's sie elses’ ole eceee Ot. Lawrence ..... sdooce Dec. 7
WOME. Bae clve des cence cee cncsee --- Chautauqua ........ datee's Dec, 1-8
PAE e ss Gao dp HOOT OC sooaucoad Sines SO CINEE SOUL aieie choisicle’ ololerere =e Dec. 8
Lexington ...... Sounedods eealeislarers joo (Cra) Soooddaqooobade ac Dee. 8
logy labinserallle: 6 66 qgoaaoddddbcae aVarolereiure) CLLELAOM er orereicicl eieie oleh sre! Dec. 10
Cherry ‘Creek 2 ....-.-..0<0--0- cqno, (GuenEhGE: Soodooocoece Dec. 10-11
IMIG NIE Ooh oe soe COOOUCOOTIOG Delaware onra% <ieittevs o/s) 2.01 Dec. 10-11
Dairymen’s Assn., Watertown ...... Jefferson ............... Dec. 11-13
(yen 2. ss sie seecie es aaa de sivelare CC UAUCAUQUAS cr ce erecta. Dee. 12
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Vill Boreavu or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

FARMERS’ INSTITUTES — (Continued).

Place. County. Date.

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South (Onondaca Peon cece eeines Qnondaga: ...ciecec ccc. DECr1I-S0
South -INew Berlina sctrccetnecctees Chenango: ...60esceners) WEE 21
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New. (Beutinie ctr tttel fateaee selereie CLECDAN GO ereterersie ciorelsisieiio Dees 22
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Aside from the above regular farmers’ institutes the following
special bee-keepers’ institutes were held during 1900:

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Question Box.

ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS.
FERTILIZATION AND CARE.

(Some answers by J. H. Hale of Connecticut.)

Question.— How shall we get color into apples?

Answer.— Potash and sunshine add color. Nature does the
work when it has a chance. Too much nitrogen makes a pale
color. As a rule, 200 pounds of potash is recommended per acre,
but I use 300 to 400 pounds. Wood ashes have a value for their
potash, phosphoric acid and lime.

Question.— Would it be advisable to sow oats among peach
trees, the first year?

Answer.— No, sir.

Question.— Name four varieties of peaches for this locality
(Orleans county) for a commercial orchard ?

Answer.— Mountain Rose, Champion, Old Mixon and Stump
for white; Crosby, Salway, St. John and Elberta for yellow.

Question.— Are tight boxes preferred for packing fruit?

Answer.— The tighter the package, the better, if the fruit is
picked and packed when dry.

Question. What kind of packages does Mr. Hale use for
peaches ¢

Answer.— Our southern peaches are packed in Georgia car-
riers, holding four six-quart baskets. In Connecticut we use a
half bushel package.

Question.— How often should peach trees be grubbed?

Answer.— So long as there are any grubs; as a rule, twice a
year, in May and September. The best preventive against borers
is banking the trees a foot high in May, with earth.

Question.— At what season is it best to prune peach trees, and
would you cut them back each year?

Answer.— Cut them back each year early before tlfe buds
begin to swell. The best time is after the coldest winter weather
is over.

2 Bureau or Farmers’ Insritrures,

Question.— low is the general fruit-grower to become posted
on the markets of the world?

Answer.— By taking the leading horticultural papers or trade
papers, and by joining Lanuealeeel societies and keeping in touch
with the leading fruit-growers.

Question. Leis which trees will we get fruit the quickest,
young trees set out and left in grass or trees budded and grafted ¢

Answer.—I had 15,000 trees in Georgia six ‘or eight years
old from which I cut off the tops, cutting vie heads peek to six
or eight buds. The next year I budded that new growth and the
next year harvested a good crop of peaches. Put from six to
fifteen buds in a tree. Always use buds from trees which we
have seen in fruit, and do it in June, July, August or September.

(uestion.— Name varieties of apples that will fruit two bar-
rels per tree at eight years of age ?

Answer.— I could not do it because I don’t live in New York;
but we have done it in Connecticut on land said to be not worth
$5 per acre.

Question.— How near the ground do you recommend heading
the trees ¢

Answer.— From 15 to 18 inches. I aim to have my peaches
so headed as to pick at least 75 per cent. of the fruit from the
ground.

Question.— Name varieties of apples for an orchard of 1,000
trees for commercial purposes ?

Answer.— I plant Rome Beauty, Southern Beauty and Bald-
win as the main crop.

Question.— How may we know when we have the San José
scale 4

Answer.— You will know it when you have it, but I cannot
deseribe it. The Lord has evidently sent it for the purpose of
compelling us to take better care of the trees.

(Question.— What kind of fertilizer should we use and at what
time /

Answer.— Ask the land; would not want the same formula
for all soils. As a rule, keep out stable manure. There is too
much nitrogen in it, which produces a soft, unripened growth
of wood and bud. Apply potash in the form of muriate or sul-
phate and add ground bone. I use from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds
of the Mixture per acre.

Question.— Which will keep best in cold storage, fruit fully
ripe when picked or that pieked somewhat green ?

Tue Question Box. 3

Answer.— Perfectly ripe. A mistake is made in picking fruit
before it is ripe. I have kept well-ripened peaches a month in
cold storage,

Question.— How do you assort your fruit?

Answer.— Hand work is the best; I hire girls to do it. They
have better and keener perception, a better eye and are more honest
than are men.

Question.— Would you head your trees low or high?

Answer.— I. prefer low heads; but modern tools enable us to
work closely to a tree whether it is headed high or low.

Question.— Should large limbs on trees be cut off?

Answer.— Not as a rule, but if they must be, do it in June
and then paint over with white lead and oil.

Question.— What is the necessary pressure to have on a spray
pump ?

Answer.— Don’t allow it to get below 80 pounds, if you would
have a good spray.

Question.— I have an orchard that is in a very healthy, thrifty
condition. It is 25 or 30 years old, but has never borne but two
crops of apples. What is the matter?

Mr. Woodward.— There are many such eases recorded in this
State. I believe the condition is due to the way the trees were
propagated. Undoubtedly the roots were grafted with scions cut
from barren trees. The nurserymen are to blame for it all.
They ought to see to it that every root-graft is eut from strong,
healthy, yearly-bearing trees. I should not, if I were to set an
orchard next spring, buy a single tree of the varieties I wanted
to plant. I would buy Northern Spy or Ben Davis. Two years
later I would topwork them with the varieties I wanted, being
very careful to cut the scions from trees that fruited yearly.
Doubtless the original grafts in the orchard inquired about came
from unfruitful trees. If the orchard were mine, I would top-
work the same varieties, if I wanted them, on the trees, but would
be sure the grafts came from bearing trees.

Question.— Does the stock in which a graft is set influence
the fruit that grows on it?

Mr. Woodward.— Not a particle. All the influence comes
through the leaf. The leaf also influences the root-growth of
the tree. I can distinguish a Red Astrachan tree every time
by looking at the root; and it is said there are nurserymen who
ean distinguish nearly every variety by its root-growth alone.

A Farmer.—I once set some grafts of “ Camfield” in Red

4 Bureau or Farmers’ InstitTvres.

Astrachan and Talman Sweet trees. The fruit on the grafts set
in the Talman was hard and corky, while that on the Astrachan
scions was as good as that grown on the original stocks. In
these cases it seems that the tree did affect the quality of the
fruit.

(uestion.— Which are the best white and red varieties of ecur-
rants for all purposes 4

Mr. Dawley.— It is a hard question to answer; there are a
number of good varieties. For home use I know of none better
than the old red Dutch; for market, Fay’s Prolific or Cherry are
good, but probably “ President Wilder,” a new red variety, is the
best red sort. The best white variety is ‘‘ White Imperial;” but
white currants are not grown in a commercial way; only for
home use.

Mr. Smith.— White Grape and White Dutch are good vari-
eties, but not as good as White Imperial.

Question.— What is the advantage of a cover crop in the
orchard, and what is best for such purpose ? /

Mr. Rice.— Some of the legumes, such as clover or peas, are
good. We also sow an ounce and a half of flat turnip seed with
twelve quarts of clover seed in our orchard, to turn under early
the following spring; so as to supply not only more plant food
but more humus to the soil. With a few weéek’s growth in the
fall, and one or two in the spring, it is surprising what good
results will thus be obtained. They are almost as good as plow-
ing under a good clover sod. I call the clover crop “ the catch
fertility crop,’ because, while detracting scarcely anything from
the soil, it adds fertility and humus to it.

Question.— If you were to set an orchard the coming spring
in Genesee or Wyoming counties, which of the following kinds
of fruit would you select: pears, plums, prunes or apples? De-
scribe the soil best adapted to each variety?

Mr. Smith.— If you have a fruit region here, and I assume
you have, you know what soils are best. We are growing 3,000
varieties of fruits on the Geneva Station farm, the soil of which is
a heavy clay, well under-drained. But these fruits grow on other
soils just as well. As to which would be best to set, your markets
will best decide. We can’t come here and give you ironclad
rules for growing fruit, nor can we make selections and advise
you what sorts or varieties to plant. It is a local matter for
you to decide.

THE Question Box. 5

Question.— What is the best way to keep borers from injur-
ing young apple trees ?

Mr. Woodward.— The best plan is to watch the trees, and, if
borers are found in them, punch their heads off with a wire, by
pushing it into the hole where the borers are.

Question.— Give the best method of treating apple trees after
being broken down by ice? They are badly split.

Mr. Woodward.— I could tell much better if I could see the
trees. If the body is broken, dig the tree out; if only the limbs,
if not too close to the body, saw them off square and graft them,
even if the same varieties have to be put in. But I should rather
have an ice storm come along than to have some men in my orchard
with a saw, trimming it.

Question.— When and how shall I trim peach trees that have
received a great deal of attention and have made rapid growth?

A Farmer.— I should cut back last season’s growth of leaders
about two-thirds, and, if there were inside shoots that crossed
and interfered, I should cut them out.

Question.— What catch crop is best to raise in a bearing apple
orchard; for the especial benefit of the apple trees ?

Mr. Rice.— Some of the legumes like the clovers. We sow
crimson clover and turnips. The former, beside making a clover
ercp, adds nitrogen, which it takes from the atmosphere, and
returns to the soil. Then, too, it will grow to late in the fall, and
does not take moisture from the soil, needed by the trees. We
also sow turnips in the clover. They make a good catch crop.
We use them for feeding our hens later in the season. If crimson
clover does not grow, try the red clover, sowing it in August or
September first. It will make a sufficient growth before winter
begins to cover the ground.

~Question.— What would you do for an orchard of 500 trees,
30 years old, that had been affected?

Mr. Rice.— Affected with what? If it is the San José scale,
the only remedy is to cut the trees out and burn them. Such trees.
are too large to treat successfully. We have such an old af-
fected apple tree, standing near a plum orchard, which we shall
cut out. Smaller trees we can spray with crude petroleum. It
is a dirty job, but the most effective one I know. Nursery stock
may be fumigated with hydrocyanie gas, which kills all animal
life on it.

Question.— Is the so-called Middleburg plum exempt from
black knot ?

Mr. Mann.— Yes, sir; it is with me.

6 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Question.— Does it not injure a young orchard to grow corn
in it?

Mr. Riee.— Corn is a ravenous feeder, so should not be planted
in a young orchard, but it is better than a sown crop, which does
not admit of cultivation, while corn does. Then, corn not only
shades the trees, but takes moisture from them. Jeans or pota-
toes are crops more suited to a young orchard that is cultivated.
We have a young orchard six or seven years old, that bore a
number of apples on each tree almost, last season. The land
has been cultivated.

Question.— Which is best, to mulch or cultivate an orchard;
and if to mulch, how far from the trees and how deep should
the mulch be?

Mr. Smith.— That is a question that cannot be decided in one
way for every man. Good results from cultivation and mulch
are seen. If, however, you have an orchard that has not been
cultivated, go slow. Some of the best apples m cold storage at
Buffalo for the Pan-American were grown in orchards that were
mulehed. But what is most needed is good thorough spraying,
both to kill insects and to prevent scab. If you mulch, cover the
ground six inches.

Qu2stion.— What causes plum trees to blossom every year,
but fail to fruit ?

Mr. Stevens.— As a rule there is too much nitrogen. oot-
pruning will help somewhat. Drop off the nitrogen, and add
phosphorie acid and potash. It is nature’s first work to perfect
seed, to do which it must have phosphoric acid.

Question.— Name the best three varieties of late pears to grow
in this section (Steuben county), for profit ?

Mr. Rice— I don’t know. With us, Beurre Bosc is one of the
best. It has a long stem and hangs on when others go to the ground.
Clairgeau is a good pear, and looks like Anjou, but is earlier in
season.

A Farmer.— I would add Seckel.

Another Farmer.— Is not fruit-growing the proper work of
the specialist ?

Mr. Mann.— Yes; so is any farm work. I could never grow
a crop of potatoes, corn, or anything else, except I got there
early, attended to it, and did it thoroughly.

Question.— If one could get them for the expense of digging,
would it pay to set out apple trees that are six inches in diameter,
to fill in where trees have died out ?

Mr. Witter.— Trees of that size are being set, which do well.

Tue Question Box. 7

Question.— Give the best time to cut scions, and tell how to
keep them till time to set them.

Mr. Woodward.— Cut the scions now (March 1). Place them
in sawdust; or one may begin setting them now. I have set scions
when the trees were in full bloom, and full leaf, but I do not
like to do it, as they do not make as much growth as will earlier-
set scions.

Question.— Do you think strawberries can be profitably grown
on high clay ground, fertilized with green manure and fertilizers ¢

Mr. Woodward.— Almost any variety of strawberries will grow
on any land except wet land. Select the variety that does best
in your loeality. On good soils, commercial fertilizers will be
found better than barn manure, because there will be no weed
seeds in them. Watch your neighbor’s bed and select the vari-
eties that are most successful with him.

(uestion.— How far apart each way should Cuthbert rasp-
berries be set ?

Mr. Chapman.— We set them in rows just far enough apart
.to go through with one-half of a spring tooth harrow, which is
about six feet. The other way they are about two feet, which
soon makes a hedge row.

Question.— Is red clover a good crop to grow in an apple
orchard ?

Mr. Abbey.— We are sowing red clover mixed with alfalfa,
in our orchards, instead of crimson clover, which kills out. I
know a young man in Wayne county, who is making a success
in growing this mixture in his orchards. I have seen alfalfa
roots, the first season, a foot long, or twice as long as the tops.

Mr. Smith.— [I am surprised to know that alfalfa can be grown
as a catch crop, in that way. I certainly did not know that it
could. What was the soil?

Mr. Abbey.— The soil was a good, strong, gravelly loam, on
high land, with no clay in it.

Question.— What will prevent black knot from getting on to
cherry and plum trees?

Mr. Smith.— By cutting off all the knotty limbs and burning
them. Don’t throw them on the ground and leave them there;

the spores will be blown about just the same, from these limbs
as from knotty ones on the trees. But, you cannot grow plums
and cherries if your neighbor’s trees are knotty and left undis-
turbed. They will inoculate all the trees in the neighborhood.

8 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirvures.

Question.— Which poison is the best to kill the currant worm
on the bushes ?

Mr. Smith.— For most people, no doubt, white hellebore is
best. It does not cost much. Where currants are grown on a
large scale, some of the arsenical poisons, as a rule, are used, but
the work must be done early and thoroughly. Don’t wait, but
apply the poison as soon as there is any sign of the worms.

A Farmer.— A man told me, recently, that he’ once bored
holes in some of his fruit trees, filled them partly with sulphur,
then plugged them up. Result: all the fruit on them was per-
fect, while that on the other trees was seabby and knotty. I
should like to know if there is any foundation in the story ?

Mr. Riee.— A fellow came along in our county (Westchester)
one time, and met a physician, whom he told that he had a fluid,
which, if injected into a tree, would make it healthy, and perfect its
fruit. He would do it for $2 per tree. The doctor told him
to go ahead, which he did. The doctor told me that he some-
times gives his patients hypodermic injections, and he thought
such fluid injections might benefit the trees. I told him that
the best way to inject life, and a good growth into a tree, and
to insure a good crop of fruit, would be to inject nitrogen, potash
and phosphoric acid into the soil, where the tree stands.

Mr, Smith.— I heard Prof. Beach say there was absolutely no
foundation for the statement. Ii the plug is withdrawn, the
sulphur will be found in the hole, but it might be possible that
the boring of the holes checked wood-growth, and thus stimu-
lated fruit-growth, but he very much doubted it.

Question.— Can pear trees five years of age be grafted in the
stumps, the tops having been destroyed ?

Mr. Woodward.— Perfectly easy. Cut them back till you get
a good healthy stock and insert scions with three buds on each.
Pear trees may be just as easily grafted as apple trees, and the
grafts will live just as long.

Question.— I have an orchard which T wish to top-graft. Is
it better to graft all at one time or be two or three years in
finishing the job?

Mr. Woodward.— It would be far better to do it at one time,
and one should put in lots of scions. The idea that it is better
to be three or four years working a new top on a tree is an old-fogy
one. But, when you select scions, cut them from annual-bearing
trees and put the scions into small, not large limbs, unless you
want to wait a number of years for fruit.

Tur Question Box. Oe

(Juestion.— Should rye be sown in an orchard?

Mr, Rice.— It ought never to be sown in an orchard, except
as a cover crop. It takes too much moisture from the trees.
There are a few days when it may be used as a soiling crop,
before oats and peas come on.

Question.— How should grafts be eared for the first and second
year after they are set?

Mr. Smith.— Allow them all to grow the first year. The next
year cut out one of them, allowing but one to grow on the cleft.

Question.— Are wood or coal ashes good for mulching cur-
rant bushes?

Mr. Smith.— There is quite a difference between coal ashes
and wood ashes. The wood ashes contain potash and phosphoric
acid, while the coal ashes contain neither, but coal ashes make a
‘good mulch for currants as they keep the ground moist and pre-
vent weeds growing.

Question.—Is it advisable to set Bubach and Parker Earle
strawberries in the same bed ?

Mr. Chapman.— It would do no harm. No harm would come
from setting any two varieties in one bed. But we must be
sure that one is pistillate and one staminate, so that blossoms will
tertilize, else they will not fruit.

Question.— What about the Columbian raspberry ?

Mr. Chapman.—It is a purple berry, similar to Shaffer’s
Colossal; of about the same quality, a very strong grower, and,
where it succeeds, is well liked. But I think it would freeze out
here (Lewis county). If I were living here I should set Cuthbert
in preference to either Columbian or Shaffer.

Question.— Is it better to graft cherries into wild cherry trees,
or buy the trees already grafted in the root at the nursery 4

Mr. Woodward.— It will be much better to go to.the nursery
and buy trees budded on Mahaleo stock. The old red cherry that
grows along the fences may be used as a stock, but it will be
continually throwing up sprouts to bother you.

Question.— What season is the best to transplant young apple
trees — spring or fall?

Mr. Woodward.— It will depend on the condition of the soil.
If it is dry I should plant in the fall just as soon as the leaves
have fallen. Such fall-planted trees make quite a root-growth be-
fore winter begins, and start earlier in the spring than will spring-
planted trees. If, however, the soil is inclined to be wet in the
fall and through the winter, I should plant them in the spring.

{
10 Bureau or Farmers’ [ysrirures.

Question.— What causes black spots on some apples, and what
will prevent them from appearing ‘

Mr. Smith.— The spots arescaused by some sort of fungus.
Thoroughly spraying with the Bordeaux mixture before the
fungus appears, will prevent it. It prevents, not cures, the
disease. Spray before the buds open, then again just after. Later
add Paris green, then spray again after the blossoms have fallen.
The Bordeaux prevents the scab, while the poison kills insects.

Question.— Will the sowing of rape in an orchard injure it?

Mr. Willard.— I will say I do not think so.

Question.— Would sawdust answer for covering strawberries
when other litter is scarce ?

Mr. Rice.— Some of you strawberry-growers answer.

Mr. Ames.—I prefer something a little coarser, like straw, _
if it is free from weed seeds. Some of our growers use hemlock
brush. Almost anything, I think, would be preferable to saw-
dust.

Mr. Rice.— We prefer wheat straw to any other. It is not so
coarse as is rye, and holds moisture better when used as a mulch.
We go over the “ patch ” with forks and rakes before the plants
come up, leaving just a little over the plants, so that their leaves
will easily come through.

Question. What causes plums to rot on the trees, and what
is the remedy ?

Mr. Smith.— Rot in plums is caused by a germ that produces
the fungus. The remedy is to prevent it, by thoroughly spray-
ing with the Bordeaux mixture, before the leaves appear; again
before the blossoms open and again after the fruit has formed.
But the work must be done early, promptly and thoroughly to
prevent the rot. Pick off and destroy all rotten plums, and pick
up those that have fallen from the trees, and burn them. Watch
the fruit as it develops; and, as soon as you see the rot, pick off
the diseased fruit; this to prevent spread of rot.

Question.— In pear orchards, would you mix Seckels with
Bartletts, to secure better pollenization 4

Mr. Willard.—I should prefer to mix Clapps with Bartletts.
In an experiment on my place in covering pear trees in a way
that kept the bees from them, they bore no fruit. This proved
the necessity of pollenization.

Question.— When is the best time to prune grapes?

Mr. Chapman.— Any time during late fall or winter; do not
wait until the sap starts or vines will bleed. Cut back to two

Tue Question Box. aI

buds. Prune apple trees any time before leaves start. Unpro-
ductive trees are sometimes made to bear more if pruned when
leaves come out more.

Dr. Smead.— In pruning grapes, all depends on the kind of
vine you have and the soil. Vines that are strong growers, and
are growing in rich soil, should be allowed to make more wood
than weak growers, or grapes in poor soil.

Question.— Do you recommend the spraying of orchards?

Mr. Mann.—I should spray the fruit trees; it is estimated that
$3,000,000 is lost annually in New York State in fruit and other
crops through the attack of insects and fungous diseases, nearly all
of which might be prevented by judicious spraying. Asarule, the
imperfect fruit is that which is blown off. It becomes weakened
in the stem; the wood is also weakened by the attacks of insects and
fungous diseases.

Mr. Litchard.—I once heard a man say he would spray his
orchards even if he knew there would not be an apple on the
trees. This to protect the foliage and perfect fruit buds for the
next season. :

Question.— Is it not possible to grow young apple trees too
rapidly ?

Mr. Rice.— Yes, it is quite possible to grow a tree so fast as
to make the wood soft and unripe; besides, the trees grow out of
shape. Ordinarily, however, young apple trees suffer more for
want of manure than from an excess of it.

Question.— How many varieties of peaches do you grow com-
mercially, Mr. Hale?

Answer.— Six.

Question.— When do you begin thinning the fruit?

Answer.— As soon as it is well set; when the peaches are
about the size of cherries, or smaller.

‘By Mr. Farmer.— You said here (meeting of N. Y. Hort. So-.
ciety at Rochester), two years ago, that you preferred Italian
labor in the North. Which do you like best, now, Italian or the
“ Darky?” ;

Answer.— The “ Nigger ” in Georgia; Italian in the North.

Question.— What help do you employ to assort and pack
peaches in Georgia ?

Answer.— The brightest, smartest, prettiest girls I can get.
They will assort and pack peaches as I order, and do the work
rapidly and neatly — something I cannot get men to de.’ Then
T hire an orchestra to furnish soul-inspiring music each afternoon.

12 Bureav or Farmers’ InNstIrvures.

By so doing I have been enabled to get 30 per cent. more work
from my help than I formerly did.

Question.— What do you do to stop borers?

Answer.— Dig them out, beginning in October, early in the
month. We go over the trees in October, then again in the
spring.

Question.— How about the yellows. What do you do for
those ?

Answer.— Dig them out ,and burn them “ root and branch;”
and it is best to begin before the disease appears. Don’t wait.

Question.— How ae you prune your peach trees @

Answer.— We cut out the central, strong-growing branches.
Our object is to stimulate fruit caine vise The weaker limbs
always bear fruit; the strong-growing ones the wood.

Question.— How close do you thin the fruit?

Answer.— We leave the peaches six inches apart; no less.

Question.— What is the best cover crop for an apple orchard,
and when should it be sown 4

Prof. Craig— We must keep up the supply of humus in the
orchard. A good catch of clover or other grasses cannot be
secured without it, nor will fruit be perfected without it. All
plants, as a rule, add to the fertility of the soil. The clovers
are good because they are nitrogen catchers. Crimson clover,
sown from the first to the middle of August, where it will thrive,
makes a good cover crop, especially for peach orchards, because
it grows late in the fall. Cow peas are also well adapted for
such a crop. The red clovers grow on favorable soils in most
localities.

The large hairy vetch is another nitrogenous plant and is quite
closely allied to the clovers. All in all, I regard it better for
such purpose than the clovers, because it covers the ground well
during the season of apple-picking. Jt does not have to be rolled
down, but falls down of itself; thus making a thick, soft carpet
under the trees. If cow peas are sown, mix four or five pounds
of Mammoth clover seed with them, per acre.

Question.— How much vetch seed should be sown per acre?

Prof. Craig.— A bushel and a half, drilled in. Harrow the
ground finely, sow the seed, then roll the ground. The vetch is
an annual, therefore it must be sown yearly. It is impossible
to cut it except with a bean harvester or some machine of like
character, because it lays so closely to the ground, but it is a
good plant to plow under. J should not sow oats for a cover crop;

(<3

Tue Question Box. te

they draw too heavily on the moisture supply in the soil, which
the trees ought to have.

The one objection to the hairy vetch is the scarcity of the
seed, it not being commercially for sale in this country.

Myr. Hale.— How are we to obtain the seed, and what is the
price? What is the outlook for it?

Prof. Craig.— The seed, so far, has been imported by the
United States Department of Agriculture, from Europe. There is
enough of it there, and, just as soon as there shall come a demand
for it here, our seedsmen will have it on sale.

What about “ chick weed?”

Prof. Craig—I don’t know. I think, however, that we can
improve upon “chick weed” as a cover crop for an orchard.

Who grows the Atlantic strawberry ?

Mr. Farmer.—I do. It is a very good variety.

What will dispose of the black borer in peach trees?

Prof. Slingerland.— It used to be said that this bug did not
attack strong-growing trees, but I learn that it does. 1 know of
no practical method by which “the chap” can either be kept in
or out of the tree. I hope, however, that some “ stopper” will
soon be found.

Can fire blight in pears be prevented by spraying with any
substance 4

Several voices.— “ No.”

What is the best October peach ?

Several fruit-growers.— “ Elberta.”

Mr. Hale.—We grow it in Georgia. It is a very good peach
down there. It is a strong grower; has good foliage; is a great
bearer and the fruit looks very attractive; but it is a cross be-
tween the Ben Davis apple and Kieffer pear, so far as quality
is concerned, when grown in the North.

What will prevent canker or blight on the bodies of apple
trees ?

Prof. Stewart.— The blight is about identical with pear blight,
and the same remedies are recommended for both.

Chick weed is choking out the crimson clover in our orchards.
What shall we do?

Mr. Bogue.— If your orchards are in good condition and are
fruiting well, you will have plenty of chick weed. I never make
any effort to get rid of it. As a rule, it leaves the ground light
and loose.

How shall we treat an. orchard where large limbs must be
eut off?

14 Bereav or Farmers’ Institutes.

Mr. Hale.— Cut the limbs closely to the tree, then paint the
wounds with white lead and linseed oil.

What remedy do you suggest for “ bitter rot” in apples?

Prof. Beach.— It does not do much damage in New York, ex-
cept on Long Island, but it appears in the South and in Mis-
sourl. When the conditions are favorable, the rot develops very
rapidly. The Missouri Experiment Station has been making some
experiments for the prevention of the disease, but I have not yet
learned the results. I do not think it will develop enough in
this State to warrant ever paying much attention to it.
~ What varieties of apples, and how far apart would you plant
them in an orchard of ten acres?

Mr. Collimer.— Alexander, Duchesse and Twenty Ounce. Plant
Alexander on the outside rows.

How does green arsenite compare with Paris green for spray-
ing apple trees, both as to efficiency and expense? Is it readily
soluble ?

Mr. Woodward.— I have used green arsenite two years. It is
more soluble in water than is Paris green, and so does not re-
quire so much agitating as does the green, while it does not cost
so much.

Prof. Beach.— There is quite a difference between “ green
arsenite” and “green arsenoid,” which every one concerned
should bear in mind.

Mr. Mann.—I have had some experience with green arsenite.
It has not been wholly satisfactory so far.

Mr. Wocdward.— The arsenite of lime is just as good as is
“oreen arsenite.” It is much cheaper in price, and fully as
soluble in water as is Paris green.

What is the cause of, and remedy for the dry rot, or “ pink
specks ” on apples, extending through the fruit, mostly near the
blossom end?

Prof. Beach.— As a rule, dry rot is met with but little in New
York, except on Long Island. It is caused by a fungus, which
produces a rot quite distinct from the “bitter rot.” I do not
know a remedy or preventive. bitter rot may be checked or
prevented by spraying with Bordeaux.

Why are apples larger and more highly colored when grown
in sod than in cultivated orchards?

Mr. Hooker— I think the reason is because, as a rule, the
foliage is larger and more dense and the growth of wood larger
where the trees are in cultivated land, thus excluding more of

Tue Question Box, 1033

the sunlight, which, if the apples are to be well colored, they
must have. I do not, however, advise the keeping of an orchard
permanently in sod.

A Fruit-Grower.— In Orleans county, last year, the apples on
trees in sod were not only of a higher color, but of a better quality
than were those grown on trees on cultivated land.

Mr. Woodward.— The experience of last year has fully con-
vinced me that the best place to grow an apple is in a pasture.
Put sheep into the orchard, more than enough to eat all the
grass. ‘They will gobble up every wormy apple or wind-fall as
soon as it drops. Then give the sheep enough grain to keep them
thriving. Three cents’ worth of bran per week, to a sheep, will
do it. Apples so grown are not only of better color, but of
better quality than are those grown on cultivated land. The finest
“Rome Beauty” I ever saw was grown in pasture land last year,
although the season was the driest I ever knew.

A Fruit-Grower.— Moisture is the most essential element needed
for the apple, and I do not know how it can be conserved and
stored up for an apple grown in sod in a pasture. Are there not
varieties of winter apples not generally found in the orchards, that
deserve more attention at the hands of orchardists ?

A Fruit-Grower.— ‘“‘ Rome Beauty ” is one of them.

Mr. Hooker.— Sutton and McClelland are good ones.

Mr. Woodward.—‘ Ontario” is the best new variety that I
know. It is a cross between Northern Spy and Wagner; is about
the size of a Medium Spy, and of very fine quality.

Is Wagner grown in western New York?

Two or three members said they grew it, but not successfully,
except by thoroughly spraying. It is deficient and weak in root-
growth.

What has been the experience of growers with Carman, Wad-
dell, Willett and Triumph peaches?

Mr. Hale.—I know nothing of Willett. Triumph is the
earliest variety we have of yellow peaches. But don’t you grow
it. Pull out and burn every tree you have; one tree will do, if
you must have it, no more. Waddell is of the North China type
and is a delicious white peach. Carman originated in Texas. It
is one of the finest peaches grown; hardy in bud and otherwise,
and will ripen in August here; but it rots very badly. So lL
would not plant it largely. St. John is the earliest variety I
know. The best early free-stone peach I know, is Waddell; but I
don’t know much about cling-stone peaches.

16 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes,

From the outlook to-day, what is the most reliable and profit-
able fruit crop for the grower 4

A Fruit-Grower.— The apple is the most reliable in my estima-
tion, because the present generation is neglecting it. It is the surest
money maker, the most reliable and the easiest grown of any
of our fruits. With proper care, I believe the apple will come
out ahead.

Mr. Hale.— There are more acres of apple orchard in Mon-
tana than in New York, and all have been planted within the last
eight years; most of them within the last five. The same growth
is true in Missouri, northern Michigan and elsewhere, and yet the
growth of the apple orchards do not keep pace with the demand for
the fruit here and abroad.

What is air-slaked lime worth for apple orchards, and how
much would you apply per tree?

A Fruit-Grower.— I should not apply lime at all, unless the soil
were acid.

What is the best remedy to kill cabbage worms?

Mr, Woodward.— Plant enough cabbage so that the worms
will have enough to eat.

A Fruit-grower.— In Cortland county, N. Y., where many eab-
bage are grown, they don’t pay any attention to the worm.

Will it pay to plant the Rome Beauty apple largely in western
New York ?

Mr. Woodward.— I never had a better hearer.

Others spoke highly of it.

Would you cut back pear trees to five buds after they were of
three years’ growth?

A Fruit-Grower.— If the trees were dwarfs I should eut them
back that much every year; if they were standards, the growth and
condition of the tree would determine it.

Is the peach profitable when budded on Myrobolam stock 4

Mr. Hale.— I don’t know; but I will say that I do not want a
peach on any root but its own, for my planting.

What about the Japan chestnut?

Mr. Hale.— You will lose 50 to 60 per cent. of your plantings
the first year; the next year you will lose 40 to 50 per cent. of what
you had left, and, if the next season chances to be a dry one, you
will lose 90 per cent. of the balance, so that you will only have
a tree or two left.

How does Ben Davis compare with Baldwin in western New

York?

Tue Question Box. 17

A Fruit-Grower.— For the first eight years, Ben is ahead ; subse-
quently, Baldwin wins.

Has any remedy or preventive been found for the cherry
maggot?

Prof. Munson of Maine.— The maggot has appeared in Maine.
We have sprayed, but without effect, because the flies lay their
eges under the skin of the cherry, so that the spray does not
reach the maggot. I,know of no real preventive.

Does the fumigating of nursery stock with hydrocyanic gas
injure its quality ?

Mr. ,King of Trumansburg.—TI set 1,000 trees that had been
fumigated with the gas, last year. Have not found that any of
them are injured.

What will prevent curl-leaf on peaches?

A Fruit-Grower.— Spray the trees with the Bordeaux, before
any buds open. It is the best preventive I know.

What shall we do with knotty raspberry bushes?

Prot. Munson.— Dig them out and burn all of them on the
ground.

Which are the best plums ?

Prof. Waugh of Vermont.— It is hard to decide. The Japs
do not blossom alike in all sections; then there seems to be no
standard ecmmercial value of any one particular variety. Inqui-
ries have brought ont the fact that nearly every plum is differently
judged according to the locality in which it is grown. Environ-
ment, climate and soils decide the question. This seems to be true
of the Japs. Opinions and favorites change in different localities.
There are men who think that the American varieties are good
enough; others will plant none but the European sorts, while others
still will have none but the Japs. So one must decide according to
the whims and wishes of the fruit-growers of a locality, always
being governed by hardiness of the tree and the demand of the
local market. As a rule, nearly every variety has one or more
objections. Some of them bear too much fruit; others, not enough.
Some make too much wood; others not enough. Some have good
foliage; others, do not, ete. For canning purposes, Burbank and
Satsuma—both Japs—are most desirable. The variety
known as “ Wild Goose” is considered in some localities as
best among the American varieties; while, in other plum-growing
sections it is not grown at all.

What is the best early grape, all thing

A Fruit-Grower.— Green Mountain.

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Bureau or Farmers’ Instirvres.

Mr. Mills.— Worden.

Is the Abundance plum self-fertilizing?

Prof. Waugh.— I do not think it is. Possibly, under some con-
ditions, it is; but I find, after making many experiments, that it is
not in all localities.

Shall we plant fruit trees in the spring or fall?

A Fruit-Grower.— Plant apples in the fall. Peaches and other
stone fruits in the spring.

When is the best time to prune peach trees?

Mr. Hale.— At most any time; but I prefer to begin soon after
February ist, before the buds begin to open.

What is the best peach to plant?

Mr. Hale.-— Ask the market. Grow that which is in most de-
mand. For me, Champion, Old Mixon, Mountain Rose, Stump
and Fox are the best five varieties — the first two ranking first.

Should lime be slaked rapidly or slowly for best results in spray-
ing?

Prof. Beach.— Slowly. I pour on just enough water to slake
the lime so that it will not burn, and leave a soft, creamy paste.

Is there any advantage from spraying while the trees are in
bloom ?

Prof. Beach.— That is an open question; but the bee-keepers
have procured the passage of a law preventing the spraying of
trees while in bloom. An effort was made to repeal the law, the
result being an amendment allowing the State Experiment Station
mien to spray while the trees are in bloom. They have sprayed four
orchards in different counties in the State. In some orchards, the
scab fungus nearly destroyed the blossoms. When the trees were
sprayed during the bloom season, much of the fungus was held in
check. As a rule, the yield of fruit is not much diminished. I
have found a loss of a fraction of a bushel to a bushel and a half
of apples per tree. In the Geneva Station orchard the trees were
sprayed several times during the blossoming season, the object being
to hit every blossom. Sane trees were sprayed on one side only.
The side unsprayed produced but little fruit; while on the other
side the fruit nearly broke down the tree. There is no danger, how-
eyer, in spraying while the trees are in bloom, instances having
been brought to ight where the bees carried de poison on Gee
wings, to the hives and thus poisoned the whole colony. If a man
has a large orchard, however, he cannot always manage to spray
it all when he would like. An orchardist has told me that he has
lost considerable money through spraying trees when in bloom.
As a rule, I prefer to spray just as soon as the last blossoms fall.

Tue Question Box. ; 19

The only object in spraying the trees when in bloom is to prevent
the appearance of the scab fungus.

Mr. Mills.— If you want to destroy our best friend — the honey
bee — spray the trees when in blossom. I know an instance where
a large number of colonies were thus destroyed. If you
will continue the practice of spraying your trees while in bloom,
I will guarantee that you will not have a honey bee in your neigh-
borhood five years from now. ;

To Mr. Hale-— How many acres of peaches are you growing?

Answer.— I have 2,100 acres of bearing peach trees in Georgia
and about 200 acres in Connecticut. I planted the first commercial
peach orchard in Connecticut 30 years ago. It contained 100 acres.
Since that time more than 2,500,000 peach trees have been planted
in that State. My first peach orchards in Georgia were planted
11 years ago.

ABOUT SPRAYS AND SPRAYING INSECTS AND IN-
SECTICIDES — SOME INSTRUCTIONS.

Question.— Can beans and peas be sprayed in any way to keep
bugs out of them?

Mr. Smith.— Not for the weavil; but you want to treat the beans
and peas after they have been thrashed. Get a 25-cent bottle of
Carbon bi-Sulphide, put a little in a saucer, set it in the mouth of
the bags or bins and cover tightly. It throws off a heavy gas
which settles all through the beans or peas and kills all animal life
in them. But one must be careful in handling it, as it is not only
poisonous but very explosive; so do not go near it with fire.

Question.— How can you prevent apples becoming wormy ?

Mr. Chapman.— Spraying with Paris green, a few days after
the blossoms fall, will, as a rule, kill the worms.

Question.— What poison shall we use to kill the canker worm?

Mr. Smith.— White arsenic, or Paris green. The arsenic is
mixed with soda and is fully effective as is Paris green, will re-
main in suspension better and costs less. Very many of the or-
chardists in the vicinity of Geneva used it in place of Paris green,
last year. If you are going to spray to kill the canker worm, do
it just as the foliage begins to come out.

Question.— What remedy do you suggest for lice on currant
leaves ?

Mr. Smith.— Whale oil soap is the best remedy I know. It
should be sprayed on as soon as the lice appear.

Question.— When plums rot one year will they necessarily do it
the next? What causes it, and what is the preventive ?

20 Bureau oF Farmers’ Institutes.

Mr. Stevens.— As a rule, plum rot is caused by some air germ;
but there may be some soil germ. Spraying with the Bordeaux
mixture, when done before the buds open, tends to prevent the air
germ trom working.

Question.— What will kill lice on black raspberry bushes?

Mr. Smith.— An emulsion of whale oil soap is as good as any-
thing I know. One pound of soap dissolved in four gallons of
water, sprayed on. Do it when the first signs of the lice appear.

Question.— Is arsenate of lime as effectual as are insecticides
or Paris green?

Mr. Woodward.— Green arsenoid or arsenic of lime or of soda
are preferable to Paris green. White arsenic and common washing
soda is much better than the green. Mix one pound of white ar-
senic with two pounds of washing soda in one gallon of water and
boil it 15 minutes, which will make a perfect mixture, and one
which will remain in suspension much longer than will Paris green.

Question.— What will kill smut on seed oats, and how much
to use?

Mr. Smith.— Hot water at a temperature of 182°. Below that
degree the smut germ will not be affected, but it is killed at that
figure. If the water is at a higher degree the live germ of the grain
will be killed.

Question.— Will not corrosive sublimate kill the smut?

Mr. Smith.— No; it is not used for that purpose, but is for
destroying the potato scab. After the oats have been soaked 10
minutes in the hot water, spread them out to dry.

Question.— What is the best remedy to kill lice on cattle?

Mr. Smith. Anything that will stop their breathing; grease
will do it, so will road dust. Whatever you do, do it often, as the
eges hatch rapidly, so that to get rid of the lice, one must apply the
remedy quite often for a while. Keep up the treatment until all
are destroyed. Tobacco water will also kill them.

A Farmer.— Give the animals all the grain they want. If you
do that, there will not be many lice.

Mr. Smith.— Once the vermin get into the stable, grain will
not drive them out. I have seen lice on very fleshy cattle.

Dr. Smead.— Kerosene and lard in the winter, equal parts,
melted. Put it on with a brush. The louse lives on the sweat of
the animal. The calf does not sweat, neither does the poor animal.
So it is best to use some remedy to kill the louse quickly. The old
remedy was a mercurial one. The louse is a biter, not a sucker,

so it must he poisoned. Washing by some of the sheep dips will
kill it.

Tue Question Box, al

Mr. Chapman said that kerosene and water, one-fourth kerosene
and three-fourths water, put on with a horse brush, would kill them.

Question.— We are afraid of the San José scale. What are
your suggestions regarding: it?

Mr. Smith.— Mr. Woodward says that if he finds any of the
scale on his trees he piles corn stalks around them and burns
them up. But it is claimed that fairly good results are obtained
from spraying the tree with crude petroleum of about 40 per cent.
strength. Nursery stock is being fumigated with the hydro-
cyanie gas, also some small fruit trees, by using a tent over them,
but it cannot be used on large trees, nor can all the scales be reached
on such trees by spraying. As the scale multiplies rapidly, if any
are not reached by the spray, but little progress is reached toward
exterminating the scale.

A Farmer.— I have the scale; sprayed my orchard with crude
oil, and nearly killed some of the trees. I consider the remedy
fully as bad as the disease.

Mr. Woodward.— A solution made of resin soap is fully as
good as the oil, and not at all dangerous.

A Farmer.— Does the scale work on any tree except that of
fruit?

Mr. Woodward.— Yes. It works on some forest trees, lilac
bushes, currants, and other shrubs and fruits; also on fruit.

Mr. Smith.— If I owned an orchard and suspected the presence
of the seale, I should have an expert from the State Department of
Agriculture to visit it and begin the campaign at once. One could
not afford to wait.

Question.— Can you describe the San José scale, so that one
ean detect it at sight?

Mr. Smith.— No one can describe it or even detect it except
an expert. To prove the statement Mr. Smith showed a photo-
graph of a San José mother scale with a number of young scales
near it, which, he said had been magnified several hundred
diameters — some five or six hundred — and yet were very small.
It is very difficult to detect the scale when on wood, but it is more
easily seen on the fruit. Spraying of the trees with 40 per cent.
petroleum, on small trees will destroy the scale, but it is very
hard to reach them all on large trees. Unless all are hit, the in-
crease will go on, as one scale will multiply many hundred times
in a season and the work of reproduction begins very early in the
season. I should not buy a tree from a nursery that had not been
treated with the hydrocyanic gas.

oD Bureau or Farmers’ [ystirutes.

Question.— How long will it take the San José scale to destroy
an ordinary orchard, after it has been introduced ?

Mr. Wiiter.— No doubt it would depend on the condition of
the orchard. It would only be a question of a few years.

(uestion.— A resin wash was recommended at Hornellsville to
spray to kill the San José scale. What is the formula for pre-
paring it, and how much should be used?

Mr. Woodward.— There are several formulas for making it.
We use the resin washes for the bark louse and plum scale, but
have not used it for San José scale, because we do not have it;
but I am confident it will be found as good for that scale. It is’
being used in California, and it is said seals up the young scale
so that it cannot get from under it. One of the best formulas is:
2 pounds of common resin, 1 pound of caustic soda, 1 pint of fish
oil, and 2 gallons of water. Mix and boil; when cool it will look
like thick, yellow soft soap. Dilute in 40 gallons of water.

Question.— How about whale oil soap mixed with kerosene oil ?

Mr. Rice.—-I don’t know; we have never used it. We are
treating our plum orchard with the gas, using a large tent which
covers the trees, and we expect to eradicate the scale on these
trees, but it will be many years before we can drive it out of the
apple orchards, as the trees are too large to treat by using the
tent and gas. We spray our very young trees with crude petro-
leum, before the leaves come out, to kill the scale. It has 25
per cent. strength.

Question.— Which is the best to spray with, green arsenoid or
white arsenic and soda? Which costs most?

Mr. Smith.— White arsenic and washing soda, one pound of
white arsenic, 4 pounds of soda and 2 gallons of water. A pound
of arsenic used in that way is equal to two pounds of Paris green,
so that twice the quantity of water will be required than would
with Paris green.

Mr. Woodward.— Dissolve the arsenic and soda by boiling them
15 minutes. The cost is much less than is Paris green, and
the mixture is much easier sprayed on, as it remains much longer
in suspension, than does the green.

Question.— How many times would you spray fruit trees ?
Prof. Low.— Spray four times, at intervals of about 10 days,
using poison to kill insects, and the Bordeaux mixture mixed, the

last time, to prevent the leaf blight and the scab fungus from
appearing.
Mr. Rice.— The time to spray is early in the season. Do it

THE Question Box, 23

the first time before the leaf buds open. Put in the arsenic with
the Bordeaux mixture for this spraying. The Bordeaux will
ward off the fungus, and the poison will kill the insects, especially
the early hatched tent caterpillars. The next spraying is made
just after the blossoms have fallen, when the little apples are in
an upright position, and their calix standing up. The last spraying
is done when the little apples are of the size of hickory nuts.

To Mr. Mann.— How many times do you spray?

Answer.— I spray first, just before the buds open, then again
soon after the blossoms fall, repeating the operation every four or
five sprayings, using the Bordeaux mixture. I also use a pound of
Paris green in 54 gallons of the Bordeaux, for every spraying,
even the one before the buds open. I have never burned any
foliage with that formula, except on peach trees. I know it is not
the standard formula, but I have found it the best. I used it to
‘kill the forest worm, and killed the whole mass with one spraying.

Question.— When shall we spray to kill the codling moth ?

Mr. Smith.— Just after the blossoms have fallen and the calix
end of the young apple is standing upward. The poison falls
into the calix or blossom end, and, when the worm begins to eat
its way into the apple, it is killed by the poison. Paris green,
green arsenoid and white arsenic are used. White arsenic is mixed
with common washing soda, and remains in suspension much bet-
ter than does Paris green, and costs much less, while it is fully as
effective.

Question.— Is there a law to prevent spraying fruit trees while
in blossom?

Mr. Rice read the text of such a law, and said it was enacted.
at the solicitation of the bee-keepers, it having been proved that
the spraying of trees while in bloom, not only poisoned the bees
who were in the blossom in search of honey, but that they had

- actually carried the poison on their wings, to the hive, thereby
poisoning the whole colony. He would not, in any case, spray
trees with poison during the blossoming period, because it neither
_prevents the attacks of the fungus nor kills the insects, while it
has been proved that it very seriously injures the fruit.

Question.— What is the cause of beans not coming in leaf after
coming up? What is the’remedy ?

Mr. Woodward.— It is what is known as “ anthracnose,” a little
canker spot that comes out on the stalk and eats off the bean leaf
before it has an opportunity to grow. The remedy is spraying
with the Bordeaux mixture, early, as soon as the beans begin to
appear.

24 Bureau or Farmers’ Iysrirures.

SILOS, ENSILAGE AND CORN.

Question.— What shall I feed with ensilage and wheat straw
to my cows, to balance the ration?

Mr. Smith.— Wheat bran and oil meal. The straw and the
ensilage are both carbonaceous in their nature. To balance them,
there is nothing better than the wheat bran and oil meal.

Question.— At what age would you commence to feed ensilage
to a young heifer that is to be raised for a dairy cow, if she is fed
bran and clover or mixed hay?

Mr. Walter.— We feed our calves, as soon as they will eat any
roughage, a little ensilage.

Mr. Smith.—A little succulent food is good for the calf, but for
the first year it should have something that will promote growth.
Clover hay, wheat bran and roots make the best ration.

Question.— What is the value of a ton of ensilage, compared
with hay?

Mr. Van Wagenen.— Cornell has done some valuable work in
that line, having fed considerable of it. Their verdict is one-half
the value of hay.

Question.— What is Kaffir corn?

Mr. Smith.— It is a variety best suited for arid regions, and pro-
duces its corn on the top of the stalk, as does broom corn.

Question.— Will ensilage, if fed to cows, loosen their teeth ?

Mr. Gould—TI have two cows which have eaten ensilage 14
years, but their teeth are all right.

Mr. Smith.—I have seen many old cows that had been fed
ensilage a number of years; none of them had been injured in any
way by it. Of course, ensilage may be so grown and put into the
silo as to become very acid. Such ensilage would, no doubt, injure
acow. But, when it is well grown, properly put up and properly
fed, no ill results will rise from feeding it. There is no truth in
the report. All this talk about corn ensilage loosening cows’ teeth
and otherwise injuring them, is simply rot. Of course, one may
overfeed just before milking, and thus taint the milk. The same
wouid occur if one overfed his cows with clover. When corn is
properly grown, put into good tight silo and properly fed, it will
make as good cattle food as will any other crop ever grown.

Question.— What variety of corn does Mr. Gould use for his
ensilage?

Tue Question Box. 25

Answer.— I get a white flint field corn, grown on the Blue
Ridge in Virginia. It is a rank grower and will produce 15
tons per acre; but it does not mature in every locality sufficiently
for seed.

Question.— How about ensilage for working horses?

Mr. Smith.— Ensilage fed to working horses, in not too large
quantities, is all right. Prof. Roberts bought a horse 13
years old, and used him to peddle milk all winter. He had all the
ensilage he would eat, and came out fat in the spring. But, there
are men who fail in feeding ensilage to any animal, because they
either do not have good ensilage or else they feed it improperly,
t. e.: feed too much. There are many sheep breeders who feed
ensilage to both sheep and lambs, and succeed, while others fail.
It is so with cows or horses. Good judgment must be used in either
case.

Question.— Does corn ensilage injure the quality of milk? If
not, why do some condensaries reject it? :

Mr. Smith.— The Bordens reject milk from ensilage-fed cows.
It is because some farmers persist in overfeeding with ensilage
made from immature corn. But there are condensaries which do
not. On the other hand, they are bidding for it. In hundreds
of creameries and cheese factories, milk is received from herds fed
ensilage, and no objections are made.

Mr. Lillie-— I never spoiled any milk by feeding ensilage, but I
have heard of its being spoiled by improperly feeding it. But,
good ensilage made from matured corn, will not injure milk, but it
should be fed after milking, for the purpose of avoiding the ab-
sorbing of any odors.

Mr. Smith.— Good ensilage — that from mature corn — prop-
erly cured, if it is properly balanced with nitrogenous grains and
not too much of it fed, will produce better milk than any other eat-
tle food I know. That is the universal verdict of those who are
feeding it.

Question.— If ensilage is such a fine food, why can it not be
fed alone?

Mr. Smith.— TI will again say that it should not be fed alone,
beeause it is a one-sided food, its elements being sugar and starch.
The cow should have protein foods to balance it. A man would
not care to live on pie or some other one food, alone; so, too, the
cow does not want to be confined to ensilage. If she is expected
to make milk, she must have something beside starch and sugar.
~ Question.— What is the best ensilage crop aside from corn?

26 Bureau or Farmers’ Lysrirutres.

Mr. Litchard.— I know of no crop as good as corn. We want
ensilage for its starch and sugar. More of these elements can be
produced from an acre of corn than in any other crop. Let the
ensilage be balanced with the protein foods, such as wheat bran,
clover, gluten, ete.

Mr. Cook.— We have no right to compare corn with pea vines
or clover as ensilage crops; one is carbonaceous, the others nitro-
genous.

Dr. Smead.— Some farmers want sorghum for the silo, but why
shall we grow it? We are after carbohydrates in ensilage; that be-
ing our object, why grow sorghum, when we can get them in corn at
less cost? Clover, pea vines and other crops have been put in the
silo; but I find it best to use the corn for ensilage, and then balance
it with the clover and other protein foods.

Question.— What variety of corn does Mr. Van Alstyne prefer
for the silo?

Answer.— We have gone to extremes in growing ensilage. At
first we planted too much seed. The next time we did not plant
enough seed. My preference is a happy medium in ensilage. I
grow the variety that produces most and matures earliest in my
neighborhood. So far, I prefer “ Leaming,” having tried all the
others. I plant 12 quarts of seed per acre, and, as a rule, har-
vest about 15 tons of ensilage. We aim to cut our ensilage when
the ears begin to dent, and to put it into the silo as rapidly as pos-
sible.

Question.— Is “ Pride of the North” corn a balanced ration
for dairy cows, after being cured in the shock?

My. Smith.— I suppose that has reference to cutting the stalks
as we talked about this morning and which Mr. Lillie answered.
Prot. Voorhees of New Jersey, experimented on the lines of dry
corn fodder and ensilage for three years. [Eyerything was anal-
yzed. The result was a loss of but five per cent. in ensilage, while
that in corn, cured as soon as possible after cutting, was 24 per’
cent.: in that left three or four weeks, there was an additional loss
of nearly 15 per cent. Then, too, there was a gain of
15 per cent. in milk for the ensilage corn over that from

the stalks. A eow weighing 1,000 pounds requires a pound
of protein per day to keep her in normal condition. If she is

giving 20 pounds of milk per day she will require about two
and one-quarter pounds of it. This she could not obtain from corn,
unless she was forced to eat more than she could store and digest.

THE Question Box. 27

So, then, neither “ Pride of the North” nor any other variety of
corn, whether “ cured in the shock” or put into the silo, would be
a balanced ration for a dairy cow.

Question.— What do you think about picking off some of the
ears on heavy ensilage corn?

Mr. Lillie— It has been proved time and again that it does not
pay to pick some of the ears from ensilage corn. It is much better
to cut it all into the silo. If it is very rich in corn, feed a smaller
quantity of the ensilage. It costs too much to go through a field of
ensilage corn, pick off a part of the ears and husk them.

Mr. Smith.— Add a little gluten feed to balance such ensilage.
It will help, wonderfully. I should not pick off the surplus ears
from the ecrn.

Question.— Will ears of corn lose any food value by being put
into the silo?

Mr. Smith.— Yes; but not as much as iis lost when the ears are
allowed to ripen and then husked. Corn’s greatest value is when
the kernel is in the dough stage. Experiments at Cornell showed
there was $14 value in an acre of corn when in tassel stage; when
it reached the silk stage there was a value of $28; but, when in the
dough stage, $42. There is quite a per cent. in favor of the silo,
as between ensilage corn and dry corn stalks, and well-preserved,
properly-grown ensilage.

Question.— Does the freezing of ensilage injure it?

Dr. Smead.— No. If ensilage freezes a few inches on the
outer edge, rake it into the center of the silo and allow it to thaw
out. If you will insert a thermometer a foot into the ensilage in the
center of a silo, you will find the temperature from 50° to 70°,
so that the frozen ensilage will quickly thaw out. But little, if
any loss will result from the small quantity frozen.

Question.— At what season should corn be cut for ensilage ?

Myr. Rice.— Experiments made ‘with corn ent when it was in
the tassel, silk and dough stage, showed three times as much value
in the last eutting than the first one contained. This increased
value was in sugar and starch, all made after the tassels appeared.
There was not much of any increase in the volume of the stalks,
after the tassel stage, so that when the corn is in the dough stage,
which is just before it glazes, more feeding value will be got from
it than when cut before or at a later time. But, remember, corn
is a sun plant and will not grow in its own shade, nor in that of a
tree or building. Plant it thinly enough so that at least one good
ear will develop on a stalk.

28 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Question.— Is not pea-vine ensilage of more value than corn,
and is not the manure from it of more value than from corn
ensilage ¢

A Farmer.—I have fed both pea-vine and corn ensilage, and
have found that I got fully as much milk from corn as from the
pea ensilage.

Mr. Cook.— It is not so much owing to the individuality of a
food as to. what it contains. If you are looking for the starchy
food, the corn is worth the most; if for protein, the peas.

Question.— What is the temperature of ensilage below the sur-
face?

A Farmer.— I tried mine with a thermometer this morning and
found a temperature of 72° a foot below the surface.

Mr. Cook.— I don’t know; have never made any records; but I
am going to furnish each of my three men with a good thermome-
ter for the purpose of ascertaining the degrees of temperature of
not only the ensilage, but also stables.

Question.— Does ensilage give milk a bad smell or taste ?

Mr. Gould.— No; if it does, why do some condensaries bid for
ensilage milk.

Mr. Smith.— The condensary at Frankfort encourages the feed-
ing of ensilage; so does the one at St. Johnsville; only the Borden
people reject milk made from ensilage. When a farmer will
make good ensilage, feed it properly and balance it with protein
foods, there will be no milk refused anywhere. It there is, the
man who refuses it will get none at all.

Question.— Shall we feed ensilage before or after milking ?

Mr. Smith.— After milking, always.. As a rule, any fermented
food will taint milk through the breath of the cow. When fed
after milkings, if the cows are milked but twice a day, the milk
is not affected. A Mr. Tracy of Tioga county, who milked his
cows three times a day, found his noon milking slightly affected,
but not the night milk. We have heen feeding our cows at the
Geneva Station ensilage both winter and summer, and making but-
ter, but have never detected anything detrimental in feeding it.

Mr. Gould.— It is better first to ascertain whether milk has
been tainted by ensilage or something else.

(uestion.— Is it preferable to drill in corn instead of-planting
it in check rows for ensilage ?

Mr. Gould.— I think the drill system is preferable to the check
row, as more stalks can be grown on an acre, while the corn may be
kept fully as clean as in the check rows,

Tue Question Box. 29

Question.— Is ensilage alone a good food for a milch cow?

Mr. Goodrich.—No. It does not contain protein enough. Some
good clover hay should be fed with it. You may keep a cow a
year on ensilage or other starch foods, but, at the end of the year,
she will not be any better, nor as good as she was when you began
feeding her, because she has had to take protein from her body to
maintain life, thus causing her to become thin in flesh.

My. Rice.— It is a wasteful process to undertake to keep a cow
on corn fodder alone, or with corn meal mixed with it. The cow
cannot eat and digest enough of such foods, therefore, when an
excess is fed, a portion of them is lost. It is much more profitable,
and much better for the cow, to balance such foods with some of
the protein foods, such as clover, bran, gluten, oil meal or cotton
seed meal; but I should not feed a cow more than two pounds of
cotton seed meal per day. You can afford to pay $20 per ton for
gluten feed to mix with your corn. If you can get 45 cents per
bushel, sell a portion of the corn and inyest in gluten feed at $20,
and I should add some wheat bran. Of course, all depends on
the quality of your coarse fodder.

Question.— Who has had experience with corn ensilage as a sum-
mer food for cows ?

A Farmer.—I had a little that was left over from spring.
When I began feeding it in summer I found a little spoiled on top;
the rest was as perfect as when it went into the silo.

Mr. Smith.— We have fed ensilage in summer to our cows at
the Geneva Station; we had some left over which we covered with
straw until we wanted it. That was two years ago; last year we
did practically the same. Our cows got the ensilage, the young
stock the alfalfa. I think it is only a question of time when the
dairymen will abandon soiling crops and substitute the summer
silo for them.

Question.— Which is the best ensilage cutter ?

Mr. Smith.— There are a large number of them, and all are
good. So it would be a hard matter to say which one was better
than another.

A Farmer.— Why not use a shredder?

Mr. Woodward.— I would not give a continental for the dif-
ference in cutters if they only do the work. We cut our ensilage
half an inch in length, and I believe that ensilage cut at that length
is fully as good as shredded ensilage.

Mr. Dawley.— Our ensilage has been shredded during the last
four years. JI am very sure I can get one-fifth more shredded than

30 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

ordinary cut ensilage into a silo. But if the ensilage is cut as short
as Mr. Woodward cuts his, I see no advantage in the shredder over
the cutter. But whichever you use get power enough. We use a
12-horse engine when shredding ensilage.

Question.— Will the cow get any more nutrition from cut or
shredded cornstalks than from whole stalks?

Mr. Cook.— I should cut or shred cornstalks, for the purpose
of making them more palatable, not to make them of more feed-
ing value, because the cutting or shredding of them will not add
to their feeding value.

Question.— What is the best length to cut ensilage ?

Answer.— Two or three farmers voted for half-inch lengths, but
one farmer favored an inch.

Question.— In what proportion shall we compare corn ensilage
with good stock hay?

Dr. Smead.— What does stock hay mean?

Mr. Cook.— About one-third clover and two-thirds timothy will
be the average.

Mr. Litchard.— Three tons of ensilage to one of good hay.

Dr. Smead.— Ensilage is a food that cannot be sold by the
barrel or sack, so that it is quite difficult to determine its market
vaiue.

Myr. Snell.— My cows have done better on early cut clover and
timothy hay than on ensilage, but the ensilage was of sweet corn
with the ears picked off. I have two silos which I have filled two or
three years, and have yet to find any benefit from the ensilage over
the hay.

Mr. Cook.— We cannot compare corn ensilage with clover hay.
The two are as wide apart as are the poles. Clover is a protein,
ensilage a starch food, but both are needed to balance a ration.
There is no crop from which we can get so much sugar and starch
as from good, well-matured ensilage.

Question.— Should ensilage corn that is quite green be allowed
to wilt for a day or so after cutting, before putting it into the silo?

Mr. Cook.— Yes, if very green; but should not be allowed to
get too dry. Last year our corn was a little too dry. This sea-
son, by following the reaper pretty close with the wagon, we had
moisture enough. Dut it is a very close thing to determine just
how much moisture the corn should have. If it becomes too dry
it should be wet when it goes over the earrier and into the silo.

Dr. Smead.— In the early days of ensilage, much loss was expe-
rienced from putting the corn into the silo in an immature stage.

Tue Question Box. 31

It soured and made a vinegary ensilage that injured both the cows
and their milk. Experiments in Ohio went to prove that, for best
ensilage, the corn should be cut about five days earlier than when
it is to be husked.

Question.— At what length should corn be cut for ensilage, one-
half er one-fourth inch?

Mr. Van Wagenen.— If the corn is cut to one-fourth inch
lengths, it will pack more closely in the silo, and I ineline to the

‘belief that the cows will eat the ensilage more closely than they will

if cut longer. ,

Question.— Which contains the most food value, the ear or the
cornstalk? At what stage is its greatest food value ?

Mr. Smith.— There is most food value in the stalk. When a
stalk of corn has been well grown and has one good ear on it, if
it be cut when the corn begins to glaze, it will contain its greatest
food value. The stalk is then worth more than is the ear, and
nearly 70 per cent. of that value is in that part of the stalk below
that ear. Therefore, if the ear is allowed fully to ripen, then the
stalk is cut, stooked and the ear is husked and the loss in feeding
value of the stalk is from 24 to 40 per cent. There is also a small
loss in corn when it is allowed fully to ripen and become hard.
If you feed a cow a well-balanced ration, seven-eighths will be dry
matter, and 70 per cent. digestible. The unit value of a stalk and
ear of corn, at the dent or glazing stage, is 45 for the ear, as against
55 for the stalk.

Question.— Do ripe ears of corn lose much of their feeding
value when put in the silo?

Dr. Smead.— Corn ensilage, when fermentation has not gone too
far, is so far advanced in the stage of digestion. It requires about
three times as much energy to digest dry corn stalks or corn as it
does to digest ensilage.

Question.— I had surplus corn enough, after filling my silo,
to last till January 15; would it be better to have fed out of
the silo until that time and then refilled it from this overplus
corn ¢

Dr. Smead.— If, by the question, it is meant to keep that corn
till after the first ensilage is fed, my opinion is that it would not
have had much value. It would have dried out too much.

A Farmer.— I filled my silo about the first of November, and,
whem it was half fed out, cut in the corn and stalks left over. I
wet them down, however. Results not as good as from the first
ensilage, but better than from the dry corn stalks.

32 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Some other farmers related a like experience.

Question.— Has a farmer, who feeds his cows ensilage, any right
to draw his milk to a cheese factory or milk station in this State?

Mr. Smith.— Yes, sir; there is nothing in any law on the stat-
ute books to prevent it. The best butter made here and in the West
is made largely from ensilage, during the winter.

Question.— Is milk made from ensilage acceptable in the New
York market ?

Mr. Smith.— Milk made from ensilage is acceptable anywhere,
except at some of the condensaries. There is no better milk pro-
duced than that from ensilage. Nearly all the fancy butter made
in the West is of milk from ensilage-fed cows. The only trouble
has been with farmers who overfed their cows with ensilage that
was green and immature, and which soon turned sour. But a cow
may be fed 40 pounds of good ensilage a day, in two feeds, without
injury to her milk.

_ Questicn.— Is mold in ensilage caused by the corn being too ripe
when cut ?

Mr. Rice.— Very frequently it is the cause. When, however,
corn is cut before it becomes too ripe, put into a tight silo and well
packed, it will not mold. If the air gets in, the ensilage will not
only mold, but rot. Cut it when it is in the dough stage, and
put it directly into a good, tight silo.

Question.— Can whole ensilage be kept as perfectly in the silo
as can that which has been cut ?

Mr. Gould.—TI do not believe it can, although I have seen it
that was all right. It was very closely packed. But it requires
too much labor to get it out of the silo. .

To Mr. Litchard.— What is the best way to grow corn for
ensilage ?

Answer.— We manure a clover sod during the winter. Plow
it early, roll down, fit well and plant Pride of the North or Leam-
ing, both dent, varieties, give good cultivation, and, just as the
earliest ears are glazing or denting, cut the whole mass and put
it into the silo.

Question.— How does it affect ensilage to wet it before it goes
into the silo? Will it spoil if the silo leaks ?

Mr. Lillie— Sometimes, when the corn is overripe or has be-
come too dry, we wet it before cutting it into the silo. This is
to prevent the ensilage from molding. Wetting, causes it to heat,
thus preventing its molding. If there is no crevice where air ean
get in, I do not think there ought to be any loss from leaking.

Tue Question Box. 33

Question.— Would it pay to build a silo if one had but five
cows ¢

Mr. Dawley.— If a man has five good cows, he can afford to
build a silo. Mave it round and deep. About two inches per day,
fed from a silo, will keep the ensilage from spoiling.

Question.— What does it cost to grow ensilage and put it into
the silo ?

Mr. Woodward.— From $1 to $1.75 per ton, depending on the
quantity of the crop.

Question.— What is the best cover for the ensilage after the silo
has been filled ?

Mr. VanAlstyne.— The best cover we have found so far is
sawdust.

Question.— Which is the better, the round or square form of
silo; what is the cost per ton capacity ?

Mr. Dawley.— As a rule, I think the stave silo is preferable to
the square one. ‘They may be built more cheaply and will last
just as long, but they must be well built. Round or flat iron hoops,
or cable-iron hoops are used. If one is going to build a silo, he
should not, for the purpose of saving a few dollars, build a cheap
one. As a choice between the two, pine or hemlock, I believe [
should choose the latter. It costs about as much as does pine, but
I believe it will last longer than will any other of our native woods.
The cost will vary from $1 to $2 per ton capacity.

Dr. Smead.— The cheapest silo is a round stave one, and re-
quires less space. I prefer staves two inches by six, and I should
not build one outside the barn, unless the staves were matched. It
will require about 1,800 feet of lumber for a silo with a capacity
of 50-tons. Georgia, white or yellow pines make a good silo, so
does hemlock, which is somewhat cheaper than are the pines.
Either round or flat iron make good hoops.

Mr. Benjamin.— I built a silo and used fence wire. Am con-
vineed that it is better than the iron hoops, as it shrinks and
expands with the silo more easily than do the round iron hoops.

Question.— Is blue clay a good article for the bottom of a
silo ?

Mr. Litchard.— No, sir; it is not. Putin cement. I once put
in a clay floor in a silo; when I had fed out the ensilage I found
half a dozen rat-holes. I at once pulled out the clay and put in
cement. |

Question.— Which is most durable, a round or square silo ?

A Farmer.— I have a round one that I have used six years and
3

34 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTIrutes.

it is all right; have never spent a dollar on it in repairs. The
hoops are round iron drawn up by lugs; have tightened them up
but once; there is no trouble in keeping ensilage in it; the staves
are matched.

Mr. Smith.— The silo at the Geneva Station is a square one, and
has been there eight or nine years. It keeps ensilage well; I do |
not think there have been many repairs made. But, if I were go-
ing to build a wooden silo of any form, I should treat the wood with
some of the various wood preservatives. 5

Mr. Woodward.— The best silo I ever saw was in Ontario. It
was made of staves, lined with brick and then cemented. It was
frost and air proof. If I were going to build a costly silo, I should
certainly line it with bricks and cover them with cement. Such a
silo will last a lifetime, although more costly than one without
bricks and cement. As a rule, the cheap stave silo shrinks and
swells, bursts its hoops or blows over. It does not pay to build a
cheap silo.

Question.— Which are preferable for silos, stone and cement
or wood ?

Mr. Lillie— They are all good, but the stone and cement silo
will cost the most, except under very favorable conditions. The
silo ought to be 25 to 30 feet deep, but the cost of getting the
stone and cement up to that height is too great. I should build
a wooden one. Mr. Gurler of Illinois is building silos which
are lathed and cemented on the inside. They are said to be very
durable and otherwise satisfactory.

Question.— Is it the best way for me to build my silo in my
barn ?

Mr. Gould.— If I were going to build one of my own, and but
one, I should build it in the barn. I built mine in the barn because
T could afford the room, and because I could store seven times more
food in it than I otherwise could. But ensilage gives off moisture,
which is unfavorable in a barn.

Question.— Is there any harm in feeding frozen ensilage to cat-
tle: if so, what ?

Mr. Gould.— No; but there is no need of feeding frozen ensi-
lage. If it has frozen on the outside, rake it into the center, and
allow it to thaw out before feeding.

Question.— Will the feeding of ensilage cause abortion in cows ?

Mr. Gould.— No.

Question.— Is there sufficient plant food in the average soil to
grow a good crop of corn for the silo?

THE Question Box. 35

Mr. Dardis.— I have raised two big crops of corn in succession
on an old night pasture.

Mr. Smith.— There is enough nitrogen, potash and _phos-
phoric acid in average soils to grow large crops for a long period
of years, but the trouble is, these elements of plant food are
locked up so that the plants cannot reach them. There is a lack
both of moisture and humus. Both must be present to dissolve
and hold these plant foods. As a rule, there is plant food enough
in our average soils to supply the needs of our crops, if it can be
utilized properly.

Question.— What do you think of rye, cut for ensilage for sum-
mer feeding ?

Mr. Smith.—TI do not think much of rye. It is all right to
feed when green, about two days; after that time the straw be-
comes hard, woody and hollow. Those who have fed it say:
“ Don’t do it.”

Question.— What is the best crop for soiling in the summer?

Mr. Smith.— The most value is in good corn ensilage. Build a
silo this summer for use next summer, and put in enough corn to
fill it. When the milk flow shows signs of falling off, open the silo
and begin feeding the contents. You will find it better than any
soiling crop you can grow, and it costs less.

Question.— To what animals may ensilage be fed? Is it good
for horses or growing cattle? How old must a ealf be before it
will eat it? Will it keep through the winter and into the dry
season next summer? Jo you use anything but corn to make it?
What does it cost per acre to harvest the corn and put it into the
silo? What distance should it be planted? What varieties are
best ?

Mr. Woodward.— A calf will eat it as soon as it will eat any
other coarse food. We plant it three feet apart one way. Ensilage
is a good food for any animal, except I should not feed much of it
to a horse. Feed four pounds of ensilage to 100 pounds of sheep.
Ensilage will keep indefinitely when it is put into a good, tight silo.
Tt is just as good in June as in January, and is the cheapest food
that can be grown on the farm.

Question.— What variety of corn is best to plant — I want the
ripe grain to crib and the stalks to feed dry?

Mr. Smith.— Evidently the man who wrote this question does
not believe in the silo and so prefers to follow the old way of dis-
posing of his corn crop. My idea is that he should experiment and

36 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

find out for himself. We cannot tell him what variety of corn or
other crops to grow, because we do not know his conditions. It is
one of the questions we cannot answer.

Question.— What kind of corn is best for ensilage in this local-
ity, Delaware county?

Richmond Garrison.— We have always thought until last year
the Early Mastodon was best for us, but last season, by the advice
of John Gould, given at the institute here a year ago, we tried
what is known as Turner’s White ensilage corn, and find that a _bet-
ter variety, judging by one season’s trial.

»» Question.— Does ripe corn lose in feeding value by being put
in the silo?

Mr. Cook.— If the silo is made tight, I believe there will not be
a loss of more than five per cent. Under unfavorable conditions,
there may be a loss as high as 25 per cent.

Question.—- Will ensilage spoil milk for condensing?

Mr. Cook.— Good ensilage, as a partial ration, when properly
fed, will make good condensed milk. I cannot understand why the
condensaries do not take milk from cows that are fed ensilage, only
for the fact that some will feed poor ensilage, and feed it either
immediately before, or at the time the milking is being done. I
should feed ensilage, if I had to dispose of my milk in some other
way.

Mr. Barlow.— Whenever I have made ensilage milk into butter
for market, or shipped my milk to New York, my customers have
wanted more, which I take to be good evidence that the ensilage
does not injure the quality.

Question.— What causes blue mold in a good, tight, well-built
silo?

Mr. Woodward.— The cause is too ripe or dry corn when it was
put into the silo. There was not enough dampness in the ensilage.
If ensilage becomes sour, it was cut when too green; if it rots, it is
because the air gets into the silo.

Question.— Which is better for corn, old ground plowed in the
fall or sod plowed just before planting?

Mr. Gould.— It is a question of locality. If ground is frozen
all winter, fall plowing is all right. We always plow in spring,
as our winters are so open. We plow our sod at least 20 days
before planting, that decomposition may begin. Work the land
thoroughly to kill all weeds,

Tue Question Box. 37

QUESTIONS REGARDING ANIMAL FOOD.

Question.— What benefit is derived from feeding buckwheat
hulls ?

Mr. Van Alstyne.— I have never been able to get any benefit.
They are good as a fertilizer, because of the potash in them. Buck-
wheat middlings are a good milk-producing food. There is but
little protein in buckwheat hulls, and what little there is comes
from the middlings that stick to them in small quantities.

Question.— Which should farmers depend on mostly, soiling or
pasture ?

Mr. Litchard.— About three seasons out of foar are dry, and
we are going to keep our cows in the stable, feeding them some
soiling crops, such as ensilage or oats and peas. We keep the cows
in the stable during the day and turn them out at night.

Mr. Cook.— The question of labor and the condition of the
land must be considered. Much of the land in northern New
York cannot be cultivated and must be pastured. If I were to
start in again I should not buy an inch of ground that I could
not cultivate. We are practicing soiling in connection with the
pasture, but I am quite satisfied that the tendency is drifting
from the pasture toward soiling. One thing is sure, if our land
is worth $100 per acre we cannot afford to allow our cows to
roam over it; and a man owning such land ought to keep at least
one cow per acre, and will, when he has the summer silo.

Question.— I am feeding ensilage twice a day and timothy hay
once; what grain ration shall I feed?

Mr. Bentley.— Wheat bran and gluten.

Mr. Smith.— I believe that bran and gluten will make as good
a ration as any, and it is certainly as cheap in price as any. There
are elements in bran not found in gluten to any great extent, which
1s its mineral matter, making it valuable. When we feed these
grains we do it for their protein element, to mix with our fat-
forming foods, and: so should first consider price.

Question.— Would bran with 10 pounds of Rockford gluten be
a safe grain for a cow fed ensilage twice a day and straw once ?

Mr. Smith.— Corn is deficient in mineral element; gluten is
made from corn, and is therefore deficient in mineral matter, so I
should mix it with bran. Of course there are conditions that
enter in, we cannot lay down any special rules. There is a dif-

38 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

ference in glutens, but, as a rule, they are guaranteed to contain
27 per cent. protein. We find they hold up well in analysis.

Question.— I am feeding in equal parts, corn meal middlings
with good ensilage, morning and night. Can I get better results
by adding gluten instead of the meal?

Mr. Cook.— The chances are that if you feed a cow constantly
on that ration in time you will have no cow.

Question.— Can we increase the butter fat in a cow’s milk?

Mr. Cook.— Sometimes. It would depend on the cow’s normal
capacity. She has one, but one may force her below it. If the
cow has been kept up to that condition, the fat cannot be per-
manently increased. I tried my best permanente to inerease the
butter fat in a herd of eight cows, but could not do it. One of
the hardest things to understand is the feeding value of a food.
We must bear in mind that there is no difference between
the protein in the gluten, bran or cotton seed meal, but there is
a difference in its per cent. in these foods, so we must be governed
by that factor, and at the same time take into consideration the
palatability of a food. For instance, there is a greater per cent. of
protein in cotton seed meal than in bran, and, at present prices,
the cheaper to buy, but it is not nearly so palatable as the bran.

A Farmer.— A mixture of cotton seed and wheat bran or
gluten, half and half sprinkled on the ensilage or other coarse foods,
has given me better results than has any other combination I
have tried, and I am surprised that the farmers do not feed more
cotton cal than they do.

Question.— Which is the cheaper and nese to buy for making
milk, wheat bran or corn meal?

Mr. Smith.— The two foods are not comparable. One is a
starchy, the other a protein food. Both are necessary in the
make up of a cow’s ration; the corn to produce the needed heat
and fat, the bran to produce the muscle and blood.

Question.— What is the difference, if any, between winter and
spring wheat bran for feeding purposes?

Mr. Smith.— Not very much. Experiments to quite a large
extent were made in Pennsylvania a year or two ago; as I re-
member it, the results did not show much, if any, difference. If
you can get good, coarse, flaky bran, do not worry over the differ-
ence In price.

A Farmer.—TI think that you will find in the Pennsylvania
report a small difference in favor of spring wheat bran.

Mr. Smith.— The law does not require an analysis of wheat

Tue Question Box. 39

bran, but any mixed feed should bear on its tags its analysis; and
.I should not buy a pound of any mixed feed except I had an analy-
sis of it. very cattle food dealer in the State has been served with
a copy of the law; but, if you do not compel the manufacturer to
live up to it, you will get no benefit therefrom.

Question.— What would be the proper ground ration for dairy
cows, not giving milk, which will freshen in March, the coarse
foods being oat straw, pea straw, timothy hay, cut green, and corn
fodder cured in the shock?

Mr. Lillie— Without figuring the ration, I should put in corn
meal and wheat bran for Michigan. I figure that there is no food
so cheap as good corn for furnishing carbohydrates. So, if one
feeds corn stalks, he should add some corn. When the cows are
dry, they do not require so much protein. That would be fur-
nished by the wheat bran. There would also be some in the other
foods.

Mr. Smith.— The question of palatability in food ought to be
considered in selecting or combining foods; but it is not quite as
necessary with dry as with milch cows.

Question.— Which is the better for a cow, corn or barley ?

Mr. Smith.— There is not much difference in their analyses.
Both are starchy foods, but there will be more value gotten out of
the corn than the barley, because so much more may be grown on
an acre.

Question.— Can gluten food be safely fed when dry, if mixed
with wheat bran or corn meal?

Mr. Rice.— Certainly; much of it is being used. It is a very
dry feed and rich in protein. Fed with good corn ensilage it makes
a nicely balanced ration. It is much richer in protein than is
wheat bran. But there are two forms of gluten, one is meal, the
other gluten feed. The former is much the richer in protein, and
the price should be higher for it; but both are often sold by
dealers as gluten meal.

Question.— How does it compare with corn meal?

Mr. Rice.— It does not compare, there being more than three
times as much protein in it. Corn meal contains about seven per
~ eent., wheat bran 11, and gluten meal 25 per cent.

Question.— Is rape a good fodder for cattle, when cured like
hay?

Mr. Rice.—TI should not think that rape was a good food for
cattle, but it is wonderfully good for sheep.

40 Bureau or Farmers’ Iysrirures.

Dr. Curryer.— We grow it in the West, sowing it in the corn
at its last cultivation. It makes an excellent food for sheep; also
for cattle, except milch cows.

Question.— Has any one in this (Steuben) county raised cow
peas, either for plowing under or for fodder? If so, with what
results 4

A Farmer.— I have sown them in a limited way. and will sow
more.

Mr. Rice.— They are, properly, a bean, and are of most value to
plow under for nitrogen. In the South they are cured for hay,
and are also put in the silo. They are full of protein, and, when
they can be utilized as hay, they will be found valuable. A gentle-
man at Lyndonville told me that he had cut and cured them for
hay. It is a little more difficult to cure them than clover, but
they are richer in protein. If you are going to plow them under,
do it before the frost comes. ‘‘ Whippoorwill,” an early variety,
is the best with us. The seed costs from $1 to $1.25 per bushel.

Question.— Since corn meal is practically figured out of all
animal rations, what shall we do with it?

Mr. Rice.— Corn meal is one of the best of foods, but it must
be balanced with protein; so must ensilage or corn stalks. I sup-
pose some persons are of opinion that institute speakers do not
favor corn meal. It is not true; but we have favored corn ensilage
in preference to corn meal and corn stalks, because there 1s more -
food value in it; besides, there is a succulent value in ensilage
which cannot. be obtained in either corn meal or corn stalks. We
must always study the nutritive value of foods, then so mix them as
properly to balance the ration.

Question.— Would it do to cut rye for hay when it is in the
blossom stage?

Dr. Curryer.— There is no question that it will make good hay
if cut before it becomes hard and woody, and this is before the
blossoming stage.

Question.— What kind of grain should be fed with swale hay
to have cattle do well?

_ Mr. Van Wagenen.—TI doubt not that if the cow is given 20
pounds of good swale hay and 10 pounds of protein foods she will
give a good flow of milk, if she is of the dairy type.

Question.— Should we have corn ground — cob and all?

Mr. Cook.— There is but little feeding value in the cob, but
it aids digestion. It should be ground finely. I think that our
ordinary steel mills do not grind it fine enough. If taken to a

Tue Question Box.. A

mill the cost is too much. TI have no use fora miller to grind corn.
I can utilize it better and more cheaply through the silo.

Question.— Can you get as much milk from common corn stalks
as from sweet corn stalks?

Mr. Cook.— Yes, I do; and can back up what I say by proof.
It is cheaper to grow the common corn, and there is more feeding
value in it.

Question.— Is it advisable, if you have plenty of oats and corn,
to mix bran or wheat middlings with them at $18 per ton? .

Mr. Smith.— Corn meal is a starchy food, so is timothy hay or
corn stalks. When you feed either of those foods together you
simply increase the sugar and starch and feed more than the anima!
ean digest. If those foods are balanced, protein foods must be
given. Oats, wheat bran, gluten and other like foods should be
given in connection with the carbonaceous foods. I should sell
some of the corn and buy oats or some other of the protein foods.

Question.— How much protein should a cow be fed per day?

Dr. Smead.— A cow weighing 1,000 pounds, in milk, ought to
have two and one-half pounds per day, and about 13 or 14 pounds
of carbohydrates. If she is dry, about one-half that quantity.
Question.— Of what value are malt sprouts as a food for milch
cows?

Mr. Smith— If you can buy them at $10 per ton, it is the
cheapest form in which you can buy protein. They contain about
25 per cent. of this element.

Question.— What is the best and cheapest feed for cows where
the average price of milk would not exceed two cents a quart?

Mr. Smith.— You cannot make it at that price unless you have
a good cow. Then you must feed her plenty of good, digestible
food. Milk can be made more cheaply from ensilage than any other
feed. You can get more value in dry matter to the acre in alfalfa
than in any other crop. It is a protein feed and will help balance
your ensilage. A grain ration of wheat bran, cotton seed meal or
dried brewers’ grains, with the ensilage and alfalfa or clover hay
will make milk as cheaply as it is possible to make it.

To Mr. Gould.— Is the cow pea a good crop to grow?

Mr. Gould.— Yes; but it is a hot weather crop and will not
stand frost. Drill it in with every other tooth of the drill taken
out. In that way it may be cultivated, which will hasten the
ripening period. It is valuable because it is wonderfully rich in
nitrogen. *

A Farmer.— I tried them last year. The season was not long
enough for them.

49 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.— Does it pay to raise oats for feed when they can
be bought for 32 cents per bushel?

Mr. Smith.— No man can say what another man should do.
It is one of those things every.man must decide for himself.
Probably, if you can trade them for bran, it will pay.

Mr. Woodward.— That would be $20 per ton for the oats. So
it would be better to trade the oats for wheat bran, as that may
be bought for $14 per ton.

Question.— Is rape a good food for cows ?

Mr. Smith.— It will do for dry cows, but I should not feed
much of it to milch cows, as it taints the milk. But for sheep,
when fed properly, it is an excellent and cheaply grown food.

Question.— My cows are fed bean fodder once a day and corn
stalks twice, with three quarts — by measure — of corn meal and
bran, morning and night. What is lacking in the ration ?

Mr. Goodrich.— That ration is deficient in protein, because the
cow cannot get the quantity she needs — at least two pounds per
day —fromit. I should put in some oil meal, gluten or cotton seed
meal, in place of the corn. JI should estimate a ton of well-cured
and preserved bean fodder as nearly equal to one of clover, although
I have not the analysis with me. The chemist knows much, but
we must submit his report to the old cow. I think much of the
chemist, but fully as much of the cow. She is the umpire. Re-
member, the cow must have a variety of foods, and they must be
palatable to produce best results.

Question.— How does barley meal compare as a ration for milch
cows, with other feeds ?

Dr. Smead.— There must be palatability in a food to make it
digestible. If it is distasteful, it will not digest so well. Barley
has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 8; oats, 1 to 6; timothy, 1 to 14 or
15; clover, 1 to 5 or 6. The proper ratio should be 1 to 4, 5 or
6, according to the individuality of the animal, something which
the farmer must study for himself. Barley is not as good a ration
as oats, but wheat bran and barley, half and half, will make a
fairly good balanced ration. If I had good hay, a silo and wheat
bran, I should not feed barley at all.

Question.— Shall we feed meal dry or wet ?

Dr. Smead.— Dry. Digestion begins in the mouth. The cow
will wet it enough through her saliva, of which she secretes about
five gallons every 24 hours. All experiments I know have de-
cided that grain fed dry is best assimilated and digested by the
animals.

Tur Question Box. 43

Question.— What is the cheapest fattening ration for two and
three-year-old cattle ?

Mr. Smith.— The only thing for an eastern man to do is to
follow the plan of the western man. We uses the silo. There
is no better plan. Clover hay, corn ensilage, wheat bran, corn meal
are the foods. If the ensilage is rich in corn, not so much corn meal
will be required ; and it is better to add some wheat bran. It serves
to keep the animal more healthy than does so much corn, while it
fattens just as rapidly.

Question.— How about rbnadip peas for cows ?

Mr. Smith.— They are peices having nearly 20 per cent. of
protein ; they are also very digestible.

Question.—What is the feeding value of hominy meal?

Mr. Smith.— Compared with wheat bran at $15 per ton, it
‘is worth $8.52. If you want something in place of corn meal,
“hominy chop” is all right. It is a carbonaceous food, just as
is corn meal, so it should not be fed with the corn, to balance the
ration.

Question.— Will it pay to grow carrots and mangels for cows
when one has ensilage, to produce milk ?

Mr. Smith.— No; if you have ensilage, do not raise roots; but,
if you do not have the ensilage, by all means raise roots — mangels
will be the best.

Question.— Is beet pulp a reliable cattle food? Will it spoil if
kept? What can we afford to pay for it?

Mr. Smith.— There is about 8 to 10 per cent. of solids in beet
pulp. When it is fresh and -sweet, it is good; but it is simply a
question as to its feeding value. Professor Wing of Cornell, says
it has a feeding value of about one-half that of corn ensilage. Com-
pared with ensilage at a cost, of $2 per ton, outside figures, it is
worth $1 per ton. One had better grow mangels, because, in those
he will get all the solids, while from the sugar-beet pulp
all the sugar has been taken out. The balance is water, woody
fiber and about eight-tenths of 1 per cent. of protein. I doubt
if any one ean afford to pay $3 per ton for it. If course, pulp
has some value in its succulence, and is a good food if it can be
bought cheaply enough. If properly cared for, it will keep some
time.

Mr. Woodward.— I can grow ensilage and put it into my silos
for $1.25 per ton, but I should not give half that for sugar-beet
pulp. They cannot sell it to me; would much prefer the waste
molasses from the beet-sugar factory. But, if I wanted some suc-

44 Bureau or Farmers’ Insritrvres.

culent feed, I should grow mangels; they contain some sugar, while
the beet pulp has none, and when fed judiciously, in connection
with other foods, are an excellent succulent food. If we will be-
gin with a few, and increase moderately, a large quantity of man-
gels may be fed. I have fed as high as a half-bushel, twice a day,
to a cow. But, remember, if mangels or ensilage is fed, the ani-
mals must be kept indoors. It will not do to allow them to run
out in cold weather.

A Farmer.— I fed mangels to three cows, but was obliged to
discontinue their use, as they were too loosening.

Mr. Woodward.—TI have never had any trouble in that way
when I fed enough coarse food with them.

A Farmer.— I am feeding corn meal and shorts with my en-
silage. I am feeding it that way to get better digestion.

Question.— Will it pay to cut hay for the live-stock, then sprin-
kle the meal and shorts on the hay or ensilage ?

Dr. Smead.—- If the ensilage is very heavily eared, it would be
better to sell the surplus corn, and buy bran. As to the cutting
of hay, I should say that it does not add nutrition to eut it; but
there is an advantage in cutting and steaming hay, if it is overripe,
and then mixing the grain ration with it. If one has early cut,
well-cured hay, I doubt if it will pay to do it, especially when the
animal is in a good, healthy condition.

Mr. Cook.— If I were at home and had charge of the herd,
IT should, no doubt, mix the grain with the ensilage. But I do
not believe it makes a cent’s worth of difference with the cow.
All experiments I have made or consulted go to prove that it does
not pay to cut the hay. With the horse it may pay. I experi-
mented with five cows, cut the hay, fed the grain before and after
the coarse food, watered before and after, and watched results. I
found that whenever I made a change, the cows invariably shrank
in milk. I am convinced that the best way is to follow a uniform
system of feeding — doing everything on time and doing it regu-
larly. Uniformity is what does the business more than anything
else.

Question.— Are apples a suitable food for milch cows ?

Mr. Smith.— They may be, if fed judiciously. Do not feed
more than four quarts at a time, twice a day.

Question.— Is timothy hay “ fit” to feed a cow giving milk?

Mr. Smith.— Not if you want to make a profit on her milk.
She cannot digest enough of it to keep up her milk flow.

Tue Question Box. 45

Question.— What is the value of gluten, compared with corn
meal and other foods ?

Mr. Smith.— Gluten meal contains four times as much protem
as does corn meal, although it is a product of corn. But, in pre-
paring it all the starch of the corn has been taken out. But, do
not figure gluten feed and gluten meal alike. There is about 10
per cent. more value in the meal than in the feed, which is in its
protein. Corn meal produces fat, and balances the protein when
properly combined with it. Wheat bran is probably the best and
most profitable to use as a protein food for young and growing
animals, because it builds up the bone structure and furnishes blood
and muscle. Prices govern as between it and other protein foods.

Question.— Which contains the most feeding value, oats or
beets ?

Mr. Smith.— Beets contain more than 98 per cent. of water.
Their value consists in their succulence. We like an apple because
of its flavor and water. Oats contain but little water, so that there
is but very little comparison between the two. Experiments at
Cornell University in feeding beet pulp to steers showed that when
such pulp was in good condition (if the farmer had nothing else
of a succulent nature) it was worth about half as much as corn
ensilage. If he had other like foods, the pulp was worth very
little. If ensilage was worth, therefore, $2 per ton, the pulp would
be worth $1, provided the farmer did not have any ensilage. I
understand that some farmers have paid as much as $3.50 per ton
for the pulp delivered, which is fully $2.50 too much,

Question.— What is your opinion of oats for spring pasture 4

Mr. Smith.— Who of you has tried oats for pasture?

A Farmer.— I have, but don’t like them.

Mr. Smith.— Some farmers sow rye in the fall, which is pas-
tured off in the spring, then plowed under. Good results are re-
ported. J don’t know about oats for like purpose.

Mr. Lillie.-— Prof. Shaw of Minnesota, has experimented with
oats for such a purpose. He reported good results.

A Farmer.— How would it answer to grind beans and oats and
mix the two?

Mr. Smith.— I do not know why such a mixture would not make
a good protein food.

Dr. Smead.— We must first take into consideration the palata-
bility of a food. Peas are much better than beans because they
contain more protein and are more palatable. There is something
in the bean that makes it distasteful to the cow.

46 Bureau oF Farmers’ Institutes.

A Farmer.— Cook the beans and mix them with bran. The
cows will eat them all right in that way.

Another Farmer.—JI am feeding beans to horses. They eat
them well and seem to do nicely.

The question brought out a variety of opinions, some radically
different.

Question.— Can sorghum be raised successfully in this country,
and is it a profitable crop for feed ?

Mr. Creenon.— I have raised sorghum; that which I sowed,
did well; that which was planted, did not. We sowed two bushels
of seed to the acre, and got more food from an acre than from
corn. It was cut just as it began to turn a yellow color, and cured
as hay. The cattle ate it all and gave a nice mess of milk. The
stalks were about the size of a lead pencil.

Question.— Are turnips a comparatively valuable crop for live-
stock, considering cost ?

Mr. iepenecd think they are for sheep. The Caters
are far ahead of us in that direction. But, if a man ean raise
good corn, and can have ensilage, he will not nee turnips or beets.

Oveshime me is the difference in feeding value of corn
and wheat bran?

Mr. Woodward.— The two do not compare. Corn is a fatten-
ing food, bran a growing one. One is fed to produce heat and
fat, the other to produce muscle, bone and blood. To get best
results corn and bran should be combined. Corn, when fed to
an excess, will fatten the cow and dry up her milk; bran will help
to keep up the milk flow. Corn is principally starch, while bran
contains but three parts of it to one of protein.

Question.— What do you consider a good ration for cows in
milk?

Mr. Smith.— Corn ensilage, wheat bran, clover hay, linseed meal
or gluten meal, ground oats, cotton seed meal, and alfalfa, are
good foods for the purpose.

Question.— When is the best time to feed grain to cows, before
or after feeding hay?

Mr. Woodward.— We feed our cows the first thing in the morn-
ing; then the cows are milked, and the ensilage fed, the grain hay-
ing been sprinkled on the ensilage. Straw is fed at noon; hay
again before milking, and the ensilage and grain afterwards, at
night.

Question.— How much water does a cow need daily?

Mr. Smith.— It will depend on the cow, her foods and other

—

Tue Question Box, 47

circumstances. A cow will drink from 75 to 125 pounds of water
daily, if she has a chance to take it when she wants it; but, if
she is turned out in zero weather, she will not drink half the quan-
tity she needs or requires.

Question.— Please explain the feeding value of gluten meal
fed for dairy food and milk produce and protein?

Mr. Smith said that gluten meal contained about 84 per cent. of
protein, gluten feed, 27 per cent. and corn bran, 10 per cent.; but
the latter costs too much for the price. When you buy any of
these prepared foods, insist on a guaranteed analysis, and do not
pay too much for them.

Question.— Can sorghum be raised for fodder in this locality
— Steuben county ?

Mr. Woodward.—It may be, but it will never pay a man to grow
it who can grow corn. Not so much may be grown on an acre. I
tried it once and found it did not do me any good.

Question.— How is bran, corn meal and ground oats, if mixed
in equal parts, for ‘cows?

Mr. Woodward.—It would depend on the coarse fodder the cattle
are getting. If ensilage or timothy hay or straw is fed, no corn
meal should be fed. If clover is fed, and the ensilage is not rich
enough in corn, feed some corn meal. The other foods named are
all right.

Question.— Give a ration for dry cows.

Mr. Smith.— A cow weighing 1,000 pounds, not giving milk,
requires a ration containing one pound of protein per day to
keep up her normal condition. If she gives milk, more protein
should be added, because the cow must have protein to produce
milk, and it must be a quantity in excess of her daily needs. Two-
thirds of the food is needed to repair waste tissues. The other
third to supply additional requirements. The ratio should be
about one part of digestible protein to five of carbohydrates, those
foods which are fattening.

Question.— Will millet take the place of good hay for milch
cows?

Dr. Smead.— Millet, when cut at the proper time, which is
just as it is heading out, has a ratio of about 1 to 10, while tim-
othy has 1 to 14; so that is better than timothy. But the millet
must be cut before it goes to seed, else it will become hard and
woody.

Question.— Which variety is best, the German or Hungarian
millet?

48 Bureau or Farmers’ Lystirurtes.

Dr. Smead.— Practically, there is but little difference; the
German is the earliest, Hungarian the finest. Both analyze about
the same.

Question.— What is the ration for a dairy cow?

Mr. Smith.— It will depend on the coarse foods.

A Farmer.— I am feeding corn ensilage, oats and hay. I do not
thnk, however, that I am feeding protein enough. |

Mr. Smith.— Oats are not a narrow ration, and they do not
contain as much protein as do some other foods. It is better to
mix some pea meal with them or wheat bran.

Question.— Would 10 pounds of good timothy hay be enough
for a cow?

Mr. Smith.— There is a difference in timothy hay, but what
you or I might eall “ good” would not be so considered by the
New York dealer. When it is cut before the seed begins to
perfect, it is better for the milch cow, but the New York buyer
prefers to have it more fully ripened. If the hay is too much
ripened, a cow would have to eat about 70.pounds of it to
obtain a sufficient supply of protein, a quantity she cannot eat and
digest.

Question.— Which would be most profitable, to pasture cows
in summer, or feed them corn ensilage ?

Mr. Lillie—I think there is no doubt that it would be far better
to feed the ensilage in place of pasture, and I believe the time is
rapidly coming when we will abandon the pasture, especially where
the land is high in price. Pasturage costs too much when com-
pared with ensilage. Only on land which is not tillable can we
afford now to pasture. But every dairyman ought to have a sum-
mer silo, no matter how much pasture he has, because he cannot
depend on pasture when the drouths come, but he can depend on
the silo when filled with good ensilage. —

Question.— Give a ration for cows that give over 50 pounds
of inilk per day — with ensilage, timothy hay, pea and oat hay
and oats unthreshed.

Mr. Lilhie.— Fifty pounds of ensilage, five pounds of timothy
hay, 10 pounds of pea and oat hay, and 16 pounds of oats.
It would give 2.54 pounds of protein. But, it would be better
to sell the oats, and feed in their place eight pounds of bran and
a pound and a half of cotton seed meal. Such a combination
would give the same quantity of protein and would cost less.

Question.— How about barley straw for feed?

Mr. Woodward.— It is much better than timothy hay, espe-

Tue Question Box. 49

cially for sheep, proyided the barley beards are out of it. The
beards do not injure the sheeps’ stomach, but they get into the
wool, and are very ditticult to dislodge.

Question.— Can you make a balanced ration for a milch cow,
of oats, barley and timothy hay?

Dr. Smead.— No; it cannot be done. Such a ration would
be wholly one-sided. Oats have a ratio of 1 to 6; barley,
1 to 8, while timothy has one of 1 to 14. The milch
cows require one of about 1 to 5, so it is seen that there -
would not be protein enough in the ration. Leave out the barley
and add bran or buckwheat middlings, or put in some gluten or
linseed meal. I should prefer the bran and oil meal unless buck-
wheat middlings cost too much.

iA Farmer.— We have to pay $18 per ton for them.

Dr. Smead.— Buckwheat middlings have a ratio of about 1
to 2, and at that price are fully as. profitable as is the bran,
and as we must have protein to balance the starch and sugar in
the other foods, they will be found the cheapest of the protein
foods.

Question.— Does the feed you give a cow make a difference
in the quality of her milk, as well as in quantity?

Mr. Smith The cow will give equally rich milk when fed
oat straw as when fed wheat bran, oat meal, gluten or clover hay.
There are a good many farmers who do not believe it, how-
ever, and they say they know the cow will not do it. But they
make the mistake of attributing an increase of butter fat to food,
when the increase is caused by the shrinkage of the water in the
milk. If such shrunken milk is tested by the chemists it will be
found there has been a proportionate increase of the total solids,
except the sugar, as well as of the fat. If I have a cow that
gives normal milk, testing 5.5 per cent. fat, no change of foods
will put any more fat into it. It is only when a cow is thrown
out of normal condition that a change in the fat is observed.

Question.— What kind of mill feed would you buy for the
milch cow, in connection with ensilage, bean fodder and straw ?

Mr. Smith.— Price will determine. Where can you buy pro-
tein the most cheaply? That should be the question asked.

Question. To what extent may bran be fed in connection
with clover hay to our milch cows?

Mr. Witter.— It is a question that cannot be answered by
pounds; individuality must be considered. We are feeding bran

and clover hay, but we cannot lay down a special weight. All
4

50 Bureau or Farmers’ Iystirvures.

depends on the individuality of the cow and the coarse fodder
used. We can formulate a ration for certain purposes, but we
cannot tell you how much of it to feed.

Question.— Is gluten meal better than oil meal or oil cake,
and where can we get it?

Mr. Smith.— No; it will not take the place of oil meal. It is
a good food, when mixed with bran, but there is but little gluten
meal on the market; what we buy for gluten meal is mostiy
gluten feed, in which, as a rule, corn bran has been mixed, a food
having only 10 or 11 per cent. of protein. This greatly adulter-
ates the gluten feed. If you can get good gluten meal at $20
to $21 per ton, it will be more profitable than will oil meal at
$29. But there is a lack of mineral matter in gluten meal, and,
when too much is fed, the “ cow soon goes off her feed.” We
mix it half and half with wheat bran for our cows at the Geneva
Station.

Question.— How about cotton seed meal?

Mr. Smith.— It is very rich in protein and constipating in its
nature; therefore, it is unsafe to feed too much of it. I should
not start with more than half a pound and would not increase it
beyond two pounds per day.

Question.— Would it pay best to sell oats at 32 cents a bushel
and buy bran at $17 per ton, to mix with gluten meal?

Mr. Witter.— I do not like to answer the question, for I dis-
like to sell anything off the farm which I know is good. Oats
have a ratio of 1 to 6, nearly perfectly balanced, while wheat
bran has one of nearly 1 to 4; but oats have another value
known by some as nerve power, something the bran does not
have. But, from a money standpoint, if a man has to draw his
oats to the mill, it would, no doubt, be better to sell the oats and
buy bran — at the prices named — if he has ensilage to feed.

Question.— Do you raise oats and peas on the Geneva Station
farm to feed cows in summer ?

Mr. Smith.— Sometimes, when we have a piece of land for
which we have no other special use. We had such a piece last
summer, but the dry weather nearly ruined the crop. We get
more value from our alfalfa. If oats and peas are sown, the
peas should be sown deeply, and there should be several sowings
at intervals of 10 days to secure best results.

Question.— Which is most profitable, bran at $17 per ton or
gluten feed, containing 27 per cent. protein, at $22 per ton; or
should one use a combination of the two?

°
Tue Question Box. 51

Mr. Van Wagenen.— We cannot tell what given foods to
recommend until we know the nature and value of the coarse
foods. We ought to make our food list as variable as possible.
None of us would care to live on meat or bread or pie alone.
Give the cow as varied a ration as possible. I think wheat bran
is the best protein ration. A cow may go to a bin of bran and
eat as much as she likes and not have it injure her. I think a
combination of the two would, under ordinary circumstances, be
preferable. If clover hay is fed, less of the combination should
be fed than when timothy hay or silage is used.

Question.— Name a ration for cows. I have timothy and
early cut oat straw. What else do I need?

Mr. Smith.— It will all depend on the cost of foods. If oats are
high enough in price I should sell them and use the money to
buy wheat bran or gluten. If those foods cost more than the
oats would sell for, I should feed the oats. But one must always
take into consideration the protein value of those foods and be
governed accordingly. One should also take into consideration
the amount of energy required to digest a food. It has been
found that a cow was better off without oat straw than with it,
and yet I am not saying that good oat straw is not beneficial
when properly fed; that is, balanced with good protein foods.

Question.— Would you sow rape seed among the corn rows?

Mr. Van Wagenen.— If the corn makes a large growth it will
require too much moisture, so that the rape does not get enough.
Sometimes it will make a good growth after the corn has been
taken off. I think, as a rule, the sowing of rape or clover in the
corn has not proved a success. It is pretty hard to get two different
crops off the same piece of land at the same time. When we get
a growing fall, some benefit may be derived from the sowing of
such crops among the corn rows, but it will all come after the corn
has been taken off.

Question.— Are ground beans a good food for dairy cows?

’ Mr. Smith.— Beans are rich in protein, containing nearly 25
per cent. of it.

Mr. Smallwood.— Would it not be better to sell the beans for
$2 per bushel and buy something else?

Mr. Smith.— As a rule, only split beans are fed to cattle.

Question.— Is corn meal and wheat bran a good food for
horses or cows? Does it make a good ration?

Mr. Smith.— Yes; if properly combined with something else.
If you are feeding clover hay, it will make a balanced ration; if

59 Thre Question Box.

timothy hay, the ration will be wholly unbalanced; there will
be too much starch in such a ration. Corn meal would be re-
quired only with the clover.

Dr. Smead.— Two parts of bran, by weight, and one of corn
meal for the working horse, will make a balanced ration. But, for
the ordinary horse on the road the best ration will be found in
oats fed with mixed hay; that is, clover and timothy, cut early.

Question.— Are wheat middlings as valuable as bran?

Mr. Woodward.— No; because there is flour in them. The
cleaner bran is, the more value it has for feeding. <A ton of
pure bran is of much more value than is one of middlings. But
there is much bran being adulterated; terra alba (white earth) is
used; so are finely ground corn cobs. If you have suspicion that
the bran is not pure, fill a drinking glass one-fourth full; fill with
water and allow to stand awhile. If there is a white milky sub-
stance in the bottom of the glass, you may know the bran has been
adulterated with some substance.

Question.— Would you feed clover hay to work horses and
colts; if so, to what extent?

Ty: Se Online = hay is better than the timothy, but to
some colts but little of it can be fed, as it is somewhat consti-
pating. Work horses may be fed more of it.

Question.— How shall we mix gluten and wheat bran?

Mr. Smith Half and half by weight. But, many of these
foods are adulterated. The nearer we can get to strictly pure goods,
the greater value for the price paid. i

Question.-— Are wheat screenings good as ground food, for
cattle?

Dr. Smead.— Wheat screenings are unsafe to grind, as they
are full of weed seeds. If you have such screenings feed them to
the hens. They will pick out all that is good for anything, and
Jeave the rest.

Question.— Does it pay to feed gluten meal that analyzes 394
per cent. protein, at $30 per ton; how much at a feed?

Mr. Smith.— T have never seen any gluten meal as rich as that,
in protein. If I had such meal IT should not feed to exceed two
pounds of it per day to a cow. TI have never seen a gluten brand
advertised that had such a guaranteed analysis, and do not believe
there is one.

Question.— My herd is due to calve in about a month. I am
feeding bean pods and hay. What should the grain ration be?

BurEeAv or Farmers’ Instirures. 53

Mr. Smith.— For such a herd I should add some wheat bran
to the pods.

Dr. Smead.—TI should also add oats with the bran. There
is a tendency to feed too many pods when a man has them. I
should prefer to feed one to two pounds of oats, because of their
added nerve power. Too much stress is laid on the value of a
food to produce a milk flow, at the expense of the vital energy and
nerve power of the cow. There should be some motive other than
that to produce milk. The health of the cow and that of her
progeny should be our first object; then may come the one of in-
creasing the milk flow, if it can be done without injuring the cow.

Question.— With clover hay at $10 per ton, what are bean pods °
worth for feeding to cows ?

Several farmers gave it as their opinion that a ton of good bean
fodder was equal to a ton of clover hay.

Question.— What is corn stover ?

Mr. Smith.— Corn stover is the stalks after the corn has been
husked out.

Question.— Are beets profitable to feed cows? If so, what
variety is best ?

Mr. Woodward.— We grow beets; we also have silage, but we
like to have a variety. We grow two varieties of beets, the “ Long
Red ” for early, and “ Golden Tankard ” for late. We leave them
27 mehes apart, and, as we grow them, the cost is not more than
five cents per bushel. If one has no silo he should certainly raise
beets; but every man who has a dairy should have two silos, one for
winter, the other for summer feeding.

Question.— I am feeding nine fresh cows all the ensilage they
will eat, with quite a liberal feeding of oat straw. The ensilage is
rich in corn — they get 40 pounds per day. With milk at two
and one-fourth cents per quart, would I have made any profit by
feeding cotton seed meal or bran? I have no clover. The cows
average 12 1/3 pounds of milk daily.

Mr. Smith.— That ration needs four pounds of wheat bran
and three pounds of gluten meal. As it is, the cow will get only
about six-tenths of a pound of protein, with five to six pounds of
sugar and starch. The cow giving a good flow of milk requires two
and one-half pounds of protein, daily, which she could not possibly
get out of the ration described.

Mr. Woodward.— Those cows did remarkably well on the ration.
They must have had some resources other than those named, as
they could not take something out of the ration that was not in it.

54 Bureav or Farmers’ Lysrirutss.

Question.— What is the value of still slops, compared with
ground feed, before the whiskey is taken out ?

A Farmer.— It is asserted that a pailful of still slops has a feed-
ing value equivalent to six pounds of corn meal. I figure their
worth at 25 cents a barrel. We do not charge anything for haul-
ing them.

Another Farmer.—TI consider them the best feed ever fed to
eattle. It makes them look sleek and keeps them healthy. The
slops are made of corn and barley.

Another Farmer.— Eleven cows in four days, in my herd, in-
creased their milk 35 pounds per day after I began feeding the
slop.

To Mr. Smith.— What are the differences between, and the costs
of gluten meal, gluten feed and corn bran? What are they made
from ?

Answer.— They are all made from corn out of which the starch
has been taken. “ Gluten feed” has about 27 per cent. protein.
“Gluten meal” from 34 to 86 per cent. “ Corn bran,” another
form, contains from 10 to 11- per cent. protein. As a rule
gluten feed and corn bran are more expensive than is gluten meal.
Such meal ought to be bought for $30 per ton, but it is deficient
in mineral matter. So I should prefer oil meal at $2 more per ton.

Question.— How much shall we feed to a cow 2

Mr. Smith.— That would depend on the cow. We do not feed
an excess of eight pounds to our best cows.

Question.— What would you say of a ration for cows, not in
milk, of two feeds of good ensilage and one of hay, daily?

Mr. Chapman.— TI do not think the cow would object. A cow
not giving milk, if she has ensilage twice a day and hay once,
ought to do very wellyunless there is too much corn in the ensilage.
In that case, she might lay on too much fat. The ration as given
here would hardly contain protein enough for a milch cow or a
growing one.

Question.— What are the best foods for those who cannot have
silos, nor raise clover to feed their cows?

Mr. Smith.— If a man has no silo and cannot grow clover, the
cheapest and most profitable food for him to raise would be man-
gels. They will be more profitable than sugar beets, because there
can be so many more tons grown on an acre?

Question.— Which makes the best milk and butter ration, oats
and bran and gluten meal, or bran and gluten meal ?

THe Question Box. Bs:

Mr. Witter.— I should prefer to mix the three. The cows all
prefer a variety, and will respond better from it than from a single
feed, although there is no more protein init.

Question.— How much bran should be fed to a cow 2

Mr. Gould.— How long is a string, or how big is a piece of
chalk? It would depend on the cow; how large she was; whether
she was in milk or dry, and what the coarse fodder was.

Question.— Can you tell us about rye hay? Who has had ex-
perience with it? When should rye be eut for hay, before or after
heading ?

Mr. Smith.— Rye becomes woody very early. If hay is to be
made of it, it must be cut before it heads. At that stage it makes
very good hay.

Question.— Is it a good crop to plow under ?

Mr. Smith.— Yes; but it ought to be plowed under early in the
spring. But rye does not supply any plant food. It does not ab-
sorb nitrogen from the air, as do the legumes; so that when plowed
under, it only furnishes humus vegetable matter. But do not wait
till it has headed out. Sow it among the corn rows, or later, and
plow under quite early in the spring. If there is a too large growth,
pasture it off a little in the spring.

Question.— What will be the best grain substitute for hay, when
cows are dry?

Mr. Garrison.— Bran.

Mr. Litchard.— I should use one part corn and two parts bran.

Mr. Stevens.— Just one word on this point: I am a great be-
liever in corn as a food for the dairy cow. Two of the best butter
dairies in this country, both making dollar a pound butter, feed
two-thirds corn and one-third bran. For dry cows, too, I believe
the addition of corn will be found profitable, helping as it does
to put them in good condition, and fit them for service when they
come into milk; care being taken, of course, not to fatten them too
much.

To Mr. Woodward.— What do you mean when you say “ succu-
lence?”

Answer.— Succulence is a juicy condition. The cows’ food
should have it. To illustrate: Mow 100 pounds of lawn grass and
feed it directly to your cow. She will eat it, lie down, digest it
and give you two pails full of milk each day. She does it,
because that grass has about the nutritive ratio contained in the
milk. Beside keeping up her milk flow, she gains in condition,
every day. Now cut another 100 pounds of lawn grass, convert it

56 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirurss.

into hay and feed it to that cow. Result —if nothing else is fed,
ihe cow wlll not only cease giving milk, but will starve. What
went out of that grass when you converted it into hay?
Moisture, nothing more; but it was nature’s moisture distributed
throughout each spear of grass, thus making it *succulent; when
it was changed into hay, that succulence was driven out. No
quantity of water added to the hay would have restored it.

Question.— I am milking a farrow cow; her feed is mixed ; hay
—all she will eat; two quarts of ground oats, and two of corn
meal. How can I better the ration ?

Mr. Smith.— By leaving out the corn meal and wheat bran.

(uesticn.— We have but little clover; what would be a proper
ration of grain for milk production 4

Mr. Smith.— If you have timothy or mixed hay, feed four
pounds of wheat bran, four pounds of gluten feed and one of lin-
seed meal. That would make a good combination in the absence
of clover. If you make the basis of your grain ration, wheat
bran, there is not much danger of overfeeding. You can always
tell when you are doing that, from the sour smell in the stable.
Buckwheat middlings have a ratio of 1 to 3, so that not so many
of them should be fed; they also tend to produce a soft white
butter,

Mr. Woodward.—TI should sell the oats, if I could, and buy
bran. There is nothing so good as bran that I ever fed to my
cows. A ton of bran is worth a ton and a half of oats, while the
value of bran manure is much greater than that of oats. But, if
I were so situated that I could not sell the oats, I should feed them.

Question.— What about “ Kow Kure” and other “ kures ” and
prepared foods ?

Dr. Smead.— They have a basis of oil meal, with a little gen-
tian and some other cheap ingredients to make them smell and
taste good. The feeding value in them consists almost wholly in
the oil meal; but these foods are sold at a price of about $400 per
ton, while not costing much more than $30.

Here is the analyses and first cost of one of them which I found
being retailed at the rate of $20 per hundred pounds, or $400 per
ton:

aoe pounds linesedimesk 71 0" ee PSEA bak a $1 30
SPOS SHE Tt eres cre ce cu cake et RR eee : 05
ZPOuUnds, ChareOal voc. oa'.s'¢c +). ve atte eM ee 10

A POUNGS Pen bn seco ss c's ete Mee toate Yea eee pipiens 15

THE Question Box. ave

pate Ser NS p25. ae oat sod ols ob ie ees aos $0 20
2 pounds saltpetre........ WER ORE, © «., Rote ets ata RD AIS 30
d pound anise seed........ wep heral? wats shire eet « 2 si 15
114 6)ele eee ee 6 © © 60 56's © oe . eoeneeeeeoaeereeeeeeee eee & $2 ONS.

Question.— What is the value of bone meal for cattle ?

Dr. Smead.— I should not feed it; it is too indigestible. Cattle
can get mineral in a more digestible form in wheat bran.

Question.— What is the difference in the value of gluten meal
and wheat_pran /

Mr. Witter.— Gluten contains more protein, but is deficient
in mineral matter when compared with bran. I should feed both
together.

Question.— Will turnips injure a cow’s milk?

Mr. Smith.— No; provided too many are not fed, and they
are fed directly after milking. I heard a dairyman say at an
institute recently that he fed his cows a bushel of turnips each
per day. He makes butter which he sells to private families. No
fault is or has been found with it.

A Farmer.— That is a big story, but he may have big cows.

Another Farmer.— That statement cannot be true. Such a
quantity would surely injure the next milking; that is my opinion.

Question.— Can we afford to raise hay to-feed cows, on land
that will grow corn?

Mr. Bentley.— What kind of hay?

A Farmer.— I will say no, speaking from general principles.

Mr. Bentley.— I do not think that any farmer here can afford
to plow up a well-established meadow and plant it to something
else. The question of labor enters in too sharply for that.

Mr. Smith.— The average yield of timothy hay is less than one
and a half tons per acre, or, say, 3,000 pounds. We get in 3,000
pounds of timothy hay about 1,100 pounds of starch; that is
above the average yield in this State. In an acre of good silage
corn there is from 5,000 to 6,000 pounds of starch. We feed
both the hay and the corn for their starch element; therefore, we
cannot afford to feed our cows timothy hay. No; plant corn, put
it into silo and sell the hay, especially when you can get $12 per
ton for it, as you can now.

Do you know what a pound of butter or cheese will cost, made
from timothy hay at $12 a ton? The butter, taking the yield of

58 Bereavu or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

the average cow in this State, will cost you 36 cents per pound,
and the cheese 15 cents. But the average farmer in this State is
doing just that sort of thing — keeping cows that give 3,500
pounds of 8.8 per cent. milk, feeding them timothy hay, corn meal
and corn stalks, and allowing them to go dry three or more months
in the year, when milk is worth most. If the farmer would only
study the feeding question well, test his cows and keep only those
which will pay for their keeping, and leave a profit, he would
be much better off.

Question.— How large do you let Canada peas grow to plow
under for a green manure ?

Mr. Gould.— When the peas are nicely formed. Do not let
the plant get woody. Roll it down in the direction you are to
plow. Plow just deep enough to cover nicely. Roll thoroughly
after plowing.

Question.— What is the difference between the Canada pea and
the cow pea, and their relative value to the farmer ?

Mr. Gould.— The cow pea is simply a bean. Both have the
same characteristics. Both are legumes, drawing nitrogen from
the air. Canada peas will withstand frost and are more palatable
to cattle. We use cow peas asacatch crop. It is a quick growing
plant and furnishes a large quantity of vegetable matter to plow
under.

Question.— Does not corn meal fed with corn stalks and hay
take the place of oil meal? If so, why?

Mr. Smith, in answering the question, said that the foods did
not compare. Corn meal, corn stalks and corn produce fat. If
too much of either be fed, there will not be enough muscle and
blood-forming element in them. Oil meal is a protein food and
produces bone, blood, muscle and milk. This element is deficient
in corn, Oil meal contains nearly three times as much protein
as does corn. Feed both, but in proper proportion.

CLOVER.

Question.— What is the comparative feeding value of clover
and timothy for hay?

Mr. Smith.— It is difficult to compare two foods, because of
conditions. But, in a general way, I will say that when clover
hay is worth $12 per ton, timothy is worth $5.74.

