. Fe Oa NS Py ie Se? ca wa ; 4 : a Bes) fi ies Bs gh As . Peete ae i Bis ey fe arts “ oo ors al Naas reacts: oS te , Bh 1 eae ue ts Cae A i a as cf Rea ie ay iE 3 en a asst . ah ras tabipetthe fareth rs te Feet wees es ie entstres % Pa ‘ a REN anaes 7 ‘ Ses a sen reese R 3 f Tie oe Stake is pansion oe Berens Hi if A ay, 7 eS: i, if IVs, ; tan ih A Ral yi ts a 7 - ay Cy atone : : LAD ‘ij v a Lup! i tah 4 Ona ¥ ie @ kia Aish a as fe ae ae ae ii ws Bait ta its at 3 say MO oh on iat a avert ; a : a i i re aap Nese eae 7 vs mart mts 7 , } oy i Si | , j ony Raat, ay ; et Ben >. Tay ul i { NS : e ne ce ie % os ral an ae i} 7 i athe oy Mane i ry , og Oy, ie yee : a ns i) ce as 7 Dae in a le i ty : Pe aly. ay 1 : f 4 i io Atay cr: : 7 Pe 7 : ¥ ei im Pry’ Eur Wilt mi ty oY oy ‘ - ey Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University and of the Agricultural Experiment Station Established under the Direction of Cornell University Ithaca, New York A VOLUME II Transmitted to the Legislature January 15, 1916 J. B. Lyon Company, Printers Albany, 1916 NASD 14I5 Prd Cornell Rural School Leaflet FOR BOYS AND GIRLS Published by the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, B. T. Galloway, Director; George A. Works, Head of the Department of Rural Education. Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York ALICE G. McCLOSKEY and EDWARD M. TUTTLE, Supervisors and Editors ARTHUR D. DEAN, C. H. TUCK, W. E. PIERCE, and G. F. WARREN, Advisers Vol. 8 ITHACA, NEW YORK, NOVEMBER, 1914 No. 2 GREETINGS This is the first leaflet for boys and girls for the year 1914-1915, and we wish to send you greetings. We hope that you will feel our interest in all that you are during the coming year, and in all that you do. Boys and girls in the country have the best opportunity for education, because where Identifying specimens of plants there are open fields and autumn colors, and wild,: sweeping winds, and crops to care for and stock to feed, there is better opportunity to grow than in the crowded city streets. Your lives may be deepened and enriched by the out-of-doors, and by the many farm tasks that become a joy as soon as you know how to do them well. We hope the boys and girls in the country will have high ideals of country life and will work toward bringing about their realization. No one wants to live in the country in poor homes where there is [9971 998 RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET little food, and where the fireplaces are all closed up because there is no wood to burn in them. There is opportunity for all to have education leading to successful farming, which will mean attractive homes set in the midst of trees, in sight of stretches of field and woodland, and perhaps within sound of running brooks. There can be well-filled larders with ample stores of harvest crops, great wood fires can be ablaze for the Thanksgiving sports and _ pastimes, and for the return of sleighing parties during the Christmas holidays. And then all the time there will be the long, tranquil nights for sleep, and the glory of the early dawn. Often there will be heard the wonderful sound of singing pines, the restful tone of a distant church bell, the music of the brook, and the notes of the whippoorwill as he sings at twilight on the old fence. The farmer’s life may be one of deep, rich joy; but this can come only when the farmer is prosperous, and at the present time in order to be fully prosperous he must have education for his work. In these words of greeting we ask the boys and girls of New York State to decide to strive for the opportunity that will make for prosperity on the farm. Then, if you go to the city the fact that you have worked with mind and hands, that you have taken responsibility, will be of real value; and if you remain in the country you will be one with the out-of-doors, and ready to meet your business problems. You will be useful to all in your community, and a credit to your State. Success to you in the work of the year. We hope you will celebrate Corn Day, will be represented in some of the exhibitions at Cornell during Farmers’ Week, will learn more than you have ever known about horses, birds, trees, weeds, and other things of farm interest, will write to Mr. Tuttle about your work, and will tell us all about the Thanksgiving dinner and what you contributed to it. Then at Christmas time we want you to believe that, although you cannot hear them, we are sending greetings to you and our best wishes for a Happy New Year. RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 999 THE YEAR’S WORK There is much that is interesting in the lessons in nature study and agriculture for boys and girls this year. You are expected to learn some- thing about the natural history of the farm, and also to take part in some of the farm and home work that will help in your education. Long ago the only kind of teaching was from books, but now we know that the best kind of teaching prepares us to be keen observers, to work with our hands as well as our minds, and to learn while we are young to take responsibility. Let us, then, work hard this year, not only in the regular school studies, but also in trying to know and to understand nature and to take our part in the care of the farm, the home, and the echool. We hope that during the first months of this year special atten- tion will be given to the following topics: A horse with good proportions I. HORSES Horses are important on the farm, and every boy and girl should have an intelligent knowledge of them and should learn to understand them. When we think of the contribution that horses make to our lives, and realize how many persons fail to take care of them wisely or to show appreciation of their help, we feel how necessary it is to have better knowledge of them. 1000 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET In the teachers’ leaflet this year there is much good information about horses, which will from time to time be used in your lessons in nature study and agriculture. In order that we may know how much you have profited by these lessons, we are going to ask you to tell us about your work, and perhaps the following plan will be an interesting way for you to do this. We will send a book on horses to the school that prepares during the year the best notebook on horses. The notebook may be made of plain manila paper, and should contain as much information and illustration as you can collect throughout the year. We shall judge the work in the main accord- ing to the value of the information contained in it, although some credit will be given for attractive presentation of the material. The most important contribution to the book will be first-hand knowledge that boys and girls have gained by actual observation of horses in the neigh- borhood, and by discussion with persons who have been successful in the breeding of them. In judging the work from the various schools, the book knowledge and pictures that are added will be second to this actual study of horses. In making plans for your books we hope you will consider the following: t. A good survey of the horses in your neighborhood. This will be valuable work for the older boys and girls. The number of work horses in the neighborhood, the number of carriage horses, and the like. 2. Who has the finest horses in your neighborhood? It would be a good thing to ask the owner to visit the school and tell something about the history of them, the care they need, and other matters of interest. An account of such an experience would make a valuable addition to your book. 3. Has any boy or girl in the neighborhood a pet horse? Could it be brought to the school yard and studied there? If so, have some one tell about this incident, and if possible add a photograph of the horse. 4. The book should contain information as to what constitutes a well- proportioned horse. Let every boy and girl make a drawing of a horse that is well proportioned. 5. Types of horses should be discussed. How many types are there in your neighborhood? 6. How can the age of a horse be estimated? 7. There should be some discussion on the harnessing of horses. 8. Perhaps some of the boys have had experience in training horses. There should be at least one chapter in the book devoted to this topic. g. Try to learn something of the origin and development of the horse. How did the earliest horses differ from those of the present time? 1o. Tell the story of some famous horse that you have heard of or read about. ; RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET Ioor II. BIRDS We hope that every boy and girl will do something to attract the birds this year. Ask your teacher to read to you what is said in the September leaflet about this. Have a feeding station for the birds as sug- gested by Doctor Allen. Some day you may have such interesting guests as a chickadee, a junco, a tree sparrow, or a woodpecker. Did you know that there are about twelve hundred different kinds of sparrows in the world? How many kinds can you learn to know this year? What can you learn of the habits of the English sparrows by actual observation? A chickadee receiving a welcome meal Confidence What do they eat? build their nests? Where do they Make your bird houses now and fasten them in the places you have se- lected so that they will become weather stained and lose their newappear- ance before spring. It is interesting work to make a collection of the old nests of birds. Practically all birds build a new nest each year, and there is no harm in taking the old one. Much can be learned from studying the nests. Keep a list of the birds that winter in your neighborhood. Tell Mr. Tuttle, in your letter to him, whether you have learned the poem on page three of the teachers’ leaflet. 1002 RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET III. TREES There is never a time of the year when tree study is uninteresting. In the winter we have evergreens still holding their leaves and adding beauty to the winter landscape. You will be interested in these when you are Ne A fine chestnut tree RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1003 selecting your Christmas tree. How many different evergreens can you find? This year you are to study particularly the hemlock, the white pine, and the cedar, and among the deciduous trees to make a special study of the elm. How can you tell an elm in winter? Where have elms been recently planted in your neighborhood? How are these trees valuable? How tall do elms grow? In what kind of soil do they thrive best? ; Are you preparing some mounts for the exhibit at Cornell University during Farmers’ Week? Be sure not to injure trees in orcer to make these mounts. The teachers’ leaflet gives full explanation for the exhibi- tion held in Farmers’ Week, and we are hoping that your school will send something for it. See pages 154 and 227. IV. WEEDS Weeds are everywhere. The farmer and the gardener have to struggle with them constantly in order to give the cultivated crops the best oppor- tunity to grow. There are many very bad weeds in New York State, and there is always danger that a new weed will come into the State and spread before it is recognized as harmful. Boys and girls can help to protect the community against bad weeds. It is first necessary to learn to recognize the weeds, and to know something of the habits of each one and the places where.the weeds grow. It is also valuable work to learn to indentify the seeds of the common weeds, so that they can be discovered if present in the farm seeds that are sown. In the fall many weed seeds can be collected from the seed heads on the dead stalks along the roadways and fence rows and in old fields and pas- tures. We hope that many schools will begin to make a collection of the seeds of all the weeds in their communities, and to make a careful study of the different kinds until each boy and girl can recognize them. As a beginning we would suggest for study the five weeds given in the syllabus for work this year: Canada thistle, wild carrot, wild mustard, orange hawkweed, and long-leaved plantain, or ribgrass. With a little search most of these can be found in every locality. Pictures of the seeds of these weeds are given on the next page, as a help in the study of them. There are various ways of preserving seeds for examination. Often they are kept in small bottles, or are mounted on cardboard in a drop of glue. Probably the best way, and a very simple one, is as follows: Take two pieces of glass of the same size; they may be large or small, depending on the number of kinds of seeds for one mount. Cut a piece of heavy card- board the same size as the glass. If thick cardboard is not available, use two or more sheets together. On the cardboard draw rows of circles one half to three quarters of an inch in diameter; one of the boys will like to cut out these circles with a sharp knife. Lay the cardboard on one 1004 RurRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET of the pieces of glass, and in each of the round pockets place a few seeds of some weed. Write the name of the weed on the cardboard just below the pockets. When all the spaces are filled and labeled, lay the other piece of glass on top, and bind around the edges with passe partout tape. Then you will have a collection of seeds that can be kept and studied be- cause they can be easily seen between the glass through the openings in the cardboard. Do not entirely fill the openings with seeds, because then it would not be possible to shake one seed away from the others in order to study it by itself. In working with small weed seeds, a lens of some kind is very useful. Many schools have a small tripod lens or a pocket lens, but if these are not available some one in the neighborhood will have a magnifying glass, such as is used for reading. This will do quite as well. With any of Seeds of five common weeds, natural size and much enlarged: 1, Orange hawkweed; 2, long-leaved plantain, or ribgrass; 3, wild carrot; 4, Canada thistle; 5, wild mustard these lenses the seeds in a mount, such as the one described above, can be studied closely, because they can be seen through the glass and the lens can be held close to them. _If every school would begin a collection of weed seeds at once and obtain at least the five weeds given in the syllabus, it would be a fine start. The study of weed seeds is going to lead to something that will be of great interest to the community, and that is the testing of farm seeds. The January leaflet will tell about this, but we must first get ready by learning to know weed seeds when we see them. Perhaps some schools will want to buy a book to help with this work. There is an excellent one entitled “Farm Weeds,” which may be obtained for one dollar from the Superintendent of Stationery, Govern- ment Printing Bureau, Ottawa, Canada. It contains pictures of all the common weeds and of their seeds. Many of the illustrations are in color, and this will help you in identifying your specimens. If you find any weed that is not known in the neighborhood nor described in any of your books, send it to us and we will tell you about it. We shall be glad to receive special reports from schools on weed study. RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1005 CORN DAY (Friday, December 4, 1914) : EO Rus leaflet should reach you shortly before Corn #) Day. All your plans will have been made, follow- ing the suggestions given to your teacher in the September leaflet on page 211. Make it a better celebration than ever before. It has been a bountiful year, and we have good reason to be grateful at this season of Thanksgiving. Corn Day offers an opportunity for your fathers and mothers, and relatives and friends, to gather with you at the schoolhouse for an afternoon at the close of the harvest season. You will send out carefully prepared invitations that you have made in the drawing class. Some of you will learn poems or bits of literature about