Mr. Woodward.—TI do not allow a man to sow timothy seed
on my farm. I should much prefer Canada thistles, because, if

Tur Question Box. 59

they are cut before they go to seed and are properly cured, they
make a very good hay. ‘Timothy is not fitted for sheep. I have
tried it many times, and do not want it to feed any animal on the
farm. :

Question.— When is the best time to cut clover?

Mr. Litchard.— I cut my clover just before the first blossoms
close. We cut it after the dew or rain is off, allow it to wilt, then
eock it and let it stand and cure. All we want is to get the surplus
water out of it.

A Farmer.— Suppose we have a rainy season; then what?

Mr. Litchard.— Do the best you can and trust the Lord for the
rest; but clover may be put in quite green if all the foreign water
is out of it, the barn made tight and doors kept closed. I use
the tedder. It is one of the best tools on my farm. It will get
the water out of it quickly; when that is done we want to hustle
the clover into the barn.

Mr. Smith.— At the Geneva Station we cut our clover just as
soon as the dew is off or it has dried off after a rain. It is then al-
lowed to wilt, after which it is raked and cocked, and paper caps
placed upon them. They stand there until cured enough to draw in.

A Farmer.— Clover fails here largely (Niagara county). So
we are sowing rye in its stead to plow under.

Mr. Witter.— Rye, when turned under, before it is too large,
will furnish humus; but it does not add any fertility to the soil,
while clover does, because it takes nitrogen from the atmosphere,
stores 1t in nodules on its roots, then transmits it to the soil.
Clover will not grow in an acid soil.

Question.— How can we make clover grow on poor land?

Mr. Rice.— There are two ways to get such land into condition
to get a catch of clover. If you have manure and will apply
enough of it so that it will make humus, if the soil is not acid, it
will put it in proper condition. If you do not have the manure,
sow cow peas or rye, and plow them under. There must be
humus first supplied to hold moisture. Young clover is a tender
plant and must have moisture, a sweet soil and a plentiful supply
of plant food. When you have the vegetable matter in the soil,
apply a good commercial fertilizer containing only a small per
cent. of nitrogen, but rich in potash and phosphoric acid. By
following this method we never fail to get a clover catch.

Question.— What is the reason we cannot grow red clover? It

has been a failure here in Steuben county the last four or five
years.

60 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Mr. Woodward.— There are several reasons. One is the ab-
sence of humus, that is, vegetable mould in the soil to hold water;
one pound of humus will hold four pounds of water. Another
reason may be a want of potash and phosphoric acid; another rea-
son is an acid soil, and still another is the presence of the clover
maggot, which eats off the clover close to the ground as fast as it
appears; and there is still another reason— not sowing early
enough in the spring. Doubtless one or more of the foregoing
is the cause of the failure.

Question.— Will it pay to sow clover seed that costs $7 a
bushel?

Mr. Smith—TI do not believe you can afford to farm it in this
State unless you grow clover, provided it will grow on your land.

Mr. Woodward.— I do not think that a man can afford to farm
it without raising clover, if the seed is $40 a bushel. One reason
for clover not growing on many farms is the sparing quantity of
seed sown. Put on a plenty of seed if you want to get a catch.

Mr. Smith.— TI think that there will be a better chance of get-
ting a catch when the clover seed is sown alone. I have seen good
catches when the seed was sown after a crop of oats and peas had
been taken off in July. Sown at that season, if given the entire
use of the land, the growth the next spring will be fully as great
as of that sown the spring before.

Mr. Rice.— If you can get humus enough into the soil I do not
believe there will be any difficulty in growing clover, unless the
soil is acid.

Question.— Will it pay to buy clover seed at $6 per bushel to
seed our land and plow under as a fertilizer ?

Mr. Litchard.— Under some circumstances it might. It cer-
tainly will not pay to buy poor seed, even at a reduced price. The
greatest mistake a farmer can make is to buy a cheap grade of
clover or timothy seed. Buy the best or none at all. The great
value of clover as a fertilizer is in its roots. The little nodules on

-the roots of the clover plant are nitrogen gatherers, and on their
power to gather nitrogen from the atmosphere and deposit it in
the soil depends its value as a fertilizer. I don’t want anything
better for a corn or potato crop than a clover sod. Alsike clover
is better for a wet soil than the common red clover, and, instead
of being a biennial, like the latter, it is a perennial, and when once
established, will, under favorable conditions, remain in the soil
for a series of years,

THe Quersrion Box. 61

Question.— Which is the best way to sow medium clover seed to
secure a good catch ?

Mr. Gould.— Different localities have different methods. With
us, In Ohio, as a rule, clover is sown with oats. My best success
has been obtained when sowing clover alone, just after the 4th
of July, and giving it the whole use of the land. It makes a good
growth and goes through the winter safely. When clover is sown
with another crop, the moisture it should have is diverted to the
other crop.

Question.— When is the proper time to sow red clover seed?

Mr. Chapman.— We sow clover seed in the spring, on our winter
wheat. When conditions are just right we have succeeded. Dur-
ing the last three years, however, spring-sown clover has failed.
We now fit the land well and sow the clover and timothy about
the 1st of August. It succeeds very well, so that the next year
we get as good crop as when we succeeded in spring sowing. We
get a little better crop of grass when cut a little later, than is
grown from spring sowing. We sow about six quarts of clover
and ten of timothy seed per acre.

Question.— How late would you sow crimson clover seed?

Mr. Rice.— Not later than the 1st of August. We sow it from
the last week in June to the last week in August; but we prefer
not to wait later than the latter part of July.

Question.— Will it pay to sow grass or clover seed alone, with-_
out any other crop?

- Mr. Cook.— We have done it many times; there is no question
that if the seed is sown early enough, and the soil has been well
prepared, it will prove a success. ;

Question.— For light loam soils seeded with crimson clover,
which would be the most profitable, to plow under the crop green,
or to cut and sell the seed?

Mr. Smith.—I do not think we can profitably grow crimson
clover seed. Crimson clover is sown for a catch crop to be plowed
under.

Question.— How should clover seed be covered when sown alone
after growing oats?

Mr. Smith.— You may cover the seed, either with the weeder
or smoothing harrow.

Question.— What crops are best to precede clover?

Mr. Rice.— We got an excellent catch of clover after taking off
a crop of early potatoes. We plowed the land and then sowed on

62 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes. -

dissolved South Carolina rock and seeded it to clover. We sowed
just enough buckwheat to shade the young clover, but not enough
to detract moisture from the clover. I never saw a better catch
of clover than the one we got.

Mr. Woodward.— We got lots of clover last year. We have no
trouble. There are four conditions necessary to grow it: First,
humus; second, potash ; third, phosphoric acid; and fourth, there
must be no acid in the soil. These naudinione furnished, clover
will grow just as well as it ever did. The greatest trouble is a
lack of humus. Stable manure and the turning under of green
crops will furnish humus, but green manures are too costly
with me.

Dr. Smead said that he believed there was some condition we
did not understand which prevented clover from growing. He
once plowed up an old lane in which cattle had stood for years.
The ground was full of humus, but he could not grow clover on it.

Mr. Woodward.— Probably there is too much nitrogen in the
land. J once moved an old barn, but could not grow clover or
hardly anything else on the ground where the barn stood. The
cause was too much nitrogen. Clover will not grow where there
is an excess of it.

ASHI MO Uo ee

Question.— What is the best floor for cows, earth, cement or
plank ?

Mr. Irwin.— We use a combination of stone and clay. We have
used it several vears. It has cost but little for repairs and has
given us excellent satisfaction.

Mr. Smith.— We have cement floors at the Geneva Station, but
plank was cemented into them when the cement was laid. We
like such floors better than those made wholly of cement. The
cows are tied singly, but they have all the room they need and are
fastened with a short chain, which gives them liberty to turn about
in part, and lick themselves.

Question.— How shall we manage to get a better price for milk
at the stations ?

Mr. Smith.— The milk stations are paying, as usual, a very good
price. It has been found, and is now, a hard problem to settle,
but we know that it could be solved in one way at least.
The farmers must combine and establish the shipping stations and

THE Question Box. 63

factories. When they do this, they can control the price; not
until then; because they will be able to hold back the surplus milk
and turn it into cheese and butter. But, when the price of milk
is advanced to a point above its value for butter and cheese, the
farmers desert the factories and flee to the stations, whereupon
down goes the price for shippers’ milk. At $1.24 per hundred
pounds for milk, the Cheddar cheese factories cannot afford to take
it. The Five States Milk Producers’ Association is trying to devise
some system by which milk producers can get a better price for
their milk, and not increase the price to the consumer, which ought
not to be done.

A Farmer.— Milk is worth at least $1.40 per hundred for mak-

ing Limburger cheese.
_ Mr. Smith.— Possibly; I do not know anything about the local
Limburger market; but, for Cheddar cheese for export or home
market, milk is not worth now $1.24 per hundred pounds. In
some localities the shipping stations put up the price and then
close up the factories and creameries; afterward they dropped the
price.

Question.— Is it desirable to dishorn cattle? It so, at what
season should it be done?

Mr. Cook.— How many of you believe it is desirable to take
the horns off?

A large majority favored the operation.

Mr. Cook.— We take the horns off our cows before they drop
their first calf — doing the work in winter or before the 1st of
April; using clippers instead of the saw. The secret is in getting
down close to the head.

Dr. Smead.— Prejudice goes a long way. I was once greatly
prejudiced against dishorning, but have got over that. The pain
experienced by the cow is no greater than yours or mine when a
tooth is drawn, merely momentary. There is no pain in the hem-
orrhage which follows the operation. To stop the flow of blood
saturate a little cotton with tar and spread it over the stump of
the horn; do not turn the animal out when the weather is cold,
~ until the wounds are nearly healed.

Mr. Cook.— It will také about six weeks to heal the wounds.

To Mr. Gould.— Would you advise the crossing of a Durham
cow with a Jersey sire?

Answer.— No. Why should one do that? The two types are
too wide apart.

64 Boreavu or Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.— If the milk of a cow tests 3 per cent. fat, how many
pounds should she give in a year to make her profitable at present
price of feed ?

Mr. Smith— If she gave 9,000 pounds it would mean 270
pounds of fat. If we add 15 per cent. moisture, there would be
about 320 pounds of butter.

Question.— How much butter will 100 pounds of butter fat
make?

Dr. Smead.— As a rule, butter contains 15 per cent. moisture;
that gives 115 pounds of butter.

Question.— Does it pay te warm water for cows?

Mr. Woodward.— No, sir. It costs too much for fuel and labor.
Jf the cows are furnished with water so that they can drink at
any time, they will take it 20 times a day. Such an arrange-
ment for watering the cows in the barn in winter will prove of
much more benefit than warming the water.

Question.— How long before a cow drops her calf should we
cease milking her?

Mr. Woodward.— If she wants to give milk, milk her right
along, if she drops her calf in the afternoon after milking her in
the morning.

Question.— Would you use the last milkings?

Mr. Woodward.— You may know when to cease using the milk.
When it curdles if boiled, it is unsuitable to use for food, although
some people use it right along, or, when the cow has been dried
up, use the first milking for food.

Question.— What can be done for a cow that bawls most of
the time? She is isolated from other cattle.

Mr. Woodward.— The cause is loneliness or homesickness. If
she is put where she can see another cow, she will cease to “ bawl.”
T had a cow that was isolated, and she soon commenced bawling. I
placed her where she could see a horse, and she at once stopped.
Animals, as well as human beings, get lonesome and homestick.

Question.— What is the reason that Canada cheese commands
a better price and sells higher than does New York cheese?

Mr. Smith.—It does not always sell for more. There are
thousands of tons of cheese made in New York that sell for as
much as does Canada cheese, if the difference in freight is de-
ducted, both going to the Montreal market for export to Europe.
As a rule, the last season, there was not more than an eighth of
a cent difference between the Watertown, N. Y., and the Brock-

THE Question Box. 65

ville, Canada, prices, and this difference was made because of ad-
ditional freight charges.

Mr. Jennings.— On two sales days at the Watertown board of
trade last summer, Jefferson county cheese outsold that of the
same date on the Brockville board, but it was purchased for home
consumption, while the Brockville cheese was for export.

Question.— How many cows can be kept on 50 acres of land?

Mr. Smith.— It would all depend on the man. One would not
keep more than five, while another would keep 50.

A Farmer.— I can keep 25 cows on 50 acres on my farm.

Question.— Which breed of cows is the best?

Mr. Smith.—I do not know. There are good and poor ones in
all breeds. It will all depend on the man who owns the cows and
what he wants them for. But, whatever breed you select, be sure
to invest in one of the dairy breeds. Do not undertake to mix beef
and butter together. One must make a selection to suit him and
for the purpose he wants the herd. We are not here to advise
which breed to select.

Question.— Do you believe that all cows can be made to give
milk the year round ?

Dr. Smead.— No, but there are many cows that do not go dry.
Much depends on the breed and ancestry. A cow to be profitable
ought not to give less than 5,000 pounds of milk per year, con-
taining not less than 4 per cent. butter-fat.

Question In how small a dairy can a cream separator be
used ?

Mr. Smith.— It would depend somewhat on the cows, whether
they give much or little milk, and whether they milked nearly
all the year or were dry all winter. At the prices at which the
small machines are now sold, one ought to pay well in a dairy of
five or six cows. Nearly all the various makers of separators build
small hand machines, the prices of which are much lower than
they formerly were. All are good, and will skim down to, or
below, one-tenth of 1 per cent. fat.

Question.— How often should a cow be given water? Before
or after feeding?

Mr. Goodrich.— Follow nature. They naturally want to drink
as soon as they have eaten. We have watering devices in the
stable and we have noticed that the cows always drink after
eating any food. If you will examine the cow’s cud you will see
it is soaked in water. So, then, give her all she will drink, that

5

66 Bureau oF Farmers’ Instirvutes.

is, when the food is dry. She will not require as much when she
has green food.

Question.— At what season would you have a cow freshen ?

Mr. Goodrich.— Have the cow freshen in the fall. She will
give 1,000 pounds more milk in a year than when she drops her
calf in the spring. Then, too, the winter is the best season of the
year in which to raise a calf.

Question.— At what age should a heifer drop her first calf?

Mr. Goodrich.— Have the heifer drop her first calf when she
is two years old. Do not allow that heifer to put on fat from calf-
hood to motherhood. If you do, when you ask her for milk she
will say, “I can’t do it; you taught me to put on fat when I was
a calf. JI cannot give you milk now.”

Question.— Do bunches or sores on milch cows in any way
affect their milk?

Mr. Smith.— Do you want to eat milk from a cow that has a
running sore?

Several answered No.

Mr. Smith— A cow that has such a sore is diseased. Her
milk ought not to be sent to a factory or creamery. No matter
where the sore is, such a sore is caused by some diseased condition
of the blood, therefore, the cow is not in a healthy condition, and
the milk is not in a healthy condition. The cow should be in good
health and free from all disease. When one portion of the 1nimal
is diseased the whole system is more or less affected.

Question.— Why do cows chew bones and old leather?

Dr. Smead.— As a rule, it is caused by a sour stomach, or what
we call acidity. Salt and some powdered charcoal will correct
the acidity. Sometimes it is caused by a lack of mineral element
in the food.

Question.— Does it injure a cow to have the calf suckle her
four weeks after calving?

Mr. Goodrich.— I have practiced allowing the calf to suckle the
cow for that period, but to my sorrow. I now take it away as soon
as I can after it is dropped; that for the good of the mother.

Question.— Which is the most profitable cow for the farmer,
the grade or full-blood Holstein?

Mr. Van Wagenen.— The most profitable cow is the one which
will produce the most butter fat for the cost of the food she con-
sumes; but, to say that a grade or thoroughbred is the best, is
begging the question. The record for best butter production by
one cow is held by a Holstein, although, as between the breeds —

THE Question Box. 67

Jersey and Holstein — perhaps most butter has been produced by
the former.

Question.— Do you think that a herd with an average of 7,000
pounds per cow is a good starter?

Mr. Gould.— As long as the average cow only produces 3,500
pounds of milk per year, I should think the man who had a 7,000

pound herd would imagine he had a starter, certain.

Question.— Which breed of dairy cows do you recommend?

Mr. Goodrich.— The one you like best. If a Jersey, get her;
if a Holstein, select her; or, if you prefer a Guernsey, tie to her.
Then stick to her. Don’t mix them up and go from one to an-
other.

Question.— Can you give the butter record of Brown Bessie, at
Chicago?

Answer.— She made 216 pounds of butter in the 90-day test.
During the last week she made three pounds of butter per day.
I do not think, however, that those cows| were properly fed. My
idea is that a milch cow should have twice as many pounds of
coarse fodder as of grain. Brown Bessie was given 20 or more
pounds of grain per day, which would require 40 pounds of coarse
food, a quantity she could not store and digest. Those crowded
cows have never done much since, so far as I have been able to
find out, and I have made a pretty thorough inquiry.

Question.— How long should a cow go dry for best results in
milk?

Mr. Lillie.— We do not care to have a cow go dry more than
four or six weeks. If she develops a tendency not to “ dry off,”
we milk her right along. If the cow has been bred so as to want
to give milk right along, give her good, nutritious foods and allow
her to do it.

To Mr. Goodrich: Question.— Why do you say that a cow
will produce more milk when she freshens in the fall?

Answer.— I said that a cow will produce more milk when
she comes fresh in the fall. Of course, I assume that she
must be well fed. As a rule, the cows that go dry in the fall
are not very well kept in winter. Another point is, when the
drouth eomes in July they shrink their milk flow, which cannot
be got back, so that they go into the winter giving but little milk.
If they are allowed to go dry in July and August, when the flies
are numerous, and drop their calves in September or October,
provided they are well kept through the winter, I know that there
is the difference I mentioned.

68 Bureav or Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.— How long should a cow be left out of doors in zero
weather?

Mr. Smith.— I doubt very much if a farmer can afford to turn
out a cow he is milking in zero weather. If he does, she ought
to be put back again as soon as possible, provided he has good
stables. It requires heat to maintain a cow, and it is much better
to provide good quarters and water in the stables than to buy food
to do it. But, if one’s stables are so constructed that a cow is
as well off outside as in, she may as well be out.

Mr. Lillie— We have arrived at the conclusion that a cow
giving milk ought not to be allowed out when the temperature
is below the freezing point. It will be found much cheaper and
better in the end to put some watering device in the stables. Put
the cows into the stables as soon as the weather becomes cold and
freezing and keep them there in such weather.

To Mr. Lillie— Which do you consider of greater importance
for future breeding, the sire or dam? Why are registered ani-
mals to be preferred ?

Answer.— As a rule, the farmer places too much dependence
on the dam. It should be on the other hand, because the sire
possesses one-half the value of the herd. The farmer may have
50 cows, all good ones, but the bull may be worthless as a getter
of future stock, and the trouble is that one cannot always tell
whether that bull is a prepotent one or not, no matter how good
his pedigree is. So it pays to record animals. In this way one
may go back and find out something about the individual excel-
lencies of the dam or sire he is going to use. It is a simple mat-
ter to test a cow, because we can use the Babcock test and scales;
but to test the sire one must go slow. Use him on a few of the
best cows of your herd and note the results. It is a great risk,
and one must go slowly. You may get a sire that will do much
good. The next one may undo all he has done for you. When
you do get a good one, keep him. Don’t sell him because he is
growing old, or is becoming ugly and vicious.

Question.— What remedy is best to keep flies off our cows?

Mr. Smith.—TI don’t know which is the best. There are a
number of remedies. One is “ Shoofly;” another is “ Nofly.”
Fish oil and carbolic acid will keep the flies away, but it is a
“nasty ” stuff, and must be rubbed on. It makes the hair look
bad.

Dr. Smead.— I have used every remedy known and have set-
tled down to a common spray pump costing 50 cents, from which

THE Question Box, 69

I spray crude petroleum, or tobacco water, or any other of the
remedies. But it only keeps the flies off a few hours. One will
have to spray his cows at least once a day if he wishes to keep off
the flies.

Mr. Smith.— The mixture made of fish oil, carbolic acid and
tobacco stem water, if rubbed on, proved the most really effective
remedy used at the Geneva Station farm.

Question.— Which is the best cow for the dairy, the large or
small one ?

Mr. Woodward.— The cow that will pay the most for what
she consumes; so it would all depend on the cow.

Question.— Would you feed the same ration to a cow for butter
as you would for milk for market or for cheese ?

Mr. Rice.— Yes, sir; with just an exception. In making but-
ter, some foods will affect its quality and texture, which would
not affect the milk. To illustrate, when corn meal, timothy hay
or cotton seed meal are fed, the butter is hardened. When clover
hay, gluten meal, oil meal and wheat bran are fed, the butter
will be softened. But these foods will not influence the quality
of the milk, one way or another, for cheese.

To Mr. Goodrich.— Is it not true that at Cornell they produced
a good flow of milk from an almost carbonaceous ration?

Answer.— I do not know. Have seen no report of it from
there.

Mr. Van Wagenen.—I am somewhat familiar with the work
at Cornell, but have seen no such report. It is certainly economy
to use something to balance a ration. A cow giving 30 to 40
pounds of milk a day ought to have two and a half pounds of pro-
tein, which she cannot get from sugar and starch, unless she is
forced to eat more than she-ought.

Question.— When is the best time to feed cows grain ?

Mr. Van Wagenen.— Feed the dairy cow some grain every
time she gets other food. The old way was to feed the cows
three times a day; some, however, prefer twice.

Question.— Can the quality of milk be improved by feed, or
must we depend entirely on the breed?

Dr. Smead.— A good quality of food will produce better milk
than poor foods, but feed will not make a good cow out of a poor
one; do the best we can. Now comes the question of quality of
cow. If one has been fed up to her normal capacity, no amount
of feeding will increase her per cent. of butter fat. If it would,

70 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirvres.

there would be no trouble in making a first-class cow out of a serub.
So, then, if we are to get a first-class cow we must either buy or
breed her.

Question.— Can a dairyman feed a full grain ration of eight or
ten pounds to a cow with feed at $1 per 100 pounds, and sell his
milk at 80 cents per 100 pounds?

Mr. Smith.— It would depend wholly on the capacity of the
cow. We had three cows at the Geneva Station, all weighing nearly
the same. It costs $47.50 to keep each of them. In winter they
were fed 40 pounds of ensilage, 6 pounds of hay, 4 of wheat
bran, 4 of malt sprouts and one of cotton seed meal. In summer
they were fed alfalfa instead of ensilage. One cow was a full-
blood Jersey; the second one, seven-eighths, and the third one a
half-blood. The first one returned a profit of about $50; the
second one, $11.90, while the third one returned a loss of $11.23;
figuring the cheese at nine cents per pound, had it been made
from the milk. So you see it all depends on the individuality
of the cow and owner.

Question.— Will corn meal increase the richness of milk, or
affect its flavor?

Mr. Smith— No. There is not protein enough in corn meal
to supply that required in milk. So that if the milk flow is to be
kept up, food containing the same elements found in the milk must
be given. When a cow shrinks in her milk, the part that goes
out is the water. So it would seem that the per cent. of butter fat
had been increased; but the other solids, except the sugar, have
increased in the same ratio. If a cow has been starved to a
point below her normal capacity of butter-fat production, she
may, by judicious feeding, be brought up to it, but not beyond it.

Question.— Will any feed enrich a cow’s milk? If so, what
kind?

Mr. Smith.—I wish some one would tell me what kind will
do it. Ishall be glad to know.

A Farmer.— Green clover hay will do it. I have tried it and
know.

Mr. Smith You have done something no one else has done.
Here are the records of three of the Geneva Station cows; if you
will feed them so as to increase the fat in the milk of either of them
I will make you a nice present. No cow which has been fed up to
her normal capacity of butter-fat production can be so fed as to in-
erease the per cent. of fat. But, if the cow has been ill-treated

Tue Question Box, | (al

and starved to a point below that normal capacity, she may be
fed up toit. The best of the three cows at the Geneva Station gave
8,000 pounds of milk containing 5.6 per cent. milk. No amount of
feeding will increase that per cent. of fat. The second cow gave
6,000 pounds of 4 per cent. milk, and the third one, 4,600 pounds
of 3.8 per cent. milk. Now, no amount of feeding or increase of
foods will increase the flow or fat per cent. up to that of the best
cow. I made a long, thorough trial, but failed to do it.

Question.— Which is best, to keep a cow in the barn all the time
in winter or out of doors a part of the time ?

Mr. Gould.— Is the cow giving milk, is she dry, or coming in
in the spring? If the stable is clean, dry, light and warm, I don’t
know what she should go out for. On the other hand, if the stable
is dark, damp and ill-ventilated, it were better that the cow were
turned out. My cows don’t get exercise in the winter. They
get all they want during the other eight months.

Question.— Am keeping but one cow. If I feed grain, which is
the best and how much should be fed per day, every day in the
year? Should she have a change 30 days before dropping calf ?

Mr. Smith—If a man has but one cow he cannot have
ensilage, so I would say feed clover hay, wheat bran and corn meal.
Would not feed timothy hay or buckwheat middlings to her. Oats

and peas with barley make a good ration, with clover hay.
~ Question.— Is the Short-Horn a good breed for the dairy
farmer? Are they good milkers?

Mr. Smith.— No; that is, the present strain of Short-Horns is
not. Several years ago there was a family of excellent milking
Short-Horns, but the breeders of them got into the craze of trying
to breed beef and milk both into the same carcass, and the result is
a breed of beef animals, as a rule, the milk product having disap-
peared. It is only occasionally that we hear of a good Short-Horn
milking cow.

Question.— Is there a good dual purpose cow; if so, in what
breed @

Mr. Smith.— Do any of you know a cow which can be fed a
ration which will make a good flow of milk and at the same time
a good beef cow?

A Farmer.— She will be a “ freak” if you do.

Mr. Smith.— The dairy cow must be a special purpose cow, one
bred for the preduction of milk. It is impossible to have such a

Gi} Bureau or Farmers’ INStTirures.

cow as a good dual purpose one. ‘The breeds are either beef or
milk. The Short-Horn, Herefords and Angus are of the beef
type; the Jersey, Guernsey, Holstein and Ayrshire are dairy
breeds. It is the same with horses; one cannot make a trotter out
of a Clydesdale.

Question.— When should a cow come in to milk to give the most
milk during the year?

Mr. Witter.— In September or October, but she must be fed
and cared for in the right way. She must have a warm stable,
balanced ration and succulent foods; then we can get 25 per cent.
more milk, if the cow comes in to milk in the fall.

Question.— Would a cow giving 5 per cent. milk need different
feeding from a cow giving 3 per cent. milk?

Dr. Smead.— No; you cannot feed butter fat into the milk
when you get her up to her normal production.

ALFALFA.*

Question.— Can alfalfa be successfully grown in this part of
New York (St. Lawrence county)?

A Farmer.— It has died out here, the first year, so far.

Mr. Chapman.— In Onondaga county a good deal of alfalfa is
grown, having taken the place of clover. It withstands the
drouths. I sowed some last year. It looked very well when it
went into the winter. Do not know how it will come out in the
spring. Think we all ought to experiment with it. If it suc-
ceeds it will be found a very valuable forage crop. It is a deep
rooter and ought not to be sown on wet land. Cut it when it first
begins to show blossom, else it will become hard and woody. At
Geneva, nearly four tons of cured alfalfa were cut from an acre,
or about 17,000 pounds of green fodder. We allowed our calves
to run on ours a little while last fall, When once it is well estab-
lished it will last many years.

Mr. Goodrich said he knew of a piece that has given annual
crops nine years and is in good condition now.

Question.— What about alfalfa? Is it all right for this climate
and soil (Steuben county)?

Mr. Dawley.— Alfalfa is all right, but whether it can be grown
here isa question. If you have never grown any, try a small piece
of it. If it succeeds, sow more, make the ground rich and have it

* Read special article on this subject elsewhere in this volume.

Tue Question Box. (3

as fine as for an onion bed; then sow 30 pounds of seed on an acre,
about the time you sow oats. Do not sow any other crop with it.
We tried the soy beans and cow peas, but they did not succeed.
Last year we made four cuttings of the alfalfa.

Question.— Do you put it into a silo?

Mr. Dawley.— No, sir; I believe that the one crop for the silo
is corn.

Question.— Will alfalfa grow in this locality (Oswego county)?
If so, what kind of soil is needed?

Mr. Smith.— I don’t know what your soils are. Alfalfa can-
not be grown on too dry a soil, nor on one where water “ backs
up” and stands during the winter and spring. We grow alfalfa
at the Geneva Station on a heavy clay soil, but it is well under-
drained. Alfalfa requires a deep rich soil, with sufficient moist-
ure, as it must have that as well as room for the roots to go down
and spread out. But alfalfa, to be just right, must be cut before
any of the seed develops, else the stalk becomes hard and woody
and the leaves drop off. We sow about 380 pounds of seed per
acre, without any other crop, and top dress the crop every two
years.

A Farmer.— I sowed some alfalfa seed after peas and oats. It
came up well and grew nicely till about July, when it turned yel-
low in color and died. Two or three farmers said their alfalfa
had failed.

Mr. Smith.— If there is an acid condition of the soil, alfalfa
will not grow. Test the soil with blue litmus paper. Every far-
mer ought to do it. It is an easy thing to do. Insert a small
piece of it in the soil and leave it an hour. If the color has
changed to a dull red, the soil is acid. A dressing with a ton of
good carbonated lime (air slaked) per acre will sweeten the soil.
Prof. Wheeler of Rhode Island, recommends an application of
9,500 pounds of such lime, once in four years, per acre. Red
clover will not grow in acid soils.

Question.— Which variety of alfalfa is considered best?

Mr. Smith.—“ Turkestan ” is said to be the best, but it is diffi-
cult to obtain the seed, as it is not grown to any extent in this
country, but is imported. As a rule, much of the imported seed
is badly adulterated with a small, white, wild, foreign clover.
“Turkestan ” is said to be grown in some parts of the West, and
the seed is said to be kept on sale by some dealers. If you buy it,
patronize only first-class houses and insist on guarantee of purity.

74 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirvures.

Question What is good alfalfa hay worth per ton?

Mr. Smith.— It is fully as valuable as red clover and is rapidly
becoming the favorite hay for many feeders.

Question.— What soil is best adapted for growing alfalfa?

Dr. Smead.— The soil should be dry; that is, there should not
be soil water present, but there should be moisture, as the plant
needs it, while the soil should be in such condition as will give the
plant an opportunity to root well. It should be well fitted and
the seed sown alone. Do not sow it with any grain crops. Try
a little of it and watch results; if favorable, sow more. But do
not become discouraged if it does not make a large growth the
first year, as the young plants are delicate and look feeble. If it
grows and weeds appear, go over the field with a mowing machine
and clip the whole mass a few inches above the ground, and leave
it fora mulch. The next year, if the alfalfa survives the winter,
two or more cuttings may be made.

Question.— Is it as good as clover for hay?

Dr. Smead.— It is richer in protein than red clover, and a
much larger tonnage can be raised ; but to get the best value it must
be cut just as the first blossoms appear, else it will become hard
and woody and the leaves will all fall.

Question.— Where can we get alfalfa seed that will prove re-
liable, and what does it cost?

Mr. Dawley.— It has cost not far from $6 per bushel. Buy
the seed from reliable dealers, those who will guarantee it to be
clean and pure. Much of the seed we get is imported and is
badly adulterated with a small variety of foreign clover which is
worthless.

A Farmer.— Would it not be better to sow oats with alfalfa
seed?

Mr. Smith.— No, sir. The alfalfa needs all the fertility and
moisture in the soil. I should not handicap it with any other crop.
Give it the entire use of the ground the first year.

Question.— How long will alfalfa last when there is a good
catch 4

Mr. Dawley.— That is a long question. I know of one piece of
alafalfa that has been annually mowed for 21 years. Last season
it was mowed three times. Another man near me owns three vil-
lage lots, less than a half acre, on which he annually grows enough
alfalfa to feed a milch cow every day in the year. There are many
acres of it grown in Onondaga county. Some of the fields are
underlaid with limestone. I know a field on which there is not

Tue Question Box. 75

two feet of soil over the rock, but the alfalfa grows all the same.
Men who were quarrying stone near-by found alfalfa roots 18 feet
long in the crevices of the rocks. Our alfalfa meadows produced
four crops, last year, while our red clover was ruined by drouth.
We did not even cut it. We never used any lime in our town as a
dressing until we began using it for sweetening the soil before
sowing alfalfa. It not only sweetens an acid soil, but helps to re-
lease locked-up fertility. If you have not experimented with
alfalfa, begin with a small piece of it. Fit the ground as
well as for onions. Sow at the rate of 25 to 30 pounds of seed
per acre, and then await results. If it succeeds, sow more.

Question.— Would it be advisable to seed with alfalfa on low,
sandy land, which has a clay subsoil ?

Mr. Smith.— It would depend on the condition of the soil. If
there is free water — subsoil water — present, alfalfa will not
grow. Its best home is on land which has an underlying strata of
lime rock. In some parts of Onondaga and Madison counties, it is
the best hay crop. We prepare our soil by making it very fine and
sow the seed — 30 pounds to the acre, using a wheelbarrow seeder
— which broadcasts the seed. No other crop is sown with it; all
the ground being given up to the alfalfa. About May 15 to 20,
with us, is the proper season to sow the seed. The first season we
run the mower over the field and cut down the whole mass — weeds
and all, when it is about a foot high. The last cutting we save
for hay.

Mr. Smith.— At what stage do you cut it?

Answer.— Just as it begins to blossom.

Question.— How do you cure it?

Answer.— We cut it after the dew is off; allow it to wilt a little,
then put up in large cocks over which we spread canvas covers.
The cocks are allowed to remain three or four days, when they are
opened up, allowed to dry out a little, and are then put into the
barn.

Question.— How long will it remain in the soil?

Mr. Smith.— We have one field of it on the Geneva Station farm
that is 13 years old, in good condition now.

Question.— Will alfalfa “catch” and make a good growth if
sown with oats in the spring on a thin sandy land ?

Mr. Smith.— No, nor on a good soil, if sown with oats. It is a
tender, feeble-growing plant at first and must have the best con-
ditions to give it a start. Make the ground rich; do not sow
any other seed with it. Give it the whole use of the ground, and

"6 Bereav or Farmers’ Iystirvres.

make every condition as good as possible. If it survives the first
winter, it will become well established and so remain a permanent
crop for years.

Question.— Shall we sow it in the fall ?

Mr. Smith No; sow it about the time of corn planting. I
should not sow it later than the first of July. The plants must
have time to make sufficient root growth the first year, else they
will kill out in winter.

Question.— Is it not difficult to plow an alfalfa field

Mr. Ward.— Yes; the roots are large and extend deeply into
the soil. But, why plow it up? Once you have it well established,
there is no other protein crop so good, nor one that will remain so
long in the soil, at the same time producing so much each year.

Mr. Woodward.— If you are fortunate enough to get a field
well established, keep it as long as you can. Top dress it every
year and leave it alone. I saw a field of it in Canada that was
20 years old, and was, the owner said, as productive as ever.

Question What are the advantages of raising alfalfa ?

Mr. Smith.— First, you get a larger growing material crop than
from any other source except corn. We have taken off more than
six tons of dry matter from an acre. It must have a dry soil; that
is there must be no free soil water in it, and the ground must be
rich. Six tons of dry hay cannot be produced on poor land.

Mr. Woodward.— Another advantage it has over other clovers
is its permanency. Once it is well established it will last for years.
I know one field that has been mowed more than 20 years, and it
seems to be as good as ever, but it has been well fed every year
with a good top dressing.

Question.— Is alfalfa profitable for producing milk, and when
is the proper time to sow the seed ?

Mr. Witter.— It is, probably, the best hay we grow. Alfalfa
has a ratio about like wheat bran. With corn it is a valuable food
for milk production. A limestone subsoil is best for it.

Question.— How long will alfalfa last before reseeding? Is
it not difficult to plow up ?

Mr. Smith.— We have a field of it at the Geneva Station that is
13 years old, which yields three to four crops per year, depending
on the season. We had a small field that was not thick enough,
and so plowed it last year. Three horses did the work easily. Tf,
however, you get a good catch, keep it. Do not plow it up. There
is no other protein crop grown to-day that will give you as great
value as this crop.

Tue Question Box. vi

Question.— Would it be good to grow alfalfa for hay in Dela-
ware county @

Prof. F. H. Hall.— Yes; it certainly would be good, if it ean
be grown there. This is a question you can decide only by testing
it, but I believe it is worthy of a trial. There is a wide range of
choice in soils, on which it can be successfully grown. ‘The es-
sential thing is to get a good seed bed, and this you can afford to
do, for unlike most other fodder crops, instead of being sown for
a short period of one, two, or three years at the most, it is sown
for ten years, or more, if it does succeed. Prepare the soil care-
fully, then sow from 18 to 30 pounds of seed to the acre. The
stronger the soil on which it is sown, the more seed is required.

Question.— How do you feed alfalfa, green or dry ?

Mr. Smith.— Both ways. We begin cutting it when it is a foot
high to feed green, and continue until the first blossoms appear;
then we cut the remainder and cure it for hay; when it reaches

‘the same height again, we repeat the process, making in some sea-
sons, four cuttings, depending on the season.

Question.— Can the land be plowed after being seeded two or
three years to alfalfa?

Mr. Smith.— Yes; but when one gets a good catch of alfalfa
he will not want to plow it up. We have plowed it, however, using
three horses. The roots were very long and as large as my finger
in diameter.

POTATOES.

Question.— We have cut down a number of our apple trees
owing to the work of the canker worm. A part of the land
was planted in corn. The crop was good. Another part was
planted in potatoes, but the crop was small and scabby. What
was the cause?

Mr. Van Alstyne.— It may be that there is too much nitrogen
present. The large crop of corn would indicate it, also the small
tubers; but it would not cause scab. Either there was scab pres-
ent in the soil or in the seed potatoes you planted.

Question.— Would you plow early or late for potatoes ?

Mr. Fenner.— For early potatoes, early; for late ones, not
until about the time to plant them. We often plant late varieties
as late as July 10th. From June 10th to July 10th is our time
for planting those varieties. We plow the land just before the
time to plant, roll it down hard, then make it very fine — as fine
almost as for onions. The cultivation is done with the weeder

/

78 Bureav or Farmers’ Instirvutes.

and smoothing harrow — harrow first, followed by the cultivator at
a shallow depth.

Question.— Please mention a variety of early potatoes which
yields well?

Mr. Chamberlain.— We prefer Bovee.

Mr. Woodward said his preference was Bovee, while one or
two farmers named Early Sunrise and some others, as best. Mr.
Woodward said there was not more than three or four days differ-
ence in the time of ripening of Bovee and Sunrise, but the yield
of Bovee was much the greater, he having grown as many as 300
bushels per acre. The quality, too, is fully equal to, if not bet-
ter, than is that of Early Sunrise.

Question.— Is flat culture a practical way of growing potatoes?

Mr. Woodward.— What do you mean by “ flat culture?” I
plant my potatoes at least four inches deep. The ground is fur-
rowed, the seed dropped and a furrow turned over them; then I
put on a harrow and level the ground. A few days later I go~
over them with a harrow, crosswise of the rows. Later the
weeder is put on, and still later I use the cultivator at a shallow
depth. It will “hill” the potatoes all that they require.

Question.— Can there not be too much ammonia in the soil for
a good crop of potatoes?

Mr. Smith.— Sometimes we find a great growth of vine, but
no potatoes in the hills. This is caused by an excess of nitrogen
and a lack of potash in the soil. There is a law that always goy-
erns in the growth of plants. The element of plant food most
Jacking will control not only production, but quality as well.

Mr. Rice.— The same law governs in fruits; an excess of nitro-
gen produces an overgrowth of wood, which is soft and spongy.
A lack of potash causes a deficiency in leaf, or color and sugar in
fruit, while a lack of phosphoric acid will cause imperfect seed.
Either one of these defects influences the crop or plant.

Question.— Is a rotation of first wheat, then clover, then pota-
toes a good one to follow?

Mr. Goodrich.—I think it is. It is about as I rotate crops.
We give first, clover, on which we spread over manure as fast as
made; potatoes and corn follow.

Question.— Should wheat, then clover, then potato crops be
continued in rotation for years?

Mr. Goodrich.— I think it could be done, provided the clover
was all returned to the soil; but I should be afraid to put in pota-
toes every third year. I should be afraid of getting scabby pota-

Tue Question Box, 79

toes. You may treat the seed just as much as you please, but the
scab will get into the soil where potato-growing is continued. — Sa
I should not plant potatoes quite so often on the same land.

Mr. Smith.— Mr. T. B. Terry of Ohio, has followed a three-
year rotation, clover, potatoes and wheat, on the same land for
years. He has no scabby potatoes.

Question.— Would salt be of any value to prevent scab in pota-
toes and furnish moisture in a dry season ?

Prof. Cavanaugh.—TI do not believe that salt will prevent the
appearance of potato scab.

Question.— When ground is in good condition to grow clover,
will it grow smooth potatoes ?

Prof. Cavanaugh.— I do not believe there is any connection be-
tween the growing of smooth potatoes and clover. Potato scab is
caused by a germ in the soil. If it is there, seabby potatoes will be
the result, no matter whether clover or some other crop preceded it.
Lime corrects an acid condition of the soil, but an alkaline condi-
tion is better for the potato. I should not plant potatoes on land
on which lime had been applied, until at least two years had
passed. Treating the seed potatoes in a solution of corrosive sub-
limate, two ounces in a barrel of water, a half hour, will destroy
the scab germ. Have the water hot or warm.

Question.— Are small potatoes as good for seed as medium-sized,
cut two eyes to a piece ?

Mr. Chapman.— I prefer a medium-sized potato to a large one,
if it is mature.

Question.— Which system will produce most potatoes to the
acre — three feet apart each way, or three feet one way and fifteen
inches the other?

Mr. Smith.— I den’t know; it would depend on the season and
other conditions. I don’t believe that any iron-clad rule can be
laid down for all soils, all seasons and all growers.

Question.— What is the best fertilizer for potatoes ?

Mr. Smith.— The best fertilizer for potatoes is a good clover
sod, well fitted.

A Farmer.— We don’t want to plow up a good clover sod and
plant potatoes on it.

Mr. Smith.— Why not? Clover will live not longer than two
years at most. If, after a crop has been taken off, you plow under
the aftermath, you will get a large quantity of humus as well as a
good per cent. of nitrogen, which was stored in both the roots and
tops. The potato needs moisture, to get which there must be

80 BurEeav oF Farmers’ Institutes.

humus — vegetable matter — in the soil. Asa rule, there is pot-
ash enough in the soil, and, if there is a good clover sod, nitrogen
enough to grow a potato crop. If you want to add a commercial
fertilizer, apply South Carolina rock.

Question.— What is the cause of potato scab? Js it a potato
disease or a soil condition? What is the cure?

Mr. Rice.— It is a parasitic disease. It prefers an alkaline soil,
one that has lime init. If the soil is acid, the disease will quickly
die out. I know of no absolute way by which the scab can be
entirely eradicated in a soil where it has become really established.
Sulphur is used in the potato hills. We also soak the seed in a
solution of two ounces of corrosive sublimate dissolved in two
gallons of water, one hour; take them out, allow them to dry, then
cut for seed. ‘This will eradicate all the scab, if there is any on
the potatoes. I have never used the formaline treatment, al-
though it is recommended by the experiment stations. It is prefer-
able, however, to change the field for potatoes every year, to
avoid scab getting into the soil, which soaking the potato does not
eradicate.

Question.— What is your opinion of potatoes for seed that were
blighted the previous year ?

Mr. Fenrer.— I should not care to plant potatoes that had been
blighted, but if I did, I should select the best specimens — those
most nearly typical of the variety.

Question.— What is the best commercial fertilizer for potatoes,
and which is the best way to apply it?

Mr. Smith.»—I don’t know. It will all depend on the soil and
cultivation. We can only give you some underlying principles
to be governed by. One must watch the plant. Too much nitro-
gen will produce an overgrowth of stalk or straw. Potash will
add strength to stalk and vine and color to fruit and foliage, while
phosphoric acid perfects seed. As a rule, there is potash and
nitrogen enough in the soil. What is most lacking is phosphoric
acid. ‘That must be present in sufficient quantity and be available
for the use of the plant. By available.is meant solubility in soil
water. Unless there is present soil water, plant food is not avail-
able. Then, too, unless the South Carolina rock has been treated
with sulphuric acid, it will not be available. I do not know how
much acid is needed to reduce the crude rock, but it is a consider-
able quantity. On Long Island a formula is used consisting of
4 per cent. of nitrogen, 8 of potash and 10 of phosphoric acid.
In commercial fertilizers, 1,000 pounds per acre, sometimes

Tue Question Box. 81

2,000 pounds per acre were used. This is reinforced with barn
manure. It did not pay to use of such a fertilizer more than
1,000 pounds per acre on potatoes.

Question.— How should potatoes be planted, in drills or squares
to do the land the most good by cultivation?

A Farmer.— If I were going to give a general answer I should
say, plant them in drills, providing I wanted the largest crop.
But the check-row system will enable one to give better cultiva-
tion, which may be needed on weedy land.

Question.— Shall we plant shallow and hill up, or deeply and
give level cultivation?

Several farmers said they preferred deep planting, followed
by practically level cultivation, the cultivator doing all the hilling
necessary.

Question.— Will it be most profitable for farmers to continue
growing potatoes, or do mixed farming ?

Mr. Ward.— On Long Island, potato growing has been exten-
sively carried on a number of years. Thousands of dollars are
annually expended for commercial fertilizers, the amount having
been increased each year, until the farmers were putting on a ton
to the acre. Experiments, however, showed that one-half as
many fertilizers, if applied with barn manure, produced better
results. This was because the manure added humus to the soil,
which held moisture that made the plant food in the manure and
fertilizer available.

Question.— I have a piece of land that has been fertilized with
horse manure a number of years and is very rich. I plant pota-
toes on it every year. The tops grow very rank, but the tubers
are very small. What shall I do to increase the size and number
of tubers?

Mr. Smith.— There is too much nitrogen in the soil. Apply
available potash and phosphoric acid. Muriate of potash and dis-
solved South Carolina rock are best. Potatoes require these min-
eral elements, particularly the potash. Wood ashes will be found
a good fertilizer for potatoes on such soil, provided they do not
cost too much.

Question.— How many potatoes, and how should they be cut
to plant an acre?

Mr. Woodward.— It would depend on the size of the potato,
the richness of the soil and the variety of the potato. Rural New
Yorker will produce best when eut to one eye and planted in drills,

6

82 Bureau oF Farmers’ Iysritures.

14 inches apart in the row. It will require from 12 to 14 bushels
of whole seed for an acre of that variety.

Question.— What are Mr. Litchard’s rules for growing potatoes ?

Answer.— Potatoes are the best crop I grow. ‘They pay
more profit than any other crop with me, while they have
steadily increased in price during the last 30 years; and yet I had
rather take off three crops of corn from my soil than one of pota-
tees. But, to grow profitable crops of potatoes, three things are
essential — seed, soil and sense. We use a clover sod, well fer-
tilized, and good seed; then give proper cultivation, which is
pretty nearly level. The cultivation should be thorough, and
most of it should be done before the seed is put in. Do not allow
the seed potato to sprout before planting. I cut mine and plant
one piece in a hill, with one or more eyes on it. As a rule, too
much seed is planted. It is not good policy to plant small pota-
toes. Plant normal-sized, cut properly, then keep the ground
thoroughly stirred on the surface and kill off the bugs.

Question.— Is rye a good green crop to plow under for potatoes
to follow? Have potato-growers been successful in using rye for
that purpose ?

A Farmer.—I plowed it under May 15th. The soil was a sandy
gravel. The rye was sown the September before. I plowed it
under six inches, planted potatoes and had a big crop.

Other farmers present said they had been successful in plowing
under rye and following with potatoes.

Mr. Rice.— Rye will furnish a good deal of humus.

Mr. Goodri¢h.— I should be afraid that the rye would take too
much moisture from the potatoes, especially in a dry season.

A Farmer.— Three-fourths of the farmers present are plowing
under rye and following with potatoes. They cannot succeed with
clover, and so grow rye, and are succeeding well.

Mr. Abbey.— I think that you make a mistake in allowing the
rye to grow so high — some of you say four feet. I should not
have it higher than 15 inches.

Mr. Smith.— Rye four feet high is too woody. If plowed
under when it is a foot or 15 inches high, more humus will be
furnished, because it will rot more quickly. Then, too, it will not
draw so heavily from the moisture supply in the soil, as will rye
allowed to grow to such a height. It requires from 300 to 400
pounds of water to perfect a pound of dried weed, so it is seen
that, to grow rye, or any other crop, the soil must have moisture,
if the plant is to be perfect and matured.

Tue Question Box. 83

Question.— Is any benefit derived from hilling potatoes?

Mr. Chapman favored slightly hilling them, or rather planting
them deep enough so that the tuber will be under the surface.
The cultivator will hill them enough. The shovel plow and hoe
cut off the roots and thus lessen the crop.

Question.— What are the benefits in the use of a weeder in pota-
toes and for covering grass seed ?

Mr. Smith.— The thorough preparation of the soil is of great
value; but it won’t make good land out of poor land. ‘The first
need is good physical condition; this is brought about by incor-
porating humus into the soil. This done, use the cultivator and
weeder to fine the soil and bring up the moisture and to prevent it
from escaping by evaporation. It will then be held by the vege-
table matter, and thus make plant food available. Prof. Roberts
grew crop after crop of potatoes on the same field without any
fertilizer, in this way, the soil having first been thoroughly sup-
plied with humus.

SHEEP.

Question.— I have 20 lambs; expect about as many more.
How shall I get them through to grass on timothy hay?

Mr. Woodward.— The cheapest way will be to kill them and
throw them out. That man has a hard job. If I were in his
place, however, I should feed them some potatoes and mix with
them some wheat bran and oil meal; with those he may be able
to carry them through on timothy hay till time to turn out to
pasture. There is no hay so poor for lamb feeding as is timothy.
I should much rather have Canada thistles, cut green and well
cured. Timothy, as usually cut and cured, is no better than so
much brush.

Question.— Our sheep are troubled with colic, blindness and
death; what are the causes and remedies?

Mr. Woodward.— Probably they are fed timothy hay or other
like dry foods. Sheep will not thrive or live long when so fed.
They should have either silage or roots, or both, with the dry
foods. But timothy hay should not be fed at all. Feed good,
early cut clover instead. With that, ensilage, wheat bran, some
oil meal or ground oats, if the sheep are well housed or other-
wise cared for, they will not have colic.

Question.— How much room does Mr. Woodward allow his
sheep in the barn?

Answer.— We put 20 ewes in a pen 18 feet square. It gives
them room enough.

84 Boreavu or Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.— Don’t you allow your sheep to go out for exercise?

Answer.— No. Who ever saw an old sheep take exercise?

Several Voices.—I have. Your sheep are not brought up as
ours are.

Mr. Woodward.— If sheep are fed unbalanced rations, such
as dry, fattening foods, they must go out and get exercise. They
must have something to burn up the undigested food in them.
But, when the sheep are kept in a barn and are fed warm silage,
or turnips and clover hay with wheat bran, they will require no
exercise. 7

Question.— How about beans for sheep?

Mr. Woodward.— Beans and bean fodder are all right in a
limited quantity for store sheep. Feed a few potatoes in con-
nection with the other foods. If, however, you feed too many
beans the sheep will die. I have killed a number that way.
They all died from burst bladders. I don’t know how it occurs;
have asked a number of medical experts, but they all replied that
they did not know. There is something in the bean, when fed
too largely to sheep, that influences their kidneys and bladders
to such an extent as to cause death. Another point: If sheep
are to be put in a barn they must have all the absolutely pure
water they will drink. They will not drink dirty or impure
water, nor eat food that you have placed your foot on. I have
tried it and seen the sheep eat all around that part of it, leaving
it untouched.

Question.— Which will pay best, wool or mutton ?

Mr. Woodward.— Forty years ago the farmers kept sheep for
their wool alone. It was profitable then, but is not now; but,
some sheep may be profitably kept on most farms if meat is made
the predominating factor. Winter lambs are most profitable to
grow, but to be successful the sheep should be properly kept and
fed. Make the sheep barns dry, warm, light and well ventilated;
put the sheep into them early, before cold weather sets in, and
feed them corn silage, clover hay, wheat bran, some linseed meal
and turnips. Sheep are weed destroyers and will eat off almost
every weed as fast as it springs up; so they are valuable on a
bushy, weedy farm. ‘They are also valuable to put in an orchard.
Put in twice as many as the land will support; then feed enough
bran to support them. Three cents’ worth of bran will keep a
sheep pastured in an orchard one week. Sheep will eat every
wormy apple that falls before the worm has time to crawl out of
the hole. Give me a flock of sheep to put in an orchard a mile

Tue Question Box. 85

away from any other, and in two years I will guarantee there will
not be a codling moth or wormy apple in it.

Question.— What breeds of sheep do you prefer ?

Mr. Woodward.— The old American Merino; but that is no evi-
dence that they are best for you.

Question.— W hat is the value of ensilage, compared with clover, .
for feeding sheep?

Mr. Smith.—A man will want clover hay to go with the en-
silage. He wants them both. Clover furnishes the protein, en-
silage the sugar and starch, both of which the sheep require.

Question.— What causes lambs to become stiff at the age of
four to six weeks? What is the remedy?

Dr. Smead.— It is a rheumatic trouble. As a rule, the slim
lamb does not have the disease. We find it is one whose mother
is a deep milker, and sq the lamb takes too much of it. The ewe
that does not furnish milk enough, forces her lamb to look else-
where for food. Succulent foods are required. When I find
such a diseased lamb, I assist it all I can by helping it to walk,
and by rubbing it. The remedy is a half-teaspoonful of spirits
of nitre.

Mr. Woodward.— If the breeding ewes have all the succulent
_ foods they want, there will be no trouble with the lambs. We
have never had a sick one from this disease.

Question.— What is a good ration for breeding ewes?

Dr. Smead.— With mixed clover and timothy hay for rough
feed, the grain should be rich in protein. Wheat bran with oats
and peag makes a good ration, giving about one-fourth of a pound
to a hundred pounds of sheep. When timothy hay and corr
fodder is the roughage, the grain ration should be doubled.

Question.— What am I to do to kill the ticks on my sheep in
winter?

A Farmer.— Sheep dips will kill the ticks; so will washing the
sheep. If I did not want to shear my sheep early, I should use
the dips. Jf I wanted to shear them early, I should wash them.

Dr. Smead.— It is a shame for any man to have ticks on his
sheep. I “ got out of the woods” long ago, and know that ticks
could have become extinct long ago had the farmers been thor-
cugh in their work. Get some one of the various dips on the
market. They are all good; but I should advise selecting some
one of the carbolic dips. When dipping the sheep, allow its
head to go under.

86 Bureau or Farmers’ Lystitvures.

Question.— But what shall we do in winter, when there are not
only ticks but some of those little red-headed lice on the sheep,
which terribly annoy the ewe about to drop her lamb in a few
weeks ?

Dr. Smead.— I have a way of doing it. Turn the sheep on its
back, and, from an old coffee pot, pour a little stream of carbolic
dip all along the belly, from the nose to the hind legs. Pour on
about a quart. It will go right down to the skin and completely
around the body, leaving the wool almost wholly dry. The lice
do not eat, but suck, and the carboliec dip stops the breathing holes
in their bodies, and thus kills them, and also kills the ticks which
have gone close to the body for warmth.

Question.— Will Dr. Smead tell us where the profit is in sheep?

Dr. Smead.— There is as much profit in sheep when properly
handled and cared for in western New York as in the dairy;
but a man must have a love for the sheep’ and know how to feed
and care for them, and must select the best breeds, just as he
should select the best dairy cows. The dairy cow has a dairy
form; so has the dairy sheep. Select it. As many as eight fine
lambs have been reared from five ewes, in flocks in our town
(Logan), and a revenue of $5.50 for lambs and $1.20 for wool per
sheep derived. Such sheep will be in proportion of about five for
one cow. The cost of keeping the five sheep and one cow will be
just about the same, and there are many farmers more capable of
caring for the sheep than for the cow.

Question.— Would you advise the feeding of bean fodder and
silage at the same time to pregnant ewes and cows?

Dr. Smead.— I do not know that I can answer the question as
fully for the cow as the sheep. But, in my own judgment, I
should not feed more than four pounds of the bean pods to a
ewe weighing 150 pounds. I should feed ensilage and the pods
morning and night and mixed hay at noon. Sheep require a
variety of foods.

Question.— Would you advise feeding the silage to ewes which
are suckling lambs?

Dr. Smead.— Yes; if not too much is fed; but there should
be some clover hay fed as well as some of the protein foods, and
the process should begin before the lambs are dropped.

Question.— Are winter lambs profitable ?

Mr. Woodward.— Yes; if conditions are favorable. We find
it very profitable. This winter they have averaged $10 a head
at 10 weeks old. Study the business carefully before you at-

Tue Question Box. 87

tempt it and start in a small way. The best feed is linseed meal,
clover hay, oats and wheat bran. If corn is fed it should be
cracked.

Question.— Is it safe to allow sheep to eat all the rape they
will, if they are turned into a field of it?

Mr. Woodward.— No. If too much is eaten, bloat will ensue.
Do not turn the sheep into the rape field till after the dew, or
any rain that may have fallen, has dried out. When the rape
is dry, turn them on; allow them to feed awhile, then turn them
into pasture. It is well to have two fields; when one is fed down
closely, turn the sheep into the other. It grows up again very
soon, and will continue to grow till the ground freezes. The
plant belongs to the cabbage family, and is one of the most valu-
able sheep and pig foods grown. Dwarf Essex is the best variety.
There is another, known as the German rape, which is the one
that produces canary bird seed. Do not make the mistake of
sowing that. Sow the Dwarf Essex in drills 18 to 20 inches
apart, or it may be sown broadcast. But in drills the ground
may be cultivated awhile. If sown in drills, two pounds of seed
is enough for an acre; if broadcast, four pounds will be required.
For early feeding, sow about the time of corn planting. For
late feeding, sow in July; and it is a very good plan to sow the
seed in the corn at the last cultivation of the crop, say, in July.

Question.— Is the Horned-Dorset sheep proof <szainst the at-
tacks of dogs ?

Mr. Woodward.— No; nor is any other breed that I know.
The only advantage the Horned-Dorset has over any of the Down ©
breeds is for winter lamb raising. For this purpose it is superior
to all others.

Question.— Will Mr. Woodward tell how many sheep can be
housed in a shed 16 by 60 feet? How would he arrange it?

Answer.— Sheep should have a cubic foot of air space to one
pound of live sheep. We put 20 ewes in a pen 16 feet square and
9 feet high. But the pen must be kept dry, light and properly
ventilated. You may easily estimate from these figures. I am
speaking now of breeding ewes. Sheep that are being fattened may
be somewhat more closely confined. But I should not put sheep
into a shed unless it were boarded up and made warm, dry, light
and comfortable. Of all the farm animals, sheep are least fitted
by nature to withstand cold, storm and abuse. They must have
good quarters, good and proper foods, and good care. Our sheep
are all in the barns, and have been since November, and were shorn

88 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

several weeks since. They will not go out until the weather is
warm.

Question.— Does it pay to wash sheep? Is it good for the sheep ?

Mr. Rogers.— I don’t know whether it is good for them or not,
but we wash them. Sometimes we have sj¢k sheep after washing
them. I know of no physical good to them, but we get more for
the wool, nearly a third more, although we do not wash out a third
in weight.

Mr. Van Dreser.— During the last 20 years we have not washed
a sheep. Ours are Scotch Cheviots, and we get only three cents a
pound less for unwashed than for washed wool. I do not believe
that washing does them any good, and I know that it does not bene-
fit the man who does it.

Question.— What does Mr. Woodward feed 15 sheep on an
acre beside the three cents worth of bran ?

Mr. Woodward.—J ust what they can pick off the ground. Three
eents worth a week will keep them, but we buy our bran in the
summer for about $10 per ton. The sheep also eat all the weeds
and windfall apples and will not gnaw the trees or limbs.

Question.— Where do you buy bran at the prices you name ?

Answer.— In Buffalo or in Lockport. There is about $2 differ-
ence between the price of winter wheat and spring wheat bran, but
the spring wheat is just as good as winter wheat for sheep feeding.

Question.— Will silage, if fed to young lambs, injure them?

Mr. Witter.— No, sir; we had 110 lambs last year. Did not
lose more than 10. They had some silage every day. I have
grown lambs to 50 pounds at the age of 60 days, that were per-
fectly healthy. They got some silage every day, but we did not
feed it but once a day and then in limited quantities. So fed, it is
an excellent food for lambs. Our lambs begin to come about April
1st. We do not grow any hot-house lambs.

Mr. Smith.— Mr. Woodward of Lockport has 600 winter lambs.
They are fed some ensilage with clover hay, wheat bran and oil
meal, daily.

Question.— What breed of sheep is the most profitable for the
farmer of to-day ?

Mr. Smith.— There are a number of sheep breeders here; give
us your opinions. No response. <A vote, however, showed that the
Shropshire was the favorite.

Mr. Woodward.— It would all depend on what a man wanted
to do with the sheep. If he is after winter lambs, the Dorset is
the best; if for wool, some of the Downs are best, provided they

THE Question Box. 89

are properly fed and cared for; for winter lambs to sell early, use
the old American Merino for the dam and the Dorset for the sire;
if one wants lambs to fatten and sell at the age of one year, use
the American Merino for the dam and some one of the Downs
for the sire. If you want to keep any of the pure English breeds,
you must arrange to give them much better care than you do any
of the American breeds. A Hampshire sire and American Merino
will doubtless give the best results for fattening lambs.

Question.— What is the value of timothy hay for feeding to
sheep?

Mr. Woodward.— None at all. I will not allow a man to sow
a pint of timothy seed on my farm. I had much rather have
Canada thistles, if cut early and well cured. I have tried it time
and again and failed every time with timothy.

Question.— Would you feed silage to store sheep?

Mr. Woodward.— Yes. We once fed a pen of old ewes all they
would eat; they came out the best ewes we had. The same was
true of our winter lambs, they did as well as when on any other
foods. We feed about four pounds of silage to each 100 pounds
of sheep. I also grow turnips to feed to sheep, because I want as
much succulent food as possible, as well as a variety of such foods.
It will pay to grow turnips, leave them in the ground and plow
them under in the spring.

Question.— Is millet a good hay for sheep?

Mr. Ward— No. And I have fed it every day this winter.
There is no crop that varies so much in quality as does millet; but,
if it is cut before it begins to show signs of seeding, it does very
well, especially for horses. For sheep, however, it is not as good
as is silage, alfalfa, clover, rape, and some other like foods.

Question.— Are beets injurious to sheep ?

Mr. Van Alstyne.— I have kept sheep all my life, feeding them
beets and turnips, and have found that the sheep did much better
when fed on succulent foods, such as turnips and beets. Silage is
also good for sheep, but I think I cannot afford to feed silage to
them when I have roots.

Question.— What is the best grain for fattening sheep?

Dr. Smead.— If I could have an ideal feed, I should have a
field of rape in the fall. Sow it in the corn; also some peas. When
the corn is off, you will have an ideal pasture. Turnips are also
good. Use the Dwarf Essex rape, sowing about two and a half
to three quarts of seed per acre. With those foods, give some
wheat bran for lambs: for fattening sheep, add corn meal. It

90 Bureau or Farmers’ Institvres.

will pay every time to add some wheat bran and oats to the lamb’s
rations. Rape may be sown as late as the Ist of August and cul-
tivated in among the corn rows. It is not.a good cow food, because
it will taint the milk.

Question.— In feeding sheep, why not feed whole buckwheat?

Dr. Smead.— Because the middlings contain nearly three times
as much protein as do whole buckwheat. When the flour is taken
out, all the starch and sugar go, leaving only the protein. In
buckwheat “hulls” there is only about one pound of protein in
100 pounds of the hulls.

Question.— What is the best grain for fattening lambs ?

A. Farmer.— Clear oats and clover hay.

Mr. Smith.— I heard Mr. Woodward say that a small ration of
silage, clover hay, wheat bran and linseed meal, is the best for
lambs. Later in the season some corn is added, especially if the
silage is a little deficient in the grain part. The main object is
to get the most and quickest growth of lamb for the money ex-
pended; but there must be some succulent food, such as silage
or roots, with the grain, else the lamb’s stomach gets out of
order.

Question.— What per cent. of bran would you mix with corn for
fattening lambs that are being fed on straw and bean fodder ?

A Farmer.— I have always used a good scoop shovelful of bran
to a bag of cornmeal.

Question.— Why is it not better to give sheep exercise in winter?

Mr. Woodward.— They get all the exercise they want in the’
pen. No one ever saw a mature sheep stirring about for exercise.
But I saw some up in this locality, skirmishing around the barn-
yards and on the bare meadows, in search of something to eat. It
was hunger, not exercise, that made them do it. Young lambs,
however, take exercise in play, but old sheep do not.

Question.— How can I make a sheep own her lamb?

Dr. Smead.— Sometimes the mother has not sufficient nourish-
ment for the lamb. I should take the ewe away from the other
sheep, put the lamb with her, and feed her so she can make plenty
of milk for it.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Question.— Do you advise farmers to organize into associa-
tions ‘for self-protection against sharpersé

Dr. Smead.— If you have not a grange here, by all means organ-
ize one. There is no organization that I know so beneficial to the

Tue Question Box. 91

farmer. Whenever we go to a town where there is a grange or
some other like organization, we see the ladies coming in, and find
a higher order of intelligence than elsewhere. Every farmer ought
to belong to the Grange. Every other branch of industry has an
organization, then why not the farmers, and I know nothing better
than the Grange.

Mr. Stevens.— The grand old State of New York leads all
others in granges, having more than 62,000 members.

Question.— What will “ kill out ” horseradish 2

Mr, Lilie-—— The only way to kill all obnoxious weeds is by
cultivation. Do not allow the plant to breathe; cut it off every
time you see it above ground.

A Farmer.— Will we have to sit up nights to do it?

Mr. Lillie.— No, if you will work during the daytime.

Question.— How can we best dispose of quack grass ?

Mr. Smith— Mr. Cook of Denmark, kills out quack grass on
his ground by plowing, then following with the cutaway harrow
till the ground is well fined. Then a sown crop is put on. After
that is taken off, winter wheat is sown, which smothers out the
quack. ;

Question.— To what extent would good roads benefit the farmers
of Niagara county ?

Mr. Rice.— That is a question for you farmers to decide.

A Farmer.— It is a question of vital importance to the farmers
here who have to haul so much fruit and cabbage to market, or fo
the railroad, and the farmers should take into consideration these
points. The time saved in this transportation and the greater
amount they can draw, will soon more than pay their share of the
cost. Good roads will also benefit our cities and villages, which,
as a rule, are in favor of having better roads, and willing to pay
their share of the cost.

Mr. Rice.— A few years ago the good-roads question was much
discussed in some parts of New Jersey, but the farmers op-
posed it. Notwithstanding all that, many miles have been built,
and now the farmers are tumbling over one another to have more
of them— they having found that they can haul enough larger
loads and make more trips, to more than warrant the expense. I
am in favor of good roads, and am of opinion that sooner or
later, we are going to have them all over this State. Westchester
county has appropriated money enough to build two lines of roads
each 12 miles long. Yet we have farmers living on parallel
roads a short distance away who are opposing the move. Some

92 Bureau or Farmers’ Institvres.

farmers living on these proposed new roads are also opposing the
move, but the new roads will surely come, and, next year, we
will have more miles of them built.

Question.— What can we do to destroy the cabbage worm ?

A Farmer.— Feed them Paris green.

Mr. Gould.— A little freshly slaked lime will raise a blister on
a cabbage worm’s back and cause him to emigrate very quickly.
The same antidote will kill a potato bug. Put it on in solution.

Question.— What will eradicate wild lettuce ?

Mr. Rice.—I don’t know; I have never seen it, so am not
familiar with it. My advice is that you send for Prof. Lowe. He
has a large number of charts showing many species of weeds, both
in blossom and ripened, so that the seeds, blossoms and stalks may
be seen. No doubt he will come and give you an illustrated lecture,
and may be able to tell you all about this lettuce as well as some
other noxious weeds which you may have.

Question. Can ordinary people distinguish oleomargarine
from butter by eating, or otherwise?

Dr. Smead.— Oleo takes the place of butter in some places,
and is sold as butter, but not in this State, as our laws prevent
the fraud. It will not keep, and it is difficult to distinguish it
from butter by its taste; but, if you will rub a little of it on your
hand, you will readily distinguish it from butter. Then, too, but-
ter digests in the stomach’s temperature, while oleomargarine re-
quires 102 degrees to digest. it.

Question.— What is the value of the plant food in 20 bushels
of beans or 150 bushels of potatoes per acre?

Mr. Smith.— When 20 bushels of beans are taken off an acre
of land, plant food to the value of $8.64 goes with them. If 150
bushels of potatoes are taken off $5.30 worth of fertility goes
with them.

Question.— Do you advise using salt to any extent on any or
all crops of grain, and what do you think of sowing flax with
grain that is handled unbound?

Mr. Rice.—I do not know anything about flax. I saw it grow-
ing in a small way at Cornell, and remember that it requires rich
land, as it is a rampant feeder. I do not believe one can afford to
buy too much salt. It releases plant food and conserves moisture to
some extent, but there is no fertility in it.

Question.— Is fall plowing a good thing?

Mr. Smith.— It is said that naked ground is poor ground. It
is much better to have some crop like rye on it, to plow under

Tue Question Box. 93

in the spring. If, however, you have very heavy land, which
cannot be worked earlier in the spring, it is well to plow it in the
fall. But if the land is gravelly, no man can afford to plow it
in the fall. Put on some crop to turn under in the spring, to add
humus. You may put a ton of the best fertilizer you can get
on an acre, but if the other conditions are not right you will get
no benefit because there will be nothing present in the soil to
make it available.

Question.— What can be done to prevent fall-sown rye winter
killing ?

Mr. Woodward.— If you will put five good loads of manure
on to an acre, after you have plowed it, and harrow it in, then
sow the rye, it will not winter kill. Our clover seed sown in the
spring always makes a good catch. I cannot remember when
we lost a clover crop, but the seed should be sown early. Harrow
the manure in to a depth of at least two inches.

Question. Do red kidney beans impoverish the soil?

Mr. Smith.— I do not know that they take any more fertility
from the soil than do other varieties of beans. But, to get good
crops of beans of any variety, the land must be well fertilized.

Question.— Will it pay to subsoil clay lands? How near does
it come to underdraining?

Mr. Woodward.— Underdraining would be very much the best.
If your ground is heavy and subsoiled only, the water will go into
it, and, when evaporated out, will leave the soil just as hard as be-
fore. The only remedy is the underdrain for such land.

Question.— How can one pair of hands do the work of two
women?

Mr. Woodward.— Get the old gentleman to help her.

Mr. Rice.— It is a lamentable fact to-day that the farmer’s
wife is called upon to do too much; but it seems to be unavoid-
able. I know of no other way, except to build tenant-houses;
then employ young married help; have them live in these houses
and board themselves. We are adopting that plan; have one or
two tenant-houses, but just as soon as we can spare the money
we are going to build more. Much work might be saved if the
kitchen, pantry, range and water supply were properly arranged.
In many farmhouses it is nothing but trot, trot, trot, for the
farmer’s wife from morning to night. Make the kitchen con-
veniences better and some of the daily drudgery will be taken
off the shoulders of the tired, worn-out farm wife.

Question.— Would it be practical to advise a windmill or any

94 Bourrav or Farmers’ Lystirures.

other force power for raising a water supply for bathtub and
other house purposes, when the eaves of the house can be run
into a tank in the garret, to do the same work for $14, and be
practical for every farmer?

Mr. Woodward.— There is no power so cheap for pumping
water as a windmill. I have several, some of them having been
in use a number of years, and have not cost me 15 cents a year
for repairs. I had much rather have the wind turning my wind-
mill and pumping water than to have it blowing over my head
while I work the pump handle. I don’t know about the cost of
the tank in the garret, nor the expense of piping water from the
eaves into it.

Question.— Give your method of disposing of burdocks, es-
pecially those of our neighbors, that grow along the line fences?

Mr. Rice.— I can control the burdocks on my farm by cutting
them when the stalks are hollow and applying a little salt or
kerosene oil. But when it comes to my neighbor’s burdocks I
draw the line.

Question. What would you do to destroy wire worms?

Mr. Smith.— Cultivate. The man who follows a short rota-
tion will not have wire worms. If they are in sod, plow it in
the fall. Timothy sod is their home.

Question.— Can seed corn be so treated as to prevent crows
from pulling it?

Mr. Woodward.— Soak a few quarts of corn and scatter it
along the edge of the field. The crows will feed on it and leave
the planted corn untouched. They never eat a dry kernel, but
wait until it has become moist and swollen.

Mr. Smith.— You will find the crow one of the best friends,
all things considered, to the farm. It will destroy insects and save
more crops than it will destroy.

Question.— Give a good crop for the ordinary farm of mixed
soil with gravelly loam predominating.

A Farmer.— Potatoes after clover or timothy; next, some grain
crop one year, then seed two years, making a five years’ rotation.

Question.— Why do so many of our forest trees die, especially
the maple?

Mr. Witter.— Probably it is caused by the borer, or the forest
worm caterpillar. I know no remedy.

Question.— Where the soil is a clay mixture and gets rather
hard, do you recommend the sowing of oats without plowing the

land 2

Tue Question Box. 96

Mr. Gould.— No, sir. The only thing to do with such a
piece of ground is to put in a plow and turn it upside down; then
fit it well before putting in the seed. ;

Question.— What is the best and cheapest way to renovate a
worn-out or run-down farm ?

Mr. Witter.— No doubt you have farms which have been
kept up by keeping up the supply of humus in the soil. This
vegetable matter must be supplied in order that moisture may be
held. That is the first necessity. The original soil had this
humus. Long-continued cultivation and the neglect to replace
the humus have caused the land to become “run down.” Barn
manure, when all is saved and applied, or the turning under of
green crops, will furnish this humus. The clovers are the best
for that purpose. Rye is also sown for that purpose, but it must
be plowed under before it becomes hard and woody. It takes
about 340 pounds of moisture to perfect one pound of weed, and
nearly 500 pounds of water to perfect one pound of oat straw and
grain, so it is readily seen how important it is to secure and hold
moisture. If rye is allowed to grow too large, it will be readily
seen that it will take moisture, which cannot be restored that
season. I prefer clover for plowing under, for the purpose of
restoring humus.

Question.— Mention the cheapest and best way to get rid of
cedar stumps.

No one present could answer the question fully. Mr. Good-
rich said that he and others had just bought 24,000 acres of land,
covered with stumps, and he wanted to get information. No one
could give it, however.

lesion Ts there any government iuilictin for distribution
to applicants?

Mr. Rice.— Write to the Department of Agriculture at Wash-
ington for their bulletins, which are free. You will get the in-
formation you ask. The Department also issues a volume
known as the “ Agricultural Record,” containing much needed
information; but it costs $1 a year.

- Question.— Should we breed thoroughbred stock only ?

Mr. Woodward.— That will all depend on the man. No serub
man ought to be entrusted with thoroughbred stock. Let the
breeders handle that class. If you want a sire or dam, buy of
the breeders. For myself, I much prefer a cross-bred lamb to
a thoroughbred, and I think, all in all, good cross-bred cows as

96 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

well as sheep are preferable for the farmer on the average farm
and for the average care and food they get.

Question.— Does not cultivation take the place of rain? If
so, why?

Mr. Rice.— No; it cannot do that wholly, but it is supposed
that dry soil will absorb moisture at night, which escapes in the
morning. But when the surface of the ground is made fine a
few inches deep, it acts as a blanket, which prevents the moisture
from escaping from the soil. We find this true when we turn
over a plank, or something of that sort, in summer. When we
do that we always find the ground moist. It was in such places
that we looked for angle worms for fish bait.. We never looked
for them in a hot, dry soil. So that, thorough cultivation, in
part, takes the place of rain. The man who keeps his cultivator
going every day during a drouth, at a slight depth, gets a crop
of corn, while the other man does not. By the other man I
mean the one who does not cultivate, but, on the other hand,
allows his land to bake.

Question.— Does the mulch caused by cultivation produce a
chemical change in the soil, or merely take the place of a cover
to protect it from the sun?

Mr. Rice.— Cultivation does not change the chemical character
of the soil, except that it liberates plant food. The mulch is
most valuable to induce capillary attraction, that is, for pumping
moisture from a depth below the surface, and preventing it from
escapting by evaporation. To illustrate: Rake over a piece of
ground in the garden, and make the surface very fine but shallow.
Do it at sunset, after dark; allow a cat to walk across it. In the
morning every one of her tracks will be moist, showing that, by
the compacting of the surface by the cat’s feet, the moisture had
a chance to come up and get away.

Question.— I have a drilled well, furnishing an abundance of
water. Shall I erect a storage tank and windmill or pump it
from a spring 80 rods away?

Mr. Woodward.— Build a storage tank, put up a windmill and
pump the water directly from the well. I have two windmills,
one in use 15 years. It furnishes water for the barn and house,
and costs but little. I do not see how any farmer who can have
such a device, can get along without a windmill. Its cost, like
some men’s religion, is not more than 15 cents per year.

Question.— How would you prevent the appearance of weevil
in beans?

Tur Question Box. 97

Mr. Smith.— Use bi-sulphide of carbon. Get a 25-cent bottle
of it. Put some on a sponge and place it in the mouth of the
bag, barrel or bin and cover tightly. It throws off a gas that is
heavier than the atmosphere, and so sinks. It will go all through
the package and kill! all insects or other life therein. But it is
highly explosive, so do not go near it with fire or inhale it.

Question.— How shall we know when our soil needs fertility,
and what to apply ?

Mr. Smith.— Interview it; use your eyes; ask the crops; watch
it and study it. If the grain falls down, it shows that there is too
much nitrogen in the soil; if it makes a puny, feeble growth, there
is not enough. If the plant lacks strength and color, potash is
wanted. If the grain does not “fill” or the seed mature, phos-
phoric acid is required.

Question.— Does sorrel indicate a sour soil ?

Dr. Smead.— No; I have a field on which sorrel grows. I tested
it with blue litmus paper, but found no acid. On the other hand,
I found it on land I little thought contained it.

Mr. Smith.— Sorrel does not always indicate an acid state of the
soil, but poverty instead.

Question.— Is the Grange of any financial benefit to the farmer?

Mr. Smith.— It may be in some instances, but no man ought to
join a Grange for the money he can get out of it. He should join
it for the purpose of uplifting himself and family socially, and
bringing him more closely, socially, with his neighbor. Wherever
we come in contact with a live Grange in a town where an insti-
tute is held, we find a good attendance. The ladies and children
are all there, and there is a program of music and other local at-
tractions.

Question.— Is the Babcock machine a fair one to determine the
value of milk for cheese?

Mr. Smith— Yes. There are hundreds of factories in this
State and in Wisconsin where milk has been paid for on the basis
of its butter fat during the past six years. It shows fully just
what the milk is worth, not only for butter, but for cheese. Divi-
dends are declared on its verdict week after week, and all patrons
are satisfied. There is a factory at Belleville, Jefferson county,
which has 70 patrons with nearly 1,300 cows, where the Babcock
has been in force five years; and another at Vernon, where it has
been in force six years. At neither of these factories can the
machine be driven out. There is no longer any question about
the fairness of the test for all concerned. It offers a premium

~

(

98 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

on good milk; the old pooling system, a premium on poor milk.
Where the Babcock is in force, every patron is striving to produce
a higher quality of milk because he is going to be paid for it.
Where it is pooled there is no such effort; all the patrons care is
to be sure their milk has 3 per cent. of butter fat in it, with the
other solids in proportion.

Question.— How may one tell if there 1 is acid in the soil, and
how to correct it?

Mr. Smith.— By the use of what is known as litmus paper.
There is the blue, which determines whether the soil is acid or not;
a slip of it fasieti in the soil a few minutes, if the soil is acid, oil
change to a dull brick red; the red es if the soil is alkaline,
will change from the red to the blue color.

Question.— What shall we do for a sour soil?

Mr. Smith.— An application of lime will correct it.

Question.— Should there be any acid in the soil?

Mr. Smith.— I do not think there should be. Clover will not
grow on such soils, nor will many other crops. The germ that
causes any of the legumes to gather nitrogen from the atmosphere,
store it in nodules on their roots, to be given to the soil, will not
live in an acid soil.

Question.— What make of cream separator do you think the
best?

Mr. Smith.— We can’t recommend any one. If we did, every
other manufacturer would be after us and make our lives unbear-
able. There are a number of them, all which are good and will
skim all the cream out of the milk. But, when one becomes used
to any one pattern, he should not change it for another.

Question.— Is the aquatic separator as good as the other kinds?

Mr. Smith.— No. Nor is it a separator at all, but a device for
raising cream through the dilution of milk with water.

Mr. Gould.— Why should a man buy an $8 double tin can
under the name of separator, when he can buy it under its proper
name, and just as good for $3?

Question.— Which cow tie do you consider the best, the chain
or bow?

A Farmer.— The bow tie.

Mr. Woodward.— That is the Newton tie. But the best place
for a cow in the stable is the Bidwell stall, which is a small box
stall, in which the cow is loose. But it is too expensive. Our
arrangements are simple. There are two poles, reaching from
the floor to the ceiling, and one in the rear. The cow is tied

Tur Question Box. 99

with a chain around the neck to one of these uprights; the next
cow to the upright opposite. ‘This prevents the cows quarreling,
or stealing from one another, while both can drink from the same
basin. The fastener is known as the Ohio patent, and costs about
20 cents each. We think the arrangement the best of any we
have yet seen. The only trouble with the Bidwell stall is, that
it almost completely hides the cow, so that, if you want to show
her she must be taken out.

Question.— What about the swinging stanchion?

Mr. Smith.— It is a very good one; an improvement on the old
rigid stanchion, as it allows the cows more freedom; but it is not
as good as those mentioned.

Question.— Do you get all the cream when using the water
separator? How does it compare with other methods?

Mr. Gould.— It is a fact that it will skim milk from cows long
in lactation more closely than will some other devices, which is
not saying much for it.

Question.— I have a small farm. How can I get the most
money from it?

Mr. Smith.— That depends; if a man were near a city, possibly
he would get most from small fruits or milk, according as he
had a market.

To Mr. Gould.— What is the best device for fastening cows
in the stable?

Answer.— I have about concluded that the best way is to eut
off the cows’ horns, then put five cows in a box stall. A chain
around the neck snapped into a rope, and fastened to a swing
stanchion, is a good fastener. I do not know just which method
I prefer. The chain will prevent the cow from stepping back
and into the gutter.

Mr. Smith described the fixtures used at the Geneva Station
stable, which was a chain around the cow’s neck, snapped into a
ring which slipped on a bar in front of the cows. It is preferred to
the old way of having the ring slip up and down on a perpendicu-
lar rod.

Question.— Would it be proper for the State to send out speak-
ers who are not successful farmers?

A Farmer.— I do not think we would care to listen to them.

Mr. Cook.— That is an old question. I have not heard it in
five years.

Question.— What do you think about fall plowing?

100 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrures.

Mr. Cook.— I think it folly to leave some of our ground un,
plowed till spring. As a rule, however, unless we can have some
cover crop on the ground, especially when we do not have much
snow, it were better to have it unplowed, to prevent the loss of
fertility. There will be some loss of nitrogen, in the form of
nitrate, from all freshly fall-plowed uncovered land.

Question.— Would you roll the furrow down as soon as plowed ?

Mr. Cook.— Not necessarily; but I should roll it thoroughly
before harrowing it, to compact the ground so as to prevent the
loss of moisture through evaporation.

Mr. Chapman.— As a rule, nearly 20 per cent. of our crops
are lost for a lack of water, while 50 per cent. of the rainfall
runs away. Now, if the soil is plowed in the fall it will hold
a portion of that water which, if the ground were not plowed till
spring, would be lost. We cannot grow crops unless we have
moisture. If we secure it for the use of the plant we must
store it in the soil, and it can be best done by plowing the land
in the fall. Another point; the lumps are better pulverized be-
cause of the action of the frost, thus preventing the loss of water
which would come if the lumps were large. Another point;
one can get on to a piece of land and harrow it earlier than he
could plow it. If the ground is so prepared and the surface is
fine, very early in the spring, the fine mulch on the surface pre-
vents the loss of moisture through evaporation. Still another
reason for fall plowing is, that it can be done more easily and
more cheaply, from the fact that one has more time in the
fall than spring, he being not so crowded. There can be no loss
of fertility in fall-plowed land, unless some of the nitrogen is
changed into a nitrate.

A Farmer.— How shall we get rid of hawkweeds?

Mr. Richardson.— A rotation of crops or cultivation, if one
ean plow the land, will kill out the hawkweed or almost all other
weeds. Although if you get it out it will come again, because there
are so many waste places where the seed lodges and thus secures a
permanent foothold.

Question.— Is the weeder a desirable tool ?

Mr. Chapman.—I consider it very valuable. It saves much
time in cultivating and hoeing. I use it in strawberries, corn
and potatoes. It must be used in season, before the weeds start
or the ground has become hardened.

Mr. Smith.— It can be used on beans, if at the right time. Use
it once before the crop is up.

THe Question Box. 101

To Mr. Richardson.— What is the best and most practical way
of fastening a cow when kept in the stables nearly all winter?

Answer.— I have had considerable experience in that line, and
I believe the time has come to let the stanchions go. Such treat:
ment as the confinement of a cow in a rigid stanchion, 12 or 15
hours, would not suit any of us here, and we know the cow has
considerable human nature. Knowing this, I had one row of the
stanchions taken out of my stables and replaced with the Knapp
cow tie. Later, we took out all the stanchions but three. Now
every cow smiles when I go into the stables. Beside being more
comtortable, she is able to turn and lick herself, and is also able to
eat all there is in her manger. Having her stall all to herself, she
cannot be injured by another cow, while she will be kept fully as
clean as those in the stanchions. Then, too, she cannot reach
through and steal a part of another cow’s ration. But I am sorry
to say that I still have to take the tie off and allow the cows to go
out and drink. I have, as yet, no inside watering device. But I
ought to qualify some of my statements by saying that more room
— that is, a wider manger in front of the cow, is required when
the Knapp tie is used.

Question.— Realizing that intensive farming is the only one
that pays, I should lke to have you tell me to what degree can
it profitably be carried?

Mr. Smith.— Ask the man how he is situated. What would
pay one inan will not pay another. Jf a man has confined
himself to one branch of farming, he will, if he begins intensive
farming, have to begin slowly. By this, I mean if a man has
been growing grain or fruit ‘exclusively, Aa wishes to enlarge,
he will have to learn something that will enable him to work suc-
cessfully. Ifa man has a dairy and has been practicing the
timothy hay and corn meal system, if he changes, as he will be
forced to do, he will have to study other methods. ‘The time is
near at hand when the dairyman will have to fill a summer silo
to tide his herd over the drouth.

Question.— Is there any scientific proof that the planting or
sowing of seeds in certain phases of the moon has any effect on the
crop 4

Dr. Smead.—I have never visited the moon, so I don’t know;
but I have heard it said that the moon has an influence on seeds.
Yet all scientific investigation shows it to be a fallacy. Then, too,
T find that these moon theorists do not agree. One says the new,

102 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

another, the old, of the moon. There is more moonshine than
anything else in the theory.

Mr, Chapman.— I once heard an old darkey say that he knew
that watermelons would go very much further in the full, than
in the new, of the moon.

Question.— How much better is a separator than a creamer, and
what kind of separator would you recommend ?

Mr. Richardson.— The first part of that question is easier to
answer than the latter. There is no comparison between the two
systems. The separator takes all but a trace of the fat out of the
milk. The creamer will not. There are a number of good sepa-
rators now in the market. All do excellent work.

Question.— Is there not a great loss of plant food by leaching
from fall plowing?

Mr. Chapman.— There are but three elements of plant food
which we care anything about. These are nitrogen, potash and
phosphoric acid. The last two cannot get away unless they are
washed out of the soil. The first mentioned must be changed into
a nitrate, which will not evaporate unless the soil reaches a tem-
perature of 70 degrees. So there can be no loss from that source.

Question.— Which is the cheaper —to bring water from a
spring 120 rods away, or put up a windmill and tank?

Mr. Woodward.— That would mean buying 120 rods of pipe.
T should put up the windmill and tank. I have a mill that has
been in use for 13 years, and it has not cost me 15 cents a year
for repairs.

A Farmer.— Why not use a gasoline engine, instead of a wind-
mill?

Mr. Woodward.— It would require some one to start and stop
the engine, and there would be some expense for gasoline. There
is nothing so cheap as wind for motive power.

Question.— If you have a piece of sod ground in which to plant
corn, will it pay to plow it and sow rye, the fall before, and then
plow it under in the spring for the corn crop?

Mr. Woodward.— I should much prefer to have the grass on
the ground. We allow it to grow all it will in the spring, never
plowing the land till we are ready to plant the corn. Sometimes
we have to put a chain on the plow, to get the grass all under.
We then roll down the furrows hard, after which we fine the soil
perfectly. This grass turned under will make humus to hold
moisture, which the corn must. have to mature it.

Tuer Question Box. 103

Question.— Is it advisable to continue the cultivation of crops
during dry weather, after the ground has been thoroughly pul-
verized, even though the ground is dried as deeply as the culti-
vator has gone?

Mr. Smith— The question evidently implies that cultivation
has been deep; on the contrary it should have been shallow. But,
if your soil is so coarse that the particles will not come together
so as to form a dust mulch and prevent the escape of moisture,
cultivation will not amount to anything. Shallow cultivation, if
it is fine, pumps up the moisture and prevents its escape by evapor-
ation. This is known as capillary attraction.

Question.— Are Angora goats a coming substitute for sheep
for all practical purposes?

Mr. Woodward.— People have not yet learned to eat goat meat
in this country; but I hear that young Angora kids are being
dressed and sold as lambs. They will not pay here, but, in Penn-
sylvania, where the land is very rocky and hilly, it is said they are
- superior to sheep.

Question.— Would it be better to plow under some green crop,
this summer, or leave the ground fallow, and cultivate, to pre-
pare the soil for seeding, next spring?

Mr. Smith.—I should want some crops growing, to plow un-
der, to supply vegetable matter. The putting on of plant food
alone does not make land productive, unless it can be made avail-
able. This cannot be done unless the physical condition of the
soil is right. Humus must be there, and moisture. conserved, else
all the fertilizer applied will be of no avail. By all means, have
some green crop to plow under that will supply not only fertility
but humus. Cow peas make one of the best crops for this purpose.
Sow them in the spring; plow them under in the fall. Sow rye,
and plow that under in the spring. Sow the cow peas when you
would plant beans — after all danger of spring frost has passed.
“ Whippoorwill ” and “ Clay ” are the best two varieties. Sow a
bushel of seed, broadcast, to the acre, and harrow it in. It will
furnish nitrogen, and with the rye give a good supply of humus.
I have seen the experiment tried in New Jersey, where rye would
not grow. The land would not grow moss, even. A Jew colony
got hold of the land, and made a success of it. They changed a
yellow, inert, barren sand to a black, productive one, on which
grow good crops of clover. It cost $50 an acre to grub out the
dwarf and scrub trees, and two years of labor before the results
were reached. There was plant food there, but no humus. When,

104 Bureav or Farmers’ Instrirures.

by plowing under cow peas and rye, the humus was supplied to
hold moisture, the unavailable plant food was unlocked and made
available for the use of the plant.

Question.— Which is best as an absorbent in a stable, plaster or
South Carolina rock? Will either injure the manure ?

Mr. Smith.— Plaster contains no fertility, but, on some soils
it has some benefits of mmor importance. It costs too much, how-
ever. It is better to use South Carolina rock, instead of plaster.
By this, I mean dissolved rock.

Question.— Which will give best results, shallow or deep
cultivation ?

Mr. Rice.— Cultivate deeply at first, subsequently at a shal-
low depth, using a fine spiked-tooth cultivator, having a number
of teeth. This breaks up the earth crust finely, makes a dust
blanket of it, and thus prevents loss of moisture by evaporation.
Such cultivation does not disturb the roots of the plants, which
deep cultivation does. We also use the weeder, our aim being to
kill the weeds before they germinate.

Question.— What is the cause of club-foot cabbage ?

Prof. Harding.— That question comes up at nearly every in-
stitute. It is out of my field, but I can say that the cause is a
fungus in the soil. The best preventive is not to plant cabbage
on land where club-foot cabbage grew the year before. Lime,
it is said, if applied to the soil, will make the conditions more
unfavorable to the spread of the fungus.

Mr. Smith.— TI do not know enough about cabbage culture to
add anything to the professor’s reply; but I think that the cab-
bage growers in central New York prefer old ground to sod, for
cabbage culture. —

Question.— Is the English sparrow a friend to the farmer?

Mr. Gould.— I do not know that he is a friend to any one. But
T do know that he is an enemy to all other birds, and a thief.
Then, too, he is an awful nuisance about the house, and we make
it a point to get rid of him: We scatter a little millet seed in a
furrow, and, when the sparrows gather on it, we pull a double-
barrel shotgun on them. ‘This gives us a week’s cat rations and
disposes of sparrows for a month.

Question — Would you advise a young man to go to some other
State, with the intention of raising lambs?

Mr. Witter.— I don’t know; I visited 13 States of the Union
last fall, and came back with the conviction that the old Empire
State was as good as anv of them.. There is as good and as poor

Tue Question Box. 105

land in it as in any other, and the markets are as good. It would
all depend on the man and where he was located. I should not
eare to advise such a man. He might succeed or fail, and I
should not want to be responsible in any way, either for his success
or failure.

Question.— How badly does a good crop of corn exhaust the
soil, as compared with other crops?

Mr. Van Wagenen.— There is no crop that will give us as much
for the cost as will corn, for a starch food. But it is an enormous
feeder and must have plant food, light and heat; but it does not
take as much plant food from the soil as do some other grain
crops, such as wheat, which requires more protein.

Question.— Is a lactometer test a fair one for milk; that is, can-
not milk be treated so as to test pure, and still not be pure?

Mr. Smith.— If a person were practiced in it, knew how and
had a lactometer, he could secure a test that appeared all right, and
yet it would not be. The lactometer is an instrument with which
to, determine the specific gravity of milk. Skim-milk is heavier
than whole milk, because the fat is the lighter. So that, if milk has
been tampered with by watering or skimming, any one knowing
anything about it, would discover it as soon as the instrument is
removed. When the instrument is lifted from pure milk, that
remaining on it runs off evenly and smoothly; if the milk has been
tampered with in any way, the milk will run off unevenly and
irregularly. We use the, Babcock test and lactometer together.
With them both it is easy to tell what the milk is. The Babcotk
test shows the per cent. of fat in the milk; the lactometer its
specific gravity. If any fat has been removed, the lactometer
will show that the milk has been tampered with, because its per-
centage or ratio of solids has been disturbed, while the Babcock
test will show just how much fat there is in the milk.

Question.— What is best for corn, fall or spring plowing?

A vote being taken, resulted in favor of fall plowing.

Mr. Van Wagenen.— I am decidedly in favor of it. The action
of the winter frosts breaks up the soil and better fits it for the
crop. But, if the soil is too clayey, it may run together. My
advice would be to experiment with the two methods, then decide
for yourselves.

Question.— What variety of peas should you mix with oats for
soiling, Champion or common white?

Mr. Chapman.— The small white Canada pea is the best for the
purpose.

106 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.— Take 10 acres of good, strong clay land, put it down
in good shape, mow it once, divide it into two equal parts, one-
half in day pasture, one-half in meadow, which mow five years,
not later than July 1st, when not pasture, at the end of five years
which half will be in the best condition to plow?

Mr. Dardis.— The part you mow, because that part will have
the season from the ist of July to recuperate, while the pasture
has not one hour.

Mr. Smith.— If the cows are fed a proper grain ration, they
will carry back to the pasture fully as much as they take away in
fertility.

Mr. Lillie—HTI incline to the belief that more loss will come
from the land in pasture.

Mr. Smith.—If it is meant day pasture only, I guess the
meadow will be the best.

Question.— What is the best way to dispose of the straw grown
on the farm?

A Farmer.— Use it for bedding in the stables.

Another Farmer.— Get it into manure as quickly as possible.

Mr. Smith.— Cut the grain early, especially oats, before they
begin to ripen. When the straw becomes too ripe it requires too
much energy to digest it; there is too much wood fiber in it.
Different grains have different straw food values. I believe that
we should use a great deal of our straw for bedding and as an
absorbent, inasmuch as the urine of our farm animals contains
60 per cent. of the manurial value of the voidings.

Mr. Irwin.— We cut our grain about the time the short straw
begins to color. In that way a better feeding value is secured,
as well as a better absorbent.

Question.— What is the greatest evil the dairy farmer has to
contend with, that he tries least to remedy?

A Farmer.— Pulling daisies.

Another Farmer.— Serub cows.

Mr. Dardis.— The pasture. There is, as a rule, nothing in it
but weeds after July 1st.

Mr. Smith.— In some sections the ‘‘ hawkweed ” is the greatest
pest. There are two varieties of it, having different colored flow-
ers. It is hard to eradicate it. Salt, half a ton to an acre, sown
in July, during a hot, dry time will kill it. But, if any of you
have it, don’t wait, but proceed to kill it at once. Cultivation of
the land does not seem to do much that way.

THE Question Box. 107

Question.— How many cubic feet of air does a cow require in
the stable?

Mr. Smith.— I don’t know exactly; but I think about 500 feet.

Mr. Lillie.— It would depend very much on the ventilation of
the stable. The air should be pure and the stable free of odors.
There should also be plenty of sunlight present.

Question.— Can any one get a sample of any foods he may
have, analyzed at the experiment station? If so, will he get a
report of the same?

Mr. Smith.— No; if the station should attempt to analyze all
the stuff sent to it, no time would be had for anything else. LBe-
sides, there would not be chemists enough. But, if you can get
a good, fair, even sample of a suspicious food — one that there
is no record of at the station — the director will make a careful
microscopical examination of it, and, if he thinks best, will order
a chemical analysis; not otherwise. If it should be analyzed the
sender will receive a report.

Question.— Does a bread-tired wagon draw harder than a nar-
row-tired one? What width wheel is best for all farm work ?

Dr. Smead.— For hauling loads over meadow or pasture ground,
the wide tires are preferable; but, with hard, dry roads, I should
prefer the narrow tire.

A Farmer.— We can draw 10 or 15 bushels more potatoes out
of the field on a wide-tired wagon than on a narrow-tired one.

Mr. Smith.— Wide tires do not cut up the roads in a muddy
time as do narrow ones; and if every wagon used on the road were
wide-tired, the roads would be much better than they usually are.

Question.— What is the best way to get rid of quack grass ?

Mr. Rice.— I had a piece of it. I summer fallowed the ground
and sowed wheat. When the wheat came up I could not find a
spear of quack. Plow the land early, but shallow; then run a cut-
away harrow over it every few days. In other words, prevent
the quack from growing; don’t allow it to breathe. In this way
one may subdue a piece of quack enough so that a crop of buck-
wheat or peas may be raised the same season, while the quack will
have been killed out. In the fall sow oe and seed in the
spring.

Question.— How shall we eradicate wild carrot?

Mr. Smith.— It is more difficult to destroy than is quack. Once
it gets into the land, unless the land can be plowed and cultivated,
there is no way by which it can be eradicated, as it seeds heavily
and the seeds live a long time. Where a rotation of crops can

108 Bureau or Farwers’ Instirvures.

be practiced, it may be kept in pretty good subjection. Prof.
Jones of Vermont, says that the application of half a ton of salt
to an acre, if put in when the weeds are very dry and hot, will
kill it out.

Question.— Is it profitable to keep a cow after she reaches the
age of 10 years?

Mr. Smith.— It would all hinge on the cow. If she is a good
one, keep her as long as she is good for anything for the dairy.

Question.— Should farmers encourage reading-rooms or
libraries as the means of educating their sons and daughters

A Farmer.— It may be done, I suppose, and no doubt would
benefit the farmer’s boys and girls; but I hardly think it ever will
be accomplished.

Question.— How ean we kill out wild mustard?

Mr. Converse.— Where a rotation of crops can be followed,
there is no trouble in killing it out. We plant corn on a clover
sod, then use the weeder very thoroughly. It kills it out. If
you have oats and peas that have mustard in them, use the smooth-
ing harrow first, then follow with the weeder. It won’t hurt the
crop. If you have a boy, horse and weeder, keep all three going
till the mustard has disappeared. Beside killing weeds, it con-
serves moisture which the crop needs, but which the mustard will
take in part.

A Farmer.— I should like to ask Mr. Converse what he would
do with land used exclusively for hay crops? :

Answer.— That is another question. I should not follow that
system, as my observation is that the man who grows hay mostly
and sells it, soon becomes a poor man. Such has been the case
up in Jefferson county.

Question.— Have you ever raised any soja beans, and if so, with
what success?

Mr. Smith.— We grew some last year, but did not get as good re-
sults as from the cow peas. We put those with the eorn into the
silo.

Mr. Chamberlain exhibited a sample of cow peas on the vines,
which were large, strong and green.

Mr. Rice.— The variety is known as Clay. There is another
variety known as the Whippoorwill, which, he thought, was better.

Mr. Chamberlain.— I grew them to plow under for the purpose
of getting humus into the soil. IT had some plants that were nine
feet long, last season. I do not consider it advisable to grow
them for ensilage, as they are too expensive to harvest.

Tue Question Box. 109

Question.— Would it be profitable to plow more deeply, and
thus turn up some of the undersoil? (

A Farmer.— I think that if the soil is deep enough it will do to
plow deep. If not, it will not be a good plan.

Mr. Smith.— If one has always plowed at a shallow depth, and
wants to go down farther, he should do so gradually, one inch a
year. If he is radical and does as Horace Greeley did — goes down
a foot the first time and so turns up subsoil — he will spoil his
land for a while at least, because it will require additional humus
and more manure to fit to grow good crops.

(Juestion.— How do you account for it that in England, where
the land is centuries old, they grow 60 bushels of wheat to the
acre and other crops in proportion, while in America, where the
land is comparatively new, only 30 bushels of wheat to the acre,
and other crops in proportion are grown?

Mr. Woodward.— If the man who asked that question had read
the agricultural history of England he would have learned that
30 years ago the yield of wheat there was only 14 bushels per acre,
just about what ours is. The Englishman found out the secret,
so began buying that which we let go to waste. He bought our
cotton seed meal, wheat bran and oil eake to feed his live-stock.
Result, the increase in the yield spoken of. Then, too, the English-
man is going to South Africa in search of protein foods and buy-
ing them there. In fact, he is buying them of every fool country
that will sell them; then, when we look on and see the results, we
ask how it all happened.

Mr. Smith.— Beside all Mr. Woodward has said, he might add
that the Englishman is a good cultivator. He never does anything
in a half or slovenly way, but gives the very best cultivation pos-
sible.

Mr. Woodward.— He does all this, and although some of the
farmers are paying $30 rent per acre, they are making money
each year.

Question.— Which do you consider the best authority, practi-
eal experience or theories from book farming?

Mr. Smith.— Practical experience is an excellent thing.
Theories are of no benefit unless they are founded on facts.
Practical experience is of no benefit unless it is right. Any other
experience if followed up will lead one astray. The question is
evidently aimed at the bulletins and is a misconception of their
use. They simply record the results of carefully conducted ex-
periments, some of which proved beneficial, some of which did

110 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

not. There is no theory or book farming in the advocacy of the
silo, nor in urging the spraying of fruit trees to kill insects and
fungous diseases. You might just as well say the silo was a theory
because you have never had one, when many of your neighbors
have, and are satisfied with results; or reject the separator because
you have never used one. .

Question.— Which is the most profitable for the land, feeding
hay and putting the manure on the land and feeding off the after-
math, or allowing the aftermath to remain on the land?

Mr. Smith When you remove a ton of timothy hay from
the soil you take with it $5.75 worth of nitrogen, phosphoric
acid and potash. Unless this plant food is restored the yield of
hay will decrease. In some parts of the State where timothy
is sold, the farmers have resorted to top dressing their meadows
with manure; others take off but one or two crops of hay, then
plow their meadows, take off two crops and reseed. But, when
you feed off the aftermath, and do not put anything back the
yield of hay will soon decrease to an unprofitable extent. The best
way is to buy nitrogenous foods, save all the liquids and solids
from the cows and put them back on the land. :

To Mr. Woodward.— Are you in favor of cement floors?

Answer.— Cement makes a better floor than does anything else
except one made of blue clay and gravel, which I like better.
Cement is better than plank and will last a lifetime; but some
people object to cement, because it is cold, but inside the barn
it is no colder than any other floor. Cement is also impervious
to water, thus preventing a loss of liquids by leakage. Cement
sidewalks will last longer than will stone.

Mr. Smith.— The cement floors in the barn at the Geneva Sta-
tion were put in 15 years ago. They have never been repaired and
are now as good as when first laid.

Question.— Are the standard milk testers, in use at the pres-
ent time, strictly reliable?

Mr. Smith.— I suppose you mean the Babcock test; if so, I
will say it is perfectly reliable. The bottles and pipettes are all
tested, and are found correct. JI have made thousands of tests,
compared them with chemical analyses in the laboratory, and found
them to agree exactly.

Question.— Does the Babcock always test correctly ?

Mr. Smith.— Yes; when the work is properly done and the
acid is of proper strength. I have made a dozen tests from the

Tue Question Box. 111

same milk and found them to agree perfectly. The machine has
been, and is being used in hundreds of factories in this and other
States, giving entire satisfaction to all the patrons. If the test
were not a fair one, it would have been discarded long ago.

Question.— Will the Florida velvet bean renovate the soil, as
claimed by some writers?) They say that one crop will bring up a
field that has “ been down.” If so, how much?

Mr. Woodward.— That is what is known as the soja bean. It
is not as good as the cow pea, and not so easily or safely grown.
The hairy vetch is going to be the comjng crop for that purpose;
but, as yet, it is difficult to procure the seed.

Question.— What varieties of oats are best?

Mr. Woodward.— I have been raising “‘ Karly Swedish,” sev-
eral years. I like it best, but it will depend much on the quality
of the land. Oats want a balanced ration. If the land is too
rich in nitrogen, the oats will fall down. We apply potash and
phosphoric acid to the land, because we have nitrogen enough.

Question.— Is there anything that will prevent peas from being
stung, and will they grow after they are stung ?

Mr. Smith.— A fly stings the pod, lays its egg inside, which
hatches into a worm, which in turn becomes a fly. I know of
nothing to prevent the stinging process, but the worm in the
peas, as well as the fly, or other insect may be exterminated by
the use of bisulphide of carbon. Put a little into a saucer or
saturate a sponge with it, place it in the bin or bag, cover tightly
and let it remain awhile. The sulphide throws off a gas which,
being heavier than the atmosphere, settles and so penetrates the
whole mass that it kills all animal life at once. All the large seed
dealers employ it. It is also used to kill woodchucks, by placing
a little of it in the hole in the ground and then closing the mouth
tightly.

A Farmer.— In what sort of package does it come?

Dr. Smead.— It is put up in several ways; but the best is in
sealed pint-bottles. Being highly volatile, unless it is kept sealed
tightly it soon loses its strength. When the worm has eaten into
the pea it spoils it, as the germ has been destroyed.

Question.— Should farmers favor the central township school
in place of the district school?

Mr. Kreidler.—I will say, yes. Twenty years ago I taught
country school, but changes have come. The teacher does not
now have time to teach all the branches needed. Then, too,

112 Bureau or Farmers’ lystrirores.

there are not scholars enough to keep up the country schools.
Another point; teachers of sufficient caliber cannot be employed.
Only normal graduates ought to be secured as teachers. The
graded and high schools must sueceed the country schools?

A Farmer.— In my opinion, we might as well, when the five
o'clock whistle blows, all jump into a carry-all and go out to a
boarding-house and get our dinners, as to take all the children
into town and coop them into one building. Such a course takes
all the individuality out of a child. The old-time schools turned
out some pretty good men, and it is a question, in my mind, if
Mr. Skinner’s or Mr. Kreidler’s plans will bring out better re-
sults. To-day, in every academy or school in this State where
students are taking Regents’ examinations, will be found those
who can answer the questions propounded in Greek and Latin
but cannot properly write seven lines in good English. Another
point: Students go to Cornell, or elsewhere, to be educated, who
are within a stone’s throw of Alfred, where they can obtain
fully as good advantages, or better, and at a less expense. |

Another farmer said that the cost of maintaining the country
district school was very small,not enough to debar the employment
of good teachers. In his opinion, the day that witnesses the
hauling down of the flag from the little red schoolhouse, will be
the one that dawns on the death of the Republic.

It seems to be the only question of how to save expense, and
to provide places for normal graduates: But, when it comes to
forcing all the poor people to dress their children so as to prop-
erly appear among those in the village, they will never do it. It
were much better to employ good teachers, if they do not have
to look after half a dozen pupils. Let us keep the flag flying over
the little red schoolhouse, and its doors open. ‘‘ The best business
men in Hornellsville, to-day, were educated in that little school-
house, and, if we keep it open and employ good teachers, it will
turn out others fully as good.”

Another Farmer.— That is my opinion exactly. The reasons
advanced for such a radical change are greed and the finding of
places for normal graduates. If carried out, a little less cost for
tuition would result on one hand, while every teacher not a nor-
mal graduate, would be debarred from a position in the central
schools.

Question.— Does it make any difference how wide we plow
furrows, provided they are all well turned over?

Tue Question Box. 113

A Farmer.— I think the narrow furrow is the best.

Another Farmer.— The more quickly we can plow the land
the better, if we can do it-well. I do not care if the furrow is
two feet wide.

Opinions seemed to differ among the farmers.

Mr. Smith.— I should want every furrow well turned down.
Then I would put on a heavy roller and roll it down closely. This
to close up all air spaces. Then I should follow with the
cut-away or spring-tooth harrow and fine the soil as much as pos-
sible before putting in the crop.

Question.— What ought a farmer’s wife to do if her husband
will persist in having the pigs run in the dooryard?

Mr. Lillie.— In that case, if the wife objects, I think she will
_ have good cause for instituting divorce proceedings at once.

Question.— What soil is best for growing black seed onions,
and how early should they be sown? ‘°

Mr. Smith.— Near Canastota, onions are grown on a black soil.
_In other places they are grown on other soils, and it is claimed
that the quality of the onion is better than that of those grown.
on the black mucky soils, because the onions are not so strong. TI
know a man who grew last season 900 bushels of onions on an acre,
which he sold for 60 cents per bushel. Sow as early as the
ground can be prepared in spring.

Question.— What shall we do to secure free mail delivery?

Mr. Smith.— As I understand it, a petition must be forwarded
to the Post-office Department at Washington. It must be unani-
mous. ‘Then, if all is satisfactory, the Department will send an
agent, who will look over the ground, and, if he reports favorably,
the system will be adopted on that route.

Question.— If a soil has plenty of potash, phosphoric acid and
nitrogen, will it be fertile?

Mr. Smith.— No; unless the plant food is available. If it is
locked up in the soil, it is of no benefit. To wnlock it, there must
be vegetable matter in the soil to hold moisture. This moisture
is necessary to dissolve the plant food elements, as plants feed on
“ soup ”’ — dissolved plant foods mixed with water.

Mr. Woodward.— If the soil is hard, so that air cannot reach
the plant roots, the plants will not grow. They require air just
as much as we do. There is another condition under which some
plants will not grow; that is when the soil is sour. Lime or ashes
applied broadcast and turned under will correct this acidity.

8

114 Bureau or Farmers’ Iystirvres.

Question.— At what temperature should a stable be kept in
winter?

Mr. Goodrich.— Opinions differ among dairymen on that point.
I heard a man say recently that he never allows his stables to get
below 70 degrees. But I think that too high, as, when the stable
door is thrown open, when the mercury is below zero, the change
is too great. My plan is to keep an even temperature and above
freezing, not allowing it to go below 40. Don’t crowd the stables
with too many cattle, and have plenty of pure air. Make the
stables as comfortable as possible.

Alson Cook.—I should make the temperature of the stable
from 45 to 55 degrees. When you reduce the temperature below
45, I think you make a mistake, if you are making milk, which
we are trying to do in winter.

Mr. Richardson.—I am in favor of having the stables kept
above the freezing point; and I should not turn a cow out when
the thermometer is below zero. When you do that, she will
shiver nearly all day when she is again put in the stable. I know
that the average cow will give more than 1,000 pounds more milk
in a year, when she drops her calf in the fall, if she is kept in
a comfortable stable and well and properly fed.

Question.— How may a farmer utilize all the old bones lying
around on his farm without a machine for grinding them ?

Mr. Woodward.— If he has good hard-wood ashes, and will
break up the bones finely, then put in a layer of ashes, then one
of bones, and alternating, into an old kettle, and will keep the
mass moist enough to extract the lye from the ashes, in three
months the bones will be nearly dissolved. At that stage, sift the
mixture. There will be a few pieces left; break these and go
over the process again. You will then have a very good fertilizer.

Question.— How many Canada peas should be sown on an acre?

Mr. Woodward.— As a rule, a bushel will be enough.

Question.— How can we exterminate the sparrows?

Prof. Lowe.— I don’t know. They might be poisoned, but such
a course would endanger other birds.

Mr. Fenner.— I fed a flock of sparrows poisoned grain, but I
don’t know how many I killed. The poison blew on to adjacent.
land and poisoned a lot of valuable chickens.

Prof. Lowe.— In some places in the West a bounty is offered
for dead sparrows, and some boys earn considerable money by
shooting them; but, in some way, the number does not seem to
decrease to any great extent.

Tue Question Box. pa:

Question.— Is there any law that can be enforced to destroy
the caterpillars that infest the trees along the road side?

Prof. Lowe.— I do not know of any such law, and yet there
may be.

Mr. Fenner.— I think we have a law on our statute-books that
includes the tent caterpillars on trees along the road sides. All
that is necessary is to enforce it.

Question.— Does it pay to hold Farmers’ Institutes where peo-
ple practice enly old methods?

Mr. Van Alstyne.— I think that the best place to hold them.
They need more light there. There are some people who expect
too much. Then there are those who reject everything, while
another class jump at every new thing that comes along.

Question.— About how long will it take to make a Babcock
test correctly?

Mr. Grunder.— It requires about 10 minutes to make a test,
and some skill to do it; but it may be easily acquired.

Question.— What effect has lime on soil, and how shall we
know when it is needed? How should it be applied?

Mr. Smith.— Lime has the power of liberating plant food; it
also corrects any acidity in the soil. If you are suspicious that
the land is sour, test it with blue litmus paper. Prof. Wheeler
of Rhode Island, says he applies a ton to a ton and a half of lime to
an acre once in four years.

Question.— What variety of pea is best to sow for an early
market crop?

Mr. Smith.— “ Knotts Excelsior ” is the variety mostly grown
in some of the pea and bean-growing towns in Jefferson county,
this State.

Question.— Which is the best for corn and potatoes, the weeder
or harrow?

Mr. Rice.— A little of both. The weeder is not heavy enough,
for hard, heavy ground. It is a good thing to use to stop weed
seeds from germinating and for covering clover seed. We also
use it on our potato ground, even after the potatoes are up. We
also use it on our strawberries, but they must be used early. For
heavy work to break the crust and prevent the moisture from
getting away, we use the harrow.

Question.— Would you advise using a weeder on new seeding
that had been top-dressed during the winter, the object being to
scatter the lumps that had been frozen? Which is the best one?

Mr. Dawley.— I should want to see the field before I gave an

116 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

opinion, but I should ‘not want to put frozen lumps of manure
on the land. Would prefer drawing it out and spreading it as
fast as made. JI do not believe a weeder would break up
such lumps. I think a smoothing harrow would be better.
There are a number of weeders on the market; all are good; but
I do not see any material benefit of wheels on one, nor would I
buy one too light.

Question.— What is the best variety of pea to sow with oats
for hay; what is the best way to put them in?

Mr. Smith.— The best pea for the purpose is the small Canada
pea. Put them in four or five days before you sow the oats.

Mr. Woodward.— We plow our Canada peas under to a depth
of four inches, sowing a bushel to a bushel and a half per acre.
Four or five days later we drill in the oats, going across the field.

Mr. Dawley.— If one is to sow oats with peas, select some one
of the strong growing varieties. Too many farmers have become
disgusted, when trying to grow them, from having selected some
one of the feeble-growing varieties.

Question.— Is it right to confine cattle in stables from early
fall till spring, with no exercise except as they are let out to drink?

Mr. Gould.— Yes and no. It is better to allow cows, which
are kept in dark, damp stables, to go out every day, because the
air is purer out there. But, if the stables are well ventilated
and are dry and light, unless the weather is very mild, the better
place for the cow is in the stable. We keep our cows in the barn
most of the time in winter, and have never had a ease of tuber-
culosis in the herd, some of which are 13 years old.

Question.— What is the best remedy for exterminating the
brake weed? .

A Farmer.— Cultivation, if you will stick to it, will kill it.

Mr. Smith That is true. Cultivation will not only kill
brakes, but every other plant, if persisted in thoroughly.

Question.— How can we best destroy “ paint brush,” or
weed ’*4

Mr. Smith.— Hawkweed was originally grown because of its
beautiful flower; but it got loose, “ ran wild,” and has become
very difficult to drive out. The seed lives a long time in the
ground, and so requires pretty thorough attention to eradicate it.
Cultivation will do it in time, but there are many places where
the land cannot be cultivated. On such land, salt will kill out
the plant. A half-ton of salt, sown broadcast per acre, when the
weather is hot and dry, will take out all the moisture from the

“red

Tue Question Box. ih

weed, and so kill it; but it must be put on when there is no
moisture on the surface of the ground. Prof. Jones of Vermont,
is av. authority for this statement.

A Farmer.— Will not the salt kill out all the grass?

Mr. Smith.— There won’t be any grass there, nor anything
else but hawkweed; you may be assured of that.

Mr. Woodward.— The salt will be worth all it costs for re-
leasing locked-up potash in the soil.

Mr. Smith.— Whenever a farmer finds a few stalks of a noxious
weed on his land, he should at once destroy them. “ Paint
brush ” originally came from Switzerland.

Question.— Has the experiment station found any preventive
for the wire worm working on potatoes?

Mr. Smith.— Fall plowing and a rotation of crops will kill
wire worms. A farmer at the Franklinville Institute said, in
reply to such a question, that he had never failed to kill all wire
worms through the use of buckwheat. He first grew a crop for
the grain, then followed it with one to plow under. The last
one was allowed to fall down and rot. The next spring, when
he plowed the ground, there were no wire worms. But the wire
worm does not work on potatoes. What we see is the work of
the scab fungus — not the wire worm.

Question.— What will destroy smut in oats?

Mr. Smith.— Soaking in water at a temperature of 132 degrees
kilis the smut germ. If the water is below that degree, the smut
germ will not be killed; if the degree is higher, the life germ of
the oat will be killed. Thus, it will be seen that much care must
be used in “ soaking ” the oats. Ten minutes is long enough for
the process. Remove the oats, spread them out and allow them
to dry.

Question.— What is the analysis of bean straw?

A Farmer.— About one and a half less than has clover hay, in
protein.

Mr. Witter.— Cornell Bulletin 104 gives the analysis of bean
straw and pods.

Mr. Smith.— There is quite a little difference between the
analysis of bean pods and straw. The former is the richer.

Question.— How many tons of mangels can be grown on an
acre of good ground?

Mr. Woodward.— Anywhere from 10 to 30 tons, according to
the richness of the ground, and the care one gives the crop. We
grow Long Red for early feeding, and Golden Tankard for late.
There is not much difference in their yields.