the corn plant. Others will write compositions on the types of corn or the selection of good seed ears, the preparation of the soil, planting the corn, cultivation, the corn harvest, the uses of the corn plant on the farm, its use as food and for other purposes, and like subjects. These will be read on Corn Day. Others will make a report about the corn crop in the neighborhood, how large it was, who raised the most, what was the highest yield per acre, how the corn was stored, what methods were used to select and preserve seed for another year, and such things that will interest every one. The schoolroom will be decorated with cornstalks, pumpkins, and the fruits of the harvest time. There will be a good table for the exhibit of ears that you have selected as most nearly perfect, folloving the outline in the September leaflet. Some one in the neighborhood who has been successful in raising good corn will talk to you a little and will judge the ears that you have brought, selecting the best of each type. Corn Day will then mean not only a greater interest in an important crop, and a desire to improve it, but also a new feeling of good will between young and old, and a better understanding of the value of the study of out-of-door life as it is found naturally and on the farm. You will all be interested to hear of the school exhibit of corn at Farmers’ Week last year. Soon after Corn Daya year ago, ears of corn began coming to the College from schools in all parts of the State. Each school sent one ear, or two ears if flint and dent could be obtained. These ears were those that in the rural school had been judged best on Corn Day. They were nicely labeled according to the form which we have given again this year on page 215 of the teachers’ leaflet. All the corn was unwrapped and 1000 carefully stored in a safe place. RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET labeling and wrapping had been done. A careful record was kept of every school sending corn, and at the end of this article you will find a complete list of all the schools represented ©0900 % IY Ls) ID® : 5 re Of tip 69 Ot J) BUCCe mee B00 snr Q at C4 Se] GL ® Y ¥ ag Ls C C60 . “ Cage ne uy FIANARA fi HAARID! Agon at BiG @ @) Sy, Dent corn. State prize, Farmers’ Week, 1914 best ear of dent corn, in the exhibit. There were eight hundred and ninety-six of them. At the time of Farmers’ Week in February, the fine, new auditorium of the College of Agriculture had just been completed, and the corn exhibit from rural schools was arranged in the broad, semicircular hall of that building. Special racks were made in sections that fitted between the exit doors of the assembly room. They were covered with buff-colored cloth that was in harmony with the wall of the audi- torium, and hemlock boughs were fastened to the supports of the racks, adding a touch of bright color. When finished the racks held a double row of corn one hundred and fifty-three feet long, one row lying flat and the other standing on a slant behind it. The ears were sorted and arranged by counties, supervisory districts, townships, and school districts, so that every school could be located, and visitors could look for their home districts. Early on Monday morning of Farmers’ Weck, the corn was judged by Doctor Gilbert and his assist- ants, and two prizes were awarded in each county, one for the best ear of flint corn and one for the We were pleased to find how well the cd or. - om: Sad ~ ae rate b ccaieil erie eee ae Co ee hina Bar ad Ries —_ ae et al owe rept g ees 44u 4952 Pare & 4. ERR L GUE b Dax (i sceaenons = * Flint corn. State prize, Farmers’ Week, 1014 when both types were present. There were fifty- three prizes for flint and forty-three prizes for dent corn. The prizes were blue ribbons with bronze letters. RurRAL ScHOOL LEAFLET 1007 Then came the important question of the two prizes for the State as a whole, which were awarded as follows: Dent Corn—District 10, Town of Newfane, Niagara County. Vesta McKee, teacher; W. D. Wisner, district superintendent Flint corn—District 6, Town of Hamlin, Monroe County. G. Fern Brooks, teacher; Fred W. Hill, district superintendent Books were sent to these schools in addition to the blue ribbons. The ninety-six prize ears of corn were mailed back to the schools from which they came, and we have heard from many of them that the corn was kept and planted. We expect that some of the corn sent this year will be the product from these prize ears, and have suggested to the teachers that they mark such corn with a red ribbon and write us a letter about it. Year by year the corn crop will grow better because of the work the boys and girls are doing in selecting good seed. On Friday and Saturday of Farmers’ Week, ears of corn were given away to visitors who desired them and who would agree to write to the schools that sent the corn telling them where it was and what was done with it. Many did this, and so the good work spread all over the State. Ask your teacher to read you the letters on pages 216 and 217 of the September leaflet. You will find also, on pages 218-221, a list of all the prize schools, and you can see who won the prizes in your county. Altogether the corn exhibition was a great success, and we are proud of the girls and boys who contributed to it. We expect this year that twice as many schools will be represented and that the corn will be much finer because of the good season we have had. So be sure to hold Corn Day on December 4; have a good program and exhibit, invite the whole com- munity, have the corn judged, and label, wrap, and mail the best ear of flint or dent, or both, to Edward M. Tuttle, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York The corn should reach us not later than January 31, 1915. Do not fail to have your school represented in the list next year. DE , AU 4) 5 Sie at be) viety Se 1008 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET LIST OF SCHOOLS SENDING CORN TO FARMERS’ WEEK, 1914! Albany County Ist supervisory district—Newton Sweet, district superintendent Town of Bethlehem, aes 7, 3d supervisory district —wW.S Clark, district superintendent Town of Guilderland, District 11 Allegany County Ist supervisory district-—G. W. D’Autremont, district superintendent Town of Caneadea, Districts 3, 6*, 7, 8 Town of Rushford, Districts 1*, 10, 11 Broome County 2d supervisory district—J. E. Hurlburt, district superintendent Town of Conklin, Districts 1, 2 Town of Dickinson, District 1 Town of Kirkwood, Districts 2*, 4, 5*, 9 Town of Windsor, Districts uit 14, 15, 19 3d supervisory district—Mabel L. Watrous, district superintendent Town of Binghamton, District 4 Town of Maine, Districts 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 10, I1, 12*, 13 Town of Union, Districts 2, 3*, 9, 11, 14, 15, 18 Town of Vestal, Districts rs 214, 01.9, LOnt2, 15 4th supervisory district—E. B. Whitney, district superintendent Town of Barker, Districts 5, 8 Town of Chenango, Districts 1, 2, 4*, 8, 9, 10 Town of Lisle, Districts 2, 10 Town of Nanticoke, Districts 4, 5, 6 Town of Triangle, District 7 Cattaraugus County 5th supervisory district—E. A. Stratton, district superintendent Town of Conewango, District 1* Town of Leon, District 3* Town of Randolph, District 10* Town of South Valley, District 3 Cayuga County Ist supervisory district—H. S. R. Murphy, district superintendent Town of Ira, District 3* Town of Sterling, Districts 8*, 10*, 11* Town of Victory, District 10 2d supervisory district—O. W. Wood, district superintendent Town of Cato, District 8* P 3d supervisory district—Mrs. Anna M. Kent, district superintendent Town of Fleming, District 1* Town of Ledyard, District 3* Town of Springport, Districts 2*, 5, 8* Chautauqua County 3d supervisory district—J. M. Barker, district superintendent Town of French Creek, District 7* Town of Harmony, District 21 4th supervisory district—P. E. Marshall, district superintendent Town of Sherman, District 3 5th supervisory district—L. W. Swain, district superintendent Town of Pomfret, District 3* Chemung County 1st supervisory district—W. C. King, district superintendent Town of Catlin, District 2* Chenango County Ist supervisory district—Ellen E. Baldwin, district superintendent Town of Plymouth, District 5 3d supervisory district—J. S. Childs, district superintendent Town ot German, District 8 Town of McDonough, Districts 1, 2*, 4, 7 Town of Oxford, Districts 4, 6, 16* Town of Preston, Districts 7, 8 Town of Smithville, Districts 3. 7 4th supervisory district—Jane I. Schenck, district superintendent Town of Greene, Districts 9, 12, 16*, 19*, 22 ‘ 5th supervisory district—Mary L. Isbell, district superintendent Town of Guilford, District 17 1 * indicates schools sending both flint and dent ears. RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1009 Clinton County Ist supervisory district—O. A. Wolcott, district superintendent Town of Ausable, District 8 Town of Black Brook, Districts 6, 12 Town of Peru, District 2 Town of Schuy ler Falls, Districts 3, 5 3d supervisory district—Clara E. Soden, district superintendent Town of Beekmantown, District 7 Columbia County , Ist supervisory district—S. B. Smith, district superintendent Town of Canaan, District 1 3d supervisory district—E. A. Smith, district superintendent Town of Ancram, District 4 Town of Taghkanic, District 4* Cortland County Ist supervisory district—E. W. Ellis, district superintendent Town of Cortlandville, Districts I, £0; 12 Town of Homer, District 8 Town of Preble, Districts 2; 3 Town of Scott, Districts 2, 5, 6, 8,9 2d supervisory district —Mrs. A. M. Shuler, district superintendent Town of Cincinnatus, District 1 Town of Cuyler, District 9 Town of Truxton, Districts 6, 7, 14 3d supervisory district—Alice B. Greene, district superintendent Town of Hartford, District 3 Delaware County Ist supervisory district—Lillian M. Reichard, district superintendent Town of Tompkins, Districts 12, 14, 20 4th supervisory district—L. R. Long, district superintendent Town of Middletown, District 8 Dutchess County Ist supervisory district—F. L. Haight, district superintendent Town of East Fishkill, District 10* 2d supervisory district—F. E. Benedict, district superintendent Town of LaGrange, District 12* Town of Poughkeepsie, District 8* 3d supervisory district—Clara E. Drum, district superintendex Town of Amenia, Districts 3, 4* Town of Clinton, Districts 1*, 2, 4*, 5, 6, 8*, 9* Town of Hyde Park, Districts 3, 4* Town of Stanford, Districts 1, 2*, 3, 4, 5*, 7, 9, I1* Ath supervisory district—W. Tremper, district superintendent Town of Milan, District 1o Erie County Ist supervisory district—C. A. Heist, district superintendent Town of Amherst, Districts 9, 17* Town of Clarence, District 3 2d supervisory district—H. E. Dann, district superintendent Town of Alden, District 6 Town of Laneaster, District 3* 3d SUPEEVISCEY district—W. E. Pierce, district superintendent Town of Aurora, Districts 3*, 10*, 11* Town of East Hamburg, Districts 2*, 4*, 5*, 7*, 11* Town of E!ma, Districts 1, 7*, 10 Town of Marilla, Districts 2, 3, 6*, 9* Town of Wales, Districts 2*, 5* 5th supervisory district—W. E. Bencieys district superintendent Town of Boston, District 4* Town of Celden, Districts 3*, 8, 9*, 10* Town of Concord, Districts 2, 12* Town of Hoiland, District 1 Essex County 2d supervisory district—Gertrude M. Spear, district superintendent Town of Willsboro, District 5 3d supervisory district—Mattie J. Prime, district superintendent Town of Jay, Districts 6, 10 Town of Wilmington, District 3* Franklin County Ist supervisory district—E. L. Moe, district superintendent Town of Burke, Districts 7, 16 Town of Malone, Districts 4*, 9, I 3d supervisory district—F. H. Wilcox, aistaet superintendent Town of Westville, District 1* » diy ‘ 4th supervisory district—Gertrude E. Hyde, district superintendent Town of Bombay, Districts 4, 8 Town of Moira, District 10 64 IOIO RurRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET Fulton County 2d supervisory district—C. E. VanBuren, district superintendent Town of Perth, Districts 6, 8 Genesee County Ist supervisory district—E. M. McCullough, district superintendent Town of Alabama, District 10* Town of Batavia, District 7* 2d supervisory district—T. A. Clement, district superintendent Town of Pavilion, District 1* Greene County Ist supervisory district—T. C. Perry, district superintendent Town of Cairo, Districts 4*, 7* Town of Catskill, District 12 : 2d supervisory district—R. M. MacNaught, district superintendent Town of Greenville, District 9* Hamilton County 2 1st supervisory district—Charles Hanley, district superintendent Town of Hope, District 5 Herkimer County 1st supervisory district—A. J. Rose, district superintendent Town of Litchfield, District 9 3d supervisory district—C. B. Keller, district superintendent Town of Herkimer, District 2 Jefferson County Ist supervisory district—C. M. Pierce, district superintendent Town of Ellisburg, District 4 W, i 3d supervisory district—T. B. Stoel, district superintendent Town of Clayton, District 23 Lewis County Ist supervisory district—Ursula io Marilley, district superintendent Town of Watson, Districts 4, oie: 3d supervisory distri¢t—Ruth M. TOnEEton, district superintendent Town of Greig, Districts 1, 2 Livingston County 2d supervisory district—J. F. Smith, district superintendent Town of Conesus, District 2* Town of Livonia, District 5* Town of Sparta, District 8 Town of Springwater, District 10* 3d supervisory district—H. F. Collister, district superintendent Town of Portage, District 1 Madison County Ist supervisory district—J. S. Sears, district superintendent Town of Brookfield, District 12 2d supervisory district—C. J. Wrattan, district superintendent Town of Cazenovia, Districts 9, 12 Town of DeRuyter, District 3* Town of Fenner, District 8 Town of Nelson, District 1 3d supervisory district—H. C. W. Kingsbury, district superintendent Town of Eaton, District 2 Town of Madison, Districts 2, 8, 11, 13, 14 4th supervisory district— Daniel Keating, district superintendent Town of Lenox, Districts 2, 3* Town of Lincoln, Districts 1, 2* Town of Oneida, Districts 2*, 7 Town of Sullivan, Districts 4, 6, 10, 11, 15*, 18 Monroe County Ist supervisory district—W. W. Rayfield, district superintendent Town of Brighton, Districts I, 9 Town of Henrietta, Districts 2, 4*, 5*, 6, 7*, 8*, 9* Town of Irondequoit, Districts 2, 4, 5 Town of Penfield, Districts 2*, 3*, 5*, 7; 8,.9* 0 Town of Webster, Districts 3*, 4,9 2d supervisory district—M. B. Furman, oc superintendent Town of Mendon, Districts 1*, 2*, 2*, 3, 4*, 6*, o*, 11*, 12, 13*, 14*, 15, 16* Town of Perinton, Districts rt, 4*, 5s '6*, or, rr*, 12*, 13* Town of Pittsford, Districts 2, 3, 4, 5*, 7*, 9* Town of Rush, Districts Te: 3*, 4*, 5, 6*, 9*, 10o* RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET IOII Monroe County (continued) 3d supervisory district—F. W. Hill, district superintendent Town of Clarkson, Districts 2*, 6*, 9, 10 Town of Greece, Districts 6*, 11, 13 Town of Hamlin, Districts 4*, 6, 10, 13, 14, 15* Town of Parma, Districts 9, 10, 11* Town of Sweden, Districts 1*, 3, 8 4th supervisory district—J. C. Malloch, district superintendent Town of Chili, District 7* Town of Gates, Districts 1*, 7* Town of Ogden, Districts 3%, Afi 7*) TO) I1*, 12 Town of Riga, Districts 1*, 2*, 5, 6*, 8*, ro* Town of Wheatland, Districts Arr5e Montgomery County Ist supervisory district—N. B. Alter, district superintendent Town of Canajoharie, Districts 7, 8*, 10 Town of Minden, Districts 6, 11, 13, 16 Town of Palatine, District 7 Town of Root, Districts 2, 3*, 4*, 5, 6*, 10 2d supervisory district—Mrs. Lela G. Dodge, district superintendent Town of Amsterdam, Districts 7, 10 Town of Charleston, District 3 Town of Florida, Districts 3, 14 Town of Glen, Districts 1*, 5 Town of Mohawk, Districts 2, 7*, 10, If Nassau County 1st supervisory district—J. S. Cooley, district superintendent Town of North Hempstead, District 1 Niagara County Ist supervisory district—J. S. Cramer, district superintendent Town of Hartland, Districts 4, 5*, 6, 8*, 9*, 12*, 18* Town of Royalton, Districts 3*, 12, 13*, 20! 