118 BorEeav oF Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.— Which bird is the farmer’s best friend ?

Mr. Gould.— That poor, persecuted crow. I know no bird
which is such a farm scavenger as is the crow. He takes all the
cut worms, and, when we scatter a half-bushel of white corn in a
_ furrow for him to work on, he will take one kernel at a time and
fly away to the woods with it where he buries it and waits for it
to sprout, when he eats it.

Question.— What about the forest tree worm, we have heard
so much about it; what is a preventive ?

Mr. Smith.— They are bad worms and. where they appear
two years in succession they nearly or quite kill the trees. They
can be fought on fruit and shade trees, but, in the forest, it is
impossible to reach many of them.

Question.— What should be the length of plank for a cow-
stable floor, with swing stanchions, and mangers?

Mr. Witter.—I don’t know. Our stable floors are made to
conform to the size of our cow. About five feet four inches is the
average length of the plank.

A Farmer.— My floors are four feet eight inches.

Mr. Smallwood.— My floors for Jerseys are four feet. four
inches, but my Jerseys are not all of the same length.

Question.— Which is the best turnip for table use?

Mr. Gould.— There are a number of varieties. We grow the
purple top, strap leaf.

Mr. Jennings.— Some of the white Swede varieties are pre
ferred for table use.

Question.— Would you use a weeder on winter wheat after
sowing grass seed?

Mr. Woodward.— It would depend on the state of the wheat.
If it had begun to stool out, I should use the smothing harrow
because I could slant the teeth back so as to cover the clover seed
and not lift the wl eat out.

Question.— What is the best crop to raise on our farms?

Mr. Litchard.— The best crop ever grown on my father’s farm
was one of boys.

Question.— How much salt shall we apply per acre?

Mr. Smith.— What do you want to apply salt for? It has no
fertilizing value whatever; but sometimes there is locked-up potash
in the soil which salt will set free. It also helps to furnish
moisture, but too much of it not only sets too much potash free
but burns up the vegetable matter in the soil.

THe Question Box. 119

Question.— Is a rotation of crops advisable in order to keep up
the fertility of the land, using, say, corn, peas and clover ?

Mr. Mann.— It certainly is. If I have clover I turn it under
and plant corn. I have followed a rotation during several years,
and find that my land is improving.

A Farmer.— My farm is at least twice as productive as 20 years
ago, but I cannot say that it is wholly due to a rotation of crops,
because I have not practiced any fixed rule.

Question.— What is the cause of the blight on cabbage ?

Mr. Rice.— No remedy has as yet been found, although ex-
periments have been tried at the Geneva Station. Write to Prof.
Stewart at the station. He will give you the results so far as he
knows.

Question.— How should peas be sown? How much seed per.
acre?

Mr. Cook.— What is your opinion, farmers?

A. Voice.— Drill them in, going both ways.

Another Voice.— The best crop I ever grew was plowed in four
inches deep.

Mr. Cook.— I have succeeded fully as well by drilling them in
as by plowing them under. We grow the small Canada peas, but
we drill them in. If the soil is very mellow and nice, there is no
difficulty in getting them in at a uniform depth.

A Farmer.— A common drill will not sow them thick enough,
unless we go both ways, and sow four bushels to the acre.

Question.— What about cow peas?

Mr. Cook.— I have never grown them, but will try them next
season.

A Farmer.— How can we grow them on quack grounds?

Mr. Cook.— It takes considerable work. We put four horses
on a dise harrow last spring every day for nearly four weeks, on
a field where we planted ensilage corn, but we conquered it
—the quack, I mean. To kill quack, stop it from growing
above ground. Good cultivation will kill any plant, but I be-
lieve that quack is a good thing in one way, at least, because,
through its root growth it furnishes vegetable matter for the soil,
and quack root is as good as any, except that it does not furnish
nitrogén as does clover.

Question.— Does it pay to plow potato or corn ground in the
spring, for oats 4

Mr. Gould.— No. I have got through plowing ground in the
spring, for oats.

120 Bureau of Farmers’ Insrirvures.

Question How many cows will a 40-acre farm, under good
management, support?

Mr. Woodward.— Forty.

Mr. Smith.— Fifteen acres of ensilage, if it is good, will keep
40 cows. Add to that six acres of alfalfa and you have the coarse
food part, leaving 19 acres for other purposes. |

Question.— Would it be profitable to sow rye in corn, to be
plowed under the following spring on land to be sown to wheat
the next fall?

Mr. Rice.— It certainly would pay to have such a crop to plow
under the next spring, as it will hold moisture for the benefit of,
the wheat or other crops that would follow.

Question.— What was the yield per acre of your oats last year ?
What was the variety sown ?

Mr. Smith.— We did not grow any clear oats last year. We
had oats and peas to quite an extent, cut early and fed green. It
the question refers to the Geneva Station, I can give no further
information.

Question.— How do oats and peas compare with .other forage
crops?

Mr. Smith.— Not at all with alfalfa; but we could not have
carried our animals through the last summer without our silos.
The season last year was so dry that we were obliged to rely on the
silo. The young stock got the alfalfa, while the cows got the
ensilage. But, one season with another, alfalfa is our best forage
crop. Over in Onondaga county much of it is grown, and it is
worth there now $18 to $20 per ton. (February, 1901.)

Question.— Would you advise putting cement floors in a wagon-
house?

Mr. Smith.—TI do not know, but for stable floors they are pre-
ferred to plank floors by many farmers.

Question.— Why do tomatoes rot on the vines?

Mr. Rice.— It is caused by a fungus. As a rule, where the
tomatoes are in the shade or near the ground the rot fungus ap-
pears first. It is better to set plants on ground where no tomatoes
were grown the year before. One had better do that than fight the
rot fungus with the spray pump and Bordeaux mixture. The
same is true of cabbage. If “clubfoot” has appeared in cabbage
do not set plants on the same land the next season.

Question.— Which pays the farmer best, hay at $10 per ton or
butter and cheese at present prices?

THE Question Box. 121

Mr. Smith.— If you want to be driven off your farm, keep no
animals but sell your timothy hay; when you sell a ton for $10, you
only have $4.25 left after deducting the value of the plant food
init. If, however, you have a silo, keep animals, and will save all
the manure and return it to the soil, you may sell timothy and not
impoverish the farm.

Question.— What are the benefits in the use of a weeder in corn
and potatoes and for covering grass seed ?

Mr. Smith.— The thorough preparation of the soil is of great
value; but it won’t make good land out of poor land. The first
need is good physical condition; this is brought about by incorpo-
rating humus into the soil. This done, use the cultivator and
weeder, to fine the soil and bring up the moisture; also to prevent
it from escaping by evaporation. It will then be held by the
vegetable matter, and thus make plant food available. Prof.
Roberts grew crop after crop of potatoes without any fertilizer, in
this way, the soil having first been thoroughly supplied with
humus.

Question.— How many cows may be kept on 10 acres of en-
silage ?

Mr. Smith.— Twenty-five.

Question.— How does buckwheat rate as a green forage crop
for milch cows?

Mr. Goodrich.— We do not grow much buckwheat, except for.
grain.

Mr. Van Wagenen.— Considerable buckwheat is grown in,
Schoharie county, but not much is used for that purpose. I do
not believe it would be practical so to use it here. .

Question.— Is millet hay as good as timothy for young or dry
live-stock ?

Mr. Goodrich.— Millet produces a good food, but it must be
cut early, before it becomes hard and woody. We sow it early,
say in June. It is a difficult hay to mature. So that, if the
weather is unfavorable, it is a hazardous crop to grow. We pre-
fer the German to the Hungarian variety. It contains more
protein than does timothy.

Question.— I have a corn stubble field fall plowed. I wish to
sow oats and peas and seed it for two or three years. Shall I sow
alfalfa or clover? Also a hillside in wheat which I wish to seed
for a permanent pasture. What seed shall I sow on it, and when?

Mr. Woodward.— I should certainly sow the red clover. If the
land is poor I should sow the large variety; if it is rich T should

135 Burerav or Farmers’ LIysrirvrtes.

sow the medium red. for permanent pasture, some of the
feseues and white clover. Orchard grass if kept pastured close,
makes a good permanent pasture, while blue grass is excellent for
a hillside pasture. In England the fescues are largely used, but
they feed the pastures all the time, and I never saw such fine pas-
tures anywhere as I saw there. It is a good plan to go over the
pasture with a harrow and re-seed it occasionally.

Question.— Is humus absolutely essential for the good of the
soil?

Mr. Goodrich. Humus is decayed vegetable’ matter, and
must be dissolved, and which, when combined with plant food,
builds up the plant. I do not think we can grow any plant un-
less we have some humus in the soil.

Dr. Curryer.— What is soil without humus? Is it anything
more than pulverized rock?

Mr. Rice.— Nothing more. That is it, exactly. All soils are
pulverized rock, made productive by the addition of humus, which,
as Mr. Goodrich says, is decayed vegetable matter, or what we term
humus.

(uestion.— Will it do to sow rape seed in winter wheat when
it is thin?

Mr. Woodward.— No; but it may be sown in the corn at the
last cultivation for late feeding, or it may be sown alone at that
time. If for early feeding sow it about the time oats are sown.

(Question.— How shall we destroy the wire worm the most
easily ?

Mr. Witter.— Turn the land over — plow it — just as late in
the fall as can be done. This will expose the worms to the action
of the winter frosts. It will also kill the white grubs and cut
worms. Salt will not kill wire worms. They have been known to
grow and thrive well in a barrel of salt.

Question.— Do English sparrows eat grubs and other injurious
insects that prey upon the farmers’ crops?

Mr. Smith.—TI think not. As a rule, they are not guilty of
doing anything of such value.

Question.— Shall we cut corn stalks or feed them whole?

Mr. Lillie-— By all means, cut them, else nearly all the feed-
ing value below the ears will be lost.

Question.— What crop can a dairyman most profitably grow to
produce his own protein? What about the southern cow pea, or
soja bean?

Tue Question Box. 123

Mr. Witter.— Probably the best crop which can be grown, is
alfalfa. It is very rich in protein, having a ratio of 1 to 3.5.

My. Smith.— Prof. Voorhees of the New Jersey Experiment
Station, produced $107 worth of protein in alfalfa on one acre
of ground, taking wheat bran as a basis.

Mr. Witter.— We have found alfalfa along the Lake Ontario
region. I know nothing about the soja beans.

Question.— How about cow peas?

Mr. Smith.— We have grown them on the Geneva Station farm,
but they were mixed with corn and put into the silo.

Question.— Will Mr. Smith tell us about varieties of cow peas?
For what are they valuable?

Answer.— They are very valuable as a catch crop for building
up a depleted soil. They are practically a bean and one must be
careful with them. We grew them last year at the Geneva Station
and put them into the silo with corn. They balance up the corn
well.

Question.— Does any one present know that wheat will turn
to chess under certain conditions?

Mr. Smith.— There is a standing offer of $50 for a plant of
wheat which has changed to chess, and the award has never yet
been claimed.

Quite a discussion ensued on this question, some farmers claim-
ing that they knew in their own experience that a crop of chess
had come from a seeding of wheat.

Question.— What do you think of oats for feeding, especially
for fattening old animals?

Dr. Smead.— I think they are a grand good food, and I am
‘going to say, that within the next five years more of them will
be fed. To-day, only the trotting-horse men seem to know their
value. As to fattening, they should be fed in connection with
corn so as to create lean meat, which will make a nice juicy
steak, which corn alone will not produce. At a Chicago stock
show, the steers that won highest prizes were found to have been
fattened on oats and corn. It will pay to grind the oats, however,
for such feeding.

Question.— How about cow peas; what are they good for ?

Mr. Gould.— They are a remarkably good crop to plow under to
grow another crop on. JI tried them as a green crop, but some-
how, my cows did not like them. When I was in Georgia,
I saw the cows there eating them all right, and the farmers told
me I did not “stick to ’em” long enough or mine would.

124 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.— Shall we seed with the oats or in the fall after
cutting the oats?

Mr. Witter.— I should sow the seed in the spring, when sowing
oats.

Mr. W. Peck—JI plowed my meadow land, harrowed, and
drilled in corn and grass seed. I cut the corn, and had a good
seeding of timothy and clover on the land. The seeding was top-
dressed with manure in the winter, and I obtained a good crop
of hay. I have largely increased my live-stock in this way. I
sow corn and grass seed at the same time with the grain drill.
Run the grass seed in drills a few inches apart, and the corn in
drills about three feet apart. The corn cannot be cultivated with
this plan. The corn makes fair growth.

Question.— Which is the better way to keep up a farm; to keep
all the live-stock possible, or to buy commercial fertilizers ?

Mr. Witter.— Keep live-stock. In sections that have depended
upon commercial fertilizers the farms are becoming less pro-
ductive. The starch foods can be raised upon the farm. Buy
those which are rich in protein.

Question.— How do you fit your find for cow peas? How
much seed do you use per acre and what is the cost?

Mr. Gould.— The price last year was $1.75 per bushel which
was unreasonably high. Fit well; sow about May 20th; drill two
or three inches deep. Roll after sowing, harrow once to keep
ground from crusting. Use only the Clay or Whippoorwill
varieties.

Question.— How can we get the most value from our oats, to
cut green for hay or to thresh them?

Mr. -Witter.— Our practice is to raise oats and peas, using one
bushel of Canada peas to two of oats. Drill them deeply. Cut
them while partly green. If carefully cured, the straw after
threshing will make good hay and there will be less waste than
when the grain is fed with the straw.

Question.— Is it not better for all animals to have exercise in
the open air on sunny days?

Mr. Gould.— Milk giving is a product of nerve force. If the
cow gives two Sain of mill a. day, she works as hard as any
horse. Make her comfortable, give her good food and ventila-
tion and she will in her milk production get all the exercise
necessary.

Tue Question Box. 195

Question.— What will keep smut from sweet corn in the
garden?

Mr. Witter.— There is no preventive known. It is not inju-
rious to live-stock, as was formerly supposed.

Question.— How can you compute the quantity of hay in a
stack ?

Mr. Witter.— The ordinary rate is 512 cubic feet for one ton.
It will depend on the fineness of the hay.

Question.— How shall we mix oats and peas for sowing?

Mr. Witter.— One bushel of peas with two and one-half of oats.

BARN MANURE AND SOME OTHER FERTILIZERS.

Question.— How can we get best results from farm manure?

Mr. Johnson.— My practice is to haul it from the stable every
day and spread it, either on new seeding or on land I am going
to crop. I prefer to plow in the fall; draw out the manure, spread
it and in the spring harrow or cultivate it in.

Mr. Bentley.— I get good results from plowing manure under
for corn, and I am going to plow as much of mine under as [
possibly can.

Mr. Smith.— Mr. Gould, when he comes, will tell you that is
the ideal way to grow corn.

Mr. Benton! Is Mr. Gould a good farmer?

Mr. Smith.— Yes, sir, he is; a very good farmer indeed. But
I want to say right here, that autane one has vegetable matter in
his soil to hold moisture, he will not be able to grow good crops,
no matter how much fertility there is in it. Corn stalks, straw,
clover or other such crops are valuable for that purpose. As a
rule, sandy or gravelly soils are most destitute of humus. ‘This
is why moisture leaks out of them, and we find so little response
from fertilizers applied to them. I recall a farm that a few years
ago, was called a “run out” one. A young man bought it at a
reduced price and began sowing clover and applying straw, both
turned under; to-day it is one of the most productive pene in
that section.

Question.— Will there be any loss of fertility in manure spread
on land in winter?

Mr. Smith.— Unless the manure is washed away or fermenta-
tion sets in, there will be no loss in that way. The mineral ele-
ments — potash and phosphoric acid — might possibly be washed
out on a very steep hillside; but there would be no loss of nitro-

126 Burrav or Farmers’ Institutes.

gen, until the manure had heated up. JI do not remember the
degree of heat it has to reach to change nitrogen to ammonia, and
thus allow it to escape.

The question brought out a variety of opinions as well as several
side questions as to the best way to utilize manure, opinions differ-
ing somewhat.

Question.— Will not manure spread on top, hold moisture as
well as that which we plow under ?

Mr. Smith.— It probably would hold surface moisture, but we
have two objects in view when we plow under manure — the first
is to add fertility to the soil for the benefit of the crop which
is to follow; second, to furnish humus to hold moisture to liberate
the plant food already in the soil, as well as that in the manure.

To Mr. Cook.— How do you apply manure?

Answer.— During the winter we draw out the manure every
day and spread it where we are to grow corn the next year. That
made during the summer we use to top-dress grass land. We use
a disc harrow on our corn ground, which has been plowed six inches
deep. I want to stir those furrows just as deeply as I can and
not turn them upside down.

Question.— If manure is drawn out every day in winter, will
it lose any of its value?

Mr. Cook.— No; unless it has been spread on a very steep
hillside. In that case, should heavy rains come, some of it may
be washed down into the valley. As a rule, however, there will
be no loss. Such has been the result of our experiments and
observations.

Question.— Shall I pile or spread my stable manure in the
field?

Mr. Smith.— What do you say, farmers?

A Farmer.— Spread it.

Another Farmer.— It will depend. If the land is level, spread
it; if rolling, leave it in piles.

Mr. Smith.— As a rule, manure will not waste when spread.
If you were to draw out a load of manure to-day and spread it on
this snow, do you think there would be any loss?

The Farmer.— It would depend on the lay of the land.

Mr. Smith.— We increased the yield of hay on a quite hilly
field where we drew out and spread the manure every day in
winter. We increased the yield of hay from one to two tons per
acre. The trouble is, when manure is left in piles, the farmer

THE Question Box. £27

does not spread it until he gets ready to plow the ground. The
result is an increase of fertility of the soil under each pile. The
man who draws the manure from his barn and spreads it every
day gets most benefit from it.

Mr. Lillie— We draw the manure every day in winter and
spread it on our clover sod where we will plant corn next year.
As a rule, we do no fall plowing. There are several reasons for
not doing it. One is that we cannot draw manure on to fall plowed
land in winter, particularly, when the ground is covered with snow.

Dr. Smead.— Draw it directly to the field every day. It does
not improve by being left in the stable, and there will be no loss
unless the temperature reaches 70°. If you can’t draw it out be
cause of snow, keep it under cover. It will pay to build a manure
shed to keep off rain. It may freeze badly and give you some extra
work to get it out. .

A Farmer.— I prefer to draw it out and pile it.

Mr. Chapman.— Why not spread it if you can draw it out and
pile it? There will be more loss from piled than spread manure.

Question.— Will fertilizers lose any value by being kept one
year, if kept in a dry place?

Mr. Chapman.— I think not.

Question.— Will it injure barn manure to draw it out when
frozen hard?

Mr. Woodward.— No, sir; not at all. The best thing to do with
barn manure is to wat it on aie land just as soon as made. Two
loads of such manure is worth three kept and applied in the usual
way.

Question.— How can we save our horse manure all summer, to
apply on wheat land, and retain its full value?

Mr. Witter.— I aan t know.

Mr. Smith.— If horse mannre is kept piled and land lastoed is
mixed in it, if the pile is kept solid, there will not be much loss
of nitrogen caused by fermentation.

Mr. Gould.— It will require lots of land plaster and road dust
to hold the nitrogen in such manure, which gets away in the form
of ammonia.

Question.— If manure is plowed under, does it do as much
good as if spread on top? If not, why not?

Mr. Smith— If you have fine manure and want to get an
immediate return, putting it on top and harrowing it in will give
most present benefit. If you want later results, that is, to per-
manently enrich the land, plow it under.

128 Bureau oF Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.— Is South Carolina rock good for barley? - If so,
how much per acre ¢

Prof. Cavanaugh.— I do not believe that South Carolina rock
is needed any more for barley than for other grain crops.

Question.— What is the best fertilizer for spring wheat ?

Mr. Litchard.— On heavy, damp soil, stable manure has no
equal for this purpose. And right here let me say, I believe,
even in a dairy region, it would pay the farmers to give more
attention to wheat raising; for on every farm may be found more
or less land suited to its growth, and the stable manure is fur-
nished by your herds. In fact, I believe it would be greatly to
your interest to give more attention to mixed farming. We are
living in what may be said to be an age of specialties, yet I believe
farmers make a mistake when they confine themselves entirely to a
single line of farming. First, it is bad for the land. In any loeal-
ity where only some specialty is followed, the soil almost univer-
sally becomes poorer; second, it is bad for the pocket. I find that,
with me, mixed farming is more profitable, and this has been, I
believe,:the general experience of those who have given it a trial.
Finally, it is bad for the mind. ‘There is too much tendency
among all classes to think along only a ingle line. In any depart-
ment in life, the old adage, “ Variety is the very spice of life,”
may be well applied and is as applicable to the life of the farmer
as any other class. It is the men of thoughi, of push and of
variety that help us along.

Question.— What brand of fertilizer is best to use on clay or
hardpan soils ?

Mr. Smith.— The “ Barn Brand.” As a rule, the lack in clay
land is vegetable matter. There may be a plenty of fertilizer in
the soil, but it is locked up. The humus has gone out, so that
moisture is not held. Unless there is moisture, which cannot be
present without vegetable matter, plants cannot feed. It is use-
less to apply commercial fertilizers unless there is moisture to
make the plant food in them available. The sowing of some
form of catch crop, like clover, rape or rye, with the barn manure,
will furnish humus. Our best farmers are sowing some cover
crop, to be plowed under the next spring.

Question.— What is the best fertilizer for vines?

Mr. Rice.— What variety of vines? If tomato, nitrate of soda
or stable manure is good. But neither might apply to others.
Every plant has two growths, one a reproductive, the other a fruit-
ful one. Both should be considered. Study the soil and the

Tue Question Box. 129

plant. lf the gentleman who asked that question will state what
vine is meant, I may be able more fully to answer it.

The Questioner.— I had reference to cucumbers.

Mr. Rice.— We grow them for pickles, using a large shovelful
of stable manure under each hill. If anything more is required,
we apply some nitrate of soda, harrowed in when planting the
seed. If applied after the plants appear, unless great care is
taken, it will burn the foliage. Probably 200 pounds of nitrate
of soda will be enough for an acre. We use 100 pounds on an
acre of strawberries.

Question.— What is the best fertilizer to produce fruit?

Mr. Rice.— Ordinarily speaking, we need all three elements
of plant food for most crops in most soils. The only way is to
experiment and find out. For some crops in some soils, only
nitrogen is needed; in others, both potash and phosphoric acid
should be applied. On our soil at home there are more than
55,000 pounds of potash on a surface foot of an acre, but it needs
both nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Read the language of the
plant; study it and the effects of fertilizer on it. In this way,
and in this way only, can we tell what is most required. No one
can come here and lay down an iron-clad rule for fertilizing any
crop.

(uestion.— What is the best commercial fertilizer for straw-
berries?

Mr. Smith.— That is a broad question. J cannot answer it
without knowing the condition of the soil. If you have a good
clover sod, well fitted, not much nitrogen will be required. As
a rule, a fertilizer made up of three per cent. nitrogen, seven of
phosphoric acid and nine of potash gives good results. This is
Dr. Van Slyke’s formula. Conditions, however, and different
soils may require a different formula.

Question — What fertilizer would you recommend for grass land
which was in hay; that is, what chemical fertilizer ?

Mr. Smith.— A dressing of 100 pounds of nitrate of soda per
acre, applied early in the spring, will, no doubt, give best results,
as it is very soluble and at once available for the use of the plant.

To Mr. Stevens.— Give a good formula of fertilizer for straw-
berries?

Answer.— Wood ashes are valuable. Do not put on nitrate of
soda, except early in the spring, else it will burn the foliage. A
fertilizer made of 400 pounds of muriate of potash, 400 pounds of

9

130 Boreav or Farmers’ Instrirures.

acid phosphate, 200 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre will be
found good.

Question.— What effect has potash on fruit trees?

Mr. Rice.— Potash makes a hard, stocky growth of wood, and
gives color to both leaf and fruit. Nitrogen, if too much is applied,
makes a soft, unhealthy growth, while phosphoric acid perfects
the seed. If I had an orchard that was making a good, healthy
growth, I should keep nitrogen out of it. It is quite easy to
ascertain what element of plant food is most needed by a plant
or tree by observation. If the tree or plant is making a feeble
growth and looks pale and “ puny,” nitrogen is needed; if the
grain or grass falls down, or the wood of the tree is soft and over-
grown, there is too much nitrogen available in the soil. If the
leaf, fruit, grass or grain lacks in strength, potash is needed; if
the fruit prematurely falls, or does not make a full growth, the
seed has not perfected. In that case phosphoric acid is required.

Question.— When an apple or potato rots on the ground, does
it carry back the same plant food it took away from the soil ?

Mr. Rice.— Yes, in a way. If the apple were to rot, the min-
eral element in it would go into the soil, while some of the nitro-
gen in it might turn to ammonia and escape into the atmosphere.

Question.— Give value of good hard-wood ashes? How should
they be applied, and what crop is most benefited?

Mr. Smith.— Good hard-wood ashes, if they have five per cent.
potash in them, are worth about $6.75 a ton. The potash will be
about 100 pounds, worth five cents per pound, and 80 or 85 pounds
of phosphoric acid, worth $1.75. But there are many so-called
Canada ashes that will not analyze more than three per cent. of
potash. But there is a little more value, which is the lime in
them. The lime promotes a certain chemical change in the soil
by releasing plant food locked up. As a rule, potash and phos-
phoric acid are more cheaply obtained in another way. Buy 200
pounds of muriate of potash, 200 pounds of treated South Caro-
lina rock and 1,600 pounds of slaked lime. Apply half a ton per
acre on ordinary soils for ordinary crops. I do not know what
crops will be most benefited by their use.

Question.— Are ashes good for corn, and when and how should
they be used?

Mr. Smith.— Yes; their value is in the potash and lime con-
tained in them. Corn does not require as much potash as some
other crops; but, for a crop of 60 bushels per acre, 100 pounds of
nitrogen is required. The lime in the ashes sweetens the soil, if

Tur Quesrion Box. 131

there is acid in it. It also sets locked-up plant food free. As a
rule, however, potash and phosphoric acid may be bought more
cheaply from other sources than in ashes. ‘There is about one
per cent. of phosphoric acid in ashes. If you decide to buy them,
do not pay more than $6.50 per ton, and insist upon a guaranteed
analysis. Sow broadcast in the spring.

Mr. Cook.— It will depend on the quality of the ashes. Good
hard-wood ashes, if well preserved and kept dry, may be worth,
possibly, $7 per ton. They will analyze about four per cent. pot-
ash and one to one and a half per cent. of phosphoric acid. Then
there will be nearly $2 worth of lime in a ton of them.

Question.— What do you think, Mr. Cook, of mixing poultry
manure with ashes?

Answer.— You will lose all the nitrogen in the manure. The
lime in the ashes will set free the nitrogen in the manure, which
will escape in the form of ammonia. To not mix lime or wood
ashes with any manure. Land plaster will do, however.

Question.— How much wood ashes would you recommend for an
acre? -

Prof. Cavanaugh.— I don’t know; I suppose that 25 or 30 bush-
els would not be too much.

Question.— About how many bushels of ashes would you use
on an acre of apple orchard?

Mr. Gould.— I heard a man say recently that he wanted 100
bushels of good ashes on an acre of peach orchard. He did not
say anything about apples.

Question.— Would you sow land plaster on newly-seeded land
so as to save the plants?

Mr. Rice.— Land plaster contains no fertility. Its value is
in its ability to unlock plant food already in the soil. On virgin
soil it is valuable for this purpose. But I should try South Caro-
lina rock in place of plaster. At the present price of rock, for
that containing 14 per cent. of phosphoric acid not far from
$14 per ton, you will get the plaster free. That portion left after
deducting the acid is pure sulphate of lime, which is land plaster.
If you buy it, insist on a guaranteed analysis, and don’t pay $14
for $11 grade.

Question.— Why does not land plaster stimulate the growth
of clover, as it once did?

Mr. Smith.— Land plaster is an indirect fertilizer, and, if the
land has enough humus, some benefit will be deriv ed. The sul-
phate of lime in it, on such soils, will set free potash. Land

132 Boreravu or Farmers’ Lystirures.

plaster makes a good absorbent in the stable, because it locks up
and holds nitrogen in it, which otherwise would escape in the
form of ammonia.

Question.— What is the cost of South Carolina rock?

Mr. Smith.-— It is worth about $14 per ton for the best quality
analyzing 14 per cent. of phosphoric acid. But there are some
dealers who sell 11 per cent. rock at the same price as 14-per-cent.
goods. If you buy it insist on a guaranteed analysis and do not
pay any more than it is worth.

Question.— What is the cost of dissolved South Carolina rock?

Mr. Chamberlain.— I have bought it for $14 per ton, guar-
anteed to contain 14 per cent. phosphoric acid.

Question.— Would it pay to use commercial fertilizers on oats?

Mr. Smith.— That would depend. If the land is poor and
lacking in vegetable matter, probably one would not get the
money back he paid for the fertilizer.

(Question.— Does the continued use of commercial fertilizers
injure the land?

Mr. Smith A pound of nitrogen or one of potash, or of
phosphorie acid, is the same, no matter from what source it comes.
Asa rule, the farmer applies just about the same quantity of plant
food in a fertilizer on an acre as he would in one load of manure
which he applies near the hill. It gives the plant a start, but
does but little further good. If this system is continued without
returning vegetable matter to the soil, meanwhile removing crops,
it will injure the soil by making it less productive each year.

Question.— What is the best way to apply commercial fertilizers
on corn ground?

A Farmer.— I put on 200 pounds to the acre, and never got
any benefit.

Another Farmer.— I got the best results when drilling the fer-
tilizer in.

Mr. Smith.— There would not be enough of the fertilizer to
do much good. Would you expect to derive much benefit from
only two loads of barn manure spread over an acre of land? Yet,
there was no more plant food in that fertilizer than in two loads
of such manure. You will have to apply more fertilizer than 200
pounds per acre to get much benefit.

Question.— Do potato tops add potash enough to the soil to
benefit strawberries, which follow?

Mr. Rice.— The potato vine is a ravenous feeder. There is

!

Tue Question Box. 133

some plant food in them. If they are burned, the nitrogen is
lost, but the mineral elements go back to the soil.

Mr. Smith.— There is $1.60 worth of nitrogen, potash and’
phosphoric acid in one ton of potato vines, which, if they are
plowed under and left to rot, will be mostly saved.

Mr. Rice.— A ton of potatoes has $1.20 worth of fertility in
them, not as much as the vines contain.

Mr. Smith.— Nearly all the potato, aside from the water in
it, is starch, which contains no fertility at all. You could not
grow a potato in a ton of starch.

Question.— Can cow peas be successfully grown as a fertilizer
in a cold section?

Mr. Smith.—I know of no reason why they can’t. You are
not in a very frosty country? We grow them in Geneva
without any trouble, and, it seems to me, you ought to grow them.
They are a bean, not a pea, and take nitrogen from the
air; therefore, they are a good crop to turn under, both to furnish
nitrogen ¢ud humus. But in the north, one must wait till all
danger of late spring frosts has passed. We grew some of them
and put them into the silo with the corn. The live-stock ate
the ensilage all right, but did not seem to relish the peas when fed
alone. We also grew some of the soja beans, but they also went
into the silo with the beans and corn. Any of these crops, when
turned under, provide humus, which holds moisture, to liberate
plant food, and thus helps the plant to grow. Even straw manure,
which we do not consider of much value, when turned under by
the plow, has a value in stimulating changes that release plant
food in the soil.

A Farmer.— Will straw, plowed under, take nitrogen from
the air?

Mr. Smith.— No; but when it decays it holds moisture, which
makes plant food already in the soil available for the use of the
plant.

Question.— What is cottonseed meal worth per hundred pounds ?
Where can it be obtained? Would it pay to use it to grow pota-
toes? If so, how would you apply it?

Mr. Rice.— I don’t know what the price of cottonseed meal is;
probably about $24 per ton. It is rich in nitrogen. It may be
mixed with South Carolina rock, and drilled in. It works through
the drill very nicely. If phosphoric acid and nitrogen are needed,
the mixture would be a good one. If only nitrogen is wanted,
nitrate of soda and dried blood, at present prices, might be accept-
able, but cottonseed meal would rank next.

134 Burrav or Farmers’ Instirvtes.

Question.— In what form should phosphorie acid and potash be
applied on the land %

Mr. Smith.— Phosphoric acid is most cheaply obtained in dis-
solved South Carolina rock; potash, in the muriate or sulphate.
Sulphate is better for fruit. It has not been proved that it is
any better for potatoes. Wood ashes contain potash. It is their
most valuable constituent. They also contain a small per cent.
of phosphoric acid; the residue is lime. If the ashes contain five
per cent. of potash and one per cent. phosphoric acid, and are
dry, clean and pure, they make a good fertilizer.

Question.— How shall we know what fertilizer our soils most
need ?

Mr. Smith.— By observing the plant. If it makes a large
growth of straw and falls down, there is an over-supply of nitrogen;
if the growth is feeble, a lack of it; if the leaf is lacking in vigor
and color, or the fruit lacks in color or sugar, there is a want of
potash; if the fruit falls prematurely or does not perfect, there
is a lack of phosphoric acid.

Question.— Will it pay to fertilize corn with phosphate when
planting it?

Mr. Woodward.—TI have made commercial fertilizers pay on
potatoes, but never on corn. I keep a good many sheep and get
manure enough. We apply our manure on a clover sod every
day during the winter, which we will turn down for corn. The
next year I plant potatoes on the same land, and I find I can
make a fertilizer pay in that way. I have put these fertilizers
on corn. On wheat and other grain crops I have never made
them pay.

Question.— Can anything be added to muck to make it a paying
fertilizer 4

Prof. Cavanaugh.— Some muck is rich in nitrogen. J have
known samples of it to contain as much as 2.5 per cent. nitro-
gen. It is the remains of vegetable decay, but, if this is dry, its
nitrogen value is lessened. Our best onion soils are muck, but
they may be sour. Add lime, then add potash and phosphoric
acid to such muck soils.

To Mr. Smith.— What formula of fertilizer, other than barn
manure, do you use for top-dressing the alfalfa field on the Geneva
Station farm ?

Answer.— As a rule, the field is top-dressed with fine barn
manure once in two years. If we do not have the manure, a
commercial fertilizer, made up of 100 pounds of dried blood, 100

Tue Question Box. 135

pounds nitrate of soda, 100 pounds muriate of potash, and 200
pounds dissolved South Carolina rock per acre, is substituted.

Question.— Is the phosphoric acid in bone more valuable than
in South Carolina rock ¢

Mr. Chapman.— The chemist, or plant, finds no difference. It
is cheaper when bought in South Carolina rock.

Question.— Would you plow under manure for corn 2

Mr. Witter.— My practice is to apply manure to the ground in
winter, and plow it under in the spring before planting corn.
Decaying vegetable matter in the soil will raise its temperature
and help the corn to grow.

Question.— When lime is used to correct acidity in the soil,
will it answer just as well to scatter it in the gutters behind the
cows and so first use it as an absorbent, as to apply it directly to
the land ?

Mr. Smith.— Most assuredly not. Lime would not only re-
lease all the nitrogen in the manure, but would burn up the humus.
Do not use either ashes or lime in the stables or the poultry-house.
Either use land plaster or dissolved South Carolina or Florida
rock.

SOME VETERINARY INQUIRIES.

Question.— What is the cause of winter fouls in cows 3

Mr. Stevens.— The trouble referred to must be in the nature
of the foot rot. It is a contagious disease, and great care should
be taken to avoid infection. Burning it out with oil of vitriol is
sometimes practiced as a remedy.

Prof. Hall— Dr. Smead recommends cleaning it out and ap-
plying butter of antimony.

Question.— What can you do for garget in cows 4

Mr. Stevens.— This is a trouble which comes from various
causes. It may be hereditary, or it may be caused by accident,
but, in either case, the trouble is in the blood and must be doc-
tored accordingly. I use for this purpose doses of about one-half
ounce of saltpetre in the feed, and give a little linseed oil. Bathe
the affected parts with water as hot as you can bear to the back
of the hand and follow with fomentation or poultice of hot wheat
bran. Give good care and be careful in milking not to injure the
affected part.

Question.— Can you give a remedy for the ox-warble or larvw
of the ox-bot fly 4

136 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrures.

Mr. Banks (Assistant State Entomologist, Albany).— The appli-
eation, carefully made of kerosene, or of mercurial ointment on
the spot under which the bot or grub is lying, will prove an almost
certain remedy for this pest.

Question.— Is there a permanent cure for garget in cows?

Dr. Smead.— Some cows are born gargety. They cannot be
cured. Asa rule, if treatment is resorted to before the udder has
become inflamed, the disease can be removed. Bathing the udder
with hot water and a dose of aconite and poke root given internally,
are the best remedies I know.

Question.— What is good for a horse’s foot where the hoof has
become hard and feverish ?

Dr. Smead.— When horses are allowed to stand on a hard floor,
their feet sometimes become feverish. Wrap cloths around the
feet and saturate them with hot water. A mixture made of one
ounce oil of tar, one of turpentine, and two of raw linseed oil,
rubbed on at the summit of the hoof, is a good remedy.

Question.— Are tuberculous germs located elsewhere in the
animal except in the lungs?

Dr. Smead.— Yes. Tuberculosis may he present in other or-
gans of the animal than the lungs. Tuberculosis of the lungs is
known as consumption in human beings, but ofttimes tuberculous
germs are found in other organs, not only in the animal but in
mankind. It is quite probable that there is not a person present
but has tubercles somewhere. This has been the condition since
man came on earth; yet, within the last 50 years consumption has
decreased 50 per cent. You may go out and kill any cow you have,
and if you don’t find tubercles in the body, if a good post-mortem
is held, you will have what is not often found, a perfectly healthy
animal.

Among the post-mortems made at the Bellevue Hospital, New
York, 92 per cent. were found tuberculous, and yet but few of
them died of consumption. J should not use the milk from
an unhealthy cow, nor from one which had been tested with
tuberculin, if I knew it. If one has a cow which shows disease,
he should quarantine it from the herd, give it good care and feed
it properly. If the disease develops, and you are sure that tuber-
culosis is present, slaughter the animal, but don’t use tuberculin
on a healthy animal. It cannot be depended upon, only in the
hands of an expert. Any foreign substance, as a rule, if injected
into an animal, will raise the temperature of the body. John
Gould of Ohio, recently said that he witnessed the slaughter of

Tue Qurstion Box. £3'(

24 cows which had been tested with tuberculin and condemned,
but the post-mortem failed to find a tubercle. It is wholly un-
reliable and in the near future will have to go.

The consumption of milk in New York city has more than
doubled during the last 10 years, yet the death rate from con-
sumption has decreased 7 per cent., while the number of inhabi-
tants have increased nearly 1,000,000. The same increase in pro-
portion of inhabitants and the consumption of milk is recorded in
other cities of the State, and the same decrease of death by con-
sumption, showing that this tuberculosis talk is a humbug, gotten
up by a few men who want a pull.

Mr. Stevens.— The honest farmers in this State ought to rise
up and condemn this, the greatest humbug ever sprung on them.
Massachusetts has refused an appropriation for continuing the test,
having found it wholly unreliable.

[The New York law as it now stands should be perfectly satis-
factory to farmers, having been revised during session of the
Legislature, 1900-01. |

Question Do young pigs have tuberculosis, and what are
the symptoms of hog cholera ?

Dr. Smead.— Possibly they may have tuberculosis, but, as a
rule, they have rheumatism. ‘There are but few cases of hog
cholera. Rheumatism is caused by dampness or improper feeding.
If you hear that your neighbor’s hogs have cholera, don’t go near
them, for you may carry the germs of the disease in your clothing
or on your boots. It is caused by a germ, as is smallpox or other
contagious diseases which afflict the human family.

Question.— Is tuberculosis among cattle on the increase?

Dr. Smead.— No. Tuberculosis, both in mankind and animals
has been on the decrease during the last 25 years. People are
learning to better clothe, better feed and better care for them-
selves. ‘They are also learning to better care for and better feed
their animals. Sunlight, pure air, good food and cleanliness will
kill tuberculous germs. ‘The disease is growing less everywhere.

A Farmer.— If that is so, how do you account for its appear-
ance in Governor Morton’s herd?

Dr. Smead.— Well, oftentimes things are overdone, and, as a
rule, they are overdone in this tuberculosis business. Governor
Morton’s cows had the disease, but a number of them had it in a
harmless way. Many tubercles were incysted and would never
have done any harm; and [I am going to say that, in my belief, there
ig not a man here but has tubercles present somewhere in his sys-

138 Bureau or Farwers’ Instirures.

tem, but he will never die of the disease. If you have a cow that
has a cough or scours, watch her. If the disease increases, quaran-
tine her. If the old cow eats well and chews her cud, don’t go
near her with tuberculin. Let her alone. She will come out all
right.

Question.— How can a man or animal avoid dying of tuber-
culosis? |

Mr. Woodward.— By giving good sanitary conditions. We
want to give the animals pure foods, pure air and plenty of sun-
light. Then they will have plenty of rich red blood. I once had
tuberculosis, so the doctors said, and was told I must go South or
IT would die. But I did neither. I simply began studying sani-
tary laws and obeying them, and am here yet, with no tuberculosis
about me.

Mr. Smith.— When my father was 80 years old, it was said he
had consumption and could not live long. He began following
Mr. Woodward’s prescription and is alive now at 87 years of age.

Question Is milk from a cow afflicted with tuberculosis, fit
for the manufacture of butter or cheese?

Mr. Smith.— The milk of a cow afflicted with tuberculosis of
the udder is not suitable for use in any kind of human or animal
food. When cheese or butter is made from ordinary milk the
germ of disease is not destroyed. A heat of about 184° is neces-
sary to destroy such a germ.

A Farmer.— How shall we know when a cow has tuberculosis?

Mr. Smith.— Any honest farmer who will read, and carefully
watch the condition of his herd will easily detect it when the dis-
ease has reached a stage to be injurious.

Question.— What are the symptoms of tuberculosis?

Mr. Smith.— It is hard to answer the question. If the tuber-
cles are in the lungs, there will be difficulty with the breathing,
such as coughing and wheezing. If they are in the bowels, there
- will be scours. Jf there is a run-down condition in the animal
you cannot account for, the best thing to do is to quarantine it
from the herd. Care for it well and await results.

To Mr. Gould.— Will it affect an old animal more than a young
one?

Answer.—I don’t know anything about tuberculosis. I have
to come to New York to.find out about it. I heard a veterinarian
say that a young animal might be cured of the disease, because
the tubercles would become incysted and healed, while in an old

one they would not.

Tue Question Box. 139

Question.— Are Jersey cattle more susceptible to tuberculosis
than are other dairy breeds ?

Mr. Van Alstyne.— Most emphatically, no. The report that
the Jersey is more susceptible to the disease came from the fact
that the first herds tested and found diseased were Jerseys. If
other herds had been tested as widely, no doubt just as many
animals would have been found diseased.

Question.— What is the cure or preventive for garget in cows?

Mr. Van Alstyne.— The best cure is prevention. If, however,
the udder become gargety, give the cow a dose of Epsom salts and
bathe the udder with water as hot as you can bear your hand in.
At the same time work the udder and use every effort to draw the
milk. <A piece of fat salt pork bound on the udder often reduces
the inflammation. The disease is contagious. ‘Therefore, the cow
having it should be the last of the herd milked, or else the milker
should thoroughly wash his hands before milking a sound cow.

Mr. Fenner.—TI have been troubled with garget in my herds
more or less during 60 years, and have invariably found a poultice
made of clay, as soft as mortar, and bound on the udder, a sure
cure.

Question.— What is the best remedy or cure for scours in young
calves ?

Mr. Smith.— Laudanum and the white of egg, is said to be a
preventive; but I have not the proportionate ingredients tables
with me.

Question.— Does milk fever affect the cow except in the udder,
and will injections of something into the udder, cure it?

Mr. Gould.— “ An injection of half a pint of 1 per cent. iodide
of potassium, 1 per cent. strength, into each teat. In the mouth
we inject half a pint of whisky, one and one-half pounds of salts,
two ounces of ginger, one-half drachm of nux vomica, as a
drench. The treatment was repeated once in four hours.” The
foregoing is a prescription given out by the State veterinarian of
Pennsylvania. Our veterinarian has tried the remedy, and suc-
ceeded in saving three cows out of five, that were ill with the
disease.

Question.— What can be done for a horse that is stiff in his
knees? Is there any remedy ?

Dr. Curryer.—I do not know that there is any permanent
remedy. An application of angle-worm oil well applied may

help him.

140 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrrrures.

Question.— Is there any better remedy for garget than tur-
pentine and lard?

A Farmer.— Liquid extract of poke root. I have used it suc-
cessfully. Aconite is good; so is saltpetre.

Mr. Chapman.— I have used poke root very successfully. If
the udder is caked, the inflammation may be reduced by bathing
it in hot water and anointing it with vaseline and lard.

Question.— I have a horse 18 years old. He lately began to
stagger with his fore feet. Is this an evidence of disease? If so
what, and what is the remedy.

Dr. Smead.— Does he do this all the time, or by “ spells ”?

The Questioner.— By spells, and it seems to be inability.

Dr. Smead.— It is a paralytic trouble; there is no help for him
whatever.

Question.— Do cattle always have a cough with tuberculosis,
and does New York State stand a part of loss when such cattle
are killed?

Dr. Smead.— No; cattle do not always have a cough when af-
flicted with tuberculosis. When they have a cough it may come
from an affection of the bronchial tubes. A bronchial affection
does not indicate the disease, but scours do. As to who loses the
animal, if destroyed, is as yet to be determined. There is yet
no appropriation, nor should there be. If a man has a tubercu-
lous animal, he should kill it. He ought not to have pay for it
any more than for any other diseased farm animal that dies and
has to be slaughtered because of disease.

Question.— I have a horse with a dormant digestion. Some-
times he is sensitive to touch on the flanks, especially when idle
for a time?

Mr. Ward.— Do not allow the horse to stand idle. Hitch him
and drive him a little every day, even if you have to do it
after dark. If you can’t do that, put him loose in a box stall
and give him an opportunity to stir about. If the horse becomes
ailing give him a tonic made of ground ginger, powdered gentian
and sulphate of iron; a tablespoonful once a day.

(Juestion.— What is best to use on cuts and bruises, ete., on
horses?

Mr. Ward.— If the wound is caused by a bruise, apply arnica
liberally. If it is from a cut, use some one of the carbolic sheep
dips, using one part to one hundred parts of water. Mix three
quarts vaseline and one-quarter sheep dip for a salve and apply

Tuer Question Box. 141

toacut. It will cleanse the wound thoroughly, and at the same
time, heal it. But, give the horse exercise. If any one of us
were kept constantly in the house and fed all that we could eat
and digest, we would have torpid livers and be troubled with
indigestion.

Question.— What causes the white, chalky scab around the eyes
of cattle, and what is the remedy?

Dr. Smead.— Is it only about the eyes?

A Farmer.— It is also on the sides.

Dr. Smead.—It is a ring worm, swab it with tincture of
iodine. The disease is contagious and may be conveyed to the
whole herd; so it is best to anoint the faces and shoulders of each
animal in the herd, with the tincture of iodine if you have a case
of the ring worm in your herd.

In answer to the question: “ What causes corns on horses’
feet,” Dr. Smead named them, saying, the farmer often caused
them by having the horses’ shoes on too long, but, as a rule, corns
are caused by bad shoeing. Sometimes by burning or cutting out
of the corns, relief may be obtained for a time, but they will
grow again. Other questions relating to diseases of the bones
of horses were also asked and answered by the doctor, who showed
by way of illustration, some of the bones of the horse’s foot and
leg, on which were seen the effects of ossification.

To Dr. Smead.— What is the best preventive of milk fever ?

Answer.— Give three-fourths of a pound of salts to a Jersey
or Jersey grade, weighing 900 pounds, beginning two weeks be-
fore the calf is dropped, and repeating it every five days. Toa
Holstein weighing 1,000 or more pounds, give a pound of the
salts, but mix three-fourths of a tablespoonful of powdered gen-
tian in the salts. This will keep the bowels open and regular, and
prevent the appearance of the disease.

Question.— Is there any cure for cholera in calves?

Dr. Smead.— If a calf has absorbed the poison that causes
the disease, previous to its birth, there is no help for it. If not,
olive oil beaten with the white of egg, with equal parts of spirits
of camphor, peppermint essence and laudanum will be a very good
remedy; a teaspoonful every half hour, may prevent the appear-
ance of the disease. Prevention is the best cure.

Question.— Give a liniment to take out soreness in a horse’s legs,
caused by spavin?

Dr. Smead.— Tincture of opium, tincture of arnica, spirits of

142 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures,

camphor, mixed equally, makes a good liniment to relieve pain
caused by spavin.

Question.— What liniment will limber, or take the soreness
out of a sprain so that the horse may be worked?

Dr. Hatch.— There is no liniment which will take the soreness
all out of a sprain, but it may be relieved by drawing it somewhat
to the surface.

Question.— What will kill lice on cattle?

Mr. Smith.— Anything that will stop the lice from breathing.
Plaster, road dust or grease will kill them. They breathe through
holes in their sides, and anything that will close them, kills the
lice,

Question.— Give a lotion to prevent chapped teats on cows.

Dr. Smead.— Carbolized vaseline. Two ounces of vaseline
mixed with a tablespoonful of carbolie acid, perhaps, is as good
as any application for chapped teats.

Question.— What will cure white scours in calves?

Dr. Smead.— The cause is often overfeeding of too cold milk.
Watch the calves and know just how much to feed them. Keep
all vessels clean that they are fed in. It is a good plan to mix
lime water with milk when ealves have the scours. Albumen in
the form of an egg is good for the calf. A little Jaudanum will
help to alleviate them when they are in pain. In advanced stages,
I should give a little oil — castor or linseed.

Question What are the symptoms of black leg in cattle?

Mr. Witter.— Anthrax is the proper name. The animals usu-
ally first become lame in one quarter. It invariably kills, and is
very contagious.

Question.— What is the treatment of a cow with large and
inflamed knee #4

Dr. Smead.— I would puncture it to draw off the fluid, then
bathe with tincture of arnica. This is the treatment, if the trouble
is not chronic.

Question.— Can a poll evil be cured, and how ?

Dr. Hatch.— Poll evil, if treated in the first stage, may be
prevented by the use of a blister. If it 1s allowed to progress,
nothing but a surgical operation will cure it. A tincture of
Spanish flies, one ounce, croton oil, ten drops, will produce a blis-
ter which, if early applied, will prevent the disease developing.

Question.— What causes the excrement of a cow to be thin
when she has two feeds of straw and hay?

Tue Question Box. 143

Mr. Van Wagenen.— | do not know, unless it comes from in-
digestion, caused by a cow’s eating too much of those foods to
disarrange her digestion and bowels. It is another question for
a veterinarian.

Question.— Is there such a thing as “ black teeth ” in pigs?

Dr. Smead.— Yes. If you will open a pig’s mouth you will
find black teeth. As a rule, they are black when the pigs are
farrowed; but there is no such pig disease as black teeth. Some-
times the teeth become blackened by internal parasites. When
the pig is well nourished, black teeth do not appear.

ABOUT HORSES.

Question.— Is wheat straw better than oat straw to feed a
horse when it is being fed oats?

Dr. Smead.— I may run up against a snag when I answer that
question, because I am going to say that wheat straw is the poor-
est food ever given to an animal. Oat straw’s nutritive ratio is
1 to 33; wheat straw 1 to 64. But there are many, farmers who
say they get best results from the wheat straw. As a rule, this
is caused by the clover or other grasses which are cut when the
wheat is reaped, and which is left in the straw.

Question.— Ought horses to be watered in the morning before
feeding, or after?

Dr. Smead.— The best time to water a horse is when he wants
to drink. Some horses will drink in the morning before they will
eat; some will not. It is another case of individuality. One
horse will drink more often, another less. The only way is to
offer water to him. If he wants to drink he will do it, and if
the horse has been working, offer him a little water occasionally,
but don’t take him to a trough and allow him to drink all he will
take, as his stomach will not hold more than three gallons at a
time.

Question.— Does it pay to grind feed for horses?

Dr. Curryer.— It would depend on the age of the horse. If
he is old and his teeth are poor, have the grain ground. A good
way is to put a few lumps of rock salt in the grain box and
spread the erain over them, so that the horse will have to nose
around after it. He will take a little every time he eats. Feed
him from a box near the floor, not too high up. No; I do not
think that it will pay, as a rule, to grind grain for the horse.

144 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrrrures.

Question.— Have you ever tried the hitching of a horse’s head
to his tail?

Dr. Curryer.— Yes, sir. It is one of the most effective means
I know to cure a horse from running away. When he makes an
effort to run away he will stop in about 15 seconds, because he will
find he cannot get away.

Question.— Is it advisable to give a young colt all the hay
he can eat and all the water he will drink?

Mr. Chapman.— I think it advisable to get a good growth on
a colt during the first three years, but I should not get him fat.
A colt tied to a hay mow and allowed to eat all he will, as a rule,
will be ruined. A colt, to make muscle, ought to have a balanced
ration. Enough protein to balance the fat, which he cannot get
from timothy or corn. Young horses grow rapidly on green
corn sown so thickly as not to develop ears, however.

Question.— Do horses have wolf teeth? If so, do they cause
blindness?

Dr. Curryer.— They are supernumerary teeth. Let them
alone; they never have, nor never will, cause blindness. We
have had as many as 500 horses, but we never pulled a so-called
wolf tooth yet. Some veterinarians say, “Take them out”; but it
always costs a quarter or more each to do it; besides, the removal
of them always injures the horse somewhat, as it affects its head.
If a tooth is so deformed as to cause the bit to hurt the mouth,
perhaps it were better to take it out. Possibly there may be an
abnormally developed wolf tooth in a horse’s mouth, but I should
not take it out unless I was satisfied it was causing mischief.

Dr. Smead.— Wolf teeth do not cause blindness. They are
abnormal, and if they disturb the natural condition of the
mouth, they will cause the eyes to become watery; but it will
not be necessary to take them out unless they disturb the natural
functions of the mouth. If the colt’s eyes become watery, wash
them with warm water with 10 or 15 drops of camphor in it.

Question.— Is there such a disease as ‘‘ moon eye” in a horse?

Dr. Curryer.— Yes; it has a scientific name, but it is not neces-
sary to give it here, as the question using the common name is
better understood by the farmers. It causes a watery or milky
appearance of the eye, and, as a rule, eventually ends in blind-
ness. It is just the same as inflammation of the eye, and comes
on by degrees. I know of no cure for it.

Question.— Which is best for horses, whole or cut hay?

Dr. Smead.— There will be no advantage in cutting hay for
a horse, where it is fed alone.

Tue Question Box. 145

Question.— I am feeding ensilage and four quarts of oats, with
wheat and oat straw; what shall I add ?

Dr. Curryer.—I should add a little oil meal. A little bran
added will also be beneficial.

Question.— Will a few potatoes fed to a horse, three or four
times a day, with other foods, be injurious?

Dr. Smead.— How “few?” A few potatoes, say, two quarts,
once a day, will not injure a horse, provided he relishes them.
The trouble will come, if any, from the raw starch in the potatoes,
which is quite indigestible. The parings are better than the
whole potato, as there is an element in the potato eye which is a
cathartic, and so acts as a vermifuge that destroys pin- worm in
the horse. As many as four quarts of the parings may be fed, but
do it the first thing in the morning, before any other food is given.
But one must study individuality; one horse will not assimilate
and digest as much as will another. One horse will eat four quarts
of potatoes three times a day, while another will not eat them at all.

Question.— What is the best grain food for a horse?

Dr. Curryer.— The best single grain for a horse is oats. For
a mixture, oats and corn is best.

Question.— Which is the best to feed to horses, oat or wheat
straw ?

Mr. Gould.— The oat straw is the better of the two.

Mr. Smith.— When oats are cut while quite green, they make
about as good a food as does common timothy hay.

Question.— What class of horses are wanted mostly for for-
eign markets?

Dr. Smead.— Germany and England want cavalry horses.
England is also asking us for fine driving horses, which now
mostly come from the West. French coach and Cleveland bay are
being bought, as well as are the large draft horses.

Question.— Is there anything in sight to indicate that the pro-
duction of high-class road and coach horses will be overdone?

Mr. Smith—AI do not believe there is. There is a demand
in the market for good horses, and none at all for poor ones.
You have the example of Mr. Stevens here, who has very fine
horses, which he is rearing and selling at a profit.

Dr. Smead.— We have sent 100,000 horses to Great Britain
since the breaking out of the Boer War, and Germany has sent
30 experts here to buy cavalry horses. Then, if you want a fine
horse from the Buffalo market, you will have to put your hand
deeply in your pocket if you get him; and it seems to me a very

10

146 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrrrures.

foolish plan for the New York farmers not to breed and rear
horses for these foreign markets, when they very well know they
could get good paying prices for them. But the trouble is, the
average farmer waits till he has some old ring-boned, spavined,
crippled mare, and then breeds her to a no-purpose sire. He
never asks the market, but raises a colt to suit his own tastes.
When he has it reared, he must keep it or sell it at a losing price,
as no one wants it for foreign or city markets.

Question.— When you are feeding a horse 12 quarts of oats
per day, is hay better than straw to be given with them?

Dr. Smead.— It would depend wholly on the hay or straw.
Oat straw would be better than wheat, and mixed hay better than
timothy. At night, the horse should be given more hay than
at noon or morning. But it would depend very much on the
individuality of the horse. One will require more oats or hay
than will another. Do not feed every horse or other animal just
the same quantity of hay or grain.

Question.— What is the best maintenance ration for a horse
when hay is high?

Dr. Smead.— It depends on what the horse is doing. eu
is cheaper than hay at present prices, as a much larger percentage
of it is digestible. If the animal : working, the ration should
contain more of the protein.

Question.— Is gluten a suitable food for a horse, with other
grain? How much should be fed to a work horse?

Mr. Witter.— It is, but it should be fed in moderation. Al]
animals do better on a variety of foods. Gluten is rich in the
muscle and blood food. I have fed four pounds daily, with good
results.

Mr. Gould.—TI have fed one-third oats and two-thirds gluten
to work horses and have never had them do better. I believe it
is one of the best winter foods for horses also.

MILK AND SOME OF ITS PRODUCTS.

Question.— What causes mottled or red spots in cheese?

Mr. Richardson.— So far, there has not been found a man
who ean tell. Dr. Jordan and Prof. Harding of Geneva, have
been experimenting with the problem a long time. They have
discovered the germ that causes the spots and are able to grow
it and to inoculate the milk with it. That is as far as they have
gone. They have not discovered any cure so far. I have sent

Tue Question Box, 147

samples to the Station several times and much time and money
have been spent in investigating them, but I have received no
further information than I have given. We have gone so far as
to rebuild a factory almost completely, and sent one of our best
men, W. W. Hall, to the factory to make the cheese, and yet
the spots came into the cheese. We also went to the extent of
going to the patrons’ dairies and enforcing the law, by compelling
them to make everything clean in and about the barns, stables,
water and everything else connected with the dairy. At the end
of several weeks we were able to make a cheese that went to New
York and sold for the full price of best cheese. ‘This was a case
in western New York. Some of the patrons said: “ This is my
farm and I purpose to run it as I have a mind. IT’ do nothing
of the kind.”

We said: “ Very well. You have a right to run your farm

as you like, but you will have to keep your milk out of this
factory.” Results as before stated, a disappearance of the red
spots. Mr. Richardson also mentioned a case where red spots
came into the cheese of a certain factory. After thorough in-
vestigation, it was found that five cows in one herd persisted in
drinking from a pool of stagnant water in the pasture. A fence
_was put around that pool and the cows forced to drink from a
running stream with the remainder of the dairy. The result
was a disappearance of the spots.
. Mr. Smith.— They are caused by a germ. Prof. Harding has
not only discovered it, but cultivates it. I have made cheese from
milk inoculated with the germ he cultivates, which waseas red as
blood, and I found that it impregnated the curd most after it had
been cut. We know what the germ is, but not where it comes from;
but are hoping to ascertain the source during the year.

Question.— Does it injure the cheese for food ¢

Mr. Smith.— Not at all; only in its appearance, which gives the
buyer a chance to drop the price.

Question.— What produces sweet or fruity flavor in cheese?

Prof. Harding.— The Lord only knows; I don’t. We have
collected 30 samples of cheese within the last year that gave 30
different smells. So that fruity flavor is produced by a multitude
of causes. We have corresponded with a number of persons and
have made thorough search for these causes, but so far have
failed. Up to this time there have been no definite causes dis-
covered. The germs that cause these flavors get into milk and
produce the same effect somewhat as does yeast in bread. We are

148 Bureau or Farmers’ Lystirures.

whacking away, however, and have made some progress the last
year, and are in hopes that we will be able sometime to give the
causes and a cure for them.

Mr. Smith said that the yeast or germs have got into the room
in his department at the Station where he does dairy work, and,
despite all the efforts they have made to keep the room perfectly
clean, he is unable to make a cheese there that does not have this
flavor. The room will have to be disinfected with some prepara-
tion that will eradicate these germs before cheese free from this
flavor can again be made there.

Question.— What quantity of moisture can be left in cheese and
have a good keeping quality ?

Mr. Richardson.— We want a silky-textured cheese. Retain
for a home-trade cheese all the moisture that the cheese will assimi-
late and make it soft and mellow. More of it will decrease the
keeping value of the cheese. I want a cheese just moist enough
so that when I try it and break the plug it will show no free moist-
ure; yet, when rubbed between the thumb and finger, it will be
soft, mellow and silky.

Question.— When do skippers get into cheese — in the vat, in
the press or in the curing-room 4

Mr. Richardson.— I have watched the skippers often, but I
suppose the question relates to their origin. They come from
flies which lay their eggs on the cheese. If it is smooth and the
bandage is tight and there are no holes where they can get in,
there will be none of them. As a rule, they get in in the curing-
room.

Alson Cook.— Sometimes the edges of the cheese become
erackled in turning and, therefore, crumble slightly. This gives
the flies an opportunity to get their eggs inside the cheese.

Question.— Shall we patronize the creamery?

Mr. Smith.— Every man must decide that for himself. If you
want the most money from the dairy, you will patronize the
creamery. When you have 30 or 40 women in a neighborhood
making butter, you have just as many varieties of butter. So
there is no question about the value of the creamery. Beside
producing a uniform quality of butter, instead of 30 or 40 qualities
and colors, it removes a large amount of work and care from the
farmer’s wife.

Question.— Which will be most profitable, financially, the
cheese factory or creamery @

Mr. Smith.— It.is pretty hard to say that one svstem is better

Tue Question Box. 149

than another. The trouble is that, when butter brings the highest
prices, the farmers all want to drop cheese and go to making butter.
Bye-and-bye, butter drops in price and cheese goes up; then they
drop butter and rush after cheese. As a rule, those who “ stick ”
to the one or the other come out best at the end of the season.

Question.— Would it be safe for a patron of a factory, under
the present laws of the State, to put his milk into a factory, if his
herd are great milkers?

Mr. Smith— Yes, sir. We have traveled the State from end
to end and have found not more than half a dozen small herds that
gave milk below three per cent. fat. Those were Holsteins that
had been bred for a large flow of milk instead of milk of good
quality. The average per cent. of fat in the dairies of the State
is three and eight-tenths per cent. The old system of pooling milk
simply puts a premium on poor milk; while the Babcock places a
premium on good milk, because it awards to every man that which
belongs to him. No more; no less.

Question.— How many pounds of milk is necessary for one
pound of butter?

Mr. Smith.— Every pound of butter fat in the milk, if the work
is well done, allowing 15 per cent. moisture, will make a pound
and two ounces of butter; that is, a pound of three per cent. milk
will make three pounds and six ounces of butter; four per cent.,
four pounds and eight ounces; and so on, according to the fat
per cent. in the milk. Remember, the milk must be perfectly
creamed and properly churned.

Question.— How much three per cent. milk is required to make
one pound of butter ?

Mr. Smith.— If the work is well done, it will require 28 pounds
of three per cent. milk, including 15 per cent. moisture, for one
pound of butter.

Question.— What is the cause of white specks in butter when
it is well cared for and in other ways is all right?

Mr. Smith.— If everything is right, there will be no white
specks. As a rule, these specks are caused by bits of dried cream
or bits of casein, where the cream has been raised in shallow pans,
that adhered to the cream.

Question.— How much cream ean be taken off four and one-half
per cent. butter fat, according to the Babcock test ?

Mr. Smith.—- Four and one-half per cent. cream means four
and one-half pounds of butter fat in 100 pounds of milk; nothing

¢

150 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

more. When we separate cream from milk we usually remove
about one-sixth of the body of the milk. In other words, we take
out about 17 pounds from 100 pounds of milk, but we can reduce
it to 12 pounds or run 50 per cent. cream.

‘Question.— Which is the best for butter-making, the separator
or the creamery cans?

Mr. Smith.— The separator will skim down to fifteen-hun-
dredths of one per cent. of fat. Asa rule, the submerged cans
will not skim lower than one-half of one per cent. The separator
not only skims closer, but gets your cream more quickly and gives
you a less bulk to handle. There is no other method nearly as
profitable for the dairyman. [Beside the gain in butter, the qual-
ity of the skim milk from the separator is much better, because it
is purer and cleaner than that from any other creaming system.

Question.— Is a creamery a good thing for a community?

Mr. Chamberlain.— A creamery ought to be a benefit to any
community, if it is run properly.

Mr. Smith.— In many parts of the West the creamery is an
established institution, nearly all the finest butter in the market
being made there. The same is also true in many localities in
New York.

Mr. Dawley.— There is no doubt about the benefit of the cream-
ery if for only one result. It insures a uniform product every
day it is operated. If the 30 patrons of a creamery each made
butter at home there would be 30 different grades of butter —
some extra good, some very good, some medium and some bad.
Another point: It takes off a great burden from the women’s de-
partment of the house. But, if you are going to establish a
creamery, agree to take in the milk and pay for it on the decision
of the Babcock test, and arrange it so as to have the creamery run
every day in the year.

Question.— Is it a fact that more butter can be made by the
use of the separator than by the old way?

Mr. Smith.— It is a most assured fact, because it skims more
cream out of the milk than does any other creaming device.

Question.— Can all the butter fat be got out of milk by dilut-
ing it with water?

Mr. Smith.— No; there is no method by which all the fat in
milk can be extracted. The centrifugal separator skims down to
within five-hundredths of one per cent. The deep setting, or what
is known as the gravity system, ranks next; and, when the cows

Tue Question Box, 151

are fresh in milk, will skim, if the work is well done, to within
thirty-five-hundredths of one per cent. of fat. The diluted system
is the poorest of all skimming devices. It is not as good as the
old-fashioned shallow pans. Then, too, the skimmed milk having
been diluted sometimes with poor water, is very much impaired,
while the butter made from the cream is of poor quality.

Question.— What causes butter to taste strong after it is two
or three days old, utensils perfectly clean, food changed?

Mr. Smith.— There is something wrong somewhere; either the
milker or the butter-maker is not clean. If all the utensils used
are clean, the milker is clean and the butter-maker is clean, the
butter will not become strong. But very few butter-makers know
what it means to say “ clean utensils.” They should be thoroughly
sterilized every day. The simple methods of scalding and rinsing
of a pail or milk can will not answer. They should be steamed or
washed in scalding water to kill the bacteria which get into the
seams and other hiding places. In this case something of that
sort is making the trouble. ‘The feed of the animal has nothing
to do with it.

A Farmer.— Would not poor ensilage cause it ?

Mr. Smith.— Possibly; but I think not much trouble would
come from that source. It has been proved that none of those
germs can go through the stomach of the cow and thence
into her udder. Usually these germs come either from the stable
or from unclean milk utensils. As a rule, a food that imparts
some particular flavor to milk will not affect the butter made
from it. There is one bacteria, however, which grows below a
temperature of 40 degrees which causes milk to become bitter.
That flavor will follow and appear in the butter. This bacteria
does not grow in a temperature above 40 degrees. Do not keep
cream in a temperature below 50 to 55 degrees if you would
avoid the appearance of this bacteria.

Question.— Will sterilized milk become sour if left uncovered
in the cellar? If so, why?

Prof. Harding.— The word “ sterilized ” is a much abused one.
Probably “scalded milk” is what is meant. To sterilize milk
thoroughly, and thus kill all the germs in it, it will have to be
boiled three or four hours; so that milk only scalded does not lose
all its bacteria plant life.

Mr. Smith.— I have heated milk up to 190 degrees and held it
there two hours, thinking I had killed all the germs; but Prof.
Harding succeeded in finding live bacteria in it, nevertheless.

152 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

Question.— Why does milk sometimes become thick and yet
be perfectly sweet ?

Prof. Harding.— It is caused by a bacteria which grows in milk
in certain conditions. The preventive is the thoroughly steaming
or scalding of all dairy utensils and the thorough cooling of the
milk directly after it has been drawn from the cow.

Question.— Do you get bad effects in milk, especially in the
flavor by feeding bran mixed with dishwater where soap has been
used?

Mr. Smith.—I never feed any such mixture and would not; I
would be afraid of the soap.

Question.— What do you think of a gravity separator?

Mr. Smith.—TI think but little of it. It is not as good as
any other device I know, except under one condition, which
is, when a.man does not have a room of proper temperature,
or no ice, the aquatic cans will help him out in part; but it
does not get as much fat, while it makes a soft, loose-textured
butter. Another point, the skim milk is not nearly as good to
feed. <A calf or pig ought not to be forced to drink twice the bulk
to get the same quantity of milk. Then, too, butter made from
such cream will not keep as long as will that made in any other
way; or, rather, from cream raised by any other method. But
why call it a separator when it is not one at all, and why pay $10
for a double can, one set inside the other — with a thermometer
and faucet inserted in the outer one, when you can go to a tinner
and get them for $3.

Question.— What temperature is best in which to separate
milk?

Mr. Smith.— If you use the De Laval separator, a temperature
of 70 degrees is the right one. If the United States machine is
used, have the milk at 80 degrees.

Question.— Do the condensaries in eastern New York pay for
milk on the Babcock test basis?

Mr. Smith.— No; the condensaries do not. All milk is pooled,
but it must test 3.5 per cent. fat.

Question.— What is the feeding value of separator skim milk ?

Mr. Smith.— It depends on how it is utilized. As a rule, it is
worth 15 cents per hundred. Some farmers, who are feeding it
to pigs, when wheat middlings are fed with it, get 25 cents, and
IT have known cases where even 30 cents was obtained; but the
farmer will not average much above 10 cents. Skim milk contains
all the casein, sugar and albumen — all the solids except the fat.

Tuer Question Box. 153

Question.— What would be the cost of constructing a subearth
duct curing-room at our cheese factory ¢ What would be the profits
to the patrons ?

Mr. Smith.— Prof. Robertson of Canada, said at the meeting
of the New York Dairymen’s Association at Watertown, that
several subearth ducts had been put into cheese factories over
there, at a cost of about $450 to $500, per factory, where the
milk from 600 cows is received. The profit from the sales of
cheese paid for the investment the first year.. Mr. Smith next
told what differences he found in the quality of cheese made the
same day at the Station, from the same milk in the same vat. The
process of manufacture was just the same till they went into the
curing-room, where the temperature varied from 55 degrees to 80
degrees. Those cured at the lowest temperature being much finer
and keeping much the better. These experiments were made July
27th, July 30th, August 1st, August 3d and August Sth. Practi-
cally, the results were the same. He also said that, at the Wis-
consin Experiment Station, cheese were put into cold storage and
frozen at 15 degrees. They came out after having been held there
some time, and were found fine in flavor. There is no question,
Mr. Smith said, that the temperature of the average factory
euring-room is much too high, and that the putting in of sub-
earth ducts would not only greatly improve the quality of the
cheese but greatly enlarge the home market, resulting in higher
prices.

Question.— Would you ripen separator cream or churn it while
sweet?

Mr. Smith. If one undertook to churn pure sweet cream, I
think that he would have to have a plenty of time and a good deal
of patience. Before cream is churned it should be thoroughly
mixed, reduced to an even temperature, then warmed up and
ripened by the addition of a “ starter,” made from pure, slightly
acid milk — say a tablespoonful in a gallon. Warm up the mass
to 68 degrees; in a few minutes it will be thoroughly mixed. Set
it away, and the next morning the whole mass will be slightly
sour; put it into the churn and in 380 minutes you will have the
butter.

Mr. Rice.— It is quite a good many years since I worked the
churn handle, but I think that sweet cream will not churn so
quickly nor churn out so thoroughly as will ripened cream.

Question.— I have often had samples of milk taken and tested.
Can one get good tests of milk kept one or two wecks?

154 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

Mr. Smith.— The true way, when milk is paid for on the basis
of its fat, is by the composite test. Puta small piece of corrosive
sublimate in a jar, and add a sample of milk every day. It will
keep two weeks. Make a Babcock test of this milk. It will give
about as nearly correct results as will samples taken every day
and Babeocked separately. There are other ways, and there is an-
other substance used for keeping the milk in the jars, but thd
corrosive sublimate is probably the best.

Question.— Will too much sweet corn on the ear, fed to cows,
cause “ stringy ” milk?

Prof. Harding.— No. If such a condition of the milk appears
it will come from some other source.

A Farmer.— My cows gave ropy milk when being fed sweet
corn.

Mr. Smith. Was the milk left in the same place as when the
cows were not fed the sweet corn?

Answer.— Yes.

Mr. Smith.— Then the cause was not in the corn, but in soma
condition of the barn.

Question.— Can butter be sold at 20 cents a pound and produce
any profit?

Mr. Cook.— It would depend on its cost. It ought to be made
and sold at a profit at that price.

Question.— What per cent. of solids must milk contain to be
accepted at the milk stations?

Mr. Smith.— The law of this State requires 12 per cent. solids,
of which not less than 3 per cent. shall be fat. This law varies in
different States. The average per cent. of fat in this State is 3.8.
That is the average all over the State except in Delaware county,
where it runs over 4 per cent. At the Hobart creamery, I think, it
averages 44 per cent. But nearly all the cows in that county are
Jerseys.

Question Is not the nutritive ratio fully as high in 3 as 5
per cent. cheese?

Mr. Smith— No; if it was, skim cheese would be the best;
whereas it contains but little, if any, food value. The one I made
at the Station last summer contained 438 per cent. of water, 40.70
of casein, and 5 of ash; no fat. In two weeks we could not cut it.
with a knife.

Prof. Harding.— We had to use an auger to get samples from
that cheese for analysis.

THE Question Box, 155

SOME THINGS ABOUT PIGS.

Question.— What is the best food for a brood sow? The best
way to feed grain, wet or dry?

Mr. Chapman.— The most rapid growth I ever knew in pigs
was from a ration of corn meal and skim milk. As to feeding
grain wet or dry to hogs, I do not think there will be found much,
if any, difference in results. We grow many turnips, but, as they
are a cold, watery food, conditions must be made good, and the
turnips well balanced with protein foods.

Mr. Goodrich.— Mr. Theodore Lewis of Wisconsin, knows more
about hogs than does any dozen men I ever saw. He feeds dry
meal to his hogs.

Question.— At what age should pigs be weaned ?

Dr. Smead.— I hate a hog above all farm animals, but I think
that four or six weeks would be the right age.

Mr. Chapman.—TI should not wean a pig at all. Just as soon
as pigs are big enough, we sprinkle a little wheat in a compartment
-where the mother cannot get it. By degrees the pigs learn to eat
it, and, therefore, suckle the mother less each day, until they desert
her. This allows the mother’s milk to dry up. But we may feed
the pigs up to the age of eight weeks just as cheaply, through the
mother. The difference in results will be found after weaning
them.

Question.— Are wood ashes or bone meal good to feed to pigs?

Mr. Lillie— We always give as many wood ashes as the pigs
will eat. If the ration which is fed is too wide, we feed some
bone meal. As a rule, however, we do not have to feed it to our
pigs.

Question.— What is the best ration for pigs after they are two
months old?

Mr. Smith.— Mr. Lillie of Michigan, who has been with us a
part of the time this winter, and who feeds many pigs, uses, for
pigs two months old, a ration made of 100 pounds of skim milk,
50 of wheat bran, and 20 of corn.

Question.— How much salt is a dose for a hog?

Mr. Stevens.— About half as much as fora cow. Put it where
the hog can get it when it wants it.

Question.—What ails the pigs? At three months of age they
become stiffened and eventually all the legs are affected; skin
very red, and it is with great difficulty that they get upon their

156 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrrrures.

feet. The food has been corn meal and buckwheat middlings
wet with whey, corn in the ear, with, occasionally, a feed of whole
oats.

Dr. Smead.— That is quite a problem. Did any of those
pigs die ?

No answer.

Dr. Smead.— The pigs were attacked with rheumatic fever.
They are more subject to rheumatism than is the human being,
but, as a rule, they are the most neglected animals on the farm.
The whole cause of the trouble with those pigs was mismanagement.
The disposition of the hog is to eat more than he needs. He is
simply a hog, and, when one eats all he can hold, if another hog
is added and fed, he will get up and eat more, just to get it
away from the other hog. Overfeeding with improper foods
causes the disease. Do not feed carbonaceous foods. Keep the
pigs growing and give them a warm, dry place to sleep. Scatter
a little corn in the litter and make the pig hunt for it. Eliminate
dampness. Too many farmers keep their pigs in the basement
of their barns. Make the hog-pen warm, clean and light. Do
not think the hog can stand cold. You will always find him seek-
ing a warm nest. I should change the wheat bran to wheat mid-
dlings, and reduce the corn meal ration somewhat. Wheat bran
is not as readily digested by the pig as are the middlings.

Question.— Can we afford to make pork at four cents a pound;
if so, how ean it be done?

Mr. Chapman.—TI think it can be done if the conditions are
favorable. I should want a thrifty pig, one that will grow and
fatten rapidly. Sell them at 150 pounds. The first 100 pounds
can be made the cheapest. Feed corn meal with skim milk,
gradually increasing the quantity of meal. Do not feed in this
manner if growing pigs for breeders.

Mr. Smith.— Pigs at that weight will sell readily at a greater
price than four cents. Skim milk thus fed is worth 25 or 30 cents
a hundred pounds.

Mr. Woodward.— A pound of pork can be made very cheaply
upon rape. Have your land rich; sow rape in the spring as soon
as the ground can be worked. Sow in drills 20 inches apart;
cultivating once or twice, and when six inches high turn in your
pigs. The more it is eaten the more it will grow. Sow only the
Dwarf Essex variety, two pounds if in drills, or four pounds, if
broadeast.

‘

Tue Question Box. 157

Question.— Can swine be profitably kept without milk? What
is the best food for a brood sowé

Mr. Goodrich.— I have always fed milk, but it has been fed
to calves. Have never fed it to pigs. I should think, however,
that skim milk would be a good food for a brood sow.

Mr. Chapman gave his methods, which consisted of a variety

of rations. Many flat turnips are fed, but they are well balanced.
_ Not too many are fed at first. The quantity is increased and
wheat middlings are added. Nothing else is fed during the win-
ter. In the spring they run on rye pasture, then clover; later,
oats and peas. ‘This makes a largely vegetable diet. We do
not care to feed much milk, except when the sow is suckling her
young, which we never wean, but begin teaching them to eat other
foods as early as possible. In this way, they gradually take less
mothers’ milk, which soon dries up.

Question.— What would you feed to the fattening hogs, in
connection with corn, if you had no barley? .

Mr. Stevens.— If I did not have the barley, I should add oats
or some wheat middlings. I know of nothing better. But bar-
ley and corn make the best combination for the quality of pork
needed in the markets.

Question.— What is the best breed of swine, and the proper
weight to be slaughtered?

Mr. Woodward.— No one now asks for heavy, fat hogs, except
for lard. When we go into a meat market and buy a chop, the
butcher cuts off all the fat. Lean meat or “ marbled meat” is
wanted, and the pigs must be light weights. If any money is
made from pigs, one must start early. The pigs must be far-
rowed in the spring and forced to a market weight as soon as
possible, but the brood sows must be properly fed and cared for
during the winter. ‘They should have warm, dry, clean pens and
be properly fed during the gestation period. But one ought not
to use a razor-back breed. Get a modern pork breed. ‘There are
a number, but I am not here to name any particular one.

Question.— How do you feed your brood sows?

Answer.— I put 12 brood sows in the basement of a barn, last
fall, and fed them nine bushels of cider apples per day — three
bushels in the morning, three at noon, and three at night.
Wheat middlings were fed in connection. Every sow farrowed
healthy pigs and not one proved to be a eannibal. He named
some other foods, among them mangels, fed raw and whole. Po-

158 Bureau or Farmers’ Iysrirures.

tatoes are a good food but they should be fed cooked. Clover
is a good food for a brood sow in winter and Dwarf Essex rae,
sown early, will furnish good pasture for the pigs. If you have
skim milk, feed it; if not, feed the “house slops” wrth the
middlings. ‘“ An acre of rape will furnish pasture for 20 hogs
all summer.” When the pigs reach 120 pounds add to the wheat
middlings, skimmed milk and rape, some corn meal, to put a little
fat on the meat; and, when they have reached 150 pounds, turn
them over to the butcher. By following these rules, pork may be
made for three cents per pound. I make it for about two and a
half cents, but I buy the refuse beans from a bean picking factory,
and grind them. They make an excellent food. Charcoal made
from cobs, mixed with hard-wood ashes, with a little salt and
some copperas, put in a box in the pen where the pigs can get at
it, will keep them healthy.

Question.— What is the best food for young pigs?

Mr. Woodward.— Skim milk; next, wheat middlings, or both,
mixed. When they are old enough to eat green food, give them
Dwarf Essex rape; red clover is also good, but rape is the best,
because it will grow right along through the dry westher.

Mr. Smith.— A gentleman recently gave me this formula: or
pigs four weeks old, 150 pounds of skim milk, 20 pounds of wheat
middlings and 15 pounds of corn.

Question.— Is there any profit in pork at present prices ?

Mr. Witter.— It depends upon the man. No man can succeed
who has no liking for his business. If you have, it is very profit-
able. The secret of success is to push pigs quickly to an early
maturity.

A FEW REMARKS CONCERNING CALVES.

Question.— How can you test the milking quality of the heifer
or calf?

Mr. Woodward.— There are certain indications that go to show
the good cow, and we may find them in the calf. But, one may
spoil the best breed and the most promising ealf, by overfeeding
or with improper foods. Do not get it fat but keep it in a grow-
ing condition. Oats and bran are good foods, with sweet skim
milk, and early cut clover hay as soon as the calf is old enough
to eat it.

Mr. Smith.— TI have made up my mind that oats are fully as
good as bran, if not better for a calf. But there is great danger

Tur Question Box. 159

from overfeeding, although the average farmer is not very apt to
do it. But it may be done. There were a lot of calves spoiled in
that way some years ago at the Geneva Station. Feed the ealf a
little at a time and feed it often.

Question.— Is it possible to grow a calf so that it will not make
a good milch cow? Or, in other words, that it will become
“Peefy?”

Mr. Goodrich.— Yes. One may spoil the best bred heifer calf
ever dropped by overfeeding it, or by improperly feeding it. It
should be given foods that will keep it growing, not fattened. It
must have protein. Skim milk and wheat middlings, with, later,
oats and clover hay, are best. Give these foods until the calf is
six months old.

Question.— Can we raise a good calf on these patent calf foods,
without any milk?

Mr. Chapman.—I never used any. As far as I can learn from
analyses it will be better to buy oil meal of dealers at, say $20
per ton, than to pay the patent feed dealers $400 per ton for it.

Question.— Can calves be fattened on skim milk and ground
feed alone?

Dr. Smead.— It will depend on the age of the calf; I do not
believe that a calf can be well fattened on other than mother’s
milk, wholly or in part, till after it is four weeks old. After that
period, I think that skim milk with a little oil meal, together
with some oats and clover hay, may be substituted for the whole
milk.

Question.— Mr. Gocdrich told us how to raise a calf upon
skim milk. Now, will some one tell us how to raise one when
the milk is all drawn to the station?

Mr. Richardson.— That is a question which those who take
their milk to the station need to solve. We had three thorough-
bred calves and not much milk. We made up our minds to keep
the calves at home and see if we could not make them grow;
so we mixed up some corn meal, wheat bran and oil meal in a
bucket, making it thick, using hot water. We put a spoonful of
this mixture, dissolved in hot water, into what milk we could
spare when we milked the cow. In this way we grew them nicely.
We raised the three, which are now on the farm. Later, we
gave them some ground oats, and never had calves do better.
But we do not draw milk to the station. I believe, however, it
can be done without the milk.

Mr. Chapman.— I do not believe it will pay to try to raise a

160 Burrau or Farmers’ Iysrirvres.

calf without some mother’s milk for at least three weeks. One man
may succeed in growing a nice calf without milk, but 90 will
fail who try the experiment.

Question.— How many pounds of milk will it require to grow
a calf to 150 pounds?

Mr. Aldrich.— I will have to do a little figuring before I an-
swer the question. <A calf weighing 80 pounds will require 600
pounds of milk. I made some experiments to find out how much
milk was required to make a pound weight. When a calf was
three or four days old it required seven pounds; the next week,
eight pounds; the next, nine pounds, or an average of eight
pounds; so that it required not far from 600 pounds to make a
weight of 150 pounds at four weeks.

Question.— Will Mr. Gould describe a young calf that will
make a good cow? ‘

Answer.—I should first want to see'the mother of the ealf,
then the calf, then the owner. A calf may be well-born and de-
scend from good parentage, but be spoiled in bringing up.

Question.— What is the best food for a calf six months old?

Mr. Lillie.— Corn ensilage, clover hay and wheat bran — all it
will eat. Oats will do, but they are too expensive.

Mr. Smith.— As a rule, people go to extremes in keeping calves.
They give them too much when young and starve them later on.
Feed the calf three times a day at first, a quart at a time, and
increase the quantity proportionately as the calf grows older.

Question.— Should ealves, to be raised, be allowed to suckle
their mothers?

Mr. Lillie— Some of the best dairymen I know do not allow
the calf to suckle the cow at all, but we allow it once or twice.

Question.— Will Mr. Gould tell us how to raise heifer calves,
in stable, first season, with hay, grass, clover and grain?

Mr. Gould.— Give it a good start on its mother’s milk,
then follow with skim milk and oil meal, and, later, oats.
Clover hay should be given as much as possible. Do not feed any
corn, but bran and clover and that class of foods. We feed our
little calves very nearly as we do our milch cows. The calf will
chew food, because its stomach is a milk one. As a rule, the calf
becomes a ruminant at about the age of five or six weeks; or, in
other words, when it begins to chew its cud. One of the darkest
places is the inside of a cow’s stomach. I doubt if a cow, which
eats 40 or 50 pounds of ensilage per day, raises and remasticates
it all,

THe Question Box, 161

Question.— Does it pay to veal calves at five and a half centg
per pound, with milk worth $1.05 per hundred pounds?

Mr. Smith.— The farmers up in Jefferson county claim it does;
I do not know.

Question.— What causes scours in calves? What will pre
vent it ?

Dr. Smead.— There are two causes. One is overfeeding, or
improper feeding from an unclean vessel. Very many times the
calf is allowed to become very hungry, and swallows very rapidly
the milk given it, which distends the stomach and causes indi-
gestion. Nasty troughs, which one may smell as far as they can
be seen, will cause the disease.

Captain Murphy.— The trouble with our calves is, they die
from the disease before they are a week old.

Dr. Smead.— That comes from the causes I spoke of this
morning.

Dr. Hatch.—I do not fully agree with Dr. Smead; I am of
opinion that the cause is unbalanced rations given the mother of
the calf.

Question.— Will the disease appear in calves whose mothers
give only three per cent. milk?

Dr. Smead.— Yes; the per cent. of fat does not seem to make
much difference with the disease.

Question.— I feed bran and oil meal to my calves after they
are four weeks old, in milk and water. Can I improve the ration?

Mr. Witter.— It is an excellent ration, but I should feed the
grain dry, after the milk. Digestion is begun in the mouth,
where the feed is mixed with the saliva. If fed in the milk, this

will not take place.
Question.— What should be added to separator milk to make

a balanced ration for calves?
Mr. Witter.— As soon as they will eat anything, give them a
A little oil meal is excellent. It has a

few unground oats. yee
Bran and wheat middlings are

medicinal as well as a food value.

also good.
SOME OF THE GRASSES.

Question.— Where clover fails, to what extent will Hungarian

grass or millet take its place as a food?
Mr. Goodrich.— Hungarian grass is, probably, as good a grass

tla!

162 Bureav or Farmers’ Institutes.

for hay, except clover, as is grown. It has two-thirds as much
protein in it as has clover, and considerably more than has tim-
othy hay. But millet, as it is called, should be cut before the
seed forms. When so cut and well cured, there is no danger in
feeding it to mileh cows. My rule is to fit the ground nicely, then
sow three pecks of seed per acre. Some men sow a bushel.

Question.— If I eut my rye as soon as it blossoms, and cure it
for hay, what will its value be, or to what extent will it take the
place of timothy hay?

Mr. Goodrich.— Rye has as much protein in it, if cut just as
it heads out, as has timothy hay. Do not allow it to grow too
large; if you do, you will have rye straw.

Question.— When should millet seed be sown?

Mr. Goodrich.— We sow it in June. It should have about
60 days to mature, enough to cut for hay. The best crop I ever
grew was sown the 7th of July, but the season following was
very favorable for curing it. It should be cured in cocks, as is
clover. All forage crops for hay should be cured in the shade.
The old saying was, “ Make hay when the sun shines,” but all
the sunshine needed is to take out the foreign moisture, dew or
rain. The moisture in it, 7. e., Juices, should be retained. It
requires 8 or 10 days more to mature German millet, which pro-
duces a larger crop than does Hungarian, but the quality is not
so good. |

Question.— Which is the better, Hungarian or German millet?

Mr. Gould.— Both analyze alike. The question is, which can
you get most of. But either must be cut before the seed forms.

Question.— Is it profitable to sow “ orchard grass ” either for
meadow or pasture?

Dr. Smead.— I have never sown it, nor is it sown In my im-
mediate neighborhoed, but some of my townsmen grow it. If
you want it for hay it must be eut just as it gets into blossom.
It belongs to the same family of grasses as does timothy, but to
ect most benefit from it, it must be cut before the seed begins
to form.

Mr. Woodward.— It is one of the best grasses for permanent
pasture.

Mr. Dawley.— I tried it and am now being cursed by some of
my neighbors. It went all over the farm and over the line fences.
Unless it is cut before the seed forms it is worthless for hay.

Tue Question Box. 163

Question.— Would you advise the sowing of “ Bromus Inermis”
— Brome grass, in western New York ?

Mr. Smith.— I do not know anything about that grass.

Dr. Smead.— I mixed Brome grass with 10 other varieties of
grass for a permanent pasture. It does not spread and so does not
drive out other grasses. It comes up in what we call “ bogs,” mak-
ing the pasture look like a wet piece of land. Jf the live-stock eat it
closely enough it will answer, if one does not have anything better;
but, like orchard grass, if it is not eaten before it becomes ripe, it
is entirely worthless.

Mr. Dawley.— We have an acre of Brome grass. It is about
like enlarged quack and just about as valuable for feeding pur-
poses.

THE POULTRY YARD:

The matter appearing in the Poultry Department has been pre-
pared wholly by persons who have taken active part in the work
of the N. Y. S. Farmers’ Institutes. The question-box discussion
has been made an important feature, because it is usually direct to
the point with specific information. It should contain something
of value to all.

If you discover that the writers disagree, balance well their
arguments and choose between them. If you disagree with the
writers, consider carefully who is right before passing judgment.
The writer may be wrong. So may you. No one man knows all
there is to be known about even one branch of the poultry business.
Therefore, no one is infallible. What we really known about
poultry keeping could be put in a small book; what we think we
know would make a heavy volume, and what we don’t know would
fill a good-sized library. So we must expect to go right along,
making mistakes — being misled — and learning by experience.
We are all students and teachers — giving and taking. Each one
is hunting for the truth. The best way to get at the truth is to
compare methods and exchange experiences. The underlying
principle will be revealed. That is the purpose of the question-
box. Each writer is responsible for his views. Upon their con-

rectness he must stand or fall.

James E. Rice.

164 Bureau or Farmers’ Lysrirvres.

HOW TO FIT FOWL FOR THE SHOW-ROOM.

Address delivered by J. H. Drevenstedt at the New York State Poultry Institute, Cortland, N. Y.
December 19, 1900.

How to prepare birds for the show-room is a subject that is by
no means an easy one. It involves so many little details which, if
presented either here or elsewhere, would occupy much time and
severe patience of the party of the first part — the lecturer — and
the party of the second part—the audience. Consequently, IL
shall endeavor to make the subject as plain as possible within the
reasonable limitations that it admits of. The bird that wins a
prize in the show-room must be shown in good condition. It is
true that a bird of transcendent merit may win, even if it is put
in the pen minus the requisite toilet, but such instances are indeed
rare. This reminds me of a little experience I had in judging
cattle about 14 years ago. I found a Jersey heifer calf in the ring
that had all the marks of a finely bred one. I gave her the prize ~
over a lot of finely conditioned heifer calves, and the result was
that the men who spent their time in putting their stock in “ apple
pie” order kicked. They could not see the point, viz., the fact
that intrinsic merit won over inferior merit, notwithstanding that
the latter had been hidden by magnificent handling and condition-
ing. A little serious talk over the respective merits of the winner
convinced the showmen that I was right in my judgment and they
admitted the value of the calf to be superior to that of those shown
by them.

But this is an isolated case, and the same rule applies to
chickens. Condition and the pera preparation and training
for the show-room will win many a prize for a bird which in in-
trinsic merit is several pegs removed from the birds that lose the
ribbons because their owners fail to grasp the opportunities before
them. <A bird well shown is half the victory.

To fit a bird for the show-room we must begin with the chicken
as soon as it has left the shell. From the cradle to the show-pen
is the motto of all good fanciers. Allow but a week of negligence
in feeding and care and the chances of its ultimate development
into a crack show specimen are impaired.

The nursing of a child and its subsequent training as it grows
older, under the careful guidance of intelligent parents will bring
it to mature man or ee maetend in perfect shape. Is there any
difference in chickens? No. It only takes less time to doit. A
chicken must be kept growing and growing all the time. It must

THE Quzstion Box, 165

be kept clean, free of vermin, and never pampered or overfed.
Then when the show season approaches we have something to
build upon, a sound, healthy structure that will not topple over
when we put the finishing touches to it.

How is this all accomplished, you will say? Well, I will state
a few facts. Last week I had the pleasure of visiting the famous
yards of Mr. George W. Mitchell at Bristol, Conn. Mr. Mitchell
has probably the finest poultry houses in the United States. Every-
thing is arranged for the comfort of his fowls — or, I might say,
his pets — the buildings are kept scrupulously clean, and the pens
and training coops are in keeping with his ideas. Electric lights
illuminated the buildings; not a speck of dirt was to be found any-
where that visitors trod or looked upon. He breeds Partridge
Cochins, and we all know he breeds only the best that his brains,
skill and patience can produce. I saw over 100 birds on the place.
They were youngsters and all roosted on a bed of sand, except the
more forward ones, and they had pens especially prepared for
them. Their roosts were but a few inches from the soft sand.
Now, here is where the development of the Cochin comes in.
Leaving aside the feed, they were handled as all Asiatics should
be — quietly and close to the ground. But this is only the kinder-
garten stage. As soon as they are in good feather, they are placed
in the training coops and taught to pose and to be handled. That
involves labor, but it wins many prizes.

I remember Mr. George Purdue, the famous Light Brahma
breeder, once telling me: “ You can feed and condition a bird
and bring him up to the height of perfection in a physical sense,
but he is not finished for the show-pen.” That is true and I saw
it illustrated at a New York show some six years ago by the same
Mr. Purdue. The latter won a prize with a bird that, when the
judge touched him, posed like a statue and hypnotized the judge;
another bird, equally good, when examined, went to pieces. It
was a case of fine handling, and that is a part of the secret of
showing birds.

The above are but general illustrations of what can be accom-
plished by proper handling; but there are natural advantages in
producing birds for the show-room that must not be lost sight of.
Many of us recollect the fine condition and wonderful plumage of
the turkeys Mr. “ Fred ” Crangle used to show when he was with
Fisher’s Island Farm. Those turkeys were allowed to run among
the bay berry bushes to feast on the fruit, and when they were
corralled in the autumn they fairly glistened in the sunlight and

166 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirvures.

were in the pink of condition. Nature and proper food did the
work ina few months that years of artificial feeding never would
accomplish.

Just so with Games. The fine, graceful lines, grand stature and
hardness of feather that make up the ideal show Game can only
be secured by following the laws of nature in the building up of
the framework. Suecessful exhibitors of Games rear their birds
in the field and forest and not in the back lot. The free range
and unlimited forage, with a grain diet, consisting principally of
oats, will bring forth strapping healthy specimens in the fall that
will stand the training coop without loss of strength and vigor.
The finishing touches are easy when the foundation has been prop-
erly laid.

The training of a Game bird for the show-pen is of vital im-
portance. A coop shy bird, no matter how good he may be, will
lose the prize nine times out of ten when it confronts the judge.
The moment he is touched the trained bird will pose and do his
level best to “show up,” and that wins many a blue ribbon. It
is not difficult to train a bird provided the owner is in sympathy
with it. Birds love to be handled and fussed over.

When I was at the Philadelphia show last week I met Rajah IL,
an Indian Game'cock who won first at New York as cockerel last
year. I remembered his posing and when I tickled him under the
chin and stroked his back he posed like a statue, showing his
beautiful and symmetrical lines to the very best advantage. He
would stand for a minute without moving.

The same might be said of Game Bantams. Take such past
masters of the art as B. C. Thornton, A. A. Parker and John
Glasgow and note the wonderful condition and traming of their
birds. Is it any wonder that they win?

Leghorns and Hamburgs require the same preliminary treat-
ment that Games do. They need the muscular development first
and then the finishing touches in the fitting-room or coop. Many
birds of these varieties have their combs enlarged and spoiled by.
too early cooping and feeding.

As to white fowl, I am inclined to think that a shady orchard
sown to clover is the best preparatory school. The chickens will
come out in the fall with nice white plumage and good yellow legs
and the final preparation is but a bagatelle. [am aware that many
exhibitors prepare their fowl months ahead by ecooping them in
the fitting-room and not exposing them to sun or rain, This may

THE Question Box, 167

result in a white plumage, but at the expense of the color of the
legs and the constitution. I have known of a fine strain of White
Leghorns being absolutely ruined by such treatment.

All the above applies to the natural treatment of fowl. We
now come to the artificial methods employed to improve their form
and looks. Washing fowl for the show-rooms is often a necessity.
It is not a difficult job by any means. A thorough warm washing
with Ivory or Castile soap, two or three rinsings in pure luke-
warm water, careful drying at a fire, not too hot, and the final
rubbing down with a silk handkerchief will work wonders in white
fowl and even Barred Plymouth Rocks. Another important
thing in. preparing parti-colored fowl for the show-pen is the re-
moval of old or dead feathers. Even new ones can be removed to
advantage when they are in the way. This is not faking; it is sim-
ply getting the birds in “silk attire.’ Removing false or foul
feathers is another important matter. As long as we allow color
disqualifications in the Standard of Perfection, this will go on. A
single red feather in the crest of a Creve Ceeur cock disqualified the
finest bird of this breed we ever saw. The owner said he would
not pluck the feather because he did not believe it honest to do so,
and at the same time condemned the Standard. That honest man
has long since given up the fancy. The cleaning of the legs of
fowl with swect oil and turpentine, the saturation of the comb
with aleohol or vaseline are all legitimate tricks that make up the
fowl showman’s trade.

The singeing of feathers to hide disqualifications, the excision
of white in red_ earlobes of white or grey tips in black feathers
by graphite, shoe dressing or dyes, the coloring of legs with
iodine or similar preparations, the plugging of holes in the shanks
with beeswax, and numerous other arts of faking should be uni-
versally condemned. A fowl that eannot be fitted for the show-
room without the above had better be left at home and save its
owner the opprobrium that is sure to be heaped upon him when

his faking is discovered.

Question.— What is the best form of house for Bantams or
other fowl, when space and money are limited ?

Mr. Davenport.— The small, low house has always given us
the best results for Bantams. We use drygoods boxes. Take
one three by four feet on the ground, raise one side so that the
roof will have a little pitch, cover it with tarred paper, put a

168 Bureau or Farmers’ Institrvures.

small window in front and a door in the front or end, as suits
you best. We put the nest boxes on the floor, the dropping board
over nest boxes and the roost still six inches higher up and close
to the roof. or our laying-houses we buy upright piano boxes.
Three piano boxes will make two houses. The boxes cost any-
where from $1.20 to $2, according to the section you are in. We
lay the box down on its back and make the bottom of the box the
front of the house, and raise it up to four feet in height; put a
seven by nine window in about one foot from the floor, and in
the end we put a 20x80-inch door. Our roof will slant from the
four-foot front down to the slant that is already in the top. We
make three nest boxes 12x14x10 inches high and put on the floor
under the lowest part of the roof. Over this we put a dropping
board, two and one-half feet wide, and four inches higher up we
put our roost. In the end opposite door we cut an 8x12-inch
hole with a slide for our fowl to get in and out. Then a coat
of paint and our house is complete. The roost, dropping board
and nest boxes should be loose so they can be taken out and
cleaned. We have used these houses with great suecess and have
had them out all winter in the coldest climate, the thermometer
going down to 25 and 30 degrees below zero; but if it was possible
we would prefer to have a shed to put them under in the winter-
time, so as to give the fowl a chance to scratch. We keep from
16 to 25 old birds in each house, and have had as high as 28
“ Rocks ” in one house all winter and have them lay all the time.
These houses are handy, can be moved easily and any one having
grain lots where they would like to have their hens, can set this
house, hens and all, on a stoneboat and move them to the lot on short
notice. They are a good colony-house and save building lots of
fence where several different kinds of poultry are kept.
Question.— How can we get uniformity in judging? Isn’t it
a fact that poultry judging is quite as much of a profession as is
the practice of law or medicine? If so, should not our judges be
fitted for their profession the same as are our lawyers and doctors ?
Answer.— The exact uniformity in judging poultry would call
for the same preference in all mankind. Such conditions would
lead us all to select the same manner of form and color, but so
long as mankind have their several opinions on other matters just
so long will they differ as to their opinion on fow?. While poultry
judging is a calling after the fashion of the practice of law or medi-
cine, there is still quite as many opinions as to the letter of the
law or the practice of medicine as there is in the selection of the

Tue Question Box. 169

best fowl. More education in this line will make better judges,
but cannot change the many opinions.

Question.— What is the cause for black appearing in the flights
and tail of buff-colored fowl ?

Mr. McGrew.— The original Buif Cochin had considerable
black in wing and tail. This has not been entirely driven out as
yet. In fact, some of the best specimens produced each year still
show a tendency to black in tail and flights. They being one of
the foundation crosses for the production of both the Buff Ply-
mouth Rocks and Buff Wyandottes, it is not surprising that the
black still appears, and in addition to this, both have been crossed
with other Wyandottes, also Rhode Island Reds, the combination
having bestowed upon them almost an endless heritage of black
in wing and tail.

Question.— Is it safe entirely to breed out the black which
appears in the flights and tail of buff-colored fowl 4

Mr. McGrew.— It is quite safe to do so if it is possible to gain
pure solid color and maintain the true buff shade. The great
danger in so doing is considerable loss of color, followed with
white in undercolor. The safest method for obtaining and main-
taining true golden buff is to continue to mate together the truest
colored specimens year after year, so as to establish a strain that
will breed true to color. When black must be present, it should
be confined to a shading or penciling of darker color on the main-
tail feathers.

Question.— Isn’t there a tendency for Plymouth Rock breed-
ers to breed too much toward Wyandotte shape, and vice versa?

Mr. MeGrew.— There is entirely too much licensing, on the
part of all, as to our positive demand for true breed characteristics.
This is not only true with the American breeds, but too true with
all. The cushion has no right upon the back of the Plymouth
Rock. At the same time, it is favored by many. The Plymouth
Rock family have the medium length of back and body; the
Wyandotte the short, compact form. Breeders, as a general
thing, pay rather more attention to color than to form.

Question.— Would you breed from an otherwise valuable male
single-comb White Leghorn if he had a strong tendency to squirrel
tail?

Mr. McGrew.— I should not make use of a squirrel-tail Leghorn
under any conditions. They are often used for the following rea-
sons: If you have a lot of females that carry their tails too low
and close together, it is thought that such a male will help to ele-

170 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

vate the tails of their offspring, as well as to expand the tail
feathers. If such is the ease, it will also stamp into the blood the
tendency to squirrel tails. I have seen wry tails so worked into
the blood of a strain that three-fourths of their whole product
would be so affected. There are too many good specimens in the
world of the White Leghorn breed to waste time in the use of a
disqualified bird.

N. B.—A true squirrel tail must lean forward so far as to
touch the back of the fowl’s neck. Some Leghorns bow their
neck so much that it will touch a tail so carried; that upon another
it would not nearly touch the neck. The Standard tells us that
the tail of a Leghorn shall be carried well up, but not upright.
Too many lean to a tail carried more than upright. The too-high
earried tail is not correct.

Question.— Is it advisable to breed from a male bird that is
solid black (like a Minorca) that has an occasional red feather in
his plumage?

Mr. McGrew.— Red showing in the plumage of black fowl is
supposed to indicate an excess of rich color. Such birds are often
made use of by expert fanciers to improve or intensify the color
of the young stock. The result of such matings is often a few
very rich-colored males and females. It is always best, in the
long run, to depend entirely upon the true colored males and
females of all black fowl. Breed together the truest colored
ones you possess, for in this way you will establish true producing
qualities that can be depended on; while, if you encourage bad
color, it is apt to crop out when least looked for or desired. It
is thought that this red color comes from the Malay of years
back, like the red wing bow of the Cochin, or red showing in any
part of the top color. It is best not to foster these undesirable
colors.

Question Do you favor crossing breeds of fowl for layers ?

Mr. Chapman.— No; my experience is that after the first cross
they are good for nothing, for the reason that one never knows
where he is going to land. Leghorns and Plymouth Rocks are
radically different in habit and other vital points.

Question.— What ought one to pay for a good thoroughbred
rooster?

Mr. Chapman.— You ought to be able to buy a good one for
$1 to $3. Such a bird, if well bred, will be just as serviceable for
your purpose as will one costing $10. If you will, when ordering.

THE Question Box. 171

say you do not want the bird for show purposes, you will, no
doubt, get one for $1.

Question.— Will it pay to buy a pure bred male to mate with
conumon hens? ,

Mr. MceGrew.— It will, providing he is individually good. It
often happens that males so selected are deficient in the three
most lmportant features, size, strength and vigor, all which are
very important, if it is our wish to have his blood most deeply
stamped into his progeny. An example: Mr. Wilson had about
50 so-called common hens; he killed all his male birds during the
winter; we secured from him three very thrifty Barred Plymouth
Rock cockerels; during the summer and fall, all the original hens
and all the young stock except the pullets that showed the Ply-
mouth Rock color were sold to market; the selected pullets were
kept with the same three Plymouth males; the next fall the best
pullets were selected to keep; all the rest sold, including the
three Plymouth Rock males; their places’ were filled with four
very thrifty, sturdy Plymouth Rock cockerels. After another
season no one could have told the fowls from true-Barred Ply-
mouth Rocks. The great drawback to these crosses is their ten-
deney to create mongrels. First we use a White Leghorn; next a
Brahma; then a Wyandotte, and each season brings a new cross,
which compheates the situation. If you buy g pure bred male
to cross upon common hens, continue year after year to use the
same breed of males that are selected for the sturdy qualities and
neaith, rather than for color.

(uestion.— Which are the best breeds of Bantams for farmers’
children ?

Mr. MeGrew.— Brahma or Cochin Bantams, for the reason that
they are more sturdy and less apt to suffer from indifferent
housing and care in winter. I have known a brood of them to
live all winter in a store box where the mother hen reared and
left them at weaning time. They did better outside in this box
than did others of the same age that had a warm house for their
winter quarters.

Question.— Is there any profit in keeping Bantams? What ad-
vantage have they over larger fowl ?

Mr. MeGrew.— Those who breed Bantams to faney exhibition
qualities can and do make some profit from their culture. The
handling of Bantams in any other way cannot prove profitable.
Bantams are much valued by those who have small, confined
quarters for their yarding, as in our large cities, where a half

172 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

dozen can be kept for pleasure and the production of a few fresh
eggs for family use. Their eggs are prized highly for children
and invalids. If comfortably housed and properly fed they will
lay ‘about as many eggs as other fowl. If kindly treated they
will become as tame as a cat ora dog. ‘They eat so little that the
eggs they do produce are about all profit, and they are beautiful
for table use, either to boil or fry, at any age.

Mr. Davenport.— Three questions in one. The Buff and.
Black Cochins seem to us to be favorites as they are very quict,
not easily scared, great pets, good layers and good mothers. The
chicks are easily raised and are always in good demand. They
sell well and many fanciers say there is double the money in them
there is in the larger fowl. This is certainly so where space is
limited. Not long since we saw 15 of these little birds kept on
a space of 8x15 and their coop was 24x38, 20 inches high at back
and two feet in front.

Question.— Why is it that there are not more farmers raising
thorough-bred poultry ?

Mr. Davenport.— This is a hard question to answer. Our
idea is that it costs too much to get stock to start with and
they do not seem to understand that they can raise thoroughbred
stock just as easy and just as cheap as they can common stock.
Then the most of the farmers think that the time spent in taking
care of the poultry is so much time wasted or thrown away, and
if you ask a farmer why he does not put in thoroughbred stock, he
will tell you it costs too much to buy the eges and he cannot spare
the time to fool with them.

Question.— Which is the best way to introduce new blood into
a flock: to buy a pure bred male, a female, or eggs ?

Mr. McGrew.— Much depends upon the result you desire to
bring about. If you simply desire the new blood to strengthen and
build up vigor and egg production, this can be accomplished most
satisfactorily by introducing strong healthy males into your flock.
If it is your wish to improve or give new blood to a fine strain of
thoroughbred fowl that you have bred in line for some time, intro-
duce the new blood through the best female you can secure.
Either or both of these methods can be followed a year later with
the outcome of eggs purchased the year before, providing you are
sure the eggs are from good stock and the chicks from them are fine
individually. Two points must be kept in sight: Always demand
sterling individuality; to this must be added high-class breeding.
The good breeding is lost upon a poor specimen; but the grand

~

Tue Question Box. ae

individual, even if poorly bred, can transmit vigor, size and good
health — both combined is the desired specimen.

Mrs. Monroe.— If one is starting from the foundation without
fowl pure bred, introduce new blood from eggs, but if possible,
visit the yards from which such are bought. After that introduce
new blood through the female. Keeping the same type of male
bird. By this method it is also possible to determine the laying
qualities of the new blood. A male bird frori a poor layer would
undo the work of years, along the line of increasing egg yield.

Mr. Chapman.— The most satisfactory way, all things consid-
ered, is to buy eggs, as no disease can be brought to the farm.
I have known eases where a single fowl has caused a loss of nearly
all of the home flock by introducing some contagious disease.

BUILDING POULTRY HOUSES.

Question.— Do you prefer the “ scratching-shed principle ” in a
hen house? Why ?

Mrs. Monroe.— I prefer the scratching-shed principle, because
I think hens are hardier and stronger by working in the open
air. In the spring when the eggs are used for hatching, stronger
chicks and more of them are hatched from hens so raised
and kept. These houses are also pleasanter to work in, and are
always dry, if muslin curtains are used for stormy weather.

Question.— Would you recommend open front or scratch shed
houses and have a tight roosting room back? Or would you make
it all tight? How ventilated ?

Mr. McGrew.— The open or scratch-shed house for laying
hens is fast losing favor in the colder climates. Inclosed
rooms are most favored by those that have had the greatest experi-
ence. The best way, if possible, is to have a large open room witha
good, deep sand floor, well covered with litter, in which the fowl
"ean dig. Such a room should have only enough glass windows to
furnish light sufficient for their comfort. A closed roosting room
attached to the same is best. The whole should be built to furnish
good protection from the cold.

Indirect ventilation is always the best for winter. The best
form of indirect ventilation is to have the roof of the hen house
sealed up so as to make an open air space between the inside lining
and the roof. One or more outside ventilators should connect with
this air space and the inside ventilation should be carried into the
air space from the highest point in the room. Close to the floor
would be better if possible, but this can seldom be arranged.

174 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.— Is it advisable to build two-story poultry houses ?

Mr. Chapman.— Where the site is sloping, a two-story building
is cheaper, as convenient in all ways, and saves steps. I lke mine
and should advise their use on hillsides, &e.

Question.— What is the best elevation, front and rear, for a
poultry house ?é

Mr. MceGrew.— Low-built poultry houses are the best. If just
high enough for comfort in the rear, they can be considerably
lower in front. If high enough to move about in, they are by far
the best for the colder climates.

Question.— Why not have the poultry house run north and south
so the sun can come in from both sides ?

Mr. Chapman.— Too many windows, making the building cold.
The south side gives a continuous exposure all day. The north
side gives shade in hot weather.

Question.— How much glass should there be in a house for 50
hens? How near to the floor should the windows be placed?

Mrs. Monroe.— If the house is built on the open scratching
room and closed roosting room plan one window in each roost-
ing room, about a foot from the floor. If closed house, one
window (two sash) for every 15 feet in length of house.

Question.— Which floor is best in a chicken house, boards, or
ground, or cement? Why?

Mr. Smith.— A board is better than a ground floor, and a good
cement one is better than either. What is needed in a chicken
house is dryness. Boards or cement, if covered with litter, make
the best floors for that purpose, and are easier to keep clean than are
ground floors.

Mr. Chapman.— The best floor for a hen house is Portland
eement. Moisture does not come up from below, and it is easily
eleaned. I value it because it keeps out rats and other vermin.

Mr. McGrew.— Dry floors are always the best. Dry earth .
floors should always have the preference. Dampness being the
most injurious condition possible for poultry, absolutely dry
floors should be maintained. When dampness is present, dig out
two or three feet, fill in with gravel and broken stone and then
either cement or fill in with clay and sand as seems best for the
absolute guarantee of dry floors.

Question.— Why does Mr. Chapman bank his hen houses?

Mr. Chapman.— The frost goes through a solid stone wall; so
I prefer to bank it. A double wall, one wide enough, with an air
space in the center, might perhaps keep out the frost.

THE Question Box. 175

Question.— What is the best litter for a poultry house?

Mr. Chapman.— Buckwheat hulls absorb moisture, are light,
and the grain settles into them. They will keep sweet and clean
longer than any other substance known. I use different depths,
from 2 to 12 inches in different parts of the house and under the
roosts.

Question.— What are the women going to do when the men do
not provide a suitable house for the hens ?

Mrs. Monroe.— When a woman demonstrates the profitableness
of poultry, a man will be apt to take pains in putting up a house.

Question.— At what temperature should a hen house be kept
for best results?

Mr. Chapman.— The hen does not require as high a temperature
as does the cow. I think a temperature of 40 degrees high enough,
and I should allow four square feet of floor space for each hen.
Some experiments have been made in warming hen houses with
artificial heat, but I do not think they have been really successful.

Question.— Is the “ trap nest ” a suecess?

Mrs. Monroe.— I find the“ trap nest ” very useful in many ways.
As to its perfect reliability, I find some hens that never lay in the
trap, but take a corner of the dust bath, or some other place in
preference to the trap. The only “ trap nest” I have used is the
Eureka. If I were doing an “ eges-for-market business,” I should
use “trap nests” constantly. I have used “trap nests” several
years, but not at any time with the object of determining the
exact number of eggs laid by an individual hen. I cannot keep this
record, because I am constantly selling birds and taking them
away from the pens to fit for shows or to exhibit.

Question.— Do you think a dust bath necessary ?

Mr. Chapman.— Fow] will live, unless covered with vermin,
without a dust bath, but will not be profitable or as healthy as they
would with it. Many people who feed enough, have good fowl
and warm buildings, fail because they neglect some such point.

Question.— How many square feet floor space should be allowed
per hen?

Mrs. Monroe.— As much as possible. My hens have eight
square feet per hen, and do well where there are 25 in a pen.
If the pens were double size more hens per square foot would do
well.

Question.— How large should a building be to keep 50 hens ?

Mr. Lillie— A building 15x25 or 36 feet will do. I should
divide it and make a scratching shed of one-half. Make the other
part warm and keep the hens comfortable.

176 Bureau oF Farmers’ Iystrirures.

Mr. Jennin.— Three square feet where scratching shed is used.
Four square feet where no scratching shed is used.

Question.— What manner of poultry houses would be the most
economical and profitable for the caring of large flocks of poultry?
How many of the American varieties should be kept in one room?

Mr. MeGrew.— The size of the poultry houses must depend
largely upon the space that can be allotted to them and our ability
to build. The most profitable house is the one that furnishes
sufficient space in which the fowl may hunt and dig for food
without crowding upon each other. Twenty-five hens of the
American varieties are as many as should be kept in one colony
for the best results. We have seen this number do well in a room
10x12, but they will do better if a space of 10x14 or larger can
be allotted to them, if confined all the time during cold weather.

Question.— What number of hens should be kept in a flock?

Mr. Chapman.— It don’t make any particular difference. I
know a man who has 400 in one long building; but the trouble
with so large a flock is the difficulty experienced in feeding them.
About 40 in a flock will be found best.

Mr. Jennin.— Twenty to twenty-five.

FEEDING POULTRY.

Question.— What is a balanced ration for hens?

Mr. Chapman.—A ration that contains in proper per cents. the
elements of the egg, which are fat, water, albumen, ete. A good
one is two parts of oats, two of buckwheat and one of wheat.
Sweet skim milk is also fed, and a bushel of beets every day to
about 300 hens.

Question.— What is the best method of feeding hens for egg
production? Give in pounds the kinds of foods used in the ration.

Mr. Rice.— We scatter wheat, corn, oats and buckwheat in the
litter on the poultry house floor in the morning, and make the
hens work for it. At noon we feed a ration made of 100 pounds
of wheat bran, 100 pounds of wheat middlings, 100 pounds of
corn meal, 100 pounds of ground oats and 100 pounds of meat
meal. Itis mixed and fedasawarm mash. At night feed same
as morning.

Mr. Jennin.— For 100 hens, rations for 1 day, 16 pounds corn,
9 pounds oats, 6 pounds bran, ? pound beef scrap.

Mr. Stevens.— I have experimented with a large number of
foods for winter feeding, and find that a ration made from 100

Tur Question Box, ATT

pounds of corn meal, 100 pounds of ground oats, 200 pounds of
wheat bran, 100 pounds of linseed meal, 25 pounds of buckwheat
middlings, and 25 pounds of animal meal, scalded, is best. I find
that a laying hen requires one-eighth of animal food in its ration.
For whoie food, oats and wheat mixed half and half, is the best.
At night, if the weather is cold, add some corn. We feed the
“warm mash ” at noon.

Mr. Chapman.— The best method of feeding fowl for egg pro-
duction, in my estimation, is a light grain ration in the morning,
buried in the litter, consisting of equal parts of corn, wheat,
barley, oats and buckwheat. At noon a feeding of beets, cabbage
or other green food, followed by a warm mash, consisting of boiled
potatoes, cut clover hay, meat and ground grain, not exceeding
one-half the bulk. The ground grain to be one-quarter corn, one-
quarter oats and one-half wheat bran. Skim milk, oil meal or
meat in varying quantities as the fowl will stand, watching for
indications of bowel trouble and constipation.

Mr. Van Dreser.— Our ration is: Morning — wheat or oats
or buckwheat scattered on the floor in litter. 10 o’clock — Mash,
composed of 100 pounds each of corn meal, wheat bran and wheat
middlings and 25 pounds beef serap, all mixed with hot water and
fed warm.

Question.— Is there any way to make hens moult in August ?
How ?

Mr. Van Dreser.— Yes. Reduce the feed about the first of
August so they will stop laying and loose flesh for about 10 days,
then start to feed them with a rush, feeding heavy feed and sun-
flower seed. The oil in the sunflower seed causes the old feathers
to drop off and new ones to grow in their places, so that they are
replumed and ready to lay in early winter, when eggs are high.

Question.— Will cabbage affect the flavor of the eggs?

Mr. Chapman.— Not if fed in small quantities. I have heard
it asserted, however, that it would, but I do not think that cab-
bage is affecting the flavor of many eggs this winter.

Question.— Does Mr. Stevens consider carrots or raw beets a
perfect substitute for raw cabbage for winter feeding to the hens?

Answer.— I should prefer mangels to either of them. In some
markets there is objection made to the feeding of cabbage to lay-
ing hens, because of the flavor it imparts to their eggs. Sugar

_ beets, however, are not as injurious as is cabbage.
12

178 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.—Do hens need condition powders to make them lay ?

Mr. Van Dreser.— We never use them.

Question.— Does it pay to feed the sce-called “ animal meals ”

Dr. Smead.— As a rule, it does. Nearly all the hen foods are
compounded for egg production. The hen, to produce eggs, must
have foods that contain a good percentage of protein. These
foods usually contain this element. But, if one can buy meat
scraps and bones from the butcher shops, and cut them up, it may
be cheaper to buy them than the animal meals.

Question. —What kind of meat meal does Mr. Rice recom-
mend ¢

Answer.— There is more than 15 per cent. difference in the
feeding value of animal meals, all sold at nearly the same price.
Write to each of the manufacturers, get guaranteed analyses and
prices, then buy from the one who makes lowest prices.

Question.— What will take the place of meat for my hens?

Mr. Smith.— Any of the prepared animal meals will do. They
may ve bought of any dealers in cattle foods. All poultry grow-
ers, nearly, buy and feed these meals.

Question.— Do you think it profitable to lime eggs when cheap
in price and sell them for fresh eggs when the prices are high?

Mr. Rice.— Limed eggs are better than none, but not as good
as fresh ones, and the man who will sell limed eggs for freshly
laid ones ought to have a whole crate of them smashed in his
face. There is no moral honesty in any such contemptible
transaction.

Question.— How much will it cost to keep a hen one year?
Should she be confined ?

Mr. Lillie— We keep our hens for 50 cents a year. We have
500. Probably the cost is from 50 to 75 cents per hen. They
are kept in the houses a part of the time and are out for exercise
a part.

Question.— Will the same quantity of food raise and maintain
a Brahma or Plymouth Rock or Wyandotte, as a Leghorn?

Mr. Rice.— Oh, no. There are fully six to eight pounds of
Plymouth Rock or Wyandotte to maintain as against four pounds
of Leghorn. But the per cent. of cost of meat will be less im the
former than in the latter. On the contrary, as a rule, the cost
of eggs will be less for the Leghorns.

TsuE Question Box. 179

Question.— How many eggs can a large flock of hens be forced to
produce in one year ¢

Mr. Chapman.— I know a man who kept 600 hens which pro-
duced in one year $2,547, at a cost of $600, or $1 per hen, thus
leaving a net profit of $1,947. Some results were given from a
flock of 400 hens which produced $875 or more than $2 each.
The 600 flock produced an average of 196 eggs each, while the
average number in this State is only 60 per hen.

Question.— Is it well to feed more corn to hens if the buildings
are cold?

Mr. Rice.— If the weather is very cold and the hen house cold
too; or, if the hens are poor, feed more corn. If the houses are
warm, the hens in good condition and laying eggs, do not feed
corn alone, except at night.

Question.— Is broken glass too sharp for hen grit?

Mr. Rice.— I should say so. Glass is pretty sharp and danger-
ous to feed. Some variety of grit, like cracked oyster shells is
much preferable.

Question.— Would you keep grain before poultry all the while?

Mr. Jennin.— No, for laying hens; yes, for growing pullets.

Question.— What is the use of shelling corn for hens 4

Mr. Van Dreser.— None.

Question.— Is it a good plan to pareh corn for hens in winter 4

4x.’ Jennin.— No; corn or oats should be warmed in cold
weather, not parched.

Question.— Give the best method of feeding little chickens.

Mr. Jennin.— For first week, johnnyeake and boiled rice; sec-
ond week, alternately johnnyeake, cracked wheat; third week,
cracked wheat; fourth week, cracked corn, cracked wheat alter-
nately; after four weeks, cracked corn and occasionally some
beef scraps.

ANENT TURKEYS.

Question.— Are turkeys profitable ?

Mr. Chapman.— Where properly cared for they bring in quite
an income. One farmer’s wife I know has had $1,000 to spend
from this source, in the last 20 years. Many wives have no
income.

Question.— What do you feed young turkeys ?

Mr. Chapman.— Nothing for two days and then a light feed
of dry bread crumbs. They need but little when the mother is
in large yard or in the field.

1

180 BureEav or Farmers’ INstTirvures.

Question.— How can you keep turkeys at home?

Mr. Chapman.— They are quite methodical in their habits and
take about the same round each day. Confine the hen turkey
to a small yard for a week, and then let her out after dinner.
Keep watch of her, guiding her in a circle within the limits
of your own farm, bringing her back to the yard at night. After
a few trials she will go over about the same round each day and
come home every night.

Question.— Don’t they do more damage than they are worth ?

Mr. Chapman.— Turkeys left to pick for themselves are likely
to injure anything edible they can find, but where well fed every
morning with grain will only eat bugs, insects, and worms; and
are worth a good deal to the farmer by thinning them out. Unless
starved to it they do but little, if any, damage.

Question.— What is a balanced ration for turkeys?

Mr. Chapman.—The young turkeys are killed by overfeeding
more than by any other way. Do not feed the birds till they are
two days old. Then mix some stale bread and milk and feed it a
day or two. Then open the gate and allow the mother and brood
to shirk for themselves. When you want to fatten them, feed
boiled potatoes, corn meal and like foods.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT.

Question.— Does it pay to caponize; if so, at what time and
what breed?

Mr. Rice.— If one is rightly situated, the market near by and
the prices just right, there is sometimes money in capons. We
caponized 100 one year, losing not more than half a dozen. But
we were satisfied we could have got more money by selling the
cockerels when young, as broilers. I should not recommend going
into the business.

Question.— Are eggs an economical article of diet, at more
than a cent each?”

Mr. Rice.— Yes; ordinarily a dozen eggs are worth as much for
food as is a pound of beefsteak. People often sell eggs at a cent
each, then buy beef at 15 cents per pound and lose money in the
transaction. Eggs are more digestible than is beef, while they can
be cooked in more ways. To-day, the ege is the most popular
“meat” at the hotels. As a rule, 60 per cent. of the hotel guests
call for eggs. Every farmer should have them in the house every
day in the year.

Tuer Question Box. 181

Question.— Can eggs be profitably produced at a cent each ?

Mr. Rice.— It will depend on the hen and the management.
Egg production is the test. It will cost about 23 cents a day for
food to keep 100 hens. The droppings, if well preserved, will pay
for care. If a hen only lays 100 eggs in a year, they will cost
nearly a cent each if the hen is properly fed. She must lay a
greater number. If you get a profit at a cent each, you must have
ego producing hens, producing at least 160 eggs a year.

Question.— Can any one afford to sell eggs for hatching from
first prize winning stock, at $1 per setting? The above means prize
winners at large shows.

Mr. Rice.— If he can’t get any more for them, yes. It would be
better than to sell them for 15 cents per dozen. But, if a man has
prize winners he ought to get $2 to $3 per setting for the eggs
for breeding purposes. I know a man who gets $5. No man who
has such stock as he should breed from, can afford to sell eggs for
incubating purposes for any such price as $1 per setting. To
breed really good stock requires great care and skill. We select all
our breeding hens from the flock and put them by themselves.
Have just selected 350 out of a flock of 600.

Question.— Will Mr. Chapman tell us how to cure a hen that
wants to “ set?”

Mr. Chapman.— Put her into another hen house, or shut her in
a coop and do not feed her anything for a day or two. This treat-
ment will cure a Leghorn, but not always a Plymouth Rock.

Question.— Can you determine the age of a hen after she is a
year old?

Mr. Van Wagenen.— An expert will tell nearly a hen’s age by
her looks, but I think the larger poultrymen keep a record by
punching out a little piece in the foot, or elsewhere, when the hen
is a pullet.

Question.— How shall we make hens lay in winter in Den-
mark (Lewis county) ?

Mr. Chapman.— If a man comes along and tells you that he can
make yearling hens lay all winter and does it, he is smarter than
Iam. But pullets may be made to lay all winter, even in Den-
mark. Have the chicks hatched early in spring, so that they will
begin laying at, say six months, or before cold weather begins;
with such pullets, properly housed and fed, eggs may be produced
all winter. But eggs are now worth 30 cents a dozen, which is
the best evidence that but very few hens are now laying eggs.

182 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Question.— What is the best way to apply hen fertilizer to
garden culture or vegetables ?

Mr. Rice.— Hen manure is valuable. It is rich in nitrogen, but
deficient in phosphoric acid. So we use dissolved South Carolina
rock under the perches. This keeps it dry and locks up the nitro-
gen. Never put wood ashes under the perches, or lime, either.
They will absolutely drive the nitrogen out. Land plaster is good,
so is road dust to use as absorbents. At least 40 per cent. of the
nitrogen in hen manure can be lost where it is allowed to heat
without absorbents. Care should be used in applying it to garden
vegetables after they are planted. It may burn them. Its value
will depend somewhat upon the quality of food the hens are fed.
We usually mix the droppings with other manures and get it on to
the land where we intend to use it, as soon as possible after it is
made.

INCUBATING AND BROODING.

Question.— Are incubator chickens as healthy as those hatched
by hens? Do you prefer incubators for hatching chickens? Why?

Mr. Chapman.— I have never been able to detect any material
difference, where incubator was handled properly. I prefer in-
cubators, because they do not fight and break the eggs, are less
work to care for, do not breed lice and set when I want. them to.

Mr. Jennin.— Yes, providing incubator has been run with
proper ventilation and at a moderate temperature, say 102 degrees,
no higher, as higher temperature weakens the chicks. Incubator,
because the incubator is always broody, and can be depended on
to stick to business. Also when a large number of chicks is wanted,
it is cheaper.

Question.— What is the average number of chickens which can
be produced and raised from 100 incubated eggs.

Mr. Chapman.— If a man gets 75 chickens from 100 eggs,
hatched in an incubator, I think he will be doing well. We often
read of 99 per cent. of hatched eggs, but they were not from the
first eggs put in, because at the end of every few days, the eggs
are tested and all eggs not fertile are thrown out. Later, when
dead chickens are found in eggs, the eggs are replaced by new ones.
In that way, as many as 99 per cent. of the eggs that passed as
fertile or with live chickens in them, hatch. We raise 75 per cent.
of those hatched.

Tue Question Box. 183

Question.— Would you risk high priced eggs in the incubator?

Mr. Rice.— Certainly; why not? We are risking them and
have been ever since we began keeping poultry in any fudge rable
numbers. Indeed, we could not get along without an incubator.

Question.— Is the incubator a success? Are those heated by
hot water better than those heated by hot air?

Mr. Rice.— The incubator is certainly a success. Moreover it
is almost a necessity. The hens do not want to “set” early
enough to give us chicks for fall and winter layers. I know of no
advantage of the hot water over the hot air incubator; we have
had experience with a half dozen different patterns — all very
good, and most of them have some advantage that others do not.
We now use the “ Prairie State” and “ Cyphers.” If you are
going to invest in an incubator follow the directions closely and
do not let several members of the family run it; if you do, some-
body will make a mistake and upset the whole affair and will be
sure to charge it to the other fellow. Select some one in the family
to look after the machine, and allow no one else to go near it.
The incubator 1 is a suecess, when one has many eggs to hatch. If
only a few, if you can get a good old Plymouth Rock hen, I should
rather have the eggs under her than in any incubator ever made.
But we cannot trust every hen, particularly the Leghorns. The
Plymouth Rock and Re adenice, however, will stick to the nest
all summer.

Question.— When is the best time to start the incubator for
exhibition fow] ?

Mr. McGrew.— For all Asiatic and American breeds, as soon
after December 15th as you can have the eggs; for the smaller
breeds, after March 1st.

Question.— Do you prefer brooders to hens in rearing chickens?
Why?

Mr. Van Dreser.— We have never lost nearly as many chicks
by disease with brooders as we did with hens. We prefer brood-
ers: First, because they save labor; second, because they always
tend to business and the chicks are brooded any time that they
want to be without having to wait the notion of a fussy hen.

Mr. Jennin.— Hens for small flocks, where only a limited num-
ber of chickens are wanted, as it requires less attention and chick-
ens are given more range. Brooders where one intends to make it
a business and large numbers of chicks are wanted for early broil-

ers.

184 Bureau or F'armers’ Iystirures.

THE EGG-LAYING TYPE.
By James E. Rice, Yorxtrown, N. Y.

It is a disputed question whether such a thing exists with fowl
as an ege type. My own observation, however, leads me to believe
that the best laying fowl do differ from other fowl of the same
breed that are not so good layers. They differ in characteristics
that are to be recognized by one who is familiar with his fowl
Theoretically, it is perfectly natural and plausible that the pro-
nounced development of certain functions would call for a har-
monious structural development of the individual to support this
function. For instance, the function of speed is accompanied
with lightness of body, high nervous energy, great endurance and
pluck and a striking adaptability of size and shape of bone and
muscle to do the work demanded with the least waste of energy.
In short, it is simply the result of the silent working of the great
law of adaptation which has made the pronounced types in all of
our breeds. This has been hastened and sometimes hindered by
the hand of man. The contrast between the race horse and the
draft horse; the milch cow and beef cow; the grayhcund and bull
dog; the Mediterranean fowl and the Asiatic, is but another evi-
dence of the relation between type and performance. These types
do not simply happen so; they have gradually developed to be the
best for the purpose. When a hen is born with parts better
adapted to ege production than any hen heretofore, she will, with
the proper care and food, make the largest record. That sounds
like a self-evident truth. It is. So is an egg type. But egg type
does not mean body-shape alone. That’s where most failures
occur in selection. We must remember that shape is only one
factcr in the productive power of an individual. A hen may be
perfect in form and still be a poor producer, because not inheriting
a high reproductive tendency; just as a locomotive may be per-
fectly formed in every part to make great speed, but fail because
made of poor metal. Some hens with perfect form and inherited
prolificacy to be large egg-producers, may fail on account of lack
of vitality and vigor of constitution to withstand the drain upon
the system. When, however, all these qualities are combined in
one individual, we get the highest production. Such a hen will
differ in characteristics which will distinguish her from other
hens of the same breed, which are not good layers. She will have
the egg-laying type, and tendency to lav.

oN :
THE Question Box. 185

Most poultrymen who have observed the hens that are found
most often on the nest and have been accustomed to selecting their
breeding-pens with this end in view, will, I think, agree ‘to the
statements that have been made. They can quite accurately sepa-
rate the best layers from the poorest layers. I suggest that those
of my friends who have never before given it a thought, or who
do not believe in egg type, try selecting a pen of the best layers
this spring, and save their eggs to breed from, and see for them-
selves whether they do not get a finer lot of laying fowl than they
ever had before. The first thing that should be looked to is a
fowl that is large and that has a strong constitution, without
which all else is for naught.

The two upper fowl in the illustration are of the non-ege
laying type. They are of the wild, flighty, squawking type — nar-
row, closely-knit, bird-shaped bodies. The two lower fowl are built

186 Burrav or Farmers’ Instirvures.

for business. They are of a less “ flighty” disposition, though
always active and intelligent. You will observe the long, rangey
back, and the extreme depth of body from back to keel, and par-
ticularly the large fluff. The whole structure indicates at a glance
a large development of the ege-producing machinery, and a great
capacity to supply this machinery with digested food. There is
a decided effeminate, motherly appearance to a good layer, in
direct contrast to the rooster-headed, thick-necked hen. She gen-
erally is very active, inquisitive and friendly, which all speaks for
great nerve development and intelligence. According to the corela-
tion of parts, she will have a large comb. The condition of the
comb is closely related to the strength and vigor of the egg ma-
chinery. When it comes to a question of utility, if the standard
type disagrees with natural productive type, change the standard.
The laws of God are superior to the laws of man.

When selecting the breeding-pens for egg production it is a good
plan to mark the fowl which do not meet our idea of a good laying
type in size, shape, color and constitutional vigor, with a dab of
crimson paint on the shoulders. It makes them look odd, indeed,
with their “ prison stripes,” but it positively prevents their getting
in the breeding-pens again undiscovered. This rigid selection for
several years has had a wonderful effect upon the quality of our
flock, which leads me to beHeve that there is as much, or more, in
the type or particular strain of a breed, as there is difference in the
breeds themselves. A man who is careless about selecting — who
does not know, or does not care what he is breeding from — will
lose in three years what it may have taken a careful breeder many
years of painstaking selection to acquire. High production is the
result of careful selection, proper feeding and good breeding; all
must go hand in hand. Tt is a made condition. It is like a height.
gained by hard climbing. The tendency is to revert or drop back
to the original level. It is only upheld by the hand of man.
Lucky is the man who is wise enough to buy the results of the
skill of a good breeder, and wiser is he who maintains the advan-
tage gained and continues to improve upon it.

VETERINARY DEPARTMENT.

Question.— How is the best way to exterminate vermin in a
hen house and keep them out ?

Mr. Van Dreser.— I should advise removing the whole interior
of a hen house and replacing it with new, and stuff the four-inch

Tur Question Box. aS

space between the walls with swale hay or straw to keep the house
dry, as vermin thrive in a damp, filthy house. Then keep the
house thoroughly clean and apply kerosene oil and ecarbolie acid
to the nests and perches every week. <A good dust bath will keep
the large body lice from becoming so numerous as to cause much
damage.

Question.— Is there any cure for feather-pulling? Why do
hens do it ¢

Dr. Smead.— Yes, before it becomes a confirmed habit. It
ean be cured. If they pull their own feathers, lice may be the
cause, in trying to get the louse. They pull a feather and get a
taste of the blood, which their appetite may crave. Get rid of
the lice and feed once daily fresh meat run through a chopper.
If they pull the other fowls’ feathers, they do it for the blood
they get, as a rule. Feed them fresh chopped meat. Prepared
animal meals will not take the place of chopped fresh meat for
this purpose.

Question.— What is the cause and remedy for chickens that
have the gapes ?

Dr. Smead.— Prevent the gape worm getting in the throat by
always setting the chicken coop on a floor or boards, and using
lime freely about the place where the coops set, moving them once
in a week or at least two weeks. When not too far down the
windpipe, the looped horse hair can be used to dislodge them.
Turpentine and lard or olive oil and turpentine used equally can
be used by dipping a feather in it and swabbing out the throat.
This will remove some of them. But a better cure is to prevent.

Mr. Rice.— Gapes are caused by a worm in the throat of the
chicken. The remedy is not to allow it to get there, but if
it does, it may be snared out with a horse hair, or the chicken
may be made to sneeze it out by inhaling some pungent substance,
like slaked lime dust. The worm comes from the angle worm in
the soil, or from eating food on soil that contains the gape worms.
Therefore, the young chicks should be kept on board floors or on
new sod. Do not allow them to run there long before the coops
are changed, and if gapes have appeared in the flock, do not
place the ecoops on the same ground again.

Question.— What is the cause of hens’ becoming blind, and what
is the remedy? So far as ean be seen, there is no roupy symptom ;
no swelling: no effusion; the general health of the fowl is good.

Dr. Smead.— Either catarrhal disease will cause the blindness,

188 Bureau oF Farmers’ Institutes.

or sometimes an inflammation will take place from ammoniacal
gases in a hen house from bad ventilation. Make all surroundings
in the best possible condition; mix olive oil and strained honey
together equally and put a drop with a camel’s hair pencil in the
eye two or three times daily.

Question.— What about condition powders for hens?

Dr. Smead.— The best condition powders I know are good, well-
balanced rations. What is the matter with your hens ?

The Farmer.— I suppose it is roup.

Dr. Smead.— Probably the best way to treat a hen thus afflicted
is to cut off its head and bury it. Watch the hens, and if you
find one that is ailing, take it away from the flock. You may use
a camel’s-hair brush, and with a mixture of vaseline and alcohol
anoint the throats of the sick hens. But the best way is to make
the sanitary conditions good. Prevent dampness, give good ra-
tions and make the hen house warm and light. Unless there is
disease in the flock or herd, don’t give medicine. As a rule, roup
and kindred hen diseases do not appear in the flocks in summer,
when they are out. Another point; don’t feed too much carbona-
ceous foods, such as corn, in winter. If the hens are to lay eggs,
they must have protein; not only for egg production, but to keep
in a well-balanced way the animal structure. I should not buy a
pound of these so-called ‘‘ condition powders.” They have a basis
of linseed meal, which costs now about $23 per ton; but the pow-
ders are sold for about $400. There is a little golden seal, pow-
dered anisced, and something else to make the mixture smell
good, as well as palatable, to the hen. That is all. Don’t buy
them for any purposes.

Question.— What is the cause of hens’ having a “ gagging” in
their throats ?

Dr. Smead.— If it is a chicken, I should think it was the work
of the gape worm. If it is an adult hen, possibly it is diphtheria.
Syringe or brush the membrane of the throat, using aleohol and
vaseline, making two or three applications a week, first quarantin-
ing the sick fowl.

Question.— Will you please describe the disease known as blue-
head in young turkeys; give the cause, method of prevention and
cure ¢

Dr. Smead.— Blue-head is simply an indication of a fevered
system. The turkey is the worst fowl known to treat for any
disease. Feed on laxative food and let nature do what she can.

Tue Question Box.’ 189

Question.— What is wrong with my chicks? Both hen-hatched
and incubator chicks are dropping off the same way. They seem
all right when hatched, but begin to have fits, and die after they
are about a week old. Some are pasted up behind, and some void
whitish shmy droppings, and chirp as though it hurt to pass them.
Nearly all will fall down in a fit if startled, or even when running
about the pen. In the fit, they stretch out with heads back or with
wings and feet-cramped. Sometimes they gasp and pant. They
don’t look right when they don’t have these spells, and they walk
wobbly as though their legs were stiff in the joints. Some have
their legs and feet all dried up and the toes drawn up. I am feed-
ing them and caring for them just as I have always done with
chicks before, and this is my first “bad luck” season. Can you
set me right ?

Dr. Smead.— The fact of their being hatched strong and free
from the ailments which follow when a week of age shows quite
conclusively that there is some condition along lines of your feed-
ing and management that brings on the trouble. . The bowel
trouble by the food and the rheumatics by dampness or crowding,
or by sudden change or an improper temperature of your brooder.
In order to offer definite advice, I should have to know what
present conditions are. But will say, make a change in your feed-
ing, at any rate; while it may have been successful under past
conditions, it may be all wrong now; also, if not what you believe
to be right, change the conditions in the brooder.

The following questions were answered by Dr. Mark D.
Williams.

1. Is there any known remedy for “ going light ” in fowl ?

Answer.— Yes. The disease is caused by a germ (bacteria).
The disease manifests itself by the fowls’ becoming dull, with great
loss of flesh and weight, a tottering gait, good appetite, increasing
weakness, and death in a few days or a month, and is more aggra-
vated by damp weather. It is much like bacterial enteritis and
cholera, but there is little or no diarrhea. R. Treatment for half-
grown fowl: Hyposulphite of soda, 2 grains; sulphate of iron,
1 grain; oxide of iron (venetian red), 30 grains. If there is
diarrhcea, add subnitrate of bismuth, 1 grain. Mix and give in
feed, or in pill, morning and night. Great care should be taken
not to make a mistake and give oxide of lead (red lead) as it is a
deadly poison.

2. (a) What is roup? (b) Is it contagious? (c) How can it be
prevented? (d) How cured?.

190 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Answers.— (a) Roup is a word used to signify (catarrh) an
inflammation in the upper air passages, sore throat, change of
voice, and a mucous nasal discharge, as these symptoms appear
going hght,”

ee

in simple catarrh, infectious catarrh, diphtheria,
bacterial enteritis and psorospermic enteritis, it will be seen that
the word * roup ” should not be used as the name of a disease, as it
is confusing. (b) All but the first one named are infectious.
(c) To prevent infectious catarrh and diphtheria, fowl should not
be brought home from the show, nor be taken from unknown
flocks and placed with the home flock for at least two weeks, and
it is not even safe to allow the same person to care for them that
has charge of the home fowl; people or animals should not be
allowed to come from infected flocks and go directly to the healthy
flock. I have had good success in preventing psorospermic enter-
itis, bacteria enteritis and going light by feeding hyposulphite of
soda, sulphate of iron and oxide of iron once a week. In damp
weather these diseases are more virulent. Chicks or fowl should
never have wet feet nor be kept in damp places. (d) In sveaking
of the cure for these diseases it may be well to say that one dose
for an adult fowl will make one dose for 20 little chicks one
week old. Simple catarrh, or simple cold, usually affects but
one or two fowl at a time and they soon recover. With infec-
tious catarrh, a good share of the flock have it at the same time, and
the eyes swell. In turkeys the nasal sinuses also swell or enlarge.
R. Treatment: Put two ounces of permangante of potash (or borie
acid, but not as good), in four quarts of water, grasp the fowl in
one hand and the neck in the other and submerge the head three
or four times until the bird is about strangled each time, and do
this once a day for a week; take one-half ounce of permanganate
of potash and put it in four quarts of water and give them this to
drink for a week. Diphtheria is a disease where cankers are found
in the mouth, and the treatment is the same as for infectious
‘atarrh., Psorospermic enteritis is a disease that causes great loss
in voung chicks. There is usually diarrhoea, with whitish exere-
ment, followed by constipation; with adult fowl, diarrhea is
abundant and the excrement may be of a brick-red color, or even
streaked with blood. Treatment the same as for “ going light,” with
a little charcoal and chalk. Bacterial enteritis, a disease causing
great loss in chicks, turkeys and ducks, much like “ going light,”
but with no appetite and diarrhea. Treatment the same as for
psorospermic enteritis.

THE Question Boxs! 191

3. Is there any cure for chicken cholera?

Answer.— Yes. It is, however, a very uncommon disease.
Place the fowl in a small pen, remove the droppings and sick
birds once a day and disinfect the floor; feed in clean dishes and
treat the same as for “ going light ” for a week or ten days.

4, Is there any cure for blackhead in little turkeys?

Answer.— I have had good success in treating them the same
as for bacterial enteritis. If the caeca and liver are found dis-
eased, that is, the caeca shortened and thickened and the liver
with spots on it, it will be a good idea to start with a new flock, or
dispose of the old ones before the eggs hatch that are under hens,
and put the young turkeys on new ground for a time.

THE COMPOSITION AND USE OF FERTILIZERS.

By L. L. Van Stryke, Ph. D., Chemist, N. Y. Agricultural Experiment
Station, Geneva, N, Y.

Part J.—Chemistry of Plants, Plant Foods and Soils.

Parr JJ.—Classification and Description of Materials Used
as Fertilizers.

Part IJ].—Purchase and Use of Fertilizers.

Parr IV.—Arithmetic of Fertilizers.

Parr V.—-Average Composition and Value of Fertilizing
Materials and of Farm Crops.

INTRODUCTION.

The matter in this treatise is to be carefully studied, not merely
read, if one expects to obtain the greatest benefit from it. It is
suggested that the bulletin be taken up in small portions at a time
and be studied constantly, going back to parts previously studied
until they are clearly understood. Many may find that Part I
especially will need to be studied in this way and it may be well
to pass on to the following portions and come back to Part I from
time to time. In this way its importance will be more fully real-
ized and also its connection with the other parts. The bulletin
should be kept at hand for constant reference.

Until 50 years ago, agriculture was without a scientific work-
ing basis. To the investigations of the illustrious German
chemist, Justus von Liebig, we largely owe the advances that have
been made in agricultural methods during the past half century.
The following four laws, which form the foundation of modern
agricultural practice, were fully established by Liebig:

1. “A soil can be termed fertile only when it contains all
the materials requisite for the nutrition of plants, in the required
quantity, and in the proper form.”

2. “ With every crop, a portion of these ingredients is
removed. A part of this portion is again added from the inex-

192

Tue Composition AND Usr or FERTILIZERS. 193

haustible store of the atmosphere; another part, however, is lost
forever if not replaced by man.”

3. “ The fertility of the soil remains unchanged, if all the
ingredients of a crop are given back to the land. Such a restitu-
tion is effected by manure.”

4, “The manure produced in the course of husbandry is
not sufficient to maintain permanently the fertility of a farm; it
lacks the constituents which are annually exported in the shape
of grain, hay, milk and live stock.”

These four laws of Liebig contain a clear statement of the prin-
ciples underlying the use of fertilizers; but, to understand their
meaning with satisfactory clearness, we must know something
more in detail about such subjects as the following: The constitu-
ents of plants; the materials of plant food; the constituents of
soils; the relations of soils and plants; the sources and com-
position of different forms of plant food; what forms and quanti-
ties of plant food to use on different soils and crops, and other
similar questions.

PAR Dy:

THE CHEMISTRY OF PLANTS, PLANT FOODS AND
SOILS.

1. Tue ConstTiTuENTS oF PLANTS.

Elementary Composition of Plants.—— The number of different
kinds of plants growing on the earth is estimated at not less than
200,000; and these, with all their variation of stem, foliage, flower
and fruit, are made from about a dozen different chemical ele-
ments. Indeed, the greater proportion of the bulk of the vege-
table kingdom is made from only three different elements.

By a chemical element, we mean any substance which cannot,
by any known means, be separated into two or more different kinds
of matter. Thus, oxygen is an element because it contains only
one thing, oxygen, so far as we now know. From pure gold,
nothing but gold can be obtained; hence, gold is an element. Sim-
ilarly, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, ete., are ele-
ments.

At present about 70 different elements are known, and of
these 70 only 14 are used in the production of plants; while
of these 14, only 11 or 12 are really essential to plant

13

194 Bureau or Farmers’ INSrirures.

growth. The following list contains the names of elements that
occur in plants: Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, potas-
sium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, chlorin
(sodium, silicon, manganese).

These few elements we may regard as a kind of chemical alpha-
bet of the vegetable world. We do not find these elements simply
tumbled together in miscellaneous heaps in the formation of
plants. Somewhat as the letters of our alphabet unite to form
words, so the chemical elements are united to form various chem1-
cal compounds, and these compounds are mixed together in a
variety of ways to form plants.

Classes of Chemical Compounds in Plants.— It will be of in-
terest in passing to notice briefly some of the more common kinds
of chemical compounds found in plants:

1. There is a most important and extensive group of compounds,
each containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. ‘The class, as a
whole, is known by the name of carbohydrates. The most common
members of this class are sugar, starch, woody fiber, vegetable
gums, etc.

2. We have another class distinguished for the valuable food
constituents contained in it, known in general as proteids. As a
representative of this class, we may mention the gluten or sticky
portion of wheat flour. This contains beside the three elements
of carbohydrates, three other elements — nitrogen, phosphorus
and sulphur.

3. We have the vegetable oils, from which come our linseed,
castor, olive, cotton seed, and other vegetable oils of commercial
importance. .

4. We may mention as another class the vegetable acids — for
example, the tartaric acid of grapes, present as a compound of
tartaric acid and potassium, containing the elements carbon, hy-
drogen, oxygen and potassium; citric acid, found in lemons, cur-
rants, cherries, strawberries and similar fruits; malice acid, in
apples, ete.

5. We have that extremely important class of compounds which
give characteristic flavors to many plant products, particularly the
flowers and fruits.

6. There may be mentioned in passing the very widely dis-
tributed substances of vegetable origin, used for medicinal pur-
poses, such as quinine, morphine, strychnine, ete.

The exact number of different compounds in the vegetable king-
dom formed from our dozen elements is not known but must be

Tur Composition anp Usr or Frrrrmizers. 195

very large, as can be inferred from the character of the few re
ferred to.

Classification into Air-Derived and Soil-Derived Elements.—
The elements necessary to the growth of plants may be divided
into two quite distinct classes, which have important and marked
differences. These two classes are: (a) Air-derived elements. (0)
Soil-derived or mineral elements.

(a) Aw-Derwed Elements. (b) Soil-Derived Elements.
Carbon, Potassium,
Oxygen, Phosphorus,
Hydrogen, Calcium,
Nitrogen. Magnesium,

Sulphur,
Iron,
Chlorine,
Sodium,
Silicon,
Manganese.

Tt is usual among writers on agricultural chemistry to call these
classes organic and inorganic elements, but this use of these words
is extremely inaccurate; for any element may be either organic or
inorganic, according as it is or is not a part or product of an or-
ganized body. Oxygen, as it exists in the air, is inorganic matter;
but when, through vital processes, it becomes part of an animal
or plant, it is organic.

These two classes of elements differ in three important par-
ticulars, as follows:

1. The elements of the first class are derived exclusively from
the air, either directly or indirectly; while those of the second
class come exclusively from the soil.

9. Air-derived elements disappear, for the most part, in the
form of gases, when a plant is burned; while the soil-derived ele-
ments, usually the smaller part, are left in the form of a residue
or ash, upon which further heating will not have any effect.
Some carbon and oxygen and nitrogen are always found in the
ash, while slight quantities of chlorine, sulphur and phosphorus
are apt to be driven off by heating. The two classes of elements
are, therefore, not so sharply defined in this regard as they are
in respect to the sources from which they come.

3. These two classes differ very noticeably in regard to the

196 Burerav or Farmers’ INsStirures.

quantities in which they are present in plants. Thus, the air-de-
rived elements constitute, at least, 95 per cent. of the whole
vegetable kingdom, while the soil-derived elements occur in small
quantities, varying from a fraction of one per cent. up to 10 per
cent., or even more in some cases. Because the soil-derived ele-
ments occur in small quantities, it does not follow that their
presence is of less importance; in their absence, vegetation would
disappear.

This fact has a most important application in enabling us to
control our yield of crops. Man cannot, to any appreciable ex-
tent, at least economically, control directly most of the air-
derived elements in feeding plants; but he can do so indirectly
through the soil-derived elements. In other words, by looking
after less than five per cent. of the materials used by plants as food,
he can, to a large extent, control the other 95 per cent., other
conditions being favorable.

We will now consider some of the properties of the different
elements that enter into the composition of plants.

CARBON.

(a) Importance.— The element carbon may be called the cen-
tral element of all animal and vegetable substances; for there
is not a living thing, from the smallest cell to the giant tree, which
does not contain carbon as a necessary constituent. That all vege-
table and animal substances contain carbon can easily be shown by
simply heating them sufficiently, and thus causing them to blacken
or char. When, for example, wood is heated, the different ele-
ments of which it is composed are driven off in one form or an-
other, but the carbon is the last to go, and remains behind as a
black substance or charcoal, unless heated higher, when it dis-
appears or burns up. |

(b) Source.— Carbon usually occurs in nature united in com-
pounds with other elements. Thus, most products of plant life
contain carbon combined with the elements hydrogen and oxygen;
such are starch, sugar and cellulose or woody fiber. Carbon com-
bined with oxygen occurs in the air in the form of carbon dioxide,
commonly called carbonic acid gas. Carbon, when combined with
oxygen and some elements such as calcium, occurs in the form of
carbonates; for example, marble, limestone and chalk are chemi-
cally known as calcium carbonate or carbonate of lime.

Carbon by itself or in the free condition, that is, not united

Tur Composition AND User or FERTILIZERS. 197

with any other elements, is familiar to us in several different
forms; the most common of these are (1) diamonds; (2) graphite,
which is used in the manufacture of lead-pencils; (3) ordinary
wood-charcoal; (4) lamp black; (5) animal charcoal; (6) mineral
coal. Excepting diamond these forms of carbon are more or
less impure, containing some other things mixed with the carbon.

(c) Relation to Fertilizers— We know that carbon must be
an important element in plant food, since it forms nearly one-
half of the solid portions of plants. Notwithstanding the fact
that carbon forms so large a portion of plants, it has no import-
ance as an active food constituent of direct fertilizers. This state-
ment may appear strange and the question may be asked, “ why
is not carbon to be regarded as an essential constituent of direct
fertilizers?” The answer is that the carbon of plants comes froin
the carbon dioxide (carbonic acid gas) of the air, and the air
furnishes an inexhaustible and available supply of this substance.
We do not, therefore, need to add carbon to the soil in order to
supply the needs of plants. However, some recent investigations
seem to indicate that some carbon is probably taken into the plant
through the roots and that forms of carbon other than carbon
dioxide may be found to be useful in supplying plants with their
carbon food.

Carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere to the extent of
three parts in 10,000 parts of air. Though present in so small
proportions, we have in the atmosphere resting upon one acre
of ground more than 20 tons of this gas, an amount sufficient
to supply 16 times as much carbon as any crop would evcr be
likely to need. The supply of carbon dioxide in the air is kept
up by the burning of fuel, from the breathi of all animals, and
from the natural processes of decay of organic matter. A ton
of good coal, in burning, produces over three tons of carbon
dioxide. The people in a town of 10,000 inhabitants breathe
out every twenty-four hours not less than five tons of carbon
dioxide. This amount would furnish enough carbon to grow
several acres of corn with an extremely large yield.

Carbon dioxide performs a service for plants in another way
when it is carried into the soil in rain water, by means of the dis-
solving action it has upon some of the mineral plant food consti-
tuents of the soil. In this way it acts as indirect fertilizer.

(d) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.— Carbon is a con-
stituent of nearly all the compounds, except water, found in

198 Bureau or Farmers’ Iysrrrures.

plants, such as starch, fibre, sugar, fat or oil, proteids, acids, ete.
Hence, its function is to supply its necessary part of the material
found in such compounds. Plants take in their supply of carvon
dioxide chiefly through their leaves directly from the surround-
ing air. In the cells of the leaves, the carbon dioxide, in the
presence of sunshine, is separated into its elements, its carbon unit-
ing with other elements to form various compounds, such as
starch, sugar, woody fiber, etc., the oxygen being largely returned
to the air as free or uncombined oxygen.

HyproGeEn.

(a) Source.— The element hydrogen is nearly always found
combined with other elements. It combines with oxygen to form
water. Hydrogen also occurs in most animal and vegetable sub-
stances, such as various kinds of wood, fruits, ete., in which it
is combined with the elements, carbon and oxygen. Hydrogen is
always present in all kinds of acids.

(b) Description.— Hydrogen, in the uncombined form, is a
gas that resembles air in that it has neither color, smell nor
taste. f

(c) Relation to Fertilizers— Hydrogen, as a constituent of
water has most important work in plant nutrition, and this will
be considered a little later.

(d) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.— This is considered
under the subject of water.

OxyYGEN.

(a) Source.— Oxygen is the most abundant of all the elements.
The compounds which contain no oxygen are few in number.
Oxygen forms nearly one-half of the crust of the earth; eight-
ninths of water; about one-fifth of air, and one-third of all animal
and vegetable matter.

Oxygen occurs in the air uncombined with other elements.
Oxygen, combined with the elements carbon and hydrogen, or
with carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, is found in substances whieh
go to make up animals and vegetables.

(6) Description As might be inferred from knowing that
oxygen in the uncombined state forms part of the air, oxygen
is a gas having no color, taste or smell.

Oxygen is a very active substance from a chemical point of
view. It tends to unite with nearly all of the elements. In all

Tur Composition AND Use or Frrrivizers. 199

forms of burning, the oxygen of the air is simply uniting with
other elements. ‘Thus, in a coal fire, the oxygen unites with the
carbon of the coal. The heat is produced by the union of the
two elements.

(c) Relation to Fertilizers The oxygen which plants use
comes largely from the air, of which it constitutes about one-
fifth, and this amounts to about 10,000 tons an acre. Some of,
the oxygen that plants use for tissue formation and elaboration
of plant compounds is supplied in the form of water, which is
a compound of oxygen and hydrogen.

Water (Hydrogen and Oxygen).— Growing plants consume a
larger amount of water than of any other compound. More or less
water is separated within the plant into its constituent elements,
hydrogen and oxygen, and these are then built into the tissues and
compounds which it is the office of the plant to elaborate. In this
manner, water acts as a direct fertilizer. The water is supplied
to the soil by rains, and from the soil it is taken into the plant
through the delicate root-hairs. Most of the water that enters a
plant through the roots is evaporated finally from the leaves into
the air as water vapor, this process being known as transpiration.
The amount of water transpired into the air is immensely greater
than that retained in a plant. Some plants exhale their own
weight of water during 24 hours in hot, dry weather. A
crop of barley grown on an acre of land may weigh 5,000
pounds, grain and straw included. Of this there will be 500
pounds of water and 4,500 pounds of dry or solid matter, to
produce which the crop has evaporated from the growing plants
during their period of growth not less than 700 tons of water,
an amount of water which would require a railway train of
35 ears to carry. Under average conditions, 300 pounds of water
will have to pass through a plant into the ar, while one pound of
solid matter is being added to the plant. The need for enormous
quantities of water in growing crops is obvious, but, in. regions
adapted to agriculture, plants usually receive from rain all the
water (oxygen and hydrogen) needed. Hence, these plant food
elements do not usually enter into a farmer’s consideration, when
he is planning to supply his crop with needed plant food. How-
ever, it is essential that the losses of water from the soil shall be
controlled, as can be done by proper means of tillage, keeping
up supply of humus, ete. When water is supplied to plants by
irrigation, it is very properly regarded as a fertilizer, and an
extremely important one.

200 Bureau oF Farmers’ Insrrrures.

(d) Specific Functions in Plant Growth Oxygen, next to
carbon, is the most abundant element found in plants, and there
are very few compounds occurring in plants which do not con-
tain more or less oxygen. The chief function of oxygen is to
supply the various compounds of plants with the needed portion
of this material. Plants require oxygen about as much as do
animals. Green plants cannot flourish without a supply of oxy-
gen. The absence of oxygen prevents the germination of seeds.
Considerable quantities of oxygen are absorbed from the air by
the opening buds of trees. More or less oxygen in the soil is
necessary for the active life of roots. In the act of flowering,
the absorption and chemical action of oxygen in the blossom
is so marked, in some cases, as to develop sufficient heat to be
measured by a thermometer. F

Water (Ilydrogen and Oxygen).— In the combination of oxy-
gen with hydrogen in the form of water, these two elements per-
form important functions. In the first place, nearly all the hydro-
gen found in the different compounds of plants comes from water.
More or less of the oxygen is also supplied this way. In addition
to furnishing materials with which to build other compounds,
water acts as a carrier within the plant in transferring from one
part of the plant to another, as needed, the various products con-
tained in the plant, just as the blood in the animal body carries
to every portion the nutriment adapted to each organ and part.

NirrRoGEN.

(a) Source.— Nitrogen occurs in nature in the following
forms:

(1) As a constituent of ar.

(2) In the form of ammonia.

(3) In the form of nitric acid and nitrates.

(4) In various other forms in plants and animals.

(1) Nrrrogen my Arr.— Nitrogen, uncombined with other ele-
ments, forms about four-fifths of the air. Since the nitrogen in
the air is not combined, we can perceive its properties for our-
selves, and our observation shows us that it is a gas, which has
neither color, taste nor smell.

(2) Nirrocen in Awmonta.— Nitrogen combined with the
element hydrogen forms ammonia. Ammonia is present in the
air in very small quantities. Ammonia is formed when vegetable
and animal substances containing nitrogen decompose.

Tue Composition AND Usr or FrErririzers. 201

Ammonia is a colorless gas, and it is this gas dissolved in water
which is familiar to us as ammonia water or “Spirits of Harts-
horn,” and which causes the peculiar odor of “ hartshorn.”

Ammonia unites with different acids and forms salts somewhat
as metals do; these salts we call ammonium salts, compounds which
do not generally have any odor like ammonia. Thus, ammonia
combined with sulphuric acid forms ammonium sulphate, com-
monly called sulphate of ammonia; ammonia, combined with hy-
drochlorie acid, forms ammonium chloride, sometimes called mu-
riate of ammonia, also known as sal ammoniac.

(3) Nitrogen in Nirratres.— Nitrogen, combined with hy-
drogen and oxygen, forms nitric acid or aqua fortis. If in nitric
acid a metal as sodium, for example, takes the place of hydrogen,
we have formed a sodium salt of nitrie acid or a nitrate, called
sodium nitrate, or nitrate of soda.

When animal and vegetable substances decompose in rather
warm, moist places, the nitrogen is changed into nitrates. This
change of the nitrogen of organic matter into nitrates is caused
by germs called bacteria, which are very small living vegetable
organisms, and which exist everywhere in enormous numbers. The
process is known as “ nitrification.”

(4) Nirroeen in Animats anp Prants, or Oreanic Nirro-
aen.— Nitrogen, combined with the elements, hydrogen, carbon
and oxygen occurs in plants and in animals. Such substances for
example are the casein or curd of milk, the gluten or gummy por-
tion of wheat, the fibrin of blood, the white of egg, ete. When
such compounds decompose, the nitrogen is first changed into
ammonia, and then, under proper conditions of warmth, moisture
and access of air, into nitric acid or nitrates. The nitrogen exist-
ing in animals and plants is generally called organic nitrogen.

(b) In what Forms Nitrogen is Useful to Plants.— Plants can
use nitrogen in three different forms, viz.:

(1) As nitrogen gas or uncombined nitrogen.
(2) In the form of ammonia.
(3) In the form of nitrates.

All plants cannot use nitrogen in any of these three forms
equally well, but each form is found specially suited to certain
kinds of plants as will be noticed.

(1) Nrrrocen Gas Usep py Pranrts.— Although we have ni-
trogen gas or uncombined nitrogen existing in the air in enormous
quantities, still the number and kinds of plants which can use the

202 Boureav or Farmers’ LIystirutes.

nitrogen of the air is not large. In general, those plants which
are called leguminous, such as the bean, pea, clover, alfalfa, ete.,
can take uncombined nitrogen from the air.

(2) Nirrogen or Ammonita Usep sy Pxuants.— The leaves
of some plants have the power of absorbing ammonia directly from
the air and obtain nitrogen in this way, but only in very small
quantities. Some plants obtain nitrogen from ammonium salts
through the soil, but in general, the compounds of ammonia are
changed into nitrates in the soil before being used by plants.

(3) Nirrocen or Nirrates Usep By Priants.— The largest
part of the nitrogen obtained by most plants is taken up by their
roots from the soil in the form of nitrates ; that is, nitrie acid com-
bined with some metal, as sodium or potassium. As already stated,
inost of the nitrates used by plants are formed by changing into
nitrates ammonia compounds and organic substances in the soil by
the process called nitrification. Hence, nitrogen, in the form of
nitrates, is the most available form for most plants; that is, it ean
be most readily taken up and used by plants.

(c) elation to Fertilizers— Experiments have shown that
nitrogen is essential to the growth of plants; that the quantities of
nitrogen available as plant food are very small; that nitrogen is
one of the first elements in the soil to be used up; that, of all fer-
tilizing elements, nitrogen is and always has been the most expen-
sive.

(d) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.— The influence of
nitregen in its various forms upon plant growth is shown by at
least three striking effects.

1. The growth of stems and leaves is greatly promoted, while
that of buds and flowers is retarded. Ordinarily, most plants,
at a certain period of growth, cease to produce new branches and
foliage, or to increase those already formed, and commence to pro-
duce flowers and fruits, whereby the species may be perpetuated.
If a plant is provided with as much available nitrogen as it can
use just at the time it begins to flower, the formation of flowers
may be checked while the activity of growth is transferred back
to and renewed in stems and leaves, which take on a new vigor and
multiply with remarkable luxuriance. Should flowers be pro-
duced under these circumstances, they are sterile and produce no
seed.

2. The next effect of nitrogen upon plants is to deepen the
color of the foliage, which is a sign of increased vegetative activity
and health.

Tur Comrostrion anp Usr or Frrtinizers, . 203

3. Another effect of nitrogen is to increase in a very marked
degree the relative proportion of nitrogen in the plant. This 1s
something which we cannot see with our eyes and which can be
ascertained only by chemical analysis. ‘The importance of this
fact may not be readily apparent, but it becomes so, when we con-
sider that much of the value of some foods depends upon the
amount of nitrogen compounds, that is, proteids, contained in
them. For example, some samples of ies may contain only eight
per cent. of proteids, while others may contain twice this amount.
This difference in composition makes a great difference in food
value.

PHOSPHORUS.

(a) Source.— Phosphorus is always found in nature combined
with other elements. It occurs combined with oxygen and cal-
cium (or lime) and this compound is called caleitwm phosphate or
phosphate of lime. It also occurs in soils as phosphate of mag-
nesia, and phosphate of alumina and iron. Calcium phosphate or
phosphate of lime is found in some minerals and in the bones of
animals. .

(b) Description.— Phosphorus, when uncombined with other
elements, it is yellowish, waxy-looking, solid substance. It is soft
and can i cut as easily as ordinary beeswax. It is very poison-
ous. It takes fire very easily and, therefore, has to be kept under
water. When phosphorus burns, it simply unites with the oxygen
of the air, forming a compound which contains oxygen and phos-
phorus; this compound of oxygen and phosphorus is commonly

called phosphoric acid.

(c) Importance of Phosphorus Compounds.— The phosphates,
like the nitrates, are found everywhere in the soil and are of great
value in their relations to plants. The phosphates found in the
bones are taken into the animal body in the food. All plants
used as food contain small quantities of phosphorus compounds
which they get from the soil. The phosphates taken into the
body are partly given off in the excrement and urine.

(d) Relation to Fertilizers The fact that phosphorus com-
pounds are absolutely necessary for the maturity of plants indi-
cates that phosphates are essential to complete fertilizers. Soils
become deficient in available phosphates quite rapidly, especially
in grain-growing regions.

(e) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.—1. Phosphorus
compounds aid in the general nutrition of the plant by furnish-

904 Bureau or Farmers’ INstirures.

ing such quantities of phosphorous as are needed in building pro-
teids and in forming other phosphorus plant compounds.

2. Phosphorus affects the development of seeds and fruit.
More phosphorus is found in the seeds than in any other portion
of a plant. Plants do not come to maturity and so do not pro-
duce seeds, unless the plants can get phosphorus compounds to
feed on. Owing to the intimate connection between phosphorus
and seed formation, a liberal application of available phosphorus
compounds to plants in the earlier stages of growth appears to
hasten’ somewhat their maturity. In this respect, it acts upon
plants in a manner opposite to nitrogen, whose presence in large
amounts retards ripening.

3. Certain forms of phosphates render the proteids sufficiently
soluble to enable them to be carried from the growing parts of
plants to the seeds, in which they accumulate in quantity.

PorassiuM.

(a) Source.-— The metal potassium is never found uncombined
in nature. It is a constituent of many minerals. The decom-
position of these minerals give rise to the presence of potassium
compounds everywhere in the soil. It is taken up by plants;
and when vegetable material is burned, the potassium remains
behind, chiefly as potassium carbonate. When wood ash is
treated with water, or “leached,” the potassium carbonate is
dissolved out, forming “lye,” and this, evaporated to dryness,
leaves impure potassium carbonate, which is commercially known
as potash.

In using the term potash in connection with fertilizers, potas-
sium oxide is always meant. The compounds of potassium are
commonly called potash compounds, because it was formerly sup-
posed that potassium oxide or potash was present in all of them.

Potassium combined with chloride forms potassium chloride or
chloride of potash or muriate of potash, ete. Potassium and sul-
phuric acid form potassium sulphate or sulphate of potash. Potas-
sium and nitric acid form potassium nitrate, also called nitrate of
potash and saltpetre.

(b) Relation to Fertilizers.— Experiments show that when po-
tassium (or potash) compounds are lacking in the soil, the plant
suffers greatly, though it does not necessarily die. The develop-
ment of the woody parts of plants and the fleshy portions of
fruits seems to be largely dependent on the influence of potas-

Tur Composition AND User or Frrrinizers, 205

sium compounds. As potash is taken up by vegetation, most
soils under constant cultivation sooner or later become deficient
in potash, and this loss must be supplied by means of fertilizers.
Therefore, potassium (potash) compounds are regarded as essen-
tial constituents of direct fertilizers.

(c) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.— Potassium com-
pounds are instrumental in performing several different func-
tions in the economy of plant life.

1. Potash compounds are essential to the formation and trans-
ference of starch in plants. Starch is known to be first formed
in the leaves of plants, after which in some way it becomes solu-
ble enough within the plant cells to enable it to pass through the
cell walls gradually and later to be carried into the fruit, where
it accumulates and changes back to its insoluble form. It is well
established that potassium compounds are intimately connected
with the formation of.starch in the leaves and with its trans-
ference to the fruit. No other element can take the place of
potassium in performing this work. For the carrying of starch
a minute amount of calcium (lime) and chlorine appears to be
needed in addition to the potassium.

9. Potassium compounds are important because they exercise a
marked influence upon the development of the woody parts of
stems and the fleshy portions of fruit.

3. We have already stated that the formation and transference
of starch is more or less dependent upon potassium compounds
present in the plant. Now, this formation of starch and transfer-
ence to the fruit are preliminaries in the production of sugar,
which contributes so much to human enjoyment.

4. Potassium compounds are present in those plant juices,
which are rather sour; in these cases, the potassium is combined
as ar acid salt with such acids as citric, malic, tartaric, oxalic and
other acids.

5. Potassium compounds appear to be essential in the forma-
tion of proteids.

The functions of the element potassium cannot be performed
by the element sodium and hence sodium cannot take the place of
potassium in feeding plants.

CanciumM.

(a) Source.— The metal calcium is always found in nature
combined with other elements. The compounds of calcium are
ordinarily known as lime compounds, because calcium, when com-

206 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrrrures.

bined with oxygen to form a compound known as calcium oxide,
was called lime, and this calcium oxide or lime was supposed to be
present in calcium compounds.

Jalecium combined with oxygen and carbon forms a compound
which is known as calcium carbonate or carbonate of lime. Lime-
stone, marble, chalk, eggshells and coral consist of calcium car-
bonate or carbonate of lime. Calcium and sulphuric acid form a
compound known as calcium sulphate or sulphate of lime ; gypsum
and plaster of paris are familiar forms of calcium sulphate; it
is often called simply “ plaster.”

Calcium combined with oxygen, as already noted, forms calcium
oxide, which is commonly known as lime or quicklume. This is
made by burning some form of calcium carbonate, as limestone,
oyster shells, coral rock, etc.; the carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) is
driven off by the heat, and calcium oxide or quicklime remains.

When quicklime is exposed to the air, it slowly absorbs moisture
and carbon dioxide and is changed back into calcium carbonate.
When quicklime is changed into calcium carbonate (carbonate of
lime), the lime is said to be azr-slacked. 7

(b) Relation to Fertilizers.— All plants require calcium, or
as it is more commonly called, lime. While many soils appear to
contain an inexhaustible supply of lime compounds, there is quite
often need of special attention to this element of plant food; rather
more, in fact, than was formerly believed necessary.

(c) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.— Caleium forms a
part of several compounds found in plants. Its chief function
appears to be that of strengthening cell walls. It is often found
united with different acids forming calcium (or lime) salts. Thus,
in beet leaves, we find the salt calcium oxalate. In what specific
ways it otherwise affects the growth of plants, we do not yet know
definitely.

Maanesium.

(a) Source.— Magnesium is found in several common com-
pounds present in the soil. Magnesium appears to form an essen-
tial constituent of plants.

(b) Relation to Fertilizers— While magnesium is regarded
as a necessary constituent of plants, it does not often need to be
added to the soil artificially so far as our present knowledge goes.
There are some magnesium compounds existing, as impurities
in the German potash salts, and when these latter are used, some
magnesium is incidentally added to the soil.

Tue Composition ann Usr or Ferrrivizers. 207

(c) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.— While magnesium
closely resembles calcium in many ways, it cannot replace in
plant nutrition. Magnesium accumulates in seeds, flowers, roots
and tubers to a much larger extent than it does in straw, stems,
leaves and wood, while the reverse is true of calcium. Hence
magnesium nouns are especially important in the formation
of seeds. In the absence of calcium compounds, magnesium
compounds may act as poisons in the plant. Magnesium appears
to be associated with nitrogen compounds in the formation of
proteids, and it also appears to have some effect upon the forma-
tion of the green coloring matter of plants (the chlorophyll).

SULPHUR.

(a) Source-— Sulphur, uncombined with other elements, is
found near voleanoes. Combined with other elements, sulphur is
found in a great many minerals. Sulphur is also found in vegeta-
ble and animal products, combined with the elements carbon,
hydrogen and nitrogen. The properties of the element sulphur
are too well known to need any description.

(b) Compounds.— When sulphur is combined with hydrogen
and oxygen in certain proportions it makes sulphurie acid, com-
monly called oil of vitriol. When the hydrogen of sulphuric acid
has its place taken by any metal, a sulphate is formed. For ex-
ample, when the metal potassium takes the place of the hydrogen
of the sulphuric acid, a salt is formed known as polassiwm sul-
phate, commonly called sulphate of potash; from sulphuric acid
in the metal calcium is formed the salt calcium sulphate, com-
monly known as sulphate of lime or gypsum.

(c) Relation to Fertilizers.— Sulphur is known to be an essen-
tial constituent of plant food. So far as known, plants take it
up and use it in the form of sulphates. As a rule, there appear to
be in all soils amounts of sulphates sufficient to supply indefinitely
all the demands of crops. As the quantity of sulphur used by
plants is very small, soils do not readily become exhausted of this
element. Therefore, we do not need, in general, to add sulphur
compounds to the soil. Calcium sulphate (sulphate of lime) and
potassium sulphate (sulphate of potash) are often present in com-
mercial fertilizers, but they are generally used not on account of
the sulphur they contain. Some forms of sulphur compounds
render a soil barren, when present in any considerable quantity.

(d) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.— Sulphur is required

208 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrirutes.

by plants in order to produce the proteids and many of the vegeta-
ble oils and characteristic flavors, such as those contained in horse-
radisb, mustard, turnips, onions, etc.

Tron.

(a) Source.— Iron in various forms of combination is a con-
stituent of all agricultural soils.

(b) Relation to Fertilizers.— As a rule, iron compounds rarely
need to be supplied to plants by artificial application, because they
are used only in minute quantities by plants, and agricultural soils
contain abundant quantities. However, though used only in very
small amounts by plants, iron compounds are absolutely essential
to satisfactory plant growth.

(c) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.— Iron compounds are
necessary for the production of chlorophyll in plants. Without
iron compounds in the plant no chlorophyll is formed; without
chlorophyll, there will be no formation of starch and little vege-
tative activity of a normal character.

CHLORINE.

(a) Source.— Uncombined chlorine is never found in nature.
We commonly know chlorine only in its compounds. Chlorine
combined with hydrogen forms hydrochloric or muriatic acid.
Chlorine combined with any metal forms chlorides commonly
known also as muriates. For example, chlorine combined with the
metal sodiwm forms a compound which is called sodiwm chloride or
chloride of sodium, or muriate of soda; and this sodium chloride
is the common salt familiar to us in every day experience. Chilo-
rine combined with the metal potassium forms potassium chloride
commonly called muriate of potash.

(b) Description.— Chlorine, when not combined with other
elements, is a greenish-yellow gas, having a very suffocating odor.
The gas is very poisonous and has very active chemical power.

(c) Relation to Fertilizers.— While chlorine is known to be
an essential constituent of plant food, at least with many or most
plants, the circumstances which require its addition to the soil ap-
pear extremely rare, except in some cases where it may be used
for an indirect benefit. It is added to fertilizers in considerable
quantities in the form of potassium chloride (muriate of potash)
but this is largely because this happens to be the cheapest form in
which potash can usually be obtained. It is the effect of the potash,

Tur Composition anp Use or Frrriuizers. 209

not of the chlorine, that is desired. An excess of compounds of
chlorine in soils renders them barren.

(d) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.— The function of
chlorine in connection with the development of plants is not satis-
factorily settled. ‘There are some reasons for believing that some
of the compounds of chlorine, especially the potassium chloride
(muriate of potash), are instrumental in transferring starch from
the leaves, where it is formed, to the flower and fruit. There are
also some suggestive experiments which favor the belief that chlo-
rides favor the formation of cellulose (woody fiber) from sugar.

Sopium.

(a) Source.— Sodium occurs in nature mostly in combination
with the element chlorine in the form of sodiwm chloride or com-
mon salt. It is found everywhere in the soil, but usually in small
quantities. Sodium and nitric acid form sodium nitrate or nitrate
of soda, commonly known as Chili saltpeter.

(b) Relation to Fertilizers.— Sodium in the form of sodium
chloride (common salt) is found in small quantities in all soils.
While it appears as a regular, though small, constituent of plants,
it is a disputed question whether it is a necessary constituent of
plant food, but the weight of evidence appears to show that it is
not necessary and that the requirements of plants do not eall
for the addition of sodium compounds to fertilizers. In the case
of nitrate of soda, it is not the sodium, but the nitrogen in the
form of nitrate, which gives the compound its value as plant food.
It merely happens that the nitrate can be furnished most cheaply
in this form. The application of sodium chloride as an indirect
fertilizer has been found, under some conditions, to be attended
with beneficial results. Sodium cannot take the place of potas-
sium in plant nutrition.

Sinicon.

(a) Source.— Silicon, next to oxygen, is the most abundant
element in soils.~ It does not occur uncombined with other ele-
ments. Silicon combined with oxygen forms a compound com-
monly called silica. Quartz and sand are nearly pure silica.

Silicon combined with oxygen and several of the metallic ele-
ments, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, ete., forms compounds
which are called silicates. The feldspars are silicates; clay 1s
a silicate. Ordinary glass consists of a mixture of silicates.

14

210 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

(b) Relation to Fertilizers.— Silicon, in the form of silica and
silicates, is abundant in all soils, and does need special attention
in connection with fertilizers.

(c) Specific Functions in Plant Growth.— It is an unsettled
question as to what silicon does in plant growth. Some have
thought that its functions might be to give stiffness to slender
stems in the case of such plants as grasses, sedges, etc., but there
are some serious objections which interfere with the complete
acceptance of such a proposition. Others claim, on good grounds,
that silicon really performs no function in plant life, its common
presence being an accident and not a necessity.

MANGANESE.

Manganese is a common constituent of soils, though present in
small quantities. ‘The weight of evidence at hand indicates that
it is an accidental but common constituent of plants, performing
no function in plant growth and being in no wise necessary for
plant nutrition.

Tur RELATIONS oF THE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS OF PLant Foop
To SoILs.

Géneral Composition and Origin of Soils— Of the 14 ele-
ments necessary to perfect plant growth, 10 come exclusively
from the soil, as previously indicated. These have already been
described, and we do not need to give further attention to them in
this place. The soil-derived elements, though forming on an aver-
age only about five per cent. of the whole vegetable kingdom, are
of the utmost interest and importance to the farmer; for, while the
atmosphere is in itself entirely beyond his control, he can, through
the medium of the soil, influence the amount of air-derived con-
stituents taken up by plants.

Soils consist of decomposed rocks mixed in varying proportions
with organic matter called humus, formed by the decay of animal
and vegetable substances. The principal part of the soil was once
solid rock, and the first step toward the formation of soil was the
powdering of the rock. The conversion of rocks into soil has been
accomplished by means of various agencies, such as heat and frost,
moving water and ice, chemical action of air and water, and the in-
fluence of animal and vegetable life. The value of a soil for agri-

Tne Composition and Use or Frrrrrizers. J11

cultural purposes depends largely upon the original material from
which it was made, and upon the state of fineness to which it has
been reduced.

Soi-Particles— The fineness of division required in a good
agricultural soil is not easily realized. According to estimates
reliably made, a single ounce of good soil contains many thou-
sand-millions separate particles. If the surface of all the particles
in one cubie foot of soil could be spread out in one continuous
plane, they would cover an area of two or three acres; and it is
to be kept in mind that this great spread of surface is accessible to
the root systems of plants in each cubic foot of such soil.

One classification of soils is based upon the size of soil-particles.
The particles of a soil may be separated into two general classes.
The first is called “ skeleton ” and consists of particles coarser than
one-fiftieth of an inch in diameter. The second class is called “ fine
earth ” and consists of all except the “skeleton.” In agricultural
soils “ skeleton” varies from five to twenty per cent.

The “fine earth” is divided into six grades of soil-particles,
ealled (a) medium sand, (0) fine sand, (c) very fine sand, (d) silt,
(ce) fine silt, (f) clay.

Sand.— The term sand, used in connection with soil-particles,
includes those particles whose size varies from one-fiftieth to one-
five-hundredth of an inch in diameter. These are subdivided into
three grades of sand. Soils characterized as sandy contain from
five to fifteen per cent. of silt and clay, as pure sand would have
no agricultural value. When mixed with clay, sand serves to
diminish the compactness of the clay, making it more porous and
permeable to air and water. Too large a proportion of sand rend-
ers soils too porous and open, so that they admit water, warmth,
and air too freely and there results excessively rapid evaporation
of soil moisture together with marked heating of the soil and a
consequent premature ripening and burning of the crops.

Sut.— Soil-particles included under the term silt vary in size
from one-five-hundredth to one-five-thousandth of an inch. The
characteristics are intermediate between sand and clay. A silt soil
is more permeable to water than clay but less so than a sandy soil.

Clay.— The word clay used in connection with soil-particles
has reference only to the size of the particles without regard to
chemical composition. It ineludes all soil-particles whose size is
less than one-five-thousandth of an inch in diameter. Arable soils
contain from three to fifty per cent. of clay. Used in its chemical

212 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

sense, clay is the common name of a compound called aluminum
silicate. Clay soils must be handled with great care. When
worked in too wet condition, they are puddled and this condition
prevents the proper drainage of surface water. Many clay soils
are too compact, retaining water and not allowing plant roots to
penetrate easily.

Humus.— The word humus means, in general, the organic mat-
ter in the soil formed by the decay of animal or vegetable ma-

terials. In this sense humus is a very variable substance, its com-
- position depending upon the materials from which it is formed and
upon the conditions of decomposition. For example, humus formed
from sawdust or leaves will differ very greatly from that produced
by clover or cottonseed meal. Jn appearance humus is brown
or black. Leaf-mold, swamp-muck and peat are varieties of
humus, differing in appearance according to the conditions of their
origin and formation.

It is known that animal or vegetable matter decaying in the
soil forms compounds of an acid character and these organic acids
unite with lime, potassium and other constituents of the soil.
Moreover, it is known that materials rich in nitrogen, like meat
scraps and cottonseed meal, produce humus that not only is rich
in nitrogen but also has greater power to unite with the potash and
phosphoric acid of the soil, thus rendering them more available
as plant food.

Humus is extremely valuable for the following reasons:

1. Humus absorbs water much more extensively than any other
ingredient of the soil, and thus promotes the water-holding and
water-conserving power of the soil.

2. Humus aids in the decomposition of the mineral matters of
the soil, changing unavailable into available plant food. Its ac-
tion in rendering available the potash and phosphoric acid of the
soil is of marked value.

3. Humus fixes ammonia in the soil, so as to prevent it from
being carried away by rains. The ammonia thus fixed is held
until it gradually undergoes conversion into nitrate nitrogen, in
which condition it is ready for immediate use as plant food.

4. Humus improves the mechanical condition of heavy soils
by making them lighter, more porous and less adhesive. It
also is helpful on sandy soils, serving to bind together the loose
particles of soil, enabling it to retain moisture and preventing
excessive leaching of plant food.

Tur Comrosttion AND Usr or FERTILIZERS. 213

Need of Humus in Soils.— In soils under constant cropping,
there is usually a gradual loss of humus, unless special means
are employed to add humus-making materials to the soil. Peat
and muck soils are apt to contain an excess of humus. Sandy
soils are most apt to be deficient in humus. Clay soils lose their
humus less rapidly than sandy soils under like conditions.

Supplying Humus to Soils— Humus-forming materials may be
furnished the soil in the following ways: By crop roots remain-
ing in the soil, by plowing under green crops or stubble, by addi-
tion to soil of animal and vegetable materials, such as farm
manures, straw, refuse, cottonseed meal, dried blood, ete. The
value of humus as a direct source of plant food and as a means
of making available the insoluble potash and phosphoric acid of
the soil varies according to the kind of material from which it
comes. Humus from materials rich in nitrogen is more valuable
than when containing less nitrogen. In supplying humus to
soils, it should be remembered. that the presence of lime in the
soil is one of the conditions required for the production of humus
of value.

Amount of Plant Food in Soil.— The proportion of plant food
even in a fertile soil is comparatively small. One thousand
pounds of a good soil may contain:

Phosphoric acid, 14 pounds.

Nitrogen, 14 pounds.

Potash, 2 pounds.

Some soils contain larger quantities than these. But when
we consider the total amount of plant food in one acre of soil, the
amounts appear large.

While the weight of soil in an acre of different kinds of land
varies, we may take the average weight of dry soil in one acre to
the depth of nine inches as approximating about 38,000,000 to
3,500,000 pounds. One acre of soil containing the proportions
of plant food given above would, therefore, contain the follow-
ing aggregate amounts:

Nitrogen, 4,500 pounds.

Phosphorie acid, 4,500 pounds.

Potash, 6,000 pounds.

A large portion of the plant food in the soil is not available.
The character of the soil affects very considerably the available
condition of the plant food. For example, a sandy soil is ren-
dered fertile by a smaller amount of plant food than is a clay

914 Bureau or Farmers’ INstirures.

soil, owing, in part to the different condition in which the mineral
food exists in the sandy soil. The insoluble condition of plant
foo in the soil prevents its rapid loss by leaching.

Loss of Fertilizing Constituents from the Soil. Without go-
ing into a detailed explanation in regard to the causes, we will
consider briefly the extent to which the three chief forms of
plant food are liable to be lost from soils. In general, it may be
said that when plant food materials come into contact with a
soil, some kind of chemical combination is apt to take place be-
tween the constituents of the soil and the fertilizer. On this
account, plant food when applied in soluble forms may combine
with the soil to form compounds which are less soluble, but still
sufficiently soluble to be utilized as food by plants.

(a) Nitrogen Compounds.— Since ammonia compounds and ni-
trates dissolve easily in water, is there not danger of their being
earried away in drainage water from the upper soil out of reach
of the plants? Experiments have been made to settle the question,
and results indicate that ammonia compounds are largely retained
until they are changed into nitrates. Nztrates are apt to be washed
out in drainage water and lost in the case of bare fallow land,
the loss amounting to nearly 40 pounds of nitrogen an acre in
average seasons. The quantity of nitrogen lost in this way is
very much greater than is used by many crops, and is, moreover,
in the most available form for plant food. However, when soil
is covered with vegetation there is little or no loss, for the
reason that roots of growing plants absorb nitrate nitrogen very
rapidly.

Some nitrogen may be lost also from organic matter undergo-
ing decay in the soil, escaping into the air as free nitrogen. This
has been shown to be very large in case of soils rich in vegetable
matter when improperly managed.

(b) Phosphoric Acid in Phosphates The ordinary form of
calcium phosphate being insoluble in water, is not, to any appreci-
able extent, removed from the soil by the drainage water. The
soluble form of calcium phosphate would probably be lost to
some extent in drainage water, were it not for the fact that it
is quickly changed in the soil to the “reverted” or less soluble
form and, in this “ reverted” condition, the phosphate is not
apt to be carried away in drainage water. In some soils, heavy
clay soils, for example, soluble phosphates not used the first

Tue Comrostrion anp User or FERrTILizErs. 915

season by plants may enter into such insoluble combination with
the soil as to become unavailable. On such soils it is, there-
fore, better to apply phosphates each year in quantities suitable
for a single crop, rather than attempt to make one heavy applica-
tion to cover a period of years.

(c) Potash in Potassium Compounds is not apt to be lost to any
extent in drainage waters, since most soils have the power of
changing soluble forms of potash into forms less soluble, which
are gradually redissolved and given up for the use of plants.

In addition to the preceding statements, it may be said, in
general, that loss of plant food is greatest in sandy soils; the
coarser the sand, the greater the loss, other conditions being the
same. Clay and humus have very marked power in retaining
plant food.

Relations of Plants and Soils.— We have seen that a very small
part of the soil furnishes the most important constituents of
plant food. The soil also performs other functions than furnish-
ing plant food. We can summarize as follows the general offices
which the soil fulfills in its relation to plants:

1. The soil acts as a mechanical support for plants; the

‘roots of the plants penetrate the soil downwards and sideways,
and brace the plant firmly to its upright position.

2. The soil furnishes directly all the soil-derived ele-
ments used by the plant, and is thus immediately connected with
the nutrition of plants. In addition, the soil serves as a medium
for conveying to the plant a considerable portion of the air-de-
rived elements.

3. The soil contributes to the development of plants by
modifying and storing the heat of the sun, by regulating sup-
plies of food, and, in various ways, by securing those conditions
which must be present and unite to produce the fully developed
plant.

4. The soil acts like a sponge to hold water for the use of plants.

Analysis of Soils—'The value of chemical analysis for ascer-
taining the plant-food needs of a soil is liable to be overestimated.
Soil analysis has not yet reached such a stage of perfection that
its results can always be interpreted correctly. It gives definite
results when it shows the complete absence of one or more necessary
plant-food constituents. Its chief weakness lies in the present
inability to estimate accurately the amount of available plant food

216 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures. :

in a soil. It is only under unusual conditions that a farmer
will be justitied in having soil analyzed in order to learn its
plant food requirements. There are other and more certain
means to use for gaining this knowledge, which the farmer can
apply to best advantage, as will be indicated later.

6. Tur Retations or Micro-Oreanisms to Som AND TO PLant
Foon.

Nitrification and its Importance.— The absolute necessity of
nitrogen as food for plants has been mentioned and it has also
been stated that plants require this nitrogen to be supplied to
them in the form of nitric acid or nitrate compounds. <A plant
cannot feed directly upon the nitrogen of the air, or upon the
nitrogen contained in ammonia or vegetable or animal matter.
All these forms of nitrogen must first be changed into nitrate
nitrogen, and the work of bringing about this change is accom-
plished by fermentation processes caused by several different
micro-organisms or germs, constituting a chain of workers in a
simple division of labor. The organic nitrogen of dried blood,
bone, cottonseed meal, stable manure, ete., is changed into am-
monia by one set of workers; the ammonia is taken by another
set and carried along to another stage called nitrous acid, and
this in turn is changed into nitric nitrogen by a third set of
works. The general process by which nitrogen in other forms
is changed into nitrate nitrogen is commonly spoken of as nitrif-
cation. The importance of the work done by these different micro-
organisms working together can be appreciated, when we realize
that without their work no plants could be grown and all forms
of vegetable and animal life would perish.

These micro-organisms are the smallest imaginable kinds of
plants and we cannot see them singly by the unaided eye. They
are commonly called germs. Another name for many of them is
bacteria.

Number of Micro-Organisms in Soil.— The number of different
kinds of micro-organisms in the upper portion of ordinary cul-
tivated soils varies roughly from one to fifty millions to the
ounce. The number diminishes rapidly below a depth of 30
inches. At six feet below they nearly disappear. The number
is greater in cultivated than in uncultivated soils, in well-fertil-
ized soils than in unfertilized soils, in soils rich in humus than

Tue Composition AND Usnr or Frrrimizers. i

in light sandy soils. The number is greater in summer than in
winter. The addition of organic matter like stable manure
greatly increases the number of germs. As a rule, an increase
in the amount of available plant food in the soil follows an in-
crease in the number of micro-organisms or bacteria. Such in-
crease can be secured by thorough cultivation, liberal manuring,
and the use of leguminous plants as green manures.

Conditions Required for Nitrification.— Vhe activity of the
micro-organisms which prepare unavailable forms of nitrogen for
the use of plants by converting them into nitrate nitrogen is
hastened by certain favorable conditions and retarded by
unfavorable ones. The principal conditions that have to be
considered in relation to the growth of these micro-organisms will
now be mentioned.

(a) The Presence of Moisture-—In a dry soil nitrification
does not take place. Hence, in periods of drouth this important
process stops in the upper portions of the soil. In a wet soil, on
the other hand, where water is stagnant, this process does not take
place actively.

(b) Food Requirements of Nitrifying Organisms.— The or-
ganic matter of the soil forms the main supply of organic food for
these organisms. It is possible to have so much organic matter
present that the organisms will stop growing, as in a manure pile.
It is also necessary that certain forms of mineral matter be pres-
ent, chief among which is a supply of phosphoric acid compounds.

(c) Oxygen Required.— Nitrifying organisms cannot flourish
without a supply of air. Water-saturated soils prevent the pro-
cess by shutting off the air supply. The stirring and pulverizing
of the soil by cultivation greatly promotes the change into nitrate
nitrogen, because it brings the oxygen of the air into closer con-
tact with the nitrifying fee ments.

(d) Temperature of Soiu.— The nitrifying organisms work
most rapidly between the temperatures of 54 degrees and 99 de-
grees Fahrenheit. The process may take place as low as 37 de-
grees Fahrenheit and as high as 120 degrees Fahrenheit. In this
latitude nitrification stops during the winter, while in warm cli-
mates it continues during the whole year.

(e) Some Material Like Lime Necessary.— The presence of
some mineral compound in the soil that will prevent acid condition
of soil is necessary, since the action of these micro-organisms 1s
checked by acids. The lime compounds are the most available

218° Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

ones. Hence, it is important to lime soils occasionally, in order
that the preparation of nitrate nitrogen can take place.

Conversion of Atmospherte Nitrogen into Plant Food by Micro-
organisms.— Another most important work done by certain micro-
organisms is the production of nitrogenous plant food from the
nitrogen of the air. Certain plants, known as leguminous, such
as clover, peas, beans, etc., have been proved to utilize atmos-
pherie nitrogen as a source of food supply. They are able to
accomplish this through the action of certain germs. If the roots
of a healthy clover plant are examined, there will be found on
them little round bunches or tubercles, varying from the size of
a shot to that of a pea. These have been found to be colonies con-
taining enormous numbers of germs having the power to assimi-
late atmospheric nitrogen. They are accompanied by other germs
which change the nitrogen, thus taken from the air, into nitrate
nitrogen, which the plant uses as food.

Loss of Nitrogen through Micro-Organisms.— The soil con-
tains certain kinds of germs which have a power opposite to that
of nitrifying germs; that is, they change nitrates back through
different forms into some form that is likely to escape into the air
and be lost as plant food. This process is known as denitrifica-
tion, which is simply the destruction of nitrates as plant food.
These germs are abundant also in straw and in stable manure. It
is important to know the conditions under which this destructive
process takes place and thus learn to avoid such losses.

(a) Absence of Air is favorable to the destruction of nitrates.
Too much water in the soil has the effect of shutting off the sup-
ply of air and thus the denitrifying organisms are enabled to do
their injurious work. Good drainage and thorough tillage will
overcome this condition.

(b) An Hxcessive Amount of Humus in the soil favors the de-
struction of nitrate compounds. This is a condition not often
met in common farm practice.

(c) Loss of Nitrogen from Stable Manure.— Those organisms
that feed upon nitrate are very abundant in stable manure and
straw. These losses can be prevented by using preservatives in
the manure as described later, and also by using bedding material
free from decomposable organic matter.

Tue Comrvosrrion anp Use or Frrrivizers, 919

aaa ats beg

CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF MATERIALS
USED AS FERTILIZERS.

1. CLASSIFICATION AND Derinition or TrerRMs USED IN CoNNEC-
TION WITH FERTILIZERS.

A Fertilizer may be defined as any substance which, by its
addition to the soil, will produce a better growth of plants under
favorable conditions.

The materials which come under the head of fertilizers are
numerous in kind, and different both in form and the manner in
which they act.

The following tabulated classification, while not strictly accu-
rate in every respect, will serve to give a good general idea of the
number and relations of the terms used in speaking of fertilizers:

(Stable manure.
| Refuse vegetable matter.
Green crops for plowing under.
1. Natural. Cotton seed, ete.
Muck, marls, ete.
Animal refuse.

I. Direct or Nu-

tritive. Commercial, {a. Complete or
Chemical, or general.
2. Artificial. Prepared, b. Incomplete or
special.
FERTILIZERS, ...0s.
Lime.
II. Indirect or+Gypsum.
Stimulant. Salt, ete.

These terms are, in general, loosely and indiscriminately used,
as their meaning is often misunderstood; and so an attempt will
be made here to define them in accordance with the best usage
of the terms.

A Direct Fertilizer is one containing elements of plant food
that are available at once or easily become so, that is, which can be
taken up and used etther immediately or within a short time by
plants.

The term Available is applied to plant food which is soluble,
that is, in such a condition that the roots of the plant can take it
up readily in solution.

Plant food is Unavailable, when it is in such a form, that the
roots of the plant fail to take up any part of it. A large proportion
of plant food present in the soil is unavailable because insoluble,

220 Bureau or Farmers’ Lystirures.

but by the action of air, water, carbonic acid, ete., it is gradually
changed to soluble or available forms, which the plant can take
up and use. As will be noticed later, phosphoric acid in the form
of insoluble calcium phosphate or phosphate of lime is unavailable
as plant food, but when converted into a superphosphate or soluble
calcium phosphate, it becomes available. Organic nitrogen 1s
unavailable until it is changed into nitrate nitrogen. Unavailable
plant food is potential food or food in reserve.

An Indirect Fertilizer is one which does not furnish to the
soil any needed plant food and which may not be plant food at all,
but which is characterized by the way in which vt acts on the matter
already in the soil, changing more or less of at from unavailable
plant food to an available form, or producing some other beneficial
effect in the soil. For example, lime, gypsum, salt, ete., are in-
direct fertilizers, as they are generally used by farmers. Later
some attention will be given to the action of some of the most
familiar indirect fertilizers. They are commonly used by far-
mers, not because the elements they furnish are lacking in the soil,
but because they can act upon unavailable plant food and render
it available, or because they may have some beneficial influence
upon the mechanical condition of the soil.

Natural Fertilizers include the solid and liquid excrement of
animals, all kinds of vegetable refuse, green crops for plowing
under, cotton seed, mucks, marls, refuse animal matter, ete.

Artificial Fertelizers are also known by such names as com-
mercial fertilizers, chemical fertilizers, etc., and are artificial
preparations or mixtures of fertilizing materials sold under trade
names. The fertilizing materials used in making these mixtures
include the substances found in natural deposits and by-products
of numerous industries, which are obtainable by farmers only
through the channels of trade. Some substances which might be
classed as natural fertilizers, such as cotton seed meal and tobacco
stems, are also included among the materials of artificial fertilizers.

Complete Fertilizers, known also as general fertilizers, are
those which contain nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash.

Incomplete Fertilizers, also called special fertilizers, are those
which contain only one or two of the three constituents, nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potash.

There is a common practice among farmers and dealers of call-
ing all commercial fertilizers “ phosphates,” regardless of whether
they contain any phosphates at all or not. The practice is clearly
objectionable, because a phosphate is not the only fertilizing con-

Tur Composition AND Ust or FERTILIZERS. Ae |

stitutent presented in commercial fertilizers —in some eases it
may be entirely absent. The term “ superphosphates ” applies
truthfully to many commercial fertilizers, but even these cannot
be correctly spoken of as simply “ phosphates.” This common
usage of the term “ phosphate” for any form of fertilizer empha-
sizes the fact that there has been a tendency to overestimate the
value and importance of this constitutent, resulting in large appli-
cations of it without regard to the needs of soil or crop.

2. Forms or Pitant Foop Essentiau TO FERTILIZERS.

In the absence of iron in the soil, plants turn yellow and cease
to grow; other elements, as magnesium, sulphur, etc., are essen-
tial to the complete development of a plant. But these elements
are used by plants in very small quantities, and, moreover, they
occur abundantly everywhere in soils, as already indicated.
Therefore, it is rarely necessary to supply these elements arti-
ficially to soils, and we do not need to consider them in connec-
tion with fertilizers. The elements of plant food which experi-
ence most often shows to be lacking in soils are these four:

Nitrogen, Potassium (contained in potash compounds), Phos-
phorus (contained in phosphoric acid compounds or phosphates),
and in special cases, Calciwm (contained in lime compounds).

8. SrimuLAntT or InprREcT FERTILIZERS.

A Stimulant or Indirect Fertilizer is one which does not in
itself furnish directly to the soil any needed plant food, but whose
chief value depends upon the power it possesses of changing un-
available into available forms of plant food. The stimulant or
indireet fertilizers which have been most commonly employed are
lime, gypsum and common salt.

Gypsum or Land Plaster, known also as calcium sulphate or
sulphate of lime, has been much used in fertilizing crops. Its
value is due to its action as an indirect fertilizer. There has been
much difference of opinion as to the manner in which gypsum
acts. Probably it acts in at least three different ways, as follows:

1. It has the power to form compounds with ammonia, in
which the ammonia is no longer in danger of loss by evaporation.
This power of fixing ammonia is probably of little value when
plaster is applied to the surface of the soil, but it may be of much
value when scattered over a heap of fermenting manure, and

992 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

moistened with water, when it will retain the ammonia which
would otherwise escape. For the same reason, plaster is useful
to distribute about stables, so that it may mix with the manure.

2. It has been shown that gypsum in some manner aids the
process of nitrification, by which ammonia and the nitrogen of
organic matter are converted into nitrate nitrogen.

3. Gypsum acts upon the insoluble forms of potash and some
other elements of plant food, converting them into soluble and
available forms which plants can readily take up and use. This
is probably the most important effect of plaster as an indirect fer-
tilizer.

In whatever way gypsum may act, it is well established that it
is of value when applied on certain soils to certain crops, such as
clover, peas, lucern and similar plants. Nearly all fertilizers
containing soluble phosphoric acid contain gypsum, as will be
explained later.

The more common sources of supply of land-plaster are Nova
Scotia and central New York, the latter being less pure.

Quicklime.—Quicklime or burnt lime or calcium oxide, com-
monly ealled lime, is known to be valuable as an indirect fer-
tilizer. It produces changes in both the physical and the chemical
character of soils. It changes the mechanical condition of soils
by loosening heavy clay soils and also by holding together and
giving body to light sandy soils. Freshly burned lime acts chemi-
cally upon soils by decomposing vegetable and mineral matter
already present in the soil and changing them into forms which
are available as food for the plant. Thus, lime acts upon in-
soluble mineral substances containing potash, soda, ete., and con-
verts them into soluble forms which plants can use. Lime aids
in the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter, such as
vegetable mold, stable manure, etc., and tends to convert them
into available plant food. Lime also neutralizes the acidity or
“sourness”” of soils. We shall later consider the conditions
under which lime can be used to advantage and also the methods
of its use.

Gas-Lame.— Quicklime is used in gas works for the purpose of
removing impurities from the gas. In the operation the lime
becomes slaked and takes up various materials that are injurious
to plant life; however, these impurities, on exposure to air, are
changed into harmless forms. Jn using gas-lime on soils, it should
either be exposed to the air some time previous to applying to soil
or should be applied some weeks or even months before putting

Tuer CompostTtion AND Uss& or FERTILIZERS. 993

the crop in the soil. Gas-lime may contain a small amount of
nitrogen.

Common. Salt has an indirect fertilizing value which is due to
the fact that it has the power of changing unavailable forms of
plant food into available forms, and increasing the power of soils
to absorb water. Salt probably furnishes no needed form of plant
food. All the salt that can probably be utilized to advantage 1s
contained as impurities in some of the potash salts, such as kainit.

Danger in using Stimulant Fertilizers.— It should be kept in
mind that these stimulant fertilizers are not used for the plant
food contained in them; hence, as used, they do not furnish needed
plant food. The chief value of their use lies in the fact that
they can change unavailable into available forms of plant food.
It can readily be seen that, when stimulant fertilizers are used
exclusively for a term of years, the soil each year loses nitrogen,
potassium and phosphorus compounds, which are not replaced.
The inevitable result of such treatment is the exhaustion of these
important food constituents from the soil. This affords an ex-
planation of the question often raised now as to why the applica-
tion of land-plaster does not give such results in crop yields at
present as in former days. When land-plaster was the only fer-
tilizing material added to soils for years in succession, it was
possible to produce increased crops, so long as there were in the
soil enough compounds of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus to
be rendered available by the action of the land-plaster. When,
therefore, these forms of plant food were largely removed, there
was nothing for the land-plaster to act upon, in order to increase
the supply of available food material. The land plaster furnished
no needed food, but simply helped the crops to use up more
rapidly the store of plant food present in the soil.

4, Nurritive or Direct Fertrizizina MATEertiats.

Nutritive or Direct Fertilizers contain forms of plant food,
which contribute directly to the growth and substance of plants.
Such materials may contain either nitrogen or potash or phos-
phorice acid compounds, or any two, or all three of these forms of
nutriment. We shall consider these various materials under the
following heads:

(a) Commercial fertilizing materials containing nitrogen com-
pounds.

994 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirvres.

(b) Commercial fertilizing materials containing phosphoric acid
compounds.

(c) Commercial fertilizing materials containing -potash com-
pounds.

(d) Farm-produced fertilizing materials.

This division is not sharply defined, since one material may
contain more than one form of nutriment; however, in most cases,
each kind of material contains some one of the three forms of
plant food in much larger proportions than any other form. Ow-
ing to the value of farm-produced manures and to the importance
of calling special attention to their value, we treat this subject
under a separate head in connection with the forms of materials
used in commercial fertilizers.

(a) Fertilizing Materials Containing Nitrogen Compounds.

The various materials which are used to furnish nitrogen in
commercial fertilizers are derived from three general sources,
which we can indicate as follows:

(1) Mineral nitrogen compounds.

(2) Vegetable nitrogen compounds.

(3) Animal nitrogen compounds.

(1) Commercial Fertilizing Materials Containing Mineral Nitro-
gen Compounds.

The forms of mineral compounds containing nitrogen, most com-
monly found in the market, are nitrate of soda and sulphate of
ammonia.

Nitrate of Soda, known also as “ Chili saltpeter,” is found
in large deposits which have been formed in the rainless regions
of Chili and Peru. As it is mined, the nitrate of soda is quite
impure, the chief impurity being common salt. Before being
sent to market, it is purified, and the form in which farmers pur-
chase it generally contains from 95 to 96 per cent. of real nitrate
of soda. Stated in another way, 100 pounds of good commercial
nitrate of soda contain from 153 to 16 pounds of nitrogen.

Sulphate of Ammonia is formed from waste materials pro-
duced in the manufacture of illuminating gas. This is the most
highly concentrated form of nitrogen commonly found in the
market. One hundred pounds of sulphate of ammonia contain
about 25 pounds of ammonia, which is equivalent to about 203
pounds af nitrogen.

Tur Comrosirion AnD User or FERTILIZERS. 225

(2) Commercial Fertilizing Materials Containing Vegetable Ni-
trogen Compounds.

While nitrogen may be supplied by many forms of vegetable
matter, only a few substances of this kind are used in commercial
fertilizers, chief of which are cotton seed meal, castor bean pomace,
linseed meal, and tobacco stems.

Cotton seed Meal is the product formed by removing the oil
from the seed by pressure, after which the material is dried and
ground. It has been used at the South mainly for fertilizing
purposes. One ton of cotton seed meal contains about 140
pounds of nitrogen, 60 pounds of phosphoric acid and 40 pounds
of potash. It is valued highly as a food for cattle, and, when
thus fed, practically all of the fertilizing value is recovered in the
manure. When it ean be purchased at a moderate price, it makes
a valuable fertilizer to be applied directly to the soil. The hulls
of the cotton seed also possess considerable fertilizing value.

Castor Bean Pomace is a by-product of castor-oil factories ;
it is made by about the same process as that used in producing
cotton seed meal. As a rule, it has less fertilizmg value than
cotton seed meal, one ton containing about 110 pounds of nitro-
gen, 40 pounds of phosphoric acid and 20 pounds of potash.

Linseed Meal is the product left after removing oil from flax
seed. One ton of linseed meal contains about’ 110 pounds of
nitrogen, 87 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 28 pounds of potash.
Tts extensive use as a cattle food makes it too high priced for
common use as a source of nitrogen for fertilizers.

(3) Commercial Fertilizing Materials Containing Animal Nitro-
gen Compounds.

Probably the larger proportion of the nitrogen occurring in
commercial fertilizers is at present furnished by animal matter in
one form or another. This material comes mainly from slaughter-
houses, rendering works and fish-oil factories. The following
list contains most of the substances of animal origin commonly
used: Azotin or ammonite, dried blood, dried fish, fish scraps,
garbage tankage, ground fish, hair, hoof meal, horn dust, leather
meal, nitrogenous guanos, tankage, wool-waste, ete.

Azotin or Ammonite consists of dried and ground meat, ten-
dons, membranes, ete., from which fat has been extracted. It
usually contains over 10 per cent. of nitrogen along with 3 or 4
per cent. of phosphoric acid.

15

296 j Bureau or Farmers’ Lysrirures.

Dricd Blood consists of blood obtained from slaughtered ani-
mals; it is prepared for market by evaporating, drying and grind-
ing. The color varies with the degree of heat employed in drying,
ranging from red to black. Red blood is of higher grade than
black blood. The red dried blood contains 13 to 15 per cent. of
nitrogen with very little phosphorie acid. Black dried blood con-
tains from 6 to 12 per cent. of nitrogen and usually some phos-
phorie acid. It is this lower grade of dried blood that is most
commonly employed in the manufacture of fertilizers.

Dried Fish, Fish Scraps, and Ground Fish consist of refuse
from fish-oil works, and fish-canning factories. The material
obtained from fish-oil works is the residue left after the extraction
of oil; it is prepared for market by drying and grinding. It is
quite uniform in composition, containing 7 to 8 per cent. of nitro-
gen and as much or more phosphorie acid. The product obtained
from canning works consists of skin, bones, etc., of fish and is
very variable in composition.

Tankage is slaughter-house refuse made up of miscellancous
refuse matter such as bone, tendons, hair, hides, horns, hoofs, ete.
Two kinds of tankage are known in the market. One kind is
known as concentrated tankage and is made by evaporating some
of the fluids rich in nitrogen. This form of tankage contains 10
to 12 per cent. of nitrogen with only a little phosphoric acid.
The second kind is known as crushed tankage and consists of vary-
ing quantities of different parts of animal carcasses. As a rule,
the fat and gelatin are first removed by straining or boiling and
the residue is dried and ground. Sometimes a little slaked lime
is added to prevent loss of nitrogen by rapid fermentation.
Crushed tankage varies greatly in composition, the nitrogen rang-
ing from 4 to 9 per cent. and the phosphoric acid from 8 to 12
per cent.

Garbage T'ankage is material obtained by drying city garbage.
Sometimes it is partially charred. Its composition varies greatly,
containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but in small
proportions. It is usually richer in nitrogen than in any other
plant food. It is a low-grade fertilizing material. Both its ecom-
position and value as plant food are variable and uncertain.

flair is obtained from slaughter-houses; it is often mixed with
dried blood and other forms of animal matter. It contains about
15 per cent. of nitrogen. Wool-waste is much like hair in compo-
sition.

Iloof Meal and Horn Dust are by-products eontaining 10 to
15 per cent. of nitrogen and about two per cent. of phosphoric acid,

Ture Composition anp Use or FERTILIZERS. DO

They are sometimes treated with superheated steam or with sul-
phuric acid, the treatment rendering the nitrogen compounds
more readily available.

Leather Scraps and Leather Meal are waste products of various
factories. When treated with superheated steam and dried or
roasted, they can be very finely ground. Roasted, finely ground
leather is used to adulterate dried blood, having much the same
appearance.

Nitrogenous Guanos are formed in warm dry regions. Peru-
vian guano is rich in nitrogen, containing seven per cent. or more,
mainly in the form of sulphate of ammonia. Guanos of this
kind have largely disappeared from the market.

The following table gives the approximate quantities of nitro-
gen contained in various fertilizing materials:

Pounds of nitro

Average per “sen in 2000

ri ntaining Nitr : nt.
Materials Conta g Nitrogen ie ue we pounds of
(1) Mineral materials.
Mitratey ofepotashi-). -tci..0c list “aod boon ome 13 to 14 260 to 280
TNTUCIREE EES NOD ARSR O16 ROA er Re a ee ee A Be 154 to 16 310 to 320
Sulphaten oleamImM GMa cte).cr ips ia = avetd aie oh cicts 19 to 204 380 to 410
(2) Vegetable materials.
Gopomeseed Maen |. spss «ais ove Sezeecegel 3.0 15) syelerss state Ge toni, 120) fo 140
Castor bean. pomBees. \ «i> shee sweet... Beles. beato 6 LOOM omI20
NbIMseeM emma lene skye laters cis. woo, aston cis ctais Kiss sie, s 5) to) 6.) 5100) to 120
Ropaecoy stents)? See eds fos Clete eke ees 2 to 24 '40 to - 50
(3) Animal materials.
AZOLE AMINTOMEOMene eae kate reel ctoleee eta als TOMSto 123)" 2005to 240
Dried blood ;credh sas spose astieuat dis aces Is torls V260F tons 00
Drreduploods black oe enews seuinuste ac... 6 eines (O xoy 120 to 240
Dyed tefishy ALE Pas Batata he. date eed ree ees v to 8 ~ 140 to 160
(lige stance ao Fach eae BL ata cron: 14. tol l'Gne e280) tomse0
ootumieal=. homnrdustes aces cmctyre ccc ce LO tom lye 200 ntor 300m
Weather vscraps,: leather meal... cet 7 7 to 8 140 to 160
MIG AGE SCT AD Sip my aoparciouch asian Secon shes td cael sad eB 10 to 12 200 to 240
INTRO HEANOR Gbehno)s) NaS siedad Sees caeor a eine io te EO re Ge
Oleomarcaninesreiusethicds va tate cae: Sale ele 10 to 12 200 to 240
Mankages concentrated nsksnia tae, «hietbi-ee sli 10 to 12 200 to 240
Bamikcaie @anCUUSM edie rs sta cys ove ci gies ossieley ve reeteve 4 to. 9 80 to 180
damage ecarbace yup bts wines eer ebae ors Leyton 52 20 to 40
WOO le Wals be ps 2) treats 28 c4.cehe eRe Iee oe Sha naNS « 5 stor 16) 100) to) 120

(b) Fertilizing Materials Containing Phosphoric Acid Compounds.
Phosphorie acid is generally found in combination with lme
(calcium), forming four different compounds, viz.:

(1) Insoluble phosphate of line, or tri-calcium phosphate.
(2) Soluble phosphate of lime, or mono-calcium phosphate.

228 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

(3) Reverted phosphate of lime, or di-calcium phosphate.
(4) Tetra-calcium phosphate.

(1) Insoluble Phosphate of Inme.

This is known under several other names, as “ insoluble cal-
cium phosphate,” “ normal calcium phosphate,” “ tri-calcium phos-
phate,” “ bone phosphate of lime,” ete.

This form of calcium phosphate is called insoluble because it
does not dissolve in water.

It is found in nature in large quantities in several minerals,
which will be noticed later. It also constitutes about 85 per cent.
of the ash or inorganic matter of bones. It is also contained in
the excrement of animals, as in guano, etc.

Insoluble phosphate of lime is found everywhere in the soil.
However, in this form, calcium phosphate has the least value for
the farmer, because it is not easily dissolved and cannot, there-
fore, be taken up and used by plants, except very slowly. To
make the insoluble phosphate available for plants so that they can
take it up, the insoluble phosphate must be converted into some
form which is soluble; that is, which dissolves in water. This
can be done by treating it with sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol).

¢

(2) Soluble Phosphate of Lime.

This is known under several other names, as “ acid phosphate
uf lime,” ‘acid calcium phosphate,” ‘“ acid phosphate,” “ super-
phosphate of lime,’ “ superphosphate,” “ mono-calcium phos-
phate,” ete. It is not found naturally occurring.

As indicated above, the soluble calcium phosphate is made by
treating insoluble calcium phosphate with sulphuric acid. By
this treatment, a portion of the calcium is removed from the phos-
phate and unites with the sulphuric acid, forming sulphate of
lime or gypsum in addition to the soluble phosphate. This mix-
ture of the soluble phosphate and gypsum is known as “ super-
phosphate of lime.” The phosphate in this form, being easily
soluble in water, can be readily taken up by plants, and is, there-
fore, of great value as a fertilizer. The sulphate of lime is also
known to have value as an indirect fertilizer. In plain superphos-
phate of lime there are generally formed about 116 pounds of
water-free sulphate of lime (equivalent to 147 pounds of gypsum)
for each 100 pounds of soluble phosphate of lime. The value of
superphosphates depends upon the amount of soluble phosphate

—

Tue Composition AND Use or FI EeRtTrizers. 229

contained in them. Soluble phosphate of line, whatever its
source, whether bone or rock, is one and the same chemical com-
pound, and as such has the same value as plant food.

(8) Reverted Phosphate of Lime.

Reverted phosphate of lime is known also as “ reverted calcium
phosphate,” “ precipitated phosphate of lime,” “ di-calcium phos-
phate,” “‘ citrate-soluble phosphate,” ete.

When soluble phosphate of lime is allowed to stand for some
time, it will happen under certain conditions that some of the solu-
ble phosphate is changed into a less soluble form of phosphate.
This is not the same form as ordinary insoluble calcium phosphate
above described; for a reverted phosphate, while insoluble in
water, can be readily dissolved by weak acids or by water contain-
ing carbonic acid or salts of ammonia. Since the soil and plant
roots gencrally contain acids sufficiently strong to dissolve reverted
phosphates, phosphoric acid in this form is generally regarded as
very nearly equal to soluble phosphates in value as a fertilizer.
The term “ reverted ” was introduced to express the fact that the
phosphoric acid in this form had once been soluble in water, but
that it had “reverted” or “gone back” to a form insoluble in
water.

The reverted form of phosphoric acid is often found in small
quantities in connection with insoluble phosphates, and in larger
amounts in guanos; it is also found to a considerable extent in
bones and other forms of organic matter.

(4) Tetra-calctum Phosphate.

Tetra-calcium phosphate is a form of phosphate of lime found
in phosphate slags. It contains more lime in proportion to phos-
phoric acid than any other form of phosphate. While it is in-
soluble in water, it has been found to be more available as plant
food than insoluble phosphate of lime.

Summary.— Of the forms of phosphate of lime which are used
as food for plants, we have:

1. The ordinary insoluble phosphate of lime, which can be
changed by treatment with sulphuric acid into —

2. The soluble phosphate of lime, and this, on standing, may,
under certain conditions, undergo change, forming —

3. The reverted phosphate of lime, which is insoluble in
pure water, but soluble in the acids of the soil and plants and in
water containing carbon dioxide.

230 Bureau or Farmers’ Lystirutres.

The soluble and reverted forms of phosphorie acid, taken to-.
gether, are called available phosphoric acid.

Chemical Differences of the Four Phosphates of Lime.

3 | By |
[pe eae aes ==
a4 ES ga os)
Bp 6 es eo 8
= 62 Z >o
s) a fc) a

Insoluble phosphate of lime ..............

Insoluble calcium phosphate ..............

Normal calcium phosphate ............... 38.7 ° 20.0 ‘41.3 0

Mri-calcium sphosphater cies scant - vieckoesiee 6

Bone phosphate of lime, ete. ..............

Soluble phosphate of lime ................

NCIC: PROSphates OLIN Moy arorest) ot -toes sous atolarots

Supenphosphate of lume: 3 \y.ic-0 hs «2 cals clove Li 26) biota 5 har

Mono-caleium phosphate .................

Weidycalenmmephosphate,ekC. err ae deiae esas

Reverted calcium phosphate ..............

Precipitated phosphate of lime ............ i See) Catt ce

etra-calcium phosphate, “Mivr.. ace ace. es 45.0 Lt. 0. ae 0

We notice the following points of difference in composition:

1. The insoluble phosphate of calcium contains the second
largest amount of calcium, the second smallest amount of phos-
phorus, the second smallest amount of oxygen and no hydrogen.

2. The soluble phosphate of calciwm contains the smallest
amount of calcium and the largest amount of phosphorus, oxygen
and hydrogen.

3. The reverted calcium phosphate contains amounts of eal-
cium, phosphorus, oxygen and hydrogen which are intermediate
between the two forms preceding.

4, The telra-calctum phosphate contains the largest amount
of calcium, the smallest amounts of phosphorus and oxygen and
no hydrogen.

With regard to phosphorus, which is the most valuable element
in these phosphates of lime, the soluble phosphate of lime con-
tains most of this element; the tetra-caletum phosphate of lime
the least, and reverted phosphate is second in regard to the amount
of phosphorus contained in it.

Tlaving called attention to the different kinds of compounds in
which phosphorus is found, we are now prepared to consider more
intelligently the different materials in which the phosphoric acid

Tur Composition AND User or FERTILIZERS. ak

ecmpounds of commerce are supplied for fertilizers. The ma-
terials which furnish the greatest proportion of phosphoric
acid used in making fertilizers are the following: Bones, bone-ash,
bone-black, bone-meal, fish, phosphatic guano, rock-phosphate,
superphosphates, Thomas slag, vegetable matter, ete.

Bones.— Bones consist of two quite different kinds of mate-
rial, in addition to water. The hard portion consists mostly of
phosphate of lime, and constitutes from one-half to three-fifths
of the weight of the bone. The remaining portion consists
largely of a soft, flesh-like substance called ossein, or, more com-
monly, gelatin, together with more or less fat. It is distributed
throughout the entire mass of bone and is rich in nitrogen. When
bones are burned, the nitrogenous matter is driven off and only
the mineral portion or phosphate of lime remains. The amount
of nitrogen and phosphate of lime in bones varies with the kind
of bone and also with the manner in which it is treated. Bones
of different kinds of animals vary in composition and also dif-
ferent bones in the same animal. Age affects composition. The
bones of young animals usually contain more nitrogen and less
phosphate of lime, the reverse being true of older animals. As
bones come into market for use as fertilizers, their variation of
composition is due more to the manner in which they are treated
than to differences of composition originally existing in the bones.
We find in the market the following forms of bone as the com-
mon ones: Raw bone, bone-meal, steamed bone, and bone tankage.

Raw Bone.— By raw bone is understood bones that have been
ground in their natural state without previous treatment, such
as steaming, boiling, ete. Raw bone contains the fat naturally
present in bones and this is objectionable, because it makes grind-
ing more difficult and delays the decomposition of the bone in
the soil, while fat itself has no value as plant food. Good raw
bone should contain 4 to 5 per cent. of nitrogen and 20 to 25
per cent. of phosphoric acid, equivalent to 45 to 55 per cent.
of phosphate of lime.

Bone-Mcal goes under various names, such as ground bone,
bone-flour, bone-dust, fine bone, ete. These terms are supposed
to refer to fineness of division rather than to composition. They
are more commonly used of steamed than of raw bone-meal. The
fineness of the bone affects its value; the finer the meal, the more
readily available is it as plant food. On account of the increased
demand for bones for various purposes, and on account of their
increasing value. there is considerable tendency to adulterate bone-

232 Bureau or /armenrs’ INstTirures.

meal with such substances as lime, gypsum, coal-ashes, ground
oyster-shells, ground rock-phosphate, etc.

The composition of bone-meal varies, according to its manner
of preparation. Bone-meal from raw bones has the composition
given above for raw bones, while bone-meal from steamed bone
will contain less nitrogen and more phosphate of lime.

Steamed Bone.— Raw bones are treated under pressure by
steam and by this means the ossein and fat are removed, the
ossein being used chiefly for making glue and gelatin and the
fat for making soap. The bones after this treatment are very
brittle and, when dry, can easily be ground fine. The composi-
tion of steamed bone depends upon the thoroughness and extent
of steaming or boiling. Bone from glue factories averages about
1.5 per cent. of nitrogen and 29 per cent. of phosphoric acid.

In some cases, the fat alone is extracted from bones by some
solvent lke petroleum or benzine, which removes none of the
nitrogen. Such bone may contain as much as 6 per cent. of
nitrogen with 20 per cent. of phosphoric acid.

The thorough steaming of bone appears to change the nature
of the nitrogen compounds or perhaps the mechanical condition
of the bone in such a way as to permit more rapid decomposition
in the soil than in case of raw bone. The presence of easily
decaying nitrogen compounds in bone hastens, in the process of
decomposition, to render soluble more or less of the insoluble
phosphate.

Bone-Tankage.— While tankage is rich in nitrogen, some
grades contain an abundance of phosphoric acid. Several distinct
grades of tankage are now recognized, varying in phosphorie acid
content from about 6 to 20 per cent. The higher grades are
nearly like bone in their proportion of phosphoric acid.” The
higher the phosphoric acid in tankage, the lower is the nitrogen
content. As previously stated, tankage is made from residues
obtained from boiling refuse animal matter, heads, feet, ete.
Hence the phosphoric acid of tankage may be regarded, as having
the same agricultural value as the phosphoric acid of steamed
bone having the same degree of fineness.

Pone-Ash.— As the name implies, bone-ash is made simply by
burning bones in the open air. The nitrogen is, of course, driven
off and lost in burning, and the chief constituent is acihabe cal-
citm phosphate, equivalent to 30 to 85 or more per cent. of phos-
phorie acid,

Tur Composition AND UsE or FERTILIZERS. 233

Bone-Black, known also as bone charcoal and animal charcoal,
is extensively used in refining sugar. After it has been used sev-
eral times, portions become useless for refining purposes and
are then sofd as fertilizer. Bone-black is made by heating bones
in closed vessels, the air being excluded. By heating bones in
this manner, the fat, water, and nitrogen are removed from the
bones; and the bone-black remaining consists mainly of insoluble
calcium phosphate and carbon or charcoal. The presence of the
carbon hinders the decomposition of the phosphate, so that it is,
in this form, not readily available as food for plants. Good
bone-black may contain 80 or more per cent. of phosphoric acid.

Fish.— Phosphoric acid is contained in fish and fish-serap to
the extent of 7 or 8 per cent. In many cases the fish is acidu-
lated with sulphuric acid and its phosphoric acid is thus nearly all
rendered available.

Phosphalic Guanos or Rock-Guanos.— Guanos generally con-
sist chiefly of the dung of sea-fowls, though the term is applied
to other animal products. They are generally found in beds re-
sembling earthy deposits. The guanos which are called phosphatic
contain little or no nitrogen. Their phosphoric acid is generally
in the form of insoluble phosphate of lime, iron and alumina.
These guanos come mainly from certain islands in the Pa-
cifie ocean, and from Caribbean sea and West India islands.
The amount of phosphoric acid in different guanos is very variable,
ranging from below 15 to over 30 per cent.

Rock Phosphates or mineral phosphates are known under sev-
eral different names, which generally designate the localities from
which they come, as South Carolina Rock, Florida Rock, Tennes-
see Rock, West India Rock, ete. Other forms of mineral phos-
phates are known under the names of Apatite, Coprolite and
Phosphorite, which are found in various places in America and
Europe, and some of which are used in making commercial fer-
tilizers. However, the greatest source of supply of phosphoric
acid is the phosphate rock of our Southern States. The rock-
phosphates are extensively used in making superphosphates.
When ground to a very fine flour-like powder, rock-phosphates
are called “ floats.” Rock-phosphates contain usually from 20
to 30 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and some as much as 35 or
40 per cent.

Superphosphates are known under several different names,
such as acid phosphate, dissolved bone, dissolved rock, dissolved
bone-black, ete. Superphosphates are formed by treating some
form of insoluble phosphate of lime, as rock-phosphate, bone,

934 Boreav or Farmers’ Insrrrures.

bone-ash, ete., with sulphuric acid. With high grade material,
equal parts of sulphuric acid and rock-phosphate are used in
dissolving the insoluble phosphate of lime. By this treatment
there is formed a mixture of soluble phosphate of lime and
gypsum (sulphate of lime) in which there are about one and
one-half pounds of gypsum for each pound of soluble phosphate.
Owing to their comparative cheapness and abundance, rock-
phosphates are more often used in making superphosphates than
bones, bone-ash or bone-black. The value of a superphosphate
depends upon the amount of soluble phosphate of lime present
in it together with the amount of reverted phosphate of lime.
The amount of soluble phosphoric acid compounds in superphos-
phates varies with the kind of phosphate used in making super-
phosphates, and also with other conditions which we need not
mention here. Good quality of dissolved bone contains 12 to
18 per cent. of soluble phosphoric acid. Dissolved bone-black
contains from below 15 to 17 per cent. of soluble phosphorie acid.
Superphosphate made from rock-phosphate may contain from 12
to 18 per cent. of soluble phosphoric acid.

“ Double superphosphate ” is a name applied to a concentrated
form of soluble phosphoric acid. It is chiefly manufactured in
Europe and is little used in the United States. Double super-
phosphate contains 35 to 45 per cent. of phosphoric acid in soluble
forms.

Thomas Slag is more familiarly known as odorless phosphate.
It is also known under several other names, such as basic iron
slag, Thomas scoria, phosphate slag, ete. This is a comparatively
new source of phosphoric acid compounds. It is a by-product
formed in the manufacture of iron and steel from certain kinds
of iron ore — containing phosphorous compounds. In the pro-
cess a phosphate of lime is formed, which is ground to a fine
powder. Odorless phosphate is insoluble in water, but is some-
what soluble in ammonium citrate solutions and its phosphoric
acid is, therefore, available to some extent. The phosphoric acid
is in the form known as tetra-calcium phosphate. It contains
15 to 20 per cent. of phosphoric acid, about one-third of which is
citrate-soluble, and, in addition, large proportions of lime and
iron oxide. The practical results coming from the use of this
form of phosphoric acid compounds have been varied, often being
most excellent and again very indifferent.

In the table following, we give the amounts of different forms
of phosphoric acid found in different phosphate materials:

235

THE Comrosition AND User or FERTILIZERS,

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008 93 006 cL 03 OL OFT 09 OOT 2 04 ¢ O9T 93 OOT 8 03g ee aiereleie)sreis/s>¥srer eis Omeuns Ue lanloc
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OOF 93 086 06 03 FI O9T 03 OF 8 01 Z 098 93 OFZ ST 03 @T eee emer ewes ee- eee eeeeeert er eenesn (peaTosstp) [vetu-e 70g
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"ploy oloydsoyg [e10y, | ‘ploy o1oydsoyg oqnyjosuy | “proy ooydsoyg a1quiivay

‘sppwaynyy bureruyway we pwp owoydsoyg fo qunowp aynuywouddy

236 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrirures.

(c) Fertilizing Materials Containing Potash Compounds.

The more common sources of potash compounds for use as fer-
tilizers, found in the market, are the following: Carnallite, cot-
ton seed hull ashes, green sand marl, kainit, krugite, muriate of
potash, nitrate of potash, sulphate of potash, sulphate of potash and
magnesia, tobacco stems, wood ashes, etc.

Wood ashes formerly constituted the main source of potash
compounds in our agriculture, aside from what was furnished by
farm manures. But for some years past the chief source of pot-
ash supply has been the different compounds obtained from the
German potash mines at Stassfurt in northern Germany. The
deposits are so extensive as to appear inexhaustible.

CaRNALLITE is one of the products of the German potash mines.
It contains from 20 to 22 per cent. of muriate of potash, equiva-
lent to 13 to 14 per cent. of actual potash, together with chloride
of magnesia and a very small amount of sulphate of potash and
magnesia. It is essentially a mixed chloride or muriate'of potash
and magnesia. The material is generally purified and concen-
trated before reaching market.

Karnirt is the most common product of the German potash mines.
It is a mixture of several different compounds, containing 28 to
26 per cent. of sulphate of potash, equivalent to 12 to 14 per
cent. of actual potash, together with about 35 per cent. of com-
mon salt, some sulphate and chloride of magnesia and a small
amount of gypsum.

Kruaite is a low-grade potash compound obtained from the
German potash mines. It contains from 14 to 16 per cent. of
sulphate of potash, equivalent to 8 or 9 per cent. of actual potash,
together with considerable gypsum, sulphate of magnesia and
some salt.

Murrate or Porasn, also a product of the Stassfurt mines, ‘is
the main source of supply of potash for commercial fertilizers in
our market. As taken from the mine it varies in purity, but is
purified and concentrated for market. The muriate of potash
most common in the market contains 80 to 85 per cent. of this
product, which is equivalent to 50 to 53 per cent. of actual potash.
A still more concentrated form, containing 95 to 98 per cent. of
pure muriate, is sometimes found in the market.

Syivinir resembles kainit, containing about 15 to 16 per cent.
of actual potash in the form of both sulphate and chloride. It

Tue Composition AND Usr or FERTILIZERS. OB

also contains chlorides of sodium and magnesium. It is little
used in this country.

SuLpeHate or Porasn is another product of the German mines.
Strictly pure sulphate of potash contains about 54 per cent. of
actual potash, but the product found in the market is of variable
composition and purity. The highest grade of commercial sul-
phate of potash is 90 to 95 per cent. pure and contains from 48
to 51 per cent. of actual potash. Low-grade sulphates contain
as little as 30 per cent. of actual potash, together with more or
less sulphate of magnesia and common salt.

SuvpHate or Porasn anp Maenesta is known also as double
manure salts or simply as double potash salts. This material
comes from the German mines, and contains 48 to 52 per cent.
of sulphate of potash, equivalent to 26 to 28 per cent. of actual
potash. It also contains 32 to 36 per cent. of sulphate of mag-
nesia.

Nitrate or Porasu, commonly called saltpeter or nitre, is a
most valuable fertilizing material for potash and nitrogen also.
The demand for its use in the manufacture of gunpowder makes
it too expensive to use commonly as a fertilizer. It is found in
the market as “crude” nitrate of potash, containing about 44
per cent. of actual potash, and also as “ double refined” nitrate
of potash, containing about 46.5 per cent. of actual potash.

Corron Seep Hurt Asues were produced in the South at the
cotton seed oil factories, where the hulls, after being removed from
the cotton seed, were used as fuel. Such ashes contain from 15
to 25 per cent. of potash, in addition to from 7 to 10 per cent.
of phosphoric acid. They formed a very valuable fertilizer and
were much used South in the manufacture of commercial fer-
tilizers. This material is not commonly found now.

Tosacco Stems contain from 6 to 7 per cent. of potash and
about two per cent. of nitrogen. They are ground fine and often
used in making commercial fertilizers.

Woop Asuers contain more or less potash, which is present
chiefly in the form of carbonate. The amount of potash in com-
mercial wood ashes varies from below 4 to 7 per cent., the
average being under five per cent. Wood ashes also contain be-
tween 1 and 2 per cent. of phosphoric acid. The amount of
potash in wood ashes depends upon a variety of conditions, such
as the kind and age of wood, the method of burning, and espe-
cially the way in which the ashes are stored. Where ashes have

238 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

been exposed to the weather or leached, they contain much less
potash, often only 1 or 2 per cent. Ashes from lime-kilns and
brick-kilns are generally so mixed with refuse matter as to possess
little value for use as fertilizers. Coal ashes possess little value
for the potash contained in them, for it is very small.

Green Sanp Mart of New Jersey contains, on an average,
about five per cent. of potash, which is in an insoluble form, and
is, therefore, slow in acting as a fertilizer.

3elow we present a tabulated summary, showing the amount of
potash contained in different commercial fertilizing materials:

Approximate Amount of Potash in Fertilizing Materials.

8 S38
wa coe
: its eg wee
Materials Containing Potash. = S Cag;
og Sea
8 2a88
Pu 4
Creme) palsies Goes Shroaluu ges aoa ane Hea een do 13 to 14 260 to 280
Cottonseed-hulll faishesmaeeipomcieic sorts) teletenerasiene 15 to 25 300 to 500
TaD cs ee beta cade vere oaauer, KORY ODED OSOOO Ce ONCE 12 to 14 240 to 280
INTUIGNID & sie bavbies Soon oOeA OOo ODES OA ONIOSOC 8 to- 9 160 to 180
Muriate of potash (80 to 85 per cent.)......... 50 to 53 ~=1000 to 1060
Nitrate. Ot. potash es 6th ttyopeiis enn topes Serer 43 to 44 860 to 880
Sulphate of potash: (low: orade)i2 o<\-0.-t-ricteusieste 28 to 30 560 to 600
Sulphate of potash (high grade) .............. 48 to 51 960 to 1020
Sulphate of potash and magnesia ............. 26 to 28 520 to 560
PS) gi a ee Aaa Rr oa pny tain 15 to 16 300 to 320
Wasteinom) ‘powder workse ies sice. «siete cietensveus 16 to 18 320 to 360
Wioodvashes!4((unlleached))ijixc /ctcm ot btalcratam wileucte aren 4 to 8 80 to 160
Wioodashesi (leached) Wav curacy cats opevotsveiecicha rele Ito 3 20 to 60

(d) Farm-Produced Fertilizing Materials.