21) 25 Town of Somerset, Districts 4*, 5*, 8, 10, r1*, 13* 2d supervisory district-—Orrin A. Kolb, district superintendent Town of Cambria, District 2 3d supervisory district —W. D. Wisner, district superintendent Town of Lewiston, District 7* Town of Newfane, Districts 1*, 6, 7, 1o*, 12*, 15* Town of Porter, District 9* Town of Wilson, Districts 2*, 13* « Oneida County Ist supervisory district—R. P. Snyder, district superintendent Town of Deerfield, District 2 Town of New Hartford, District 10 3d supervisory district—W. J. Lewis, district superintendent Town of Vernon, District 2 Town of Westmoreland, Districts 4, 13 4th supervisory district—F. E. Mathewson, district superintendent Town of Rome, Districts 8*, 10, 12 Town of Verona, Districts 11, 14, 15* Town of Vienna, Districts 1*, 6, 0, 15* 6th supervisory district —Pauline iy ‘Scott, district superintendent Town of Camden, District 4 Onondaga County Ist supervisory district—R. B. Searle, district superintendent Town of Onondaga, District 22 3d supervisory distric Town of Cicero, Distri ‘ict A Town of Clay, District 15 4th supervisory district—M. D. Green, district superintendent Town of Van Buren, District 1* Ontario County Ist supervisory district—L. J. Cook, district superintendent Town of Canandaigua, Districts 2, 8*, 15* Town of East Bloomfield, Districts 6*, 7*, o* 2d supervisory district—W. A. Ingalls, district superintendent Town of Farmington, Districts 3*, r1*, 12* : Town of Manchester, District 4 K Town of Phelps, District 20 3d supervisory district— E. S. Soper, district superintendent Town of Geneva, Districts 5*, 7* Town of Gorham, Districts 8, 11, 13*, 16* Town of Hopewell, District 6* Town of Seneca, Districts 1*, 6*, 7*, 1r*, r2*, 13* Orange County 2d supervisory district—O. Eichenberg, district superintendent Town of Warwick, District 13* ror2 RuraL Scuoor LEAFLET Orleans County 1st supervisory district—Luella P. Hoyer, district superintendent Town of Ridgeway, District 1* Town of Shelby, Districts 1, 13* ad supervisory district—Cora V. Luttenton, district superintendent Town of Barre, Districts to*, 13 Os. rego County Ist supervisory distr ct—Mrs. Mildred G. Pratt, district superintendent Town of Boylston, Districts 2, 3, 5 Town of Orwell, District 4 Town of Sandy Creek, Districts 1, 6, 12, 13 2d supervisory district—J. M. Bonner, district superintendent Town of Albion, Districts 2, 13 Town of Parish, Districts 4, 9, 13 Town of Richland, Districts 3, 5, 17 3d supervisory district—Queenia R. Tooley, district superintendent Town of Amboy, Districts 1, 2, 3, 7 Town of Constantia, District 2 Town of Hastings, Districts 2, 5, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16 Town of Schroeppel, Districts 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 14 Town of West Monroe, Districts 6, 7 4th supervisory district—C. I. Kingsbury, district superintendent Town of Mexico, Distr’cts 1*, 2*, 3, 4, 5, 7*, 8, 9*, 10, II, 12, 13*, 14, I5, 16* Town of New Haven, Districts 1*, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8*, 9, 10, II, I2 Town of Palermo, Districts 1, 2, 3, 4*, 5, 6*, 7, 8, 9, 10, II, 13* Town of Scriba, Districts 1, 2* 3*, 4, 5*, 6, 7, 8, O¥, 10, II, f2, 13, 14, 1S, 16*;.17,. 18 5th supervisory distrist—W. G. Gardner, district superintendent Town of Granby, Districts 1, 4, 8, 10, 12 Town of Hannibal, Districts 5, 6, 11, 14 Town of Oswego, Districts 2, 5, 8, 10, 11, 13 Town of Volney, Districts 6, 7, 8*, 9, 12 Otsego County Ist supervisory district—H. Cossaart, district superintendent Town of Middlefield, District 2 2d supervisory district—M. Bur ingame, district superintendent Town of Maryland, Districts 5, 7 Town of Westford, District 8 3d superv sory district—J. B. McManus, district superintendent Town of Exeter, Distr ct 5 Town of Hartwick, Districts 1, 6, 13 Town of Otsego, Districts 2, 6, 8, 9, 10, 17 5th supervisory district—M. R. Porter, district superintendent ° Town of New Lisbon, Districts 6, 11*, 13 6th supery sory district—F. R. Thayer, district superintendent Town of Bur! ngton, Districts 2, 4, 5, 9, 12 Town of Edmeston, Districts 3, 6*, 11 Town of Pittsfield, Districts 3, 12 Rensselaer County Ist supervisory district—Mrs. C. B. Clark, distr ct superintendent Town of Brunswick, District 3 Town of Hoos ck, Districts 12*, 13, 18* Town of Pittstown, Districts 3*. 4*, 1o* Town of Schaghticoke, District 3* : 2d supervisory district—C. H. Maher, district superintendent Town of Berlin, Districts 3, 9 Town of Grafton, Distr cts 2, 8* Town of Petersburg, District 6 Town of Poestenkill, Districts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5* Town of Stephentown, District 3* 3d supervisory district—G. W. Patterson, district superintendent Town of North Greenbush, District 1* Rockland County Ist supervisory district—George W. Miller, district superintendent Town of Ramapo, District 10* St. Lawrence County 5th supervisory district—Rose M. Libby, district superintendent Town of Canton, District 20 Haig, ; 7th supervisory district—M. A. Hallahan, district superintendent Town of Brasher, District 13 Saratoga County Ist supervisory district—A. A. Lavery, district superintendent Town of Clifton Park, District 13* Town of Malta, Districts 1, 7* Town of Stillwater, Districts 5*, 9 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1013 Saratoga County omsnieg) 2d supervisory Town of Ballston: Districts 1, 4* , 6, go Town of Charlton, Districts I, 7, 9* Town of Solway, Districts LO, 12,15 Town of Milton, Districts 2*! 3),4;,0%; 0%, £2 3d supervisory district—E. E. Hinman, district _ Superintendent Town of Moreau, Districts 2*, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9*, 11 Town of Northumberland, Districts Ta 2, '3 1 53 0% 71 OF Town of Saratoga, Districts 2*, 3, 4*, 5*, e 0, II Town of Saratoga Springs, Districts oe edie nwa: Town of Wilton, Districts 1*, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7*, 8* 4th supervisory district—Ida M. Smith, district superintendent Town of Corinth, Districts 3, 4 Town of Day, Districts I, 4, 7 Town of Edinburg, Districts 4, 8, 10 Town of Greenfield, Districts 3, 6, 8, 9, 13, 16*, 17 Town of Hadley, Districts 6, 7 Schenectady County Ist supervisory district—James Wingate, distric* superintendent Town of Princetown, District 5 Town of Rotterdam, District 5 Schoharie County 2d supervisory district-—W. Van Wormer, district superintendent Town of Esperance, District 1 Town of Fulton, Distriet 11 Town of Middleburgh, District 5* Town of Schoharie, District 6 Town of Wright, District 10 3d supervisory district—R. W. Eldredge, district superintendent Town of Carlisle, District 11 Town of Richmondville, District 7 Town of Sharon, District 6 Schuyler County Ist supervisory district—Alberta Spaulding, district superintendent Town of Hector, Districts 8, 15* 2d supervisory district—Jane Haring, district superintendent Town of Reading, District 4* Seneca County Ist supervisory district—Alice Owen, district superintendent Town of Lodi, District 8 Town of Romulus, District 4* Town of Varick, District 6 2d supervisory district—C. B. Earl, district superintendent Town of Fayette, Districts 1*, 3" 1o*, 14*, 16* Town of Junius, Districts 1*, 3*, 4*, 7 Town of Seneca Falls, Districts 2*, 4 Town of Tyre, Districts 4*, 5* Town of Waterloo, Districts 3, 4* Steuben County Ist supervisory district—L. R. Tubbs, district superintendent Town of Corning, District 6 Town of Lindley, Districts 3*, 6, 10 Town of Tuscarora, District 10 2d supervisory district—W. Morrow, district superintendent Town of Bath, District 12 3d supervisory district—G. H. Guinnip, district superintendent Town of Addison, District 3 Town of Woodhull, District 11 4th supervisory district—F. C. Wilcox, district superintendent Town of Jasper, District 7 5th supervisory district—H. M. Brush, district superintendent Town of Canisteo, Districts 2, 4,5 