Economic Vautun or Farm Manures.— A fair estimate of
the fertilizing value of the manure annually produced by the
farm animals of the United States places the sum at the enormous
figure of over two thousand million dollars. This estimate is
based on the number of farm animals and on the amount of nitro-
gen, potash and phosphoric acid excreted in their manure. The
values given to these forms of plant food are those commonly as-
signed to them in the form of commercial fertilizers. It will
thus be readily seen that the farm-produced manures assume an
economic importance which has not been accorded them by the
average farmer.

Tur Composition AND Usr or Frrrinizers. 239

DEFINITION OF STABLE OR FarmMyarp Manure.— Stable or
farmyard manure consists of the solid and liquid excrements of
animals fed upon the farm, mixed or unmixed with straw and
waste products of the farm.

VARIATION IN Composition oF Farm Manvres.— The compo-
sition of stable manure varies greatly, depending on several con-
ditions, among which the following may be mentioned:

(1) The kind and age of the animal producing it.

(2) The quantity and quality of the food eaten.

(3) The character and amount of material used for litter.
(4) The length of time the manure has been kept.

(5) The manner in which it has been cared for.

INFLUENCE or Kinp or Antmat on Manure.— Horse Manure
is difficult to mix thoroughly with litter on account of its being
very dry. It is called a “hot” manure, because, on account of
its loose texture, it easily undergoes decomposition or fermenta-
tion, producing a high degree of heat. On this account it is very
liable to lose more or less of its nitrogen in the form of ammonia.
It should have very careful treatment in respect to the litter used
and also in the application of preservatives. It is a quick-acting
manure. Horses are usually fed with greater uniformity in re-
spect to character of food than other farm animals and there 1s,
therefore, greater uniformity in the composition of horse manure.
The urine of horses is particularly rich in nitrogen and potash.
It has been estimated that horses excrete somewliat over half their
manure in the stable, or, on an average, about six tons a year.

Sheep Manure is quite dry and is commonly the richest of farm-
produced manures. Like horse manure, it undergoes fermenta-
tion easily and is classed as a “ hot” or quick-acting manure. It
is similarly very liable to lose ammonia.

Pig Manure varies greatly in composition, but is generally rich,
though containing considerable water. In decomposing, it pro-
duces little heat and is, therefore, called a “cold” manure. It is
classed as a slow-acting manure. When pigs are well fed, their
liquid excrement is rich in nitrogen.

Cow Manure contains as a rule, less fertilizing materials than
any of the preceding manures. It contains a large amount of
water, and, in decomposing, generates little heat and is slow acting.
A well-fed cow, producing milk, excretes 20 to 30 pounds of liquid
manure and 40 to 50 pounds of solid manure. About one-half of
the nitrogen produced is in the urine.

240 Bourerav or Farmers’ Institutes.

Poullry Manure contains a comparatively large amount of all
the different forms of plant food, being especially rich in nitrogen
and potash. It undergoes fermentation readily and loses nitrogen
unless properly treated with absorbents or preservatives. It is a
very quick-acting form of plant food. A single hen produces 40
to 60 pounds a year of manure.

InriuENcr or Acr or Antmat on Manure.— A young, grow-
ing animal requires and retains in its body a greater quantity of
nitrogen, potash and phosphorie acid compounds than does a
grown animal. Therefore, manure from a young animal is of
less value than that from a mature one. JF ull-grown animals, not
varying in weight, excrete essentially all the fertilizing constitu-
ents taken into the body in the food. In the case of growing ani-
mals and cows in milk, from 50 to 75 per cent. of the fertilizing
constituents of the food passes into the manure; in the case of fat-
tening or working animals, from 90 to 95 per cent.

INFLUENCE oF Foop upon Manure.— In the ease of any one
class of animals, the value of the manure is, as a rule, more de-
pendent upon the kind of food than any other one condition. It
is a serious but not uncommon mistake among farmers to sup-
pose that the process of animal digestion adds something to the
food. While the food materials are changed more or less com-
pletely and appear in the dung and urine in forms different from
those existing in the food before it was eaten, and while these
forms are, in general, more available as plant food than the forms
existing in the original food, still there can be in the excrement
no more nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, ete., than there was
in the food eaten, and, in most cases, as will be noticed later, there
is some loss of fertilizing materials.

Relative Value of Fertilizing Materials in Different Classes of
Foods.— The amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in
manure depends upon the amount of these materials in the food.
Irom the table given below, it ean be seen that concentrated
foods, such as meat scrap, cotton seed meal, linseed meal and
wheat, bran must yield richest manures. Next to these foods
would come leguminous plants, such as clover, alfalfa, ete. The
cereals, such as wheat, oats, corn, ete., would follow third. Root
crops would come last,

Tne Comrvosrrion AND Use or Frrrinizers. 941

TABLE Showing Approximate Fertilizing Value of Some Com-
mon Foods.

A Si a 5

ov — s.

Bie vies ean eMiNeee

og $A Sa AS)

=3 a} £3 82,

Kind of Food. ahiey = as Bo

Ss oe s 5S

S | ° Hot

CRE Sine eines

5 ape s1bay 8 &

MieaiteScrap Rien the oes crass eee ee S32 COME SeTO0r see ves $34 00
Cottonmscedumenilign. pussies teaisbrciocrs oie crete 18 60 DANS © telly Cosy a OAS)
NENMSG GORI ea ited a care crcl calce Wo reaidey oyioltsice eee slates 16 10 1 50 oS 18 75
Giintentiseal’ Seater sc nee. eas eee 14 00 Dis 5 14°30
\4Vloysclins wonczhele pew nora r ain att cacrta se Soe Eree Me hs 7 40 2) 35 SOR TOs
C@loviermhnay = (Ges) = ccs cc. obey stel.s , Stovexens,a)'s, 5-050 5 90 40 1 60 7 90
SNNSTP TE yb CE i Burline ark nie ipo 6 15 45 35 t 95
Wihteaitie yt ys Seaetayehyerseel tee eee oe eas 6 60 65 45 [fet
ORGS er rerey 5 Severn ceo aia stent piace sytiotacs, «lela caocs 6 60 65 50 6 75
CO GTEMITIE A emeerev ste Pive creer s cicue e icicie © aie Saree 4 90 55 35 5 80
Ahi Olive gaye el ayia seks eos Mee. alee 3 00 35 25 4 60
WH Ga SET Ae ae May he no nora oiras aun, oie tous, cy avons 1 45 10 40 1 95
SS altro Tp laa etre ersgetes cp careers soe ev ene; cuscs.<) oituere. 6. aie 1 60 30 20 PANG
CornMensilaseg yen Ase eae balance hed 65 10 30 1 05
USUI Se edeg clea st sp sigel eicteleedevehegKoteg eehoee cheers 50 10 30 90

It will be readily seen that of two foods costing the same price
and having equal feeding value, it is economy for the farmer to
use that one which contains the largest amount of fertilizing
materials.

Amount of Fertilizing Mateials of Food Recovered in Manure.
— Generally speaking, manure produced from working or fatten-
ing animals contains from 90 to 95 per cent. of the fertilizing con-
stituents contained in the food. Manure made from cows in milk
and young, growing animals contains from 50 to 75 per cent. of
the fertilizing constituents contained in the food. In the case of
animals which are neither increasing in weight nor giving milk,
the amount of fertilizing materials in the manure will be exactly
equal to that contained in the food eaten. The foregoing state-
ments presuppose that all the dung and urine are saved, a supposi-
tion which is not often true, considering the manner in which
stable manure is commonly treated.

The Digestibility of Food and Its Manurial Value.— The solid
excrements of animals consist largely of the undigested portions
of food; these undigested portions are mostly insoluble and, there-
fore, not immediately available as plant food. The urine contains
those portions of food which have been digested; its constituents

are all in a soluble form and readily available as plant food, and,
16

949 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirutes.

therefore, more valuable than the insoluble fertilizing materials
contained in the solid excrement. It therefore follows that the
more digestible a food is, the larger is the proportion of its fertiliz-
ing constituents that will appear in the urine, and the greater will
be the value of the plant food in the manure produced.

Tue Use or Lirrer.— Litter is used in stables primarily to
furnish a clean and comfortable bed for animals. In connection
with the manure, it is used to absorb the liquid portion of the ma-
nure, thus preventing loss by drainage. The presence of litter
mixed with manure makes the manure easier to handle, tends to
check and control its decomposition, and in some cases influences
both the physical and chemical action of the manure. The ma-
terials commonly used for litter are usually not rich in fertilizing
materials. The use of too much litter diminishes the relative
value of the manure and adds to the cost of handling. Enough
should be used not only to absorb and retain the urine, but also
to absorb any ammonia formed in the process of decomposition.

FERMENTATION OF Manure.— Causes.— It is a familiar ex-
perience of every farmer that fresh stable manure, when left in a
heap, commences very soon to ferment or undergo decomposition.
In this process the vegetable matter used as litter and the excre-
ments pass through several changes. The fermentation is caused
by minute living organisms, and varies according to the kind of
organisms at work. Some will flourish only in the presence of
an abundant supply of air, others will thrive only away from air;
some require much moisture, others little, ete. According to eir-
cumstances, then, one kind or another will flourish, and the fer-
mentation taking place will vary according as it is caused by the
action of one kind of organism or another.

Conditions.— The more important conditions influencing the
character of fermentation in manure are the following: (1) Tem-
perature, (2) moisture, (3) the amount of air supplied as regulated
by looseness or compactness of manure heap, (4) the composition
of the manure, and (5) the kind of preservatives added.

Manure ferments more quickly at higher temperatures. Where
air is supplied freely, as on the outside of the heap, the tempera-
ture may rise as high as 150 degrees Fahrenheit or even higher..
The most favorable temperature seems to be about 130 degrees
Fahrenheit. On the inside of the heap, where the supply of air
is very limited, a slower form of fermentation occurs and the tem-
perature rarely goes above 95 degrees Fahrenheit.

Tf a manure heap is too loose, the fermentation is too rapid.
The result is that the humus-forming material is destroyed and

Tur Comvostrion AND Usr or FErriiizers. 943

large proportions of nitrogen escape as ammonia. If, however,
the manuré is too compact, the fermentation may be so slow as not
to decompose the manure enough for its most effective use in the
soil.

The amount of moisture in manure is an important factor in
controlling the rapidity of fermentation. The addition of water
causes reduction of temperature and a corresponding slowness of
fermentation. Water, when added in sufficient quantities, also
fills up the pores of the heap and serves to exclude air, thus retard-
ing the most active form of fermentation.

Manures which are rich in soluble nitrogen decompose more
readily than others which contain less soluble nitrogen. Thus
urine decomposes much more rapidly than solid excrement.

Changes Produced by Fermentation.— The principal changes
that take place in the more common methods of fermentation or
“rotting ” of manure may be briefly outlined as follows: (1) The
carbon of the manure combines, to a greater or less extent, with
the oxygen of the air, forming carbon dioxide (carbonie acid gas),
which escapes into the air. (2) The nitrogen combines with hy-
drogen to form ammonia. If the manure heap is dry, the am-
monia combines with carbon dioxide, forming ammonium carbon-
ate, which may escape into the air and be lost to the manure. If
the heap is kept moist, certain organic acids are formed by the
decomposition of the organic matter, and the ammonia, as fast as
it is formed, unites with these acids, producing ammonia salts
which readily dissolve in water, but which do not escape as gases
into the air. (3) Considerable water is driven off from the ma-
nure by the heat which is produced in the process of fermentation.
(4) In the inner part of the heap, which is shut off from the air,
there is serious danger that nitrate-destroying germs will decom-
pose the nitrates and thus cause their loss.

Difference between Fresh and Fermented Stable Manure.—
From the foregoing it would follow that fresh stable manure dif-
fers from fermented or “ rotted ” stable manure in the following
respects: The fresh manure contains (1) more water, and (2) more
earbon than the fermented manure; while (3) both contain in their
dry matter the same amount of potash, phosphorie acid and nitro-
gen, provided the process has been carefully managed. In
“rotted ” manure, (4) the nitrogen is in a more available form
as plant. food; the same is also true of the potash and phosphoric
acid. (5) If the process of rotting is allowed to go too far the
nitrates will be changed into free nitrogen and lost.

Between two and three tons of fresh mixed stable manure are

244. Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

required to produce one ton of half-rotted manure. The differ-
ence in weight is due mainly to water and carbon.

Manure that is very completely rotted so as to form a black, uni-
form, slimy mass has usually lost most of its nitrate nitrogen.
Half-rotted manure is the form in which stable manure is quite
commonly used. It contains nitrate nitrogen and is in its most
available form.

Loss or Fertitizine Matertats in StaBLe: Manure.— There
are two principal ways in which stable manure commonly loses
some of its fertilizing constituents: First, by improper methods of
fermentation, and second, by leaching. In regard to the first
point, more or less nitrogen is lost by allowing manure to ferment
without sufficient moisture; especially is this apt to be true in the
ease of the manure of horses, hens and sheep, which decomposes
very rapidly. <A strong odor coming from a manure heap indi-
cates that a wasteful fermentation is taking place. Of plant food
materials only nitrogen compounds can be lost by vaporization.
By leaching there will be a loss, not only of nitrogen compounds,
but of potash and phosphoric acid also. The common method of
storing farmyard manure for several months under the eaves of
the barn generally results in a loss of one-third or more of the fer-
tilizing constitutents by leaching; and, moreover, the materials
thus leached out by rain are the more easily soluble portions of
the manure, and hence the more valuable portions.

Carr AND Preservation or Farm Manvres.— In earing for
farm manures, the main object is to prevent the loss of compounds
containing nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. From what has
been said above in connection with the sources of loss of fertilizing
materials in farm manures, it can: be seen that the causes of loss
ean be avoided by absorbing the liquid manure, by regulating the
process of fermentation and by protecting the manure from leach-
ing. We will consider briefly some of the ways in which these
objects can be accomplished.

The use of litter absorbs the liquid manure, preserves it to some
extent from immediate decomposition, and also holds more or less
of the ammonia produced by fermentation, thus preventing its
escape into the air. Of the materials in common use, peat has the
largest power of absorbing and holding liquids; peat moss comes
next; spent tan and sawdust follow; then come straw and similar
materials. It has been given asa safe rule to follow that the litter
should at least be equal to one-third of the dry matter of the food
eonsumed. The following daily amounts for different animals
have been sugested: Sheep, three-fifths of a pound of litter; eat-

/

Tur Comrosition AND Usr or FErtruizers, 945

tle, nine pounds; horses, six and one-half pounds. In addition to
using litter, it is wise to use some other materials for absorbing
and preserving the manure. Among such materials are gypsum
(land plaster), kainit, acid phosphate, ete.

Gypsum (land plaster) has the power of holding ammonia and
preventing its loss. It must, however, be moist in order to be
effective. The best way to use gypsum is to sprinkle it on the
moist dung or urine. Stables in which the excrements are prop-
erly treated by this means are noticeably free from offensive
odors, as a rule.

Kainit sprinkled upon manure tends to check fermentation and
also to attract and hold moisture. One precaution should be
observed in the use of kainit; it should be kept from under the
feet of animals, since injury may result to the feet of animals
treading on it. It is, therefore, best applied to fresh manure
and covered with litter.

Acid Phosphate contains a considerable proportion of gypsum
and, to this extent, its action is like that of gypsum. The soluble
phosphate in the acid phosphate tends to unite with ammonia
and prevent its loss and also to check fermentation.

A mixture of acid phosphate and gypsum is strongly recom:
mended by some, using them in about equal proportions.

For average animals, the following amounts of different
preservatives may be used daily for each individual:

o | | =
a wn i oo 4 on
ag See es 28
Kind of Preservative. os oa os os
ao qa 635 qa 5
op 6° 5 °
HJ oes he aa |
3 3 3 3
& Fy oe
Gypsum sande plaster )) mies el-1eae a= 1% 1% 414 3%
PETES PULOS PEEL CII. i'ptacals efete/Aals stale Saleha oils 1 1% 3 21%
CCAIR cv aks tats ici ohinda ade dase aiold cis sou amis) dye'cclfelats 1% 1% ab

When a mixture of superphosphate and gypsum is used, take
one-half or one-third of the amounts indicated above. One great
advantage in using acid phosphate or kainit is that one is adding
to the manure an important form of plant food, in which the
manure is naturally deficient. The price at which one can get
these materials must determine whether their use is economical
or not.

Mixture of different manures, such as cow and horse manures,
is advantageous, since one undergoes fermentation slowly and
the other rapidly. When mixed, the conditions of moisture are
more easily controlled.

246 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrtrures.

Whether stable manure is stored in sheds, or in cellars or is
protected in some other way, it is important to observe the fol-
lowing precautions: (1) The manure should be spread out uni-
formly; (2) its interior should be protected against the access
of air; (3) it should be kept always moist, but not too wet; (4)
it should be protected from sunshine; (5) it should be protected
from leaching; (6) some form of preservative should be used
in the stables in addition to litter.

Liguip and Soxip Manvure.— It is not an uncommon belief
among farmers that urine is worthless for fertilizing purposes,
if we may judge anything from the too general practice of allow-
ing the liquid excrements to run to waste through the barn
floor. One has only to glance at the composition of the solid
and liquid excrements of different animals as given below to
see that the liquid is, in most cases, very much more valuable
than the solid portions. Not only are the proportions of nitro-
gen and potash greater, as a rule, in the liquid excrement than
in the solid, but, as already noticed, the fertilizing constituents
of urine are entirely soluble and therefore more readily available
for plant food than the constituents of solid excrements.

TABLE Showing Approximate Composition of Solid and Inquid

Manures.
Pounds of Nitrogen Pounds of Phosphoric Pounds of Potash
in 100 Pounds. Acid in 100 Pounds. in 100 Pounds.
SSS SS — oe —
cs} cs} os
ae 3 farts hres 2
R 4 DR 4 R 4
COWS? isos ae seis ee ees 0.30 1730 0.28 0 0.20 1.00
FTO SES Wieriaso terete Gite aie 0.60 a5 0.30 0 0.50 1.50
SHGepi., ‘yates tepeca evar tepeeds ete 0.80 1.95 0225 0 0.65 yA 5)
TABLE Showing Approximate Composition of Mixed Stable
Manure.
A i 2 2 : A
oO a (oy = a
do a a
E a yf VS ab EN id
Ee S8 Bi /peSea Ss hee
s ‘aS 2 Mo) % eS
° ai O -*r was ao
. Sa) get, ae alae é
a wn od ns qd n
® ie} om ag o ce}
13) ‘=| as oO a
a 2 be =) ua J
o o o ° o io)
Ay ay 4 ow Ay ow
Weaat tts ct Suede tererey ars 0.4- 8 0.2 4 0.4 8
Greatest) cts cect oiesee 0.75 15 0.4 8 0.75 15
PNET SABO OOS Sete 0.50 10 0.25 5 0.50 10

SSS ——————————————eeeeeeE—eEEEEoEoEoEaaSS—————————————eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee ee _

Tur Compositrion AnD User or Frrrruizers. 947

PAR ile
THE PURCHASE AND: USE OF FERTILIZERS.

One of the questions most commonly asked by farmers seeking
information is, “ What fertilizer will give me the best results for
this or that crop?” It is, of course, impossible to give any
definite answer to such a general question involving, as it does,
s0 many different conditions, none of which is clearly known.
The composition and physical properties of the soil, the extent
and manner in which it has been previously cropped and fertil-
ized, the kind of crop one wishes to grow — all these conditions
need to be known and, even then, it will require some special
experimenting on the part of the farmer to determine what
forms and amounts of fertilizers he can use most economically.
The common method employed by farmers in selecting fertilizers
is to take some brand of complete fertilizer that has been recom-
mended to him by some neighbor or dealer. He has no clear
ideas regarding the condition of his soil, and the needs of differ
ent crops. He thinks that he must have more fertilizer in order
to secure better crops and he buys blindly. Under such cir-
cumstances, it is safest, as a rule, for a farmer to select a com-
plete fertilizer. However, in so doing, he may be throwing
money away by purchasing what his soil and crop may not need,
for only one or two of the three chief fertilizing constituents
(nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid) may be needed; and, in-
deed, it may be that some physical condition of the soil is wrong
and that plant food of any kind is not really needed at all.

In selecting fertilizers for use, we need to consider several
important questions, such as the following:

1. Under what circumstances a fertilizer should be used.

9. What constituents of plant food are needed.

3. What amount of each fertilizing constituent is needed.

4. Tn what forms it is best to buy such plant food as is needed.

5. Which is more advantageous, to purchase complete fertil-
izers or to purchase separate ingredients?

6. To what extent home-mixing is practicable.

7. Special suggestions in connection with the purchase of sepa-
rate ingredients.

8. Methods and seasons of applying fertilizers.

948 Bureav oF Farmers’ INStTitutes.

9. The most advantageous methods of using farm-produced
manures.

10. The use of green manures.

11. Rotation of crops.

12. The use of lime on soils.

13. Plant-food mixtures for different crops.

1. Unper Wuat Crrcumstances SHouLD A ComMMERCIAL FER-
TILIZER BE Userp 2

One must resort to the use of commercial fertilizers when he
has exhausted all of the resources of the farm in producing his
own fertilizing materials and finds that the use of commercial fer-
tilizers will result in increased crops and profit. When the far-
mers’ crops cannot get from the soil as much nitrogen, potash and
phosphoric acid as they need, and when the manure made on the
farm cannot supply the constituents in ‘sufficient quantity, then
one may resort successfully to the use of commercial fertilizers.
One must secure an increase of crop sufficient to pay for the fer-
tilizer used and for the cost of labor in applying it, and have some-
thing in addition in order to make the use of commercial fertilizer
a paying operation.

However, one must distinguish between lack of plant food in
the soil and other conditions which prevent good crops, for lack
of food is not the only cause that makes crops suffer. In some
soils there is, for example, a tendency to harden, causing lack of
porosity, which prevents the development of roots and thus limits
the feeding power of the plant. Such condition may be overcome
by adding humus to the soil, together with proper tillage. Other
unfavorable conditions may be lack of moisture, retention of stag-
nant water, deficiency of lime, acidity of soil, climatic influences,
etc., which may interfere with the healthy growth of plants and
thus cause diminished crops, even when the plant has within reach
all the food it needs. Under such circumstances, the unfavorable
conditions must, if possible, be removed to secure good crops; and
this, according to the demands of special cases, may be done by
irrigating, draining, deep culture, better plowing, harrowing, hoe-
ing, marling, liming, mucking, ete.

It often happens that a soil contains an abundance of plant food,
most of which is in unavailable forms. Under such circumstances
an effort should be made to bring this food into an available con-
dition as rapidly as plants can use it. Briefly stated, this can be

Tuer Composition AND Ust or FERTILIZERS. Q49

done to some extent by the use of indirect fertilizers, like gypsum,
lime and salt; by the use of organic manures; by growing deep-
rooting crops; by judicious use of drains, and by vigorous and
thorough tillage.

It cannot be too strongly emphasized that, before one can ad-
vantageously approach the question of the economic use of com-
mercial fertilizers, he must make sure that all those conditions of
soil are present which are essential to the favorable growth of
crops, in addition to plant-food supply.

Tt will thus be seen that it is not always so simple a matter to
tell when one should use commercial fertilizers. But the general
rule will be to use them when their use is attended with increased
profit coming from increased crops, and this can be learned with
certainty only by actual trial. Attention will be called later to
specific methods for making field tests.

9. Wuat ConstTItuENtTs oF Puant Foon arg NEEpeEp.

When it has been clearly settled that a soil needs the addition
of plant food in order to grow crops more successfully, the ques-
tion at once presents itself as to what kinds of plant food are re-
quired. Does some form of nitrogen need to be supplied, or is it
phosphoric acid that is needed, or is it potash? It may be only
one, it may be some two, or it may be all three of these constitu-
ents are necessary to grow crops to the best advantage.
How can we ascertain what kind of plant food is required?

Awnatysis or Sorts.— It was formerly thought that an analysis
of the soil would answer this question beyond doubt. But it is
now known not to be especially helpful except, perhaps, in a nega-
tive way by making known the fact when there is little or no plant
food in the soil. A chemical analysis may show an abundance of
plant food in the soil, and yet this may be mostly unavailable, a
fact which is not readily ascertained by- our methods of chemical
analysis. Again, there may be an abundance of nitrogen, potash
and phosphoric acid compounds in the soil in an available condi-
tion, and yet the soil may be unproductive from lack of humus,
from need of proper drainage, from lack of porosity or from some
other cause which affects the mechanical or physical condition of
the soil in such a way as to unfit it for plant growth. Again, we
may put upon an acre of soil an amount of fertilizing constituents
that will greatly increase the crop, and yet an analysis of the soil
before and after the application will show no appreciable differ-

250 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

ence in the quantity of plant food present in the acre of soil.
However delicate may be the methods of chemical analysis, the
methods of plants are still more delicate, and plants are able to
show differences in soil where chemical analysis distinguishes none.

Inpications or Nreps or Soin Arrorpep By APPEARANCE OF
Crors.— It is impossible to give any fixed rules which will cover
all cases and enable a farmer to tell without any experiment on his
part what food constituents his soil lacks. In a general way, the
crops themselves may give some valuable suggestions.

(a) As a rule, lack of nitrogen is indicated, when plants are
pale green in color, or when there is a small growth of leaf or
stalk, other conditions being favorable.

(b) A bright, deep green color, with a vigorous growth of leaf
or stalk, is, in case of most crops, a sign that nitrogen is not lacking
but does not necessarily indicate that more nitrogen could not be
used to advantage.

(c) An excessive growth of leaf or stalk, accompanied by an im-
perfect bud, flower, and fruit development, indicates too much
nitrogen for the potash and phosphoric acid present. —

(d) When such crops as corn, cabbage, grass, potatoes, etc., have
a luxuriant, healthful growth, an abundance of potash in the soil
is indicated; also, when fleshy fruits of fine flavor and texture
can be successfully grown.

(e) When a soil produces good, early maturing crops of grain,
with plump and heavy kernels, phosphorie acid will not generally
be found deficient in the soil.

Such general indications may often be most helpful, and the
condition of crops should be studied carefully with these facts in
mind. ;

Priant-Foop Nrrps in Reratron to Kryp or Sort.—The kind
of soil may furnish information as to what kind of plant food is apt
to be lacking. While soils of the same class differ widely in com-
position, there are certain general suggestions which they may
afford. In sandy soils potash is commonly deficient and hence
this element must be a prominent ingredient of a fertilizer for
such a soil. Sandy and gravelly soils usually require liberal
amounts of phosphoric acid also, owing to the fact that in such
soils phosphate compounds are liable to leach beyond reach of
plants. On the other hand, clay soils are usually well supplied
with potash and are apt to be deficient in phosphoric acid and
lime. In lime soils there may be a lack of nitrogen.

Tue OComposrrion anp User or FErtruizers. D4

Puant-Foop Nrrps or Sorts 1n Retarion ro Previous Crops.
— The growing of the same kind of crop continuously on the
same land is exhausting in regard to one or more elements of
plant food. Thus, wheat grown year after year on the same soil
exhausts nitrogen and phosphoric acid more rapidly than potash;
hence, phosphoric acid and nitrogen without potash would, in
most such cases, give fully as good results as with potash, at least
for a time. The continuous growth of grass crops takes large
amounts of potash compared with phosphoric acid. Where there
has been such a system of farming employed, one element. will
usually be found to have been removed more extensively than
others, and in feeding crops, this lacking element is the one that
especially needs to be supplied.

It often happens that in a system of rotation all elements of
plant food are removed in about the same proportion, and hence
restoration of high productiveness means addition of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potash.

Piant-Foop Nerrps or Sorts my Revation tro Srecrrro
Crassrs or Prants.— The food needs of different classes of plants
vary in a marked degree and their general requirements should be
studied if we try to feed them intelligently. For the purpose of
calling attention to the main facts, we can divide most of our
common crops into the following classes:

Root and tuber crops, grasses, leguminous crops, cereals, fruit
crops, market-garden crops.

(a) Root and Tuber Crops include such crops as turnips, beets,
mangels, carrots, potatoes, sweet potatoes, ete. While these crops
need all elements of plant food, turnips appear to make especially
good use of available phosphoric acid in their early stages of
growth. Beets and carrots grow less quickly and need nitrogen
in readily available forms. Potatoes need liberal supplies of
available potash. ‘These crops, owing to their habits of growth,
do not make quick use of the insoluble mineral plant food of the
soil, especially in their early stage of growth.

(b) Grasses are mostly perennial, though their length of
life depends upon a variety of conditions, such as methods of
cropping, kind of soil, ete. They are mostly surface feeders in
their early stages of growth. They have the power of using
potash and phosphoric acid in its less soluble forms quite easily.
Tt is of advantage, however, to supply them with easily available
forms of nitrogen which should be fed them quite liberally, be:

952 Bureau or Farmers’ INsStTirures.

cause the object of the crop is leaf and stem for pasture or hay
or forage, and nitrogen promotes this form of growth.

(c) Leguminous Crops such as clover, peas, beans, vetches, ete.,
have the power of securing nitrogen from the air, but need very
liberal supplies of potash and phosphoric acid.

(d) Cereals possess certain marked characteristics in their
methods of growth and feeding. Their roots branch just beneath
the surface and each separate shoot sends out feeding roots in
every direction, thus reaching the lower layers of the soil in the
later stages of growth. Their peculiar root system enables cereals
to feed quite readily upon the less soluble potash and phosphoric
acid compounds of the soil. A considerable part of the growth
of many of these crops occurs early in the season before the un-
available nitrogen is changed into nitrates, and, therefore, they
are, with the exception of Indian corn, greatly helped by early
applications of nitrate-nitrogen. Hence, early application of
nitrate-nitrogen helps wheat, rye, oats and barley. With corn,
the growth comes largely after other cereals have ripened, in July
and August, and by this time the insoluble soil nitrogen has
ll akiwedl largely into nitrates.

(e) Fruit Crops.— Fruit trees are slow in perth and slow
feeding; hence they can utilize less available forms of plant food.
Their supplies of food should be of such a character as to favor
slow and continuous rather than rapid growth. For example,
ground bone is a good source of nitrogen and ‘phosphoric acid.

(f) Market-Garden Crops include many crops greatly varying
in their feeding habits, but they are all raised with one object in
view — to secure tenderness and succulence by means of very
rapid growth. This is secured by large applications of nitrate-
nitrogen along with very liberal quantities of potash and phos-
phorie acid.

In order to ascertain with greater certainty what food elements
are lacking in the soil, the surest way is for each farmer to do
some experimenting on his own soil and crops. The exact man-
ner of doing this will be considered under the following head in
connection with the amount of plant food to be used.

3. Wuat Amount or racn Fertitizine ConstiTuENT Is
NEEDED.

Inseparably connected with the question of what elements of
plant food are needed is the question, “ How much of each element
is needed?”’ Perhaps, the question more often asked than any

Tre Composition anp Use or Frrriiizers. 953

other relates to the quantities in which fertilizers should be ap-
plied. Granting that we know fairly well whether we need to
use nitrogen, or phosphoric acid or potash compounds, or some
combination of these, how can we ascertain how much to put on
an acre of land? This question is quite as complicated as the
preceding one. A variety of conditions must be considered. If
we knew how much available plant food there were in an acre of
soil, and how much the growing crop would require, the matter
would be comparatively simple, provided the mechanical condition
of the soil was satisfactory. The form of fertilizing material
used would also need consideration.

There are two extremes which we must strive to avoid. On
the one hand, we can assume that the supply of food in the soil
is fairly abundant and make only small additions, thus running
the risk of using too small amounts for growing a good crop.
On the other hand, we may assume that the supply of food in the
soil is decidedly deficient and put on quantities of fertilizing
material sufficient in itself to grow a good crop. In this case,
we run the risk of putting on more than the present. crop needs.
If we cannot hit upon the desired medium, putting on amounts
that will grow the best crop most economically without leaving
too much plant food over, it is better to make the mistake of
putting on too much than too little. Only individual experiment-
ing can determine in each case how much nitrogen, potash, and
phosphoric acid can be used to best advantage, and to this line
of work attention will now be given.

Experiments In Learnina Pranr Foop Nerprp.— In order
to ascertain with certainty what food elements are lacking in the
soil, the surest way is for each farmer to do some experimenting
on his own soil and crops. In fact, if farmers are unwilling to
carry out some simple experiments for themselves on their own
farms and with their own crops, they cannot expect ever to make
use of plant food in the most economical and intelligent manner.

It is our purpose now to indicate in some detail how such ex-
perimenting can be done by individual farmers.

(a) Selection of Land for Field Tests—— The land selected for
testing plant-food needs should be in good condition in respect
to tillage, drainage, ete. The soil should be as much alike as
possible throughout the test field. It is desirable also that the

O54 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

surface shall be quite level and uniform. The more worn-out the
soil is, the more definite results may be expected.

(b) Size of Experimental Plots—— A convenient size of plot to
use for a field test is one-twentieth of an acre, containing an area
of 2,176 square feet. The length and breadth of the plots can
be such as suits one’s convenience, but it is recommended that
each plot measure 204 feet in length by 10 feet 8 inches in width.
Between the plots, leave a strip unused three or four feet wide
so as to avoid any possible mixing of the different plots.

(c) Preparation of Land.— Select a portion of the field that
represents a fair average, and that has been cropped and manured
alike previously; prepare the soil as carefully as possible for the
crop and then measure accurately and stake out into plots 204 feet
long, and 10 feet 8 inches wide, leaving between the plots a strip
three or four feet wide. Mark each plot by a number corre-
sponding to the kind of fertilizer used, following a diagram pre-
viously laid out on paper.

(d) Application of Fertilizer.— Distribute each fertilizer over
its own plot, mixing it thoroughly with the soil and keeping the
fertilizer from going outside the plot. It is better to apply the
fertilizer broadcast and before planting, if the crop is not a culti-
vable one. For cultivable crops the fertilizer may be applied
after planting and harrowed in. On the basis of the amounts of
fertilizer given below, there will be one pound of fertilizer or an
even multiple of it for each square rod of surface.

(ce) System in Conducting Fertilizer Hxperiments.— The work
must be done from beginning to end, systematically and accu-
rately, if best results are to be obtained. The harvested crop
must be carefully measured and a record kept of all results.

(f) Plan of Experiment.— The following diagram represents an
arrangement of plots, together with the kinds and amounts of
plant-food materials to use. The particular crop with which to
experiment may be left to the choice of the farmer. For first
trials, corn, or potatoes, or oats may be used, to be followed by
such others as are usually raised by the farmer. The work should
be carried on for more than one season. It must be kept in mind
that weather conditions may seriously interfere to destroy the
value of the results. An excessively dry season works against
satisfactory results. Therefore, the work should be repeated.
All the plots should receive the same amount and kind of ecultiva-
tion. The same amount of seed should be used. In a word,

Tue-Composirion anp Use or Ferrrruizers. 955

keep all conditions of treatment as much alike as possible, except
for the application of fertilizers.

Plot: Nos liwets «fc aba striae ge- vies bad eye tC 82 Sh No fertilizer.
POG Oss eh Dicks apni 2 Hight), Pounasy ras ssakgexisveded's Nitrate of soda,
PlotigNOs) USrias 6.2: Sieeen.POUNds) eotacs) sects sheets Dissoived rock.
Plot Non (452 ..,s Bebe Ons «sri ahaa) stovees £3.00: Muriate of potash.
LOU INOs Dies er: EME DEY POUNdS: $5: c% wae nice v.c%s Air-slaked lime.
Hig itra soda
IE Ne (fijerni{Sixiten pewnti 2. suid b-aicenemmneen sane
Poe NAY et cee Mee ee a te rec ttea
S SEXGCEM) POMMGS os. ic ayes Seles i k.
Plot No. | 8 gee eon ace gros coon Siac See een
(Hight \pounds ag. See ee. Se Nitrate of soda.
IAG INGE” Ove seo jf DIRHECH GVOUNGS sores acai mint) ajeya Dissolved rock.
[PENPHii pOUMAS sass ark se ae Muriate of potash.
Plot No. HO) facr..- Bilal vests. eer stevetolers tera ctetsy sre No fertilizer.
JEG IN@sel ieoce Two hundred and fifty pounds. Stabl¢ manure, well-rotted.
lot NOs M2 yee .3 Two hundred and fifty pounds. Air-slaked lime.

It may be desirable the first year to limit the work to the first
five plots, and then extend it as experience is acquired.

(g) Interpretation of Results— If Plots No. 1 and No. 10 give
as good results in crops as any other, then the soil is in good
condition as regards its present plant-food supply. If Plot No.
2 gives increased yields, the need of nitrogen is indicated. An
increase of crops on Plot No. 3 indicates need of available phos-
phorice acid, and increase on Plot No. 4 shows need of potash.
Increase of crops on Plots No. 5 and No. 12 shows probable acid-
ity of soil or presence of unavailable potash compounds in soil
or else lack of lime sufficient for plant food. If Plot No. 11
gives better results than other plots, there is probably a lack of
humus in the soil. If Plot No. 6 shows no increase of crop, then
nitrogen and phosphoric acid are not deficient in soil. The other
plots are to be interpreted similarly in accordance with the be-
havior of crops.

The amounts of plant-food materials indicated above are larger
than will be used on many soils and crops. but when once it
is found that any particular element of plant food increases a
crop, then some additional trials can be made to ascertain the
smallest amount of application that will give most economical
results. The factors that determine the amount of plant food
needed are: (1) the amount of available plant food present in
the soil, (2) the amount of plant food required by the crop
grown, and (3) the kind of farming carried on.

256 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTitures.

How Can We Determine THE Amount or AVAILABLE PLANT
Foop Present in THE Sor ?— The method given above is es-
sentially the only practicable and reliable means we have at pres-
ent for ascertaining whether or not there is in a soil enough avail-
able plant food of any particular kind to grow a crop satisfac-
torily. As already pointed out this information cannot be gained
with certainty by a chemical analysis of soil. Farmers cannot
be too strongly impressed with the necessity of carrying out
some such experiments as those indicated above. Such experi
ments can be carried on with very little extra work. This line
of work, properly conducted, will not only furnish the farmer
information that is of the greatest practical and economical value
to him, but it will exert a marked educational influence upon
him, making him personally familiar with plant-food materials,
causing him to take a deeper interest in the growing of crops,
and leading him to practice better methods.

Amount or Pranr Foon Requirep By THE Kinp or Crop
Grown.— It is a well-known fact that different crops need different
quantities of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid compounds.
If we know with a fair degree of accuracy how many pounds of
nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid a crop of any kind will
remove from the soil, then we have fairly definite knowledge of
the amounts of different forms of plant food to apply to the soil
to insure a crop. . If we could not depend upon the soil to fur-
nish any plant food, then we should use, at least, the amounts
of fertilizing materials removed by one crop.

In the following table, we give the number of pounds of nitro-
gen, phosphoric acid and potash used by different kinds of crops
grown on one acre of land. The yields have been made variab!e
within fairly wide limits so as to cover most cases found in actual
experience. The calculations are based upon the most reliable
analyses available.

In studying this table, we must keep in mind that the figures
do not in every case represent the amount of plant food removed
from the soil. Thus, with clovers, beans, peas and other legu-
minous crops, a portion of the nitrogen is obtained from the
air and hence we need to apply less nitrogen in the form of
fertilizer than appears to be called for by the table. In the case
of fruits, like apples, pears, plums, etc., it will be found safe
often to apply larger quantities than the table calls for, beeanse
the figures in the table do not indicate the demands made by
the tree in increasing growth:

257

Tue ComposiTion anD Usi or FERTILIZERS.

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17

258 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

An examination of the foregoing table justifies the assertion,
when we consider all the conditions, that the smallest amounts of
plant food we can expect to use on an acre of land with any
satisfactory results are the following:

Ten pounds of nitrogen.
Fifteen pounds of available phosphorie acid.
Twenty pounds of potash.

To state this in another form, the foregoing amounts of nitro-
gen would be contained in 200 pounds of a fertilizer having the
following composition:

Nitrogen, 5 per cent.

Available phosphoric acid, 73 per cent.

Potash, 10 per cent.

This would be regarded as a high-grade fertilizer, and on some
soils an application of 200 pounds an acre would be considered
large, while on others it would be entirely insufficient. The
above rule will probably be found fairly safe to follow in fertil-
izing average crops, when we know nothing at all in regard to soil
or crops.

Kinp or Farmine.— The amount of plant food required for
the economical growth of plants must depend to some extent upon
the specific character and method of farming. In the ease of
garden truck crops, where it is desired to secure maximum crops
at the earhest possible time of season, it is the practice to apply
amounts of plant food which would be considered excessive in
general farm practice. The farmer who practices an intelligent
form of rotation can raise crops with less expenditure for fertil-
izers than can the one who does not use a desirable form of ro-
tation. The subject of rotation of crops is of such importance
in connection with the use of plant food, that we will later con-
sider it in some of its more important applications.

4. In Wuat Forms Is Ir Best tro Buy Prant Foon?

We have previously seen that we can obtain nitrogen in several
different forms, such as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia,
dried blood, tankage, fish-scrap, ete. Similarly we find in the
market phosphoric acid obtained from several different sources,
and we also find several different potash compounds. When we
come to use fertilizing materials as a source of plant food, we

Tur Composirion anp Use or Frrrtuizers. 259

must decide which specific forms we shall apply. To illustrate,
in applying some form of nitrogen, shall we use nitrate
of soda, or sulphate of ammonia, or dried blood, or fish-scrap?
Shall we use as our source of phosphoric acid bone-meal, dis-
solved bone, acid phosphate, dissolved bone-black or Thomas slag?
Shall we apply muriate of potash, or sulphate of potash, or car-
bonate of potash What principles are there to guide us in mak-
ing the best choice?

In deciding what form of material to use for plant food, we
should be guided by:

(1) The availability of the plant food;

(2) The preference, if any, shown by different plants; and,

(3) The comparative economy possible in purchasing different
materials,

AVAILABILITY OF Dirrerent Forms or Piant Foop.— As a
rule, commercial fertilizers are used for the purpose of increasing
the single season’s crop to which they are applied. Most farmers
plan to give to each succeeding crop by itself the plant food it
needs, and to avoid supplying any one crop with more material
than it can use to best advantage. This is especially true of
those who do not own the farms which they work and who plan
each year’s work by itself, without reference to the future. Under
such circumstances a farmer desires to use those forms of fertiliz-
ing materials which will be taken up most quickly and completely
by the crops. On the other hand, the farmer who owns his land,
frequently desires to use materials, the plant food of which will
be utilized gradually by crops and which will last through several
seasons. It will thus be seen that if one desires a fertilizer which
will act at once and be largely used up by the present crop, then
he will need to purchase his plant food in forms different from
those purchased by the man who desires more lasting benefits,
extending through several seasons. :

We will now consider the relative rapidity with which different
forms of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash are available for ~
the use of plants.

(a) Availability of Different Forms of Nitrogen.

(1) Nitrate of Soda is easily soluble in water and is utilized as
such directly by plants. Therefore, as soon as nitrate of soda
dissolves and reaches the root system of plants, it is immediately

260 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

absorbed and used as plant food. The ease with which it dis-
solves in water enables it, in the presence of moisture, to dis-
tribute itself quickly through the soil and reach the plant roots.
Hence, on account of its ease of solution and immediate absorp-
tion and utilization by plants, nitrate of soda is the most available
form of nitrogen that we can use in feeding plants. Under favor-
able conditions the effect of applying nitrate of soda to plants may
be seen in one or two days.

(2) Ammona Compounds follow nitrate of soda in point of
availability as plant food. The most common ammonia compound
used is sulphate of ammonia. It is easily soluble in water and has,
like nitrate of soda, the advantage of quick distribution in the soil
within reach of the plant roots. However, unlike nitrate of soda,
it is a form which plants do not absorb and use as such to any
marked extent, if at all. Therefore, sulphate of ammonia or any
ammonia compound must first be changed in the soil into the form
of nitrate compounds before plants can utilize it as food. This
change takes place quite rapidly under favorable conditions. Sul-
phate of ammonia gives better results than nitrate of soda in very
wet seasons, because the latter may be washed down into the soil
beyond reach of the roots. Another advantage is that the action
of nitrogen in the form of sulphate of ammonia is more gradual
and prolonged, when such action is desired rather than very quick
action.

(3) Dried Blood is one of the most quick-acting organic ma-
terials used for fertilizers, but is less rapid than sulphate of am-
monia or nitrate of soda. Its organic nitrogen passes through a
series of changes by which it is transformed into ammonia and
finally into nitrate compounds, before being used by plants.

(4) Fish, dried and ground fine, is a little slower in its action
than dried blood in furnishing nitrogen.

(5) Tankage is still slower in action than the preceding forms
of animal matter. Its rapidity of action increases with its fine-
ness.

(6) Bone furnishes nitrogen with varying degrees of avail-
ability. The nitrogen in raw, coarse bone is extremely slow in
its action. The removal of fat_by steaming or boiling makes the
nitrogen of bone more available. The availability of the nitrogen
of bone is also closely in. proportion to its fineness of division.

(7) Horn and Hoof Meal have been shown to possess about the
same rapidity of action as finely-ground dried fish.

x

Tue Camposirion anp User or FERTIUIZERS. 261

(8) Leather varies in its rapidity of action according to its con-
dition. Raw leather is practically valueless as a source of nitro-
gen for plants. Roasted and steamed leather has a little more
value than raw leather, but is comparatively valueless. However,
the nitrogen in finely-ground leather that has been carefully
treated with sulphuric acid has a degree of availability about
equal to that of ground fish.

(9) Cotton Seed Meal and Castor-Pomace, finely ground, fur-
nish nitrogen that is utilized by plants in about the same degree as
ground fish or even dried blood.

Various experiments have been made to determine the com-
parative plant-food value of nitrogen in the more common animal
and vegetable materials. While the results have not been uni-
form, they serve as a fair guide. Taking results secured with
nitrate-nitrogen as 100, the following table can be made:

TABLE Showing Comparative Plant-Food Value of Nitrogen in
Animal and Vegetable Materials.

Availability or
crop produc-

ing value.
IN trate Of SOU By <)c.c «cre «/ cic) ois «16.6 ri Javta Veitch ove Muapatoiepele bieis os efaatcle leks erekeete 100
IB rarvarel: Jeavovevel,, Aes ye cen hors rca OIRIOIO ee ORICRC: ORCL SERCO OTL NC CREE IC Ee a 70
GOPLOTIRSC CU INGA: mawreraere vcverctere Cece ol dickies sists: ace sretaua sree) eisvetensie mievs 70
SCE ale OMIS COL. feito piileta shee ab loin ere lee afaroi=le\eye\lesls whesa\ biel ella 6 ble alanis 70
Iniglas dined) chaal ern Sooo San cub omop uo DOoNnn don ob oon OOD on OnE 68
LOM MAILA ROO L, CB lay yiys, srotersys etek otavec sate varie: she eis ioxolierste onayevers tere eeheievel 68
Dissolved tl Gathemwnge > rok veveleks lorstcla nie iets orelocra ils tot ereite wie tous stolepelideve 65
SECT IIIO My ste os cet ee cu etrre are atch one fon ena heb ets Aaoae etal clare Sie ore ioyabetereke foselndepeneton 15
AVOASEeM: LEAEIER a \cesce a teverate clans eprietens etoie rele eastche ini vio atotavahey a loveseielousVelenctete 10

RaW aleaGhe4n sc. c eaiehe. avs ctovae oleudet atcha Cloke, obet tue vabaloite cvetece ret sleveteretereteue scale 2

It must be understood that the above figures are only approxi-
mate and are not of universal application. They indicate what is
fairly true when used on the same crop under the same conditions.
To illustrate: If by the application of 50 pounds of nitrate-nitrogen
we were able to increase a wheat crop 100 pounds an acre, the
application of the same amount of nitrogen in the form of dried
blood, cotton’seed meal or castor-pomace would increase the crop
70 pounds an acre; the increased yield from use of dried fish,
horn and hoof meal would be 68 pounds; from raw leather, two
pounds, ete.

262 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

(b) Availability of Different Forms of Phosphoric Acid.

The availability of phosphate compounds as plant food depends
upon several conditions, among which may be mentioned:

(1) The form of compound; (2) the kind of material; (3) the
fineness of division; (4) the character soil, and (5) kind of crop.

(1) The Availability of Phosphoric Acid Dependent on Form of
Compound.— The water-solubles form of phosphates is readily
distributed in the soil and is immediately absorbed and used by
roots as plant food. Therefore, water-soluble phosphates present
in dissolved rock, superphosphates, dissolved bone, ete., represent
the form most quickly available.

The citrate-soluble or reverted form of phosphates does not dis-
solve easily in pure water, but does dissolve fairly well in soil
water and in the acid plant juices contained in and exuded by the
rootlets. The disadvantage in using reverted phosphate is, that
on account of its slow solubility it is not quickly, thoroughly and
uniformly distributed through the soil, and consequently does not
come so easily into contact with the roots of plants.

The insoluble form of phosphates, like ground rock, is not easily
available under ordinary conditions.

(2) Availability of Phosphoric Acid Dependent on Kind of
Material Furnishing it.— Mineral phosphates untreated are
changed into soluble forms very slowly under usual conditions
and they become available as plant food much less easily and
quickly than do phosphates contained in animal or vegetable mat-
ter. In organic matter, as bone, for example, the phosphates are
associated intimately with material that decays easily, and, in the
process of such decay or rotting, the phosphate compounds are
more or less changed and made soluble.

(3) Availability of Phosphate Compounds Affected by Fineness.
— It has been found in usual practice that the phosphate com-
pounds, especially of organic matter, are more quickly available
as they are more finely ground. Increased fineness increases the
rapidity with which the phosphate compounds ean be acted upon
and rendered soluble by natural agencies.

(4) Availability of Phosphate Compounds affected by Kind. of
Soil— Soils containing an abundance of decaying organic mat-
ter usually favor the more rapid change of insoluble to soluble
phosphates. On muck soils the application of undissolved rock
in the form of “ floats” gives about as good results as the dis-
solved phosphate. The insoluble phosphates contained in the soil

Tue Conrpostrion anp User or FERTILIzErs. 263

may be made gradually available by keeping the soil well supplied
with humus, together with occasional liming.

(5) Availability of Phosphates Influenced by Kind of Crop.—
Different plants have been found to show varying degrees of power
to appropriate the same kind of plant food. For example, fine-
ground insoluble phosphate rock may be utilized to a greater or
less extent by wheat, barley, corn, peas and turnips, while beans
and potatoes do not seem benefited. Turnips especially appear
to thrive just as satisfactorily on the fine undissolved as on the
dissolved rock. When a crop can advantageously use a cheaper
form of plant food, it is economy to use that form.

(c) Availability of Different Forms of Potash.

There is little difference between the different compounds of
potash in respect to the readiness with which plants use them as
food. Muriate of potash dissolves a little more readily and is
distributed through the soil somewhat more quickly than sulphate
of potash.

PREFERENCES Suown By Pxiants For Dirrerent Forms or
Foopv.— It is a fact of great interest and importance, that one form
of a fertilizing constituent is preferred by some plants to the
same constituent in another form. ‘This preference is indicated
by greater yield or better quality of product or by both. The
most striking instance is the effect of potash salts upon tobacco
crops. The quality of tobacco is injured by potash in the form
of muriate, and hence only sulphate should be used for fertilizing
purposes. The quality of sugar beets and of potatoes often ap-
pears to be better when sulphate of potash ‘is used.

Much investigation in this interesting field remains yet to be.
made. The facts now known are meager, but so far as known
they should be utilized. Whenever a plant shows any marked
preference for any special form of food, we should supply that
particular form if practicable.

Economy 1n Purcuasine Dirrerent Forms or Prantr Foon.
— Other things being equal, we can effect considerable saving in
purchasing fertilizing materials by a careful selection based upon
a study of market values.

The most expensive form in which nitrogen is usually pur-
chased is that of sulphate of ammonia. When high-grade sul-
phate of ammonia sells for $60 a ton, each pound of nitrogen in
it costs about 15 cents. When high-grade nitrate of soda sells

264 Bureau oF Farmers’ INstTIirures.

for $40 a ton, each pound of nitrogen in this form costs about
124 cents. As between these two forms, the nitrogen of one js
two and one-half cents a pound cheaper than the nitrogen of the
other, and it will, therefore, be found more economical to use
nitrate of soda rather than sulphate of ammonia, when special
circumstances do not require the use of the latter. Dried blood,
containing 13 per cent. of nitrogen, at $36 a ton, furnishes nitro-
gen at an approximate cost of 14 cents a pound. The nitrogen
in fish scrap may cost somewhat less. In such forms as wool
waste, ground leather and hair, nitrogen may be purchased at
much less, but these forms are not usually economical at any price.

The cheapest possible manner in which farmers can provide
their crops with nitrogen is by means of such plants as clover.
These plants can supply themselves with nitrogen from the air,
and can thus store up nitrogen for future use in the soil. Nitro-
gen supplied in this way can be made, to a considerable degree, to
take the place of the nitrogen of commercial fertilizers, and at
a greatly diminished cost. By such means the use of the most
expensive of fertilizing materials can be greatly diminished and
much saving effected.

Soluble phosphoric acid can in general be more cheaply pur-
chased in the form of dissolved rock than in the form of dissolved
bone or bone-black.

Muriate of potash costs less than sulphate, and is, therefore,
more economical when its use answers one’s purpose. With the
exception of a few crops, like tobacco, sugar beets, and potatoes,
muriate of potash can nearly always be used to advantage. Pot-
ash in the form of carbonate, as found in wood ashes, is apt to be
somewhat expensive. When ashes contain five per cent. of potash
_and two per cent. of phosphoric acid and cost $10 a ton, each
pound of potash costs about eight cents, while in the form of
muriate of sulphate, the cost would be about one-half. It is
easily conceivable, however, that on acid and certain other soils
the use of ashes might prove economical. The only way of_tell-
ing with absolute certainty whether ashes will prove more eco-
nomical than other forms of potash is to make an actual trial.

In applying fertilizers, bulk is often desirable, but in purchas-
ing commercial fertilizers, the object should be to secure as much
nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid in available forms as possible
for one dollar, instead of as many pounds as possible of fertilizer,
regardless of the amount of plant food contained in it. This is
particularly applicable to mixed fertilizers, which at present form

Tur Camposition AnD UsE or FERTILIZERS. 265

the larger proportion of fertilizers sold in this State. Since there
is smaller bulk to handle in mixing, a smaller number of packages
for holding, and, consequently, less weight and freight, it is, as a
rule, more economical to purchase fertilizers in their more con-
centrated forms. For illustration, it is more economical to pur-
chase one ton of a high-grade fertilizer than three tons of a low-
grade fertilizer, one ton of the former containing the same amount
of plant food contained in three tons of the latter; because, in
making the latter, three times as much labor is involved in mix-
ing the goods, three times as many packages are required and
three times as much freight must be paid, all for the same amount
of plant food.

5. Wuicu 1s Morr Apvantacrous, To PurcuasrE Complete FEr-
TILIZERS OR TO PurcHASE INGREDIENTS ?

The question of home mixing of fertilizers is now being much
discussed. Not a few farmers have adopted the plan of purchas-
ing unmixed ingredients and mixing them at home. When a
farmer once tries this method, he rarely purchases a ready-mixed
complete fertilizer after that. It is pertinent in this connection to
consider both sides of the question, both the advantages and dis-
advantages of purchasing unmixed fertilizing ingredients.

Economy.— The average retail price of a ton of mixed fertilizer
is from $8 to $9 above the market value of its unmixed ingredi-
ents. This difference represents the cost of mixing, freight,
profit, ete. It is readily seen that a portion, at least, of the dif-
ference can be saved by purchasing unmixed ingredients. Many
farmers who have done their own mixing, estimate that the mix-
ing costs them 75 cents a ton on an average. In mixed fertilizers,
a pound of nitrogen costs the farmer, on an average, about 20
cents, while he ought to be able to purchase it in the very best
forms at a total cost not to exceed 15 cents. Available phosphoric
acid and potash in mixed fertilizers cost farmers six to seven
cents a pound, and they can usually be purchased unmixed for
three and three-fourths to four and one-half cents, total cost.

Derrnite KNowiepce or Matertats Usep.— When separate
materials are purchased, the farmer can more closely ascertain
whether his goods are what they claim to be. Ground leather
cannot be passed for nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, ete. In
mixed goods it is not easy to detect inferior articles. The chances
are that the farmer will get better materials in unmixed than in

266 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

mixed goods, although this would not be true in dealing with the
most reliable manufacturers.

Variation or Mixture To Suir Dirrerent Crops.— By ecare-
ful observation and experiment in the manner previously de-
scribed, the farmer can change his mixture so as to adapt it more
nearly to the needs of his crops and soil. Manufacturers claim
to manufacture goods which are specifies for different crops. But
it is noticed that the special mixtures for the same crop, as made
by different manufacturers, vary quite as much as do mixtures for
different crops. For illustration, taking forty different potato
manures in the market, we find that they vary in nitrogen from
1.50 to 6 per cent.; in available phosphoric acid, from 4.75 to
11 per cent.; and in potash, from 2.50 to 11.50 per cent.; and
yet each claims to be exactly adapted to the needs of the potato
crop. We have met with instances where the manufacturer used
the same formula as a special for different crops whose needs were
quite unlike. It is safe to say that, without any experience, the
farmer can hit the needs of his soil and crops by mere guess quite
as closely as do some of the complete fertilizers. The farmer can
ascertain what particular forms and quantities of materials are
best suited to his needs by means of simple experiments.

EpucationaL Vatur.— There is little of educational value in
using an unknown mixture. To purchase intelligently unmixed
fertilizing materials will ultimately lead in most cases to a well-
grounded knowledge of the science of agriculture. One will seek
to know what the different forms of plant food are, what they do,
from what sources they can be obtained, and how he can use them
to best advantage. He will become to some extent an investigator,
and will, of necessity, take a deeper interest in his work. His
entire system of farming will be lifted to a higher plane and his
more intelligent labor will yield more profitable results.

The chief disadvantages connected with purchasing separate
materials are the following: (1) On small purchases little or no
reduction of price is made. This may often be true, but in such
cases it is easily possible for farmers to combine and order larger
lots. (2) It is claimed that, owing to lack of proper facilities, the
farmer cannot make mixtures that will be even and fine. So far
as actual results go, it is found that farmers can and dé make mix-
tures which are, on an average, very satisfactory in their practical
working as compared with mixtures of manufacturers.

It has been represented to farmers that peculiar virtues are im-
parted to the elements of plant food by proper mixing, and that

THe Composirion AND User or FERTILIZERS. 267

this proper mixing can be accomplished only by means not at the
command of farmers. Such statements are misrepresentations,
based either upon the ignorance of the person who makes them or
upon his anxiety to sell mixed goods. Nitrate of soda, for illus-
tration, does its work in plant nutrition in exactly the same manner
whether it is added to the soil as part of a mixture or whether the
ingredients of the mixture are applied separately. The availabil-
ity of plant food is not usually affected by mixing. Other condi-
tions determine whether a fertilizer shall be applied in mixed form
or in separate materials,

6. To Wuat Extent Home Mrxina 18 PRACTICABLE.

The conveniences needed to do one’s own mixing are the follow-
ing: A tight barn floor, or earth floor that is hard, smooth, dry
and under cover; platform scales, shovel, iron hand-rake or hoe
and a sand screen. Farmers are advised, if they do their own mix-
ing, not to attempt to treat bones or rock with sulphuric acid (oil
of vitriol), but to purchase their superphosphate from the manu-
facturer.

The advantages connected with having the mixing of fertilizers
done at a factory are the following: First, the mixing is apt to be
more thoroughly done at the factory. Second, the factory should
be able to do mixing in large quantities more economically, since it
has all facilities required. As a rule, it costs the farmer from
$2.50 to $3 to have the mixing and rebagging done at a factory for
each ton of materials.

When the farmer prefers to purchase separate materials and do
his mixing at home, the following suggestions may be helpful:
If one has purchased the different materials in the right weights,
such as he wants to use for mixing, then no weighing is necessary,
as he has simply to mix all the materials he has. If he makes dif-
ferent mixtures, then the different materials should be weighed
accurately. If the material is at all lumpy, it should be sifted
with a sand screen, the lumps separated and then pulverized before
being added to the pile of fine material. When the materials have
been thus prepared, the most bulky material is spread out upon the
floor in an oblong pile that varies from 6 to 10 inches in depth.
The top is leveled off and then a layer of the next material is put
on, not quite so thick, and so on until the different constituents
have been added to the pile, care being taken to make such material
cover the one under it evenly over the whole surface. Then, one

268 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

should commence at one end and shovel over the pile, reaching
clear to the bottom every time. After mixing well, the mixed
portion is passed behind. When the whole pile has been treated
once in this way, then the mixed pile is leveled, swept up around
the edges and again treated in the same manner. ‘This process
should be repeated three or four times. Any lumps noticed at
any time should be thoroughly broken up. Ii greater thorough-
ness is desired, the mixture may be sifted or screened before sack-
ing. It is convenient to weigh into sacks which will hold from
100 to 150 pounds. One should take great pains to purchase his
materials in finely powdered and perfectly dry condition, if he
plans to mix the materials at home.

7. SpecraL Succestions RELATING TO THE PURCHASE OF SEPA-
RATE FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS.

In addition to what has been already stated, there are some other
suggestions which it is well to heed in connection with the purchase
of separate fertilizing materials.

Purcnasr or Hien-Grape Marerrars.— It will almost invar-
iably be found more economical to purchase high-grade fertilizing
materials.

In applying fertilizers, bulk is often desirable, but in purchas-
ing commercial fertilizers, the object should be to secure as much
nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid in available forms as possible
for $1, instead of as many pounds as possible of fertilizer, regard-
less of the amount of plant food contained in it.

Fineness and Dryness or Ferrtizizers Imporrant.— Fer-
tilizers cannot, as a rule, be in too finely powdered condition, nor
ean they be too dry. With many materials, bone for example, the
availability as plant food is directly dependent upon the fineness
of division. Two commercial fertilizers containing the same
amount of plant food in the same forms may differ considerably
in respect to the availability of that food and, consequently, in
respect to their agricultural value, if one is coarsely and the other
finely ground. Excessive moisture in fertilizers is undesirable on
several grounds. First, the larger the amount of moisture, the
smaller will be the amount of plant food ina ton. Second, excess
of moisture causes the particles to stick together and is likely to re-
sult in caking and in clogging when used in drills. Third, an ex-
cess of moisture favors the decomposition and loss of nitrogen in
many forms of organic matter. This is shown by the fact that

Tue Composition AND Usr or Frrriuizers. 269

some fertilizers give off a very offensive odor if allowed to become
damp, while they are comparatively free from disagreeable odors
if they are thoroughly dry. A strong odor in a fertilizer is an
indication that organic matter is decomposing and nitrogen is be
ing lost and indicates weakness and loss rather than strength as a
fertilizer.

Taxine ApvantTaGEe or Friuctruatine Pricres.— By watching
the market variations, it is possible to save more or less. It often
happens that lower prices prevail during that part of the year when
the farmer has most leisure. In any case, where home mixing is
practiced, it should be done before the beginning of the busy sea-
son. It is well for farmers early in winter to enter into corre-
spondence with three or four different parties to ascertain the
prices at which they can purchase the plant food materials they
desire.

Purcomase oF Piant-Foop Materiars Accorprne To “ Unrr”
System anv Accorpine to Ton System.— The more common
method employed by farmers in purchasing fertilizers, whether
mixed or unmixed, is to pay a given price for a ton of goods
without particular reference to the guaranteed composition, that
is, the amount of plant food contained in them. In purchasing
such high-grade materials as nitrate of soda, sulphate of am-
monia, dried blood, potash salts, ete., the composition is fairly
uniform and one may usually feel safe in purchasing by the ton.
Tlowever, in a variable material like tankage, for instance, it is
unwise, to purchase by the ton, at least without a guarantee.

The “ unit ” system is based on actual amounts of plant food
contained in the goods purchased. A unit of plant food is 1
per cent. for one ton, that is, twenty pounds. <A unit of nitro-
gen is 20 pounds of nitrogen, a unit of available phosphoric acid
is 20 pounds of available phosphoric acid, and a unit of actual
potash is 20 pounds of actual potash. In quoting prices a dealer
might offer sulphate of potash at $1 per unit of actual potash
(20 pounds). That would mean five cents a pound. This is the
most satisfactory system of purchasing, for the consumer pays
for just the amount of plant food he buys.

Maxine Crus Ferrizizers.— In some towns farmers elub to-
gether and purchase their separate ingredients, each one doing
his own mixing himself. In other cases the club decides upon
a definite formula and sends out specifications to manufacturers
for furnishing the same already mixed and sacked, letting the
contract to the lowest responsible bidder. One of the most suc-

270 Bureau OF Farmers’ INstTitTures.

cessful instanees of this sort is the Riverhead Town Agricul-
tural Society of Long Island. They have found that a fertil-
izer containing 4 per cent. of nitrogen, 8 per cent. of available
phosphoric acid and 10 per cent. of actual potash is well adapted
to their conditions for growing potatoes and vegetables. They
require the nitrogen to be distributed in three different forms,
one-half being fish scrap; one-fourth, nitrate of soda; and one-
fourth, sulphate of ammonia. The potash must be in form of
muriate. For the season of 1899 they were able to get 1,000
tons or more of this mixture made at $24.80 a ton. Commercial
fertilizers of similar composition sold for $36 to $40 at the
same time. The actual saving effected by the members of this
club amounts to not less than $10,000 a year. At the above
price nitrogen cost them 11.7 cents a pound, available phosphoric
acid 3.6 cents a pound and potash as muriate 3.75 cents a pound.
It will be noticed that these prices are a little more than one-
half those paid for plant food by the average farmer purchasing
mixed fertilizers in the ordinary way. The members of this
club paid $24.80 for each ton of fertilizer, which would have
cost farmers, buying at the average prices paid for plant food
in mixed feucllircne $38.64.

Wuerr ro Purcuass Unmrxep Materrars.— Any large manu-
facturer of fertilizers will generally fill orders for separate in-
gredients. Farmers are advised to write to three or four differ-
ent firms and get their prices. In comparing prices, one should
take into consideration the question of freight. The schedule
of prices given later may be used as a general guide in regard
to what one should pay for different forms of materials.

Farmers will find their chief difficulty in knowing in what
forms and quantities to order separate fertilizer constituents.

The suggestions found in subsequent pages giving this infor-
mation in regard to our more common crops will be found helpful.

8. Mreruops Anp Seasons or AppLyina FERTILIZERS.

The method to be used in applying a fertilizer depends pri-
marily upon the efficiency with which the constituents of the fer-
tilizer are distributed most thoroughly and uniformly throughout
the portion of soil where the plant roots are. The effect of a
fertilizer is lost so far as it does not reach the plant roots. Pains
must be taken to secure even and complete distribution of fer-
tilizers on or in the soil, since it is desired to have the food reach

Tue Composition anp Usr or FErriuizens. 271

every plant in the field. In order to distribute small quantities
of concentrated fertilizers over a broad area, it is well to dilute
by mixing with some such substance as dr ye earth, road dust, sifted
coal aslied or sand.

Dritiine anp Broapcastine.—As between applying fertilizers
with the drill or by broadcasting, the best results are given some-
times by one and sometimes by the other method, accor ding to
the crop and special conditions. Labor is saved by using the
drill, while the best ultimate results appear more often to come
Bok broadeasting, ploughing or harrowing in accordance to cir-
cumstances. When a fertilizer is especially needed by a crop
in its earliest stages, there is advantage in drilling it in with the
seed. When concentrated fertilizers are to be disteabated broad-
east, it is desirable that they should be somewhat diluted to
promote uniform distribution. When a concentrated fertilizer
is drilled in, great pains must be taken to keep the fertilizer from
coming into direct contact with the seed, because many of the
commercial fertilizing materials will injure the seed’ if brought
into direct contact. Drilling has the advantage of placing the
plant food just where the rootlets of the young plant can use it
in the early stages of growth, when they most need it. Where
the root system is small and is confined to rows or hills some
distance apart, drilling may use less plant food than broadcasting
for an equally good crop.

Distrisution or Sotusie Fertitizers.— Materials which are
readily soluble can be scattered over the surface. After the
first fall of rain they distribute themselves throughout the soil
very completely and uniformly. Such materials are nitrate of
soda, sulphate of ammonia, soluble phosphates and soluble potash
salts. These materials are preferably used in case of top-
dressing.

DisrriBuTion oF Frrtitizers not Reapiry SoLusie.— Ma-
terials which are not readily soluble are preferably well mixed
through and beneath the soil. Thus, dried blood, bone-meal, fish
scrap and similar materials are best placed at greater or less
depth beneath the soil, because under these conditions they be-
come soluble more rapidly and are retained more surely by the
soil. However, the mistake should not be made of working such
materials into the soil too deeply, because their plant food may
be lost by leaching and carried down beyond the reach of the
roots.

272 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Time or Arpiication.— Fertilizers which dissolve easily and
diffuse through the soil rapidly, and which are not readily re-
tained by the soil, are best applied only when the crop is ready
to utilize them. If put on too early, there is danger of their
being leached from the soil and carried more or less beyond
the reach of the plant and thus lost. Nitrates and, to a less ex-
tent, ammonia compounds come under this precaution. Hence,
it is not wise ordinarily to apply guano, ammonia compounds or
nitrate of soda in the fall, except in climates which have a dry
fall and winter. Their application should be deferred until
spring. In wet springs, ammonia compounds are preferably ap-
plied rather than nitrate of soda; or, if nitrate of soda is used,
loss may be avoided by making several small applications, instead
of one at the start. Care should be taken, however, not to
make applications of nitrate of soda too late in the season, as
the maturing of the crop will be retarded and there will be an
excessive growth of stems and leaves.

Fertilizers which do not dissolve readily or which do not dit-
fuse through the soil rapidly are better applied to the land be-
fore the crop commenees its growth. To this class belong stable
manure, bone-meal, dried blood, tankage, cotton seed meal, ground
rock, and to some extent, soluble phosphates and _ potash
compounds.

SpeciaL Precautrions.— In applying highly concentrated com-
mercial fertilizers, it is wise to prevent the fertilizer coming in
contact with the seeds or foliage of plants.

Fertilizers containing ammonia compounds should not be mixed
with wood ashes, lime, or Thomas slag (odorless phosphate), since
some of the ammonia is likely to be lost.

On soils of loose texture and small retentive power, it is best
to use, for the most part, those forms of fertilizers which are not
too easily soluble, in order to make as small as possible the losses
occasioned by heavy rains. Animal and vegetable materials are
especially suited for such cases.

9. Tue Mosr Apvantacrous Mrtruops or Ustna Farm-Pro-
DUCED MANURES.

Under this head we will discuss some of the more common
points relating to the use of stable manuye in its application to
different soils and crops.

~-

Tue Composition anp User or FERTILIZERS. o%3

Amount of Application— In applying stable manure to soils,
it may be kept in mind, as a general guide that a ton of good
stable manure approximately contains:

Ten pounds of nitrogen;

Five pounds of phosphoric acid, and

Ten pounds of potash.

From one-half to two-thirds of this plant food should become
available during the first season.

When stable manure is applied alone, five tons an acre may be
suggested as the smallest amount to use. The exact amount will
vary, of course, with the condition of soil and the kind of crop.
Ten tons an acre ought to be sufficient for general farm crops.
It is more economical to apply smaller amounts at more fre-
quent intervals. The frequent use of light applications of stable
manure keeps the soil in a more uniform condition of fertility and
the nitrogen is utilized more fully and with less loss. It is not
infrequent that farmers apply 20 tons of stable manure to one
acre of land. This means 200 pounds of nitrogen, 100 pounds of
phosphoric acid and 200 pounds of potash. Very few farm crops
can possibly make use of so much plant food in one season.

STaBLE Manure SUPPLEMENTED BY CoMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
— It will probably be found true in most cases that the greatest
good can be derived from farm manures by supplementing them
by commercial fertilizers. While this is true of most crops, it is
particularly true of garden crops where large amounts of plant
food are required. To give a roughly approximate idea, we
might say that for every ton of stable manure applied it would
be well to use with it from 50 to 100 pounds of acid phosphate
and from 25 to 50 pounds of high-grade muriate or sulphate of
potash. This is best accomplished in the manner described on
page 245.

User oF Fresno Manure.— The statements below apply to fresh
manure containing only small amounts of coarse litter. It ap-
pears to be the prevailing belief, both in the theory and practice,
that best results are ordinarily secured by applying stable manure
to the soil in as fresh condition as possible. Mixed with the soil,
fresh manure decomposes readily, having its own constituents
made more available as plant food, and, moreover, rendering
available some of the insoluble plant food previously in the soil.
In this way losses from destructive forms of fermentation, leach-
ing, etc., are mainly prevented,

18

274 Bureau oF Farmers’ InstTirures.

Fresh manure gives better results than rotted manure on
heavy clay soils, when one desires to lighten the condition of the
soil. However, when one desires direct fertilizing * action
promptly, fresh manure gives sufficiently quick returns on light
soils, becoming available as fast as the plant needs it, if the season
is not too dry. On heavy clay soils, manure deeomadies slowly
and the constituents of fresh manure may not become available
as fast as needed. On this account, it may happen that on heavy
soils little benefit is seen from the application of fresh manure
until the second season after its application.

In dry, hot seasons an excessive application of fresh stable
manure tends to “burn out” the soil, this tendency being more
noticeable in light than in heavy soils.

Fresh manure used alone and in large quantities has a tendency
to favor rapid growth of foliage and stems at the expense of fruit
and grain. It is, therefore, more suitable for grasses, forage
nian and leafy crops than oe grains, when used axclusivals Atel
liberally.

Such crops as potatoes, sugar beets and tobacco appear to be
injured in quality by the direct application of stable manure.
However, on some soils, usuaily heavy ones, it can be used satis-
factorily in growing sugar beets. It is advised in such eases to
apply the manure in the fall previous to the spring in which the
crops are to be put in, thus allowing time for a considerable
amount of decomposition; or it may be applied to corn, following
this with the crop liable to be injured by direct application.

When fresh stable manure contains much coarse, undecom-
posed litter, it is better not to apply it until the coarse portion has
become more or less decomposed.

Usu or Rorren Manurz.— In half-rotted manure, the fertiliz-
ing constituents, as a whole, are in readily available ona for the
use of plants. Such manure is less bulky and more easily dis-
tributed than fresh manure. For the improvement of the me-
chanical condition of a soil, the best results come from using
rotted manure on light soils. It must, however, be remembered
that on such soils there is more or less danger that some portion
of the valuable fertilizing constituents may be leached out and
lost. On this account it is found advisable to apply such manure
to light soils only a short time before it is needed by the crop.
In general, rotted manure is better adapted to spring applications.
It is better to apply rotted manure on light soils at frequent inter-
vals in small amounts.

Tue Composition and Usr or Frrricizers. OTS

In warm, moist climates, it makes much less difference whether
the manure is applied in fresh or rotted condition. In cold cli-
mates, however, the use of decomposed manure is preferable.

Meruops or Arprication.— Three methods of applying man-
ure on the field are in common practice. We will briefly con-
sider each of these;

(a) Applying in Heaps.

By this method the manure is distributed in heaps over the field
and permitted to lie some time before being spread. This method
is objectionable for several reasons. The labor of handling is
increased; there is danger of loss from decomposition and leach-
ing; the’ manure is not uniformly distributed, the spots beneath
the heaps being more thoroughly manured on account of the
leaching. Storing manure in very large heaps is less objection-
able, provided the heap is carefully covered with earth and not
allowed to lie too long.

(b) Applying Broadcast.

By this method the manure is spread more or less completely
and evenly on the field, being plowed in at once or allowed to he
some time on the surface. This is preferably practiced on the
level field, where there is little danger from surface washing.
Tn late fall and early spring there is likely to be very little loss of
nitrogen. On a loose soil there may be loss from leaching, if the
manure is spread long before the crop is put into the soil; but in
average experience, this is not apt to be considerable. This
method has the advantage of uniform distribution, as the liquid
portion is evenly by degrees mixed with the soil. When the
manure is leached of its soluble nitrogen compounds it does not
decompose so readily. On this account it is well, in case of light
or porous soils; to plow the manure in as soon as spread.

In regard to the depth at which manure should be plowed in, it
is safe to say that in very compact soils the depth should not be
greater than four inches, while in lighter soils the depth may be
increased. It is important that the manure be near enough the
surface to allow access of sufficient moisture and air, in order that
decomposition may not be too much delayed.

It will probably be found most economical for the average far-
mer to draw the manure as produced directly to the field, and

276 Bureau oF Farmers’ Institutes.

spread it, instead of letting it pile up about the barns or in the
barnyard.

(c) Applying in Row.

This method has the advantage of placing the manure where it
will reach the plant most quickly and of enabling one to use
smaller amounts than in broadeasting. It is especially applicable
for forcing some garden crops. Rotted manure gives good re-
sults when used this way.

10. Tue Usr or Green MANURES.

Derinition.— The term “ green manures,” properly used,

means any crop grown chiefly with the object of improving the
soil, and not for securing the harvested product.

Leaguminous Crops or “ Nirrogen GATHERERS” AS GREEN
Manvres.— Those plants belonging to the legume or clover family
have the power to secure a large part of their nitrogen from the
air. When these are turned under the soil as green manures,
they add nitrogen to the soil. The nitrogen brought into the
soil in this manner is in a form that tends to decompose rapidly
and thus furnish plant food for other crops. It must be kept
clearly in mind that these nitrogen-gathering crops cannot be suc-
cessfully grown unless the soil contains an abundance of phos-
phorie acid, potash and lime. The crop absorbs only such min-
eral plant food as it finds in the soil and it is a serious mistake
to suppose that any green crop adds anything to the mineral plant
food of the soil. It may make more available for other crops
the phosphoric acid and potash compounds already existing in the
soil. Therefore, in growing green crops there should generally
be liberal applications of phosphoric acid and potash and often
also of lime.

The crops that have been found most efficient as nitrogen-
gathering green manures are red clover, erimson clover, cow peas,
and soja beans. The clovers tend to improve the physical con-
dition of the soil also, sending down their roots to considerable
depths. They are able also to get considerable food from the
subsoil. These are marked advantages in their favor in addition
to their power to get nitrogen from the air.

The amount of nitrogen these crops draw from the air depends
upon the amount of nitrogenous and other plant food in the soil.

Tue Camposirion anp Usr or FErrtuizers. walleli

The richer the soit is in nitrogen, the less the crop takes from
the atmosphere. In order, therefore, to utilize leguminous crops
to best advantage as nitrogen gatherers, the soil should contain
only small amounts of available nitrogen, but generous amounts
of mineral plant food. Under favorable conditions a clover crop
will take from the air an amount of nitrogen equal to 50 pounds
or more per acre. It is possible by continuous growth of legu-
minous crops to accumulate an excess of nitrogen in the soil,
unless there is added an abundant supply of mineral plant food.

With judicious management in growing clover or some other
leguminous crop for use as green manure, it is easily possible to
supply the nitrogen for one’s crops without purchasing this, the
most costly plant-food element.

“ NirroGEN-Consumine ” Crops as Green Manures.—Crops
other than leguminous plants are used as green manures, the
more common ones being rye and buckwheat. These crops do
not possess the power of using atmospheric nitrogen. All the
nitrogen they use comes directly from the soil. They do not,
therefore, add any nitrogen to the soil, but rather they take avail-
able nitrogen from the soil and change it to less available forms. '
Such crops do not increase the fertility of the soil and cannot be
used as a substitute for leguminous crops or commercial forms
‘of plant food. The principle advantages coming from the use of
these crops as green manures are two: First, they furnish an
abundance of vegetable matter that becomes useful in supplying
humus-making material; second, they serve as cover crops, thus
preventing loss of plant food by leaching. In order to grow
these crops well, one must make sure that they have an abundance
of plant food of all kinds,

11. Rotation or Crops.

GreneRAL Prirncretes Unprertyine Roratron or Crors.—The
general object of systematically growing different crops succes-
sively on the same soil is to utilize the plant food in the soil most
economically, and maintain the soil in condition for raising maxi-
mum crops. The system of rotation to be followed must depend
upon the kind of soil and character of farming. A fruit grower
and a dairyman would follow different systems of rotation. Con-
tinuous growth of one crop on the same field is most exhaustive
of plant food, as a rule, and, in addition, the physical conditions
of the soil deteriorate.

978 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTItTures,

In working by a system of crop rotation, certain general facts
should be kept in mind and carried into practice, principal among
which are the following:

(a) Use of Remains of Preceding Crop.— The system of rota-
tion should be such as to utilize to the best advantage any plant-
food material furnished the soil by the preceding crop. Thus,
after a crop of clover, it is better to grow wheat and then oats
rather than the reverse, because the wheat has less power than
oats to utilize plant food. If oats were grown first, wheat might
be at a disadvantage unless additional plant food were furnished.
In general weak-feeding crops, unless specially fed, should pre-
cede strong-feeding crops in rotation, so that the former may
have the first chance at the more available forms of plant food.

(b) Keeping Soil in Good Mechanical Condition.— Each class
of crops exercises a specific action upon the mechanical condition
of soils. Grass crops tend to make a soil compact; grain and
hoed crops tend to make the soil open and porous. It is desirable
that these conditions should be gradually alternated somewhat.
The amount and frequency of loosening and compacting must
depend upon the character of the soil. Sandy soils need more
of those crops that compact, while heavy clay soils need those
crops that will keep it more open. Rotation of crops should have
reference to these conditions and aim at the best mechanical con-
dition.

(c) Alternation of Deep-Rooted and Shallow-Rooted Crops.—
By including in a system of rotation crops that have both deep
and shallow root systems, the plant food is not taken entirely from
the surface soil but more or less from the subsoil. By such treat-
ment the soil is exhausted less quickly and requires less frequent
applications of plant food. Then, again, in many soils the potash
and lime are largely in the subsoil, the phosphoric acid and nitro-
gen being mainly in the surface soil. The growing of deep-rooted
crops also exercises a beneficial effect upon the mechanical con-
dition of the soil.

(d) Alternation of Nitrogen-Gathering and Nitrogen-Consum-
ing Crops.— The value of nitrogen-gathering crops as green man-
ures has been already considered. In a four or five-year rotation
system, the use of a leguminous crop like clover will, with one
good application of stable manure, maintain the soil nitrogen un-
diminished. In all systems of rotation some nitrogen-gathering
crop should be included as an absolute essential.

Tue Composition anp Usr or Frrriuizers. 279

(e) Rotation of Crops to Maintain Humus.—— The humus of the
soil is gradually used up, when hoed and grain crops are con-
tinuously grown and this loss of humus may seriously change the
physical and plant-food conditions of the soil. The supply of
humus may be kept up by use of stable manure and green crops,
and this fact should be kept in mind in every system of rotation.

(f) Use of Farm and Commercial Manures in Rotation.— It is
safe to say that economical results will attend the application of
farm manures to the land once at least in a rotation of four or five
years. Most of the nitrogen needed in addition can be supplied
by clover. The balance of feeding will come mostly in the line
of phosphoric acid and potash. When commercial fertilizers are
used, they will be most beneficial applied to those crops known
as weak-feeding.

12. Tur Use or Lime on Sorts.

Carbonate of lime, slaked lime and quicklime perform four
definite functions when applied to soils: (1st) They furnish lime
as plant food when it is lacking; (2d) they render available the
insoluble forms of nitrogen and potash in the soil; (3d) they
lighten heavy soils and compact light soils; and (4th) they neutral-
ize the acidity of sour lands. - One disadvantage in using quicklime
or slaked lime on soils to be used in growing potatoes is that
scabby potatoes are likely to be produced. ©

How to Ascertain A Sort’s NErp or Lime.— Put in a cup a
tablespoonful or more of soil and moisten with water enough
to make a thick paste. After letting it stand 10 or 15 minutes,
insert into the soil a piece of blue litmus paper, of any convenient
size, say, two inches long and half an inch wide, inserting about
half of it into the soil. Litmus paper can be purchased at any
drug store. Allow the litmus paper to remain in the soil two
minutes or longer. Then take the litmus paper from the soil
carefully without tearing, rinse off the soil with water, and ob-
serve whether it is still blue or has become clearly red. If the
paper has become clearly red, the soil is acid and the application
of lime will be likely to benefit many crops. Be careful not to
handle with the fingers the end of the litmus paper that goes
under the soil, previous to making the test.

This test may be supplemented by an actual field trial, using
beets for a crop, carrying the work out as directed on page 255.

280 Bureau or Farmers’ InstitTuTeEs.

How Moucu Lime tro Arpiy anp How Ortren.— The general
rule may safely be followed’ of applying lime in smaller quanti-
ties at more frequent intervals than large quantities once in sey-
eral years. In the case of light and = soils, the range of ap-
plication would be from 15 to 30 bushels of quicklime per acre,
according to the conditions of need. On heavy clay soils and
on rich soils, the application may vary from 25 to 75 bushels.

In rotations of five or six years, one liming will probably suf-
fice for the rotation under ordinary conditions. On meadows
kept in grass for many years and fertilized exclusively by com-
mercial fertilizers, liming on the surface once in five years may
be helpful.

WHEN To APPLY eae — Autumn is the best time to apply lime
on land used for spring crops. It must be kept in mind that
quicklime is injurious to many crops, but its power to injure
plants is gradually lost by lying in the soil. In case of autumn
seeding, the lime can be scattered after plowing and then har-
rowed in very thoroughly. For many crops, lime may be applied
in the spring with little risk, provided it is worked into the soil
very completely. In case of very sour soils, the application of
lime in the spring is often very beneficial.

Wuat Form or Lime anp Usr.— Of the various forms of lime,
it will probably be found that quicklime will prove cheapest, as it
is the most concentrated form. This is especially true when the
material has to be freighted and drawn some distance.

How ro Arpiy Lime To THE Sort.— Owing to the large lumps
usually contained in quicklime, it is not best to attempt to spread
it directly upon the soil as this method would not enable one
to secure a uniform distribution. The following method will
insure more even distribution. The freshly bam lime is
placed in heaps 20 feet apart, the amount in each pile depending
on the rate of application. Twenty-pound heaps would make
about one ton an acre. The heaps are well covered with soil.
If the earth is moist, the lime will absorb moisture enough to
fall into a fine powder in a few days at most. In case the soil
is very dry, throw half a pailful of water or less over each heap be-
fore covering it with earth. As soon as the lime has become
slaked, it should be spread from the heaps as evenly as possible
and then plowed under or preferably harrowed in at once, because
the lime is liable to cake with the soil and not yield the best
results.

Tue Composition anp Use or FeErriLizers. 281

18. Prant-Foop Mixtures ror Dirrerent Crops.

We will now consider in a more specific manner the quantities
of different forms of plant food that can be applied to advantage
to one acre of land for different crops.

We must make it clearly understood at the start that no
rigidly fixed formulas can be given for any crop on all soils. The
question of quantity of application and of proportion must al-
ways, in the very nature of the case, remain more or less a
matter of individual experiment. Every field is constantly
changing in the extent and character of its needs. The farmer
must constantly study results and let the experience of one
year suggest to him his plan for the year following. With this
preliminary precaution, it may be of interest to consider briefly
what has ordinarily been the method of procedure in determin-
ing the proportions of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in
making fertilizers for different crops.

In making formulas, it was first proposed to make the formula
correspond to the analysis of the plant. This method was prac-
ticed for some time, when it was found that there was already in
the soil more or less available plant food and that fertilizing
material was often applied where one or more constituents could
be omitted or reduced in quantity. It was then suggested that
soil analysis should form the basis of determining the needs of
the soil in different crops, but this failed to produce satisfactory
results. The formulas at present used by many have been based,
in part, upon the composition of the plant and, in part, upon
the actual field-tests.

The amount of nitrogen called for by analysis of plants is
generally reduced because we can depend upon the soil to furnish
a considerable amount. In case of leguminous crops, the amount
of nitrogen which we need to supply can be reduced to a small
fraction of what the plant will use, because such crops can draw
their main supply of nitrogen from the air.

The amount of soluble phosphoric acid is ordinarily increased
above what plant analysis calls for, because the solubility is more
or less decreased after the fertilizer comes into contact with the
soil.

The formulas given in the pages following have been drawn
from such various sources as could be considered reliable.

Tt will be noticed that, in giving the amount of fertilizer ma-

terial to put on one acre of land, a variable rather than a fixed

282 Bureau oF Farmers’ Instrirures.

amount is given. To illustrate: Instead of prescribing 100 pounds
of nitrate of soda for a certain crop, we give the amount as “ 100
to 200 pounds.” This means that, if the land is in good con-
dition, 100 pounds may answer, but if in poor condition, more
should be used up to 200 pounds. Thus, it will be seen that
even with the most specific directions that can be given, much
must be left to the individual for experiment.

The materials which are given for use in the following pages
are assumed to have a fairly definite composition and our eal-
culations are based on the following conditions of composition:

(1) Nitrate of soda, 95 to 96 per cent. pure, containing 16 per
cent. of nitrogen.

(2) Dried blood, containing 10 per cent. of nitrogen.

(3) Sulphate of ammonia, containing 20 per cent. of nitrogen.

(4) Stable manure, containing .5 per cent. of nitrogen, one-
half available at once.

(5) Cotton seed meal, containing 7 per cent. of nitrogen.

(6) Bone-meal, containing 20 per cent. of total phosphoric
acid, one-half being calculated as available during first season of
application; also containing 4 per cent. of nitrogen.

(7) Dissolved bone, containing 15 per cent. of available phos-
phoric acid and 3 per cent. of nitrogen.

(8) Dissolved bone-black, containing 15 per cent. of available
phosphorie acid.

(9) Dissolved rock, containing 15 per cent. of available phos-
phorie acid.

(10) Muriate of potash, 80 per cent. pure, containing 50 per
cent. of potash. |

(11) Sulphate of potash, 90 to 95 per cent. pure, containing 50
per cent. of potash.

(12) Kainit, containing 12 to 13 per cent. of potash.

(18) Wood ashes, containing 5 per cent. of potash.

To make the foregoing statements in different form, we can
say, approximately:
One pound of Nitrogen is furnished by
Five pounds of sulphate of ammonia, or
Six and one-fourth pounds of nitrate of soda, or
Ten pounds of dried blood, or
Fourteen pounds of cotton seed meal, or
Twenty-five pounds of high-grade bone-meal, or
Two hundred pounds of good stable manure.

Tuer Composition anp Use or FrErrinizers. 983

One pound of Phosphoric Acid is furnished by
Five pounds of bone-meal, or
Six and three-fourth pounds of dissolved bone-black, dis-
solved bone, or dissolved rock.

One pound of Actual Water-soluble Potash is furnished by
Two pounds of sulphate of potash, or
Two pounds of muriate of potash, or
Eight pounds of kainit, or
Twenty pounds of unleached wood ashes.

It should be understood that the materials given in the following
mixtures may not furnish the elements of plant food in the cheap-
est form. The point of cost must be determined by each individ-
ual farmer for himself at the time he makes his purchases.

Alfalfa.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one

cent. one acre. acre,

INGO Sang eGo dou dopo ous 1 5to 10 30 to 60 pounds nitrate of soda;
1 to 2 tons half-rotted stable
manure.

Available phosphoricacid.. 8 30to 60 200 to 400 pounds dissolved rock.

Potash gem oleae k olete « 10 50to100 100 to 200 pounds muriate of pot-
ash.

Suggestions.— The quantity given above is intended as an an-
nual surface application after the crop has been started. It may
be well to lime the ground thoroughly the fall before putting in
the crop. The soil should have an abundance of plant food when
the crop is put in, and it is recommended at this time to make the
following application: Sixty pounds nitrate of soda, 100 pounds
of dried blood (or 150 pounds of cotton seed meal), 500 pounds
of dissolved rock, and 400 pounds of muriate of potash. The soil
needs to be in the best condition of tillage when putting in a crop
of alfalfa and this may be readily secured by previous growth of
some crop that requires considerable cultivation. In such case, a
part of the fertilizer can be applied to the preceding crop.

284 Bvureav oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Apples.
Percent Pounds for Pounds of different Pounds of different
* ore acre. materials for one acre. materials for one tree.
Nitrogen ..ccccscscre 2 8to 16 25to50 pounds nitrate 1% tol pound nitrate of

of soda; 40 to 80 soda; 34 to144 pounds
pounds dried blood. dried b.o_d.
Available phes-

phoric acid........ 8 3) to 60 200 to 400 pounds dis- 4 to 8 pounds dissolved
solved rock. rock,
Potash ...c.cccccseve 12 50 to 100 100to 200 poundsmuri- 2to 4 pounds muriate

ate of potash, or 1,000 of p>tash, or 20 to 40
eee pounds wood pounds wood ashes.
ashes.

Suggestions.— The growing of apples and similar fruits is a
case of continuous cropping of the same character on the same soil
and is thereby attended with greater exhaustion of plant food than
where rotations can be practical. The amount of plant food to
be applied and the age when such feeding should begin must de-
pend upon the soil. On soils naturally good, feeding the trees
should begin as soon as the trees commence bearing. On poor
soils the largest quantities given above should accompany the set-
ting of the trees, and then the smaller quantities be added every
year. On poor and light soils, green manuring can be carried on
advantageously for a while. Whenever green manuring is used,
the crop should be turned under early in the spring. On soils in
good condition, green manuring should not be practiced too con-
tinuously. Overfeeding fruit trees with nitrogen must be care-
fully avoided, as this tends to produce excessive growth of wood,
too succulent in character to be hardy, and it also seriously inter-
feres with fruit production.

As the roots of the tree feed through a long-growing season,
those forms of plant food can often be used which become avail-
able gradually. In place of the mixture given above, one can use
the following:

One hundred pounds cotton seed meal.
One hundred pounds fine bone-meal.
One hundred pounds dissolved rock.
One hundred pounds muriate of potash.

In applying plant food annually to fruit trees, it should be put
on early in the spring and plowed in. It should be remembered
that the feeding roots are situated in the lower layers of the soil,
and the plant food should, therefore, be placed as near the roots
as practicable, especially with young trees. If plant food that is

Tue ComposiTrion AND Use or FERTILIZERS, 985

not easily soluble is placed entirely on the surface of the soil,
there will be a tendency on the part of the feeding roots to grow
near the surface, and under such conaitions, the trees will more
easily suffer from drouth. In case easily soluble forms of plant
food are used, surface application will give good results.

. With increasing age and larger yields of fruit, the amount of
plant food applied may be increased to advantage.

Asparagus.

Per Pounds for Puunds of different materials for one
cent. oneacre. acre.

EN ULI OMEN cerevoser chavs eleverero ier 4 20to 40 60 to 120 pounds nitrate of soda;
50 to 100 pounds dried blood; 75
to 150 pounds cotton seed meal.

Available phosphoricacid.. 8 40to 80 200 to 400 pounds bone meal; 150
to 300 pounds dissolved rock.
TROUT Socboo OdbODCEe ODOC 10 50to100 100 to 200 pounds muriate of pot-
: ash.

Suggestions.— In fertilizing asparagus, three facts are to be
kept in mind. First, the yield and market value of the crop de-
pend upon the number and size of the shoots; second, the size
of the shoots depend upon a large and vigorous growth of tops
later in the season, by which nutritive materials are stored up
in the roots for the use of the succeeding crop; and, third, the
successful growth of the asparagus depends, in large measure,
upon proper feeding. Moreover, the length of life of an aspara-
gus bed depends greatly on its feeding.

The asparagus crop grows during the entire season and hence
is able to use, to some extent, some of the slower acting forms
of plant food. It is essential that a part of the plant food shall
be present in quick-acting forms, so that it may be used at once
in promoting growth of shoots at the time, and the residue in
less soluble forms will continue to feed the crop during the rest
of the growing season, thus enabling the plant to store up avail-
able nutrition in the roots for use of the crop the year following.

In setting asparagus roots, the soil should be carefully pre-
pared and heavily fertilized. The largest quantities given above
and even more will be found desirable. A generous application
of half-rotted stable manure supplemented by phosphates and
potash is good at this time. Stable manure may also be applied
every two or three years in the fall, in addition to the plant-food

formula given above.

286 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

After the first year the amounts of plant food prescribed
should be liberally applied fairly early in the spring. After
one begins to cut, shoots, it may be well, in addition to this early
application, to use at the close of the cutting season, 100 pounds
of nitrate of soda, 200 pounds dissolved rock and 100 pounds
of muriate of potash, or 400 pounds of kainit in place of muriate.
The exact amounts to use must be governed by individual
experience.

Barley.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. oneacre.

Natroseniset i. see. seoseee 4 124024 25°to 50 pounds nitrate of soda; 20
to 40 pounds sulphate of am-
monia; 40 to 80 pounds dried

blood.
Available phosphoric acid.. 7 20t040 159 to 300 pounds dissolved rock.
IAQUEISIO os nid 5 Oo COUT 8 25to50 50 to 100 pounds muriate of pot-
ash.

Suggestions.— Barley is a strong-feeding crop and can utilize
forms of food not easily available for wheat. Excessive applica-
tion of nitrogen compounds is to be avoided, when barley is
grown for grain. Large applications of stable manure should
not be applied directly to the crop on this account, but may be
used safely on the crop preceding barley in a rotation.

When barley is grown with peas as a forage crop, much larger
amounts of quickly-available nitrogen can be used with advantage.

Beans.

Per ’ Poundsfor Pounds of different materials fcr one
cent. one acre.

NGirOSGHS.. tute sioerias o nites 1 5tol0 25 to 50 pounds dried blood; 35 to
70 pounds cotton seed meal.

Available phosphoric acid.. 7 30to60 200 to 400 pounds dissolved rock.

leWyGING oho ondodu Oundle Se . 9 85to70 70 to 140 pounds muriate of pot-
ash.

Suggestions.— The formula given above applies to beans grown
for the seeds. When beans are grown to be eaten green, as for
string beans, more nitrogen should be applied, as this tends to
develop foliage and tender pods and retard ripening. For such

Tur Coareosirion AND Us oF FERTILIZERS. 287

purpose the following mixture may be used: One hundred pounds
nitrate of soda, 100 pounds dried blood, 150 pounds cotton seed
meal or fine ground fish scrap, 500 pounds dissolved rock and 175
pounds of muriate of potash.

Beets.
Per Poundsfor Pounds of different materials for one
cent, oneacre. acre.
MNHAOAEN yoo once don ODO D 4 20to 40 125 to 250 pounds nitrate of soda.
Available phosphoric acid.. 8 25to 50 175 to 350 pounds dissolved rock.
IABISIN, 6 hed gbda SoD ddGoO 10 50to100 100 to 200 pounds muriate of pot-
ash.

Suggestions.— This application is intended to apply to beets
grown for early market for table purposes. The mixture given
above may be used at time of seeding, and this followed by apph-
cations of nitrate of soda as a top dressing once in 10 days at the
rate of 50 pounds an acre for three or four weeks after the plants
are well started. This insures rapid and constant growth, under
favorable weather conditions, and enables one to secure the
higher prices of the earhest product.

In growing sugar beets, the aim is to secure the largest amount
of sugar possible, and this can be greatly influenced by the kind
of plant food given. The following mixture can be used for one
acre: One hundred and twenty-five pounds nitrate of soda, 100
pounds sulphate of ammonia, 400 pounds dissolved rock and 150.
pounds sulphate or muriate of potash. For best results it is well
to apply only about one-third of this mixture before sowing, then
another third after the plants are well up and the remainder*be-
fore the first or second cultivation. Excess of nitrogen tends to
produce rapid growth, with large roots and small proportions of
sugar of low purity. The foliage should have an early and rapid
erowth, because the leaves are essential to the formation of sugar.
Tt is not desirable to use slow-acting forms of plant food and thus
prolong the growth after the plant should give itself largely to
sugar production.

For fodder purposes, the aim is to grow as large a crop as pos-
sible. Hence, in growing beets for fodder, the plant food should
be so planned as to secure a continuous and prolonged growth,
rather than early and rapid growth. The following mixture may
be used for one acre: Sixty pounds nitrate of soda, 200 pounds
dried blood, 150 pounds fish scrap or cotton seed meal, 400 pounds
acid phosphate and 180 pounds muriate of potash.

288 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrirures.

Blackberries.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre, acre.

INDEE OREM. 55 che jaca auelsfetes aiehe - 3 15to30 25 to 50 pounds nitrate of soda; 50
to 100 pounds dried blood; 100 to
200 pounds cotton seed meal.

Available phosphoric acid.. 6 30to60 200 to 400 pounds dissolved rock.
Potashe Mite eae ce 8 40to80 80 to 160 pounds sulphate of pot-
ash.

Suggestions.— An abundance of potash and phosphoric acid is
desirable in order to secure a strong and plentiful growth of cane.
Moderate acting forms of nitrogen are preferable for the most part.

Buckwheat.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.
DNGr OG en sc /7.025 Ue lt - 2 10to20 60 to 120 pounds nitrate of soda.
Available phosphoric acid.. 6 30to060 200 to 400 pounds dissolved rock.
Potashe-ne. Shoo wcu Doone 5 25to050 50 to 100 pounds muriate of pot-
ash.

Suggestions.— Buckwheat can supply itself from forms of plant
food not readily available. It is often grown on the poorer soils
of a farm on this account. Frequently phosphoric acid alone
gives marked results. Large application of nitrogen must be
avoided, as this produces a large growth of straw, with little grain.

Cabbage.

Per Poundsfor Pounds of different materials for one
cent. oneacre. acre.

Nitrogen........sseecceee 4 40to 80 60 to 120 pounds nitrate of soda;
200 to 400 pounds dried blood;
150 to 300 pounds cotton seed
meal or ground fish.

Available phosphoricacid.. 8 80to160 500 He 1,000 pounds dissolved
rock.

Potash....ceccesescesses 10 100t0200 200 to 400 pounds muriate of
potash.

Suggestions.— The cabbage crop is one of the heaviest feeding
crops. In addition to the amount of plant food stated above, it

Tur ComposiTrion AnD Usk or FErRrIuizEers. 289

will often be found most advantageous to apply a top dressing of
100 pounds of nitrate of soda and 200 pounds dissolved rock per
acre after the plants have been transplanted and well started in
growth. Later, when the heads begin to form, another 100 pounds
or more of nitrate of soda per acre may be applied as a top
dressing.
Carrots.
Same as for beets grown for fodder purposes.

Cauliflower.
Same as for cabbage.
Celery.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

NGGROGEN.. i 5)e\6 os oie c's's cie oo) (i 4r~ 40 to! 800.125 to, 250> pounds: nitrate cof
soda; 100 to 200 pounds dried
blood; 150 to 300 pounds cot-
ton seed meal or ground fish.

Available phosphoric acid... 8 80to160 500 to 1,000 pounds dissolved
rock,
IPOS pao oc sossesesseee 10 100t0200 200 to 400 pounds muriate of

potash.

Suggestions.—The above mixture should be used when the plants
are set. This may be followed at intervals with a top dressing of
100 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre. On muck soils rich in
available nitrogen, special feeding of nitrogen is not equally im-
portant. Abundance of water is a great essential for celery in
addition to other forms of plant food. Abundance of soluble
nitrogen, other conditions being favorable, promotes rapidity of
growth, which is attended by the high market qualities of crisp-
ness and sweetness.

Cherries.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. - acre,
INTRO G Coda euIOoG OL 2 10to20 25 to 50 pounds nitrate of soda; 60
to 80 pounds dried blood.
Available CR acid. 7 385to70 250 to 500 pounds dissolved rick.
Potash.. ceescsseseee 9 45t090 90 to 180 pounds muriate of pot-
ash,

Suggestions.— It is desirable that in addition to the amounts of
plant food given, an abundance of lime shall be kept in soil where

cherries are grown.
19

290 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTituTEs.

Clover.
Same as for alfalfa.
Corn.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

IN Siti EN ue isy ogoretrans ox cnsye Gro 2 28 to20 60 to 100 pounds dried blood; 75
to 160 pounds cotton seed meal or
ground fish.

Available phosphoric acid.. 7 85to70 250 to 500 pounds dissolved rock.

AQHA Ge siniic oye vocece colenee sates 6 30to60 60 to 120 pounds muriate of pot-
ash.

Suggestions.— Corn is a vigorous feeder. It can follow a clover
crop with advantage. It is not injured, like many grain crops, by
heavy applications of stable manure; but, when fertilized by stable
manure, phosphoric acid should be applied also. Corn usually
leaves soils in good physical condition for following crops. Phos-
phoric acid appears in practice to be of special value in growing
corn. ;

The application given above is intended for corn grown as a
field crop for the grain. When corn is grown as a forage crop,
double the amount of nitrogen given above may be used. When
corn is grown for silage, the following mixture may be applied:
One hundred and fifty pounds of dried blood, 200 pounds of cot-
ton seed meal or ground fish, 350 pounds of dissolved rock and 100
pounds of muriate of potash.

For sweet corn, a different object is sought. A green and suc-
culent crop, in place of a matured one, is desired, and earliness is
usually a special object. The following mixture is suggested for
sweet corn: Seventy-five pounds nitrate of soda, 100 pounds of
dried blood, 100 pounds of cotton seed meal, 400 pounds of dis-
solved rock and 150 pounds of muriate of potash.

Cucumbers.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. oneacre. acre

Nitrogen................. 4 380to 60 650 to 100 pounds nitrate of soda;
125 to 250 pounds dried blood;
125 to 250 pounds cotton seed
meal or ground fish.

0100 350 to 700 pounds dissolved rock.

0150 150 to 300 pounds muriate of pot-
ash.

Available phosphoric acid... 6 50t
WOTHSD ceuseteteketpepite nase» oes 8 T5t

Tue ComposiTrion AND Use or FERTILIZERS. 291

Suggestions.— This crop thrives best when humus is very abund-
dant in the soil. Too much nitrogen is to be avoided, as there
will be a tendency to excessive growth of vines and the fruit will
also be large but of poor quality. However, in growing cucum-
bers for pickles, it may be desirable to use nitrogen and to use
most of it in the quickly-acting form of nitrate as this will tend
to cause a more abundant setting of fruit and a more rapid growth.

Currants.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

Nitrogent: Suis, Sr. 2 10to020 60 to 100 pounds dried blood; 75
to 150 pounds cotton seed meal
or ground fish.

Available phosphoric acid.. 6 25to50 175 to 350 pounds dissolved rock.

EGE. NSS NON, St 8 40to80 80 to 160 pounds muriate of pot-

ash.

Suggestions.— Regular feeding and cultivating adds very much
to the yield of this crop. Excess of nitrogen in soils appears to
render plants more easily subject to mildew.

Eqg Plant.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.
NGTOREM: Lye? Sa ha we oat 4 40to 80 100 to 200 pounds nitrate of soda;

125 to 250 pounds dried blood;
175 to 350 pounds cotton seed
meal or ground fish.

Available phosphoricacid.. 5 50to100 350 to 700 pounds dissolved rock.

DS see csiesare 0:5. K 0;, 5 ae 9 90to180 180 to 360 pounds muriate of pot-
ash.
Flax.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one

cent. one acre. acre.
INET O OTIS rea ye) cunt sas ey sue) 8 3 10to20 25 to 50 pounds nitrate of soda;

50. to 100 pounds dried blood.

Available phosphoricacid.. 8 25t050 175 to 350 pounds dissolved rock,
PERE cr olate ninraiaynie\ mnie > ae 9 30to60 60 to 120 pounds muriate of pot-

ash.

292 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

Suggestions.— Flax requires its food to be in easily available
forms and the soil must, therefore, be in good condition. Flax
should be grown on the same land only once in four or five years,
as the decay of the roots in the soil appears to form products in-
jurious to the flax crop following. Stable manure, when used,
should be applied to the preceding crop.

Flowers and Flowering House Plants.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

Nitrogen.........e-.00-- 65 20t040 50 to 100 pounds nitrate of soda;
25 to 50 pounds sulphate of am-
monia; 100 to 200 pounds cotton
seed meal,

Available phosphoric acid.. 7 30to60 200 to 400 pounds dissolved rock.

BAOUAISEN roel allatces tevsions toys 5 20to40 40 to 80 pounds muriate of potash.

Suggestions.— This mixture may be used for all kinds of flower-
ing plants grown out of doors. Where flowering plants are grown
out of doors only on a small scale, the above mixture can be ap-
plied at the rate of one ounce for three or four square feet. It
would be well to apply one-third before planting or setting, work-
ing the fertilizer lightly into the surface soil; then another third
after the plants are well up, and then the rest three or four weeks
later. For flowering plants grown in a green house, the same
mixture can be used; or, if desired, the phosphoric acid ean be
furnished in part by bone-meal. Apply liberally im soil at the
start, and later, apply every week one-half ounce nitrate of soda to
every 10 square feet of soil surface and once in two weeks use for
the same area one ounce of dissolved rock and one ounce of sul-
phate of potash.

For flowering plants grown in pots, as in the case of house
plants, the above mixture may be used at the rate of half a tea-
spoonful for a six-inch pot once in two to four weeks, working
slightly into the soil. For larger or smaller pots, use in propor-
tion. For potted house plants, the following mixture may be
used also, when it is desired to make up small quantities for use
on only a few plants: Four ounces each of nitrate of soda, sul-
phate of ammonia and sulphate of potash and one pound of bone-
meal. They should be purchased in powdered form and then
carefully mixed together. Apply as directed above.

Tur Composition AnD User oF FERTILIZERS. 293

Foliage Plants.

Use the same mixture as given above for flowers, and in addi-
tion, apply nitrate of soda to the soil once in three or four weeks
at the rate of one ounce for 10 or 12 square feet. The nitrate
of soda may be dissolved in water, one ounce to the gallon, and
applied in solution. In applying it in this way, be careful not to
get the solution on the foliage, but only on the soil.

Gooseberries.
Same as currants.
Grapes.
Per Pounds fur Pounds of different materials for one

cent. one acre.

INTRO EM es eeptotelerelaielel « 2 16to 82 50 to 100 pounds nitrate of soda;
75 to 150 pounds dried blood.
Available phosphoric

UC mereseernt stews iatchons’ sis 8 69to120 400 to 800 pounds dissolved rock.
OcAST SF iaats picleiclessh<sc¥e 12 100to200 200 to 400 pounds muriate of
: potash.

Suggestions.— Much of the nitrogen can be supplied by grow-
ing clover between rows and turning under. Excessive use of
stable manure is believed to produce a growth of weakened vital-
ity, not able readily to withstand attacks of fungous diseases.
Once in a few years lime may be applied to advantage. ~

Grass for Pastures.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.
Nitrogens:12 = hee 4 15to 30 100 to 200 pounds nitrate of soda.
Available phosphorie
acid ... .ee.----- 8 380to 60 200 to 400 pounds dissolved rock.
Potash ian: pletereiacl. 10 40to 80 80 to 160 pounds muriate of potash.

Suggestions.— It is possible to secure rich pasturage contin-
uously in abundance only with a good supply of available plant
food. Three hundred pounds of the above mixture may be ap-
plied in the spring and an additional 200 pounds in late summer,
for the purpose both of getting a good growth and also of favoring
the introduction of clovers.

294 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Grass for Meadows.

Per Pounds for Pounds cf different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre
Nitrogen /i%. 23i5.fs: 4 15to 380 100 to 200 pounds nitrate of soda.
Available phosphoric
acid... ......... 7 380to 60 200 to 400 pounds dissolved rock.
Potash ............ 9 385to 70 70 to 140 pounds muriate of pot-
ash.

Suggestions.— The fact cannot be too strongly emphasized that
meadows from which the grass is cut year after year should be
regularly fertilized every year in a liberal manner. Three hun-
dred pounds of the above mixture may be applied in the spring
and as much more soon after the hay is cut.

Grass for Lawns.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre
Nitrogen.......... 5 20to 40 125 to 250 pounds nitrate of soda.
Available ¢ phosphoric
acid . w eeeeeeee 86 25to 50 175 to 850 pounds dissolved rock.
Potash . weseeee 8 B80to 60 60 to 120 pounds muriate of
potash.

Suggestions.— Where the soil is prepared for seeding, there
should be a liberal application of plant food, say 500 pounds or
more of the above mixture. After the lawn is well started, an
application of the above mixture at the rate of 100 pounds an acre
in spring after the grass is well started, and once or more later in
summer will suffice. Nitrate of soda alone gives good results
applied two or three times as a top-dressing during the season.
Jn applying either the above mixture or nitrate of soda alone to
erass, it will be well to dilute by mixing with muck, sifted ashes,
or land plaster. Unless this is done, there is danger that the
grass will be burned where the undiluted fertilizer comes in con-
tact with the grass in considerable amounts.

Greenhouse Crops.

Same as for flowering plants grown in a greenhouse.

Tue Composition Anp Use or Ferri.izers. 995

Hops.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

INDIO A sche dyere 3 20to 40 50 to 100 pounds nitrate of soda;
75 to 150 pounds dried blood; 75
: to 150 pounds cotton seed meal.
Available phosphoric
acid........... 6 &a5to 70 250 to 500 pounds dissolved rock.
Potash... ........ 12 80t0160 160 to 320 pounds muriate of
potash.

.

Suggestions.— Stable manure supplemented by commercial
forms of plant food may be used to advantage.

Horse Radish.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre.

INDRA eee BEEOIIOG 4 15to 80 50 to 100 pounds nitrate of soda:
75 to 150 pounds dried blood.
Available phesphoric

ACTON a cies din Saye 01676 6 25to 650 175 to 350 pounds dissolved rock.
Potashee ol da cece Oy odst0.. 10) 470) fo. 140), pounds, anuriate? of
potash.

House Plants.

Same as for flowers and flowering house plants and foliage
plants.

Lettuce.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre.
INGIMOLEM Beck = cite .- 5 40to 80 100 to 200 pounds nitrate of soda;

150 to 3800 pounds dried blood;

125 to 250 pounds cotton seed

: meal or ground fish.
Available phosphorie

ACIS Stoel Sagoouve G6 50to0100 3850 to 700 pounds dissolved rock.
2 OPASI We, %, \ssios ic . 9 £75to150 150 to 3800 pounds muriate of
potash.

Suggestions.— Apply the above mixture at time of planting
and when plants are well started use per acre 100 pounds of

296 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

nitrate of soda as top-dressing. For growing lettuce under glass,
see under greenhouse crops.

Millet.

Same as for meadow grass.

Muskmelons.
Same as for cucumbers.

"1

Nursery Stock.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

INGUHKOFAES MN Geno. GOOOOo 3 10to 20 25 to 50 pounds nitrate of soda;
100 to 200 pounds cotton seed
meal.

Ayailable phosphoric

ACId".s. see ee eee ee OO 2b to 50 175 to 1350 pounds “dissolvedmnock:

Potashi > % ys st ce cide «2k .250:to) 660 5.60! tomett20 Bpoundsiimuluniaiemor

potash.

Suggestions.— An occasional liming is very desirable on many
soils. When stable manure is used, it should be applied in small
quantities and supplemented by phosphoric acid and potash. Ex-
cess of nitrogen produces a rapid growth of wood, but such wood
is too succulent to be strong and, it is believed, is more easily
attacked by plant diseases.

Oats.

Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one

cent. oneacre. acre. .
Nitrogen .... 4 12to 24 75 to 150 pounds nitrate of soda.
Available ‘Dhosphorie

acid . secceseeee *€ 20to 40 125 to 250 pounds dissolved ‘rock.
LEC Go Go paodor 5 15to 30 380 to 60 ‘pounds unuriate vor
potash.

Suggestions.— When oats are grown with peas for forage, it is
advisable to use more phosphoric and potash than are indicated
above.

Tur Composition AND Use or FERTILIZERS. 997

Onions.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different mat rials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

——— eee ——————————————— al

INTEGER EM cee cones oe 5 5 50to100 100 to 200 pounds nitrate of soda;
200 to 400 pounds dried blood;
200 to 400 pounds cotton seed

meal.
Available phosphoric
MONG! a Aa Seba mac 8 80to0160 500 to 1,000 pounds dissolved rock.
JEG URIS GoGnceie coool 10 100to200 200 to 400 pounds muriate of
potash.

Suggestions.— Additional applications of nitrate of soda at the
rate of 50 pounds an acre may be made as a top-dressing twice
after the crop is well started, at intervals of three weeks.

Fresh stable manure is to be avoided on account of weed seeds,
and also a tendency to favor the growth of onion maggots. Stable
manure is preferably used in soil two years before planting onions.
An excess of nitrogen delays the ripening and injures the keeping
qualities of onions.

Parsnips.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

Nitrogen........-. 4 20to 40 25 to 50 pounds nitrate of soda;
100 to 200 pounds dried blood;
100 to 200 pounds cotton seed
; meal.
Available phosphoric
NCIC. Netss cress s's 0:6) 6 8 40to 80 300 to 600 pounds dissolved rock,
Potash=eeaic. cece LOM OO tO 100 100 tos 200" pounds® muriate sor

potash.
Peaches.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

Nitrogen ......... 2 15to 30 25 to 50 pounds nitrate of soda;
50 to 100 pounds dried blood;
100 to 200 pounds cotton seed
meal.

Ayailable phosphoric

HIGHG! 5 Ale tsoec .. 5 40to 80 3800 to 600 pounds dissolved rock.

IEVOUSKS ON a Saeco crag OO 7 60to120 120 to 240 pounds muriate of

potash.

298 Bureau or Farmers’ InNstirures.

Suggestions.—The application should be made early and worked
into the soil. Much of the needed nitrogen may be furnished by
means of clover crops grown between the rows of trees and turned
under as green manure, but care must be taken not to accumulate
an excess of nitrogen in the soil in this way, because this condition
favors abnormal growth of wood and delays ripening of fruit.

Pears.
Same as for apples.

Peas.
Same as for beans.

Suggestions.— When peas are raised for picking green, larger
amounts of nitrate of soda can be used to advantage.

Plums.
Same as for cherries,
Potatoes.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

Nitrogen.......... 4 380to 60 50 to 100 pounds nitrate of soda;
50 to 100 pounds sulphate of
ammonia; 200 to 400 pounds
cotton seed meal.

Available phosphorie

ACTA Mee sc ns. ve atavcnars ¢ 8 60to120 400 to 800 pounds dissolved rock.

Potash... ........ 10 100to0200 200 to 400 pounds muriate or sul-

phate of potash.

Suggestions.— The use of stable manure appears to favor the
growth of potato seab. When used, stable manure should be ap-
plied to a preceding crop. Wood ashes and lime are also reported
to favor the attack of the scab.

Pumpkins.
Same as for cucumbers.

Quinces.
Same as for apples.

Tuer Composrrion AND Usr or FERriLizers. 299

Radishes.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.
Nitrogen ......... 4 15to 80 650 to 100 pounds nitrate of soda;

75 to 150 pounds dried blood.
Available phosphoric

DGNWG! G6 6 Diode 8 85to 70 250 to 500 pounds dissolved rock.

OG S Nie parka memtevercse ote 10 40to 80 80 to 160 pounds muriate of
potash.
Raspberries.

Same as for blackberries.

Bhubarb.

Use same application as for lettuce, applying early in spring.
About two weeks after beginning to cut for market, apply
and cultivate into soil 100 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre and
another equal amount after completing the cutting for the season. ~

Roses.
Same as for flowers.