6,7, 10 Town of Dansville, Districts 2*, 5, 7; 10) Llsal5*, LO Town of Fremont, Districts 3, 5*, 9* Town of Hartsville, Districts 3, 4, 5*, 7 Town of Hornellsville, Districts 4, 10, 12* 6th supervisory district—G. J. Carter, district superintendent Town of Avoca, District 1* Town of Cohocton, District 7 Town of Howard, District 13 Town of Wayland, Districts 2, 6* Suffolk County Ist supervisory district—C. H. Howell, district superintendent Town of East Hampton, District 2* Town of Riverhead, District 4* Town of Southampton, Districts 8*, 13*, 17* Town of Southold, District 14* IOI4 RuraL_ ScHoot LEAFLET Sullivan County 2d supervisory district—C. S. Hick, district superintendent Town of Callicoon, Districts i, BA Town of Delaware, District 3 Town of Fremont, District 10 Town of Neversink, District 11 Town of Rockland, District 8 Tioga County Ist supervisory district—A. E. Belden, district superintendent Town of Candor, Districts 6*, 15 2d supervisory district—M. D. Goodrich, district superinten dent Town of Barton, District 14 Town of Spencer, District 1* Town of Tioga, Districts 2*, 5, 12, 13, 15* 3d supervisory district—H. T. Whittemore, district superinten dent Town of Nichols, Districts 4*, 5 Tompkins County Ist supervisory district—F. H. Beardsley, district superintendent Town of Enfield, District 2 Town of Newfield, Districts 1*, 3*, 5*, 10, 18* Town of Ulysses, Districts 11*, 15 2d supervisory district—Mrs. H. K. Buck, district superintendent Town of Groton, District 2 Town of Ithaca, Districts 1*, 8* Town of Lans.ng, Districts 6*, 15*, 16 3d supervisory district—J. D. Bigelow, district superintendent Town of Caroline, Districts 3*, 7, 12*, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18*, 19, 21 Town of Danby, Districts 1, 5*, 6*, 8, 9, 10, 11*, 12*, 14, 15, 16 Town of Dryden, Districts 1¥, 2*, 3, 4, 5» 7; O*, 10*, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 23*, 24, 25 Ulster County Ist supervisory district—Emily Burnett, district superintendent Town of Rosendale, District OF Town of Saugerties, District 15 2d supervisory district—J. U. Gillette, district superintendent Town of Gardiner, District 6* 3d supervisory district—J. M. Schoonmaker, district superintendent Town of Rochester, District 13* Warren County Ist supervisory district—F. F. Gunn, district superintendent Town of Luzerne, Districts 5*, 7 Town of Queensbury, Districts 6*, 12, 15*, 16, 17*, 19 Washington County Ist supervisory district—Amelia Blasdell, district superintendent Town of Whitehall, District 17 2d supervisory district—Myra Ingalsbe, district superintendent Town of Kingsbury, Districts 9*, 15 3d supervisory district—Mary Potter, district superintende:t Town of Easton, Districts 9*, 15* 4th supervisory district —F. H. Rich, district superintendent Town of Cambridge, Districts 4, 5 Town of Jackson, Districts 3, o* * Town of Salem, Districts 7, 8*, 15 Town of White Creek, Districts 1*, 4*, 6*, 7, 13 Wayne County Ist supervisory district—Mrs. H. Andrews, district superintendent Town of Arcadia, Districts 3*, 4*, 10%, 11*, r2*, 13*, 15*, 16*, 19* Town of Galen, Districts 2*, 3*, 5*, 6*, S* ro.rr*. i3 15, 17%, 18%, 1C> Town of Lyons, Districts 1*, 8, 11, 14* c * Town of Savannah, Districts 1*, 3%, robb yet fete Br x 2d supervisory district——Mrs. Ida Cosad, district Superintendent Town of Butler, Districts 7, 9*, 10*, 12*, 13* Town of Huron, District 5 . Town of Rose, Districts 5*, 8, 11*, 12* Town of Wolcott, Districts 7%, o*, 12* 4th supervisory district—R. O. Brundige, district superintendent Town of Sodus, District 21 Wyoming County 2d supervisory district—E. D. Jones, district superintendent - Town of Bennington, District 17 3d supervisory district—G. A. Stratton, district superintendent Town of Covington, District 9* RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET IOI5 Yates County Ist supervisory district—J. T. Bullock, district superintendent Town of Benton, District 8* Town of Starkey, District 3* Town of Torrey, District 5* _ tsb 2d supervisory district—E. P. Corbit, district superintendent Town of Italy, District 9 Unknown, 1 Schools sending one type. ......... cece cece cece eee cece ete e eee eee rere eset eceeeteeees 536 Schools sending both types... .. Bee ie on Pee. 2 CPR OEERE RTS 5 SD fskareeohe cee DEA Ser stakes ze 3 10 Total schools represented... .. ae eect : spar seg ee aye 8 95 NGPA TUTIDEr OL CATS* Ae cc cf kclee ¢ vise cicne, dae a c1d aS 2m meet eM wtey were ave' wrevages ojelelekg ale p cteyayse pie oid) sarees 1,250 THE GENERAL EXHIBIT FOR FARMERS’ WEEK Last year many of our boys and girls sent good contributions to the rural school exhibition held at the New York State College of Agriculture during Farmers’ Week. There were natural history specimens, collections of weed seeds, collections of woods, specimens of sewing, and many other things that helped to show some of the work that our rural schools are doing. Farmers from all over the State were interested in this exhibit, and many educators who came here to learn what is now being done by rural schools were impressed by the painstaking exhibitions that came from some of our small rural schools. We were very proud of this exhibit, and we hope that this year we shall have a larger one. One difficulty in taking care of the exhibit last year was due to the fact that some schools sent a great box of material of similar nature. This year we hope you will look over your exhibit material very carefully, and select the best specimen from each of the classes given below. We do not want you to send anything that you consider of so much value that you would be greatly disturbed if it should be lost. When we have thousands of mounts it is not an easy matter to take care of each one. We hope that your school will look over every one of the classes mentioned for the exhibit, and send at least one contribution. We should not like to feel that your school was not represented. You have an opportunity to send thirteen exhibits, but we do not want more than one from each class, as follows: 1. One mount of tree specimens. 2. One bird’s nest well mounted, with description and drawing of the ° species of bird to which it belonged. 3. One mount of poultry feathers, accompanied by such description and information regarding these feathers as will present the knowledge gained by the study of them. 4. One collection of herbaceous plants, collected and mounted by the children. ‘This should be prepared by the school for a school prize. 1016 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 5. One mount of grains or grasses, with informational matter that will show knowledge of the specimens mounted. The mount to be prepared by the school, not by an individual. One drawing of natural scenery. One drawing of farm animals. One bird calendar. . One weather record. to. One sample of stocking darning. 11. One sample of napkin hemming. 12. One kitchen apron for a girl twelve to fourteen years of age, which will be judged as to suitability of material, color, design, and workmanship. 13. One attractive and serviceable bureau cover. conxwr oO Do not wait too long to get your work ready, and be sure that you send it not later than January 31, 1915. Perhaps your school will be the one to get the blue ribbon for at least one class of entries. We know you will take great satisfaction in finding that your school, in competition with hundreds of others, has done a piece of work of high grade. THE LETTER BOX Every day some boy or girl in your school makes a discovery on the farm or along the wayside that we should like to hear about. We should also like to know of all new plans that you may be making. For this reason we want you to make a letter box for the schoolroom, and put into it letters for Mr. Tuttle whenever you have learned something new or when you have started an experiment of any kind. When the box is filled, perhaps your teacher will mail the contents to us. Remember that every communication will be read, even if each letter is not answered personally. Always be sure to give your district number and township. What will you write about? Anything that is interesting to you will be of interest to us. Perhaps some of the subjects will be as follows: . What did you do out of doors last summer? Did your school prepare an exhibit for the county fair? How are you going to spend the money that you won in premiums’? Have you taken any field trips this fall? If so, describe one of them. What are your plans for Corn Day? How did your garden turn out? Did you try to follow the plan in March leaflet ? 7. Have you begun the weed study, and what are your plans? 8. How did your school celebrate Hallowe’en? g. Tell about the Christmas exercises. 10. What improvements have been made in your school building this year? What part did you take in them? 11, What has been done to improve the grounds ? Dam BW ND H “th RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET IO17 LETTER TO GIRLS AND BOYS Dear Girls and Boys: November is here, and with it the oppor- tunity to write to you again. There is much to say, for it is a long time since my last letter in March. Spring and summer have come and gone, and autumn is wellalong. Thanksgiving isnear at hand and Christmas will soon be here. You all can remember the closing weeks of school in May and June. The earth was alive with growing things, the air was sweet and fresh, and you could feel the pulse of summer. You remember Arbor Day, and what you did to improve the school grounds, cleaning up, and perhaps planting a tree ora shrub or a flower bed. You remember the trips to the woods and fields taken with the teacher, and the new things that were learned about the birds, the trees and flowers, and the wild animals and insects. I hope that you had several such trips, and that this fall you have been out again observing nature at another season—the season of the harvest. You remember, also, the last day of school and the little picnic together before disbanding for the vacation months. You were sorry to leave, for it had been a pleasant year, yet you looked forward to the long summer days at home. Letters have already come to me telling what some of you did during the vacation time. One boy kept a fine flock of poultry ; another took care of the horses and helped to train a colt; another assisted in the general farm work, preparing the soil, sowing and planting, haying, reaping, threshing, and all the round of farm labor. The girls have been keeping bees, and raising calves, washing dishes, making beds, learning to cook and to sew and to keep a home neat and clean. Both boys and girls have had gardens, and many tried to follow the plan given in the March leaflet. I had a garden on this plan, also, and learned much that was new and interesting. In a later leaflet we shall talk more about this, and I hope every one who tried the plan will write me about it because next year we must make it better. The vacation has not been all work, and you have had good times out of doors in the fields and woods, on the roads and by-paths, along the streams and edges of ponds, singing, whistling, fishing, swimming, running, jumping, playing; all the while breathing the pure, fresh air, and watching and listening for something new to learn about the wild things. 1018 RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET Now you are in school again, and this is the first leaflet for the year. I hope you will enjoy it. Read ‘‘ Christmas on the Farm ”’ on page 1026. Last year you remember we wrote to you about Thanksgiving Day. We have also outlined in this leaflet a number of things for you to do in studying horses, birds, plants, and trees for this year. Your teacher will help you with this work. You will be interested to read over the article about Corn Day on page 1005, and to see the list of all the schools that sent ears of corn for the Farmers’ Week exhibit last year. What a lot of them there were! This year I expect there will be twice as many schools sending corn, for it “es | Some of the members of a school visited in October, 1913. On the field trip several chestnut trees were found has been a good crop year and I am sure you will be able to select plenty of fine ears. Ask your teacher to read from her September leaflet what we say about Corn Day; you will find there also a list of the schools win- ning prizes for the best ears from each county, and for the State. Two years ago the state prizes went to schools in Cayuga and Washington Counties. Last year they went to schools in Monroe and Niagara Counties. Where will they go this year? Have a good Corn Day on December 4, and send us the best ears of corn according to the directions given in the article on page 1005. ; I want especially to ask you to read the note on page 1003 about the col- lection and identification of weed seeds. You can find many weed seeds now, and I hope you will learn a lot of them this fall. In the next leaflet RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 101g we shall publish a letter from a rural school telling of some seed testing work that was done for the farmers in the neighborhood. This is inter- esting and valuable work, and in the next few years we expect that many schools will take it up. In order to do good work with the testing, you must be familiar with weed seeds that you will find in the farm seeds, and be able to tell whether or not they are serious weeds and dangerous for the farmers to plant. So begin to collect and study the weed seeds now, and be ready for the work on seed testing in the January leaflet. We are trying to find out how many egg clusters of the apple-tree tent caterpillar were destroyed by the schools last year. Weasked the teacher to send us a report on the blank on which she sent in your names for the leaflets early in the year. If she did not do this, and you have a report to make, send it to us now. In the January leaflet we shall tell you the result, and I think every one will be surprised. Of course the tent caterpillars are not all gone. There are plenty of egg clusters again this fall, and I expect to hear from many of you that you have been keeping up the good work. Since last spring I have met and talked with some of you. In May I spent three days in Ontario County and visited six schools; in June there was a school field day in Erie County, and we had a good time although it rained; in September I attended four school fairs in Otsego County; and last month I was in Delaware County for three days to see some exhibits of school and contest work. We can never tell when we may see each other, and when we do I hope you will not hesitate to tell me what you are doing and of the things that interest you. There are so many of you that I cannot possibly learn all your names and faces, but I am always happy to have you speak to me, and we shall be better friends afterward. , Your letters are coming in large numbers and I am interested to read them all. It is a pleasure to find that almost always you remember to put the district number and the name of the township and of the county at the top of the letter. I am glad, also, that so many of you are writing to me from home as well as from school. This makes me feel that at home you are still interested in the school, and in the school you do not forget the home. Last year about two thousand boys and girls wrote three letters and received the gift picture that we sent, and many others wrote once or twice. This letter in the leaflet is my message to you, although sometimes I find time to write personal notes to those who send me especially good letters. Write as often as you care to. Your letters will be read and credited toward the picture, and I shall be glad to hear of all that you are doing. Your friend, God Jl ile 1020 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET LETTERS FROM BOYS AND GIRLS District 8, Town of Cuyler, Cortland County Cuyler, New York, December 11, 1913 Dear Mr. Tuttle: I have read your letters in the