Rye.

Same as for oats.

Suggestions.— Nitrogen is preferably applied in the form of
nitrate of soda rather than stable manure, and excessive use of ni-
trogen should be avoided, when crop is grown for grain. For for-
age and green manure, larger amounts of nitrogen are useful.

Sorghum.
Same as for corn.

Spinach.
Same as for lettuce.

Squashes.

Same as for cucumbers.

300 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Strawberries.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

Nitrogen....'...... 8 25to 50 50 to 100 pounds nitrate of soda;
100 to 200 pounds dried blood;
100 to 200 pounds cotton seed

meal.
Ayailable phosphoric
CICS he tenes. carer ors . 77 55to110 3875 to 750 pounds dissolved rock.
OGASIIN cm ecrcte ste --. 9 %5to0150 150 to 300 pounds’ muriate of
potash.

Suggestions.— Apply about 800 pounds of this mixture per acre
before the plants are set. The next spring, preceding the first
crop, make the same application. It may also be found good prac-
tice to apply top-dressing of nitrate of soda at the rate of 100
pounds an acre after the plants have blossomed.

Sugar Beets.
See under beets.
Tobacco.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

Nitrogen. ....-. 6 60t0120 100 to 200 pounds nitrate of soda;
100 to 200 pounds sulphate of
ammonia; 100 to 200 pounds
dried blood; 200 to 400 pounds
eotton seed meal.

Available phosphorie

ENON Ole. Segoe OOo t 6 60to120 400 to 800 pounds dissolved rock.
FZOCASINY are ve crtieiafehersl = 10 100to200 200 to 400 pounds sulphate of
potash.
Tomatoes.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.
INDUC, Gea Ganooe 4 25to 50. 75 to 150 pounds nitrate of soda;

150 to 300 pounds dried blood.
Available phosphoric :

Sel 6S soborncaonc 8 50to100 850 to 700 pounds dissolved rock.
Potash ...cseccee-- 10 60t0120 120 to 240 pounds muriate of
potash.

|

Tue Composition AND User or FERtTIuizers. 301

Suggestions.— For early tomatoes apply the above mixture
previous to, or at the time of, setting plants. Three or four weeks
later apply 100 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda, distributing
around the hill. To make sure of even distribution this may be
diluted with earth, land plaster, sifted coal ashes or similar
material,

Turnips.

Same as for bects grown for fodder.

Watermelons,

Same as for cucumbers.

Wheat.
Per Pounds for Pounds of different materials for one
cent. one acre. acre.

Nitrogen ......... 4 12to 24 50 to 100 pounds nitrate of soda;
‘ 50 to 100 pounds dried blood.
Available phosphoric
NCIC mete. beeps ohare ches 7 20to 40 150 to 800 pounds dissolved rock.
Potash .......... 4 12to 24. 25 to 50 pounds muriate of potash.

PART Avi:
THE ARITHMETIC OF FERTILIZERS.

When we desire to know the amount of nitrogen, potash and
phosphoric acid contained in different forms and materials, or to
make up formulas from materials of known composition, or to
determine the commercial value of any single material or of any
mixture, it is necessary to go through various mathematical proc-
esses, most of which are comparatively simple and easily under-
stood. So many inquiries are made about questions involving
simple calculations, that it is thought advisable to present a some-
what systematic consideration of some of the more common prob-
lems met with. Some calculations, which it might be desirable
to use at times, involve more knowledge of chemistry than can be
given in a sunple treatise of this kind.

302 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrurss.

Before taking up a consideration of the mathematical details,
we will make a brief explanation of the different terms used in
expressing fertilizer guarantees and analyses, because an accurate
knowledge of such terms is important, especially in making com-
mercial valuations and in planning formulas.

We shall, therefore, consider under the general head given
above the following topics: .

1. Explanation of terms used in stating guarantee analyses of
fertilizers.

2. Total constituents of fertilizers.

3. Commercial valuation of fertilizers.

4. How to calculate amounts of materials to be used in making
home-made fertilizers.

1. ExpLanaTion ov TERMs UseEp tn Stating GUARANTEE ANALY-
SES OF FERTILIZERS.

In examining the guarantee analyses of different manufactur-
ers, we find much variation in the terms used. Some forms are
simple, stating only the most essential points, while others are
complicated and confusing to the average farmer. We purpose
here briefly to explain all the different forms which are apt to be
met. The following list contains most of the terms used in stat-
ing manufacturers’ guarantee analyses:

NrrroGeEn is expressed as
(a) Nitrogen, (b) ammonia, (c) nitrogen equal (or equivalent)
to ammonia.

Puospuorto Actp is expressed as

(a) Phosphoric acid, (6) soluble phosphoric acid, (¢) reverted
phosphoric acid, (d) precipitated phosphoric acid, (e) avail-
able phosphoric acid, (f) soluble and available phosphoric
acid, (g) insoluble phosphoric acid, (h) total phosphoric
acid, (7) phosphoric acid equal (or equivalent) to bone
phosphate of lime.

Porasn is expressed as

(a) Potash, (b) potash (actual), (c) potash s. (or sul.), (d) pot-
ash (soluble), (e) potash as sulphate, (f) potash equal (or
equivalent) to sulphate of potash, (g) sulphate of potash,
(h) potassium oxide.

Tur Composition AND Ust or FERTILIZERS. 303

Nitrogen,

(a) Nitrogen is a gas and, in this form, cannot be used in fer-
tilizers. Therefore, whenever we speak of nitrogen in fertilizers,
we do not mean that nitrogen exists in them as simple nitrogen.
As previously stated, the nitrogen in fertilizers is always com-
bined with other elements and may be present in one or more
different forms: (1) in the form of nitrates, as nitrate of soda;
(2) in the form of ammonia compounds, as sulphate of ammonia;
and (3) in the form of organic matter, animal or vegetable, as
dried blood, meat, tobacco stems, ete. Chemical analysis fre-
quently does not ascertain and state in which form or forms the
nitrogen is present in a fertilizer.

When, therefore, nitrogen is expressed in an analysis or guar-
antee simply as “nitrogen,” it refers to the entire amount of
nitrogen present without regard to the particular form or forms
in which it is present.

(b) Ammonia consists of nitrogen combined with hydrogen.—A
pound of nitrogen will form more than a pound of ammonia, be-
cause the ammonia formed from a pound of nitrogen will con-
tain that pound of nitrogen plus the necessary amount of hydro-
gen added to form ammonia. The chemical relations of nitrogen
and ammonia are such that 14 pounds of nitrogen will unite with
exactly three pounds of hydrogen, and will, therefore, produce
just 17 pounds of ammonia; or one pound of nitrogen will make
1.214 pounds of ammonia.

Manufacturers very commonly express the amount of nitrogen
in the equivalent of ammonia, probably for the reason that, ex-
pressed as ammonia, larger figures are obtained than would be,
if expressed as nitrogen; and the fertilizers appear to farmers
to contain more nitrogen. Farmers should know that “ nitrogen”
and “ammonia” are not the same thing, since one pound of am-
monia contains only about eight-tenths of a pound of nitrogen.

(c) Nitrogen equal (or equivalent) to Ammonia is a form of
expression which simply means that the nitrogen is stated not as
nitrogen but as ammonia.

It would be better on every account if all guarantees stated
simply nitrogen and never mentioned ammonia at all. As a
matter of fact, compounds of ammonia are quite uncommon in
commercial fertilizers, because nitrogen in this form is generally
the most expensive and, therefore, least used. Strictly speaking,
the term ammonia should never be used except when sulphate of
ammonia or some similar compound is present in the fertilizer.

3804 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Puosrnoric Acip.

(a) Phosphoric Acid, as used in connection with fertilizers, is a
compound containing phosphorus and oxygen, which in fertilizers
is found never by itself, but in combination with lime. Phos-
phoric acid stands for a certain amount of phosphate of lime.
We may say roughly that one part of phosphoric acid is equiva-
lent to about two parts of phosphate of lime. But we know that
phosphoric acid exists in several different forms. (See page 227.)

(b) Soluble Phosphoric Acid represents the amount of phosphate
of lime that dissolves easily in water. As explained already, sol-
uble calcium phosphate is formed by treating with sulphuric acid
some form of insoluble calcium phosphate, such as bones, bone

South Carolina rock, ete. The phosphate thus formed is
readily soluble in water.

(c) Reverted Phosphoric Acid is formed from soluble phos-
phorie acid under certain conditions into which we need not in-
quire here. Suffice it to say, that the soluble compound of phos-
phoric acid often changes, to some extent, on standing, into a
form, which, while less “soluble, is still ae readily available as
plant food.

(d) Precipitated Phosphoric Acid is Pe another name for
the reverted form.

(ce) Available Phosphoric Acid includes both the soluble and
reverted forms of phosphoric acid, because both forms are avail-
able for the use of plants.

(f) Soluble and Available Phosphoric Acid is an expression
which means the same as available.

(q) Insoluble Phosphoric Acid represents that form of phos-
phate of lime which is insoluble in water and ammonium citrate
solution and which is of least value for agricultural purposes.

(h) Total Phosphoric Acid represents the entire phosphorie acid
compounds without regard to the forms in which they exist. The
total phosphoric acid is, therefore, the sum of the soluble, reverted
and insoluble forms, or, to state it in another way, the sum of
the available and insoluble forms.

(1) Phosphoric Acid equal (or equivalent) to Bone Phosphate
of Lime is an expression which usually means nothing more or
less than insoluble phosphoric acid. The expression is apt to be
misleading, as it appears to imply that the phosphoric acid is
derived from bone. It is applied probably to ground rock even
more often than to bone. The expression is used often appar-

Tur Composition AND User or FrErrinizers. 305

ently for the sole purpose of misleading the farmer into thinking
that the phosphoric acid has come from bone and also because,
stated in this form, there appears to be twice as much phosphoric
acid.

Porasu.

(a) Potash, as used in connection with fertilizers, always means
a compound containing potassium and oxygen, known as potas-
sium oxide. Potash or potassium oxide is never found as such
in fertilizers, but chemists use this form of expressing the results
of analysis as a convenient standard for reference. J ertilizers
generally contain potash in such forms as sulphate of potash,
muriate of potash or carbonate of potash. Instead of stating the
amount of sulphate, muriate or carbonate of potash present in a
fertilizer, its equivalent amount is stated only in the form of
potash in giving the results of analysis.

(b) Potash Actual is simply another expression for potash, as
distinct from the sulphate, muriate, ete.

(c) Potash 8S. (or Sul.) means sulphate of potash. This is
quite often used by manufacturers in giving guarantees. It is
very misleading and, when used, is evidently employed for the
purpose of making purchasers think that it is actual potash. One
pound of potash is equivalent to 1.85 pounds of sulphate of pot-
ash; and so, in stating a guarantee as sulphate, the manufacturer
makes it appear that his goods contain more potash than they
really do.

(d) Potash Soluble represents the amount of potash that dis-
solves in water and is available for the use of the plants. The
different forms of potash commonly used in fertilizers are readily
soluble in water.

(ce) Potash as Sulphate means simply sulphate of potash.

(f) Potash equal (or equivalent) to Sulphate of Potash is an
expression which means simply sulphate of potash. When the
potash is present as muriate, this expression should never be use.

(g) Sulphate of Potash signifies, or should signify, that this
compound is actually present in the fertilizer and there is no
muriate of potash present.

(h) Potassium Oxide means the same as potash or actual potash.

Apviczr Regarpine GuaranrrerE Anatyses.— When a farmer
purchases either a mixed fertilizer or separate fertilizing mate-
rials, he should purchase only under a guarantee of specitied

: 20

~

306 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

amounts of plant food. Moreover, he should insist that the guar-
antee be in the following terms:

Nitrogen for all forms of nitrogen. An added statement as to
whether the nitrogen comes from nitrate, ammonia compounds,
dried blood, cotton seed meal, ete., is desirable.

Available Phosphoric Acid or preferably water soluble and re-
verted phosphoric acid separately for all forms of phosphoric acid.

Potash actual for all forms of potash, though it may be desirable
to have stated 2m addition whether the potash is present as sul-
phate free from chloride or as muriate.

In examining a guarantee, pay attention only to the nitrogen,
available phosphoric acid and actual potash, and require the guar-
antee to be wm these terms before purchasing.

2. Tota ConsTITUENTS OF FERTILIZERS.

If we add together the figures representing the different econ-
stituents of a fertilizer appearing in a chemical analysis (the
nitrogen, the total phosphoric acid, and the potash), we shall find,
as a rule, that the sum amounts to only 20 or 30 per cent. or pune
per narod: The question often arises, “ Why does the sum of
the constituents in the analysis of a cerns amount to only 20
or 80 per cent., and what is the remaining portion, amounting to
70 or 80 per cent. made up of?” <A few illustrations will, per-
haps, suffice to make the matter clear.

Hien-Grapr Frrrinizers.— Taking a fairly high-grade fer-
tilizer, we find by analysis that it contains:

Per cent.
Nitrogen ilies 240.4 Sa Le Woe atin tee: Saat Re oe eae a RTE 1
Available phosphoric acid ........ “fa! sel Shnika 8
Insoluble. phosphoric cacidy a5 .“igudeiagnacee ee sari tay 2

Potash: s-jrcteuaidld eck a a ee ee 10

If the nitrogen comes from dried blood or meat, it will take
about 10 pounds of such material to furnish one pound of nitrogen.
Since there are four per cent. of nitrogen, or four pounds of nitro-
gen in 100 pounds of fertilizer, it will take 40 pounds of dried
blood to furnish this amount of nitrogen. The amount of bone
and sulphuric acid necessary to make a phosphate containing eight

Tur Composition AND Use or Frrrinizers, 307

pounds of available phosphorie acid and two pounds of insoluble
phosphoric acid would amount to about 40 pounds. If the potash
is present in form of high-grade sulphate, about 20 pounds of
such sulphate would be required to be equivalent to 10 pounds of
potash. Tabulating the foregoing figures, we have the following:

Pounds.

Dried blood required to furnish four pounds of nitrogen, 40
Bone and sulphuric acid required to furnish phosphates
containing eight pounds of available and two pounds

of insoluble phosphoric acid .............+20-0- : 40

Sulphate of potash equivalent to 10 pounds of potash... 20

ANG falta cars aie iarhe ottete aac tors Meare renee atehenate ces) seth 100

In a fertilizer of this character, we can easily account for the
entire amount of material.

Low-Grapr Frrrinizers.— Taking now a low-grade fertilizer,
we find its composition to show:

.

Per cent
IN ROC EM aries a's ent oure aur Enh woes As Tabs oi if
Piva le, PNGS I MOTIC, ACT: Ss rx acmpsxsrs peroys Sh «. Mraserataiel et he. A 5
Abr Son Ti aa oar a Gs aoe BUSS). pale oh ah ATS spot a Sesg buena loin Seroys 1
Repetto ans ean one a « @ ete hada ah edhe se ieg shed oiegnes oA Al

We will suppose that the nitrogen and phosphoric acid come
from the sources as indicated above and that the potash comes
from kainit, eight pounds of kainit containing one pound of pot-
ash. Then we can tabulate our statement as follows:

Pounds.

Dried blood required to furnish one pound of nitrogen, 10
Bones, ete., required to furnish five pounds of available

and one pound insoluble phosphoric acid.......... 24

Kainit equivalent to one pound of potash............ 8

Moisture, land plaster, dried earth, ground rock, etc... 58

Blhcrieilks cet aubte tga Sirah A Wen Meee rade or Misi eeeie ct aig Sroaite ts 100

‘

308 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrures.

We could, of course, vary the sources of materials used and get
other figures, but these illustrations serve to give a fair idea of what
a hundred pounds of fertilizer may be made, and why a statement
of analysis does not account for more than 20 or 30 pounds of
fertilizing materials in a hundred pounds of fertilizer.

3. ComMERCIAL VALUATION oF FERTILIZERS.

Wuat ts A CommprciaL VALUATION oF A FrErtILIzER ?— The
commercial valuation of a fertilizer consists in estimating the ap-
proximate value or money cost of the essential fertilizing ingre-
dients (nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash) in one ton of fer-
tilizer.

In making a commercial valuation of a fertilizer, one uses either
the figures given in the guarantee analysis or preferably the figures
given in the official State analysis, as a basis for calculation. This
enables one to know how many pounds of nitrogen, of phosphoric
acid and of potash there are in one ton of fertilizer.

The prices to be used in calculating a commercial valuation are
furnished in a schedule prepared annually by experiment stations.
This price list for the year 1899 we give below.

Prices or Nirrocen, Puospnoric Acip anp PorasH AporTrep
By Expertment Srations.— The trade values in the following
schedule represent the average prices at which, in the six months
preceding March the respective ingredients, in the form of un-
mixed raw materials, could be bought at retail for cash in our
large markets, Boston, New York and Philadelphia. These prices
also correspond to the average wholesale prices for the six months
preceding March, plus about 20 per cent. in case of goods for which
there are wholesale quotations.

It must be kept in mind that these trade values are changing
from time to time. In the fertilizer bulletins, which are issued by
the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva,
the latest trade values are always given. Whenever in the follow-
ing pages reference is made to the price list, consult the latest.

Tur Composition AND User or FrErtiuizers. 309

SCHEDULE OF VALUES FOR FERTILIZER INGRE-
DIENTS, 1901.

Cents

per pound.
NpnOseM. oe AMMONIA SAILS) sss. sss eras © =» pf ace sae 164
WIMDEAUES ec aid ets ste te kon hea ely «aha e hyd 14
in dry and fine ground fish, meat and blood,
and in mixed fertilizers, 3:0 «5.0» ote 16
in cotton seed meal and castor pomace..... 14
am fine, hone and sank are: icin. .¥2)+ gyeyaps aerside 16
im. coarse hone and fankage,, 6 o,4% + a0 06s 12
iPhesphoric acid., soluble! im. water. . 2.0. me eke 6 once 5
soluble in ammonium citrate...... 4}
insoluble in ammonium citrate, in
PGWErieriMIzer Ss Ne es ota ee hile 2
Phosphoric acid in fine bone, tankage and fish........ +
Phosphoric acid in coarse bone and tankage.......... 3
Phosphoric acid in cotton seed meal, castor pomace and
SeCMEIO ESM a rite store ware s(ere send sce ete at eas 4
Potash in high grade sulphate and in forms free from
meeriane (Or CUIOTIGC) to. ve ne fe ssc esc cece ee 5
Ge AMUMIBLO, Sash iors Asics de ¢ Aargtatere cht ose wales 4}

Potash in excess of that equivalent to the chlorine present is
to be valued as sulphate, and the remainder as muriate.

Nitrogen in mixed fertilizers is to be valued as derived from
the best sources of organic nitrogen, unless clear evidence to the
contrary is obtained.

Bone is sifted into two grades of fineness: Fine, less than 1-50
inch in diameter; coarse, over 1-50 inch in diameter.

The result obtained by the use of these valuations does’ not
cover the items of mixing, bagging, freight and agents’ commis-
sion.

VALUATION AND Cost oF Frrtriiizers.— The total cost (to the
farmer) of a ton of commercial fertilizer may be regarded as con-
sisting of the following elements: (1) Retail cash cost, in the mar-
ket, of unmixed trade materials; (2) cost of mixing and bagging;
(3) cost of transportation; (4) storage, commissions to agents and
dealers, selling on long credit, bad debts, ete. While the total cost
of a fertilizer is made up of several different elements, a com-
mercial valuation includes only the first of the elements entering

310 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

into the total cost, that is, the retail cash cost in the market of
unmixed raw materials.

VaLuation anp AgGricuLruraL Vatur.— The agricultural
value of a fertilizer depends upon its crop-producing power. A
commercial valuation does not necessarily have any relation to
crop-producing value. For a particular soil and crop, a fertilizer
of comparatively low commercial valuation may have a higher
agricultural value; while for another crop on the same soil or the
same crop on another soil the reverse might be true.

SrmaeLe Rute ror Carcutatina APPROXIMATE COMMERCIAL
VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS.

Multiply the per cent. of nitrogen by three and add to the prod-
uct the figures representing the per cent. of available phosphoric
acid and of potash. The sum expresses in dollars and cents the
approximate commercial valuation of the fertilizer.

Example.— A fertilizer contains

Per cent.
INGER OMEN Ss ch evatesaee care ere sys deal GAL Ge gle ath ooore fal wits alieretogs 4.13
Available phosplonic) ACIS i. \a—s cnesspay sels gysiaieneenet teres 8.52
POURS eect iat re “hn ise Jancis seskeommalgel ectehiied mie io eg sone be

4.18 (per cent. of nitrogen) multiplied by three, equals, $12 39
8.52 (per cent. of available phosphoric acid)......... 8 52
110: 54e(per cent. "of potash \Ae Me Se eS oe ed

Total; per toni ae. FBO eae SO Soren

If a fertilizer contains only one or two of the three essential
fertilizing ingredients, the rule can be applied in a modified form.
In case of fine bone meal, use the total phosphoric acid in place
of the available in making the calculation.

While this rule is not exact, it gives results that are fairly accu-
rate and has the great advantage of simplicity. Results obtained
by this rule will be somewhat higher than those given by the
longer method of calculation. It will be found satisfactory com-
monly in making comparison of different mixed fertilizers.

Tor the benefit of those who desire a more exact method of
calculating the commercial valuation of fertilizers, we give below
a more detailed rule. But previously we give methods for cal-
culating from one compound to another, and also methods for
making valuations of unmixed fertilizing materials.

Tur Composition AND Use or Ferrrinizers. ai hal

Runes ror CaLrcunatTine rrom Ong Comrounp into OrrHEer Com-
POUNDS.
(a) Compounds Containing Nitrogen.

(1) To change ammonia into an equivalent amount of nitrogen,
multiply the amount of ammonia by 0.82.

(2) To change nitrogen into an equivalent amount of ammonia,
multiply the amount of nitrogen by 1.21.

(3) To change nitrate of soda into an equivalent amount of am-
mona, divide the amount of nitrate of soda by 5 (or multiply by
0.20).

(4) To change nitrate of soda into an equivalent amount of ni-
trogen, divide the amount of nitrate of soda by 6 (or multiply by
0.165).

(5) To change nitrogen into an equivalent amount of nitrate of
soda, multiply the nitrogen by 6.

(6) To change sulphate of ammonia into an equivalent amount
of ammoma, divide the amount of pure sulphate of ammonia
by 4.

(7) To change ammonia into an equivalent amount of sulphate
of ammonia, multiply the amount of ammonia by 4.

(8) To change nitrate of potash into an equivalent amount of
nitrogen, divide the amount of nitrate of potash by 7.2.

(b). Compounds Containing Potash.

(9) To change muriate of potash into an equivalent amount of
actual potash, multiply the amount of muriate by 0.63.

(10) To change actual potash into an equivalent amount of
muriate of potash, multiply the amount of actual potash by 1.6.

(11) To change sulphate of potash into an equivalent amount
of actual potash, multiply the amount of sulphate of potash by 0.54.

(12) To change actual potash into an equivalent amount of sul-
phate of potash, multiply the amount of actual potash by 1.85.

(18) To change nitrate of potash into an equivalent amount of
actual potash, multiply the amount of nitrate of potash by 0.46.

(14) To change actual potash into an equivalent amount of
nitrate of potash, multiply the amount of actual potash by 2.15.

(c) Compounds Containing Phosphoric Acid.
(15) To change bone phosphate into an equivalent amount of
phosphoric acid, multiply by 0.46.
(16) To change phosphoric acid inte an equivalent amount of
bone phosphate, multiply by 2.2.

312 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Ruxies ror Maxina Vatuations or UnMIxepD FErrimizina
MATERIALS.

(a) Materials Containing Nitrogen.

(1) Sulphate of Ammonia. Rule. Multiply the given per cent.
of ammonia by 0.82 and this product by the price of one pound of
nitrogen in the form of ammonia (see price list on page 309).
Multiply this product by 20.

Example.— A sample of ammonium sulphate tests 24 per cent.
ammonia; what is its commercial valuation?

24 per cent. of ammonia) x 0.82 = 19.68 per cent. of nitrogen.

19.68 x 15 cents = 295 cents, value of nitrogen in 100 pounds
of ammonium sulphate.

295 cents x 20== $59, value of nitrogen in one ton of am-
monium sulphate.

(2) Nitrate of Soda. Rule. Multiply the test per cent. of
nitrate of soda by 164 and this product by the price of one pound
of nitrogen in the form of nitrates (see price list on page 309).
Multiply the last result by 20.

Example.— What is the valuation of one ton of nitrate of soda
which tests 98 per cent.?

“ Nitrate of soda testing 98 per cent.” means that in every 100
pounds of material there are 98 pounds of pure nitrate of soda.

98 x 0.165 = 16.17 per cent. nitrogen in nitrate of soda.

16.17 x 124 cents = 202 cents x 20 = $40.40 a ton.

When the per cent. of nitrogen is given, then the first step is
omitted.

(b) Materials Containing Phosphoric Acid.

(1) Available Guaranteed. Rule. Multiply the given amount
of available phosphoric acid by the price of one pound of soluble
phosphoric acid (see price list on page 309) and the result by 20.

Tf the amount of insoluble phosphoric acid is given, multiply
this by 40 and arld to foregoing amount.

Example: What is the commercial valuation of one ton of
dissolved bone black testing 16 per cent. of available phosphoric
acid ?

16 x 44 cents = 72 cents X 20 = $14.40 a ton.

If this sample were known also to contain two per cent. of in-
soluble phosphorie acid, then

2 x 40 cents — 80 cents and $14.40 + 0.80 = $15.20.

Tue Comrvosirion AND User or FErtrIuizers. 313

(2) Bone Phosphate of Lime Guaranteed. Rule. Multiply
the gwen amount of bone phosphate of lime by 0.46 and this prod-
uct by the price of one pound of phosphoric acid in bone (see price
list on page 309).

Example: What is the commercial valuation of one ton of
fine bone containing 50 per cent. bone phosphate of lime?

50 x 0.46 = 28, the per cent. of phosphoric acid in the bone.

23 x 84 cents = 80.5 cents x 20 = $16.10 a ton.

(c) Materials Containing Potash.

(1) Sulphate of Potash. Rule. Multiply the test per cent. sul-
phate of potash by 0.54 and the product by the price of one pound
of potash im the form of sulphate (see price list on page 309).
Multiply this product by 20.

Example: What is the commercial valuation of one ton of
sulphate of potash which tests 50 per cent. (low-grade) sulphate?

50 x 0.54 = 27 per cent. of actual potash.

27 x 5 cents == $1.35, value of 100 pounds of sulphate of potash.

$1.35 x 20 == $27, value of one ton of sulphate of potash testing
50 per cent. sulphate.

Example: What is the valuation of one ton of sulphate of pot-
ash which tests 95 per cent. (high-grade) sulphate of potash ?

95 x 0.54 = 51.3 per cent. of actual potash.

51.3 x 5 cents == 256.4 cents x 20 = $51.30 value of one ton of
sulphate of potash testing 95 per cent. sulphate.

When the per cent. of actual potash is given, the first step can
be omitted, and the per cent. of actual potash multiplied by the
price per pound and then by 20.

(2) Muriate of Potash. Rule. Multiply the given per cent. of
murvate by 0.63 and the result by the price of one pound of potash
in the form of muriate (see price list on page 309). Multiply
this result by 20.

Example: What is the valuation of one ton of muriate of pot-
ash testing 85 per cent. muriate?

85 x 0.63 = 53.55 per cent. of actual potash. 538.55 x4 cents
== 228 cents x 20 = $45.60 a ton.

Sreconp Mreruop ror Maxine CoMMERCIAL VALUATIONS OF
Mrxep Frerriuizing MATERIALS.

Rule. Multiply the given per cent. of each constituent (nitro-
gen, phosphoric acid and potash) by tts list price, add the products
and multiply the sum by 20.

314 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrirutes.

Example: What is the valuation of one ton of a commercial
fertilizer having the following guarantee analysis?

Per cent.
Nitpomen a,c o5- 5a atsree ters ores oes eae tana oR renens 2 (to 3)
Avalable phosphoric gerd +. 1c.'s semen et aera ee erates 8 (to 10)
POtasW ng osc suas = ie oe eee eres tia ee Mahe citee ens: bait (5, pe

In each case where a guarantee analysis gives two figures,
always use the lower, because the law takes only the lower guar-
antee into consideration.

Cents.
Two (per cent. nitrogen) x 14 cents (price of one pound
TUN OVed e110 baa et Oe OE OM Oe MEE TEE PS eed ar eS 0.28
Eight (per cent. av. phos. acid) x 5 cents (price of one pound
AV. phos ACG) tcf oa. Iga ericnte eaters Gee ee ES Ie 0.40
Three (per cent. potash) x 5 cents (price of one pound pot-
Ash) == 665 .s..@s is hisittat hint Alam shake MOG cio ae ee ese 0.15

Total value of 100 pounds of fertilizers == ......... 0.838

0.83 cents xX 20 = $16.60 a ton.

When the nitrogen is given only in the form of ammonia, first
change to equivalent of nitrogen (see (1), page 311) and then
follow above rule.

When the phosphoric is given only in the form of bone phos-
phate of lime, first change to equivalent of phosphoric acid (see
(c) (15), page 311) and then follow above rule.

When the potash is given only in the form of sulphate or
muriate, first change to equivalent of actual potash (see (9) and
(11), page 811) and then follow rule.

4. How ro CancuLtats Amounts oF MATERIALS TO BE USED IN
Maxine A Home-Mapr FERTILIZER.

There will probably be little demand for information in regard
to quantities of different materials to be used in making home-
made fertilizers, since the subject is treated in a specific manner
on pages 283-301. But it will, at least, be of interest to learn

- Tur Composition AND User or FErRrtTIvizers. 315

how different materials may be put together to make up a given
formula.
Suppose that we desire to make one ton of a mixture contain-

ing —-

Per cent.
UNGchiapG Ms eat at orotate ah do eoake ens, 4s telat es o's afetareltiw glebeateloraete 4
Aewalale PUGsUNOTIC ACIM eM. csels esa. Salsa weiss ies 8
Potaohts ssc 2 o's teeta steer ate incataratny svatae! aie ASW ee Poe ate 10

Suppose, in addition, that we have on hand for our purpose the
following materials:

Nitrate of soda containing 16 per cent. of nitrogen.

Acid phosphate containing 15 per cent. of available phosphoric
acid.

Muriate of potash containing 50 per cent. of actual potash.

How many pounds of each of these materials shall we take to
make one ton of a mixture having the composition given above?

To contain four per cent. of nitrogen, the ton must contain 80
pounds. The material which we use contains 16 pounds of nitro-
gen in 100 pounds, and hence 500 pounds of nitrate of soda would
be required to furnish 80 pounds of nitrogen.

To contain eight per cent. of available phosphoric acid, the ton
must contain 160 pounds. Our material contains in 100 pounds
15 pounds of available phosphoric acid and hence 1,067 pounds
of acid phosphate would be required to furnish 160 pounds of
available phosphoric acid.

To contain 10 per cent. of actual potash, the ton must contain
200 pounds. Our muriate of potash is one-half actual potash, and
hence 400 pounds of muriate would be required to furnish 200
pounds of actual potash.

We should, then, have the following amounts of materials to be
used for one ton of fertilizer:

500 pounds nitrate of soda.

1,067 pounds acid phosphate.

400 pounds muriate or potash.

——E

1,967 pounds of these mixed materials furnish the amounts of
nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid we need for one ton of our
formula. How shall we make the mixture up to one ton? We

316 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTirures.

simply add 83 pounds of sand, land plaster or other inert matter
as a “ filling,” and we thus obtain one ton of a fertilizer having
the composition given above.

By adding one more ton of filling, we should have two tons of a
fertilizer of the following composition:

Per cent.

IND TORO 35 wee sn: lee yes ave tates ele cel elena HAR GA A smuee 2

‘Available phosphoric acid .........ccceecc ese cecccces 4

Potash oeeee e@eecereoceoevreeeveeveeeeee ee eee eee eee ee & © e eee 5
AEN

AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND VALUE OF DIFFER-
ENT FERTILIZING MATERIALS AND OF FARM
CROPS. TABULATED COMPILATION.

In the tables following, we present a compilation of data, show-
ing the manurial composition and value of a large number of
different kinds of materials. The different kinds of materials given
are tabulated and presented under the following heads:

ee

. Materials used in fertilizers.
. Hay and dry coarse fodders.
. Green fodders.
. Straw, chaff, leaves, ete.
. Roots, bulbs, tubers, ete.
. Grains and other seeds.
. Mill products.
. Fruits.
9. Vegetables.
10. Dairy products.
11. Farm animals and animal products.
12. By-products and waste materials.
13. Animal manures.

CO ~T & Cr PB CO WO

Tn assigning values to nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash con-
tained in materials not found regularly in the market as fertiliz-
ing materials, there is difficulty in fixing a price that will represent

Tir Composition AND Use or FErrinizers. on

their real manurial value as compared with the most available
forms common in the market. In the following tables the regular
schedule values have been used for these materials that are recog-
nized in the market and also for such materials as closely resemble
any of these. For most vegetable materials, the price of nitrogen
has been fixed at twelve cents a pound, that of phosporic acid and
potash at four cents a pound. These are probably fair values,
when we take the availability into consideration, and this should
be done in order not to overestimate the fertilizing value of many
materials.

Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

318

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streeeeess (ABT UIOIJ OdIj) [vou OUOg
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319

Q
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>
ue

RTILIZEI

DI
u

Tur Composition AND Usr or Fx

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‘opLSnI yy

320 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrutes.

Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders — Green Fodders, Ete.

A — A

A S

f = 3

5a © og

Bo OBE BS

oe Ties mG

g 23 3

a as a

ea eee :

fy a fl

2. Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders.
AVE AIE Es 5) cetsm-awisrarerersicarevavens arrasaeratatea tanatand ove 44.0 10.6 34.0
Blue mellot . HOOGESS Be COC 38.4 10.8 56.0
Buckwheat . as Sev eWebiegs stale wuts 16.7 a LP 48.4
Buckwheat (Jap: inese) . 382.6 17.0 66.4
BS UGKELCIIDS ste oe were oreteretleseiete er ohttore 20.4 8.2 16.2
Clovier-(allsike) Taccyaeeteteciens create cir. 46.6 14.0 40.2
Clover (G5 OMA A) ear crores sca ela sheneiere 40.0 ak Bilal)
Clover: <(GLUMIS OM)! seca lon erewerers tereteroreraycne 40.0 7.6 aya (0)
Clover (mammoth red)... .... 2.2... 44.6 3050) 24.4
Clover s(Ked)) ce. 5 4 Bee si cbectestectdeseiens 42.0 10.0 40.0
Clovera(iwihite)® £1 eke s tte te evens 50.0 14.0 30.0
Corn) fodder (with ears). 2.8 a. dee. 36.0 150 18.0
CormeGyiEhOuie ears) toi eke eerctacr se 22.4 6.0 28.0
Cows peas(whole plamt)iact-.ccaccciee 39.0 10.6 29.4
DD) US Vin CWDS) reer ovhcraasdetvrosanetaievebeteneWovewohorers 5.6 8.8 25.0
DMS. (ORKHCYVC). oes scree ehele Addie wtavsio he 6.0 9.0 25.0
Hirench LYC-Srass %., se sete ate/<hs ce fs dev 33.2 12.0 48.0
RUM AIAN WeRASS sm cmciseteyiy totsrriere. 24.0 7.0 26.0
Tita Sy C-OTASS See fests clatetstale ale tiy che 23.0 11.0 25.0
PUUITNC CSAS? eerie t ens eveeey nalletcvate rate verstel 21.0 7.4 29.2
IEntUCksya DUET EASS ey spe terchercesrolelelsiels 23.8 8.0 31.4
IM GAIL OWHEES GLU CY ceromcinctaveseksvoiouskencmohekoueions 20.0 8.0 42.0
IMGadowwepho stall os ike, veyeisreeucvelcte Mastelee 30.8 8.8 40.0
Millet (common) ....... Batis fal ate latte ome 25.6 10.0 34.0
MATE t Gea WaneS@) 2 cece erste see Ans 22.2 8.0 24.4
MAKE) SEASSCS Hy i. See telehels ch ei ot enslave 28.0 16.0 30.8
Mustard . SEA Sr gc oma iaretaRace ans) Soaks ae 35.4 16.2 Dee
Oats (in bloom) . Saye. CORTE areRe. a lsiarents 24.0 13.4 50.8
Orchardieorass sew cur aweencuke seucksoe 26.2 8.2 37.6
jeter (iva Joy exopon)l Be eo. noe oe ono. GOK 66.0 Oe 34.0
Perennialiryer erase) Grete ete ae aicicie cisions 30.8 12S 40.0
Redtop NS itts, Wousle Suelo oMelMacaente stave tiie sis 23.0 Woe 20.4
towen of mixed SIASSES . Be TUCO 32.0 9.0 30.0
SAIMPOUM a vovel ad 0 Sah ole scte he cberokaepo are 47.0 a 0 30.6
Salt <mMarshwhaiy ase ite tide sieht tveterove 23.6 5.0 14.4
Senridelilak 2°90 Mads tictioteste stele reuse es De) 14.2 38.6
Soja bean (whole plant) . 2...3...:. 46.4 13.4 PACS
Tall meadow oat, grass ............ 5 23 02 6.4 34.4
Mimiothypehaiy-eecw s. Siar evecieine cuceremte ets 25.2 9.2 30.6
3. Green Fodders.

Alfalfa: is 3.2. NSBR eerste : 14.4 2.6 11.2
sk Wheat SiMe DLOSSOM meth. aves ave 10.2 Dae 8.6
Clover: @lsike), ces. cects aces eee 8.8 PIR} 4,0
Clover (CriniSom)) ele perce oe tener 8.6 2.6 9.8
Glover (wed)y age. asrocseterereeie cteteteoeancie 10.6 Pele) 952
Clover: (white) ssc aeceuweeeMcke eee aaoans 115.2 4.0 4.8
Corn erOod dens vile sie sie ene Pitre skeet 8.2 3.0 6.6

ing valuation of 2,000

Approximate fertiliz-

B-)

BmiRQAMWAICIWOLOBOORW ROR RW RROMNREOIDMMAAOAAONwWARAe-1

me eee eh?

Tue Composition anp User or Ferrrruizers. 321

Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders — Green Fodders, Etc.— Con-

tinued.

a 3 c &s

5 a qd = Ea

to BAe a ow

Oe. ° 2 SO

2a ao OF a

AS ae ee es

Ho b=! So aoa

Sa "a cea

Se Bee ore ae

Bie) Weer we Ee

° iS S ae

om pu fu <q

8. Green Fodders — Continued.
Gorn fodder (Silage) ......... AOE OCC 5.6 2.2 7.4 1 05
WO eC Be rotera sti eres: o) sy Siepels os. ciere aes AO 5.4 2.0 6.2 95
HAT DEAS sic, c sie. OIG OOD PIERO U LORD 22.6 3.6 AEG 3 00
PONS Ca CAM eee ere tenis! sepe iti tce:o elsleee ius #28 13.6 6.6 27.4 2 95
Hungarian grass (German millet)... Tats) 3.2 LO) 1 50
Meadow grass ........ TOD BOS UOT 7 8.8 3.0 12.0 1 50
MoleER(GOMMON)) ~ 2 soos coc ce cee +s Z 12.2 3.8 8.2 1 95
Mille taGapanese) 25.0 lecesns cine. % 10.6 4.0 6.8 1 70
Mixed pasture grasses... .......... 18.2 4.6 15.0 2 95
AER OMG eR eccne si leisce top ueisteeuselajoveteusse 9.8 2.6 7.6 1 60
PROAS Pes Aatasele aio wavchalles brciierlavte rete eaves , 10.0 3.6 anes 1 80
PEPICIIEYACOMELCY? 5, Sirs ciavec sles shoves oe 8.4 2.2 15.0 1 65
RUT Pam sy Were tauegsxcisiekeue Pe croleoteielele.s: oieus 9.0 2.4 7.0 1 50
RUVCREOO GET a= teye.s e.0'0 tone siailaveepetety ioickelks 9.8 4.5 14.0 1 909
syesorassn (italian) se, teisis << isteeis «1s 0's 10.8 5.8 2205 2 40
Ryererass (perennial) ©... occ. cc6 « - 9.4 5.6 22.0 2 25
VERE AG CLIE es eters ie ole stots «sce tus sys)orieys : 8.2 2.8 8.4 1 40
Gyre Caesarea ers ysicrste cos oo cheve sts Staves ove 5.8 3.0 10.6 1 20
SOLSMUM! TMV DLOOM! Sere.) c.. ccr els ce a - 8.0 1.6 6.4 25
Aline IIS GQ) bo oooonaEoUCenoT - 9.6 5.2 15.2 2 00
Wie LEMANS OAUSI sc) sicker eis oo alarcleye since : 4.8 1.8 15.9 db Xo)
AWS UIE Pawre oy, -citstercks x1 cietchetiers «6 5 8.8 7.0 34.6 Din
MEMO ws UDINE Rs is slate che ois cishallers ss « 10.2 Pees 3.0 1 45
PMOMM SR OTASS Jus o° o) afeysieye. ciel semeratelers soc 10.0 4.4 3.2 2 20
4. Straw, Chaff, Leaves, ete.

NALS y- CHA fers, ia 1 <e <e7eys) sve ore aisle wiceve 20.2 5.4 20.0 83 45
SAT EVES DPA W 28 ce. a clcia lefeis cece ous ofistote,-« > 26.2 6.0 41.8 4 20
BS CARI SIVC ISI iw one sievs a laletolalojeie/etoretosus.e 34.0 6.0 70.0 (als:
EFCC URICAV CS Mey se win\e.0' 0 ole, eleusieieve teal et tence > 7.0 2.0 10.0 1 35
Buckwheat Nwlls:.. 0.0... es Pa ctereis 12.0 8.0 20.0 265
@ahbpace Leaves: « .ose dees «ceeds H.C 8.0 4.0 5.0 130
@abpacer stalks... ois lisve so oss serene’s. 326 4.8 10.2 1 00
Carrots (stalks and leaves) ....... 10.2 4.2 7.4 1G
MOOT COM Sitreifets als: « ce Thalia is ois)6' 0, 39) shetsi ects 10.0 1.2 1250 1 55
WOIMEIUISES ieteice cs ocaiels coe Ss ese « - 3.6 1.4 4.4 1 00
UGTA S CANES eo ts; s 5 2)s''s%s.0 0 si ersd sie av - 5.6 2.8 8.2 dea 0)
Hop leaves and stems. ........... : 15.0 8.0 6 2 80
Mangel wurzel leaves ...........e2- 6.0 neG 8.2 1 10
BIC fae lV ebm etch s,s: aeya\s.5'e 6 <6)'e scoselere ; 15.0 5) 9.0 2) 3
(QEIE UGATAES Sed: Aig nod COI O eI nOIIOO c P 16.0 6.8 3.0 2 30
Write chart -ctisitsic.< ° Bhelet sits scalars Oe EO 2.8 9.0 2 25
CANE SEI C 06 oid ben DOIC D Cece ee i 12.4 4.0 24.8 2 65
HSE ESINGLISH tei crs <iclelelevertio < sletelecsyeve 6 6 21.2 11.0 27.6 4 80
Beam Straws (Cut in DIOOM)). <j. 6. cc 45.8 13.6 46.4 7 90

21

322 Bureau or Farmers’ Institures.

Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders — Green Fodders, Htc.— Con-

tinued.
3 = A se
qd Crea SS
o aq a ea
3 Fae a3
$a ao isl |
ae ais Ne es
oe bl Ho as
ee Saga 2: Bed
he S Bra
=| ray g Hoe
=| 58 =} aq?
i=) fo} ° Qe Ae
am am al 4
4. Straw, Chaff, Leaves, ete.— Con’t
Reaesirawny,. (GMC) cs. pittens oa stlewis wists 20.8 7.0 20.2 3
Potato stalks and leav es . Poe totton te 12.0 3.0 9.0 1. 95
DDS eS LEA Wi tsereidicle ie ocioeie case sisborsiele ais 9.6 5.0 22.9 Qen5
REVO CIATE 85 pects: «cere seatereiae «cena sie s.ncls 12.0 abet) 10.0 2 30
RViGMSULANW. cee crtios<-cte thoes (> sisveises atets «fete 9.5 5.6 18.0 2 10
Turnip stalks sand leaves .cpos..... 6.0 2.6 4.8 1 00
WAN eae \Chafiic acc sc cbs ins weieleeee tie ae ‘ 15.8 14.0 8.4 2 80
Wheat straw....... baliiice setae os nls Ire} 2.4 10.2 1 92
5. Roots, Bulbs, Tubers, ete.
BGGtS (LED), a ald oie astdiewr >» « SRE cose 4.8 1.8 8.8 1 00
BEGLS (SUA) Gi scm ate ew sw ama tiers ss 5.0 2.0 10.0 1 05
Beets (yellow fodder) i... 0.0... 3.8 1.8 5 90
WALT OUS asco Hedeloiete ys eesti ¢ pehethe eerie 3.0 2.0 10.0 85
Vian OL USE «,etashoveraters oituskeishesenstevara teal obaike 3 4.0 2.0 8.0 90
“IEEMASIOITOSS GG Hoodoo cos douos Tos anuOD 0.0 4.0 10.0 1 15
POTATOES. «jie ahers-s cee boils sheets cists A 6.4 3.0 10.0 1 30
EUG AAS AS! cre wroceic vissc th otros ouele Mrcadicnacene é 4.0. Pats) 10.0 1 00
RELIES meine ted Peis aie skal! 70 As SRO : 4.0 2.0 8.0 90
6. Grains and Other Seeds.
aC aia ected «xacaitchereicse,s «)e eetores eiels 3497010) 15.0 12.0 5 30
SGA Sep mA erate ooacceececr oud vee aueredetavexescue 80.0 24.0 24.0 11 50
PBT Chawaleart see ter cictaisiecs « stolen oui 28.8 8.8 4.2 4 00
(EhONae 23 ee ork Grom Oa Gaines Gone acer 60.0 25.0 25.0 9 20
(WOTMMIKENTIOI Sa ste a cee She sisuensiste elaneuese : 36.4 14.0 8.0 5 25
Corn kernels and cobs, cob meal..... 30.0 120 8.8 4 45
FL EMDSCCA oie cap musta she Shere ccsrw See bete.« fs : 50.0 35.0 20.0 8 20
WAMNSECT ch ~ aap bate e 3 4 (dicks s sie vsibhagtttaare ; 64.0 26.0 20.0 9 55
WETS (COMMON) Peytenthe cis e.sehe ei © ois ; 40.9 15.0 8.0 Heo
NIELS (VT ADAMNESE) ms ces cuss ecetehershdo alee 35.0 14.0 8.0 dD 10
INGE Sate Clee MME ec cue et encte rc ccm Pe Pacce oes 85.0 30.0 1240) 11 90
AES eee rede Rar ere vee Shoes sans sous eke See te rovent 40.0 16.0 12.0 5 95
GdS4. acum ayseeetbonoved Sie ciel els 8 Stor titove a a 80.0 16.0 20.0 11 05
Led OER Or rre CC ee oc OE TE Oks eeeenS 35.20 16.0 1) 530
SOjasDCATIS! Ac acire otibtengis edie Oy She hae axe ° 106.0 38.0 40.0 15 80
SOT OU UM « eeee ele ee chet eels © ater eho everele 30.0 16.0 8.5 4 60
SUDPO WE sie. ee thexe Se feeldee ces Gis aresvsis 5 45.0 25.0 15.0 7 00
VICE. iis setae ie icteve 2 eershee store Ge she, overs 5 47.0 16.0 11.0 6 75
7. Mill Products.
Barley flour...... LEONG AAS ie 82.0 19.0 aes 5 05
Pearey LAMA. bos. tein ieue toma ee ‘ ati 18.0 16.5 5 60
Barley: meal i caichietiocsw a trec ser Se 31.0 3.0 Tew) 4 50

THe Composirion anp Usr or Fprrtuizers. 323

flay and Dry Coarse Fodders — Green Fodders, Ete.— Con-

tinued.
a £ s v=
j=] 5 . =sS
2 ae a es
ae o7 a “9
eo) Se 6 Se EEE
Bs ° 3 ca =) REP
us! oo oO ome
E gs Cg 43
ce a of a
7. Mill Products — Continued.
Barley middlings : s+22.....0.5% Seles 40.0 35.0 14.0 6 75
PuUckwWheatgoral . sek. cs osiecki cece . 50.0 25.0 ZO 8 00
Buckwheat middlings .. .......... 92.8 69.0 62.5 16 40
Ors eA AT ee ha co nerckecese ori s Goaks cddis- crore - 35.0 US) 9.0 Dd 10
Cormeand) cobvmenkl Be Gee stn cies 6 28.0 12.0 10.0 4 25
Coun smiGGlings .). 2) Gene cskeele ee 5 28.0 7.0 4.5 3 80
COAG IA ake syoie,e rats slavace aha ants. 6 are 4 PGR) 4.4 14.0 4 00
Mar aMiGGliMesis swe! fo. Bio asks oh of9 010 ore - 37.0 45.0 30.5 7 45
OaAGSMe VOU is oy teidie)ss<iarshelaieee sisye elsusie 387.0 15.0 12.0 5 5d
Gay MGA, ). A sab Meets wtverers weNerare pias el ae 60.0 16.0 20.0 8 95
EFOABIMAUCL CULM OS yer custetegevsel siecssl eter siete A 79.0 3.0 15,0 10 10
TRAV OM LOIELID he st clots) ov eherors sie, occ: <ttetee wiele : 46.0 55.0 33.0 9 00
UV Cat OUISs oy Sicdisyersycicyels vole a secs ere SPST cleles 34.0 17.0 3.0 5 3
TRAVEL CITES ors, co cVerceic scrsusterte bine s\e 40.0 25.0 18.0 6 50
AVN AG Ty Teatas Ft sya c averhshevs. oc, ceeroseats ai x.< Son 58.0 32.0 9 95
WV Rit TOMI Me, ccs etesetels o Gieteess ; 44.0 11.4 10.6 6 15
Wikhteat midglimes) . Sis \siciic. ce ss © 3 52.5 1)50) 12.5 7 55
WWATEAE SINOTEST. © ues chaise sie cicvcretcretars wee 48.4 Zilad 3.0 7 41
8. Fruits.
INT UES heck) ep sesotsve sites /eece's ed 8 wee Siedese 236 0.2 4.0 50
PAT PIGOUS sue, oPekeielstevohe sores aronels: aaeciue-e AG 3.8 ite 6.0 70
BI BEISDSETICS: ‘seas ae) optioei stesso 0! a eles are 3.0 2.0 4.0 60
CELE ES ose coe Shaw szerenett ste stereucht oe ave ae 3.6 2 4.0 60
GAD ES) si 5) oa chevaiere SAG se asco SOE owe é 3.2 1.8 5.5 70
MORES si 3. oh tioke, cveie wate ce Arrears Ey ci Catt ; 2.0 0.6 1G 3D
ERIE ay oe apc iaveole ato ctoreveree One kare ; 3.6 0.4 5.0 65
rMMeS 34%, Poses Pi ehieverout heer ere C Bo 1.4 6.2 65
RVASDDELITCSL AM, 6. cscs ith aol eeukeees A 5 (0) 10.0 7.0 1 05
UAW DERIICS Shi a, 2 le Piisicre cada oe wares 3.0 22 6.0 60
9. Vegetables.
XS DAA CUS SUES ar ey reyeseiereitelelevel lersis : 6.0 1.6 6.0 1 00
IROGESM TOM rac avicicierscrensiorcie steve stoletaters 5 5.0 2.0 9.0 1 05
TAS OS ea erie abuts osucto= 6 ro,areits) eteerers 7.6 252 9.0 1 30
OATTOUSH cot ge cia oreote 09s, 01s: sara vey storetale owe Patt) 10.0 86
(CERTIBTIIC ei oie SiGeickeniG BIE mon oetoc ‘ ie 33574 Mee 1
AS VOT on otek eee Poth.0\'sickes. af 6:0) ays aE oer s 6 4.8 4.4 15.0 1 35
SALEM DES. au Gverety sane sso ars CUI ales Bae 2.4 4.8 70
FROTSOOLAGISH TOOE «cfs, ols sivisls ote spare 6 sue 5 8.0 2.0 20.0 1 85
MECH CO! 6-5) ets. c0 6 cis SRR A ee oy Ce 4.6 1.4 7.4 50
POTS eS ORs sds Se We oreo, Says oa eretone 4.0 2 B58) 63)
reas, carden (freshi)\ om. .. es cme « 5 23.0 6.0 Sa 3 oD
Bumpkins, whole fruity. . <<... ve Dow et 2.0 50
Rhubarb, stems and leaves. ...... 2.6 0.4 Meow 60

394 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders — Green Fodders, Ete.— Con-

tinued.
fs ¢ &§ 88
a Onn =o
g es & ce
2 ° 2. bas
aA av =| |
ae aes ae Pr
eo da So as
ao) eee ee eee
eee es +e
ie 2 Bes
° ° iS) i=
Ay Ay ov <
9. Vegetables — Continued.
Spill CHeibetten vevevers euerojelenere e evsielevereieie OO 10.0 8.2 5.4 1 45
Ve CEEGOLMEGODS les, telerseesicisicrstedelalorels A 4.2 10 4.4 15
SiweetrGOrn, MUSKS oe lcm citcksieilelclelelate 3.6 1.4 4.4 65
Swieetucornm Iernelss saeet «series ele 6 9.2 1.4 4.8 alineata'
SyGSe ora SGI BG cn soonagadcdos 5.6 2.8 S22 1 10
SHWGSIEOOUEIIOS or'5 Gono oop dlooooonGCOO 4.8 2.0 10.0 1 05
MMOMALOSS we LIME ctor alchaleNeletsl tienen leiaie ona tO: 5.4 65
Tomatoes, VINES . . ..-..---eeees le 6.4 1.4 10.0 1 25
10. Dairy Products.
ISLETS eed nee ic, «i sal eeadaen eleve.cteetaterers.e é Poe: 1.0 0.5 45
Biber Wey be ie ctercletaveis os telste ses 10.0 3.0 3.0 1 90
@heese? «whole mille eae. rete clele’ «eee 75.0 15.0 6.0 15 00
@heesenhalfislsim®. fSctere..c 2 clecrede's store 105.0 15.0 6.0 17 85
@heEeSeeSePALALOn Slane cn eicteks eee): 150.0 15.0 6.0 25.00
(GlesE hcl ueeese Da TaGtS SO.con ees co OO f 10.0 3.0 2.6 85
OT ee eines OID CERO it) ORGIES cic OLIGO 10.0 6.0 ae) 2°05
sikihaa Tmhie o 6 soccoooucedouG0cqvnDc 6 10.0 a0 4.0 Py INS
Wil Gyipenemcuseclsiers leletspieteus sieeierrsre te SOC 2.5 6.0 3.0 85
11. Farm Animals and Animal
Products.
PS LOOG. ICAL. Mey eey cavereteeer cia cuereteveletislelerste 60.0 aly ako 9 75
SOOM 1OX- Aare ate «wo osstevetnie ean enateete eaves 65.0 1.0 ied 10 50
I TOOUMSRCEI aus ie celcterhoriauoels ec elercicre s C 65.0 da) 1.0 10 50
ST OOGs ive wets a) colefieiehels aie sicher atch oreiielele 60.0 350) 3.0 9 85
SOS Fo. 5. etene o vlcve eedchere «aya amareeetoreie els 45.0 Utd 33500, 7 90
IME Sin eens SUSY oripoabdcotacdocadd a0 70.0 1220 8.0 12 20
LEST KOK Fe ae avencrcvototo rele ects aucteverere las hae0 9.0 10.0 12 45
JME PN Mbney ee a Boon ad OOOO dOOOCC 70.0 9.0 8.0 12 00
VOOM MUMS ICU yercpeey cetere eieisicleieterciene : 110.0 Lo, dla. 23 40
12. By-products and Waste
Materials.
AN PLOMDOMMACE "oi. wiesis sususneiesvscenseiee e's ° 4.6 0.4 236 70
WOENRCODS' cgakaeess.6 Detoete een betes 10.0 ibe? 12.0 ‘1 65
WOLTOT, SCCOSNUNIS? oatcciacsceucieeiies ec 15.0 3.6 21.6 2 80
Wotton Seed meal cnc. cetreneieleie:s UBB (U 54.0 36.0 22 28
Glucose refuse (starch feed) ....... 52.4 6.0 SykU) 6 65
Gluten meal ........ Se aise meee aikic 100.0 6.5 1.0 14.30
GANIHET ECO Ts. anc tere cere sca cuevenseeie re tales, 70.0 Theis) its) 8 75
Ghicacoreluien! mel, ease cewiieeeeice 110.0 6.0 2.0 13 55
Crano eluten feed. <2) lau as cece eset 100.0 13.0 4.0 12°70
(HORINATICA HEM, ve se siete lore witcha ererete cheers 70.0 12.3 6.0 9 15

Tue Composition AnD Usr or FERTILIZERS.

325

Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders — Green Fodders, Etc.— Con-

cluded.

ir = 8 ss

o.: aS

OF. or 2. 9

bef) av oa =)

; as ae a's os
a Aedes oe 22,
° =) Cs
gy aes aa
Eh Une Se We BEE
(=) ° S Et

ov ow ev <
12. By-products and Waste
Materials — Continued.
FLominye FEC 212) a~ cies cle evccuele ¢ profete 382.6 20.0 10.0 5 10
ELOpareruseiee. ares is choise oaethars eras 20.0 4.0 2.0 2 65
Linseed meal, old process.......... F 110.0 30.0 270.0 17 80
Linseed meal, new process.......... 115.0 37.0 28.0 18 75
NEMS LOWES cles tise kc cle es (00) 29.0 33.0 11 00
Spent brewers’ grains, dry ........ 61.0 25.0 381.0 9 55
Spent brewers’grains, wet ....... F 18.0 6.0 1.0 2 45
13. Animal Manures.

Chicken manure (fresh) . ......... : 30.0 2) 15.0 5 60
Caitilemanure (fresh)i<, siccece4.... 5.0 6.0 4.0 1 10
Catilesurines(ETeSh)es sacies chee aces Gia secs 10.0 2 40
Pele MM AMUTe (ELEST) aes cas oie ss eo 6 20.0 28.0 12.4 4 40
Horse manure. (fresh)s..-. ei. es. sare 11.6 5.6 10.6 2 25
Etorsesunine (fresh) ii. elec « clases Sil Ojew ote terens 30.0 6 45
Human excrement (fresh) . ........ 16.0 12.6 5.0 2 80
Human urine’ (fresh). <2.) sic.06. 0% 3 12.0 3.4 4.0. Qe
Mixed cattle manure...... é 9.0 5.0 8.0 al Yds:
Mixed horse manure . : 10.0 6.0 14.0 2 30
Medal Oe MAMNLGs steer ats che ot. oleae a 15.0 8.0 6.0 2 50
Mixed sheepimanure . ss)... case 20.0 20 24.0 3 70
Mixed stable manure.......... One 10.0 5.0 10.0 2 00

Address by Don. J. Wood, Plainfield (N. Y.) at
Bridgewater Institute.

“Our success can only come from persistent effort intelligently
directed. If we are not receiving the returns from our dairies
which we think we ought to, we must find out the reason. Why
does neighbor A receive a check each month one-half larger than
mine, or perhaps neighbor B’s is twice as large? Why? Do
not let us make excuses. Let us find out—why? It cannot be
that A’s cows eat one-half more than mine or that B’s eat twice
as much, for their farms do not produce one-half more, or twice
as much, as mine. Then, can it be that A and B understand
their business better than I do, and that they have better cows
for dairy purposes than I have. There is certainly nothing to
prevent my reading just as good dairy papers and books as my
neighbor or getting his advice about things he ean do better than
I. I am willing to work just as hard as he does and I want just
as good wages. Any dairyman can subscribe to this declaration.
If anything I can say to-day may help such a dairyman to realize
his wish, I shall be pleased indeed. Our success does not come
by pushing others down, but we are more successful by helping
others to sueceed. To be successful we must have faith in our
business, believing that every intelligent effort will be rewarded.
Others are successful; we will be. Then we must have cows
to work with, adapted to our loeality and to the purposes for
which we keep our dairy. We must have faith in the breed
and in our own cows, based on an intelligent judgment. I do
not care to advise as to the breed for there are extra good cows
in every dairy breed, but you must do your best to get as near
the top as it is possible. Do not think that I am advising you
to breed only thoroughbred stock; I am not. But I do believe
that to be suecessful you must stick to some direct line of breed-
ing. Uniformity in your cattle will appeal more to your pride
and ambition and, besides, constantly changing by crossing first
with one breed and then with another is altogether too risky
and is less likely to give superior results. Nearly every dairy

326

Appress By Don. J. Woop. 327

must be kept up by raising the cows on the farm. You have a
dairy already, no doubt, and some of the cows are much larger
producers than others. Breed only from your best cows. No
matter if a poor producing cow is as handsome as a picture and
her calf promises to be equally so, do not raise it. There are
two old sayings to keep ever in mind; ‘ Handsome is as hand-
some does,’ and ‘Like begets like.’ Are you working long
days on the farm putting in crops, caring for them, harvesting
them and then feeding them to dairy cows that you may each
morning and evening go to the stable and look at a handsome
row of cows, or are you doing this work that you may receive
from the cows which consume the products of your toil, such
a bountiful return that the necessities and comforts of yourself
and family are abundantly provided for ?

“Remember that in breeding, the sire is half the herd and use™
one only from a large-producing dam and descended from large
producers for as many generations back as possible. Then keep
using those of the same breed, thoroughbreds, if possible. Now
raise the calf well — yes, if you are aiming high in dairy returns,
raise it extra well. Do not start more calves than you can raise
extra well. Of the cows in my herd I have raised all but six.
The calves are given what new milk they will drink twice a day
until they are four or five weeks old, then scalded oilmeal and
middlings in a thin gruel and at about bloodheat is gradually
substituted. Good hay and bran or mixed feed or ground oats
are kept by them until they will eat as much as is thought
best for them to have. A little salt should be added to each
feed or kept where the calves can help themselves. Also give
them what fresh water they will drink. After the milk is taken
off, whey is added to the scalded gruel and, if the calves are
started in the spring, as the weather becomes warm the oilmeal
and middlings are added to the whey without scalding. The oil-
meal and middlings are used in equal parts at first, later, one of
oilmeal and two of middlings and the quantity increased gradu-
ally until at from three to four months each calf will take a
quart of the mixture at a feed twice a day. The calves may
be kept in the barn and fed hay or turned out during the sum-
mer, but keep the feed up and be sure they have plenty of
hay or grass. As cold weather comes on they must be put in
the barn. The slop may be gradually reduced, if desired, and
a little oilmeal added to the bran or other dry grain of which
they should receive four or five pounds a day during the wiater

328 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

and will do much better if they are fed a few roots, especially
when first put on dry feed. The next summer give good
pasture, put in the barn in good season in the fall and begin
at once to give about two pounds of grain per day until they
produce calves at two years old. A heifer so raised at present
prices of feed would cost $50.

“Will it pay to raise them so? They will be twice as large as
the heifer you can raise to two years old for $25, and will
give twice as much milk the first season. If you are so situated
as to have plenty of skim milk and will provide extra fine hay
and an abundance of roots, the cost for grain may be materially
reduced.

“During the past three years I have sold my youngest stock
off closely and have had but six heifers of my own raising come
in milk. They have been raised as described above and have
milked with first calf as follows: Lunde Burke in 10 months
gave 7,1364 pounds, was sick just before going to grass and did
not do as well afterwards. Clothilde Artis Raphaella 2d, gave
8,4214 pounds in 10 months, was milked three times a day for
about six weeks. Rag Apple Abbekerk Burke, nearly three years
old, 10,500 pounds in 10 months; Valley Farm Netherland,
8,412.5 pounds in 10 months; Jannek Bright De Kol, 8,953.6
pounds in 10 months; Valley Farm Pauline De Kol, 7,988.95
pounds in 10 months, the last two milked three times a day for
an official butter test, an average for the five two-year-olds of
8,192 pounds for 10 months’ milking. Does not the larger
production of first season pay for the extra cost of raising
the calf well? Another purpose almost as important has been
accomplished: The owner is proud of such heifers, is pleased to
show them to any one who may visit the stable and to tell of their
yields.

“ After the two important steps of selection and raising to the
age of production, comes the economical maintenance of a pro-
ducing dairy. The feed for our cows has been about as fol-
lows: Ensilage once a day and hay twice. I resh cows received
about 10 pounds of grain a day, which is continued with the
winter milkers until the milk shrinks considerably or the cows
show gain in flesh. During flush of feed but little grain is given.
Gradually increased as pastures become dry and short. Sowed
corn is fed during fall and until cows are turned into afterfeed.
The grain has been mixed mostly two parts sprouts or bran

Avpress By Don. J. Woop. 329

and one of gluten meal and cotton seed meal, the proportion
being varied somewhat. Occasionally some oilmeal is added. In
order to know how much a cow giving a good flow of milk would
eat, March 9th and 10th I weighed what was eaten by two cows
fresh last September. I estimated their weight at 1,100 pounds.
The grain was mixed, cotton seed, 100 pounds; gluten meal, 125
pounds; bran, 225 pounds. Each cow was given 10 pounds and,
besides, consumed 25 pounds ensilage and 18 pounds hay per day.
This gives 29.9 pounds of dry matter, 3.45 pounds protein, 16.57
pounds carbohydrates and fat 24 pounds, total digestible nutri-
ents, 20.07 pounds and a nutritive ratio of 1. to 4.74. There is
an excess of 13 per cent. in dry matter and of 15 per cent. in total
digestible matter above the standard for milch cows. One of the
cows averaged 35.6 pounds, the other 36.7 pounds of milk a day.
The ration has given me good results. I have milked 32 cows the
past year, three others for short periods, but their milk will not
equal the amount fed to calves. The total amount of milk de-
livered at the cheese factory, and the station from March 1,
1900, to February 28, 1901, was 287,857 pounds. Net receipts,
$2,701.16; an average per cow of 8,995 pounds milk and $84.41.
It is the best year’s work my herd has yet done. I expect to
increase the average to 10,000 pounds per cow. <A considerable
number will give over this quantity now, and I can see no good
reason why I cannot raise more to do equally well. As nearly
as I can tell the cows, producing calves in the spring, are fed
1,800 to 2,000 pounds of grain during the year, and the cows
fresh in the fall from 2,000 to 2,500 pounds. The average cost
has been less than $20 per ton. So that the average proceeds
per cow above the cost of grain is about $63.”

In conclusion, Mr. Wood cited the returns from. some of his
best animals, one of which gave over 10,700 pounds of milk dur-
ing 10 months, which brought $111.35.

Breeding Poultry Considered from a Fancier’s
Standpoint.

How to Propucr tur Brest anp How To Connirion IT.

A Paper Prepared for Cortland County Institute,
By T. F. McGrew of New York City.

The production of exhibition poultry has gained a position in
the live stock world that might be called a science. Experimental
work, chance shots, or the production of numbers and selecting
the best from the lot, will no more give us the desired quality.
Real quality must come through the ability of the handler so to
pair his birds that their offspring will be better than the parent
birds. Therein consists the real secret of success. It is worse
than folly to hope to secure even medium quality from poor stock
badly mated; it is also equally useless to look for good results
from a better quality if improperly joined in matings that are
unnatural and inconsistent.

It is quite impossible to gain the ability of proper handling
from any other source than experience. We may add to our
knowledge by study; we may improve, also increase, our experi-
ence from hearing others tell us of their methods, but the actual
results can come only as the product of practice. One is just as
likely to learn to guide a plow upon the parlor floor as to learn
to produce high-class poultry without the actual experience of
proper matings of an established line.

When I mention “ actual experience of mating an established
line,” I wish to impress upon your minds the absolute necessity
of building up your blood lines within your own yards. Many
of us would fail of success if allowed to select the choicest speci-
mens from the yards of the most successful breeders. This is
no reflection upon our ability; it is simply the results that natur-
ally follow the union of unrelated bloods, of which we have no
actual knowledge. Even if we had, all the information needed
as to their line breeding, we still would lack the necessary experi-

830

Breepvine Pouttry rrom Aa Fancrer’s Stanppornt. 331

ence that comes with years of mating and rearing the progeny of
these matings.

I do not fetere that there is a fancier in the whole United
States who can go into your poultry exhibition, if unacquainted
with the fowls, and select a pair, trio or pen of Barred
Rocks, from which he can produce next season the winners at
any of our larger shows. It is this continual mixing up of un-
related bloods that brings to the surface so many imperfections.
We hear the continual cry, “ We need new blood in our yards,”
from those who have not bred in line even for three years. While,
on the other hand, continual success comes to those who have bred
their stock in line for 20 years.

It is quite usual to attribute all the ill effects of bad matings
to inbreeding. You will often hear it said that size has gone,
the result of inbreeding for color. While this may be the pres-
ent condition of a flock of birds, it is the actual result of in-
breeding poor form and inferior size; for, if form and size have
equal consideration with color in your matings they are quite as
apt to improve as is the color. It is quite as easy to keep size
where it should be as it is to gain good color.

When we have fully learned that size is largely influenced by
the female, we will begin to discard, as breeders, all females that
are undersized. More attention will be given to the selecting
of fine, large, vigorous females for our breeding stock. The
more familiar we become with the real value of such females, the
more willing will we discard or destroy the small or undersized
specimens. If we absolutely set our rule against the use of small
or undersized females as breeders, there will not be any danger
of injury to size from line breeding properly carried on for 20
years.

At once we are prompted to ask: How shall this be properly
done so as to hold the vigor? This is the result of personal
knowledge as to the pedigree of your stock. The most absolute
knowledge of their breeding can come only from knowing the
hen that produces each individual egg, and in this way know the
sire and dam of each chick produced. If your fowls are mated
in pairs, and you possess three to five good hens, it provides as
many families as females bred, and he interchange of the sepa-
rate descendants from these hen will provide all the new blood
that can be needed for many years. If such care and attention
were given to their production, more fine show specimens would
be produced from a dozen good hens than are now produced from
flocks of a hundred.

902 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTItTures.

Ilow to Select and Manage Matings.

The real art of production begins with mating the parent birds,
and right here is where the majority of our mistakes are made
and our work destroyed. We may all be able to select our best
birds and to know beyond the shadow of a doubt that we have
our best pair mated; but this may not be a proper mating, and
most usually is not. Even our very best may not be fit to unite
as producers of better than themselves; for though lacking in
only trivial respect, they may both lack in exactly the same re-
spect, tending thereby to accentuate the defect in their progeny.
In mating, our aim is invariably to produce better than we have,
and unless we manage our matings so as to obtain our wish we
are liable to severe disappointment. With all fancy stock the
aim is naturally to move ahead and to improve what we have as
rapidly as possible. Take away that aim and the fancy would
die from want of a sufficient motive to keep it alive.

No one ean positively be told how to mate for results; it is a
problem which each must solve for himself and in the considera-
tion of which so many different factors are closely entwined that
it becomes a most complex problem, the solution of which must
remain a matter of the future, proved by experience, not by the-
ory. ‘The most prominent factor is the full and complete knowl-
edge of the blood lines at hand; in other words, of the material
available for the work which it is desired to accomplish. No one
who trusts to chance matings can hope to keep up with advanced
breeders who keep close records of their work and who through
a system of record-keeping are enabled to tell the exact value as a
breeder of every one of their birds. Guided by the information
gathered in years of scientific record-keeping, as well as breeding,
they know just where to turn when in need of any special trait,
and, leaving nothing to chance, their success is reasonably assured.

The one best or most appropriate male can form one-half the
pair-mating for five hens. The proper apphances or management
can fully assure us, beyond all cavil, as to the origin of the indi-
vidual ege, which can be numbered, and the chick produced from
same so plainly marked between the toes as to be always readily
selected as the result of any former mating. Many make use of
small yards and houses, all which are so joined as to make it
quite convenient to shift the male from one pair of mating to
another. Others use trap nests; while others have separate nest
boxes, from which the hens may be taught to select one. This

Brerepine Pouttrry rrom Aa Fancrier’s Sranppornt. 333

is a very uncertain method that carries with it almost equal dis-
trust as that which goes with yard-matings. Gtiesswork is just
-as good as any, if right; but there cannot be any assurance of
correctness that is based upon guessing the hen that laid an egg
in any nest, unless she is either caught in the act or a trap.

Learn by experience gained from well-kept records which pair
of fowls have actually produced your best; cast aside all possible
chance for mistake, and when you have gained this valuable in-
formation, continue to make use of these known producers and
their offspring; continue to breed from known producers only;
do not waste your time, room and food on those that have demon-
strated their inability to produce better than themselves. More
time is lost, money expended, many good valuable specimens dis-
earded through guesswork and lack of knowledge of their real
value than would build up and carry forward a paying plant for
the production of high-class show specimens,

Selecting from Thousands.

The desire for profit leads us to produce thousands for sale; it
also tempts us to buy for exhibition, so we may win the honors
that guide the purchaser to our yards. Of what real value is a
flock of several thousand that will not turn out the winners to
gain enough credit to sell their yard companions? The man who
can produce a single winner in strong competition from 12 or 20
raised has shown by far more skill than is displayed by those who
select a dozen winners from many hundred. We set the pace
when we run wild to secure stock and eggs from a noted prize-
winner. Our very determination to have some eggs from the
pen he heads compels his owner to increase the number of hens
in his “harem” to 10 or 12, giving us one chance in a thousand
for every egg we buy.

Perhaps one or two very good hens may be placed with the
most noted prize-winner to sell eggs from, but no breeder can
afford to lose the use of his own best females for a whole season
to supply eggs at 50 cents each, that may produce $50 or $100
birds. For these reasons, it is an absolute necessity for all to
study the producing qualities of their own and learn to pair them
so as to produce the best, rather than to rely upon the selection
from among thousands in our own or other yards.

Co
(ae)
He

Bureau oF Farmers’ INstTiItrures.

How to Rear Prize-Winners.

There are three propositions that govern all sides and phases of
poultry culture, as pertaining to the actual rearing of fowls. No
matter whether for the spit, egg production or show pen, these
same rules must be followed. Their very simplicity counts
against their proper observance and use. Of these three we have
spoken so much of that we fear an early attack of the three graces.

The first of these is good, comfortable, dry quarters for both
the breeding fowls and the chicks; the second, thorough cleanli-
ness in and about their quarters; the third, proper food and water
supply. If these three rules are strictly adhered to, the success-
ful rearing of your fowls is assured. If not, just so sure will you
invite, with open arms, the failure which follows.

If mankind is foolish enough to move his family into a new,
damp house for their abode, the chances are that the scourge of
diphtheria will visit his home, with its usual results; the same
ailments come to our fowls when compelled to live in damp, un-
healthy quarters. Good, dry, comfortable quarters is an absolute
necessity for success with poultry. No matter how cold it may
be outside, fowls will prosper in dry, comfortable quarters with-
out any artificial heat. A long-continued wet spell counts by far
less-against them, if they have a comfortable, dry place to go into
when so disposed. Whether cold or warm, absolute freedom
from dampness, as far as possible, must be the rule in the living
quarters of both old and young fowls.

Cleanliness is an absolute necessity. This habit of an occa-
sional house-cleaning will not do for those who hope for either
pleasure or profit from their fowls. No one ever has or ever
will sueceed with poultry unless they keep their henhouses and
surroundings in good sanitary condition. No prize-winner ever
came from ill-kept pens; nor profit from the egg production of
poorly-cared for or neglected hens. A broiler plant located in a
damp place that is allowed to become dirty will scarcely need the
assistance of an expert killer to execute the stock; they will die
of murder at the hands of those who might have saved them with
proper care. Why people cannot learn to keep their fowls and
their surroundings in proper condition no one can tell.

Food and Water.

There is no problem connected with the rearing of poultry that
will bear equal consideration with the question of: When, What and

Breepine Pouttry From a Fancrmr’s StTanppoint. 335

How Much to Feed? If we admit that the laying of eggs out of
the natural brooding season to be an artificial condition, we have
more than natural demands to supply; and while the best methods
of feeding for egg production is not a part of my subject, at the
same time I will say, our high-class breeding fowls need greater
attention in this line than do the market or egg producers.

Fowls kept for breeding stock should be well fed, so as to keep
them in good working condition. Their diet should be composed
of all kinds of grain, green food and but little soft or mixed food,
as it has a tendency to make internal fat. <A little mixed food
each day is good, but the tendency is always to feed too much of
it. Grain, seeds and bugs are the natural food for fowls, for all
which it is their nature to dig and hunt. If we wish the best
results, our breeding stock should be compelled to dig and hunt
for all they have to eat. You simply kill them with kindness
when you scatter food upon the floor or bare ground for them to
eat. Make them dig in the straw and seek for all they get to eat.

Plenty of good, fresh water should be constantly before them,
day and night, during all the months in which it will not freeze.
During cold weather they should have water during the day, but
at all times remember that an early drink of ice-cold water will
shiver them the same as-it would yourself on a cold, raw morning.
Hot water is not good for them; neither is hot food; both or
either, just a little warm of a cold day, is not bad. Hot food or
hot drinks create an unnatural heat, from which they must have
a reaction, both conditions very unnatural for a fowl.

Care of the Growing Chicks.

Fowls intended for exhibition stock should be fed all they can
be induced to eat, within reason, from the time they are hatched
until finished for the show. Don’t overfeed or gorge them, but
keep them so well cared for that their crops and gizzards are:
never empty. And at the same time have present a lack of full-
ness of crop that will induce them to hunt continually for bugs
and seeds. The continual exercise is of great value to them. A
poorly-fed chick will never make an exhibition fowl of merit.

The Exhibition Fowl.

The proper handling of our stock is beyond all other conditions.
Allow me to explain my meaning by citing an incident of the past
season: <A friend had 60 eggs, all laid by five Brown Leghorn

336 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

hens. One-half of these was given to a man who thinks, at least, he
knows how to rear high-class birds; the rest he kept at home.
Each 30 eggs produced almost as many chicks as there were eggs.
The result: On the owner’s own town lot, 11 grand, fine females,
one male selected, the rest all killed. Out of the 22 reared
by the other man, only one female considered good enough to
bring home, showing to what an extent the proper care of the
growing influences quality.

One glance of the expert’s eye at a flock of growing chicks will
tell him of their future. Whenever you reach the position that
ealls forth the statement of “I cannot grow my chicks to proper
size,’ you may depend upon it that the fault is yours. If you
cannot learn to remedy the evil, better give up the fancy fowl
business, for you have the proof before you that you are not a
poultry man.

To Condition our Fowls.

Good health is the secret of fine condition. All the labor that
you can bestow upon a fowl in poor health will not make an
exhibition fowl of merit out of him. Health and vigor are the
secret of success, to a large extent. Do not coop up and coddle
your chicks to be show specimens. Thick underbrush, for all-day
run, is by far better than to have them shut up in an improperly
ventilated house. The longer they can roam at will over field
and in the brush the better. Such life gives them the glow of
health that imparts the rich gloss to their plumage. When the
time comes that they must be penned up so as to become coop-
wise, try and imitate nature as closely as possible in their care

and food.

What Shall I Do?

Delivered at the Farmers’ Institute, Rhinebeck, N. Y., January 29, 1991. By Miss HELEN REED, A. B.
Rhinebeck, N. Y.

When the invitation was extended to me to address this meet-
ing on some subject which had especially interested me, at the
close of the nineteenth century, I selected one which may not
have any special reference to a meeting of this kind, but one
which I trust may not be wholly out of place, and so I will present
to you a few thoughts on a subject which should be of vital
interest, not only to every woman present, but to every man
upon whose shoulders rests the burden of the care of others.

We are living in a time of clubs, of conventions, of institutes,
a time when every one is interested in some particular line of
work. It may be art, philanthropy, social or domestic science,
but there is one question which every woman should ponder,
and not leave until she can satisfactorily answer, and that is, ‘* If
compelled to support myself, how shall I do it?”

Neither wealth nor social standing should prevent a careful
consideration of this problem. ‘The present possession of the
former is no guaranty of its continuance. Accident and sickness
and death invade every household, and not one of us can tell
at what moment the burden may fall upon our shoulders, and
no woman who respects herself, desires to become a pensioner
upon the bounty or generosity of those on whom she has no claim.

Some years back the public attitude was somewhat different
toward the self-supporting woman, and even, to-day, in the South
especially, there still exists the feeling that a man is disgraced
who will allow a woman, even though she be a most distant rela-
tive, to labor for a money compensation, outside of her home.

This attitude had two bad features. It took from a man’s
own family what rightly belonged to them, and it made a depend-
ent and a pauper of the woman who could and who should have
earned her own living. It made her life a burden and one long
martyrdom for which marriage was the only relief, and many a
woman was forced into a connection against which all the finer

22 337

338 Bureau or Farmers’ INstirurTes,

instincts of her nature revolted, rather than remain the recipient
of a grudging hospitality.

Let me say right here, that I am not urging all women to step
out into the world and assume a support which it is their privi-
lege to receive, and, I believe, that where it is not necessary, we
women can do more for the world by leaving the vacancies for
those who do need them, and that by thus lowering the compe-
tition and diminishing the supply, we can increase the wages paid
for the work. Neither would I lift one particle of the burden
from the shoulders of those to whom it rightfully belongs, for a
man never reaches his highest development until he knows what
it is to have others dependent upon him for their daily bread,
and from a close study of conditions existing in the factory towns
in Massachusetts and Connecticut it has been shown that almost
without exception, where a man’s wife was working to support
the family, that that man never attained to the best paying posi-
tions, and that he lost his ability to earn as the necessity for it
was withdrawn.

But my plea is that every woman should be ready to take up
the work that may come to her, and the increasing intensity of
the struggle for life makes it our duty to study the question as
to the possible and advisable lines of woman’s work.

There are a few exceptional women as there are exceptional
men who have no difficulty in answering this question: What
shallI do? They are so eminently fitted for certain lines of work,
that they cannot fail to find their proper place. But for one
Maria Mitchell, one Clara Barton, one Rosa Bonheur, there are
thousands of us average women, who must face the same ques-
tion, and who find it infinitely harder to answer.

Some years back there were but two lines open, teaching and
some form of domestic service. To-day, the profession of teach-
ing stands first on the list, overcrowded by those to whom it is
but a temporary occupation, by those who have no special apti-
tude for the work, but who are attracted to it because it is one
of the few occupations in which a woman can labor and still
maintain her social standing.

3efore we try to answer that question let us see under what
disadvantages we are laboring. -The greatest disadvantage lies
in woman herself — unwillingness to ibn to the necessary
training. Not long since a leading chemist offered to train a
class of women as apothecaries if they would submit to an ap-
prenticeship like men, but he received not one application. This

What SuHatt I Do? 339

disadvantage arises partly from our education, since from child-
hood we are taught to be dependent on others; consequently,
when thrown on our own resources, we are utterly incompetent
to compete with skilled laborers.

The other great obstacle in our way is public opinion. No
woman of refinement desires to attract the attention of a com-
munity, an honor thrust upon her whenever she engages in any
occupation not distinctly recognized as woman’s work.

To those of you who are trying to solve this problem, I would
say, first of all, take an account of stock. Examine yourselves
as to your abilities, your preparation, your natural bent and in-
clinations, but do not make the mistake of supposing that the
thing you would like to do, is what you are the best fitted to do.
Many a girl feels that she is a genius out of place, that as a nurse,
a worker among the poor, a physician, an artist, a sculptor, she
would be a success, when she is only, after all, a very ordinary
person dissatisfied with her present condition.

There is always one thing that each of us can do better than
anything else, if, having found it, we have the courage of our
convictions, and will put under foot the foolish pride that would
consider any work outside the professions as degrading.

Let me illustrate: In one of our leading colleges was a girl, a
member of an old and wealthy Southern family. Near the close
of her sophomore year word came that her father had failed
and that she must return home. The question immediately arose
among her friends as to what she should do. Teach, of course,
was the verdict, considering her abilities, her education and her
social standing. ‘“ No,” said she, “there is just one thing in
which I know I shail succeed, and which I can do well, and
that is trim hats; and that is what I am going to do.”

She went back home, apprenticed herself to a skilled worker
in order to learn the mechanical part of her trade, knowing well
that her work to be satisfactory must show the skill of the pro-
fessional, and started in business for herself. She announced her
opening. People who had known her in her days of prosperity
flocked to it out of sympathy and curiosity. But whatever
motive led them there, the beauty of the workmanship and the
merit of the productions, held them. She devoted herself to
her business. She studied her flower gardens for color combi-
nations; to her it was not a hat she was designing, but a frame
for a picture, and all the knowledge and skill and training she
possessed, was brought to bear upon her work. She Saiaeped

40 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Oo

her business until it grew into one of the largest wholesale and
retail establishments in the city. For eight years she remained
at her post, sent her two brothers to college, and at the end of
that time, returned to her own college, and took her degree. ‘To
many she seemed to be wasting her talents and her education
on hats, but she knew what she could do, and she had the courage
of her convictions.

A young girl who had a very sweet voice was being urged by
her friends to give up her trade as a dressmaker and give parlor
concerts. “ No,” said she, “my father would have made a splen-
did farmer, but he tried to be a lawyer, and he failed; my mother
loved to sew, but tried to be a teacher, and failed, and I am not
going to give up the thing I can do well for something I can do
only fairly well, and I feel sometimes that I would like to write
on my sign, * Mary Blank, dressmaker, by the grace of God,’
for I am not ashamed of the gifts He has given me.”

“T suppose I might call myself a visiting gardener,’
getic young woman in New Jersey answered, when asked about
her work. ‘ You see, nearly all the people about here have
garden plots attached to their homes, although comparatively few
ot them keep a horse. When I was thrown on my own resources,
I recognized these two facts, and, being fond of farming, deter-
mined to try working other people’s gardens. I secured a horse
and man and soon had as many gardens as I could manage.

“T take my gardens in rotation; that is, I break up the whole
of them in the autumn; in the spring I give them the second
working over; then I go back, lay them off, plant the earlier
varieties of seeds; so my gardens all come together.

“ One great advantage of my profession is that the pay is sure.
I engage to do the work by the year for a stated sum. Before
planting I consult the taste of the family as to vegetables pre-
ferred. Then my one effort is to see that the supply is at least
equal to the demand, and I can safely say I seldom fail to give
satisfaction.”

So I would say to you, don’t be ashamed or afraid to use the
gift, you possess. If you are fond of the care of milk and the
making of butter, perfect yourself in it. Look upon your work
with pride, and let your only shame be, to market an article which
falls below the high standard of excellence you have put before
you.
Better far a first-class buttermaker by the grace of God than
a second or third-class school teacher by the grace of nobody.

> an ener-

Waar Snatt I Do? 841

Take an account of stock also as regards the conditions exist-
ing in your own town or near-by markets. If a man in Red
Hook were to go in the violet business to supply the Rhinebeck
market, you would justly say he was lacking in good judgment.
But when many of us have to send out of town to get a first-class
quality of butter simply because the supply is not equal to the
demand, you would immediately say there is an opening here
for somebody. It is the people who take advantage of existing
conditions like that New Jersey girl, who made other people’s
gardens, who are the successful ones.

3usiness has been defined as the systematic effort to supply
wants, or to create those wants if they do not already exist. It
is George Eliot who says, somewhere, that the man who never
had a cushion doesn’t miss it; so, whenever you persuade a person
that they need something to which they are not accustomed, you
have helped to solve the problem. It was the desire of a woman
to have a Leghorn hat that started all the great straw-hat in-
dustry in Rhode Island, and our great express companies started
from just such simple beginnings.

When Samson was sent against the Philistines, the only weapon
in his hands was the jawbone of an ass, yet with it he slew a
thousand of the foe, and again, in answering this question, I
would ask, what is in thine hand, or, in other words, what busi-
ness is to-day furnishing the family support?

The majority of us may not be able to branch out in any new
line of work, but there is one thing that every one of us can do.
We can become so familiar with the business of husband or father
that, in case of sickness or death, we can step in and take up the
work where they have laid it down.

This may be a startling suggestion to many of vou, but is there
any reason why, if a man’s health fail and‘he be forced to receive
from the hands of others what he would willingly give himself,
a lucrative business should be sacrificed and turned over to other
hands when, by a careful training in business methods, it might
be retained in his own family.

The American man is, as a rule, full of chivalry and devotion
to his family, and often they are kept in absolute ignorance of
his business affairs through his desire to spare them all unneces-
sary worry. ‘Though this be done with the best of motives, it
is a mistaken kindness. Nothing in this world is more pitiful
than to see a woman past her first prime who has had every re-
sponsibility and business care taken from her, suddenly called

342 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTITUTES.

upon to face this problem of self-support. We all laugh to-day
at the woman who, when told at the bank that her check could
not be honored because her account was overdrawn, replied that
they need not worry, that she would draw another; but the laugh-
ter is of the sort that is very close to tears.

There is another class of men who maintain this same reserve,
but from no special kindness of heart — merely from their fancied
superiority to the members of their family, and from an inherent
coutempt for a woman’s business faculties, forgetful of the fact
that consultation may bring out some new thoughts and ideas on
that subject.

Now, it is no disgrace to a man not to be endowed with a
business faculty, but it is a disgrace if he fail unaided, when the
advice and willing co-operation of another would have brouglit
him success. In the home life there should be no question of
the superiority of the one over the other, or who has the better
mind.

When a team pulls steady and true you forget all about which
is the better horse, and no man has a right to sacrifice his family
to his own conceit.

Administrative ability is not exclusively a masculine qualifica-
tion. The brilliant example furnished us in this country in the
late Mrs. Oswald Ottendoffer, the late proprietress of the Staats-
Zeitung, who assumed the management of the paper on the death
of her husband, soon after it was started, and who left a fortune
of $7,000,000, shows that we, too, may possess a power which
only needs development.

To-day many of you men are haunted by the thought of what
will my family do if I am incapacitated for work. Would it
not lift some of the burden if you knew that they were familiar
enough with your business to go on with it, and would not their
minds, too, be relieved?

There is an accident to-night: A horse becomes unmanageable
and, instead of a man able to face the world, a helpléss cripple is
carried to his home, and not one of you has any guaranty that
that may not be your fate.

How many of you women here know enough of the work
planned out on your farms for the ensuing year to go on with it
intelligently? What fields are to be seeded with grass or grain,
the proportion of seed to the acre, the rotation of crops followed
on certain portions of your farms, where to sell your produce,
and where to buy on the best possible terms? Even though you

Wuat Suatt I Do? 843

cannot do the physical labor in these days of inefficient help, you
will be better served if you know how to direct.

Need the wife of the grocer be any less womanly because he
_ has taught her to judge between first and second-quality goods,
where he buys certain articles, how much of each thing is usually
ordered to meet the trade demands, which articles it pays best to
handle, whom to trust and whom not?

If poultry raising furnishes the family support, make poultry
raising your study too. If it be violets, do not be satisfied until
you know everything that can be learned about violets. If it be
truck gardening, make yourself an expert in that line.

While branching out in any new line of work might bring to
you unsought notoriety, taking up in this way what might be
called an inherited business will bring you only the respect of the
community and a certain feeling of pride in your courage and
success. Your business training will protect you against impo-
sition, and, with the knowledge of your fitness for the work, there
will come a habit of self-reliance and a content that nothing else
ean bring. You will be indeed fortunate if you never have to
face the world in this way, but I pity the woman who has to face
it with no adequate preparation.

There is another reason beside necessity why you should interest
yourself in something outside the run of your household duties,
and that is for its effect upon your own characters. A woman’s
work is largely made up of little things and constant attention to
petty details and economies, to the never-ending round of house-
hold duties that has a tendency to dwarf and narrow the mind,
especially when for days at a time there may be no contact with
the outside world, nothing to take you above the dead level of
everyday life.

An interest in something outside your special duties will keep
your mind active and will be an incentive to give your hours of
leisure to some real purpose, and I would beg of you to-day to
look this question fairly in the face, and so to fit yourself for the
possibilities of life that you can look into the future without fear,
secure in the knowledge of your own powers.

Why the Bov Leaves the Farm.

By Mrs. C. A. U. McCarray.

One of the principal reasons why the boy leaves the farm is
because the city wants him.

It is just such nice, honorable, willing-to-work boys as are raised
upon the farm that are needed in the city.

Of course there are and must be “exceptions to all general
rules;” and among the many boys raised on our numerous
farms, there must be some beer drinkers, some cigarette smokers.

These are not the boys who are wanted, either in the city or
country.

These are the boys whom we must put up with, because there
is no law for getting rid of them.

We tolerate their company, hoping, almost against hope, that
they will do no worse.

Many people have written upon the hardships of life in the
country, especially for the women and boys. These are the
writers who have either lived in the country under very unfavor-
able circumstances or, perhaps, they have never lived in the coun-
try or on a farm.

The hard work, chores, ete., which have given rise to these
outbursts of sympathy are the very things which give our boys
on the farm their independence, with regard to thinking for
themselves; and their fine athletic proportions and strength;
their physical as well as mental power.

Where is the boy who gets up the cows, night after night, and
puts them into their stanchion or stall, who does not soon begin
to calculate how to do this work in the easiest and best manner
possible?

Also driving horses before wagons, as well as carriages,
and riding the horses home from pasture or work, is just as 1m-
proving as a lesson from the “ riding school.”

Many a young lad shows his discretion and judgment in load-
ing grain or hay and driving the load down the hills, through
gates and bars, landing the load at last in a good position, near the
stack or in the barn.

544

Wuy tHE Boy Leaves tHE Farm. 3845

I have seen many a grown man who came from other countries,
where boys are not allowed so many privileges, gaze in open-
mouthed astonishment to see a young lad doing all this — and
more.

Ah! it is one of the most unfortunate things about city life
that the boys have so little work adapted to their abilities after
school hours. And how many we see whose parents seek a place
in the country for their boys during the summer vacation.

We all have heard of the many cities and villages which have
lately been obliged to adopt the “Curfew Law” to keep their
boys off of the streets.

How much more pitiful this seems than that once in a great
while some boy in the country, urged on by his ambition, should
overwork his strength, for I am sure no father of my acquaintance
has ever been anxious to overwork his boys.

On the contrary, I have known many fathers who have denied
themselves, and have worked under many disadvantages in order
that their sons might be kept in school.

And these sons, knowing of the sacrifice their father made,
were industrious, working mornings, evenings, Saturdays and va-
cations. Now, why shouldn’t the cities require the services of
such young men as these?

Young men endowed with strong physiques, made stronger by
plowing, reaping and gathering the apples from their own father’s
trees.

Often driving or even walking several miles on cold winter
mornings to the village or district schools.

We hear about the overcrowded cities, but they are not over-
crowded by our country boys; for if they are not able to earn
money, or if city life and city ways do not agree with them, they
can come back to the country and take up their old occupation,
not having lost their strength, for that was given with the “ fresh
air” they have breathed and the “ physical culture” they have
endured from their childhood.

Ah! friends, we sometimes enjoy these God-given blessings
without thinking how great and good God is to give them to us
so freely. Then there remains the fact that man is a social being
by nature. The building of cities and living in large communities
is but the natural way of living.

The isolation of farming life, as carried on in America, with
separate farms and scattered farmhouses, deprives the family, in
a great degree, of its social element.

346 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTIrures.

There seems to be no place where young men can congregate
for an hour’s social chat with each other. Even in our villages
there are no reading-rooms, no libraries, nothing belonging to
them as a class or society by themselves, except the ever-ready
barroom or the welcoming billiard-room.

Can we say that we are doing all in our power for our boys
and young men while this state of society exists in our town?

Alas! for the owners of fine houses and elegant drawing-rooms.
Let them see to this for the sake of their own posterity.

Therefore, it is but natural that our boys seek employment in
the city, and being mostly of honest, industrious habits, they are
welcomed by employers, and if the charms of city life do not over-
come these good habits, they are often promoted to positions of
trust and honor.

There are many men of my own acquaintance who are now
holding positions of trust in large cities, who look back to their
boyhood days, spent in the country, on a farm, as the stepping
stones to their present prosperity.

I will mention one family with whose name many here are
familiar, viz., Mr. Marsh, who lived on the farm now occu-
pied by Mr. Rugg, our Grange Chaplain.

Mr. Marsh dying, left a widow and seven boys, most of whom
grew to manhood on this farm.

All these seven boys have held, and all who are living now
hold trustworthy positions in business, and are honorable mem-
bers of society.

I could mention many more were it not that I do not wish to
be personal in my remarks.

I have mentioned this one instance, because there were so many
boys in one family; and this brings me to another point in our
subject.

Many farmers are living on small farms — farms sufficiently
large to maintain their families in comfort; but as their boys
erow to manhood and desire to earn money for themselves, they
have no opportunity except to work for some farmer by the
month, or to run in debt to buy a place of their own.

Either of these experiences is not enticing as a lookout, and
it is as natural for boys to strike out for themselves as for the
young birds to leave the nest.

Not many farmers are rich enough to place their sons on a
farm of their own as they grow into their majority, especially
if the family includes several boys. And as one and another

Way THE Boy Leaves THE Farm. 347

arrive at the age when their school days are over, they turn to
the busy marts of life, and, for the reasons I have mentioned, are
nearly always successful.

Now that we know why the boy leaves the farm, we might try -
to counteract this tendency by doing all in our power to make
farm life agreeable and profitable.

Let us as a community try and be sociable.

In the Jack of a library, let us form reading circles, and should
any of us engage the help of our neighbors’ sons, let us treat
them like friends and neighbors.

The real work of farm life is no more monotonous than that
of a shop or a store, and while we cannot, perhaps, dress as well
while at our work, yet there is no excuse for a young man not to
be neat and tidy. Even the shopman must don his coat before
going upon the street.

Then there is not so much risk of failure in business upon a
farm.

We never (or hardly ever) hear of a farmer going into bank-
ruptecy.

Mother earth is so bounteous that, if the soil is merely stirred,
it will yield sufficient to keep the wolf from our door.

And now, with the aid of our “ Farmers’ Institutes,” and the
many fine lectures upon profitable farming, stock-raising, stock-
feeding, farm-working, ete. (which the State gives us free); the
experimental stations and their reports (also free for the asking),
we should be able more than “ to stir the soil a little.”

With care and labor we ean bring our farms into a good state
of cultivation.

There are but few farmers who “ stick to their trade” but can
own and cultivate a farm by 30, while we find many laboring
men in shops who always live in the company’s houses, and buy
on credit at the company’s store.

Then, on the farm there are no strikes. No man is obliged
to lie idle because his fellow-man does not choose to Jabor.

No man is killed or injured because he desires to work and
maintain his family in comfort while the leader of the strike says
he must not.

You will observe that I speak of farmers and their sons as
belonging to the laboring class.

Tn this I think I shall be justified. And as labor is honorable,
T can see no humiliation in the fact that we are obliged to labor.

Rather let us strive so to do our work that it shall be an honor
to our name that we did our work well.

348 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

Our boys who go from the farm to the city expect to work.

Could we once convince them that the same amount of labor,
if given in the country, would buy them a home in the country,
then we shall have more than half accomplished our object of
keeping them on the farm.

Once convince them that their labor is remunerative; teach
them to do their work in a scientifie manner, so that it will be
remunerative, and farm life is so pleasant and so independent
that it will soon become more enticing than any other form of
labor.

George Washington, after all the many incidents of a long
and interesting career, retired to his estate and was happy in his
old age in Gentine his own farm.

Agriculture has always been an alluring aepiees since the days
of Abraham, the Patriarch of the Bible.

Never in the annals of our history has there been such an
opening for farming life as the present —such wonderful im-
provement in methods; so many nice machines to do our labor;
such splendid opportunities for learning — all this and much
more at our agricultural colleges.

Our papers brought to our door by the “ Rural Mail Delivery ”
makes “ Old Rusticus ” another being.

In fact, as we look around upon this pleasant assemblage of
young farmers and note how many here assembled have grown
up in our own community (young men whom I can remember as
boys), we are inclined to say: The boy does not leave the farm.
He is here in force to-night striving to learn the best way to do
his work. Willing to learn, willing to improve, may our insti-
tute be a help to him.

As farming has progressed so rapidly during the past decade
and farming tools are so much improved, may we not hope that
the work of “ tilling the soil” will soon be recognized as one of
the most honorable, as we all know it is the most needful of
our industries.

And our boys can stay on the farm in honor, comfort and
prosperity.

The Farm as a Place of Business.

By JouHn JEANNIN, Jr.

Much has been said of late about the abandoned farms of the
“Eastern States,” and the depreciation of value of farm lands,
the foreclosure of farm mortgages, that one not acquainted with
the facts would naturally infer that farming, as a business, is
somewhat of a failure, and that to invest money in farms or
farm mortgages is risky.

Why is it thus? We have the same sunshine, the soil is not all
impoverished, machinery enables the farmer to accomplish more
work in one day than his grandfather did in two.

The markets are better to-day than 50 years ago. Fifty years
ago, shipping farm produce 100 miles was the privilege of but a
few. To-day, the farmer of New York State grows crops to
be disposed of in Europe (with the aid of cold storage and rapid
transit).

The fruit growers of Florida ship strawberries 2,000 miles,
while the farmers of New England hold in cold storage pears
and apples for months, until their products command a better
price.

The dairy farmers of central New York market their milk
300 miles to New York city, getting more money for the same
than if made into butter. With these and many other advan-
tages that science and engineering have brought to us, we still
hear the wail, “ Farming don’t pay.”

Let us farmers look at this subject in a more philosophical way
by asking ourselves these questions: Do we apply the same
business methods and integrity to our farming operations that
the successful merchant or manufacturer does to his business?
Have we kept in pace with the improvements and possibilities
that are so closely watched by all successful business men?

Can we blame the younger generation for leaving the farm
for something that pays better?

We must euismbet this is a progressive age, and if we do
not use progressive methods on the farm, the best element of our

boys will seek success elsewhere.
349

350 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

Are we, as farmers, living up to our opportunities? Are our
homes and surroundings what they should be? Is our table supplied
with all the good things that our city cousins are so willing to
buy from us? Are we not depending more on luck than on
pluck?

I must admit it is very alluring to read of a boy leaving the
farm without a dollar and ending at a Rockefeller or a Carnegie.

How many of our boys have left the farm with quite a few
dollars, and end in the gutter — those are not mentioned.

Was it the business methods, the happy surroundings, the good
living, that caused their leaving the farm?

From a financial point, does not the well-managed farm com-
pare favorably with most mercantile or Besos GS pursuits? Let
us compare them:

I have in my mind’s eye a skilled mechanic working in a shop
in the city at $3 per day. Health being good, he will earn $850
per year, from which he pays $144.50 for rent, $550 for living ex-
penses, and $30 for coal, leaving $126 to lay away for a rainy
day (providing he has had steady work). If the shop shuts down
for two months his little savings are gone. It is true he has
no capital to invest, but his skill and labor is his capital, and
must furnish him and his family a livelihood.

Now let us consider the merchant, with a capital of $5,000 in-
vested in goods, after paying rent for store and clerk hire, allow-
ing he lives as economically as the mechanic, he must make that
$5,000 earn at least $1,500. To do as well as the mechanic he
must use business methods, not luck.

Now to go back to the farm. By applying the skill of a
mechanic, the business methods of the merchant, it must indeed
be a poorly invested $5,000, that will not furnish us a better liv-
ing, a better home, and as many dollars in our pockets than either
of the above.

Now, a word with the boys. Boys, on you depends the future
of agriculture, as well as all other pursuits. The boy who makes
himself useful and has the push and honesty to gain for himself
a good livelihood and the respect of a community in other
branches of business can succeed as well on the farm. Do not
look at farm labor as degrading or that the clerk in a store or the
skilled mechanic is superior to you in intellect. I know, from
personal experience, that it requires more brains to make the
farm a successful place of business than it does to make a skilled
mechanic,

Tue Farm as a Pract cr Business. 351

Don’t carry the idea that the world is looking for the farmer-
boy to shower on him positions of trust and honor. You must
first prove yourself of the proper material before the world will
appreciate your efforts, and I know of no better place on earth
to prove the same than on the farm. Reverses and discourage-
ments are met with in all pursuits, and there is no place on
earth that offers more opportunity for overcoming the same than
does the farm. Interest yourself in the business of farming and
its drudgery becomes a pleasure. Compare your privileges, com-
forts and enjoyments with those of the clerk or mechanic. You
will find the balance in your favor.

The same principles of manhood that enable a boy to resist the
temptations and allurements of city life will make him successful
as well on the farm as in the city.

The day is not distant when the farms of New York State
will be managed by the business farmer, who will manage the
farm for its comforts, its privileges, its independence and what
there isin it. It lays altogether with you boys to choose whether
you will become one of those who make the farm a place of busi-
ness, thus earning an independence, or swell the crowd of dis-
contented workers of a city.

Some few months ago I met a young man on the train, on his
way to Princeton, to finish his education. He had already taken
a two years’ course when he met with financial reverses which
compelled him to go back for two years to his former vocation
of chopper in the Canadian forest to obtain the money to com-
plete his course. He did not feel degraded to acknowledge that
he was a woodchopper. I parted with him, after wishing him
success, with a feeling of admiration and feeling satisfied that
any man with his grit and perseverance is bound to succeed.

Tf more of us farmers had the grit and pluck so manifested in
that young man, we would hear less complaints that “ farming
don’t pay.” We would find few abandoned farms, the farm
mortgage would be a safe investment, and the farm would be-
come a profitable place of business.

Address on Butter-Making.

By G. A. Smira.
(Dairy Expert, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.)

The past few years have worked a wonderful change in the
dairy business. Many sections, especially in the Northwest, have
witnessed the growth of this line of work from nothing to an
extensive business among a class of farmers who, less than 10
years ago, were raising wheat and corn and keeping but few
cows. ‘This change was brought about by the low price of wheat
and corn, and the small average yield obtained per acre from
growing these crops. Year after year a few of the thinking
farmers began to agitate the question of the necessity of making
some change in lines of work. Some of those who came from the
dairy farms of the East were inclined to take up dairying. The
agents of the dairy supply houses saw the opportunity and were
quick to take advantage of the conditions and to push their busi-
ness. The result of all this work has been the great increase ir
production of butter which we have seen. In most instances it
has been a success, from a financial point of view with those
farmers in the Northwest. They will remain in the business,
and we must meet the competition in an intelligent way or be
driven out. With all of this has come a wonderful improvement
in dairy machinery and a much better understanding of the under-
lying principles of butter-making.

The farmer in the new dairy sections has been willing to accept
modern ideas much more readily, and to put them in practice,
than has the farmer in the old dairy sections. The result has
been a much higher average standard for the butter of the North-
west than in the older sections of the East. With all these facts
before us, the question to be decided is — Have we reached the
point where we are willing to throw aside traditions and change
our methods to the extent of conforming to the best approved
plan of the up-to-date dairyman, in caring for the milk and method
of manufacture? In fact, work to secure the most comprehensive
knowledge possible of modern dairy practice? Very few people
have any idea of the importance of the little things necessary in

352

Appress on Burrer-Maxtna. oDe

the successful running of a dairy, for the production of milk and
the manufacture of butter and cheese from that milk. It is diffi-
cult, in very many cases, to get as good conditions as are desired,
owing to surroundings which are not easily controlled. In order
to overcome this as far as possible and make the business a suc-
cess, there must be a better understanding between the farmer
and the creameryman than there is at the present time, in most
instances. While it is true, in many places, they are working
together, and, where they do, they are making a success of the
‘business, in many of the places where they are failing, it is
because the farmer and the creameryman fail to see the necessity
of thorough co-operation at every point to secure satisfactory
results. One trouble is that when the farmer kept the milk
at home and made it up himself he knew that if he succeeded he
must do certain things and do them well; if he did not, there
would be trouble, and he would have to stand the loss. When he
came to take his milk fo the creamery for another man to work
up, in many cases he lost sight of the approved plan of the
up-to-date dairyman in care of milk and method of manufacture.
In fact, work to secure the most comprehensive knowledge possi-
ble of modern dairy practice.

One of the things we want to remember is, that the weakest
link in the chain is the test of the strength of that chain. In
other words, if one man neglects his business, doesn’t take good
care of his milk, he is going to determine the success or failure of
that creamery. You may say, “Oh, I don’t know about that; I
hardly believe it; maybe there is a little bit of bad milk there; but
when you mix it up with the rest, it isn’t going to do any harm.”
But, let me tell you, this is just where you will get the bacteria.
Now, for a few minutes, I am going to talk to you about some of
the troubles that come to dairymen through bacteria.

Many farmers have strange ideas about what bacteria are.
They have very peculiar ideas about milk anyway — that is, some
of them. They think that if they give the milk ordinary care
it is all right. Let me illustrate a little: At the station at
Geneva we have been working and experimenting with milk, and
we find that in our milk, taking good care of it, making the
conditions reasonably good —not as good as we could, but ordi-
narily — in a cubie centimeter of milk, which is about a half tea-
spoonful, there is about 8,000 of these minute plants. Bacteria
are not animals; they are very minute plants — the lowest order
of vegetable life. They grow very rapidly. When they went to

23

354 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrrures.

°
ae

=
~

the creamery and took the milk as they found it —in ordinary
condition — they found an average of 200,000 bacteria in half a
teaspoonful of milk. A healthy cow, under normal conditions —
if you can get the milk from her udder and not have it exposed
to the air —is said to be practically sterile; 7. e., if I could take a
sterilized tube and insert it into a healthy cow’s udder, and draw
the milk from it through that sterilized tube into a sterilized bot-
tle, so that no air could come in contact with it, that milk would
keep almost indefinitely.

The most trouble that comes to the milk is from the outside. .
Of course, if your cow eats leeks and turnips ——some of those
foods which have a strong smell — then that strong-smelling sub-
stance, in the process of digestion, is taken in by the breath and
into the lungs and so taken into the circulation — you get a smell
in the milk. But you don’t want to confuse the smell with the
great majority of troubles in the milk. When we understand
that most of these troubles come from outside sources; that bac-
teria are dropping into the milk when exposed to the air, and, in
most barns, under ordinary conditions, the air is full of them, we
can readily see that the resultant product, under the most careful
management later on, is sure to show the bad effects of such con-
tamination.

I would not have you understand that all these little plants
make trouble for us. If they did, the chances are that we should
fail, no matter how well the work was done.

There is one of them we must have in order to make good but-
ter and good cheese; that is the one that produces the lactic acid.
You know you can’t make a desirable product without it. We
always get this acid when we expose the milk for a short time.
The germ works in the sugar of the milk and the product is lactic
acid. The other thing that we get in the milk that doesn’t work
on sugar, but does on the albumen and casein, is the one that
makes the gas. You take a sample of butter and smell it. At
first you do not detect anything special; but, as you smell a little
more, you detect a flavor of stale grease. That comes from the
fact that some of these germs, working on the nitrogen compounds
of the milk, have affected the fat and given it that old grease
smell.

When you handle your milk in a way that some of these germs
get in, you must expect to have trouble with the product. It
doesn’t make any material difference if there are only a few of
them, and when they increase with the rapidity which ordinarily

AppREss oN Burrer-Maxtna. 355

takes place under those conditions, you are going to have a plenty
of them; and if all the farmers taking milk to the factory have
these same conditions in their milk they cannot expect to escape
having a bad flavor in the butter. But I don’t want to have you
think for a minute that these germs are any different on your
farms than they are in the creamery. They are the same kind
exactly. If a creamery is filthy, as I have seen a great many of
them — very little effort made to keep it clean, the drainage im-
perfect, all the conditions favorable to the life of these germs —
and you carry your milk there in good condition, it will become
infected by these germs exactly the same as on your farm. This
is what I mean when I say the creameryman and the farmer
must work together to obtain best results.

I saw a sample of milk the other day that illustrates this point:
It was secured for experimental work, and when the experimenters
commenced to work with it, it developed a disagreeable, filthy
smell, showing it had been badly cared for; and when they came to
follow it back they found the trouble was this: The man had been
straining his milk through a cloth strainer; and, when through
using it, he rinsed it with cold water and hung it on the side of the
barn to dry until the next time he wanted to use it. Bacteria can
only be killed by a boiling temperature — that is, the majority of
them — and when you do not expose the utensils to a boiling tem-
perature, but simply rinse them out with cold or warm water, you
make the conditions favorable for the growth of them. In a
temperature of 70 degrees or above they will double every 20 min-
utes. Under such conditions the strainer is simply loaded up with
these germs, and when one puts it on his can to strain the new milk
he simply washes them into the milk, and there they are in a favor-
able condition to grow. The next morning he puts the warm milk
into the cold milk and sets them going again, and when it gets down
to the place where it is to be used it is not to use. You can’t do
these things and expect satisfactory results. I have seen a good
many people who thought they washed their milk utensils very
clean, and this is the way they did it: They would take some
soap and warm water and wash the pail or pan and then bring out
a teakettle of boiling water and pour it into the first dish. That
would be sealded well; then they would turn the water from one
dish to another, and, by the time the last one was reached, the
water would be barely warm, with the result that it set the germs
erowing nicely in that last dish; and, when they came to put milk
in it, there were your germs already to grow to load it up, and the
result was tainted milk.

356 Bureau oF Farmers’ INStirures.

A good many creamerymen say it is not a good thing to have
the cream vat too clean; so they rinse it out with cold water and
run their cream in. In that way they use a little starter from the
previous day’s cream to help ripen the new cream. In this way
any little defect there may have been in the cream of the day
before, which did not show then, is carried along and intensified
day after day, until, pretty soon, when they send their butter to the
market, the word comes back, “ Your butter is badly off; can’t
get full price,” and then they begin to wonder why, and they say,
“ We have done everything just the same as usual, haven’t changed
a thing.” They have been carrying along these germs, loading
up, loading up, until it gets to the point where it simply ruins the
taste of the butter.

Just remember it is the growth of these little plants that did the
work, nothing else.

When it comes to the manufacture of butter, if you ask the peo-
ple in the Northwest, who are making a great success of butter-
making and who have distanced us in the Kast, how they have
managed, you will find that they have commenced with the far-
mers. They have got them to understand the necessity of cleanli-
ness, and they keep their milk in good condition. That is why
these people are succeeding in this business. If they use a
starter they have it made from either carefully prepared skim-
milk or by the use of one of the commercial starter preparations;
and when they put that in the cream and have ripened it, they
have developed the kind of flavor they want.

This afternoon I will show you something of the results of a
starter in the making of cheese.

Last fall I went down in Chenango county, where they have
been carrying on private dairying for a long time. Some of the
dairymen there are making up butter for special customers, and
they have made a great success of it. I scored the butter and it
was uniformly very good indeed. J had a talk with them, and
it appeared that these people, through the demands of their
private customers, had become educated to this point of keeping
everything about their dairies clean and studying the best methods
of manufacture. The result was a very high standard of butter
with all of them. And they were getting a good price.

The farmer, if he does these things, has the advantage of the
ereameryman, for he has only his individual conditions to control;
and he ean control them very much better than can the creamery-
man, with the milk of 40 or 50 diaries.

We can sum up the whole matter of making good butter and

Appress oN Burrer-Maxrna. 307

cheese in these few words: Cleanliness and careful attention to
the little details. Jf you will mind these things you will make
good butter; if you neglect any of them, you will have poor butter
as a result.

QUESTIONS.

By a Member.— What is the nature of a starter?

Answer.— The nature of a starter is to get a clean culture of
lactic acid germs; it don’t make so much difference how you do it,
if it is only a pure culture. Prof. Harding, the bacteriologist
at Geneva Station, secured a culture that would produce good
clean lactic acid and would not produce gas. You must get the
lactic acid germ that doesn’t produce gas. He took some of these
germs that he had and put into a little sterilized skim-milk
which had been heated to 190 degrees Fahrenheit, with hot water
around it. He kept it in a closed can for an hour and a half
and then cooled it down to 70 degrees, added the germ, and let it
develop. The next day it was a nice clean sour — not hard; it
should not be hard and crumbly; it must be a soft — just nicely
thickened, and to the taste a nice clean sour. Of course, you
can get the same thing by using either one of the different com-
mercial powders and make a culture in the same way, putting
the powder into the sterilized skim-milk and allowing it to develop
and then taking a small quantity of that to put into your next
sterilized skim-milk and carrying it along that way,

By a Member.— Do you recommend its use?

Answer.— Of a starter? I do most emphatically.

By a Member.— What is it for?

Answer.— When your wife starts her sponge to make bread
she puts in yeast, doesn’t she? It is on the same principle that
we use the starter in the cream. If she did not use the yeast she
would not have light, sweet bread; if she trusts to luck to raise
the sponge she would not have very good bread, would she? You
do the same thing when you set your cream — not quite as strong
as that, perhaps, but it is on the same principle. When you set
your cream with no starter you trust to luck to get what you
want; perhaps you will get it and perhaps you won’t. One thing
you must remember: Jf you have 1,000 lactic acid plants and
1,200 gas-producing plants, the 1,200 plants are the ones that
are going to carry the day. If you have more lactic acid than
gas, then the lactic acid will carry the day; but, if you have more
eas, you will get the after-effect in that old greasy smell. I don’t
think there is any one who is succeeding in making that high, fine

358 Bureau or Farmers’ INstTITures.

flavor of butter every day right straight along, but who is using
a starter. The market requires a uniform butter all the time;
it can’t be good one day and bad the next. When you put the
properly prepared starter into the cream, under good conditions,
it means that you will have good butter every day.

By a Member.— Do creameries generally use the Babcock test?

Answer.— Most of the creameries in New York State pay for
milk on the basis of the Babcock test; not all of them, but a very
large proportion.

By a Member.— How often would a new powder have to be
introduced in a starter in making 700 pounds of butter a day?

Answer.— You can carry a starter three or four months, if
you are careful; I have carried it five months at the station, hav-
ing made my conditions perfect.

By a Member.— I have an ordinary creamery, and have a great
deal of milk and cream that is brought, many days, in an all but
sour condition. In such a case as that, is a starter of any use
whatever?

Answer.— Why, of course, if you have so much acid in the
cream when it comes that will be a starter, and you don’t need
any more; but I don’t believe it possible to make a high-grade
butter under these conditions.

By a Member.— To use a starter in that case, would the failure
in quality of the butter come from the starter or from the original
milk?

Answer.— In such a case the fermentation. produced by the
germs already there, having gone so far, it is impossible to counter-
act the influences they have produced.

By a Member.— Isn’t it necessary to have a few bacteria in
the milk?

Answer.— Certainly; have got to have them, but we don’t want
the wrong kind. Let me illustrate: I go into your barn, throw down
some hay, stir it around and get the hay dust all over your barn;
then take a gelatine plate and wave it around, I will catch some
of these plants; the chances are I will catch a germ that is
called the hay bacilli. These germs will make the milk putrid in
a short time. Don’t you see, if you have these conditions in
your barn, it is almost impossible to make fine butter. When
cows used to be kept in the pasture and milked in the yard,
never putting them in the barn, then they had better, very much
better, conditions. The stables should be kept clean. In cer-
tain sections of New York they compel the farmers to keep
their barns swept down and the stables whitewashed thoroughly.

AppREss on Burrer-Makina. 359

Do everything you can to make the stables as sanitary as pos-
sible; use plaster to keep down the ammonia, ete.

By a Member.— Would you advise the average dairyman to
use a starter?

Answer.— Yes, sir; I should. In every case that I know where
private dairymen are using a starter, they are getting a very
much finer product of butter.

By a Member.— Do you consider it practical for the average
creameryman not to renew his starter but once in three or four
months?

Answer.— Probably not; just as soon as he gets these adverse
conditions in it he must throw it away and begin all over. Any
eareful butter-maker can tell how often it is necessary to make
a new starter.

I saw a thing the other day that I believe is going to be gen-
erally adopted in every creamery where they are making butter,
and that is pasteurization. J saw a sample of pasteurized butter,
and also a sample of the same man’s butter made a week before,
not pasteurized; the first was three days old and the latter a week
old. The difference between those two samples was simply mar-
velous. There was a perfectly clean, nice flavor in the pasteur-
‘zed butter, and in the other, there was a little of that winter
flavor — barn flavor —so difficult to get rid of where you are
making winter butter. Of course, if you pasteurize your milk,
you must use a starter, as you have destroyed the germs, and you
can’t ripen your cream without it; this gives an opportunity to
put in just the kind you want.

By a Member.— Will you describe the method of pasteuriza-
tion that should be used by the ordinary creameryman ?

Answer.— The ordinary system that is used in the State of
New York is what is known as continuous pasteurization. The
inside can where the milk is heated has an outside jacket with
steam around it. In most cases it is a flaring copper cylinder,
largest at the top, with geared fan arrangement to keep the milk
working toward the top. The one we use is an improved Danish
machine, and we can pasteurize 2,500 pounds of milk an hour.
In ordinary creamery work, heating the milk 156 to 160 de-
grees Fahrenheit is the usual temperature. We have heated it at
185 degrees Fahrenheit, but there you will get a cooked taste,
unless you cool very quickly after that.

By a Member.— What about the flavor of pasteurized milk?

Answer.— Milk pasteurized at 155 degrees Fahrenheit does
not change the flavor materially when it is cooled immediately.

Keeping Up With the Times.

By Miss Berroa TuckEerMAN, Bridgewater, N. Y.

It is with some embarrassment that I hear the subject of this
paper announced, fearing the natural inference may be that the
writer is expected to furnish a living example of an up-to-date
twentieth century individual, whereas a sense of shorteoming, in
this respect, is more the feeling that prompts toward the choice
of subject.

A reverence and love for the generation of our grandfathers, as
well as the remote past that les behind them, and a sense of
our indebtedness to them, that we cannot emphasize enough, is
most commendable.

There is a great revival of interest in colonial times, and much
is being done to preserve the landmarks of history, and every-
thing pertaining to industries that were once of prime necessity
and have now vanished completely. All this denotes a growing
feeling that the past must not be allowed to fade from sight, if
we would teach the youth of the present time the stern ways in
which the lessons of that time were learned, and its achievements
handed on to posterity.

We cannot make a better acknowledgment of what we owe to
the past than the resolve to make the present a worthy child of it.

The present hour is our time, and how best to use it, our
problem. This problem is not made less simple by the fact that
a wonderful age of mechanical invention has revolutionized all
departments of labor, for it is in the nature of revolutions that
they demand of individuals the most heroic sacrifice, that the
new order of things may be made to fit into the daily living of
the people. Whether we like the pace of rapid living, at which
life in this country is moving on about us to-day, or not, we are
in the current, some where it is strongest, others where the wave
is feeblest, and least apparent, but none may escape some degree
of pressure from the conditions of modern life if he would realize
the fullness of living. To those who have a living to get from
these times, when competition crowds the market to the wall,

the problem becomes one of greatest interest and demands the
2 ()

Kerrpina Ure Wits tur Tres, 361

best thought for its solution. The twentieth century stretches
before us, full of opportunities, open to all who have the heart,
brain and nerve of youth and health to offer up in unfolding its
vast resources. Success is for those who feel most keenly and
watch most carefully to see what the needs of the times are,
and how best to supply them. I am not wise enough to suggest
how the details of this problem may be worked out, for instance,
in the lives of agriculturists, but I have a feeling that the secret
of much of our happiness and contentment must come from the
knowledge that we are in step with others who are working toward
the same end, and that we are receiving help and inspiration
from those among us who are most conspicuously successful.

Especially for women is the outlook brighter than ever be-
fore. Many and varied are the occupations in which she is to-day
striving to do her share of the world’s work and realize some-
thing of the highest possibilities of life. Not less is demanded
of her powers of will and endurance in solving the complex
problems of modern life, than of her grandmothers of old, who
spun, wove, and accomplished such wonders of industry.

Now that the wilderness is won and. made to blossom as the
rose, there are numberless ways in which the work of women
is needed to carry on to finer issues the theories of education, the
refinements of home life, and the problems of household econo-
mies, suggesting abundant opportunity for the most intelligent
exercise of body and mind. She must manage her household
in the most enlightened way, and reduce to practical working
order the new and scientific ideas of the age. The application of
science to the various departments of housekeeping is the most
important and pressing question and is only to be solved by
study and experiment. That she will be equal to these demands
who can doubt? The many organized efforts:must bear fruits
of order and harmony in the next generation, if not in this. It
would be interesting if the X-rays could reveal the hidden things
of the future, as they do the inner workings of material things, to
apply them to the end of this century and see to what goal of
undreamed-of achievement the woman movement has carried the
sex.

This is such an era of new development and startling enter-
prises that it behooves us to be watchful of the movements in
the world around us, if we would keep within hailing distance
of the procession, and not be left hopelessly behind out of earshot
of the leading ideas of the time. It is easy enough to be dull

362 Borrav or Farmers’ INstirutes.

and eommonplace to take the line of least resistance, and relax
our efforts to better and brighten daily living. Not so easy is
it to act upon the resolve to make a certain amount of labor
yield the best results, to select and choose with wisdom the
things that are worth our effort, and set our faces resolutely
against senseless customs and fashions that absorb precious time
and strength, which turned into more worthy channels, might
add to the joy of life and wonderfully renew us for its struggles
and sufferings. New lines of thought, new methods of labor,
new ways of doing the daily essential tasks, are constantly being
thought out by the brightest minds.

Originality of thought and action is the gift of the few, but
it is a gift from these few to the many.

How much are we the losers if we fail to recognize and make
our own the best thought of the present time in the many branches
of literature, science, art, religion, industrialism, education, poli-
tics, agriculture, in fact, in all departments of life, especially in
that department which bears most directly upon our own field
of activity, and will help us to bring out the best possibilities
of our surroundings. ‘To us, whose privilege it is to live the
free life of the country environed, with beauty on every hand,
bathed in an atmosphere of natural purity and charm powerful
enough to awaken the most slumbering religious sense, nature
offers the means of life, health and happiness, if the sweat of
the toiler is equal to translate these riches into food, shelter and
raiment. How much more than these we are to gather depends
on the tastes and habits of each one. Close study of nature
in the natural sciences, botany, ornithology, or chemistry, re-
veals a world of beauty and divine law, that opens our eyes to
see with the poet Herrick —

“A present Godlike power
Imprinted on each herb and flower.”

It is very important to cultivate the habit of accurate obser-
vation. With it we hold a magic key, admitting us to a fairy-land
of ravishing beauty, and yielding a knowledge of nature’s perfec-
tion in the minutest details, that is most stimulating to the
investigating faculty. Once the habit is formed there is no end
to the delights and surprises that are in store for the enthusiastic
student of natural history, who has learned, as John Burroughs
so delightfully expresses it, “ to read nature’s fine print.”

Kerrring Ure Wirxu tur Times, 363

By keeping up with the times, I do not wish to advocate a too
ready acceptance of new and improved experiments, fads, novei-
ties, and the like. Until new things are proved a wise conser-
vatism is safer, if we do not cease to watch for and welcome
those who are to be the true leaders by force of intellectual
superiority. Eternal vigilance is the price of progress as well
as of success. The coming century will belong to the progressive
man, and we may define him as the one whose ideas keep step
with advanced thought and advanced methods, and whose work
is done on scientific principles. In his character rests the destiny
of America in her struggle for supremacy among the nations of
the earth.

Barn Construction and Sanitation.

H. E. Coox, Denmark,
>

We have approached a time in animal husbandry when stable
conditions must be carefully considered. Animal diseases are
coming to be troublesome. Tuberculosis has agitated our minds;
much of the time the scare has been unwarranted. At the same
time the disease must not be ignored.

In dairy sections cows are bred for performance at the pail
and not always the equivalent in constitution is bred with it.

Demand for winter milk has increased the feeding of concen-
trates so that cows are milked from 10 to 12 months, coupled
with the reproduction, annually causes a heavy drain upon vitality.
This artificial cow must have surroundings suitable to her de-
mands.

I have come to believe that many of the so-called modern
stables are not ideal.

We have talked and written much about warm stables, until
farmers built solid walls —in fact, a room unfit for animal life.

Then came a rage, and it is on yet, in order to overcome this
close feeling — of building large, roomy stables, giving each cow
1,000 cubic feet air space, ceilings were tight and 12 to 16 feet
from the floor. The moisture could not escape, nor could an
animal warm 1,000 cubic feet, producing that damp, clammy
feeling so disagreeable to man or beast. Many of our city
brethren who build cattle barns indexed their ability to spend
money by the height of the ceiling.

Heteradox though it is, I am of the opinion that the old-fash-
ioned stable, a lean-to on the barn, may have been as safe a place as
this so-called modern box, without sunlight or ventilation. It
is so easy to think that anything new is an improvement. Not
always!

In my opinion this question of tuberculosis will never be solved
by legislative enactment.

The cow is subject to the disease, always has been, and always
will be, when conditions are favorable. If we slaughter and do
not change environments, we must slaughter again. Then, why

B64

Barn ConstTRuUCTION AND SANITATION. 365

not take a common-sense view of the case and do with cows as we
have done with the human family? Why is tuberculosis de-
creasing In man? Are we less susceptible than of yore? Prob-
ably not! We are, however, taking care to provide against damp
sleeping-rooms, dress warmer, keep our feet dry, and do innu-
merable things, sensible and wise.

Give the cows the same chance.

The remedy seems to be three-sided — warmth, dry atmosphere,
secured through perfect ventilation, and the admission of the direct
rays of sunlight.

The first consideration, therefore, is size. Our authorities have
given us 1,000 cubic feet for an animal. This is easily twice as
large as necessary. The barns hereinafter mentioned are built
giving 500 cubic feet, but it is presently my judgment that a safe
rule will be the floor space only that is required for the animals
and their care, with a nine-foot ceiling, and no stable, for what-
ever the purpose, should be higher. For small apartments I
should prefer eight to eight and one-half feet. We have only
the heat generated by the animals to warm this space, and of what
utility is the warm air found 12 feet from the floor to this poor
cow that, if well fed and groomed, will lie down two-thirds of the
time.

Just what temperature is best I am unable to eay. A varying
temperature is unsatisfactory; that is, a stable where the outside
changes are readily noticeable on the inside. Keeping a cow at
60 degrees, then at 50, again at 40 and then because her milk or
beef finally reaches cold storage we give the cow a trial of it for
24 hours, always proving disastrous to the milk yield. She adjusts
herself very soon to those conditions, however, and does not do her
best at any time. I have formerly considered 45 degrees to 50 de-
grees a most satisfactory, temperature for northern New York, but
since being provided with a stable under control we have raised the
temperature with satisfaction, finding a range of 54 degrees to
60 degrees easily maintained. Being able to hold it within such
a narrow range seemed quite remarkable, considering the severely
cold weather so often experienced in Lewis county.

At this high temperature one would not realize by the odor that
cows or animals were near. One of our institute workers who had
heard me make these statements came to our place this winter
and remarked on the purity of the air. Temperature at the time
58 degrees. Said I: Mr. Taber, have I overstated it? Said he:
You have not made it strong enough.

366 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

This stable, shown as fig. 2, is built of wood. I am unalterably
opposed to stone or concrete stable walls, unless furrowed out
and ceiled. Narrow, matched lumber, one thickness inside and
outside, with a thickness of building paper and cheap boards be-
tween, providing two tight walls and an air chamber. It is also
ceiled overhead. The height, nine feet; width of barn, 36 feet.
Two rows of cows, heads out, are thus secured — as previously
mentioned, this secures about 500 cubic feet per cow. I might add
that the same lumber put on to form an air space, makes a much
more satisfactory side wall than double boards placed tightly to-
gether.

We have mentioned warmth first, but probably, from a health-
ful standpoint, the direct sun’s rays would be as important. Dr.
Law gives the death-dealing effect of the sun’s rays on tuberculosis
germs. It is commonly known that sunlight, direct, has a magic
effect in destroying many disease germs, and altogether a health-
giving tonic effect to man and beast. A careful study of cattle
barns over quite a stretch of territory, shows how generally this
important feature has been ignored. They are built with little
or no regard to points of compass, and what is worse, perhaps, the
amount of window surface is so meager that one finds it difficult
to make careful observation. I am unable to explain the reason
for such neglect.

By reference again to fig. 2 we see that with the southern and
western exposure, the direct rays of sun come in contact with the
animals from sunrise till sunset, with the exception of about two
hours at midday, when the more nearly vertical rays cannot reach
the opposite side. One square foot of window space to each 15.
eubie feet of air space does fairly well. Radiation of heat at
night is easily prevented by using a curtain, to be drawn in the
morning.

T'armers, let us take this matter into our own hands and not
wait until the Legislature demands this hygienic provision.

Prof. F. H. King of Wisconsin, has given the question of venti-
lation much attention, and to him really we are indebted for sys-
tematically working out and diffusing a system that ventilates.
The tubes are always right end up and when built with tight walls
do not fail constantly to provide pure air. Most ventilation pro-
ceeds from the upper part of the room because it is more easily
effected therefrom. The warm, dry air which we need is found in
the upper strata, the foul, damp air below. The smallest crack in
the ceiling does its work faithfully in lowering the temperature,
but not in taking out moisture and carbonic acid gas.

Barn Construction AND SANITATION. 367

One thousand pounds of live weight throws off daily, under vary-
ing conditions, from six to eight pounds of water from skin and
lungs. We are not to wonder, therefore, that closely built barns
are damp where no outside ventilation is provided.

The out-take flues should be built either within the barn walls
and roof and as tight as a chimney, or, if outside, an air chamber
to prevent condensation. This current of air, loaded with mois-
ture, must be kept warm enough, about 40 degrees, until it gets
out doors, so that the side walls of the flues will remain dry. ‘The
size will need to provide one square foot for each six cows. IL
think wood the most economical and safest material for construc-
tion. Being a nonconductor of heat, condensation will not so
readily take place. Build them tight. Start them near the floor,
carry them to the highest point of the building and cover the top
to keep out snow and rain. Provide each flue with a damper at
the opening, and also an opening near the ceiling that can be
opened when the stable is getting too warm.

In-take flues should be built very small, taking the air about
half way between floor and ceiling on the outside, carrying it up
and introducing it just under the ceiling. If these flues are built
on each side of the stable, provided with dampers to regulate the
inflow, as effected by temperature and wind pressure, the attend-
ant will be in such control that a very uniform degree can be main-
tained. .

It is also pertinent that a much more complete combustion of
food takes place in an animal when supplied with pure oxygen.
Charcoal cannot be produced in the presence of plenty of air, free
combustion takes place and only the ash remains. — It is not only
a question of health that we give our cows pure air, but a matter
of economy in food.

Cement Froors.

Much criticism has gone forth against cement floors, and justly
so, on account of being cold and slippery. I think we have over-
come these objections. From a sanitary standpoint they are ideal.
The old plank floors, no matter how tight and well cleaned, are
always giving off an odor from decomposing matter found below.
Space forbids anything but a brief statement of the essentials.

After grading the earth to a level and thoroughly tamping,
where the teams had not done it, the trenches were dug out and a
foundation laid of small round stone, three to five inches in
diameter, and filled in with a cheap erade of cement mixed with
five parts of sand. This was thin enough to run in between the

368 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

stone and form a solid foundation about five inches thick. Upon
this foundation, after it had set, was placed a finishing coat one
and one-half to two inches thick of American, Portland or hydrau-
lic cement mixed with two parts of clean, coarse sand. After it has
“set” nicely, take a small board float and rough the surface, that
is, wherever the rough finish is required. The hangers may be
troweled smooth. This roughness will depend upon the quality of
sand. While only clean, sharp sand will make durable floors, if
not coarse the smooth condition will prevail. We find also an
absolute necessity, the thorough mixing of sand and cement before
wetting — action begins as soon as water is added and mixing is
then quite difficult.

The cement is cold because it is a conductor of heat. When one
touches metal or cement, he finds it cold until warmed through
from the heat of the hand. Not so with wood, as a nonconductor
it soon feels warm. j

Without bedding, a cement floor would be objectionable, but the
rough, coarse finish will hold bedding to it much better than plank.
This thin sheet of bedding breaks up the easy communication
between body and floor and the animals are as content as on
plank.

No; do not fear a properly built cement floor. Only see to it
that your mason does not put a trowel to the finishing coat on the
platform and drive; of course, it may look smoother, but its true
efficiency has been lessened.

Keep the surface sprinkled for a time to prevent cracking and
you will have a floor as hard as stone and as tough as asphalt.

Below is a diagram of the standing platform and gutter with
dimensions which we find very satisfactory:

lbebiesen 8|__{6
18 in. 36 in. 15 in.

The stable shown in fig. 1 has cows standing heads together,
which permits of greater ease and economy in feeding, but what
is gained is more than lost in the extra labor required in passing
each side for manure and the extra width of the barn — six feet.
This same barn also represents the two-story structure, while
fig. 2 has all working parts on the ground floor. The only item of
extra cost found in No. 2 is the roof. Frame work is much
cheaper, not so much strain being brought to bear upon the tim-
bers. Of course, the same style could be erected with very large
storage above if desired. In this barn the posts are 16 feet. In

Barn ConstrucTion AND SANITATION. 369

both these barns, as will be observed, box stalls have been pro-
vided in the same room. No change of temperature is therefore
necessary at parturition or sickness, a valuable feature to every
well-ordered dairy barn. I prefer the partitions not above breast
high.

For best results, water must be had inside, not only for stormy
days, but the cows will drink better every day. The permanent
bucket system I did not like. We therefore adopted a system
that seems admirably adapted to the wants of those who do not
like the buckets. A tank is placed at sufficient altitude in the
barn to give force to the flow. A pipe runs above the cows, and
at intervals a tangent pipe with a valve and a hose, which is taken
off at will, carries the water into a light, portable trough, long
enough for five cows. Two of these are used at a time, making
short work of watering. The water is always pure, clean and
sweet. ‘The marked diagrams give dimensions.

These barns are not expensive, built from the standpoint of
utility. Barn No. 1 has been }milt 13 years; barn No. 2 one year,
aml from a sanitary standpoint I am free to say I do not know
how to improve it.

The silos in both instances are very conveniently located for
feeding. Large and convenient granaries are found in both build-
ings. In No. 1 a windmill does service in pumping water and
grinding, while in No. 2 water comes into the barn by gravity —
the most satisfactory when feasible.

24

Home Life on the Farm.

Read by Mrs. J. R. Moses, at Bridgewater (N. Y.), Institute.

The natural advantages of life on the farm would seem to a
mere looker-on to be ideal. As the traveler passes along he sees
the pleasant hillsides and the fertile valleys dotted here and there
with comfortable-looking farmhouses, which should always be a
haven of comfort and rest to the dwellers therein.

The life of a farmer’s family is one of unremitting toil, long
hours of work, with little time for rest and pleasure, and often
poorly repaid with the coin of the realm. If we consider the prob-
lem from the standpoint of the farmer’s wife, we will find much
to interest, much to improve.

In recent years many labor-saving implements have been de-
vised for her assistance, yet the work of the housekeeper was
never more complex or tiresome, and a condition is sometimes
reached in which the woman’s life seems bounded by the four walis
of her kitchen. The solution of the problem may be far in the dis-
tant future, but it will surely come. A step toward this end will
be the careful weeding out of those things that are unnecessary
to health, comfort or happiniess. Instill in the minds of the young
to be helpful in the little things that they can do.

Habits of order are of great assistance to the housewife; the
hats and wraps, books and games are just as easily put in their
place, as left where they were last used. If the living rooms are
in_disorder, the duty of regulating should devolve upon any mem-
ber of the family who may have most spare time. What is first
needed is to free ourselves from the false impression that develop-
ment of the. intellectual faculties alone can educate the human
family. Mistresses must be trained thoroughly to understand their
work in all its smallest details. It is impossible for us to direct
others to do that work which we cannot do ourselves, and no other
business or calling is undertaken without some careful preparation
for the work to be done.

Reform must begin with the upper classes, the daughters of the
wealthy must set the example and their poorer sisters will soon
follow. It might be unwise for us to go back to the olden time for

370

Home Lire on THE Farm. 5 al

our models, yet the careful mother of 40 years ago taught her
daughters many lessons that would be equally helpful to the girls
of to-day,— not only to keep house, sew and knit, but to take care
of the little things that may be needed in the future.

Much is hoped for, and has already been accomplished through
the recent movement toward the study of household economics,
first, by the schools in teaching the children; second, by interesting
the club women of our land.

The National Household Economies Association aims to com-
bine book culture with practical knowledge of how to live in homes
worthy of us — to teach the economy of time as well as money.

Some clubs have taken up the work of giving stereopticon lec-
tures to children, to show the contrast between neat and untidy
rooms, well-kept and neglected gardens.

The study in the schools embraces the proper building of houses,
plumbing, ventilation, sanitation and sewerage, and to furnish
instruction in all the arts and crafts that go to decorate the home,
industrial work, home nursing, household hygiene, and food
values.

Mrs. Larned said in a lecture before the New Century Club of
Utica, not long ago, “ In Europe they are in advance of us in the
matter of industrial education. No young woman is ready for
marriage till she knows how to run a house — even if she is rich.
They say that every young woman expected to be married, of
course, therefore she must be taught to keep house and bring up
children.”

Many people have an unfortunate habit of worrying; this may
be a matter of temperament, but it is seldom beyond our power
to moderate and possibly subdue. An effective remedy is self-
control, which is not learned in a day or a year, and never in a
moment of excitement. It may, however, be cultivated as a gar-
dener would watch and nourish a choice plant. Some one has said
that “ the martyrdom of the modern world consists of a long array
of thousands of trifling annoyances.” If we allow them to creep
into our lives, we are soon overwhelmed with care and sorrow.

We are living too fast, attempting too much, expecting too
much from ourselves and others. If life were more simple and
sincere, if high thinking were made possible by plain living many
of our worries would be at an end. Domestic fault finding is a
relentless enemy to happiness in the family. Never ridicule or run
down a member of the family in the presence of others. That re-
proof that is most convincing has in it most of sympathy.

372 Bureau or Farmers’ INstrrures.

A lady once got hold of a book “ How to be Happy Though
Married.” She placed paper marks in all the pages that spoke
of the duties of husbands to their wives, and placed the book in
her husband’s way, hoping he would be able to see his duty clearly,
and correct his faults. Turning to the chapters addressed to wives
he found the leaves uncut. Neither is it wise to remind the wife
that she is not the housekeeper nor cook that her neighbor Mrs. So
and So may be. The domestic adjuster who insists that everything
must be.done in the way he or she thinks best will never reform
the home.

Do not forget that “an ounce of Praise in the home is worth
a pound of Faultfinding.”

We are often strangers at our own doors. How many through-
out the farming community enjoy quiet visits with their neighbors
in their own homes?

A few moments every day spent in reading from the best au-
thors, would help us in many ways and at the end of the year the
result would be surprising. It would give variety to the monot-
onous routine of housekeeping, and supply many pleasant thoughts
to oecupy the mind while busy with the hands.

Our lives are filled with care, with quiet duties, and sometimes
heavy responsibilities, which we must heed and obey. Home,
family and friends should never be neglected for higher education,
society, or professional life. Ambition may be our most deadly
foe. We need not let our talents lie idle, nor neglect to make the
most of them; there is a place in the grand work for them all, and
usually at home. We are often getting the most when we seem
to be getting the least. The uneventful and commonplace hour is
where the battle is won or lost.

Aids to Success.

Speech delivered by Martin E. Ler of Westtown, N. Y., at Unionville Institute,
January 23, 1901.

The great problem of the ages and the burning question of to-
day, is, “ How to succeed?” Every generation of the past has
been confronted by this problem, and each individual is to-day ask-
ing the same vital question. Our ideals of happiness as success
may differ, but each is striving for that ideal we call success. In
order to succeed in life one should early take an account of his
stock in hand. For what is he naturally fitted? Jor what has he
an aptitude? Occasionally early in life, a strong bias of mind
toward some particular pursuit is manifested. It is nature’s indi-
cation of a calling and should be followed. Some notable instances
are on record: Benjamin West, when a child, robbing the tail
of his cut of-hairs to make brushes for painting, and with remark-
able skill sketching with a bit of charcoal the sleeping face of his
baby sister to the delight of his mother, showed what nature de-
signed him for.

A farmer who had a fine farm of 800 acres, with nice build-
ings, had an only son, and he naturally desired that when the
son should grow up he would follow in his footsteps and
relieve him from the care and management of the farm. But the
boy was in the habit of buying candy by the pound and selling
it out by the stick to the little urchins of his own age who came
into his mother’s kitchen, and with them a great deal of mud.
When he grew up his father could not interest him in farm mat-
ters, but he became a successful merchant.

So, we argue, to achieve the greatest success, a man should
engage in a business for which he is adapted; in a business of
which he ig fond and by nature inclined, and farming is no
exception to the rule. It is evident to the most careless observer
that, if the farmers of the present day and the future expect to
achieve any great success in their chosen calling, they must adopt
or pursue different methods of agriculture from those of
their ancestors. We all know that our forefathers were
the founders and homemakers of this great United States
of North America. They found here a virgin soil, rich
in its pristine elements of fertility, which gave to them

373

374 Bureau or Farmers’ InstrIrurss.

its strength or the accumulated fertility of the past ages,
and as a consequence they have left to us a heritage of exhausted
lands, the result of overcropping or mismanagement. It is so
in the East to-day, and in course of time will be so in the West;
he must restore the lost fertility of his fields and bring them back
as near as possible to their original condition; he must feed his
land, in order that it may feed him,

This skinning process is in vogue on too many farms to-day.
I have known farmers to raise three crops on their land, sceding
down with the last and failing to secure a catch of seed, allow
the land to remain idle for a year or two and then repeat the pro-
cess without any fertilizers. The care and application of the fer-
tilizers made upon the farm is one of the important things neces-
sary to success. No farmer is alive to his best interest who allows
a dark-colored liquid to flow out of his barnyard, to be washed
away by the rains; we must strive to make two blades of grass
grow where one grew before.

Here in Orange county the dairy is the principal source of the
farmer’s income, and on too many farms the only source. We
believe that by weeding out the nonpaying cows, by judicious care
in breeding and selecting his dairy a farmer can add $10 to $15 net
receipts per cow. Ona herd of thirty cows, it would make $300 or
$400 per year, the difference between success and failure in farm-
ing. We believe we should practice a more diversified farming,
not put our eges all in one basket, so to speak, but cast around for
every possible means of swelling the income. Every farmer should
keep enough hens to buy his groceries. One of the greatest troubles
with farmers is, they do not depend sufficiently upon their own
farms for subsistence; they have an idea that they can buy many
things cheaper than they can raise them. This is well, if they
raise something a great deal more profitable and make the ex-
change.

The successful farmer will apply business to farming; he will
keep an account of his receipts and expenses. There is a mine
of truth in those words of John Randolph, when he said: “ Mr.
Speaker, I have found the philosopher’s stone; it is, ‘Pay as
you go.” Suceess in farming depends upon the farmer himself
more than anything else, upon his industry, frugality, tact and
judgment, or, in other words, his methods; he must be a good
buyer and a good seller, a director of labor — in short, a business
man. The Farm Journal says that the door of success has “ Push ”
on it, and we believe that the same amount of intelligence, effort,
tact and good judgment that is necessary to work a success in other

Ars to Success. 375

branches of business, if applied to farming, will bring the desired
results.

We have reached an epoch in our history when every branch
of industry in our country is organized for mutual protection,
save that of agriculture. The result is patent to all. Seven
millions of farmers live beneath the stars and stripes. Com-
plete union, organization and co-operation on the part of these
farmers would make them the most independent and powerful
people of our great National Union. Then, again, we can be ma-
terially assisted by proper legislation. Three-fourths of the coun-
ties of our State have agriculture as their predominating interest,
yet for years, the lawyers, the doctors and the saloon- icons have
been almost the exclusive lawmakers. Probably not more than one-
tenth of our legislators are farmers. Now, the farmer ought to
have enough politics in his make-up to look out for himself.

Farmers, the absorbing theme is this: Have the last 50 years
proved advancement in agricultural lines as in other branches of
industry ? Have we kept up with the band wagon? Are we, with
the noblest calling on earth, keeping step with the upward and on-
ward march of the age in which we live? We have made progress,
it is true; but the vital demand to-day is for better farmers, nicer
farms, purer stables, cleaner milk, better butter, more attractive
homes and sweeter firesides. Let us rise to a higher appreciation of
our calling. Let us compel more of the head and less of the hands
to accomplish our mission. Let us then enter every open door that
leads to a better education, a better comprehension of the duties
of our arduous calling. Let us tell our boys and girls that the
highest physical development, the purest society, the most enlight-
ened citizenship still lingers in country life. In the town in which
we reside there are homesteads which have been handed down from
father to son for over a century, and our love and reverence for
them is something akin to that which Hawthorne had for old
Salem as he expresses it in the “ Scarlet Letter.” He says: “It
is now two centuries and a quarter since the original Briton bear-
ing my name first came to this town, and here his descendants have
been born, have lived and died, and have mixed their earthly sub-
stance with the soil until no small portion of it must necessarily
be akin to this mortal frame wherewith for a little time I walk
these streets; ”’ or, in other words, he means to say that for 225
years so many of his ancestors have been born and lived and died
in old Salem that the soil of the town was like his own body. Then
let us hold fast and hope for better days. Occasionally we catch
glimpses of the sunshine, the advance guard of prosperity.

Social Life on the Farm.

A paper read by Mrs. J. HE. MippAuvan of Belmont, N. Y., at the Cuba Institute.

It is better to be born lucky than rich; then you will likely be
both. To know how to enjoy life, to rejoice and be glad, is a
well-spring of pleasure and nature’s own riches. Happy people
are, I think, like poets, born, not made. If you are one of these
happily-constituted people there is plenty to sce and to do, and
even a country neighborhood is never dull. If there is a wedding,
you think the bride looks lovely, and you hope she will see her
golden wedding. If a man dies, you stand with his children
around his grave and hear with them the thud of the first earth
on his coffin. If a child is born, you say pleasant things. With
the school children you go out in the lovely fields, set tables under
the trees and have a picnic. In a grassy nook in the forest you
build a fire and cook a gipsy dinner to the delight of your guests
from town. ‘They also enjoy a visit to the maple-sugar camp in
the spring. You keep Arbor Day and pass a subscription on which
men sign the number of trees they will bring and set out on the
school grounds, and you soon have a grove of young elms and
maples. “ A thing of beauty is a joy forever; ” and children will
play in their shade and birds sing in their branches.

You see horses that have plowed many fields and drawn many
heavy loads, gentle and patient workers, kind and faithful servants,
eventually the slaves of cruel men. You enlist the children and
form a band of mercy. You hear a neighbor woman is very ill.
You sit by her bed in the silent night and, although she talks
with you, you know she will soon cross the dark river. You meet
the children Sunday morning and recite with them “ Though I
walk through the valley of the shadow of death I will fear no
evil.” You get up a drama with recitations and music and have a
school exhibition. You see poor Fatima with the stolen keys, at
the feet of Bluebeard, and have a tableau party. One evening
in the week you read history and biography, discuss questions an@
have a lyceum. ‘The questions are not all political. The children
help you decide if the crow ought to be killed for pulling up the

corn, or if he does more good than harm in his long life, and
376

SociaL Lire on tue Farm. 377

really is he, in some countries, called a vulture. And the skunk —
ought he to have a chance to live, he eats so many worms that
would injure grain and orchards — but he eats the eggs of the
ground birds and they, too, eat worms, if they can live. And
once a year you go to the fair, the county fair. Is that passé
and always the same? Tous, perhaps, but how new and wonderful
to the children, and they should all go, there is so much to see and
learn. One boy notices the machines, and how they differ from
those at home; one the cattle and sheep and the paintings, the
beautiful pictures; while the little girl likes the grandstand, be-
cause she is interested in horses and still more in people. It is
new and interesting to them and is part of their education, and
you will never begrudge the time or the money years after, when
you look back. And you go to the circus with its trained animals
— seen in one brief day — but talked about for weeks and months
and perhaps years after by the children and their mother. Not to
see it seems like defrauding them of pleasure they might have
had. There may be evil in a circus, but children will not notice
it much if their fathers and mothers are with them, and call their
attention to the good and not the bad.

You have Christmas trees, where every child in the neighbor-
hood has something; and Thanksgiving dinners, when the children
come home and you invite old friends and new. ‘“ You are the
first one who ever invited me to Thanksgiving dinner and asked
me to bring all the children,” says a lady, “ and I was so glad. I
would rather stay at home with them than come without them.”

A good many years ago three children were burned to death in
a home in Elmira, while their father and mother were gone to a
dance. The next morning they were looking for their bones in the
ashes, and the husband said to the wife: “I£ you had stayed
at home and taken care of your children they would:not have been
burned up; ” and the wife replied: “ If you would have stayed at
home with me IT should not have wanted to go.” Many interests
in a community are great, but greatest of all are the children,
for on them the future of the world depends. They eare for your
sympathy and your company, now, while they are young, but if
they do not have it, and get other friends, later they do not care.
Do not worry them with fault finding or needless commands;
troubles will come soon enough, which you cannot help them
bear. The gulf of absence will open between you.

378 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

“And now the honest farmer packs his apples up for town,
And this is the way they look on top,

O72 ENO) SAD 0)
OO AO) Oo es)
OF OOF. Orage)
And this way further down.”
O70! JO 10" OO
O08 (OOF 0" 20
OOF 0) FO 05 10
O00) 0) = 70) 10-50

There is never an effect without a cause, and why is the farmer
caricatured in the newspaper? On the stage he is ‘‘ Uncle Josh.”
Ts it not because the unwritten laws of courtesy he often refuses
to learn? Rivalry is not considered a high motive, but, to raise a
heavy weight, we must have some kind of a lever.

You may have all heard the story of the two rival farmers.
When one built a fine barn the other built a finer. When one got
a nice herd of cattle the other got one nicer and more expensive.
It went on in this way until one of them got in the cemetery and
the other rode past and saw his monument, on which was in-
scribed, “ Snug as a bug ina rug.” He ordered a monument for
himself, taller and nicer every way, and on it had inscribed,
“ Snugger than the other bugger.”

To make your home nicer than your neighbor’s is not a high
ambition, but it helps a community and increases the value of
real estate, and we should not be discouraged. Rural society is
better than it- was. People do not display their grief as much.
A funeral is no longer “a howling success,” even in the back
neighborhoods. You need not be the slave of the woman who
wants to borrow flour and sugar and oat meal and coffee and eggs
and the flatirons all the same day. Or the woman who visits you
twice a week (on her own invitation) and stays to dinner and
supper, and then goes and tells all the wide world, who will listen
to her, everything that is said and done in your house. The
sacredness of home is nothing to her. The husband may make or

fod

SociaL Lire on rue Farm. 3879

mar the outside fortunes of a family, but the social standing gen-
erally depends on the wife. It is her prerogative to invite the
guests and this right should never be invaded.

It has been said the negro of the South will never be a better
man until he has a better mother. The farmer’s wives must be-
come civilized and enlightened if they would bring their families
to a higher plane. “ The fault is in ourselves, not in our stars,
dear Brutus,” and life on the farm, like life anywhere, is mostly
what we make it.

Heredity.

An address before the Stockbridge Institute, by Mrs. Lisstzs McGuinness of
Munnsville.

I read an article recently, from the pen of a bright woman, in
which she said that, if she could have the best wish of her heart
granted by a kind Heaven, it would be that she might have her
choice of ancestors.

Well, we cannot have that. We cannot “go back of the re-
turns,” but must stand as we are elected.

Our forefathers and foremothers are facts, and we must take
what we have inherited from them, with the best grace we may.
Let us hope that, in some cases, it will be a fighting grace.

But the subject is one which every one will do well to think
upon, especially those who have children, and the young people
themselves.

Heredity is a well-established fact in the animal kingdom.
Farmers and stockmen are quick to note and take advantage of
its laws, and to act with good sense and judgment in regard to
the inheritance of qualities in their herds. :

The intelligent farmer will gravely warn his son of the danger
of introducing certain families or strains among his animals, and
affirm that form, disposition, and qualities are hereditary, and
that he should carefully study the subject of heredity, and act ac-
cording to its laws, if he wishes the best success; but, when it
comes to the young man’s choice of a wife, too often the father’s
first question will not be, “ What will she inherit in the mental,
moral, and physical line?” but, “ What will be her inheritance
in bonds, stocks, lands, mortgages, or ready money ?”

To be sure, the bequest of wealth may denote honest thrift on
the ancestor’s part, and then, again, it may not; and it is gener-
ally said that the money acquired by meanness, fraud, and avar-
ice, is more often a curse than a blessing to the heir.

The best thing a child can have is a noble, good father and
mother; and the next best, I take it, to be good grandparents; and
if, for generations back, there have been virtue, honor, goodness,
industry and intelligence, has not that child a good prospect of
a grand inheritance ?

380

Hereptry. 881

T once heard a woman say impatiently to a petulant child, “ Oh,
yowre just like your grandfather” (on the father’s side, of
course), and who could blame the pert little miss for replying,
“Well, who’s to blame for my having such a grandfather? I
guess I’m not; I didn’t pick him out!” Of course, she was not
to blame, and she felt dimly the injustice of the reproof. Her
mother might have felt that her own choice of a husband threw
the moral responsibility for the child’s nature partly upon herself.

Every generation has a direct influence on three generations,
their own, their children, and their grandchildren.

The old adage, “ Like father, like son,” has an extended mean-
ing. It is now said that traits of character are more often repro-
duced in the third generation, so the saying may read, “ Like
grandparents, like grandchildren.”

People naturally train their children as they were trained.
Their children grow used to such an atmosphere. Their heredi-
tary nature grows into form according to their habit of life. I
often think a child’s nature is, at first, like some of their bones,
in a cartilaginous state, which in time becomes bone. Their na-
tural tendencies, good or otherwise, harden into the principles of
their life, and so much depends on whether they are developed
rightly, left to grow wrongly or distorted by unwise pressure. It
is the old question: Which is stronger, Nature or Education ?
But let me ask the question: Which is the most likely to pro-
duce a noble specimen of manhood or womanhood, one where edu-
cation has a constant struggle against nature with a possible chance
of failure after all; or, one where nature and education are in
sympathy and work together ?

Oliver Wendell Holmes showed his belief in the laws of hered-
ity, when he replied to the question, “ When should the education
of a child begin?” by saying, “ Two hundred years before he is
born.”

A young lady once said, when remonstrated with in regard to
the questionable character of her lover’s family, that “she cared
a great deal more where a young man was going to, than where
he eame from; ” but it sometimes makes a deal of difference how
the family line is “ headed.”

But, says one, “ I do not believe in heredity. Look at the lives
of some who were of disreputable origin, surrounded with evil
influences, yet see what noble characters they have built up; far
better than many who have had the most favorable environments.”

382 Boureav or Farmers’ Instrrrures,

That is true; but from some far-off ancestor may have come
the very noble qualities that saved him. As Mrs. Whitney says:
“ We do not always know just where our ties and braces are.” It is
often said that no one is wholly bad, and we have as good a chance
to inherit the good qualities as the bad ones.

-The Bible speaks of the sins of the fathers being visited on the
children, even to the third and fourth generation.

That used to seem to me a bitter, cruel judgment on the chil-
dren. Now I do not look on it as a judgment, but as a conse-
quence, based on the law of heredity.

I cannot believe that we inherit direct evil, but we may, and
do, inherit natures susceptible in a marked degree to certain good
or evil influences. I cannot say that I believe a boy inherits
drunkenness, but he can inherit a social nature, a weak will, small
conscientiousness and a nervous organization that renders him an
easy victim to drink, as his father may have been before him.
And what a struggle he has before him if he conquers; as he can
and should.

We all pity the man with a weak, shallow, vain, heartless, shift-
less wife, or the woman with a coarse, brutal, selfish husband;
but may God pity the children of such, for He only knows how
they have been robbed of their birthright; the heaven-born right
of innocent childhood to such sweet, pure, noble influences as shall
fit them for the higher life.

T ought to believe in heredity; my grandparents on the maternal
side were cousins. Among the prominent family traits were im-
pulsiveness, plain speaking, and a keen sense of the ludicrous.
Don’t T know how hard it has been all my life to think a thing
strongly, and not say it, and of the times when I have been
overcome with a sense of the ludicrous, even amid the gravest sur-
roundings, and probably shocked many staid, sober people, per-
haps by laughing in meeting. Of course, they blamed me, never
realizing that I was the victim of the concentrated natures of
my ancestors; but, as Henry Ward Beecher once said, they
wouldn’t have censured me so much for what I said or did, if
they had known what a deal I kept back.

Well, I don’t lay all my foolishness to my poor grandparents.
They probably never anticipated such results; but this subject is
one in which every parent, every young man or woman, old enough
to think understandingly, should take a serious interest.

I do not believe there is a right-minded young man or woman,

Herepiry. 383

who does not sometimes think of the time when little children
shall come to them as Heaven’s blessing. That is nature’s plan
of life and love. It is your solemn duty to think upon what so
much of your future happiness, as well as that of others, depends.
If you have “ weak streaks” in your nature, do not choose a life
companion with the same failings.

We say of vicious people, “ It runs in the family,” but do not let
it run in your family, and do not marry one of feeble intellect.
Feebleanindedness is almost certain to be handed down to some
one.

One cannot blame a foolish person so much for wishing to marry
a bright one, but I do blame a bright man or woman for marrying
a fool. J once had a pupil, a pretty young girl, who came of a
family which was, for generations, with now and then an excep-
tion, noted as being below the average in intellect. I well re-
member working faithfully for weeks to teach her some simple
mathematical principles, yet I never succeeded. I have since heard
that she married and was the mother of several children, all of
whom were below the average in mentality. Ask yourselves, when
about to make a choice of a companionship for hfe, what will their
mental, moral and physical inheritance be ?

And may your children’s children rise up and eall you blessed,
as the possessor of intelligent judgment and good common sense
in your selection of their ancestors,

Home Life on the Farm.

Miss Maaaig 8S, KeEeLer, Grooms, N. Y.

Thus far during our Institute we have been very pleasantly and
profitably entertained by discussing business methods, financial
questions of intense importance, and the science of farming as it
has been worked and studied with all the implements of intellectual
husbandry.

But let us for a short time lay aside the mercenary problems
with which we have been wrestling and consider some of the deeper
things of life. While we esteem money one of, the choicest bless-
ings that can be entrusted to our eare, yet it is not the fundamental
or essential factor of that rare gift — true happiness.

We will most cheerfully yield to our city neighbor, all honor
and eredit due for her halls of learning, her commercial suprem-
acy, and her social prestige.

But the home life on the farm has its melody and mirth. The
poet says: “ The woods, and winds, and waters sing to us.”

It has those loftier helps which only nature can impart, those
softer influences which speak to us through every flower and tree
and sparkling brook and forest bold. They seem to say, ‘“ God is
in me.” They tell us that a large per cent. of our eminent men
and women come from the farm. I sometimes wonder that the
ratio is not even greater, when we consider the environments of the
youth on the farm. “ All nature is his heritage.”

Turn backward in your memories with me for two centuries or
more and we will look over the history of this proud land of ours.
The past is useful to us for the lessons it has taught.

When our Pilgrim Fathers landed on the bleak New-England
shore they reared for themselves homes, sheltered by those rugged
hills, and brightened by freedom’s skies. As we search a litle
farther and look inside their modest dwellings, there may be seen
the matron seated at the spinning wheel. And in the homes of the
early settlers of New York, the Dutch, we take a shy glance at the
maiden serubbing her floors until they are of silvery whiteness;
burnishing the brass knocker in readiness for her favorite gallant.
The evenings were usually spent at home. The father sitting bv

384

Home Lire on THE Farm. 385

the open firepl:..c giving counsel and advice, or the family listen-
ing to mother as she reads from the open Bible, teaching them
the way of truth.

The lives of our primitive American boys and girls were nurtured
and developed in the home. And there came forth from those
homes, men and women with strong characters, with a burning zeal
for liberty, a patriotism unlimited. Men who framed the Declara-
tion of Independence and wrote the Constitution of these United
States.

And though the women could not don the breast-plate and the
helmet, nor wield the sword, they strove not to be great, but
good. And to the battlefield they went, with aid and love, and
tenderest sympathy. Others remained at home, and worked and
prayed until the victory was ours. America was free.

Note then the premium which must be put upon the influence
exerted in the home.

But time has changed these scenes. “ All is changing except
the laws fixed by the wisdom of God.”

And while the home life of to-day is vastly different from the
home life of 200 years ago, yet the home influence remains the
same. The spinning wheel has been removed from the corner,
the loom is missing from the shed. The open fireplace is closed.
Inventive genius has given to the housewife much to beautify her
home and lighten her labors.

In these latter days there has been handed down to us many
helpful organizations outside the home to broaden and gladden
our lives. The public school system of to-day is more nearly per-
fect than ever before. The Sunday school which it is our privilege
to enjoy has been with us a little more than a hundred years. All
the societies of church and State and business are worthy of the
highest words of praise; however valuable they may be, they can
never take the place of home. Home memories cleave to us, go
where we will. And mother’s teachings come to us with vernal
freshness, both in the sunlight and in the shadows of our lives.
They are with us in moments of evil like a guardian angel.

But our ambition is advancement. Hence the question: What
of the home life of the farmer to-day? Does happiness and con-
tentment reign supreme? I do not wish to assume that I am speak-
ing to a discontented assemblage; but quite the opposite. Yet we
frequently hear some good husbandman say, “ ‘This is the last year
of farming for me. I am thoroughly discouraged. Farming don’t
pay.” seilgont |

4)

386 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

Then the faithful housewife will say: “ Yes, we will leave
the farm and move to the city.”

If you heard a company of professional men telling each other
of their disappointments and trials, their hardships and priva-
tions, you would consider them as unsuccessful men.

Did Washington pause during the gloomy winter at Valley
Forge to tell the people that he was discouraged?

Did Lincoln and Grant, while the dark days of the Rebellion
hung over our land tell Congress how disheartened they were?

Did Frances Willard, in her labors of love, ever say to the world
that giving her life for the temperance cause didn’t pay ?

Then farmers’ wives and daughters, why not be contented and
enthusiastic in our work? When we come to think of it, the most
successful people in every line owe their success to their enthusi-
asm.

Do not tell the kind husband at supper time what a busy day
you have had; how weary you are of the farm life; instead of this,
tell him how much you love your home. How glad that the lines
have fallen to you in such pleasant places. Kindle an enthusiasm
in the children to beautify the home. The neatly mowed lawn,
the bright flowers may be entrusted to the care of the children.

Then again we have heard the expression, “ The country is in-
deed beautiful, but the farmer does not have time to enjoy it.
Farming is all work.” Would you be content with the trifles
which fill up an idle life? Or would you seek mere pleasure?
Work is no obstacle nor hindrance, but rather a source of strength.
Very little is accomplished without work. When all the daily de-
mands are met with sunshine in the heart, they are transformed
into pleasures. But farm life should not be all work. The even-
ings spent in the homes of our farmers are full of delight. We
most frequently find the whole family together. This is quite
in contrast to the city home, where the young people hardly know
what home life is. To some, home is a place where they eat their
meals and sleep; but there are so many attractions, such gay
festivities, club life, with its fascination, that to remain at home
two evenings of the week would be almost a punishment.

In the country we find an abundance of social meetings which
all should enjoy; still the evenings at home should be the brightest
and best. Mothers, do not leave the churning or the ironing for
the evening’s occupation. Fathers, do not lie on the couch, sleep-
ing the precious moments away. All are home. What satisfac-
tion in those words. There are fathers and mothers who would

Home Lire on tue Farm, 387

give of their hoarded dollars, could they once more repeat. those
words. All are home. Then make it congenial for the young
people. Get acquainted one with another. Talk over their plans.
‘Tell them of your experiences. Give them of your merriest laugh,
your noblest thoughts, and your kindest words. Sing with them,
read with them, aud play games with them. You will gain their
confidence and their respect. Few other business men have the
privilege of spending so much time with their families as the
farmers.

Home-makers, bring into your household affairs all the orde1
and system at your command. Many a housekeeper would main-
tain her cheerful disposition and accomplish more for her house-
hold if she were more methodical in the arrangement of every de-
tail of her work. Give every member of the family her work to
do. Even the small children love to know that they are little
helpers. With a little tact on mother’s part, the duties required
of them will be pleasures rather than burdens.

Let each day of the week have its allotted work, and accom-
plish it. Do not leave everything for Saturday and make the
day one of confusion and disorder; and Sunday morning will find
you too tired to attend church and enjoy the blessings of the Holy
Day.

Beautify your home with flowers, music and good books. Make
it as attractive as your means will permit, but never go beyond
your means, for if you do you will only succeed in making life
a burden instead of a joy.

We claim that the farm is the ideal place for the development
of the children. It is away from the many temptations found in
the city. Farm life is conducive to health, and he that has that
has need to ask for little more.

My friends, when the children have grown to manhood and
womanhood, do not influence them unduly to remain on the farm.
If they leave the farm, let it not be because they dislike it, but
because they have strong qualifications for some other vocation in
life.

I have already alluded to the fact that the farm homes are
famous for producing teachers and poets, soldiers and statesmen.
I will not say to the young people present this evening, that the
farm is the only place where they will find happiness. Rather I
would say to them, do that work which you can do well and which
you love to do.

388 Bureau oF Farmers’ Instirures.

All may not have such revelations as did Joan of Are. But all
may know their possibilities and their powers.

Permit me to add another thought which contributes much
more to the welfare of the home than anything I have told you. .
Have you invited Christ into your home? Amid all your plans,
have you remembered Him, the Saviour of mankind?

O happy Home Life!
Have I called her beautiful?
Have I boasted of her grandeur?
She is a type of Heaven.

But death will enter these loved homes of ours and bear our
joys away. The perfect home is found in Heaven.

Alfalfa in New York.

By F. E. DAWLEY, Fayetteville, N. Y.

—

During the past two years more than a passing interest has been
found in alfalfa, at Institutes in parts of New York State where it
is unknown. Many questions have been asked, and instructors
who have seen the crop growing in the West or at the State Ex-
periment Station, and on my farm at Fayetteville, have been able
to give facts from what they have seen as well as from bulletins
from the experiment Stations.

I have received many letters regarding the plant, asking where
seed could be obtained, its feeding value, &c., &e. Many people
have an idea that it is a poor food. A farmer at Mohawk
writes: “Why do you continue to boom alfalfa? You seem
sound on many questions, and are doing so much good with the
Institutes since you have made them more practical than before,
that you and the State behind you will do great damage to the
farmers if you persist in pushing this miserable weed forward. It
is as hard as sweet clover to eradicate, and no better for cattle
food. See what a Western (Colorado) paper says about it in
the inclosed clipping. It may do where nothing but salt bush will
grow, and where the cattle must eat it or die.”

Here is the clipping:

“Do not think, by the way, that alfalfa is an arid plant, grow-
ing out on the plains without water or.culture. It is sown as
clover is sown, irrigated as wheat is irrigated and harvested like
any other hay, so that its production and use for dairy and stock-
feeding purposes are strictly farm operations.

“ Stock feeding is in its infancy, but the past is suggestive of
great possibilities for the future. The same is true of dairying.
We do not yet produce more than half the butter we consume.”

I infer that my friend in Mohawk has tried alfalfa, and feels that
he has failed with it. I presume he sowed too little seed, or sowed
it with some other crop and the seeding was too thin on the ground.
(I’ve been through this and am judging his experience by his re-
sults). This gave him a strong rank growth of coarse hard stalked
alfalfa which was not palatable for the animals and of course they
did not eat it well. Only a few years ago, I purchased just such

389

390 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

alfalfa as this at from three to four dollars a ton and fed it to cows,
after running it through a shredder. Heavy seeding and a thick
stand, with early cutting, remedies this difficulty. It is hard to “ get
rid of ” in the fields. So is white clover and timothy. It roots
very deeply, and the root is strong, and it takes a sharp plow point
to cut it off. But those who are growing it here are not anxious to
eet rid of it. At an Institute held at Fayetteville some years ago,
this same question of how to break up an alfalfa meadow was
brought up by a conductor, and a fine old gentleman of Celtic
ancestry answered in Yankee style, by asking “’Phy the devil wod
ye want to break wpe meady that is givin ye five to sivin toons av
good hay ach year.’

His reply seemed to express the sentiment of the growers pres-
ent.

Our friend seems to think that alfalfa needs irrigation to make
a fair crop. Water does help it. Three years ago I cut an aver-
age of more than five tons of cured hay in four good cuttings on
a small piece that had been down 14 years; my father cut
a larger quantity to the acre that same year. The past summer
has been the driest one I remember. ‘The average yield of
alfalfa on our place this year was not less than three tons per acre,
in three cuttings. I would have been glad of an opportunity to
irrigate, but as my Celtic friend above alluded to remarked: “ It
was so dhry here that it was a sin for ony man on the hill to dhrink
wather.” I believe the average yield of all the alfalfa in this sec-
tion in 1900 was not less than three tons per acre, and our people
are all anxious for more. A few years ago I bought good alfalfa
hay for $4 per ton; to-day I can buy red clover hay for less than
alfalfa; the people have learned its value as a cattle food. It may
please some of those who are worrying about the condition of the
eastern farmer to know that within two miles of my home is a man
who last spring bought a farm for $61 per acre, running in debt
for five-sixths of the purchase price, and that he has already (Jan.
1st) sold from the alfalfa fields on this farm enough hay to more
than half pay for each acre on which the hay grew. This is not
an exceptional case this year, with alfalfa hay worth $12 per ton.

Alfalfa is good for any animal that will eat it, although I do
not advise too much of it for horses. With rye straw, oat straw,
and grain, an ideal ration can be compounded. Hogs and sheep
both relish it, and for milch cows and young cattle it is an ideal
food.

ALFALFA In New York. 391

Just compare the analysis of alfalfa hay, air dried, with that of
clover and see if it is not better than sage brush:

Nitrogen
Water. | Protein. Fat. free- Fiber. Ash,
extract.

Per cent.|Per cent.|/Per cent.|Per cent.|/Per cent.|Per cent. -

Alfalfa, Ist cutting (early bud) .. (ents 15.12 1.24 30.98 34.73 10.79
Alfalfa, 2d cutting (early flower) 7.49 17.08 1.66 36.17 26.28 11.32
Alfalfa, 3d cutting (late flower).. 8.14 15.88 1.69 34.63 28.34 11.32
Red clover, medium (in bloom).. 20.9 11.5 3.3 33.0 24.7 6.6

Or go into my stables, and with scales and Babcock test ask the
cows, as I have done, and the answer will convince you, as it has
me. A few years ago I made the statement in an Institute in
New Jersey that if 1 was obliged to discard either corn and the
silo, or alfalfa, and still keep a dairy, I would bid good bye to the
silo, and try alfalfa, with mangolds for succulent food. Some
very bright men in that State thought I was straining a point
to prove my statements, or that my judgment was not good.
To-day alfalfa has no more strenuous advocate in the East than
Dr. Voorhees of the New Jersey State Experiment Station and
any Jersey dairyman who will follow him in his practical work
with the State farm dairy will be a winner.

Why do I like alfalfa better than corn? Just because I can
grow more pounds of food on an acre. At the Colorado Station
they compared the food values of the yield of an acre of dent corn,
with those of an acre of alfalfa that had been down three years;
the corn crop was a fair one, equaling 14 tons of green forage per
acre. The alfalfa was cut three times, yielding 4,000 pounds of
hay at the first cutting, 3,250 at the second, and 3,050 at the third,
or a total of 5.6 tons per acre. In 1897 I grew more than this to
the acre on a four-acre piece, and I often grow 14 tons of silage
corn on an acre; so it is fair to use this comparison.

The following table gives the comparative food yields:

ToTAL. DIGESTIBLE.

Corn, lb. | Alfalfa, lb. | Corn, Ib. | Alfalfa, lb.

Dry miatterrecccssddsserescesoanencssies 5,539 10,800 8,605 5,611
AlTbDUMINOIAS.....cccccevcccosccccscecece 405 1,602 296 1,198
Starch, SUgAr, CLC ...ecscccgoeeeee SoCne 8,263 4,782 2,186 3,114
Fiber se eeeee se Poe RUPE REEEEES CECE COREE) 1,472 2,800 1,060 1,198
Ether Cxtract .cccccasccccccscccsseccces 84 246 63 101
ASH Gicie sists ain ipisiniatnisteleieiein\aiv\¢(eisiuleiaia'siuivlel=iels 815 829 | occcssccccces niu viswiejsiare a Siaia/e

392 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes,

A study of this shows that the acre of alfalfa produced nearly
twice as much dry matter as the corn, nearly four times as much
digestible alubminoid matter, and nearly one-third more carbo-
hydrates. The albuminoids are the expensive things for us to
raise on New York State farms, and too much of our money goes
west for them. There are not many crops in which we can grow it
to advantage, and none save this where we can grow more fat and
heat producing material to the acre, than we can grow in corn, and
at the same time grow nearly as much digestible protein in every
ton as we find in a ton of wheat bran.

In New Jersey they asked what I based my statements regard-
ing corn and alfalfa on. I told them on the results in my own
stables, and now I am able to back my own observations with the
able experiments of Dr. Cooke.

My friend from Mohawk criticizes me because I am advocating
alfalfa growing, and because I use my position as Director of State
Farmers’ Institutes to encourage my fellow farmers to try it. I
believe in speaking well of the bridge that carries me safe over.
Alfalfa has been a great help to me and to my father, before me,
in keeping a dairy, and if I can help mark my term as Director of
Institutes as the beginning of an era of alfalfa growing in New
York, I will be content.

Question.— What is an average yield of alfalfa in Central New
York, and why does it not do well in certain sections of the State,
and what is it?

1. I believe that three to four tons per acre can be depended on
one year with another, on good land, with a good even stand. To
get this you must cut at least three times, and as we have often
cut the first time the last of May, or first of June, there is no
trouble in getting three and often four cuttings.

At the Geneva Experiment Station the following yields were
obtained:

1894.— 64,596 pounds green matter or 17,034 pounds hay from
2.3 acres, and 83,803 pounds of green matter or 8,116
pounds dry hay from 1.3 acres.

1895.— 87,129 pounds green matter or 8,666 pounds hay from 1.3
acres.

1896.— 84,991 pounds green matter or 8,527 pounds hay from 1.3
acres, and 36,514 pounds green matter or 7,461 pounds
hay from 14 acres, The first cuttings of these plots for
soiling were made May 11th in ’94, 12th in 96 and May
15th in ’95,

Atratra 1x New York. 393

In reply to the second question, I will refer later to the experi-
ments made by Mr. Livingston and others a hundred years ago,
as they cover the ground fully. I will detail these experiments
for two reasons, firstly to show that the matter of alfalfa growing
was carefully Ceusidened at that time, that it is not a new crop,
as some writers seem to think (because it is new to them), and,
secondly, show some causes of failure. It is probably true that
there are many farms in this State where alfalfa will not do well,
but I am convinced from observation that the plant is not so
particular as to soils as some think. It is a deep-feeding plant,
and as it is very rich must be a strong-feeding one, drawing heavily
on lime, potash, magnesia and phosporic acid. When conditions
are favorable, the tap root descends to great depths. I have seen
a root that had extended down in a seam in limestone a trifle more
than 18 feet, and there were fibers going lower than this. In a
government report it is stated that roots 50 to 60 feet in depth
have been recorded.

The character of the subsoil has much to do with success in
alfalfa growing, and in this as at the surface, drainage is necessary,
as an excess of water in the subsoil will kill it as ane as too Heh
water on the surface will. Many of the best fields of alfalfa in
central New York are over solid limestone, and in some cases
there is less than two feet of soil above the rock. It has been
stated by a noted argostologist that alfalfa will not do well on any
soil, no matter how rich or well prepared, if the field is underlaid
with impermeable subsoil, or by rock or hard pan. While he is
correct in a measure, no one on limestone which has more or less
seams extending down to moisture, need fear to experiment with
alfalfa.

I do not advise anyone to bother with it where the water level
comes near the surface, or where the hard pan subsoil holds the
water for any great length of time in the spring. On the soils that
are best adapted to growing it, it is most often a failure because of
one or more of the following reasons: Lack of proper preparation
of the soil. The old traditional onion bed surface is none too good.
I believe it pays to subsoil, running a subsoil plow in the furrow
made by a common plow, and loosening the ground for at least
15 inches in depth; but the ground should be allowed to settle be-
fore seeding. If there is the least possible trace of acid in the soil,
it should be corrected before the seed is sown.

Too little seed. The labor of preparing the soil is just as great
for a poor catch as a good one, and one cannot afford the risk of

394 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

failure incurred with a light seeding. Use 20 to 30 pounds of
good clean seed to the acre.

Impure seed. Buy of reputable seedsmen; some seed has been
found that contained, black melilot and other worthless legume
seed.

Smothering out of the small plants with another crop sown with
it — alfalfa lasts long enough when well established that we can
afford to sow it by itself; at times a very light seeding of oats, cut
green for hay, seems to be an advantage. Oftimes the weeds and
barn grass will come in to such an extent as to injure the crop.
These should be cut and drawn off if heavy.

Dodder.— This is the most serious enemy of alfalfa. Be sure
there is none in the seed you sow. It is not new in New York.
Many gen@emen were experimenting with it in this State from
100 to 150 years ago. In 1812 it was tried in central New York
by Sterling Lamson and by Moses DeWitt. L’Hommedieu had
it growing in Jefferson county in 1795. In 1851, Commander
James Glynn of the United States Navy brought from Valparaiso
a cask of alfalfa seed, stating that “it was growing from Panama
nearly to Cape Horn, and there forms the prinéipal article of
fodder * * * the stalk attains the size of a goose quill, and
grows seven to eight feet high.”

April 13th 752, Mr. Henry Meigs exhibited a plant with a
root a foot in length, even though broken off at the end — and
a strong vigorous plant, notwithstanding that the previous winter
was very severe. The whole plot was reported as unhurt.

It is stated that about this same time seed was brought from
Chili to California, and being a success in that climate from the
start, it was soon taken to the arid regions and became a standard
erop on the Pacifie coast, and is to-day one of the most profitable.
The drouths of western Kansas and Nebraska made it popular
there after the first few seasons, and the two dry years that we
have just experienced are doing more to convince our farmers of
its value than all that is being said for it.

Wuat 1s ALFALFA ?

This question is often raised by eastern farmers who read of
its wonderful growth in the West, and many have an idea that
while it has revolutionized farming in some parts of the West,
that irrigation and arid land go hand in hand with it, and I fear

Auratra In New York. 395

some good men have condemned alfalfa because of their contempt
for western irrigation schemes.

The alfalfa which we are growing in New York is Medicago
Sativa: Lucern or Purple Medick. The name alfalfa is probably of
Arabic origin, and came to Mexico with the plant with the Span-
iards, and later this name followed it up and down the Pacific
coast. ‘The name Lucern is evidently of French derivation, and
has nothing to do with the province of Lucerne in Switzerland as
the plant is of but recent introduction here, and the gentlemen
who brought the seed to the eastern coast of America 100 to 150
years ago all called it lucern. It is difficult to decide what section
of the world alfalfa is a native of. It is found in Persia (Media),
in fact in all parts of western Asia, it is found growing wild in
roadsides, abandoned fields and out-of-the-way places, just as sweet
clover grows here. There is no doubt, however, that it was
introduced into Greece as early as 500 to 450 B. C., during some
of the early Persian wars. It seems evident too that the grand
Roman meadows, from which slaves used to weed the “ wild
grasses ” were of lucern. Records of these are found dating as far
back as the first and second centuries.

Jolumella in writing of the methods of these old Romans says:
* “ They chose out the best land, that was both Pinguis and Putris;
they dunged it, and tilled it to the greatest perfection and laid it
out in beds, as for asparagus, and sowed the seed very thick for
the miserable reason of enabling the plants by their thickness to
better kill the grass.

“ The beds being harrowed very fine, before sowing which was
at the end of April, the seed required to be speedily covered, lest
the sun’s heat should spoil it, but not with an iron tool, for the
place must not be touched with iron. Medica seed must be covered
not with the plow, but with little wooden harrows. Some time af-
ter it came up, this scratching was repeated with the same wooden
instruments. This was called Sarrition; then by Runeation they
weeded it over and over: Ne alterius generis herba invalidam
medicam perimat, lest other grass should kill it whilst it was weak.
The first crop they let stand ’til some of the seed scattered, to fill
the ground yet fuller of plants. After that it could be cut young,
as they pleased, but they must be sure to water it often after eut-
ting. This was done largely by slaves as was the weeding. The
weeding was repeated after each cutting, and by these methods
four to six crops were cut each year for 10 years.”

396 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes,

Tull says in 1733,’ “ English gardeners make 40 pounds off an
acre of asparagus with half the labor these Romans bestowed on an
acre of Medica — but as the Roman empire was then in its glory,
and Rome the metropolis of the world, where all the richness of
the earth was drawn together, the price of hay may have war-
ranted this great outlay of labor. Again, the Romans had not
only servants, but plenty of slaves, for whom they had scarce
sufficient employment, and this might lessen the expense of this
tedious method of planting and ordering the Medica. But when
the Romans were brought down to the level of other nations, and
were in danger of being slaves instead of having them, and the
lands of Italy came to be cultivated by Italian hands only, they
found something else more necessary to employ them in, than the
Sarritions, Runcations and Rigations of the Medica, and their la-
bor being bestowed in getting bread for themselves, they substi-
tuted other grasses of more easy culture for the food of their cat-
tle, and they were so bigoted to all the superstitions of their ances-
tors that they were content to lose the use of that most beneficial
plant, rather than to cultivate it by a new, though more rational
method, when they had become unable longer to continue it by the
old. And so superstition chased lucern from the Roman empire.”

In 1653 Walter Blith, advises in his quaint book, “ The English
Improver Improved or the Survey of Husbandry Surveyed,”
the English farmer to try to grow “ La lucern, a French grass
which is excellent fodder, and should be experimented with, as
every day will bring forth something or other worth our embrace-
ment.”

Seventy-five years later Jethro Tull is urging English farmer;
to grow it by his method of hoeing — which he seemed to think
was a panacea for all the ills that agriculture was heir to, and so on
down as books were more easily written we find men telling of the
virtues of lucern; but in my effort to show that it is not a new
plant, or rather a newly cultivated plant, I am losing sight of
the question. It is, according to Prof. Smith,” “ an upright, branch-
ing, smooth, perennial, growing from one to three® feet high, with
three parted leaves, each leaflet broadest above the middle. The
purple flowers are in long, loose clusters or racemes. ‘The ripe
pods are spirally twisted, and each contains several seeds.” The
young plants resemble sweet clover, and many men who have

Jethro Tull’s Horse Hoeing, 1733.

Jared G. Smith, U. S. Dept., 1900.

g I have often seen It four feet high in places In fields where the moisture condl-
tions were favorable.

ALFraLra In New York. 397:

seen the crop for the first time, while visiting me, have asked,
“What do the people here do with so many fields of sweet
clover?”

In Onondaga and Madison counties (central New York) are
more acres of alfalfa than in all the rest of the State, and most of
the acreage here is in six or eight towns. Under the German
name lucern, it was tried here nearly, if not quite, 100 years
ago, but so small a quantity of seed was sown to the acre that the
hay was coarse and very unpalatable to the animals. As near
as I can learn, lucern was sown with other grasses, and but from
2 to 12 pounds used to the acre. Economy in seed was prac-
ticed strenuously in those days, and lucern seed cost one shilling
six pence per pound. It was also tried in other parts of the State
at about the same time.

In 1793 Mr. Robert Livingston of Jefferson county, sowed
about 15 acres, dividing the acreage into seven plots, ranging from
one-quarter of an acre upward. On each plot a different method
was followed and a different soil selected, and but about four acres
were pronounced a success in 1794. These, however, were so suc-
cessful that he advised others to try the crop. His first plot was
sown in 1791. Of this he says:

“Mixed two pounds of lucern with two pounds of clover seed;
sowed them with oats on one-quarter acre of ground; the soil is
sand to the depth of 14 feet, but in good order, having been the
two preceding years in potatoes with dung. April 6, 1792, spread
two bushels of gypsum. May 25th, the clover very luxuriant;
the lucern, though of superior height, branches so little, and is
so compressed by the clover, as hardly to attract attention. About
the middle of June, cut the grass product in dry hay, a large load
for two oxen, or somewhat more than half a ton. August 8th,
cut a second crop about five ewt. The summer having proved very
dry and the soil being naturally so, the clover did not rise suffi-
ciently to be cut, so that this crop consisted wholly of lucern.
I now experienced the want of seed, for, though the lucern was
about 27 inches high, it occupied too little space to produce a
great crop. The lucern and clover rose after this cutting, and
might have yielded a tolerable crop, but I preferred to leave the
rowen to protect the roots against the winter winds. April 1,
1793, dressed this plot with one bushel of gypsum. April 28th,
the spring proved uncommonly early, the ground being naturally
warm, having a South aspect, and the plants having been protected

398 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

by a good winter coat. The lucern exhibited a most beautiful
appearance; it was 13 inches high, the clover growing with it not
more than two inches. The common pastures were barely green.
As my hay was gone and none to be purchased (the year preced-
ing having yielded but poor hay crops), I was compelled to em-
ploy my lucern for feeding four plough horses three times a day
in the stable as they came from their work; and four sows and
pigs, which were regularly fed with it three times a day; the
horses were turned out at night to glean what they could in the
pastures; it lasted them until the 23d of May, and what
was last cut was near three feet high,—10th of June. Began
again to cut for two large coach horses kept together in the stable;
it lasted them until the 28th. In this cutting the clover
amounted to nearly one-half of the crop, which was, I think, more
productive on that account than the one that preceded or those
that followed it. On the 28th day of July, mowed a third time
for hay; the product, as near as I could judge, about six ewt.
dry. The clover aided this crop very little, the drouth having
prevented it from rising much after the last cutting, and, indeed,
a comfortable part of it had dried out. As no clover appeared
after this and the lucern was perfectly free from weeds, I con-
ceived the idea of leaving it for seed, and did not, therefore, cut
it when in blossom, as I might have done, and have had a fifth
crop; the seeds were not ripe until the 1st of October, when it
was again cut, and produced about six ewt. of dry hay. Though
the seed looks fair and ripe, and promises to yield a con-
siderable quantity, yet from not understanding the management,
or from the lucern’s having been touched by the frost, I have
been able to make no hand of collecting it; perhaps, after it has
laid longer, it will be more easily separated from the pod. April
1st, manured with 10 loads of black earth from a swamp, or at
the rate of 40 loads to the acre. It was very luxuriant and cut
twice before the 20th of June for plough horses kept in the
stable — being, when they began to cut each time, about 15 inches
high, the average height, taking the first and last cutting, each
time about 20 inches. On the 24th of July, cut and made into hay,
produced one thousandweight, or two tons to the acre. On the last
of August, cut a fourth time, produce, six ewt., or one ton four
ewt. to the acre. The fifth crop is not cut, but is now (the 1st of
October) 20 inches high, and very promising in its appearance.
If we have no severe frost before the middle of this month, it will
produce about six ewt. of hay.

ALFALFA In New York. 3899

Produce and expense per acre of No. 1:

Expense.

£& « d

Forty loads of black earth from an adjoining swamp
avonercm Wine per load’ii 2.45... 29 CO SP Ba ZPOUHO

Cutting five crops and making them into hay at eight
SUL LUE 5) alas OR ae a OG AR Lr eb ae eh rae V ipoge'
24 0 0
Two first crops value at five ewt. hay each, or....... Z, es
Ane ferOp Saimin: shares, Ne. eM ee tse Merete aon)
Manmmerop int Way.) Pico eM aes A ee is EY, dg the ied)
Hprinestimated AGM. es 2. Cc a eee eh at ob OREO
£6 4° °0
RMoms TOM CW ates, OM ss ee | cote ee Set eat T1510" 0
Be eMsC EDA NOVO sc hee hice he cite ticks Stee Mars ce kee Ar OES)
JE GAOL Ge o-eee Sate igh ae ea A eR oe Oe Ae a bento olde aOR)

“ There are so many vacant spots in this piece, owing to its being
too thinly seeded, that I am satisfied that had I sown the lucern
alone at the rate of 20 pounds instead of eight pounds to the acre,
the produce would have been at least one-third more, though I
believe 11 pounds 10 shillings per acre, after paying for manur-
ing and all expenses, will be deemed sufficient profit to justify the
culture of this in preference to any other grass.”

Plot No. 2, sown in 1793, was on sandy soil and a failure. No.
. 8 of the same year was a three-acre plot sown to oats, and on May
1st given eight pounds of elover and eight pounds of lucern to the
acre. The oats yielded 64 bushels to the acre and lodged so badly
that both the clover and lucern were killed and the stubble
ploughed. Of plot No. 4 (1793) he says:

“This is part of the same field. Ploughed twice for barley;
once last autumn; once early in April; sown with barley about
the 20th. Sowed the next day two acres of this ground with

400 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrvres.

clover and lucern, mixed eight pounds of each to the acre, except
about half an acre with lucern alone, 16 pounds to the acre, har-
rowed with a light harrow. The lucern and clover came up very
well, and would have produced about half a ton of hay to the
acre had it been mown this autumn; it has been fed down, though
not so closely as to injure it. Put in at the same time and in
the same manner, one acre upon a strong loam, laying flat, and
somewhat wet, the ground having yielded potatoes for the last
two years. The lucern after the barley on this ground is very
promising, and has not been fed — expenses of the same as above,
£6 4 0 on the three acres; however, I am satisfied that th» ensu-
ing crop will amply repay the expense.”

No. 5 was sown with buckwheat and lucern; No. 6, one-third
acre with turnips and five pounds of lucern, and on No. 7 a
small strip with lucern alone. This did remarkably well, and
would have perfected seed, had it not been cut.

At the end of the second year Mr. Livingston was well pleased
with the results, and said:

“From the first experiment, it appears that it may be easily
gown on a dry soil with oats and clover, and that its annual clear
profits, after deducting every expense, will exceed on the first
two years £7 per acre. The failure, therefore, of that sown
this year with oats, must be ascribed to the following causes:
First, a luxuriance in the oats, which was, by no means, to be
expected from the soil, and is wholly to be attributed to the im-
provement it had received from clover and gypsum, and is so far
a striking lesson to farmers, as well as a confirmation of the
conjectures I had the honor to submit to the society on the effect
of gypsum as a permanent improver of the soil. Second, the
oats having been sown on one plowing, so that the ground was
less mellow than it should be for the reception of lucern. Third,
to the extreme drouth of the spring; clover having not suc-
ceeded better than lucern, when sown together. The second
experiment proves that ground which has not been ploughed in
the spring, or pulverized fully, is improper. The failure, how-
ever, of this experiment, may in some sort, be charged to the ©
early sowing, since the rapid growth of that sown with the buck-
wheat during the hottest season of the year, would intimate
that the ground should be warm and mellow to suit the constitu-
tion of this plant while in its infant state. The success that at-
tended the sowing with barley proves, that, notwithstanding the
unfavorable season, if the earth is properly pulverized, a good
product may be expected.

ALFALFA 1x New York, 401

“An important question still remains to be decided, relative to
the propriety of sowing lucern alone or mixed with red clover
feed. I was prejudiced in favor of the latter mode from the fol-
lowing considerations:

“First, I wished to know whether it was equally hardy with
clover? Whether, under similar circumstances, it was able to
contend with it in our climate? Experience has convinced me
that it will, and that in dry seasons it will flourish, while clover
is too faint and languid to raise its drooping head; and what is
more extraordinary, that this child of the summer better braves
the biting frosts of the spring and the keen autumnal blasts than
clover or any cultivated grass of this climate. These are im-
portant circumstances, when I am laboring to introduce it into
common husbandry in the face of prejudices arising from the
English experiments, which are far from encouraging to farm-
ers of moderate capital. I hope, however, to show that it is
infinitely better adapted to our climate than to that of Great
Britain.

“Second, it having been constantly asserted that it takes three
years to come to perfection, and that the prospects are very
trifling the year succeeding that in which it is sown, by mixing
the seeds with those of clover, I expected, and indeed found, that
an immediate profit might be obtained; for the clover came for-
ward as early as if it had been sown alone, was supported by
the lucern, which added something to the crop, and both to
gether yielded more than three and a half tons to the acre the
very first year; the merit of the last cutting being wholly due
to the lucern, since the drouth prevented the clover from ris-
ing a second time to the scythe, so that had this field been sown
with clover alone, it would have yielded 24 ewt. to the acre,
and less than it did by the addition of the lucern seed the
very first year. The second year’s product is still more con-
clusive in favor of the lucern.

“ Third, as the clover is a beneficial plant, I expected that as the
lucern advanced, the clover would die out and leave the ground
free from weeds that might have robbed the heritage during the
minority of the lucern. Though this reasoning was plausible
‘and influenced my conduct in my experiments this year, yet I
am not satisfied that it is just. I argued from English books of
husbandry, which, however, are not calculated in this particular
for our climate. The principles they maintain are: First, that
lucern does not attain any considerable degree of strength till

26

402 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

the third year; hence the necessity with them of drilling and
hoeing to keep down the weeds. Some that I sowed this year with
my barley, as well as a crop which my neighbor, Mr. De La
Bigarre, sowed with his, yielded, on being cut this very autumn
after his barley, almost 11 ewt. per acre, convinces me that its
growth here is more rapid than in England. (In this, however,
it is not particular, as I shall on some other occasion show that
plants grow more rapidly by two-tifths here (New York State)
than in Britain.) I am, therefore, very doubtful whether it will
pay as much and as early, provided from 15 to 24 pounds of seed
are sown to the acre, as the mixed crop would. This I shall next
year ascertain with accuracy. Should it be established on experi-
ment, the clover seed should be omitted, as it tends to check the
lucern, and to render the crop thin when it dies out; besides, that
neither springing so early, nor bearing drouth so well, it must be
considered as inferior in every respect to the lucern. There is
one consideration, however, in its favor, and that is that in
warm situations the lucern will be fit to cut before the clover
rises to the scythe. The second crop in this case will be earlier
on account of the clover, which will consist almost wholly of
it, because having escaped the wounds which the lucern received
it will be ready to take the field before the lucern has recovered
from amputation.

“There are two considerations which render weeds here less
troublesome than in Britain — the severity of our winter and the
heat of our summer. Many from the first of these causes are
annual here, which are perennial there, by being able to live
through their mild winter. The slightest fallowing in the heat
of summer kills most weeds here, while, in England, their moist
climate enables the greatest part of them, like Anfeus, to bid
defiance to wounds and bruises, if they are permitted to but
touch their parent earth. We may add to this that the indi-
genous weeds of this country are few, because the children of the
forest, as well of vegetable as of animal tribes, fly the haunts
of men; the only troublesome weeds we have are convicts, that
have been transported from our mother country. They must,
therefore, necessarily be much fewer than those that remain be-
hind, not only because the habits of many of them are too deli-
cate to assimilate themselves to our unpolished climate, but be-
cause their number in both countries must be proportioned to
the time from which they began to be cultivated, and to the ex-
tent of their commerce, for weeds and vices are the children of

' Atratra In New York, 403

cultivation and commerce. Nor will they ever be eradicated in
an improved country till some agricultural millenium shall ad-
vance cultivation to the highest possible point of perfection. All
these considerations form decided arguments in favor of the
cultivation of lucern (whose greatest enemy is said to be weeds)
in this country, rather than in England. Upon the whole, then, I
would recommend, as the result of my experiments, as far as they
have yet gone:

1. Never to sow on ground that is not perfectly pulverized.

2. Not to sow until the earth has acquired a degree of warmth
friendly to rapid vegetation; that is, not earlier than the month
of May.

3. To sow with no crop that will probably lodge.

4. If sown with buckwheat, to apply no gypsum or other
manure till the buckwheat is off.

“5. Where the quantity to be sown is small and the farmer can
afford to lose a crop, to give the ground one turn in autumn, an-
other in April, harrowing it fine, and a third the beginning of
May, and then if the weather is mild and warm, sow, if the ground
is in perfect tilth, otherwise give it another plowing; 18 or 20
pounds of seed are not too much —were it not for the expense I
would prefer 25 pounds if an early crop is the object.

“T fear that I have, in the opinion of many, dwelt too long on
this subject. If I have, my apology will be found in my anxiety
to impress upon my countrymen the importance of cultivating
this plant, which I am satisfied is better adapted to our climate
than clover, which exacts more labor; which leaves (I speak
upon the authority of Young’s travels) the soil much better than
it found it; which will even bear pasturing; having myself re-
marked two plants in a common pasture which had defied the
bite of cattle for upwards of 20 years, one of which is still alive.

“ These considerations have induced a conviction in my mind
that the man who introduces a plant which promises to be so im-
portant to agriculture will have a better claim to the gratitude of
his country than any other, that one only excepted, whose civil
and military virtues have afforded us the means of pursuing, in
peace, our rustic labors. I confess that I am not ambitious of
that honor. To the rich I have facilitated the means of procur-
ing the seed, which has hitherto been very rare here; small parcels
I have distributed to common farmers, whose exertions I have
stimulated by showing the flourishing state of my little field; nor
can I conclude without addressing myself (in the words of the

404 Boureav or Farmers’ Instrrvures.

Gospel) to every member of the corporation who is blessed with
equal or greater means, ‘ Go and do thou likewise.’ ”

A year later he reported that “ the lucern sown over the wheat
in the spring of 1793 yielded nothing, so that the whole of this
must be stated as loss, except that the expense of gypsum should
be deducted from the account, as it produced a very noble crop of
white clover, on ground on which I should have otherwise have
had little pasture.”

“It is, however, to be remarked that the red clover seed sown
over the wheat at the same time, in the manner mentioned in the
experiment, succeeded no better than the lucern; this must be
attributed in part to the season. The experiment of lucern upon
wheat should be tried again, but only on a small scale, as I am
inclined upon the whole to think it will seldom succeed.

“The lucern sown with the oats, as I mentioned, was so choked
by it as to promise nothing; that sown with buckwheat very little,
for the same reason, and both were plowed up. The remaining
experiments are those in which the lucern was put in with barley
and with turnips. The first of these I must divide into two classes:
first, that sown on light loam, and, second, that sown on clay.

“ Profit and expense per acre, of two acres of lucern, sown with
barley and clover, April, 1793:

£ ss a4

26th June, cut and made into hay.......... edt eoetaas 1 nO
ZOU UY. inst < 0sene, enapeieiorse sre leie oar cie aus bunts w.arec ae cnt B Mees ee
ZO GW ASCPLEMUDOL «5 oss 'e' sare als er aiet kn eaetenesqovoueterene aia Tra 20
B12 10

Expense per acre cutting and making 8s. per acre.. 1 4 O
3 tons 11 ewt. of hay, at 25. 6........ CE ae 817 6
Wed tet expeWses vaiens ejects) everest shekeipeaieret aks aan 1 4 0
Clear profit e ee @eeeeeoeoeneoeeeeeeseseeeeeeee ee £7 We 6

Part of this was injured by the poultry and pigs, which were
constantly upon it. Those parts on which clover was mixed with
the lucern very much inferior to that on which the lucern grew
alone.”

ALFALFA In New York, 405

Lucern and Clover on Clay.

“This cut only twice, the second time the 20th of August; the
product at both cuttings three tons to the acre. The first crop
was much injured by the cattle breaking in and by its being
lodged. The lucern among the clover is now fit to cut a third
time, but having been sown thin it will not make a crop alone,
and the clover is too short to be worth cutting; but the after-grass
is so fine as to be adequate to all the expenses attending the two
first crops, so that three tons of hay or £7 10s. may be considered
as the net profit upon this acre.”

LIucern Sown with Turnips, August, 1793.

“T expressed my fears that this lucern would hardly live through
the winter; however, I was agreeably disappointed. arly in the
spring, though the plants were small, and, as I thought, much too
far apart, yet, as the season advanced, they shot forward very
luxuriantly, and this piece has been cut three times with that sown
with barley. Although sown nearly four months later the first
crop was nearly equal to the barley sown, the second and third
much superior to it, so that its acreable produce may be stated at
four tons. Its future product will be greater than any I have,
as it is perfectly even, without any vacant spots, and uninjured by
the clover which I sowed with my other crops.

“The introduction of a new plant is liable to so many diffi-
culties from ill management and prejudice, that I think it im-
portant still to continue the register of my experiments at the
risk even of tiring the patience of the society.

“T remember the avidity with which I read everything that I
could find on the subject, before I began my own experiments,
and I remember too, how much all I read fell short of my wishes
in many particulars, which I am now able to elucidate for the
benefit of others.”

In 1794, he sowed seven plots, as follows:

Experiment No. 1.

September, 1793, plowed up four acres oats-stubble, soil a
light loam — 1791-1792 in clover, manured with gypsum; 1793,
in oats, yield very great — about 54 bushels to the acre.

April, 1794, plowed twice. May 1st, sowed two acres with
barley and 35 pounds of lucern seed, which I covered by the
roller.

406 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrvures.

“This barley was but tolerable, yielding about 20 bushels to
the acre. The lucern is far from answering my expectation; it
is thin andlin patches; the rains which prevail this summer have
filled the ground with clover, so that I expect next year to cut
more clover than lucern from this ground.”

Lixperiment No, 2.

“The adjoining acre was sown with Incern alone without bar-
ley. It looks at present exactly as that sown with barley, neither
promising much as a lucern crop. I should observe that these
plants came up very thick and well, but soon changed their color
in spots to yellow, and died away, except where the ground was
rich.”

Experiment No. 8.

“Plowed up three-fourths of an acre that had been in potatoes
last year, soil as above; dung was put in the rows when the po-
tatoes were planted at the rate of 40 loads to an acre.

“May Ist, sowed with barley and 12 pounds of lucern seed;
the barley good, but much injured by the poultry, being near
my house. The lucern, a very fine and promising crop, cut
about the last of September, about half a ton to the acre. This
experiment is important, since it proves that if lucern is sown
in the spring it should be on the ground in good health and
warmed with dung. J have no doubt of cutting four or five tons
of hay next year from this spot.”

Experiment No. 4— One Acre, 1794.

“Soil as above, but poorer, sown this spring with vetches, they
were cut 20th of July for hay, plowed immediately after, and
put in 18 pounds of lucern seed; it came up very thick, and
maintains a healthy color, though the ground is very full of
weeds; this gives me no uneasiness, as they are annuals, and the
season too far advanced to permit them to ripen their seeds; they
will only serve to protect the lucern against the cold of the
ensuing winter.”

Haperiment No. 5.

“ Talf an acre of my last year lucern standing very thin. I
plowed it up this year, and 1st of July sowed it with eight pounds
of lucern seed and a small quantity of turnip seed, having pre-

ALFALFA In New York. 407

viously manured the ground with stable dung. This, with a very
wet season, has brought wp so many weeds as to injure the lucern
by overshadowing it, though it came up very vigorously. On
the 20th of August mowed the weeds and turnip tops, which were
very large, not, however mowing very close. The lucern at
this time, October 1st, though very full of weeds, has a fine,
healthy appearance, and I have no doubt of its doing very well.
The turnips do not appear to have been injured by the mowing.”

Experiment No. 6.

“Soil as above. May 1st, planted three-fourths of an acre
with early potatoes. The beginning of August 1st took them
up and put in upon one plowing 12 pounds of lucern seed. This
has come even and thick, and is very free from weeds. If it
stands the winter, which I hardly doubt, it will make a very fine
crop the next year.”

Experiment No. 7.

“ One acre of gravelly clay sown this spring with vetches left
for feed, cut about the last of August, and the beginning of Sep-
tember, sowed with 16 pounds of lucern. It is now October
Ist, but just beginning to show itself, owing to there having
scarcely any rain fallen since; and the result of this experiment
will determine whether it may safely be sown with wheat in good
soils, and how far it is capable of bearing cold when very young.”

Mr. Livingston, having made, with a view to introduce this
very useful plant (as I believe), more experiments, and upon a
larger scale than any other farmer in America up to that time,
drew the following conclusions, and based upon them, gave in-
structions to others who might choose to cultivate lucern:

“First, it appears to me to be fully as hardy as clover, and
like it, to delight in a warm, dry soil, though it will flourish’ in
a moist clay, subject, however, to the same casualties In open
winters, when both will be thrown out by the frost.

“ Second, when very young it requires a natural or artificial
warmth in the soil, otherwise it languishes, and when the weeds
and natural grasses come up, it is unable to contend with them.

“These two observations point, first, to the soil in which it
should be sown; to-wit, a warm, dry soil in tolerable heat; the
second, to the means of procuring the warmth which I speak of
as necessary to the plant. This may be obtained in two ways.
First, by dung, and, second, by sowing when the sun has given the

408 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

earth an additional heat. If spring sowing is intended, I should
prefer a ground that had been manured and bore a potato crop
the year preceding, because by that time the weeds which the
dung produces will have been destroyed by the hoeing of the
potatoes. If no such ground is ready, and a spring sowing is
intended, the dung should be plowed in July or August, and the
ground harrowed fine. This will bring the weeds forward, when
a second plowing and the winter will destroy them before they
have perfected their seeds. The lucern may be sown early in
May, 12 pounds to the acre, after the ground has had three or
four spring plowings with barley, which will pay the expense of
the manure and plowings.

“Second mode by which the seeds will come up quicker, and
with more regularity, is to manure early in the spring, and to
plow and harrow the ground fine when the weeds have sprung
and got some head; and when the earliest kinds begin to blos-
som, plow again and harrow fine; repeat this four times by the
1st of July, when the lucern seed should be sown (16 pounds
to the acre), every seed of which will then germinate. The seed
should always be sown when the ground is dry, and rolled in; if
committed to the ground while it is very moist, the seeds will
swell, and if a dry season succeeds before they have struck root,
they will wither away.

“Third, lucern is frequently liable to turn yellow and look
sickly. I have not been able to discover the cause of this evil,
though I have carefully examined the roots with a microscope.
The remedy is to mow the plant; it will come up free from the
disorder.

“ Fourth, the time for cutting this for cattle is whenever it will
fill the scythe; for hay, when it begins to blossom. If left till
the blossom turns it becomes too hard. I would prefer cutting
for cattle the first year, as this effectually destroys all weeds.

“TVifth, it may be fed down by any kind of cattle with as much
safety as clover. .

“ Sixth, I would recommend it to the young farmer not to be
discouraged from pursuing the culture of this plant by the
observations of some of the older ones, who will tell him that Mr,
A. and Mr. B. tried it, but it would not do. Experiments care-
lessly made or not regularly pursued, the accidental circumstances
of soils or seasons, afford no conclusive arguments, as may be
inferred from the register which I have exhibited. Out of about
15 acres, which I sowed last year, but four succeeded. Had I

AuFatFa In New York. 409

not tried the plant in various ways I should probably have deter-
mined that it was not worth attention. My errors and instruc-
tions will render the work easier for those who choose to attempt
future experiments, and whether they succeed or not, they will
render agriculture some benefit by communicating the result of
their experiments.”

Among others who experimented largely at the same period
was Mr. John Stevens, of Hoboken, who sowed lucern on three
plots in 1793, but reports the plants as thin and scattering, and
not “ fit for much,” and says:

“1. From the almost total failure of lucern on No. 1, we may
fairly conclude that the seed was committed to the ground too
early in the season, especially as the clover that was sown with
it succeeded very well.

“2. The indifferent appearance of No. 2 may, I presume, be
attributed principally to the want of a proper melioration of the
soil. A fit matrix for vegetation was thereby, in the first place,
wanting, and in the next place the plants of those seeds which
did vegetate were nearly suffocated by weeds.

“3. The luxuriant growth of the lucern on No. 3 would
countenance a conclusion that lucern may succeed very well when
sown on barley without clover.

“4. Upon the whole, these experiments, as far as they go,
indicate that lucern ought not to be sown early in the season;
perhaps, midsummer may prove the fittest time for sowing it.
That every care should be taken to render the ground as mellow
and as free from weeds as possible, and that, therefore, it would
be most advisable to prepare the ground the succeeding year by
a crop of potatoes, pumpkins, or other horse-hoed crop, with which
a generous coat of manure should be laid on so as to supersede
the necessity of manuring the lucern, except, perhaps, with a
top dressing of ashes, ete

“ Perhaps no subject of rural economy will eventually prove of
more importance to the American agriculturist than the culture
of lucern. From the habits of the plant it appears admirably
fitted to our climate. It requires heat and endures drouth, and
on a soil properly adapted to it, it will last from a dozen to 20
years in full perfection.”

In 1792, Mr. Peter De La Bigarre says: “It is not true that
lucern can grow everywhere. It requires a light but substantial
ground, not too dry or too wet; it delights in a deep and gravelly
soil or rich sand, where it may root down easily, rather upon a

410 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrurss.

level spot than on mountains or declivities. As much as possible
I would choose a situation sheltered by woods or hedges from the
cold winds in the winter and from burning breezes in the
summer,”

Tillage and Sowing.

“The ground intended for lucern must be plowed twice before
winter, 15 inches, or at least a foot deep.

“Tn the latter end of March you plow it again and dress it with
a harrow before the day of sowing. ‘The seed is buried in the
ground by the harrow, taking care to fix chatwood or branches
under and betwixt the teeth in such a way as to facilitate the
covering of the feed without going too deep into the ground.

“ There are two ways for sowing the lucern. The first, by atself,
which is the best. The second, mixed with barley or oats, but
observe not to mix lucern with any other perennial.

“ Whether lucern is sown by itself, or mixed with barley, take
20 pounds weight for an acre. If you choose to sow it with bar-
ley, take the exact measure of the quantity of barley which you
are used to sow upon one acre, then put in that measure 20 pounds
of lucern seed, fill it up afterward with the barley. That process
will establish the just proportion.

“Tf you intend to sow lucern by itself, fill up the measure with
sand or ashes over the above-mentioned quantity of seed. That
method makes the sowing easier and more regular.

“When your barley is ripe you may mow it as close as possible
to the ground without any danger of hurting the young plants
of your lucern, of which you cannot expect but a very indifferent
crop the first year. Don’t let cattle feed upon it at that time.

‘The second year will give you two crops. In the beginning
of the third year, as soon as the winter is over, you must harrow
your Jucern about two inches deep when the ground is yet moist,
in two or three different directions, in order to root out the weeds.
Never mind nor be uneasy if your lucern is torn to pieces by
that hard dressing. The more it is torn the better it will grow.
This is a fact of long experience upon which you may rely.”

Manure.

“ After the above dressing you may manure your lucern with
greater advantage by spreading over some new ground or mud
taken from creeks or swamps, or employ some pulverized gypsum.

“The best manure for lucern which I know of is the dung of

‘ALFALFA IN New York. 411

fowls and pigeon-houses, well dried by the sun and reduced into
powder, but it seems very scarce and too diflicult to be got in
this country, although a great deal less of this last manure would
be required, as in the proportion of one to nine. Dung of cows,
horses, or any other cattle, ought to be rejected as bad manure
upon lucern, because they bring with them such a quantity of
weeds as to poison the best lucern in the course of two years.”

¢

Produce.

“The third year the lucern has acquired its full strength; then,
upon a common average, one acre will produce, viz.:

ABLE CSTE 10) 0 RO oe Sa ne ere 2,500 weight.
a he Sec andy: CLOPh x tais,aceie sete a anes ---- 1,400 weight.
ienihard (CTOD ia. shea. << Spausleiciers is 600 weight.

“ After the third crop, let it be fed upon by your cows all the
remainder of the fall.

“Such a piece of lucern will last from 9 to 10 years. But
however great may appear the profit of that culture, there is a
greater one after the lucern is worn out —I mean the richness
afforded to the ground by the roots of that plant, which is such
that the first year that the lucern has been plowed up I was never
able to raise wheat which grew too rich, tall, luxuriant and lodg-
ing. Instead of wheat, then, you must sow barley or oats.”

Mowing.

“The most proper time to get good and tender forage, relished
by the cattle, is to mow lucern when in full bloom, or a little
before the ripeness of the seed.

“ Another advantage of mowing early is to have the weeds cut
down, which otherwise would come to seed and spread over the
field.

“When the weather is clear, one or two days are sufficient to
dry your lucern hay, and by spreading over each row a thin bed
of any straw (that of oats and barley is the best) you may carry
your lucern to the barn without any danger of being heated or
rotten. The straw so intermixed with lucern, receiving the
juicy emanations of it, becomes more palatable, and it is eaten
like the best hay by the cattle. It would be needless to observe
what increase of food that process affords to a farm,”

412 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirutszs,

Disorder.

“Tn some uncommon summers, it happens that Iucern is at-
tacked by caterpillars or other insects. When this is the case
and you perceive the stems and leaves turning pale, yellow or
fading, the only and best remedy is to mow instantly your lu-
cern, which will soon grow again, fine and free from those insects.”

I have taken pains to relate all these reports fully, that we
may have before us the results of the first experiments in alfalfa
culture in America. Had our people followed up the work of
Mr. Livingston, we would have gained greatly. In the central
New York towns that I have mentioned alfalfa is a standard
crop, and I may safely add that more than one-half of the hay
cut in five towns in Onandaga and Madison counties this year is
alfalfa.

Temperature and Moisture in Relation to
Cheese-Ripening.

By L. L. VAN SLYKE, PH.D., Chemist, New York Agricultural Experiment
Station, Geneva, N. Y.

Read at the meeting of the New York State Dairymen’s Association at Watertown.

Under the general term of “ripening,” as relating to cheese,
we include all those physical and chemical changes occurring in
cheese that tend to bring it into a marketable condition, or rather
into a condition suitable for consumption as food.

I do not propose to consider here any of the details involved in
cheese-ripening, except those relating to loss of weight and in a
limited way to commercial quality. While we have been studying
other important changes, time permits for presentation here a
choice of only one phase of work, and of the information in hand
I know of nothing that would be so timely to our New York
cheesemakers as the consideration of the limited topic I have
chosen.

Over two years ago our legislature generously gave us a new
dairy building, and in its equipment our director, Dr. Jordan,
saw to it that more attention was bestowed upon cheese-curing
rooms than upon all other details put together. The object was not
to secure rooms that would be available only for everyday cheese-
factory work, but to have rooms, without regard to cost, in which
conditions could be controlled as closely as possible, in order that
we might learn what would take place under the exact conditions
desired.

We have a block of six distinct curing-rooms, separated from the
outer walls of the building by a passage four feet wide. The
rooms are farther insulated by double walls and air spaces on every
side of each room. Fach of the rooms is 9x10 feet and about 8
feet high, and the wall space on three sides is provided with shelves
12 inches apart.

413

414. Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

The temperature and moisture in each room ean be controlled
independently of the other rooms. It is possible to get a range
of temperature varying from below 40° F. to 90° F. in any room.
Each room is provided with a hot-air flue from below, and a cold-
air flue from above leading from the chamber in the attic which
contains ammonia expansion coils and brine tanks. These two
flues, one for cold and one for hot air, are closed by dampers and
these dampers are operated by means of compressed air tubes con-
trolled by thermostats. There is also a ventilating flue in the
ceiling of each room. The thermostat is set so as to register a
definite temperature in each room. For example, in one room
it is set at 70° F.; when the temperature falls one degree below
70° F., the thermostat is affected in such a manner that it turns
a valve and this causes the compressed air to open the hot-air
damper in the floor. On the other hand, when the temperature
rises to 71° F., the cold-air flue in the ceiling is opened. Thus
we have an alternate admission of hot air and cold air, causing the
temperature to rise or fall above or below the given point at which
it is desired to hold the room. So delicate is the operation of this
system that merely breathing upon the thermostat will open the
cold-air flue, while fanning the thermostat will open the hot-air
damper. We are therefore able by this system to hold tempera-
ture within a very limited range. Under most favorable condi-
tions limit of variation is only two degrees. Hven with a much
wider variation the temperature of the interior of a cheese would
not be affected to the extent of more than a small fraction of a
degree, as we have shown by placing a thermometer inside a cheese
and keeping it there for some weeks.

It would be impossible, even with the help of-drawings, to give
a completely intelligible description of our arrangement for con-
trolling temperature. The system itself must be seen in operation.

It is more difficult to control moisture than temperature, and
hold it within narrow limits. The most practicable and efficient
method we have found is to make use of yard-wide pieces of coarse
felt having strong capillary power. One end of the felt dips into
a trough of water situated near the top of the room, and the lower
end drops in a trough placed on the floor. The water is sucked
in by the felt at the upper end and gradually distributes itself
throughout the whole piece, the excess of water dripping into the
lower trough. It is necessary to boil the cloths occasionally in
water slightly acidulated with some acid, like acetic or hydro-

TEMPERATURE IN RELATION TO CHEESE-RIPENING. 415

chloric, in order to remove mineral matter that accumulates and
interferes with the capillary action. In most of the rocms we
have thus far kept the moisture as nearly as possible at 75 per
cent. of saturation, though variations of 10 per cent. are apt
to occur at times. The moisture is of course more easily managed
at the lower temperatures. In the rooms held at temperatures of
65 and 70° F., it required about four yard-wide pieces of felt to
keep the moisture near the point desired. Most of our work thus
far has been confined to studying cheese at different temperatures
with uniform moisture.

The changes in composition of cheese which take place in curing
under ordinary favorable conditions are for the most part of two
kinds: First, loss of moisture, and second, changes in casein,
resulting in the formation of soluble nitrogen compounds from
insoluble casein.

It has been fairly shown that fat in cheese changes chemically
but little, if any, during normal cheese-ripening.

Loss or Moisture IN CuErest-RIPENING.

The loss of weight in cheese during the process of curing under
proper conditions may be regarded, for practical purposes, to be
due entirely to the evaporation of water from the cheese. Of
course the mechanical loss of fat by exudation from cheese when
the temperature is allowed to go too high must be considered, and
in a serious way, but we are assuming that such a condition ought
not to be allowed to happen, and it will not with a proper control
of temperature. The small amount of loss due to formation and
escape of carbon dioxide or other gases from cheese can be neg-
lected for the purpose we have in view.

A gentleman who ought to have known better made the assertion
in a signed article that water in cheese was very different from
other water. It was a case of knowing for certain something that
isn’t so. Water, whether in milk, or butter, or cheese, however
much its presence may be disguised, is the same kind of water as
that with which we are familiar everywhere. It is just plain,
everyday, common water, and possesses no characteristics to dis-
tinguish it from the water we drink and handle, aside from pos-
sible impurities in the latter.

The rapidity and extent of loss of water in cheese-curing vary
with several conditions, chief of which are the following:

1. The amount of water originally present in the cheese.

416 Boreav or Farmers’ Institutes.

2. The temperature of the curing-room,

3. The size of the cheese.

4, The shape of the cheese.

5. The proportion of water-vapor present in the air of the cur-
ing-room.

The results to which your attention will be called are based
upon averages secured under the special conditions employed, these
being temperatures of 80°, 75°, 70°, 65°, 60°, and 55° F., with a
moisture content of air varying from 65 to 85 per cent. of satura-
tion, and averaging about 75. I would not have you understand
that these results are to be accepted as representing all conditions,
nor even as representing absolute facts in all cases under the con-
ditions employed. They are rather to be received as a general
guide and suggestion, some of the details of which may be modi-
fied by more extended work.

For the sake of ready comprehension, the figures express results
for 100 pounds of cheese, unless otherwise stated, and the results
are given in round numbers.

=~

The ‘Amount and Rate of Loss of Moisture as I nfluenced by the
Amount of Water Originally Present in Cheese.

Tn the table following we show the amount of water present in
the green cheese and the amount lost per 100 pounds of cheese for
each of four weeks under uniform conditions of moisture and
temperature:

Pounds water Pounds water lost by 100 pounds cheese.

in 100 pounds ————E—EeE———————————E———— caer Ee

green cheese. One week. Two weeks. Three weeks. Four weeks.
55 9.00 11.15 12.25 16.75
50 6.50 9.20 12.00 12.90
45 4.45 6.30 8.00 9.45
35 3.30 4.20 4.90 5.70

An examination of these figures shows a general and marked
tendency for very moist cheese to lose water more rapidly than
cheese having less moisture, other conditions being uniform. The
cheese having 55 per cent. of moisture at the start, lost about three
times as much each week as did the cheese having 20 per cent. less

TEMPERATURE IN RELATION TO Curese-Rreenina. AIT

of water, and not quite twice as much as the cheese having 10 per
cent. less of moisture at the start.

As the moist cheeses lose water much more rapidly in propor-
tion, the moisture in the different cheeses tends to become more
uniform; but, so far as our observations go, they would not all
reach the same condition of water-content, except under very
unusual conditions.

At the end of four weeks the cheese containing 55 per cent. of
water has lost approximately one-third of its water; the one con-
taining 50 per cent. has lost one-fourth; the one containing 45 per
cent., one-fifth, and the one containing 35 per cent., one-sixth.

This fact is a matter of general interest, rather than of practical
importance under the usual conditions present in cheese manu-
facture. But there is a practical question in this connection to be
considered later.

Your attention is first called to the loss of weight found with
different sizes of cheese at different temperatures.

The figures given in the following table represent the amount
of water lost for 100 pounds of cheese:

Temp. Pounds of water lost for 100 pounds green cheese.
of SS ee ee es SS eS
Diameter of cheese. curing ~ 2 3 4 8 12 16 20 =

dee week. weeks. weeks weeks. weeks. weeks. weeks. weeks.

Seven inches .... 80 i a

Sel | Die Cree, SLOKQt 1287 iA Ae Laas
Seven inches .... Dt ioe abso Secs 1 LOy-p/ OS VL 2 Ae a aS
Seven weches! 4.1. 10) 3.0). 7.4.6 Bedies Gee siete MUG aye: lesa
Seven inches .... 65 2.7 4.0 459) 758 8.0 ON INCOn | laa
Seven inches .... 60 2.6 3.8 a1 5.6 7.8 OAS 106 a
Sevenmminchwes. +o. 125. 22.5) face abet «95433 7.4 Sa9or) Wont LAT
Thirteen inches .. TA DA ae AZSe ED sD 7.4 80m 1023, 2 lls
Thirteen inches... 65 2.5 3.7 ASG? oO) 6.8 Thess! 952. 10.3
Thirteen inches .. (i meray ale Anos 4:6 6.5 Meats S36) ol Os0)
Thirteen inches .. Dose tolso ARQ AVAL 6.3 7.6 8.4 9.5
Fifteen inches ... 80 ... 56% ee DO 8 ee Pe aa
Fifteen inches ... 75 .. ote 4.6 SO" “10st” Ie 5 wie
Hitteen,inehes sss; - 4/0) aa shee Ss 4.4 5.9 v8 952 Ox
Fifteen inches... 65 ... re sete Cae 5.6 6.6 iD 8.6
iitteen mehes*'s. 9) 60" 22.2 eee We AO S20 7.0 7.9 8.9
Btheen inGhes, secs cess ia Seat CONS 5.4 6x0 Vice: 7.8

Attention is called to the following points:

1. The total loss of moisture is greater the first week and every
other week following at a temperature of 80° F. than it is at the
lower temperatures.

27

418 Bureau or Farmers’ Lnstrrures.

Loss of Fat at 80° and 70°.

2. The average weekly loss or rate of loss is greater in every
case as the temperature is higher. This statement can be brought
out more clearly by means of this table:

ital Sneeatotpce pees enpmetest NUS SO ese tar
First Second Third Fourth Fifth Md
riontle Onth OER: BAe oe sibethe Ce ade
AG “SOM ar. tetas 29.6 13.6 7.6 6.8 5.6 15.8
AGG TOSde TG ke hale 26.8 10.4 7.6 6.4 4.8 Ne
AAG OP FRE: cused ecaye 24.8 10.4 alo) 6.0 4.0 seo
IAG OD sel cratsrays Seeders a3) «Be 8.8 6.8 5.2 4.0 PAA
JAG GOOCH E ssh) stants 22.4 8.8 6.4 be0 4.0 Le.
At SSO Ma tke dette. Pal Lay 8.4 6.0 4.8 4.0 ita

3. The loss of weight is greater in every case the first week than
during any week following, usually being greater than the total
loss during the two or three weeks following put together. This
is true for every temperature.

This comparatively rapid loss of moisture during the first week
is in part due to the fact that the bandage holds considerable
water and this quickly dries. Then too the outer surface of the
cheese, in drying, begins to harden, the pores of the cloth filling
also to some extent, and this tends constantly more and more
to diminish evaporation, provided cracking is prevented.

Influence of Size of Cheese upon Loss of Moisture.

The larger a cheese the greater is the amount of surface exposed
for evaporation, and the greater will be the amount of water lost
from the cheese, other conditions being uniform; but the propor-
tion of loss, that is, the loss per 100 pounds, is smaller in the
larger cheese, because the area is smaller in proportion to weight
in larger cheese.

By referring to the preceding’ tables, the variations of loss with
cheeses of different diameters can be readily seen. In the follow-
ing table we show variations of loss for cheeses having a uniform

TEMPERATURE IN RELATION To Cuerse-Rirentina. 419

diameter, but varying in height, all kept at the same temperature
and room moisture:

Loss of moisture per 100 pounds of cheese.

—— ee

s —
Height of cheese. 1 3 3 4 8 12 16 20
week. weeks. weeks. weeks. weeks. weeks. weeks. weeks.

=

Three MMO NE) Ba oode - Bo) nat! 625 38.6%, el088;, S822) 4 oe GE 2
BPive™ inches” 2.2. 2.8 4.2 d.5 6.3 See Oe? lL Sel eno
Seven inches ....... PARC) 3.4 Ne The wo) 7.8 Cesta Osby lee

Here we find the proposition of loss decreases in proportion to
the height of cheese.

Influence of Shape of Cheese upon Loss of Moisture.

Which would lose moisture more rapidly, a eube-shaped cheese
or a round cheese, the weight being equal? I have no experi-
mental data to offer in answer to this question, but if my calcula-
tion is not at fault, the square cheese has the greater superficial
area and would lose moisture more quickly if it were a properly
behaved cheese.

The Influence of Moisture in Air upon Loss of Moisture in Cheese.

The relative amount of moisture in air, or, more properly, the
degree of saturation, probably exercises a more marked influence
upon the loss of water in cheese-curing than any other single factor.
I regret that I am unable at this time to present satisfactory data
covering this point, as our experimental work has not progressed
far enough to permit any specific, reliable statements beyond the
general one that the influence is very marked. I hope to accumu-
late data abundant enough to enable me to speak with some degree
of definite authority.

In experimental work, moisture is very difficult to control, and
at best quite wide variations are likely to occur.

Some PracticaLn APPLICATIONS.

T will now briefly call attention to some of the practical applica-
tions that the results presented may suggest:

1. To the cheesemaker and the dairyman water is money when
put in the right place in right quantities. It is essential to put it

420 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirures.

there as nearly right as may be and then keep it there with the
least possible loss.

The actual amount of water that cheese should contain hardly
lies within the province of my subject, but it may be of interest
to state that in cheese-factory work in New York, the moisture
in the green cheese usually amounts to 36 to 374 per cent. in the
regular cheddar cheese. For export purposes a somewhat smaller
amount of moisture is retained. For home trade, cheese made in
the fall, the moisture more often lies‘between 38 and 40 per cent.
It is safe to say that for our average American cheese-eater a
moisture content of not less than 33 to 35 per cent. at the time of
consumption is desirable.

From the dairyman’s standpoint, it is desirable to sell as much
water in cheese as will suit the consumer. Taking everything into
consideration, I believe better results will be secured in quality by
holding less moisture in the green cheese and curing it so that it
will lose only a small amount of water, rather than by holding a
larger amount of moisture in the green cheese and so curing that a
larger amount of moisture is lost.

2. The more completely a cheese dries out, the harder is the
rind and the greater the loss to the consumer. Most people plan
to throw away a rather thick rind. In a carefully-cured cheese
the rind is comparatively moist and only a very thin portion need
be lost, and even this can be used in cooking.

3. In preventing excessive loss of moisture, we have more water
to sell at cheese prices. I have made inquiries among some of our
New York factorymen as to their losses of weight in cheese-curing.
One of the most complete records, covering an entire season, made
by a cheesemaker and factory-owner who has probably better than
average conditions for curing-rooms, made the average loss of
weight during thirty days amount to about five pounds per hun-
dred pounds of cheese. Some factories try to get rid of their
cheese at three weeks, to escape some of this loss.

Consulting our table of moisture loss, we find that the loss could
easily be reduced one-third or more, and there could be for every
hundred pounds of cheese one and one-half or two pounds of water
to sell at cheese prices, meaning about 15 cents more per hundred
pounds of cheese. This gain may seem slight, but it means $1.50
for every ten thousand pounds of milk, and for a fair-sized factory
it would mean several hundred dollars a season.

4. In making small cheeses, like Young Americas, the proportion
of loss is much greater, and hence the demand is still more im-

TEMPERATURE IN RELATION TO Curese-Rirenina. 421

perative that these shall be cured under conditions where the loss
of moisture shall be smaller. I am not surprised that the manu-
facture of small cheeses of the cheddar type has been discouraged.
Even at the higher prices brought, the extra loss of moisture and
additional cost of manufacture are not satisfactorily covered.

Inriurence oF TEMPERATURE or Ripening Upon ComMMERCIAL
Quality or CHEESE.

When cheese comes into market, it must be judged by certain
commercial standards that have come to be recognized, and so it
is important that this kind of judgment be applied to any ex-
perimental work that deals with conditions affecting in any way
the commercial quality of cheese. Our cheeses have been examined
from time to time both by our own station expert and also by
others whose assistance has been called in at intervals.

1. In every instance, cheeses cured at lower temperatures were
scored higher after two and three months than those cured at
higher temperatures, though there was in some eases little or no
difference between the temperatures 60° and 55° F.

2. Cheese cured at 70° or more scored less at six months than at
three; while cheese cured at 55° F. scored higher in both cases,
and, moreover, showed decided improvement in flavor at six
months as compared with three months. ‘The rule is for cheese
cured at higher temperatures to acquire a more pronounced flavor,
sooner or later becoming more or less sharp. Cheese cured at
lower temperatures acquires a mild flavor and retains a uniform
flavor for a much longer period of time.

I do not know that any one is yet in position to say with any
degree of fullness how cheese acquires its flavors, but that they are
bacterial products we generally hold and with reason; but the
details of the problem remain to be worked out.

The influence of temperature upon the texture or body of cheese
is marked. At temperatures of 60° I. and below the texture was
rarely found otherwise than perfect, while at 65° F. and above it
was generally imperfect, especially after two or three months.
At higher temperatures the great tendency is to become crumbly
and mealy to a greater or less extent, becoming more marked as
the cheese becomes older. This is undoubtedly due to the drying
out of the cheese or loss of moisture.

In a recent conversation with one of our New York cheese-
makers, a gentleman who operates twenty-two factories, he told

429 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes. 3
me that he thought a crumbly texture was always due to tainted
milk. J am equally sure that any cheese made from good normal
milk will acquire a crumbly, mealy texture, if the water is allowed
to drop much below 30 per cent. and probably even before.
The exact minimum amount of moisture a cheese must carry to
maintain a perfect texture I am not yet able to state. Of course,
a cheese carrying extra fat in proportion to casein would not come
under the same rule as average normal cheese.

_ As the practical application of these results, attention is called
to these points:

1. At higher temperatures, loss in quality of cheese in curing is
marked. Even at a temperature of 70° F. the quality is not main-
tained, compared with a temperature of 60° F. or 55° F., especi-
ally after the early stage of ripening. During June, July, and
August, the temperature in many curing-rooms will average 75°
I’. or more, and how high it goes at times is limited only by the
degree of heat outside and the capacity of boards to absorb and
retain heat. Kven where the difference of temperature varies so
little as 10° or 15° F., say 55° F. or 60° F. and 70° F., we may
safely place the commercial difference at a cent a pound after the
early stage of curing. This difference would mean ten dollars a
day for every 10,000 lb. of milk made into cheese. This con-
dition is likely to prevail for, two or three months at least; and
when you have to heat the curing-rooms, as many do, with stoves,
in the spring and fall, an ideal condition of curing does not pre-
vail in respect either to temperature or moisture.

Higher curing temperatures mean lower quality, less money and
less cheese eaten.

2. With cheese cured at lower temperatures, the curing takes
place more slowly, to be sure, but it is improving all the while
and acquires the power of long keeping. Long after cheese cured
at higher temperatures deteriorates, the other is getting better con-
stantly. This is no small advantage, enabling one to hold cheese
for better prices, if desired.

I believe that improvement in quality, made by curing cheese
at lower temperatures, will be a very great factor in promoting
the consumption of cheese.

We may try to persuade the American people that cheese is a
most economical and concentrated form of food; we may talk to
them about its digestibility ; we may use every possible argument
to prove to them that they ought to be more sensible and eat more

TEMPERATURE IN RELATION TO CHEESE-RIPENING. 423

cheese; but the average American cheese-eater, so far as I know
him, doesn’t want high-flavored, sharp-tasting cheese and he stops
eating it when he can’t find any other kind in the market. Give
him a cheese sufficiently moist, well broken down, dissolving easily
on the tongue, of mild flavor, and he will eat more, and you will
have to make more of the same kind.

I am aware that there is a class of cheese eaters who want mild
cheese and think they can get it only by eating cheese very im-
perfectly ripened; they will take it at three or four weeks and I
suppose they will insist upon cheese that they can chew on, that
won’t dissolve easily in the mouth, or in the stomach either. We
should try to overcome this vitiated taste, for it is eating this kind
of cheese that has given so many people an exaggerated idea of the
terrible demands made by cheese upon the digestive organs. This
class of cheese-eaters is hardly worth catering to in the long run,
for even they are mortal and they usually become confirmed
dyspepties and stop eating cheese altogether.

I cannot refrain from emphasizing the suggestion made by Dr.
Babcock and Dr. Russell two or three years ago in regard to
centrally located buildings especially erected for curing purposes,
taking care of the product of several different factories, wherever
such an arrangement is feasible. Only by some such system is it
probable that ideal conditions can be secured in every respect.

My sole object has been to call attention more fully to the re-
sults to be secured by proper conditions of cheese-ripening and
point out the losses suffered by lack of such conditions,

History and Influence of the New York State
Dairymen’s Association.

By B. D. GILpert,

Read at the meeting of the above association at Watertown.

The New York State Dairymen’s Association dates back to the
early days of associated dairying in this country, inasmuch as it
was the outgrowth and result of the older American Dairymen’s
Association. All cheese dairymen will remember that the first
cheese factory built in this country, and that means in the world,
was the one erected by Jesse Williams in 1851, in Oneida county,
New York. For seven or eight years there was very little in-
crease in the number of factories, dairymen assuming a somewhat
critical attitude toward the new method and desiring to investigate
it thoroughly before embarking in it. But about the year 1860
the factory system began to become more popular, and new
factories sprang up in different parts of the State. In 1861 Mr.
A. P. Willard tells us there were thirty-four factories in Oneida
county, with a considerable number in Herkimer, Montgomery,
Jefferson, Cattaraugus, and Chautauqua counties. By the year
1864 dairymen began to feel the need and importance of coming
together at least once a year to compare notes and learn what they
could from each other. Under the lead of their two most promi-
nent men, Prof. L. B. Arnold, who for many years was the
only really scientifie man in the cheese business of this land,
and Hon. Harris Lewis, one of the most level-headed practical
men, a meeting was called at Rome, N. Y., where the Ameri-
can Dairymen’s Association was then formed. Hon. Horatio
Seymour was made president and retained that office as long as the
association lasted; Professor Arnold became secretary and Harris
Lewis, treasurer. There is said to have been great enthusiasm
when this associztion was formed, and for some years the con-
ventions were attended by delegates from many parts of the
country. But after a time it was found that the dairy business

494

New York Sratrre Datrymen’s Assoctarion. 495

was extending so rapidly that it was impossible to maintain a
national association, which this aspired to be, especially when its
meetings were all held at one place, viz.: Utica, N. Y. As a
practical man, Harris Lewis saw that the work of such an associa-
tion must be confined within narrower limits in order to make it
a success. So a call was issued for a meeting of New York State
dairymen, which took place at Syracuse, February 19, 1877.
Here the State association had its birth, and Hon. Harris
Lewis was made the first president, with Hon. Josiah Shull
for secretary. An entirely different policy was pursued from that
of the American Dairymen’s Association. Instead of tying the
annual conventions down to one town or city, they were held every
year in a different place, thus drawing a larger number of dairy-
men within the sphere of their influence and making friends in
many different quarters. In order to show how widely seattered
the conventions have been, I have summarized them as follow:
Places at which only one convention was held: Binghamton,
vay Whitney’s Point, 1881; Ogdensburg, 1883; Jamestown,

885 ; Norwich, 1886; Middletown, 1887; Oswego, 1888 ; Ithaca,

889; Walton, 1890; Cobleskill, 1892 ; Gistivechends! 1898. Places
; alith convention has been held enite: Se nouae! 1877 and

895; Oneonta,.1879 and 1894; Delhi, 1880 and 1896; Owego,
ee ana 1891. Places at aah the COR has been held
three times: Cortland, 1882, 1897, and 1899; Watertown, (——),
1898, and 1900. Thus, it will be seen that in twenty-three years
the convention has visted seventeen places, four of which it has
visited twice and two only for three times.

So much in the way of mere history. Time does not permit
to go into detail concerning the officers and men who have from
time to time been connected with the association. It should be
stated, however, that Hon. Harris Lewis continued to occupy
the president’s chair until 1886, when failing health compelled
him to decline re-election, and John S. Shattuck of Norwich
was nominated by Mr. Lewis himself and elected viva voce. Mr.
Shattuck served the association for two years very acceptably and
thereafter a new president was chosen every year. Other promi-
nent men who, although not officers of the association, took an
active part in its proceedings, but have already joined the great
majority, were Hon. Josiah K. Brown, the first dairy commis-
sioner of the State; Col. F. D. Curtis of Kirby Homestead, a
genial associate and enthusiastic dairyman; Hon. Josiah Shull,
secretary of the association until 1890, when he resigned on ac-

496 Bureau oF Farmers’ Insrrrures.

count of declining years and was made president for that year;
Prof. L. B. Arnold, for many years the most experienced man in
the country in the chemistry of the dairy, and Dudley Miller, a
prominent breeder of Holstein cattle.

In speaking of the work and influence of the New York State
Dairymen’s Association, it is impossible to do more than select a
few of the most important subjects which have been acted on
at different periods of its history. At the very first meeting of
the association at Syracuse, a petition was framed to be sent to
the Senate and Assembly “to pass such laws as will protect the
farmers of the State against frauds in the manufacture and sale of
fertilizers,” and this petition struck the keynote of the associa-
tion’s efforts ever since. That note has been, ‘ Down with frauds
and imitations masquerading in the guise of pure goods.” A
committee was appointed to lay this matter before the legislature,
and the following year this committee reported that they had
waited upon the Senate committee of agriculture and had con-
ferred with the executive committee of the New York State Agri-
cultural Society, and they believed the time was ripe for a united
effort to procure an appropriation for establishing a State experi-
ment station. This I believe was the earliest movement in that
direction. At the Delhi convention in 1880 the same committee
made a further report, showing that it had pursued its work until
the legislature of the preceding winter had passed an act establish-
ing the New York Agricultural Experiment Station. Its labors
therefore were accomplished and the committee asked to be dis-
charged.

At the same convention there appears the first action I have
been able to find in our records concerning oleomargarine. A law
had already been passed prohibiting oleo., and this resolution
rc ommended “ an amendment of the law requiring the branding
of oleomargarine by the manufacturer, was to compel all retailers
to inform their customers of its character when offered for sale,
and that hotel and restaurant keepers be considered as retailers
and compelled to give notice to their guests when oleo., sueine, or
other imitation butter is set before them.” The agitation on this
subject was kept up and in the early winter of 1884 President
Lewis and two or three other prominent members of the associa-
tion went to Albany to consult with Senator Henry R. Low of
Orange county, upon an act which should establish a dairy com-
mission in this State with an appropriation suflicient to enforce

New York Sratre Datrywen’s AssocraTion. 427

the existing laws against imitations of dairy products. With a
law already in existence prohibiting both their sale and manu-
facture, except under proper restrictions, there was no means of
enforcing the law until the dairy commission was established.
Senator Low’s bill passed the legislature that winter, and within
10 days Hon. Josiah K. Brown was appointed chief dairy com-
missioner. Our convention that year was held at Owego, and
both Senator Low and Commissioner Brown attended and deliv-
ered addresses explanatory of the law and hoping for the assist-
ance and co-operation of the association. And so the association
was again one of the active forces in the enactment of a vitally
important law.

There is one other action taken by the association which was of
special weight and consequence. At the Oswego convention of
1888, Col. F. D. Curtis occupied an entire evening with an address
on “ Dairy Education,” speaking for more than two hours. Part
of the address was written, but much of it was spoken off-hand,
as the colonel was so thoroughly imbued with his subject and so
earnest in its advocacy that he needed no written notes except for
the dates, figures, and quotations. I remember that he brought
with him an armful of consular reports from which to read what
they had to say about dairy education in European countries.
I doubt if that address has ever been surpassed in its way, and the
argument he made for dairy instruction in this country was simply
convincing and unanswerable. Notwithstanding the great length
of his address, the audience, which was composed chiefly of mem-
bers of the association, listened to it attentively throughout, and
at its close Mr. H. W. Richardson moved that a committee of
three be appointed by the chair “ to present the subject of dairy
schools to the legislature of this State.” President Shattuck ap-
pointed as such committee, Mr. Richardson, Col. Curtis, and our
present presiding officer, Mr. Geo. A. Smith. I cannot say posi-
tively whether the whole committee went to Albany that winter or
not, but I know that Col. Curtis went and presented the case to
the committee on finance so convincingly that an appropriation
was voted to the association that winter for the purpose of dairy
education, and seven dairy conferences were held the succeeding
summer. These were not the first however. This subject had
been talked of among the officers of the association the preceding
year, and as the legislature had then granted a small appropriation
for defraying the expenses of the association, Secretary Shull had

428 Bureau or Farmers’ Institutes.

inaugurated the educational system by holding two “butter con-
ferences,” as they were called — the first at Richland, N. Y., Au-
gust 10, 1887, near the farm of Mr. W. H. Gilbert, who made
the arrangements for the meeting; and the second at Minnie Dale
Farm, Chemung, N. Y., August 12th, at the dairy of our la-
mented friend, Jesse Owen. ‘These were the first efforts at
popular dairy education in this country. We are so accustomed
to dairy meetings and farmers’ institutes in this present age
of progress that we can hardly appreciate what an effort it was
to give the initial impetus to all this work and to push it till it
became a success. That is what was done by the New York
State Dairymen’s Association, and other States seeing the success
of the work adopted somewhat similar plans. The Dairymen’s
Association in the summer of 1889 held thirty-nine conferences
and that continued then until 1892, when the number held was
twenty-six.

It will be seen from what has been said that the influence
of the association has always been wide, practical, and beneficent.
It has stood from the very beginning as an earnest advocate
of pure goods, whether in cheese, butter, or milk. It has worked
successfully to prevent dairymen from being handicapped by
imitations and substitutes. It has made its influence felt in
legislative circles. It has brought to the front in its conven-
tions the latest and most approved methods and improvements
in dairying; and it is certainly worthy of the hearty indorse-
ment and approval of the dairy interests of New York State,
which it has done so much to educate, broaden, strengthen, and
place on a higher plane of intelligence and success.

It is our sad duty to record the decease of three members of
the New York State Dairymen’s Association during the past year.
The first of these was Jesse Owen of Elmira, who was president
of the association from December, 1891 to December, 1892. This
is not the first time the association has been called on to
mourn the loss of an ex-president. Hon. Harris Lewis and Hon.
Josiah Shull had preceded him. Although Mr. Owen, in the
latter part of his life, was a man of leisure, he owned the Minnie
Dale Farm, Chemung, where a fine gerade of butter was always
made, and he kept up his interest in it to the last. Tis interest
in this association also was unfailing. He was one of its original
members, and until declining years made the journey too much
of a burden he never missed attending the annual convention.

New York Srare DarryMen’s ASSOCIATION. 429

He was a peacemaker by nature and his genial presence always
assured harmony and union in the ranks of the association.
Those of us who belonged to the earlier days of the association

can but recall his inspiring influence and the helpful tact with
which he assisted in our proceedings. Therefore, be it

Resolved, That we sincerely deplore the demise of our friend
and associate, Jesse Owen; that we desire to recognize his ster-
ling qualities, and the hai influence which he exerted in our
councils; that we honor his memory as one of our oldest mem-
bers Bal officers; and that his death brings home to us the fact
that the number of original members is rapidly decreasing, and
that soon there will be no more of them left.

The second decease to take place in our ranks this year was
that of William Mather, of Adams, who died April 17, 1900.
His parents were from New England families, and they settled
in Adams, in 1820, on the farm where all their children were
born. He was one of the most progressive farmers of that re-
gion, and at his death one of the heaviest landowners in the
town. At his death, all the farming community felt that they
had lost a valuable friend. As a member of this associaton he
was always generous in his donations, and greatly interested in
its progress.

Resolved, That in the decease of William Mather the asso-
ciation has lost a true and generous friend, one who was devoted
to the cause of education, whether in the school or on the farm,
one who believed in elevating the people, and in making better
men and women with each succeeding generation.

The third and last meniber to pass away this year was Major
©. P. Root of Gilbertsville. Major Root was not only a model
citizen who took great interest in the local affairs of his place
of residence, but during the civil war he occupied a position of
great trust and responsibility, and fulfilled its duties with ability
and success. So thoroughly imbued with patriotism was he,
however, that he would never accept any compensation for these
services beyond his mere expenses. Afterward he became ex-
tensively interested in the dairy business, and if we are not mis-
taken he also was one of the original or very early members of our
association. Of late years he has managed some twenty butter
and cheese factories in his own and adjoining counties, and has
had the reputation of making the finest imitation English dairy
cheese produced in this country. For many years he was a

430 Bureau or Farmers’ INstirures,

regular attendant at our conventions, but we believe that his
last appearance at one was at Cortland, in 1899.

Resolved, That we desire to express our sincere sorrow at
the demise of Major C. P. Root, our old friend and associate;
that as a man of high ability and unblemished character and a
dairyman of large experience there were few who were his equal;
that it is a distinct loss to this association to have such a mem-
ber pass away beyond recall; and that the community at large
is made poorer by his death.

All these were men who did what they could to lessen
human want and suffering, and to elevate the masses. They
were all earnest and sincere believers in the Christian religion,
and each of them approached his end with an unfaltering trust.

“ Like one

Who wraps the drapery of his couch
About him and lies down to pleasant dreams.”

Dairy Bacteriology.

By Prof. H. A. Harpine, Bacteriologist New York Agricultural Experimen
Station,

Notes which formed basis of Address at meeting of New York State Dairymen’s Associatio
at Watertown.

Mr. President and Members: I begin this talk with fear, not
for lack of subject-matter, but for fear that I will use unintelligible
language. For I am to tell you of conclusions reached by the aid
of bacteriology, an infant science, and one which has only recently
begun to extend a helping hand to dairying. It is unfortunate for
us that I must mention the word bacillus, for the mere mention
of the word calls to mind a host of erroneous impressions and mis-
conceptions. If I were to talk about cattle or cheese I would have
the satisfaction of knowing that my auditors had a good idea of
the object that I was speaking of and would occasionally receive
sympathetic nods of approval. But when I tell you that I have
found a bacillus to be the cause of ropy milk, I feel alone here,
for there is only one other in this audience to contradict me. I
must necessarily beg you to stretch your imaginations to think of
bacteria, those minute things visible only under the microscope,
as units in nature, and deserving your serious attention.

Ropy milk is of practical importance to the milk dealer and
consumer alone. The cheese-maker here is interested in this mat-
ter only in that it will explain a common phenomenon and one very
similar to that encountered by him in slippery whey.

Objectionable on account of its unwholesome appearance,
change dealers with insinuations that the cows are not healthy, or
that you have weeds in the pastures, or that the feed is wrong.
Belief that it is garget milk. Ropy, not slimy, when drawn.
Garget milk is slimy when drawn.

Cause.— A bacillus, not a disease producer. Erroneous idea of
medical side of bacteriology.

A harmless mass of viscid slime, living in water naturally, and
which would not of his own accord harm milk. Unfortunately for

431

439 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrrures.

us he is inclosed in a slimy, sticky jacket. Hang together for the
same reason that a fly sticks to tlypaper, and when enough are
present in any liquid, that liquid becomes viscid. When I lift
this stringy milk, the bacteria in it are arranged in the position
seen in the chart, the cohesion of the sticky coverings being sufli-
cient to maintain the weight of the liquid.

These bacilli are naturally unoffending. They cannot walk,
fly or jump into milk; victims of cirgumstances, and_ these
circumstances are under the control of the dairyman. I want to
emphasize the fact of the innocent intent of these bacteria; they
never get into milk unless they are helped there.

Conditions in average concern experiences trouble. Small milk-
house. Milk brought in and strained, bottled. Cooling cans in
ice water high outside; splashes in fine ice; lifting out cans;
perhaps don’t scald; dirty strainers; slight dust; rinsing pails at
night.

What bacteriology reveals: Bacteria in the milk; bacteria in
the water in tank; bacteria in village water supply, sometimes;
flouy dust, how found; cans standing open; strainers, how found ;
air-stand sterile milk; péor can washing; innocent dealers.

What to do.— Seald well, boil; cover cans in the tanks; potas-
sium bichromate in tank; supervise the milk production carefully
or produce your own; 5 per cent. oil vitriol on floor.

Recapitulation.— Germs in water; may dry up on floor and blow
in; dirty utensils; careless rinsing of pails at night; impossible
to foresee all conditions; must work out own solution.

I invite your correspondence in regard to trouble, for my knowl-
edge concerning it is not yet burdensome.

The Evolution of Dairying.

By JARED VAN WAGENEN, JR., Lawyersville, N. Y.

Delivered at the meeting of the New York State Dairymen’s Association at Watertown.

If we should try to point out any single watchword which
might be said to represent the dominant thought, the most promi-
nent philosophy of the last half of this century, that watchword
would be evolution. And the term evolution does not mean that
man by some mysterious sort of a breeding-up process was derived
from a monkey or a tailless ape. That is the most common, most
crude and, I think I may say, most vulgar conception of a great
physical and spiritual truth. But in its broader sense it means,
not only that so far as organic nature is concerned do we stand in
the presence of a constantly changing and, therefore, unfinished
creation, but it means also that what is true of vegetable cell and
towering tree, of bird and beast and creeping thing, of lurking
savage and civilized man is true as well of art and science and
religion and society, true also of all the physical, moral and spirit-
ual forces of the world. And evolution means too, that we have
come to see more plainly the hoary truth that everywhere, in the
realm of nature and in the realm of social and commercial activi-
ties, there is being waged the fiercest of battles — the never-ending
struggle for existence — and that out of this conflict there is being
evolved ‘the most perfect adaptability because the whole struggle
tends only to one end — the survival of the most fit. To-day men
use the philosophy of evolution to explain almost everything.
They trace, with breaks perhaps and many surmises, the tiny
simple animal cell up through long ages in many forms until it
blossoms into the highest of animal life. They trace society, from
the half brute man roaming wild in the forest or hiding in the
grass, up to the time when the idea of the family first came in and
children bore their mothers name because there was no means by
which their fathers should be known; so on up through the clan
and the tribe and the feudal baroncy and the nation and all the

28 438

434. Bureau oF Farmers’ INStTirurtes.

complexities and wonders of our Christian civilization. They take
our old Bible and point to the growth of the religious idea, to the
great gulf crossed between the Pentateuch and Paul. And this
evening I want to talk to you for a few minutes and, if possible,
tu interest you in the unfolding and the development of the oldest
of occupations. The early history of dairying can never be writ-
ten, it can only be guessed at, because its beginning is buried in
the unfathomable past. We ean only know that before man reared
any architectural monuments for himself and before he left any
written word, pressed into clay or graven in stone as a memorial
of his generation, before this the dairyman arose. And there was
a time back of that when man roamed through the forests a naked
root digger, creeping on his prey and killing it with his unaided
fist or with a stick or stone, tearing their raw flesh with his teeth
or rudely shaping their skins into a covering against the cold.
But when did there creep into his benighted brain the great idea
of taming and rearing these animals in order that he might have
them always at hand and make them niunister to his wants in meat
and skins? And then some day — I think we may allow ourselves
to imagine that it was in a beautiful effort to save the life of a
little child whose mother had died, some genius of that far-off time
conceived the idea of drawing stifle from Hie udder of some female
of his herd and that day the first dairyman stood forth. I love
to think of that dim morning twilight of the human race — of the
days when cities were merely collections of mud huts beside the
watercourses — when nations were only chieftain clans and wars
were only family fueds. And when I read the old Testament I
stand in the dawn of history. I see the cattle upon a thousand
hills. I hear the lowing of oxen and the bleating of sheep and
the tinkling of the belie: of the camels and I know that it was a
goodly land ‘ ‘flowing with milk and honey.”

The first grazier sraitioted with his dock where his faney led
him or niera the pastures were greenest, until finally his pasture
ground began to encroach upon the pasture ground of his neighbor
and that was the cause of the first war. After him came nel later
man who set up his boundaries and with solemn form and covenant
claimed a certain definite portion of earth for a possession for
himself and his children after him forever. It is interesting to
note how from the earliest times the ownership of land has been
considered an almost sacred right and its possession, sale, and in-
heritance have been guarded by law with especial care and made
secure in stately legal phrase and ceremonial. In the days when

Tuer Evouvurion or Darryinea. 435

there were no stock quotations in Wall street and when industrial
securities and government bonds were not, a man’s wealth was
measured solely by the number of his flocks and herds. Then too,
when you think of it, how much of social and economic evolution
is revealed by the fact that the Latin word for money and for
cattle trace to the same root. And from this far off primitive
condition how great, how striking has been the unfolding, the
evolution? Through the hand and brain of man and the unchang-
ing laws of nature, how great the transformation? Hvolution
touched the wild cow roaming through the forests of Kurope and
she became the gentle Jersey or the brown-eyed Holstein. Evolu-
tion found the Arab of the desert shaking milk in a goat-skin bag
to get butter and beneath her influence it built itself into the com-
bined churn and worker. Evolution found our English ancestors
creaming milk in a hollow gourd and in the fullness of time there
was heard the soft murmur of a great separator. Evolution looked
on men following the cowkeeper’s art, without knowledge, without
intelligence, without thought and beneath her magic touch his
drudgery blossomed into the science and the art of dairy
husbandry.

But someone will say that while his may be all true, yet we
are not so interested in what our ancestors did in the past as in
what we are going to do in the future and that the bad practices
of our forefathers have very little connection with the price of
cheese on the Watertown board of trade or the quotations for
creamery extras in New York city. And because I feel the force
of this I want to try and interest you for a few minutes in the
evolution of dairying as it has taken place in our memories, as it
is going on around us to-day and as it will probably go on for
the years to come.

First I want to speak of the cow, because (the Chicago and
Kansas City packers always accepted) no one has been able to
engage in the dairy business without taking the cow into partner-
ship.

So note this: That in the cow in modern times there has been
evolution from two different causes along two distinct lines.
First, the cow has been changing in an unconscious effort to fit
herself to her changing environment; and secondly, she has been
changing because of man’s selection in his effort to bring her to a
new ideal.

If there is one primary and unchallenged doctrine in Darwin-
ism, it is that all life is a struggle for existence and that only the

436 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTrrutes.

fittest survive. In a state of nature the vast majority of indi-
viduals perish, leaving no progeny to hand down their characters
to future generations. In the long run only those survive who are
particularly fitted for and are victorious in the struggle. And
before man took a hand in her destiny, what was the fit cow? It
was not the one with incurved waxy horns. It was not the one
with a back level from the horns to the setting on of the tail. It
was not the one with incurved thighs and a prominent pelvic arch.
It was not the one with big milk-veins and double-chest extensions.
It was not even the cow that could give 10,000 pounds of milk
containing 5 per cent. of fat in twelve months. But it was the
cow who could beat off the wild beast that would devour her young.
It was the cow who had hardiness and vitality to live through the
time when vegetation was buried deep under the winter snow. It
was the cow who, when there was not food enough for all, had
strength and stamina enough to be among those who survived the
famine. In short the best cow of that day was the one who was
enabled to overcome the daily and almost hourly vicissitudes of
that time.

But man has changed all that. When we domesticate the cow
and provide her with food and shelter her against the cold; when
we kill the offspring of some and preserve the offspring of others,
then we have reversed the economy of nature and no longer put a
premium on hardiness and brute strength. And so for thousands
of years the cow has been dropping off some of her old characters
and has been assuming some new ones. So here we have changes
due to environment.

And then we have another vast series of changes due to man’s
conscious selection. Note here that man’s conscious selection of
the cow has not always been toward the same ideals. It is
perhaps strange, but I think true that it was beef rather than
milk that first attracted the attention of breeders. It is 150
years since Bakewell brought the now extinct Long Horns to
great perfection, and bred Old Comely with the fat on her sir-
loin six inches thick. It is more than 100 years since the careful
recording of Short Horn pedigrees was begun. It is ninety years
since the Short Horn bull Comet sold for 1,000 gr. ($5,000), but
it is less than fifty years since we began to keep records of pro-
duction or to record the pedigrees of animals bred for milk
instead of beef production.

The most evident development of the cow is in accord with
the constantly growing conviction that she must be selected along

Tue Evoturion or Datryrna. 437

special lines for special purposes. We are coming by common
consent to believe that the most profitable dairy cow is one built
with a certain physical conformation and temperament, and that
this same conformation is not consistent with the most economi-
cal production of beef.

It is told of Booth, the great Short Horn breeder, that he used
to walk down behind those magnificent mountains of flesh where
every calf stood between two cows, and striking his hand upon
their padded rumps would say, “ What does a few quarts of
milk from a cow amount to?” And to-day the intelligent dairy-
man asks, “ What does a hundred or two pounds more or less
of inferior beef amount to?”

So much for the evolution of the cow considered as a machine.
Since the Spanish-American war we have been very fond of
speaking of “the man behind the gun,” and so I want to speak
of the force behind the cow. Two things must interest every
dairyman and they are what he takes out of the cow, and what
he puts into her. And after all, I sometimes think the greatest
and primary question connected with dairying is feeding the cow.
And certainly changes here are evident enough. The old
regime and directions for feeding the cow were simple and: com-
prehensive. It was grass and warm water in summer, and hay
and ice water in winter. If the pastures were abundant, so inuch
the better. If the drouth came and they were scanty, it was
no use to murmur — the ways of Providence are inscrutable and
past finding out. We are moving toward a time when pastures
shall be the main dependence for only six weeks of the year;
when quick growing forage crops shall carry us till the wonderful
maize is mature and when with early eut hay and ensilage, and
nitrogenous by-products, the cow will scarcely care whether it
is June or January. The greatest invention which has come to
the dairyman within a generation is not the separator, it is not
the Babcock test, it is not the feeding standard, but it zs the
silo. And this newly-developed science of storing green forage
has worked almost a revolution in the practice of the winter
feeding of the cow. And not this; that while the silo has
been a great help to the man who has availed himself of it,
it has (because of the cheaper production it has made possible)
heen a stumbling block in the path of the man who has refused
to avail himself of it.

There has been the evolution of the cow herself; there has
been the evolution in our ways of feeding the cow, and let us

438 Bureau or Farmers’ Instiru res.

look for a moment at the evolution in the care and marketing
of her products.

In the memory of many of you, almost in the lifetime of we
of the younger generation, the manufacture and sale of but-
ter, milk and cheese has grown from a local industry, carried
on by thrifty housewives beside the kitchen fires, to a great
organized and systematized business. For more than a hundred
years New York city drew its daily supply of milk from the
farmers of Manhattan Island. Those were the palmy times,
when Harlem and Bloomingdale were remote country villages,
and the Bowery, as the name still indicates, a shady lane through
which the thrifty citizens drove their cows every morning
to pasture. And when the growing city began to feel the
need of more milk than could be produced on Manhattan Island,
a ferryman broke the corner on the price by bringing a supply
from the mainland in his skiff. It is hardly fifty years since
the Erie railroad ran the first milk train, bringing milk from the
then almost immeasurable distance of forty miles. And now,
every day in the year, fast trains rush into New York bringing
more than 25,000 cans of milk from five different States, some of
it almost 400 miles away.

And this already great milk-shipping business is constantly
growing and promises to become the principal dairying business
of the New England and eastern States. The city consumption
of milk is increasing by leaps and bounds because supply creates
demand, and because the people are coming to know that milk
is not primarily a luxury, but that it is one of the cheapest and
best foods in the world. As a rule, the greatest growth in popu-
lation is being made in the cities of the old and thickly-settled
States. Southern New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and
New Jersey are getting wondrously full of people. The time has
already come in portions of Massachusetts, and much of Connee:
ticut, the time will ultimately come here, when the cities will
take the entire dairy products of these eastern States in milk and
cream — leaving butter and cheese to be imported from more dis-
tant localities.

And the cheese industry has been wonderfully developed. For
centuries the dairyman has made cheese, by rule of thumb, an
individual art, not a science. When Jesse Williams, in 1851, be-
gan to make up into cheese at one plant the milk produced by
his sons on neighboring farms, I hardly think he dreamed he

THe Evonurion or Darryinea. 439
2

was laying the foundation of a factory cheese system which forty
years later should produce annually nearly one quarter of a
billion pounds of cheese. Since Jesse Williams’ pioneer days
there has come in exact knowledge of temperature, the rennet
test, a rational theory of ripening milk, and these together with
investigations of the chemistry and bacteriology of cheese-anaking
are doing much to reduce to a science this most difficult and
complex of dairy arts.

But it is in butter-making, where, judged by the standard of
mechanical improvement, evolution has been greatest. It seems to
me that above any other theme, the poetry and romance of farm
lite has clustered and entwined itself about butteranaking under
the old regime. But some way we cannot but feel that the times
have dealt hardly with this. The cow with the crumpled horn is
with us still, but the merry-milking maids, with their brimming
pails and rounded arms have tripped away into the shadowy past,
and we can never see them more unless we shut our eyes. The
mossy, sweet-smelling springhouse that we used to read about has
given place to an ugly creamery beside the dusty country road, and
the soft swash of the dash-churn is lost in the metallic whirr of
the combined churn and worker, while the bewitching dairy maid
whose rosy charms the dim light but half revealed and half con-
cealed has been displaced by a man with bushy whiskers, a dirty
shirt, and a rubber apron. And sometimes when we dream a bit
it seems as if the world were poorer thereby. Soberly, we honor
our mothers or our grandmothers who in bygone days, from the
eight-quart pan and the dash-churn, brought forth a golden
product colored with the juice of the carrot, and nevertheless
an honor to them and to their art. But all that is changed.
The hum of the first separator sounded the beginning of the end
of individual dairying. Once a method was found of handling
large quantities of milk quickly and economically, and butter-
making began to follow the tendency of the age toward co-opera-
tion and aggregation.

And butter-making has developed wonderfully in its geographi-
eal range. There was a palmy time when Orange county made
the butter for New York, and when the notes of the old Orange
county bank were printed in golden yellow to indicate that but-
ter was the source of the wealth and prosperity of the county.
The other day I picked up an old Cultivator, published in Albany
fifty-four years ago this ninth of December, and in their market

440 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrures.

column there was recognized two grades of butter, Orange County
and Western Dairy. Orange County meant butter made in that
part of the State, and Western Dairy meant butter from up
State, and possibly from Ohio and Michigan shipped down over
the old Erie canal and the Hudson river. And the industry
spread until the cow worked herself into every narrow valley
and on to each windy hilltop of that famous old dairy county
of Delaware. Westward the Star of Empire takes its way, and
westward the dairy cow took her march, through New York
State, into the western reserve, into Indiana and Michigan. And
all those years it had been a very pleasing superstition that suc-
cessful dairying must always be confined to the eastern States.
Men were glad to believe that there was something about the
water or the soil, or possibly the air which would forever keep
the cow out of the valley of the Mississippi. But the industry
itself never recognized any such barriers. It has crossed the
Missouri and the rockies. It has gone to the Pacific and the
gulf of Mexico. It is not yet thirty years since butter went
west to Chicago and now the dairyman of lowa and Illinois and
Minnesota and Wisconsin has challenged the dairyman of New
York, and has beaten him at his own game.

Viewed from the standpoint of capital invested, what a wonder-
ful industry this dairy business has grown into. It is one of
the pathetic stories of the Pilgrim Fathers that for some years
there was only two or three cows in the whole colony. And
there is a pretty story of the delight of the demure Priscilla
when at last her husband was able to tell her that he was the
owner of a whole cow for their very own. But to-day if we were
to decide to marshal all the cows of New York State into a monster
livestock parade, and could start them out of Buffalo along the
line of the New York Central tracks, marching in close order, four
cows abreast, each cow pressing close on the heels of the one
ahead, the van of that great procession might march down Bat-
tery park in New York before the rear guard had left the city
by the lake; and bear in mind that this reférs to the milch cows
of the State of New York alone.

We have seen that the development of dairying has been along
three separate lines, the supplying of milk, the making of cheese
and the manufacture of butter, and it seems to me that these
three lines represent different phases of progress. I want to
say, without offense to any one, that the selling of milk as usu-

Tue Evouurion or Dairyina. 441

ally conducted represents the lowest development of dairying.
Somehow, there seems to be something demoralizing about the
forty-quart milkean. And the reason is not far to seek. As a
rule the men who are buying milk in the country have insisted
on the only thing — that it should come up to the State standard
for fat, together with reasonable cleanliness and sweetness, when
delivered. They have demanded only that which any man who
could milk cows at all could produce. They have, on the whole,
offered a low-grade price and they have been content to receive
a low-grade product. There is another trouble at the bottom of
the milk-shipping industry, and it is this: The fact that the milk
is sold from the farm makes it a farm without calves or pigs, so
that the skill and intelligence of the breeder is not needed. What
is true of milk-shipping is true of cheese-making as well, although
just as soon as the system of paying for cheese, as measured by
the amount of fat, is introduced, just so soon a new and educative
factor comes into the problem.

But butter-making represents a still higher evolution of dairy-
ing, because it not only means producing milk but it means pro-
ducing milk, with constant attention to the per cent. of butter fat
it contains, and beyond that the young live-stock which come up
about every butter-producing farm are a constant incentive to study
- and enthusiasm. And if you should ask me what is the high-
est evolution, the perfect flower of dairying, I should tell you
that it is the making of butter upon the farm. The man who
does this must march in the very front rank of the dairy pro-
cession. Not only must he make milk like the shipper; no not
only must he make milk and raise young live-stock like the man
who patronizes the creamery, but in addition he must have the
skill to manufacture, and the business ability and training to
find a market for his product. I believe in the public creamery.
I believe it has been of inestimable benefit in taking from the
already overworked farmer’s wife a tedious drudgery. T be-
lieve that to patronize one may be the wisest thing for ninety-
nine men, and I believe that to make the butter on the farm
at home may be the wisest thing for the hundredth man. It
is said that many years ago all over eastern Massachusetts, the
boots and shoes were pegged in the little shoe shops located on
almost every farm, being sent out from the factories, and re-
turned when done. But one day a man perfected a wonderful
machine, which would peg more shoes than a score of cobblers,

449 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

and that day the occupation of all those farmer shoemakers was
gone — all except one man, and he continued to make shoes, be-
cause he made shoes that would fit, and the very man who had
invented that marvelous marchine made a pilgrimage to this cob-
bler to be measured and fitted for a pair of shoes. So, too, I
believe, that with all our modern tendency toward co-operation
and aggregation, when a superlative dairy article is wanted it
will be made on and sold from the farm.

But I have neglected to speak of what is by far the most
important example and subject of evolution, and that is the evo-
lution of the dairyman himself. After all, the man is infinitely
greater and better than the cow. And the dairyman has grown
from a man, who was required to know only how to put hay
into a manger and draw milk into a pail, into a man who real-
izes that he is dealing with a great and complex wonder. While
dairying has been growing from a rude art into a great science, the
dairyman has been growing from a laborer into a student. That
thousands of cow-keepers have remained untouched by this up-
ward movement makes the truth none the less real.

O, my friends, there is no man on earth into whose face we
may not look with pride and say, “JI am a dairyman — a student
of the wonders and the mysteries of the cow.” The value and
the nobility of a profession is not measured by the dollars we »
can get out of it. It is not measured by the leisure or the ease
that it may leave us in this world. But the question we must
ask of any profession is this: Does it uplift and not degrade
those whom it touches? Does it bring out of me the very best
physical and intellectual possibilities that are within me? And
when you think how the foundations of dairying are laid in the
deep things of God and nature, when you think what a clean
and worthy calling it is in every way, it seems to me that as
nearly as earth-born occupations can, it measures up to these
ideals.

The Next Step in the Education of the Farmer.

By W. H. Jorpan, Director New York Agricultural Experiment Station.

Delivered at meeting of New York State Dairymen’s Association at Watertown.

This is a convention of dairymen. ‘The primary object of your
meeting together is for the discussion of those facts and condi-
tions which are important to your special lines of business. But
this is also an assemblage of farmers who sustain broad relations
to agricultural pursuits and who as husbands and fathers and
citizens who have, or should have, great concern about the in-
tellectual and social status of our rural people. You will do
well if you go back to your homes with clearer views of agricul-
tural practice, but you will do better if you carry with you at
the same time a broadened understanding, and an inspired purpose
concerning the manward side of the farm.

It may be accepted as a trueism that we must first produce a
better man in order to produce a better farmer, and that if our
fields and dairies are to show evidence of more intelligent methods
we must begin by cultivating their owners. More than this, we
are never to forget that man himself is the object of first con-
sideration, and that the farm is to serve him and not he the
farm. It is for such reasons as these that we are intensely inter-
ested in the problem of education. How shall the work of the
school and the college best meet the needs of agriculture for
knowledge of a special kind, and at the same time aid in con-
serving for us those intellectual and moral qualities which must
be our defense against business and social disasters, is a question
of the highest importance and is pertinent to this occasion.

IT shall present two propositions for your consideration at this
time. The first one, and certainly not a new one, is that public
education should take account not only of what man is but of
what man is to do. I have little sympathy with the creed of
the closest philosopher who holds that the culture of the mental
powers fulfills the whole purpose of the classroom. Many of

442

444 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

us who witness the hard and sometimes unequal struggle of the
farmer with his environment are convinced that the schoolhouse
should be to him and to his successors not only a refinement but
a utility. Beside accomplishing other desired ends, it should, so
far as possible, train the powers of observation and furnish fun-
damental knowledge of a special kind.

But without dwelling longer upon this proposition at this point,
let us clear the ground for further discussion by reviewing the
conditions under which the agriculturist of to-day is carrying on
his work, conditions which stand in sharp contrast with those
prevailing when this old century was young. In the first place
the farmer is asked to consider an agricultural creed based upon
the facts of science. He is admonished on every hand that to
doubt and defy this creed will bring on him the retribution
that falls to the lot of unprogressive’men. He has presented to
him a philosophy of farm practice of which the alpha and the
omega are the deductions of the laboratory as to the sources of
fertility and the avenues of waste, as to balanced rations and
unbalanced, as to plant and insect pests, and as to the whole
round of means and methods. If he takes up his family paper,
that curious compound of accurate and inaccurate information
in agriculture, domestic science, polities, and religion, he is con-
fronted by scientific terms, extracts from station bulletins, articles
from the pen of pseudo scientists who wrestle blindly but reso-
lutely with the limitations of a little dangerous knowledge, dis-
cussions of new fertilizers and feeding stuffs, and spraying liquids,
in fact the farmer holds in his hands a modern newspaper, the
product of modern conditions.

If the potato-grower steps into the market-place he is con-
fronted by at least twenty best potato fertilizers, each with a
formidable statement of composition. The dairyman finds in
the same place bags of commercial feeding stuffs with so much
protein and so much fat marked on them as required by law.
The market gardener and fruitgrower have their attention called
to fungicides and insecticides and numerous forms of apparatus
for applying these. In the winter the farmer attends, or should
attend, the farmers’ institute where he hears for the most part
sound, common-sense doctrines clothed in a semi-scientifie garb
with an occasional lapse, by way of contrast, from both common-
sense and science. When the rural delivery postman stops at
the door he leaves the station bulletin on the pages of which is

Epvucation oF THE FARMER. 445

found useful information conveyed in a judicious mixture of
scientific terms and the language of practice. In fact our
farmer is moving in an environment charged with new thought
expressed in a new phraseology. Science has marched forth
from her seclusion in the laboratories of the old world and has
laid her invigorating and reforming hand upon the arts, agri-
culture not excepted. The facts and principles of science under-
lie much that the tiller of the soil is called upon to consider.

No one will disagree with the assertion, I am sure, that this
enlargement of knowledge and methods will be available for use
in proportion as it is complimented by an enlarged understanding
on the part of the farmer. Just as there can be no sound without
an ear to hear or sight without an eye to see, so there can be no
appropriation of those facts and principles which are the fruits
of study and investigation by those who are both deaf and blind
intellectually. We are indifferent to that which we do not eom-
prehend. Let me illustrate:

Several States have recently passed laws for the regulation of
the sale of concentrated feeding stuffs. It is provided that no
concentrated feeding stuff coming within the legal meaning of the
term can be sold unless licensed and especially unless properly
marked. The object of such laws is to make it possible for a
farmer to know what he is buying and to protect him against
fraudulent guarantees.

The efficiency of this legislation rests largely with the consumers
of feeding stuffs. If they do not understand its force or are
ignorant of its provisions so that they are willing to make their
purchases without any reference to the information and the pro-
tection that are offered, their lack of intelligence nullifies in part
the efforts of the State to defend their individual interests.

The experiment station and the farmers’ institute bureau are
beneficent institutions, but they are of limited value to those
members of our rural communities who have so little knowledge
of first principles as to be unable to read and listen with an in-
telligent appreciation of the facts as presented in bulletins and
from the platform.

The agricultural newspaper is not to be ignored as a source of
information to our rural people, but it must be read with dis-
crimination. To accept its teachings without close scrutiny on the
basis upon which they rest would cause serious mistakes, and how
shall the reader always discriminate unless he has some acquaint-
ance with the fundamentals of agricultural science,

446 Bureau or Farmers’ Iysrrrvures.

Even station bulletins, written by well informed and careful
men aay be misinterpreted by one who has no adequate compre-
hension of the significance of such terms, for instance, as protein,
carbohydrates, fats.

This brings us directly to the question, How shall farmers gen-
erally become properly educated for their calling? And I shall
first reply: Their special education should begin with some
systematic effort, applied to their early training. It is a mistake
to suppose that if the fundamentals of correct thinking in agri-
cultural science are neglected with the youth he will later in his
busy years make good all deficiencies through the hit-or-miss
opportunities offered by the station bulletin, institute teachings
and similar agencies. A few may purchase books and methodically
study with some definite purpose in view, but the majority will
not do this. Moreover, it is with the young that we should seek
to establish a respect for the laws of the material world and a
confidence in the utility of science. We should seek to create what
may be called a movement of thought which shall bring the indi-
vidual into harmony with his intellectual and material environ-
ment.

When we come to consider the special means for agricultural
education your minds doubtless will at once turn to the agri-
cultural department of your State college. You naturally in-
quire — Have we not provided this college as a place where the
future farmers of New York may be given the special training
which the times demand? You have, and I can wish nothing
better for your State than that this institution shall be crowded
beyond the full measure of its resources with those who seek to
study science in its relation to agriculture.

But is it not time for us to readjust our views concerning the
place the agricultural college is to fill in our educational system ?
When the Morrill Act of 1862 was passed, men had millenial
visions of every farmer hanging a college diploma on the walls
of his library which should be the explanation of unheard of
triumphs over the soil. But we might as well confess, what we
should have known would be the case, that as a direct means of
widely educating the rural people the agricultural college is neces-
sarily not available.

First of all, consider the possibilities. President Shurman
would be at his wits end if there should go up to him next fall and
ask for instruction all the young men of New York who are ready

Epucation Or THE Farmer. 447

to begin work on the farm. His class-rooms, his teachers, and his
resources would be utterly inadequate to meet such a demand.
There are about 250,000 farms in your State. In order to place
a college graduate on each one it would be necessary for your
State college to send out 5,000 men yearly for the next fifty years
—a result too improbable to be mentioned seriously. I venture
the assertion that no land grant college exists in this country that
has sent out an average of one agricultural graduate for each
township in its State.

There are other reasons beside the limitations of space and
means why not only young men who expect to be farmers do not
seek the agricultural college, but especially why many New Eng-
land farm-bred boys turn to some other than their father’s calling,
reasons that are not a just cause of reproach to the boys or the
farm or the college. Permit me to state some of these in words
used on a former occasion :

Those on the one hand who jeer at the college because it has
no more agricultural students and on the other hand who reproach
farmers and their families because so many country lads seek
some other life work than agriculture, are either consumed in their
reason by sentiment or arene or are shallow in their analysis
of the situation.

Our land-grant colleges have accomplished a grand work for
agriculture and our rural people by educating leaders, disseminat-
ing information and promoting investigation. They have directly
and indirectly brought into existence a new literature for the
farmer and have aided powerfully in creating confidence in science
as a utility. It is time, nevertheless, openly and frankly to
acknowledge the fact that notwithstanding their great usefulness
these institutions will be the direct means of educating only a
small minority of the farmers of any State.

But what about the great majority? Three facts claim our at
tention in this connection: (1) The farmer sustains intimate and
practical relations with the laws and forces of the material world ;
(2) We are in possession of a fund of knowledge concerning these
laws and forces, very incomplete to be sure, but sufficiently definite
and extensive to be useful, and (3) much the larger part of the
young men who become farmers are to all intents and purposes
ignorant of even the simplest principles of what we speak of as
agricultural science. This situation is persistently and insistently
coming up before us for consideration and the question which
presses for answer and which should lie heavily on the conscience

448 Bureau or, Farmers’ [ystrrvrss.

of those who determine the educational policy of the State is:
How shall it be met ?

And the conclusion first to be stated is that the proper education
to the rural people must be accomplished by some widespread in-
structional effort — an effort that shall reach every country school,
every grammar school, every high school and every academy to
which the sons and daughters of the farm have access. It must
be an effort, too, that has behind it the sanction of law and the
force of organization. To this matter the leaders in pedagogical
thought and the officials of our State departments of public school
instruction must give serious attention, not to hide behind the
difficulties and dogmatically declare that we are doing as well as
we can and that the old is good enough, but to devise means and
methods for bringing the subjects to be taught and the equipment
of the teacher into line with the knowledge and conditions of to-
day. Just here we are met by several objections.

We are told that the present curriculum of studies is already
overcrowded and that fewer rather than more subjects should be
considered. Probably this view is correct. It is useless to expect
the public schools to find a place for all branches of learning.
All that can be done is to select for those young people whose
school education will end with the high school or academy, or
possibly at a lower point, the subjects most important to the com-
mon affairs of life. It is generally conceded that every child
should be taught to speak correctly, read and write his mother
language, to master numbers so far as necessary for ordinary busi-
ness, to know the simple facts of geography and only the simple
ones, and to understand the fundamentals of government and the
essential duties of citizenship. Beyond this the studies should be
those which best fit the person to comprehend and control his
environment. Can there be any doubt as to what these are for the
rural people ¢

Are not the intricacies of the soil more important than those of
advanced mathematics? Will aptness in grammatical analysis
make up for an insight into the wonders of plant life? Is the
ability to draw an accurate map of one’s own State more important
than some knowledge of the position of the organs of the animal
body and their functions? While the facts of man’s history are
useful and inspiring, does not the farmer also need to know the
life history of the species of plants and insects that are either
beneficial or injurious? There is culture and refinement in be-

Epucarion of THE FarMER. 449

coming familiar with the great thought of literature but shall the
farmer gain a greater uplift of mind and heart and a greater
blessing in his life work, from these than from the thoughts of the
Creator as read from Nature’s page?

Doubtless those who magnify the utilitarian side of school train-
ing will be accused of catering to the commercial spirit of the.
present time and of degrading education to the dollar standard.
It is unfair so to characterize the study of science. ‘To be sure
science is useful and why should it not be? Men must live and
it is better and easier to live in harmony with law. Besides,
study with utilitarian ends in view may also lend itself to mental
culture and refinement of thought. ;

But right here comes another objection. We are told that the
present most prominent subjects of study are the ones best adapted
to the development of the intellect — that no such efficient peda-
gogical instruments can be substituted for them. It is also im-
pressed upon us that the chief end to be accomplished is the train-
ing of the mind. But our intellectual salvation does not rest with
a few out of the many departments of knowledge which are im-
portant. Any dignified subject, organized into logical relations
and severely pursued may be the means of intellectual culture.
Language and numbers are not our only resources for mental
training. Rightly presented the complex problems of chemistry,
or of physics and the wonderful lessons of biology have in them
great training value.

No man is wise enough to divide the field of human knowledge
into the useful and the useless for intellectual culture. On what
tables of stone has the Almighty written the commandments of
education that they may not be changed, and where are the
prophets who have stood in the mount of inspiration and delivered
these fiats of omniscience to the people! Let us be rid of the
nonsense that as man’s range of thought widens and his relations
to the material world and to society change he must cling to the
same old subjects as a means of mental development.

I more than half suspect that the church is not alone in harbor-
ing dogmatism and professionalism. It was not long ago that the
department of public instruction in a great State turned a cold
shoulder toward a university effort to promote the study of rural
science. It is a department which holds in its grip the school
experience of thousands of children and by its mechanical and
inelastic system and its examinations which are the terror of

29

450 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrures.

sensitive young minds, is in danger of defrauding the intellect
and draining the vital power of the coming generation. The
orthodox brethren of our schools sometimes are as reluctant to
recognize new thought as are certain portions of the Presbyterian
church to discard those statements of creed which few believe.

We are told that there are no text-books for use in teaching
rural science and that these are essential. The answer to this is,
that when the commercial opportunity for such books arrives or is
ever seen in the distance, they will be forthcoming. There are
within my circle of acquaintances several men entirely competent
to write primers on the soil, the plant, the animal, bacteriology,
insects, milk and its products, and so on, and I feel sure that pub-
lishing-houses would render greater service to this day and gen-
eration by employing these or other persons to write new school-
books on new and living subjects rather than to continue to un-
necessarily multiply ways of presenting old subjects.

It is also asserted that the teachers of our country schools are
not fitted to teach rural science. Many of them are not, perhaps,
and they never will be until such teaching is required. One of
our wise men remarked to me not long since, “ The only way to
do a thing is to do it.” I see no reason why a demand for such
service might not develop teachers for our high schools and
academies at least, who would be competent to instruct in the
simpler facts of science in their relation to agriculture and the
home. Such instruction would be useful in every calling from
the farmer to the lawyer.

If there is a school official in this audience I can imagine him
saying, “ These views are all very good as a theory, but the speaker
does not appreciate some of the practical difficulties in the way
of reorganizing public school instruction. He has not had actual
experience with untrained teachers, lack of proper text-books, in-
sufficient funds and extreme conservatism. He is like so many
who advocate reform, he condemns what exists without offering
something better which it is practical to adopt as a substitute.”

J am well aware of these obstacles to progress. JI am convinced,
however, that a beginning can be made in providing school in-
struction better adapted to the needs of our rural people.

In 1876 I was a teacher of a high school in one of the country
villages of Maine. During the winter term there was among the
pupils several young men who were a problem to me. They had
“ ciphered ” and studied maps and dissected the English sentence
until they were tired of it all. The problem was, What shall be

KDUCATION OF THE Farmyi. 451

done to employ profitably the time of these restless minds? I
solved it in this way: I sent for a dozen copies of Nordhoff’s
Letters to Young Americans and once a day those big boys and I
talked over some of the problems relating to political economy
and citizenship, crudely to be sure, but without doubt profitably.

There was in the same school a class of very bright young
ladies — objects of special regard on the part of the young col-
lege graduate, you cannot doubt. This class gave its chief atten-
tion to the Atneid, algebra, geometry, and rhetoric, and there was
keen enjoyment for both teacher and pupils in the exercise of the
intellect which these students demanded. Unless I am misin-
formed, no member of this class subsequently pursued a course of
study at an academy or college. All the school training these
pupils received as a preparation for being wives, home-makers, and
mothers was that furnished in this high school, and what was true
in this instance is true of hundreds of others. We are all con-
vinced, I am sure, that if physiology sensibly taught, plant life,
the chemistry and function of foods, domestic bacteriology and
hygiene, the ethics of society and similar subjects had engaged
the attention of these young women, their intellectual develop-
ment and refinement of thought would have suffered no depriva-
tions and their understanding of the duties and responsibilities
of life would have been much broader.

There is in the State of New York an academy located in the
midst of a rural people which is patronized almost wholly by
country boys and girls. Its endowment has been derived largely
from contributions made by farmers. Not long since, the prin-
cipal of this school called upon me with this question: “Is it
practicable to introduce into my school the study of science in its
relations to rural affairs?” It at once occurred to me, here is an
opportunity for the State through some medium or other to make
an experiment to determine whether the subjects of modern
. thought and utility may be made the subjects of modern educa-
tion. I wish that an object lesson of this kind might be pre-
sented not only to the people of New York but to you in New
Hampshire and I believe that your State university would find no
more profitable opportunity for extension teaching than to under-
take the guidance and to some extent the equipment of such an
educational effort in some one of the more promising high schools
or academies. Somewhere and somehow a beginning must be
made and one illustration of successful and popular instruction
along the lines which have been indicated would arouse sentiment

459, Bureau or Farmers’ Instirutes.

and be a powerful stimulant toward procuring the organization
and means for extending similar courses of study to all the high
schools and academies at which country boys and girls seek an
education.

I believe that if the attention of the young people could be
occupied with subjects of living interest we would hear less com-
plaint of the boys breaking away from school at the earliest pos-
sible age. It seems as if the managers of many high schools and
academies take more pride in building up efficient college pre-
paratory courses for the few than in meeting the needs of the
many. Six lads well fitted for college is a worthy result, but sixty
young minds better prepared to meet life intelligently on the farm
or in any calling would be a more convincing demonstration of
the utility of school education.

The next step, then, which I would see taken in education is a
fuller recognition in the schools of those branches of learning
through which we come to a larger understanding of ourselves and
of the world of matter and force.

It is with more satisfaction than I can express, that as presid-
ing officer of the New York State Dairymen’s Association, I have
the pleasure of meeting you here at this twenty-fourth annual
gathering. Last year, at Cortland, when you did me the honor to
elect me president of your honorable association, I said to you
that the only way we could hope for a continuation of past suc-
cess was by united effort. The splendid exhibit of dairy products
and dairy utensils which we sce in the exhibition hall, shows that
faithful and systematic hard work has been done, and, when we
meet here, this interested audience of producers and manufacturers
of dairy products, gathered together for the opening session, we
cannot help but feel that there has been, and is, a united effort
to make this meeting a success. We occasionally hear the remark,
“ What is the use of all this work? I have never seen any benefit
come from all these discussions about butter and cheese-making ~
and other kindred dairy topics.” This question, I believe, an-
swers itself, and that, as long as there are people who make such
remarks there is a necessity of coming together and discussing
these questions — in trying thus to educate each producer up to
the point of seeing the necessity and economy in getting the most
and the best product possible from his animals. If the producer
delivers the product to another to manufacture, he must be taught
to understand the desirability of having a clean, healthful product,
in order to insure satisfactory results in his manufactured goods,

EpvucatTion oF THE FARMER. 453

In the past, in many instances, there has been a misapprehension
of the true relation of producer and manufacturer; the producer
feeling that the maker had no interest in his welfare beyond
getting the milk of his dairy into the factory. ‘The farmer thought
the maker considered only his own profit from working up the
milk, and did not care how the owner of the herd came out. In
some instances, I am sorry to say, this has been true, and for that
reason the farmer took no pains to have right conditions for pro-
duction. If these were good, it was more a matter of chance than
of good management, for there was no organized system at the
farm to have the cow, the utensils, and the milker in a good sani-
tary condition. Everything done was with the one idea of getting
along with as little work as possible, and having the milk pass
muster at the receiving stand. On the other hand, the makers
only idea was to keep the factory going and have the buyer take
his goods at the ruling on the weekly salesday. This system of
doing business has been a demoralizing one on both sides and is
responsible for very much of the poor butter and cheese which
finds its way to the markets and makes lower prices for the whole
output. In the last few years a considerable number of the people
interested in the question: “ How can we make the dairy business
more profitable ?”’ have come to believe that there can be no per-
manent advance toward better methods until there is a more
thorough understanding of the underlying principles of the busi-
ness. This educational work cannot be accomplished unless we are
willing to accept the ideas of those who have had opportunities for
scientific observation and experiments which we have not had. In
other words, we must be possessed of a teachable spirit. When
a change or reform is advocated in any line of business, the hard
thing to overcome is prejudice, and I think this is especially true
of dairy work. Too much dairy practice is largely founded on
traditions which have been brought down from one generation to
another, until what grandfather and grandmother said have come
to be held proved facts in the minds of quite a class. We all
know how difficult it is for us to accept as true, statements which
differ radically from what we have been educated from early
childhood to believe. I can imagine what would have happened
if I could have had the knowledge and had tried to convince my
erandfather that milk soured because of the growth of minute
plants, and that most of the changes in milk which we have to meet
were brought about by some of those different families of plants.
T am inclined to think he would not have accepted it kindly, and

454 Boreavu or Farmers’ Institutes.

what would have been true of him is true of some people to-day.
Their practical experience and observation have taught them that
a certain line of procedure gives certain results which are satis-
factory in case no adverse factor is introduced; but, when the
gassy, bad milk finds its way into cans or vats, they have no clear
idea of the cause or cure for the conditions which the poor milk
produces, and its handling becomes largely a question of luck with
them. Sometimes they succeed fairly well but at another time
a working of butter fit only for wagon grease or a rotten cheese is
the final outcome. Such makers do not know how to change con-
ditions, and thus in that way control their work. Indeed it is
only within a very short period that any of us have had any idea
of the reason why such marked differences should show themselves
when we could see hardly any appreciable variation in conditions.

We often hear it said that knowledge is power, and I think you
will agree with me that this remark never applied with greater
force than to-day. There has been a feeling with quite a class
that this does not apply with equal force in the dairy business that
it does in other lines, but I am sure that, with the strong competi-
tion of the business world at the present time, the man who does
not know every detail of his business cannot hope to succeed. In
a recent number of the Country Gentleman Prot. Drummond of
Scotland, is quoted as saying that unless the Yankee agriculturist
gives greater study to his business, defeat is sure to overtake him
in his fight for foreign markets. The desire to secure a foreign
market for their cheese was the factor that induced the formation
of the first dairy association in this State in 1864, afterward
known as the American Dairymen’s Association. Because some
manufacturers at that time were much more successful than others,
the idea was advanced that by having a meeting of that kind it
would be mutually helpful. The men who brought about the
meeting at that time by agitating the question of better goods and
how to get them, knew very little about the sharp competition
which must be met to-day, but they realized that if we did not
improve, other sections would accept the opportunity and they
would lose a trade of large value. These meetings were produc-
tive of great good, and many makers, through study and the com-
paring of notes with other nrakers when they came together, had
reached a point where they made an even desirable product through
the season, measured by the demands of the market of that day.
During all this time our export trade increased quite rapidly, and
continued until about 1880, when it reached its highest point,
when it gradually went back.

EpucatTion oF THE Farmer. 455

There were two prominent causes that influenced that retrograde
movement. ‘The first and most important in the start, was from a
large class of manufacturers who had gradually argued themselves
up to the point of believing that, because they had succeeded so weil,
they could lower the quality of their cheese, and that people would
buy it just as well. It had become quite popular to skim the night’s
milk, especially in the fall of the year, as good prices were received
for this semi-skim cheese, and, with the butter as an extra product
thus increasing the net income. Next came the argument, “ If
we can do this in the fall, why not through the whole
year, and thus make our business more profitable; we can
put in a little more moisture and the consumer won’t know the
difference.” During this same time Canada was working to build
up her dairy interest, and those at the head were wise enough to
see that the opportunities were much better with first-class goods.
When New York cheese that was skimmed a little and held some
extra moisture came in contact with the well-made, full cream
Canadian on the English market, there could be only one resuit.
The Englishman knows a good thing when he sees it, and is always
looking for the best, consequently he took the Canadian. ‘This
short-sighted policy followed by the New York dairymen gave the
Canadian the opportunity, and the result was that, in 1890, only
ten years after we were at the top we had lost half of our export
trade. Prices declined rapidly, and the outlook for the dairy
farmers was not encouraging. During this time some of the
thinking men connected with this association were studying the
conditions of the business, and their observations convinced them
that if something was not done, and that very soon, the dairy
interests of New York would be practically destroyed. The result
of their thought was the establishment of the State Dairy Com-
mission in 1884. The outcome shows that it was a step in the
right direction, and the wonderful increase in the consumption
of milk in the cities and villages of the State has proved the wis-
dom of the work. Encouraged by the progress made in that
direction, in 1888 then was brought forward and passed the dairy
instruction law, and I wish that it were possible that two of the
men that were largely responsible for the passage of that law
could come back long enough to see the splendid exhibit of butter
and cheese we have here to-day. J am sure they would say we
acted wisely at that time. I refer to the late Dairy Commissioner
J. K. Brown and the late Col. F. D. Curtis, both of them men who

456 Bureau or Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

had the best interest of the New York State dairymen at heart. I
think many of the dairymen here will be willing to concede that
the painstaking work done by M. T. Morgan and the late E. A.
Ayers in the first year of the operation of that law had quite a
little to do with the present high reputation of Jefferson county
cheese.

We have come together to-day to discuss this work and try to
find a solution of some of the difficult problems we meet. One
question to take up will be, can we improve on the best work done
by the up-to-date, careful manufacturer? In some ways I believe
we can; in others, perhaps not. Another question is how to bring
the whole manufactured product up to the standard of the best.
I think you will agree with me that the off-flavored, mushy cheese
and the poor skim cheese lessen consumption and tend to lower
prices. The poor butter of which there are large quantities yet
made, not only lessens consumption, but gives the renovated butter
and oleomargarine manufacturers an opportunity which they
otherwise would not have to dispose of their products. I have
been interviewing some of the retailers in villages where I have
been lately, and they tell me that they cannot obtain good butter
in quantities sufficient to supply their trade. I asked one man
why he did not buy in the New York markets. He said, “If I
buy there in sufficient quantities to make the express charges
reasonable, the last of it gets stale before I can dispose of it.
I have no refrigerator, but a good cellar, and butter which has been
kept in cold storage will not keep with me.” Now, these are all
questions that have to do with putting the dairy business of the
State on a profitable, sound basis. I do not expect we can solve
all of them, but if we can give some suggestions whereby less poor
butter and cheese will be made the coming year, it will be a gain
in the right direction, and will pay for holding this meeting.

Thanks to the work of the scientists who have taken up this dairy
question within the last few years, we know very much more about
the hard problems to-day than formerly, but there are many ques-
tions that are not settled. They have shown that the physical
and chemical changes which take place in the milk the first day or
two, as to taste and odor, are due to the activity of minute plants,
and that of the large number found in the milk, very many of
them are useful and only a few make the mischief. ‘They have
shown how these hurtful organisms can be counteracted by con-
trolling conditions which are almost wholly outside the animal.
This is all a great help in enabling us to understand the reason

EpucaTIon OF THE FARMER. 457

for many of the little things of which it was so hard to find an
explanation before. The question of the underlying principles
that govern the changes which take place in a cheese during the
curing or ripening process, is one on which authorities do not
agree. ‘There have been several theories advanced and in a
measure refuted, as is often the case in such work. At the present
time there is a great deal of careful work being done, and it is
hoped that in the end they will be able to determine the true facts
governing it. The question of the laws governing the development
of flavors is probably least understood. Certain germs have been
isolated and cultures made which have helped in producing the
desired flavors in butter and cheese, and some of the bad flavors
have been traced to putrefactive germs, but the underlying prin-
ciple which brings about all the different flavors is not well under-
stood.

Prof. Harding, bacteriologist at the Geneva Experiment
Station, has been working for the last eighteen months on the
causes which produce sweet flavor in cheese. He has had a large
number of samples from different sections of the State and has
made cultures from them from which he has isolated certain yeast
plants and cultivated them. He has put one of those cultures in
milk and I have made cheese from it. In some instances I had
the sweet flavor develop in the cheese to quite an extent. In
others I failed, showing that we failed to secure some of the par-
ticular conditions it required to do its work. If Prof. Harding
is able to work out the conditions which this yeast requires in
order to produce its characteristic flavor, then we shall know how
to control it and thus stop the loss from that cause, which is a
large item to the dairymen in many sections of the State. I
believe he has good prospects of accomplishing the desired end.

The question which is easiest to study of the whole line of cheese
investigations, because it does not require the aid of a scientist,
is about the last to receive any attention, and that is the effect of
temperature in curing the cheese. I do not think there has been
any systematic effort in that direction until the last two or three
years. Wisconsin and Canada have both been working on this
question lately and have secured quite convincing results. At the
meeting at Cortland last year I told you something about the work
we were doing at Geneva and the results we had been able to
secure up to that time. We have continued the work and the
results this year are even more convincing, if possible, than those
previously obtained. In discussing this work I shall confine

458 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirutes.

myself to the question of quality, and will use to illustrate it a
number of day’s cheese which were made the last of July and the
first of August. This is a time of year I think you will allow
which is as bad as could be selected for climatic conditions. This
year, as we all know, it was especially bad, being very hot and dry.
‘There were six cheeses made each day and one placed in each room,
the rooms being kept at temperatures of 80°, 75°, 70°, 65°, 60°,
or 55° F. The cheesees made on July 27th were sent to New
York on September 1st and scored by a member of the firm of a
prominent cheese commission house. The scoring returned by him
on that lot was in 80° temperature, 42 flavor on basis of 50
perfect, 21 texture on basis of 25 perfect. The 75° rooms, 43 F.,
23 T.; the 70° room, 45 F., 23 T.; the 65° room, 47 F., 24 T.;
the 60° room, 48 F., 25 T.; the 55° room, 45 F., 25 T. The
last cheese reported a little sharp, unpleasant flavor. The real
trouble was, it had not fully matured at the low temperature. On
October 1st cheesees made on July 30th were sent and the scoring
return Me was for the 80° room, 42 F., 21 T.; the 75° room, 43 F.
22 T.; the 70° room, 438 F., 29 Aes ache 65° room, 48 F., 24 T.;
the 60° room, 49 F., 24 T., and fiie 55° room 49 F., 24 T. On
November 1st the cheeses made August 1st were sent and the scor-
ing returned was for the 80° room, 39 F., 20 T.; the 75° room,
41 ., 20 T.; the 70° room, 43 F., 22 T.; the 65° room, 44 F.,
24 'T.; the 60° room, 47 F., 24 T., and the 55° room, 47 F., 24 T.
The gentleman said in addition that it did not seem possible that
the cheese originally all came from the same vat, and that the
curing could make such a difference, the last three being very good
cheeses and the first three nearly spoiled.

I think you will agree with me that the two most important
factors in a first-class cheese, one that can be depended upon to
please the customer every time, are first, flavor, and second,
texture. If the color is not just perfect the buyer may
eut the price, but the consumer does not mind that part
if it only tastes good. We might say from the consumer’s
standpoint that flavor is the one thing necessary, but in
order to be sure of the good taste there must be no free moisture
and that means fairly good texture. We often hear a person say
I like a moist cheese, and such cheese may be especially good at
just the right point, but, like a ripe pear, it deteriorates very
quickly, and for that reason it is not wise to try to cater to that
taste. Good, sound cheese that are thoroughly ripened at a tem-
perature not far from 60° F., as shown by our experience of the

EpucaTion oF THE FarMER. 459

last two years, is the kind we should put on the market. It is the
kind that will increase home consumption so rapidly that in a
short time we shall not hear anything about that surplus of milk
and consequent low price in summer. To bring about this very
desirable condition will necessitate some radical changes in meth-
ods of doing business. Working at every point to see how cheaply
a thing can be done without regard to the resulting product, must
be stopped, as it is the prime cause of very much of the poor butter
and cheese. In those cases where the farmer is educated up to the
necessity of keeping everything about his dairy in good sanitary
condition, and takes the milk to a cheese-maker who is up-to-date in
his methods of handling the milk and manufacturing the cheese,
I doubt whether there can be very much improvement, except in
this way. The scientist by finding how adverse conditions can be
better controlled, and by putting the producer in a way to under-
stand facts which at the present time are not well understood, may
help him to make a more uniform product. Where the radical
change must come, if the facts as shown by our work at the Geneva
station prove true in commercial work, and there is no possible rea-
son why they should not that I can see, is in a better control
of temperature in the curing-rooms. The temperature in most
cheese factory curing-rooms follows outside conditions very closely,
and during the hot summer months the cheeses are exposed to a
range of anywhere from 70° to 90° F. You will rememer that
our experience was that all the cheese in the experiment at the
Station, when the temperature was 70° F. and above, did not hold
their flavor. I expect that quite a good many people will say,
you might obtain the results you report in the small way you have
been working, but it is not practical for commercial purposes.
To meet this objection and do it in a way to give everyone an
opportunity to study its workings, I believe the only way is to ask
the legislature of the State to give the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture a sum of money sufficient to test this work in a commercial
way. I shall not take the time to formulate a plan for doing the
work, but if it meets with your approval I hope a suitable resolu-
tion will be introduced and passed before we adjourn, asking the
legislature to provide the necessary funds to prove the advisability
of this work.

We must not expect to work radical reforms in one year, and
IT am so thoroughly convinced of the practicability of this work
that I believe the sooner we begin the agitation of the question
the better it will be for the dairy interests of the State.

The Silo and the Material to Fill It.

By Prof. I. P. Roperts, Dean of College of Agriculture of Cornell University,

Read at meeting of New York State Dairymen's Association at Watertown.

Tt is now about twenty years since the practice of ensilaging
cattle foods attracted wide attention in the United States. The
crude method of storing green material in shallow excavations
in the earth, formerly practiced in France and Germany, has
been greatly improved in the United States. The practice of
ensilaging green material was introduced with a great flourish
of trumpets. Few knew anything of the true principles of the
subject, therefore any one could propound theories without the
slightest danger of being successfully contradicted. The first
siloes built were usually tall, oblong stone or brick structures,
partly or entirely above ground. In the early days it was be-
lieved that silage could not be well kept, except it was placed
under great pressure. The winter’s concentrated feeding stuffs,
cord wood, stones, earth, and even pig iron, were placed on the
covered material to weight it down. In a few cases expensive
screws were brought into use to secure pressure, but with all this
pressure, the silage was usually unsatisfactory, for no amount of
pressure could force the locked-up air out of the material. ‘The
more the material was pressed, the more did the air tend toward
the cold masoned walls, where in time, it ascended and carried.
with it the moisture of the silage, and by reason of this partial
drying at the corners and on the edges, opportunity was afforded
for air to circulate somewhat freely along the walls to the great
detriment of the silage. These unsatisfactory structures were
soon supplanted by oblong, thribble-boarded ones, which proved
to be nearly as expensive as the stone or brick structures, and far
more perishable, although this resulted in an improved quality of
silage. As the silage deteriorated most in the corners, the prac-
tice of cutting the corners off came into vogue. Still the material
of which the silo was constructed decayed rapidly, and moldy

460

Tis Stto anp THE Matertat to Finu It, 461

x
i

silage was found too often next to the wall. ‘The octagon silo
supplanted the one with square corners and was an improvement.
Next followed the round structure, thribble-boarded silo, two
layers of matched boards separated by tarred building paper were
placed on the inside, and one thickness of similar boarding on the
outside, these boards being bent and fastened to the heavy frame
work, securely bound the silo together, and the danger from
cracks in the walls of the structure was entirely obviated. Who
first conceived the idea of constructing a silo on the principles
embodied in water tanks, I do not know. The first stave siloes
built were patterned almost exactly after the large water tanks of
the railroad companies, except the bottom was left out. These
were not fully satisfactory, because high-priced material had to
be used, and because when the hoops were tightened there was
danger of their breaking, by reason of the expansion of the staves,
and there was little or no “ give ”’ in the staves because their edges
were so beveled as to press alike, when the staves swelled, on
their inside and outside edges. Who modified the stave or tub
silo so as to better adapt it to its new uses, I do not know. In
any case, somebody discovered the true principle of preparing
the staves simultaneously with the manufacturers of water tanks.
I refer more particularly to smallish tanks used in the top story of
barns and other buildings for the storage of water. This principle
is very simple, and the only wonder is that it had not long since
been put to use in the construction of water tubs of various kinds,
and silos as well. This principle consists first in securing a rough
or sawed edge on the edge of the staves, with no bevel or one so
slight as to result in causing the inner edges of the staves to meet
before the outer edges. By this method but a small portion of the
edges of the staves come in contact, and when they are pressed
together by tightening the hoops or by the expansion of the staves
from moisture, they crush together and form water-tight joints.
I think it unnecessary to lay stress upon the fact that a water-
tight tub silo is not necessarily an air-tight one, because I think
we will all be fully satisfied with a silo tight enough to hold water.

Neither modern silos built of brick or stone, or wooden ones
lined with brick, even if they receive a coat of plaster on the
inside, are air-tight, it is only when such structures are treated
with a coat of glazing that they become so. Time will reveal
whether it is best to construct water-tight silos of wood, or air-
tight ones at an expense three to four times greater than the

462 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

wooden structure. Since the air pressure in the silo is outward
and not from without inward, we need not concern ourselves
greatly if the silo is water-tight. Is the stave silo water-tight
when properly constructed? We have used several stave water
tanks constructed on the principles of beveling the staves, so that
when set up and hooped, the edges of the staves touched only
about one-third of their width. As the hoops on these structures
are tightened, the inside edges of the staves are crushed and made
water-tight. In order to prove that the farmer could construct
water-tight silos, we had staves prepared with unbeveled, sawed
edges. These when set up were hooped with the ordinary silo hoop
of commerce. This tub was placed on a temporary wooden bottom,
and so treated that a water-tight joint was secured where the
ends of the staves joined the bottom. This small silo of four feet
diameter and four feet high was filled with water, and it proved
to be water-tight from the first. It was left out in the open during
the entire summer, some times full of water, some times nearly
empty, and yet it never leaked when refilled, although for a
part of the time there were but two hoops on it, and although the
staves were but two inches wide. From this and other experi-
ments, I conclude that if fairly well seasoned, sound timber is
passed through the saw to secure rough, straight edges, and a
uniform width of stave, a water-tight silo may be secured, pro-
vided that in the large silo the edges of the staves are not beveled,
and in small ones, beveled slightly. My judgment is that few silos
with airtight walls will ever be constructed, for if they are vir-
tually water-tight, reasonably durable and cheap, the practical
limit of perfection will have been reached.

As yet we have not had sufficient experience to determine
whether bands of woven wire fencing or round hoops are the best.
Either kind is good. I think all will agree that some loss of dry
matter occurs whether roughage is left in the field for a time and
then put under cover, or placed while green in the silo. Which
treatment results in the least loss has not been definitely deter-
mined, and probably never will be, since the conditions in the silo
or in the field are not alike from year to year, and it has not yet
been determined what kind of a silo preserves green material
best. Some investigations in an Experiment Station indicated
that greater losses occurred in the stave silo than in another con-
structed on a different principle, but there is no data showing that

Tur Sito anp THE Mareriat To Fiut It, 463

the stave silo used, was well-built and water-tight, except at the
doors.

More attention should be given to the condition of the material
when ensilaged, and of the methods employed in preparing it, and
in filling the silo and sealing it. The sealing material is usually
not deep enough nor is it kept as wet as it should be. Just here is
room for improvement.

As yet we have discovered but one plant that is eminently
productive in universal culture, easily raised, acceptable to the
animals, cheaply harvested and ensilaged, coupled with good keep-
ing qualities — Indian corn.

Maize is pre-eminently a sun plant and therefore should be
grown under conditions which harmonize with its inherited charac-
teristics. A large yield is desired, therefore as large varieties
should be grown as will reach a fair degree of maturity in the
locality where produced. Varieties producing abundant leaves
and not too large stalks should be selected, because leaves are
more acceptable than stalks, and since the grain is more accept-
able than stalks or leaves, the variety should be prolific. It should
be planted thin enough to secure a goodly quantity of ears, and
should be early enough to permit the most forward ears tc become
glazed before frost appears. Having selected varicties well
adapted to soil and climate, much attention should be given to the
preparation of the land and to subsequent introculture. The soil
is often too moist and cold in the spring for maize to start
vigorously. Then it stands to reason that the land should be
loose and light, not compact and sad at time of planting. Corn
ground is more often over than under prepared. One cultivation
may be given after the corn is planted and before it comes up.
If this cultivation be rather deep it will tend to warm and dry the
land. ‘The harrow may also be used after the cultivator and be-
fore the corn is through the ground, as well as afterward. Much
depends on the character of the soil as to the after methods of
tillage. In light soils the harrow may be used to more advantage
than in heavy ones. On cold and heavy lands the roots form
nearer to the surface than they do on warm soils. This distance
between the stalks in the rows, and the intervals between the
rows, are governed somewhat by the variety of corn, the fertility
of the land, and the moisture holding capacity of the soil. Good
judgment and the faculty of adapting means to ends are always
required. Silage is not an ideal cattle food as now prepared, but

464. Boreav or Farmers’ Instrrutes.

when all the pros and cons are considered, from the grain of corn
in the ground to the milk in the pail, the conclusion is reached that
silage has come to stay, notwithstanding it is not an ideal cattle
food, and that it will continue to be in the future, as in the past,
a great boon to the dairyman and the stock-raiser.

I have written this simple paper, not so much to instruct this
intelligent audience, as to place in a permanent form what appears
to me to be fundamental principles, that future generations
may know how the practice of ensilaging green material was
looked upon at the end of the nineteenth century.

The Progress of Dairy Farming in Canada.

By Prof. JAMES Roperrson, Commissioner of Agriculture for Canada,

Delivered at meeting of New York State Dairymen’s Association at Watertown,

I desire to congratulate the dairymen of the country on the
progress which has been made in the industry with which they
are connected. I offer my best wishes to the New York State
Dairymen’s Association for still larger success than has followed
its efforts in the past. These as we all know, have been character-
ized by intelligence, practical ability, and co-operation.

There is room for both extension and improvement in every
sense in the dairy farming of Canada. At the beginning of the
nineteenth century there was not so many people in the United
States as there are in Canada at the opening of the twentieth.
There does not appear to be any good reason why the growth of
Canada in material wealth, population, and influence should not
be even greater during the next hundred years than it has been
in the great country to the south of us during the century which
has just closed. We have more power and resources at our com-
mand than were available to any of the peoples at the beginning
of the last century. We have still vast areas of unoccupied
fertile land, and as everybody admits, we have greater natural
resources, still largely undeveloped, than have ever before been
in the possession of a country of about 6,000,000 of people.

Capacity oF CANADA FOR PRODUCTION.

In Canada, the soil, the climate, and the intelligence and in-
dustry of the people are favorable for the production of a great
variety of food products of exceptionally fine qualities from farms,
gardens, orchards, and vineyards; and the extensive sea coasts,
vast lakes, rivers, and streams abound with the finest of fish.
From its geographical position, its railway systems and unsur-
passed steamship service for freight across the Atlantic, the export
trade in food products can be greatly extended with European

30 465

466 Bureau or Farmers’ INstirures.

countries to the mutual benefit of Canada and the countries we
purchase from her.

The production of foods is the main aim of farming operations;
and over 45 per cent. of the population of Canada are engaged in
agricultural occupations. ‘There are vast areas of fertile soil from
the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, and the climate or climates
range from subtropical to subartic, with a rainfall varying from
sixty-seven inches per annum in British Columbia, seventeen
inches in Manitoba, to from thirty to forty-five inches in the
Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and
Prince Edward Island. The mainland practically lies between
60° W. longitude and 125° W. longitude. The distance across
Canada from east to west is rather more than one-sixth of the
d‘stanee around the earth at that latitude. It extends from a
little south of 42° N. latitude to the arctic regions. France lies
between 42° N. latitude and 51° N. latitude, which corresponds
to the latitude of the settled portions of Canada. Tor instance,
Toronto lies in latitude 48° 39’ N., and Cannes, in the south of
France, in latitude 43° 34’ N. Winnipeg, in the Province of
Manitoba, lies in latitude 49° 50’ N., and Havre, on the north
coast of France, in latitude 49° 29’ N. However the climate on
the whole is warmer in summer and colder in winter than in
corresponding latitudes in Europe.

Canada lies in latitudes similar to ee of the seer countries
whose peoples are foremost in the world’s affairs. It has a land
surface nearly twenty-nine times larger than Great Britain and
Ireland, or seventeen times larger than France. If the area of
the whole of Europe be represented by twelve, then the area of
Canada would be eleven. Of course large tracts in the northern
arctic regions are uninhabitable and entirely useless for the pro-
duction of foods; but across the continent, there is a zone about
3,500 miles tae and nearly as wide as France, with a climate
nagied to the production of foods of a superior quality. Within
that belt there are some mountainous regions and a few hundred
miles of arid prairies, where the settlement will always be sparse
and the production of foods scanty.

These comparisons indicate roughly the enormous capacity of
Canada for the production of foods. In places which are now
cultivated the soil has been found fertile. The freezing of the
soil in winter, which at first sight seems a drawback, retains the
soluble ieee which might otherwise be drained out.

Datry Farmine In CANADA. 467

By competent authorities in England it has been estimated that
the drainage in that country from November to March, carries off
to the sea a quantity of nitrates per acre sufficient for an average
crop of wheat. r

To cite one instance in the Province of Ontario, the average
yield of fall wheat for five years in the whole province is reported
as 20.5 bushels per acre, and of oats, 34.5 bushels per acre.

Proaress In CANADA.

These natural resources have always been with us, and what-
ever of progress has come has been due to the labors and intelli-
gence of a thrifty people. The difficulties in the way of successful
farming become greater and more numerous every year. These
are chiefly difficulties to be successfully overcome by good manage-
ment; and as the difficulties increase, so does the need for en-
larged knowledge and greater ability. Let me cite one instance
of increasing difficulties. nae MANE a:

When dairy farming was begun in some parts of the Northwest
Territories about six years ago, we received the cream from one
farmer delivered in a fine, sweet condition, every fifth day during
the summer time. With even greater care in cooling and cleanli-
ness, cream from the same farm can now, with difficulty, be de-
livered in sweet condition every second or third day. The multi-
plication of bacterial forms of life causes the milk to sour more
quickly. So it is throughout the whole range of farming opera-
tions. Insect pests and weed pests, diseases of plants, and partial
exhaustion of the soil, are all serious difficulties which have to be
faced with increased intelligence and organized effort. The his-
tory of the development of dairying in Canada illustrates some of
the excellent results which can be obtained from intelligent organ-
ized effort. Organization is useful to bring about economical ways
of doing things; and such a subdivision of properly correlated
labor as to obtain the very best results in products, in profits, and
in increased ability on the part of the workers and the managers.

Hewvrp rrom GoveRNMENT SOURCES.

Forms of help which a government may with safety and benefit
give to people like Canadians are quite limited in their character,
although they may be applied in hundreds of various ways. I
think it was James Russell Lowell who said of those restlessly
energetic people who live to the south of us: “ Every man is

468 Bureau or Farmers’ InstTirures.

as lazy as he dares to be.” If such a statement as that be true
concerning the people who live on this continent, then the getting
of something for nothing will likely be more mischievous than
wholesome. But those forms of help which increase the intelli-
gence of the people, cause them to develop ability in the carrying
on of their own work, and promote co-operation among the farmers
themselves, as well as between the farmers and the government,
are good, and good only. Such is the help which Provincial and
Dominion Governments have extended to the dairy business. A
few instances may be cited to illustrate the success of that policy.

Tur Currese TRADE.

In 1880, the exports of cheese from the United States to foreign
countries were rather more than three times larger than from
Canada. By 1890, the exports of cheese from Canada were
about equal to those from the United States. By 1898, the ex-
ports of cheese from Canada were three times larger than those
from the United States. The following figures show the growth
of increase in the value of exports of cheese from Canada:

1880. 1890. 1900.
Cheese exported .... $3,893,366 $9,372,212 $19,856,324

In 1886, when the governments first began to give systematized
educational help to the dairymen of this country, the exports of
cheese from Canada were 78,112,927 pounds, valued at $6,754,-
626, whereas in last year (1899) we find that the exports of cheese
were 189,827,839 pounds, worth $16,776,765, showing a very
decided growth. At least a large part of that growth was due to
the systematic, well-organized and well-directed efforts of different
agencies, not only of the Dominion Government but of the Provin-
cial Governments, dairymen’s associations, and boards of trade.
During the period from 1886 to 1899, the British imports of
cheese increased 34 per cent., whereas Canadian exports increased
143 per cent. That indicates something of what may be gained
by systematic, competent, and authoritative direction, because
the government did not give any bonus assistance.

Tue Burrer TRADE.

The development of the export trade in butter has been rapid
and marked, since cold storage was provided for the safe carriage

Datry Farmina In CANnaDA. 469

of butter on occan steamships. The increase in value of the ex-
ports is shown in the following table:

Butter exported:

Year. Value. Year. Value.

json Mid . $697,476 1898........ $2,046,686
seogere fob 1,052,089 TH0g et. NS 00 Bie
Perey: 2,089,173 iT gee epaermcim sta ns

In passing, let me say also that the increase in the whole
Dominion during that period, between 1891 and 1899, in the
number of creameries and cheese factories, has been from 1,733)
in 1891, to 8,649 in 1899. The increase in the various provinces
has been as follows:

1891. 1899.

Maritime provinces . ........ 28 177 Cheese factories and creameries.
Ontanios. VP se Seciias See 938 1,469 Cheese factories and creameries.
(ANIGYG Slee Geno e Sota 728 1,596 Cheese factories and creameries.
Quebee (combined butter and

GHEESE IS ee taka te davel eave here sole —— 307 Cheese factories and creameries.
Mianitebay sic Wivee. cc atepataee ss 31 64 Cheese factories and creameries.
Northwest Territories ...... i 7 32 Cheese factories and creameries.
bien Coli vey Syoece 6 1de 1 4 Cheese factories and creameries,

Tur Bacon TRADE.

The bacon trade, which also is a branch of dairy farming, has
been developed very greatly in recent years.

The growth of the export trade in bacon is shown by the fol-
lowing table:

Bacon, hams, and pork exported —

1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900.
$4,446,884 $5,871,988 $8,092,930 $10,473,211 $12,803,034

Canadian hogs are fed, as a rule, in a cleanly way. They are
fed on feeds suited for the production of what are known as
fleshy sides. Bacon with an excess of fat is not wanted except
in the lumber camps. Consequently the farmers of Canada have
been going into the breeding and rearing of a class of swine suited
for the production of bacon, having plenty of lean and firm flesh.
The great extension of the dairy business of Canada has fitted

470 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

in with the rearing of large numbers of swine. Skim-milk and
whey are feeds suited for the feeding of swine. Experimental
work has shown that swine fattened with part of a ration of skim
milk, were lustier, more vigorous, and of a more healthy appear-
ance than swine fatted wholly on a ration of grain. Whey is also
a valuable feed for swine. There are about seven pounds of solids
in every hundred pounds, and that quantity of whey fed properly
in combination with other feeds, has produced two pounds of in-
crease in the live-weight of swine. The feeding of meals from a
mixture of cereals, such as oats, barley, peas, rye, and Indian corn,
has resulted in a ie quality a swine products at the least cost per
pound of production.

The export commerce of ns eel in most of the farm pro-
ducts is increasing at a very rapid rate. The following compara-
tive statement of the value of the exports of some of the farm
products of Canada, during the years 1896 to 1900, shows the
growth in that short period and indicates something of the great
possibility for further expansion of this trade:

VALUE OF SOME FARM PRODUCTS EXPORTED IN
YEARS 1896 AND 1900.
Seam: ending June 30.)
1896. 1900.

Wheat: cae aca ere ee $5,771,521 $11,995,488
Blour ene. 2228 Bic ete aay 718.433 9,791,885
Oats: Ais s't! au ealt Leeda ii AAR 273.861 9143179
Oatmealie. So) 2 ee eee 364,855 474,991
Peli... xs ps de Wop ad aba, 1,999,491 9145471
@abtle A6G2. te pee eee ee 7,082,542 9,080,776
Chasse" 2 Se Grae aes ae 13,956,571 19,856,394
utber yo aie eas ee ees 1,052,089 5,122,156
Pork, bacon ‘and hame~, vo. > hee 4 4,446,884 12,803,034
Weoary 5 de tie fine PAabem 807,086 1,457,902

$35,773,183 $67,871,206

EpucatTionaL AGENCIES.

These notable increases and developments appear to be only
the beginning of what may be continued at an equal rate for many
years to come. The great departments of activity within the

Darry Farmina In Canapba. 471

nation are becoming better correlated to one another. The effi-
ciency of each is being improved with decided advantage to all.
So far as the Department of Agriculture is connected with these,
they may be mentioned as the production, transportation, distri-
bution, legislation, and education. The main aims of education,
on the side of it which looks out towards and leads out to material
progress, are to develop intelligence, enlarge practical ability, and
promote co-operation.

Mention should not be omitted here of the actual steps which
have been taken by a great many different agencies in helping
on the great national movement for the improvement of agriculture
in general, and dairy farming in particular. The first Dairymen’s
Association of Ontario was formed in 1867. It and the others
which have been organized since, have diffused information in an
attractive and effective way. These associations have brought to
the front men who have been worthy leaders and who have been
successful in leadership from personal ability, and from liking the
people whom they sought to help. A great factor in the progress
of dairy farming has also been the commercial talent of the
men who have purchased the products and exported them to Great
Britain. These men have passed on to the manufacturers and
the farmers who supplied the milk, information of a directly
helpful sort. Then the exhibitions, travelling dairy instructors,
dairy schools, illustration dairy stations, and bulletins, have all
been agencies contributing their quota of assistance. The bulle-
tins published by the different Departments of Agriculture, the
newspapers, and the agricultural papers, have been powers for
good among the people in connection with this work. These
are sowers of seeds, seeds that spring up, seeds of opinions only
in many cases, but seeds from which have risen the opinions of
the people; and these have had a marked effect on their attitude,
on their character, and on the ideals toward which they have
striven and are still striving. As one instance of the particular
value of good illustration work in dairy farming, let me cite a
case from the beginnings of co-operative dairy farming in Prince
Edward Island. In 1892, one illustration dairy station was started
by the Dominion Department of Agriculture. Part of the
cheese from it was exported to Great Britain, of which part was
sold for fifty-six shillings and sixpence per hundredweight.
Ordinary finest quality cheese from Canada at that time was
selling at fifty-six shillings per hundredweight. That sixpence

A7T2 Bureau oF Farmers’ INSTITUTES.

per hundredweight additional put new hope into the then-and-
future dairy farmers in that province. The sixpence extra
brought hopefulness, confidence in their own ability, and en-
thusiasm.

The exports of cheese from Prince Edward Island in 1900,
were over one hundred times larger than in 1892. These educa-
tional agencies are affecting the practice of dairy farmers in all
parts of their work. They are bringing about a better under-
standing of soil, plants, animals, and products, and how to manage
these to get the best results from each in proper relation to the
others. To most dairy farmers now, the cultivation of the soil
has a meaning much clearer than it had in former years. It is
perceived now that cultivation is a means toward providing seed
bed, suitable for the particular crop to be grown.

Purpose oF CULTIVATION.

Cultivation is not only to make a suitable seed-bed for the root-
hold of the plants; it is to kill weeds which are the great thieves
of plant food and mainly the thieves of the water, which they
evaporate into the atmosphere. Surface cultivation keeps the
moisture near the roots of the plants. Experiments at the Ex-
periment Station at Michigan, show that frequent cultivation
between rows of Indian corn made a difference of 86 per cent. in the
yield over the uncultivated. J*requent cultivation gave an increase
of 17 per cent. over partial infrequent cultivation. Surface culti-
vation makes a loose mulch of soil which arrests the capillary
movement of the water from beneath, and leaves it available to the
roots. For nearly all the crops, the ideal method of surface culti-
vation is to roll the land after they are put in (that makes the
soil warmer), and then immediately before the plants are up or
after they are a few inches high, to harrow it lightly to make a
surface mulch (that makes the soil moisture available and prevents
drying and cooling the soil by rapid evaporation until it is shaded
by the crop). All matter taken up by the roots of the plants is
taken in solution. It has been estimated that for every ton of
dry matter which a crop contains it has thrown off through its
leaves not less than 300 tons of water in its growing. Then there
is the solvent action of juice from the roots of the plants. Exuda-
tions from the roots touch mineral matters and dissolving them
make them available for the rootlets to take up.

Darry Farming in Canapa, 473

Tt is a means of promoting the activity of forms of bacterial
life which are helpful to the growth of crops, and is a means of
conserving moisture, the proper supply of which in a large measure
determines the abundance or bareness of the yield. I remember
the time when at least one lad, harrowing with a pair of colts,
knew no more than that harrowing was to get over the largest
possible area of ground and to raise as much dust as possible.
There are older men still in many walks of life who do not dis-
cern that men in harrowing should always have an eye toward the
harvest-and not toward raising dust.

Tue Rotation or Crops.

The productiveness of the soil depends upon the substances
present in the soil, and still more on the condition of the sub-
stances as to availability. That is where and how the rotation
of crops comes in, and can be of very great benefit to the farmer
who understands the underlying principle, or at least follows the
practice. Some crops by growing on land not merely give a good
return in themselves, but they make available in the soil, the plant-
food that the succeeding or some succeeding crop needs and can get
in better form through their action.

It is admitted that the rotation of crops has been the chief
means of improving the agriculture of Great Britain and some
other parts of Europe during the century. The practice itself
consists in growing roots (or some other cultivated green crop),
and leguminous crops (such as clover, beans or peas), or grass
(or hay crops), alternately with cereal crops ripened for grain.
The famous four-course Norfolk rotation was roots, barley, clover,
or beans and wheat. The chief point seems to be to make those
crops follow each other which have different requirements, as to
the time of the season when they benefit most by plenty of avail-
able plant-food in the soil and different habits of growth in other
respects, particularly in the range of their roots. The rotation
for any farm must have regard to the soil, the climate, the markets
for rotation crops, and other local conditions. Not only the in-
crease in the yield of crops has to be taken into account, but also
the value and uses to which the crops can be put when grown.
It is for everyone to determine what crops he can raise and sell at
a profit, and then to plan a rotation to give each of those crops the
best possible chance to yield largely.

474 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures,

THE RorHaMstED EXPERIMENTS.

At the Rothamsted Experiment Station, England, which I think
is the foremost in the world for thoroughness, reliability, and com-
prehensiveness of work with farm crops, a series of experiments
was begun in 1848, and has been carried on continuously since
that time, to discover the results from growing crops on the same
land continuously without and with manure, and from growing
similar crops in rotation without and with manure. ‘The rotation
was the four-course one of turnips, barley, clover (or beans), or
fallow, and wheat. Without going into the details of the experi-
ments and the records as published, I desire to present the follow-
ing table which I have arranged from the reports of eight courses,
32 years (1852-1883). The results from the continuously-grown
crops relate to the produce of the same eight seasons as those in
which the rotation crops were obtained. The unmanured and
superphosphate conditions were the same in both cases. In the
case of the mixed manure results, it is to be observed that in the
rotation experiments, a quantity of manure was applied for the
turnip crops only, which was to carry the whole of the crops of
the four-years’ course; whilst in the continuous-crop experiments,
the quantity of nitrogen which was supplied each year amounted
to rather more than one-fourth of that applied for four years in
the rotation experiments.

Rotation versus ConrTINuvOovSs.

Average quantities of dry matter per acre in wheat and barley
grown in rotation, compared with those grown continuously :

Unmanured and Mixed manure.

superphosphate only
Grain. Straw. Grain. OL, Straw.
Lb. Lb. Lb. Lb.
Wheat, rotation ......... 1,515 2,585 1,694 3,188
Wheat, continuous ...... ie 706 1,143 1,238 2,142
Percentage increase.... 114 126 36 48
Barley, rotation ......... 1,452 1,549 2,109 2,368
Barley, continuous ....... 1,001 1,000 2,298 2,489
Percentage increase... 45 55 ejeleisis Faces
Percentage decrease .. isosie eccce 8 5

I shall present also the results from an experiment conducted at
the Purdue University Experiment Station, Indiana. The object

Darry arming rm Canapa. 475
of the experiment was to ascertain the effects on soil and crops of
different systems of cropping without the addition of manures or
fertilizers. One series of plots was devoted to continuous grain
growing, the same crop being grown every year on one part of the
series, and fwo grain crops alternating with each other on another
part. On another series of plots three different rotations were
followed, each one of which included wheat. The following table
shows the average yields per acre in bushels for the seven years,
1887 to 1893:

Bushels

per acre.

Wheat, rotation ....'.. Sie ers cece a Gide acti val ee Bie oe eet Oe
WimlientG, Stat OUly So's vio cs 0 acs os eee cE eae e crah een 15.89
WERE WIG eee ela cree a cc atetr eos sha eS a 3-SGhe em ie' 0's AP IPT i ih

This shows that wheat grown in rotation with other grain and
grass crops has yielded 36 per cent. more on an average, than when
grown continuously on the same soil or in alternation with another

grain crop. ba

SumMMARY OF BENEFITS.

The great increase in crops grown in rotation over those grown
continuously, seems to be because more nitrogen is available to the
former ; and perhaps because it is available during the early period
of their growth, from the preparation of it by the preceding crop
or by the cultivation of that crop. Other benefits from systematic
rotation of crops are (1) the distribution of the mechanical opera-
tions of the farm over the season; (2) the opportunity for cleaning
the land; (3) the comparative freedom from damage by insects,
and (4) the production of a variety of products for feeding to live-
stock and for sale.

Tur Two Processes oF INCREASE.

Tn the growth of all plants that form farm crops there seem to
be two processes that govern the increase, and the understanding
of the principles of these will, I think, help any farmer and every
farmer to form rotations for himself that will be exceedingly val-
uable, whilst without an understanding of these principles he will
be always groping in the dark after the best methods. In the
growth of plants one set of conditions make for increase in the size

476 Bureau or Farmers’ Instirures.

of the roots and the stems and the leaves. These are the vegeta-
tive part — the part of a plant that perishes utterly when the plant
dies. ‘There is another part of the plant that does not perish when
the growth ends, viz.: the seed that carries the life over to the next
crop. ‘The conditions which make for the enlargement of the roots
and the stems and the leaves, do not make for increased production
of seeds. That is to say, the conditions most favorable to the vege-
tative processes of the plant are not favorable to the maturing pro-
cesses, but are almost the opposite. If you will allow me a paren-
thesis: The understanding of that principle, with the selection
of seeds, will do more to improve farming in Canada than any-
thing else I know of in regard to agriculture. The set of con-
ditions favorable for continued increase in size of root and size of
stem and size of leaf do not make for increase in the quantity of
seeds, but rather for the opposite. The extension of the vegetative
stages of development — the formation of roots, stems, and leaves
—is at the expense of the development of the reproductive parts
— the seeds. Take the instance of a bunch of oats growing in a
dung hill; what happens? <A very large root, a grossly large stem,
broad, long leaves, and very, very, very few seeds in the head.
That is to say, the conditions that make for the continued enlarge-
ment of the root, the increase of the stem, and extension of the leaf
do not make for an increase in number and weight of the seeds.
That is an extreme case, but it reveals a principle. Now, take
another set of extreme conditions, where a plant can grow only
with difficulty, either in root, or stem, or leaf. Look on a bare
roadside, where a small grass plant tries to form seeds when only
three or four inches high; then count the percentage of weight of
the whole plant made up of the seeds, and you have a revelation on
the other side. The conditions that make it difficult for a plant to
grow a larger root and a larger stem and larger leaves after the
time of ripening has come, make for the increase of the number
of seeds and the increase of the proportion of weight they bear to
that of the whole plant. Of course, the conditions that make for
the increase of size of root and size of stalk and size of leaf up to
a certain point, also make for the increase of seeds, because the
seeds are formed out of what the plant takes in through its leaves
and roots. But when there is an excess of available plant food in
the soil, only late in the growing and maturing period of the plant,
that may prevent seeds from forming plentifully and ripening
thoroughly. That is what happens frequently when farmyard
manure is ploughed in, in the spring, for a grain crop in Canada.

Darry Farmina in Canapa, 4°77

In some plants the farmer wants a large root and large stem
and large leaf, and in others he wants only the seeds — the other
parts being an unimportant and secondary consideration. An
abundance of plant food, an excess of it if you will, early in the
life of the plant, makes for the growth of roots, and stem, and
leaves; and then after the plant is about full size, some difficulty
in getting more of it, makes for the growth of seeds. If a man
wants large turnips let him pile on the manure. You never saw
too much manure on a turnip field, for the size of the turnips.
That is quite unlike the bunch of oats on the dung hill. ‘Then you
never saw a hayfield over manured, so far as the growth is con-
cerned. In the hay you want the stem and leaf, and in the turnip,
and mangel, and carrot you want the root; therefore manuring is
the right thing for them. Beside their period of growth and
accumulation extends many weeks after the period of collection
by ripening cereals has ended, and that at a time when the farm-
yard manure applied that season is most readily available, and
when nitrification in the soil is most active.

There is a fundamental principle to guide in making a rotation
of crops: apply manure for green crops and hay, and follow these
by cereals sown in soil having a very fine tilth, since for them there
is only a short growing season. That the early first part of it
should be favorable is most important for the yield of grain.

Application of farmyard manure directly for grain crops is
often a wasteful practice, but put on for root or other green crops
it puts and leaves the soil in the best condition for grain crops to
follow. I do not contend for sowing grain on poor land, but for
putting manure on for green crops and for grass and for hay,
which take all the nourishment they require, and leave enough,
and that in the best condition, for the growth of the succeeding
crop of grain.

Seep GRaIn.

T have spoken of the availability of plant food in the soil, and
the making of it more so by cultivation and a rotation of crops.
I want to speak also of the power of the plant to take these things
out of the soil and the air —the inherited power of the plant.
A plant has inherited its initial vital power from all the crops
through which it came —all the ancestors through which it
ascended or descended. An appreciation of the inherited as well
as the acquired power of plants will be of assistance in selecting
the kind of seed that will do best on each farmer’s land. What I

478 Bureau or Farmers’ INstirurtes.

want to make clear is the difference in the vigor of growth between
seeds of the same variety when sown in different localities, and
the difference — the amazing difference —in the productiveness
of selected large plump seeds over small seeds of the same variety.

The seed of a cereal is a plant in embryo, and a store of food
for the nourishment of the young plant after it wakens into activity
(germinates), and until it takes in food through its rootlets and
leaves. The germination of the seed is not the so-called creation
of life. That happened when the plant was fertilized; and the
seed is an embryo, with a store of food lying close by it and within
the same skin. The store of food which composes the greater part
of the seed is for the maintenance of the young plant until it is
able to take enough nourishment through its leaves and rootlets.
A young plant is wakened up as soon as the moisture and warmth
are sufficient, and its food close by is prepared under the same
conditions.

Sometimes an embryo plant is imperfectly formed and weak;
and tests show that imperfectly ripened seeds, under ordinary
conditions, do not give nearly as good a crop as fully ripened seeds
in each of which both the embryo and its food have been fully
prepared. Those seeds which germinate most quickly are the best,
and it has been proved over and over again that heavy seeds give
larger and better crops than small seeds of the same sort. The rea-
son seems to be that in one case (large seeds), the supply of food for
the young plant is plentiful when it most needs it, while in the other
case (small seeds), the food supply may be insufficient to nourish
the young plant adequately at the most critical time when it is
tender and struggling for survival. Under the most favorable con-
ditions of temperature, moisture, and food supply in the soil, small
seeds might give as much in crop as large seeds. On comparatively
poor land, in unfavorable seasons, is where the small seeds give
their worst returns. The farmer who has rich soil in a fine con-
dition of tilth is the only one who can afford to sow small seeds,
and the risk of comparatively small crops is great even then.

The following quotation from an article in the Year Book of
the United States Department of Agriculture for 1898, shows
what may be expected from a careful system of selection of seed
grain from the most vigorous and most productive plants in any
plot or field, when that is followed up with intelligence from year
to year:

Darry Farmine in Canapa. 479

Snowrna Errect or Seirecrion.

“Selection is one of the most important factors in plant breed-
ing, the natural capacity of all plants to vary furnishing the basis
on which the breeder has to work.”

“ The largest ears may grow on comparatively unproductive or
weak stalks, and, therefore, to obtain the best results seed corn
should be selected in the field, and attention given to the habit,
productiveness, general vigor, etc., of the plant, as well as to the
character of the ear, kernel and cob, and uniformity in ripening.
The same remarks apply to the selection of seed wheat.”

“Allen cites an interesting case of increased yield in corn as a
result of selection, as follows: ‘ Four years ago my foreman, at
my earnest request, began the selection of field corn for seed pur-
poses. Ie grew the white dent red-cob variety. Before harvesting
the main crop he went over the field and selected the lowest grow-
ing, stocky stalks, with two perfect ears each. He has followed
the same plan ever since, with an increase of fully 25 per cent. in
productiveness.’ ”

SuccuLEntT Frep For CatrLeE.

Beside these matters connected with the management of the
soil and plants, great progress has also been made by dairy farm-
ers in choosing the sorts of crops and the areas of each to be
planted. It is now generally recognized that crops for dairy
cattle must not only be nutritious but succulent also. The growth
and feeding of turnips to horned cattle has been contemporaneous
with their improvement in nearly all countries; and turnips ap-
pear to supply the form of succulent feed during the winter
months, which brings about the best development of constitutional
vigor. The feeding of turnips to milch cows during their dry
periods is advantageous in every sense. However, I do not wish
to be understood at all as advocating the feeding of turnips to
milking cows when succulent feed of quite as economical and more
suitable nature, such as mangels, carrots, Indian corn ensilage and
others, can be obtained. For milking cows in stables the following
may be taken as a sort of standard ration for economy and effi-
ciency. Of course, it would have to be modified according to local
conditions of soil, climate, cattle and products wanted by each
individual farmer. I put it forward more as being suggestive
than as being one to be copied into everybody’s practice.

480 Bureau or Farmers’ Insrirrutes.

Fifty pounds Indian corn ensilage; 50 pounds mangels; 5
pounds hay; 5 pounds oat straw; and from 3 to 9 pounds of meal
or other form of concentrated feed, according to capacity of the
individual cow and stage of lactation at the time. It does not |
often pay to feed a milking cow a heavy ration of grain after the
seventh month of her milking period. As a rule, that part of the
ration may with advantage be greatly reduced from that period
onward.

Care or Catrie.

Some of the more important points to be observed in the care
of dairy cattle are those concerned with the housing of the
cattle in a country like Canada where the climatic conditions
require the stabling of cattle on an average for perhaps six
months of the year. It is a good plan to have the inside of
the cow stable whitewashed twice every year. That, beside
being a cleaning process, makes the interior of the stable lighter;
and plenty of sunlight is a great promoter of health. The
stable conditions throughout should make for the comfort of the
animals. Comfort is a necessary experience on the part of the
cow if she is to yield the largest possible profit. I have no occa-
sion to go into this matter at length, as it is being treated of at
this convention more fully by others. In passing, let me remark
that in the breeding of dairy cattle, the object should be con-
tinuously toward the development of the form and temperament
which the dairy farmer considers to be most suitable for his
dairy business. I do not hold that it is necessary to stick to
one breed; but the crossing of breeds of different types of body
and different types of temperament is seldom profitable, and is
usually carried out at a loss—a loss of the best qualities of
both of the breeds. Progress is made in the productive ability
for either beef or dairy products only when the breeding is car-
ried on in a direction toward a definite type for a definite purpose.

Care oF Darry Propucts.

Great progress is being made in the methods by which dairy
products are taken care of. It does not follow that they are now
taken care of in such a way as to be always in better condition
than formerly. But if better care were not taken of the milk
and the butter, and of the cheese nowadays, than was general
twenty-five years ago, all of them would be very much injured
indeed. Conditions of atmosphere and all the rest of it are very

Darry Farmine In CANADA. 481

much less suitable for preservation than formerly. I have al-
ready hinted of the greatly-increased forms of bacterial life
which attack dairy products at all times and in all places. When
ordinary cleanliness has been observed in the care of milk, it is
still necessary that it should be kept continuously under 70°, i
the best results are to be obtained from it in the making of butter
and the making of cheese.

BurTER-MAKING.

The ripening of cream for butter-making is now recognized as
being almost wholly a process of fermentation. To obtain fer-
mentation of the right sort many butter-makers pasteurize the
cream, and then put in what is called a “ fermentation starter.”
The fermentation, which is beneficial to cream for butter-mak-
ing, becomes deleterious to butter if it be continued when the
product has reached that stage. Consequently, after the butter
is made, unless to be consumed immediately, what is really needed
is some form of “fermentation stopper” to put an end to the
action of the fermentation starter. In saying this, I do not ad
vocate the use of any preservative or other nostrum for the pre-
servation of butter. If the butter be put in a cold room with
the temperature under 36° F., fermentation will be practically
stopped. If butter is to be kept for a considerable period of
time, it should be kept in a room at a temperature near 20° F.

The provision of cold storage at creameries, on railways and
on ocean steamships has been one of the means for very great
improvement and development of the creamery business. Occa-
sionally the paper linings of butter packages have been found
affected by spots of mould. When that occurs it is most objec-
tionable, and lessens the value of butter. When such paper lin-
ings have been soaked for twenty-four hours in a strong solution
of salt, to which about one ounce of formalin has been added
to three gallons of brine, the appearance of the mould on, these
butter linings has been entirely prevented.

Improve MENT OF CURING-ROOMS.

The curing-room should be so constructed and managed as to
permit the temperature to be maintained in it continously at about
Gar

Flavor and body are the two qualities which determine the
_ relative market price of cheese. The character of these qualities
31

489 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrures.

in Cheddar cheese is largely determined by the process of curing.
There is still some doubt as to what is the agent which causes
the curing of cheese, and thus makes the curd partly soluble and
the body of the cheese rich and plastic. While the nature of the
agent or agents is still a matter of speculation rather than of exact
knowledge, the conditions under which the curing can be carried
on successfully are fairly well understood. So far as curing
develops the flavor of cheese, the agents in that change are doubt-
less minute forms of life known under the name of bacteria. The
temperature at which the cheeses are kept affects the action of
those minute forms of life, and through that determines in a

large measure the flavor, the body and the texture which are pro-
duced in them.

Curine AFrFrreots QUALITY.

A fairly steady temperature between 60° and 65° F., gives the
best results. At that temperature, loss in weight by the shrinkage
of the cheese, is also considerably less than at higher points. A
dry atmosphere causes the cheese to lose in weight by the evapora-
tion of the moisture, and may also cause small checks or cracks
on the surface, particularly when the cheeses are new. The cur-
ing-rooms at the cheese factories in Canada are generally faulty
in construction; and it is very difficult, if not wholly impracti-
cable, to regulate the temperature in them at 65° or thereabouts.
Irregularity of temperature causes many of the faults com-
plained of by the cheese exporters and also by the receivers
of cheese in Great Britain. If the temperature goes down to or
below 50°, the cheese buyers complain of bitterness in the flavor.
If the temperature goes as high as 70° or over, the cheese buyers

complain of a heated flavor, or worse still, of a condition which
is called “ off-flavored.”

Wrone Mernops.

The methods of managing the curing-room have been too much
after the following fashion:

1. In the spring of the year a stove is used to heat the room;
too often it is not screened or placed in such a way as to cause
a circulation of air; the cheeses in the vicinity of the stove are
overheated, and those in the other parts of the room are left too
cold.

Darry Farmine 1n CanapdA, 483

2. In the warm weather of summer, the cheese-maker opens
the windows and sometimes the door of the euring-room at night,
and shuts them in the morning. ‘The average curing-room is so
conditioned by the genius of the builder and the frolics of time,
that the closing of the doors and the shutters over the windows
during the daytime, does not require all the pure fresh air to
remain outside. It leaves the cheeses to be cured in the dark con-
tinuously, and that is not wholesome.

3 In the cool weather of autumn, a stove is generally used in
the curing-room, without any provision being made for causing
the heated air to circulate evenly through every part of the room.
Consequently the cheeses on the shelves near the stove are often
kept at a temperature of 80°, while the cheeses in the parts
remote from the stove, are perhaps at a temperature of 50°.

IMPROVEMENT BY INSULATION.

The curing-room should be an insulated room, so constructed
that the outside temperature would not necessarily affect its con-
tents. For this purpose insulation means the construction of the
walls, floor, and ceiling of the room in such a way that heat will
not go through readily. For the storage of butter, the walls of
the room should be so insulated that the temperature inside will
not be more than 34°, even when it is as high as 98° in the open
air. It is not necessary that the insulation of a cheese curing-
room should be so thorough; but it should be sufficient to permit
the temperature to be kept at or under 65°.

For the improvement of an old curing-room of the ordinary
open construction, the following method may be adopted with good
results. The whole inside should be thoroughly cleansed by a
liberal use of boiling water. It should be disinfected by wash-
ing with hot water, to which one pound of carbolic acid to ten
pounds of water has been added. It should then be whitewashed
with fresh-slaked lime. To make the old floor close, it will
usually be necessary to put two thicknesses of building paper
over it, and a new floor laid on top of the paper. If the inside
walls of the old curing-room are of lumber or plaster, two thick-
nesses of building paper may be put on, and over them one thick-
ness of matched lumber, dressed on at least one side. ‘The ceiling
should be made close in a similar way. The windows should be
made close, and double doors and windows should be put on for

484. Bureau or Farmers’ [ystitures.

use in summer as well as during the late autumn and winter.
A coating of whitewash should be apphed to the walls.

These improvements in a curving-room 30 feet by 20 feet would
cost probably $220 for material and labor, according to the con-
dition of the room and the price of lumber, labor, ete., in the
locality; $50 for double doors, windows and ventilator, and $80
for a sub-earth duct. Ata factory turning out about 300 large
cheeses per month, such a curing-room might be so used as to
avoid some of the shrinkage in weight which would occur in
an ordinary curing-room where the thermometer fluctuated be-
tween 70 and 90 degrees. The saving might be one pound per
cheese. The injury to the flavor and body of the cheese from
overheating and chilling might also in a great measure be pre-
vented. The extra value which might be realized out of the
cheese from the diminished shrinkage and superior quality would
likely be not less than $450 during the season. Besides, great
and lasting benefit would result to the cheese trade, if all the
cheeses of Canada were cured in a proper way. The demand
from the consumers in Great Britain would be increased, and
the risk of loss to the merchants would be decreased.

VENTILATION AND MorstTurE.

In a room of which the walls are close, and otherwise well-
constructed, the curing of the cheese will raise the temperature.
Each cheese, by the fermentation going on during its curing,
acts somewhat like a small slow-burning stove. ‘There must be
some means of cooling the room.

The average cheese curing-room is too dry. During hot
weather, the floor should be sprinkled with water once or twice
a day, certainly every morning. ‘The evaporation of the water
cools and moistens the atmosphere to the improvement of the
cheese.

A cheap and effective means of cooling, and at the same time,
ventilating a curing-room, is to use a sub-earth air duct. The
duct or drain may be brought in through the floor of the room
in two places It should be not less than 100 feet long, should
be four feet deep, and have an opening for the passage of air
of about ten inches square for every 5,000 eubie feet of room.
It should be made of tiles. A good method is to put rows of
tiles parallel to each other with two inches of earth between
the rows in the same duct or drain. An upright opening at the

Darry Farmine in Oanapa,. 485

far end, with a hood t6é be turned to the wind, is an advantage.
In summer, sueh a sub-earth air duct can be used to reduce the
temperature in the curing-room from ten to fifteen degrees, if
the floors, walls, windows and doors are reasonably close.

INVESTIGATIONS ON CuRING.

The Dominion Department of Agriculture has conducted ex-
periments with the cheese of one factory for the seasons of 1899
and 1900. The cheese, last season, were divided after they left
the pressroom, a proportion being put into a curing-room in
which the temperature was kept continuously under 65° F., and
a portion was put in an ordinary well-constructed curing-room.
In 1900 the cheese were divided into three lots, one lot being
put in a curing-room where the temperature was kept continu-
ously under 65°, a second lot being put in an ordinary well-
constructed curing-room, and a third lot being put in a curing
room similar to those in the most poorly equipped factories; it
was simply a loft over the cheese-making room.

The following is the report of a committee of the Cheese and
Butter Association, at Montreal, which was appointed for each
of the two years to examine the cheese and report on their
quality. The three or four cheese, as the case might be, from
the controlled curing-room were placed right opposite to the cor-
responding three or four from the uncontrolled curing-room.
The cheese had been kept in these curing-rooms until they were
about three weeks old, when they were shipped to a cold-storage
warehouse. ‘They were kept in it at a temperature of about 38°
IF. until they were examined:

“At a recent meeting of the Butter and Cheese Association,
which was called at fe request of the Dairy Commissioner, we,
the undersigned, were appointed a. committee to inspect reall
lots of cheese, half of which we were informed had been cured
at a temperature of not exceeding 65°, the remainder being
cured in the ordinary curing-room. In company with the com-
missioner we inspected some thirty-one lots, and we found those
cheese cured at a temperature of not exceeding 65° were very
much superior in quality to those cured in the ordinary way,
the difference in quality in most instances being most marked.
Those cured at the lower temperature were better bodied, more
silky in texture, and much milder in flavor, beside retaining
their moisture heuer than those eured in the ordinary way. As

486 Burvav or Farmers’ InstrTuTEs

a merchantable article we consider those cured at the lower tem-
perature are worth fully one-half cent per pound more in price
than those cured in the ordinary way. In view therefore of
the marked superiority in quality shown in those cheese, that
were cured at the lower temperature, we advise that the govern-
ment be urged to impress upon the cheese factories the desira-
bility of seeing that their curing-rooms are kept at a temperature
of not exceeding 65° F., and that the factory men should also be
informed of the length of time required to cure cheese at the lower
temperature. A detailed report is herewith annexed.

“ ARTHUR HODGSON,

President.

“JNO. McKERGOW,

“D. A. McPHERSON,

“ALFRED J. BRICK,

“P. W. McLAGAN.”

That presents the substance of the whole question. The cheese
cured under these conditions of controlled temperature, continu-
ously under 65° F., are of better quality, better flavor and are
worth a half a cent per pound more than the others cured in an
ordinary curing-room in which the temperature was sometimes
between 70° and 80° F.”

Report oF ComMMITTER.

We, the undersigned committee of the Montreal Butter and
Cheese Association, appointed for the purpose of examining and
reporting upon the relative commercial value of several lots of
cheese cured at different temperatures, under the direction of the
Commissioner of Agriculture and Dairying, beg to report as
follows:

1. That we have fully examined the different lots, and made
careful comparisons as to their values upon an actual commercial
basis.

2. That the following table gives the general conclusions of the
committee. If finest cheese are value at 10 cents, then the figures
placed under the lots cured in different ways indicate the relative
value:

Lot 1. Lot 2. Lot 3.
Controlled. xoo0d, ordinary. Poor, ordinary.
June cheese ........ -. 10¢ per lb. 93¢ per lb. 9¢ per Ib.

July cheese 0). sjsuysealg « 10¢ per lb. 93¢ per lb. 93¢ per Ib.

Darry Farmine mn Canapa. 487

8. The committee would add that the lots marked No. 1 have
a cleaner, milder flavor, and show a more silky, waxy body.

MonrreaL, November 7, 1900.
(Signed) JAS. ALEXANDER,
4 M. J. FARRELL,
. A. CO. WIELAND,
- ALEX. W. GRANT.

Warcnina TRANSPORTATION.

During the past season, the Department of Agriculture had one
man stationed at Montreal who was an official referee on the
quality of cheese and butter. When a dispute arose between a
salesman and a buyer regarding the quality of any lot of cheese
or butter, the official referee might be called in to give his
decision on the quality. He also wrote to the salesman or manu-
facturer, pointing out what, in his judgment, would be a means
of remedy in the case of any defects he had observed. This work
was done during the past summer by Mr. J. A. Ruddick, and his
services in that capacity have been eminently useful and satis-
factory. |

The department also had one man stationed at Montreal during
part of the season to observe the condition in which cheese and
butter were handled in loading the steamships. ‘Taking seven
comparatively small lots of cheese as an instance from one of his
reports, the following is a statement of their condition as delivered
on the wharf:

Of 786 boxes of cheese, 101 were in a broken condition, but
had been coopered, mostly by being tied with strings. Highty-five
were broken and not coopered. That showed a total of 186 boxes
in a partially damaged condition, or 23 per cent. of the whole lot.

Agents In Great Briratn.

Agents of the Department of Agriculture were stationed dur
ing the past season at the ports of London, Bristol, Liverpool,
Manchester and Glasgow. ‘They were instructed to report on
the condition in which Canadian cargoes were delivered from
the steamships, and to observe the manner in which they were
handled from the steamships to the warehouses, or to the rail-
way cars. The reports which they furnished were submitted to

488 Bureau or Farmers’ Instrrures.

the owners or agents of the steamships, on the Canadian side,
and have already led to very great improvement in the manner
in which Canadian products are stowed in the steamships, and
the manner in which they are handled both in the loading and
discharging of the cargoes. However, these reports from our
agents in Great Britain show that, im many cases, cheese were
delivered from the steamships with as much as 50 per cent. of
the boxes in a broken condition. Some of the reports say the
boxes were too large for the cheese, that they had ill-fitting cov-
ers; that they were made of poor material, particularly the bands
of the boxes; that they were not well nailed; that they were
not clearly marked; that some were dirty, and that in not a
few instances cheese were delivered in a heated condition. All
these things call for improvement and for remedies. I am au-
thorized by the Minister of Agriculture to intimate that if dairy-
men will take the necessary steps to protect the cheese in the
curing-rooms at a temperature under 65° F., so as to turn out
the best quality in flavor and body through proper curing, he
will do his best to arrange with the railway companies to pro-
vide more suitable cars for the carriage of cheese to the sea-
board, and also see that steamship companies provide forced
ventilation of holds in which cheese and other perishable prod-
ucts are carried, by means of ventilators and fans. It is most
important for the dairy business that immediate attention should
be given to these matters. The matter of paying one or two
cents more per box to obtain a strong, well-made, well-nailed,
close-fitting box, of good sound lumber is a small matter com-
pared with the increased value which such a package would give
to its contents in the British market.

There are many other matters which should also be mentioned
in an address which has even such a title as “The Progress of
Dairying in Canada,” which time will not permit me even to
allude to. But I am authorized by the honorable the Minister
of Agriculture to say that our department is looking toward the
extending of its usefulness in the directions where dairymen
still need the most help. Men will again be sent to Great Britain
to observe the conditions of the markets, to learn the latest pref-
erences there, and to observe the nite Heal of delivering food
produets from the steamships. Our office will also, so far as pos-
sible, interpret the commercial criticism of the bee in Great
Britain into helpful information for the producers in Canada.

Darry Farminea in Canapa, 489

We can only hope to keep our place in the markets and to
make any gain, by the superiority of our products, the regularity
of their shipment, by having them put up in the nicest and most
attractive form, and by ability to sell them as low as any of our
competitors, and still have a living profit for ourselves. These
results can be obtained again in proportion as the dairy farmers
make further progress in intelligence, practicability, and a desire
and capacity to work together for the good of all.

So I end my address as I began it, by commending these to
your most thoughtful and kindly consideration.

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