leaflet and I like them very much. There is snow on the ground that is knee-deep. I am a boy twelve years old. Tliveonafarm. The house I live in is on a knoll like, and it is quite steep to go down from the barn to the level, and in the winter I slide down hill and I go fast and far. I like the snow and like to play init. Ihave thought when I am older I will go to Cornell or Yale. We received your leaflets not long ago. I am in the sixth grade and have to study hard. My teacher’s name is E. Pearl Case, her home is in Cuyler. Our R. F. D. is No. 2. There are four storesin Cuyler. The little settlement I live in is Tripoli. We have slate blackboards; not wooden. I like nature study. We have been studying the elm tree. Our school is on a hill a mile and a half from Cuyler. There are twelve scholars here in this school. At home we have five canaries. This morning at breakfast one of the canaries looked at me with one black bead-like eye, and then with the other. He looked so cunning I laughed to myself when I saw him. On the farm where I live we have three horses, thirty cows, three pigs, six puppies, an old shepherd dog, and nine calves. Mrs. Shuler is our district superintendent. On Corn Day we had a yell. It was: ‘“ Who are we? . Who are we? District 8, can’t you see? How do we work? How do we work? With a will, and never shirk. What do we do? What do we do? Read, write, spell, and grow corn, too. What will we be? What will we be? Good men and women, brave and free. Who are we? Who are we? District No. 8. Now do you see Sincerely yours, ELLWYN LEWIS 3)? District 11, Town of Seneca, Ontario County Seneca, New York, January 22, 1914 Dear Mr. Tuttle: It is our pleasure to write you letters to-day, taking the regular class time to do so, and to let you know Miss Moore was ill and our school was closed early, or we should have sent you our Christmas greeting as usual. RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1021 On December 5 we celebrated Corn Day in our school; in the morning we had our regular classes and we took the afternoon to celebrate and play. We had a good time; we girls played out of doors while the boys popped corn. We chose sides and tried how many words we could make out of “‘ Corn Day,” and counting the words on both sides we had about sixty words. We are very sorry that we must send such poor ears to the College, but they were the very best in our exhibit, as there was no real good corn here this year. A boy lettered the label for one ear, and a girl iettered the other label. Hoping the new leaflets will soon reach us, I remain, Your friend, Po: MARY E. CONRAY Mr. Tuttle came not our way So we must write what we would say To tell him of our work and play, And how we spent our Corn Day. We called them all out in the play— Dan, Nora, Dora, and little Ray; Let others say just what they may There’s lots of fun in ‘‘Corn Day.” By the Seneca Sharp Eyes District 10, Town of Springwater, Livingston County Springwater, May 19, 1914 Dear Mr. Tuttle: I live one mile from our schoolhouse. It makes a fine walk spring days when the birds are singing and the flowers are in bloom. Our schoolhouse is near the road and we certainly have a fine view of the surrounding country. A brook runs near our playground, and so, of course, we have a great deal of enjoyment out of it. My greatest point in writing this letter is to acknowledge the prize that our school won this year. We were awarded first prize for Livingston County for our corn at Farmers’ Week. Imagine our delight when the ear came back with a nice blue ribbon around it and a very nice letter to us all. We all thank you very much for it. Another thing I want to speak about is our walk to the woods Arbor Day. Miss Brown, our teacher, and the rest of the pupils, went to some woods | quite a long way from our school. But at last we reached them, and lo! the woods were just covered with white and red lilies. What a pretty sight! We gathered some very large bouquets of flowers, studied nature, and had a delightful time. 1022 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET We expect to have a picnic or other doings the last day of school, which will be the 29th of May. [ must close for this time. Sincerely yours, MILDRED E. JOHNSON Editors’ note—The letters from Ellwyn, Mary, and Mildred show the spirit of Corn Day. Other schools will be interested in them. Each year Corn Day seems to grow better and better; there is more enthusiasm, the older folk help more, and the ears of corn selected are better in quality. It is fine work. We enjoyed the verses sent by the Seneca Sharp Eyes, and since they were written Mr. Tuttle has visited the school and spent an afternoon with these wide-awake boys and girls. A good rural school exhibition In addition to or in connection with Corn Day, many schools are holding general exhibitions like the one in the picture on this page. We recently attended such an exhibit in a school of twelve pupils and were greatly interested in the effort that had been made to select good speci- mens and to arrange them attractively. At such exhibitions some older person who has the knowledge should judge the products and tell why he judges as he does, so that all may learn how to do better the next time a fair is held at the school. i) w RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 10 District 7, Town of Hounsfield, Jefferson County Dear Mr. Tuttle: Watertown, New York, February 26, 1914 I read your leaflet and like it very much. I am in the ninth grade and am fourteen years old. My favorite studies are German and algebra. My teacher’s name is Isabel McAvoy. We like her very much. She lets us bring cats and dogs or anything we like to school. Three of us boys are building a house in the woods just back of the schoolhouse. In this we are going to make maple sugar and sell it. The house is made from old boards which we got from an old barn. It is about nine feet square and seven feet high. The teacher gave us fifty cents, and we are going to get tar paper with it for the roof. We have the door on the south and a sort of little porch, so when it rains we can boil sirup under that. There are about fifteen maple trees near it. Another boy and I are going to stay there most of the time. We build on our house noons. When it is time for us to come the teacher calls us from the fence. Our school is the best country school and yard in the county. It has twenty-seven trees in the yard. The well and flagpole are in front of the schoolhouse about three rods from the building. There are 191,440 square feet in the yard. I have a dog, five cats, bantams, a colt, cows, and a pig. My father has a big farm and has all kinds of animals. He always teaches me to be kind to them. He gave me a cow when I was six years old, and her calves have always been mine. Last fall one cow died. I sold two and have one left. The colt is three years old. She can trot very fast and I was offered $175 for her when she was a year and a half old, but I thought I might as well have a good horse as my father. He laughs and says he will beat me in a race some day, but I don’t think he will, My chores are to take care of the horses, of which there are five. I like to do this. Well, as this is my first letter I will close, but will write again and tell you about sugaring and other things. : Your friend, NEWMAN J. HAMBURG Editors’ note—Newman has written a good letter, full of things to think about. He loves the country, likes his school life and his home life, and finds plenty of interesting and useful things to do in both school and home. His favorite studies are those that very often are troublesome. He is using his recess to help build a shanty near the school where he and his friends can have some outdoor experiences. Boys like such things. He is proud of his school, and no doubt helps to keep it neat and attractive. At home Newman has a real part in the farm life, does his share of the work, and has been rewarded for his faithfulness by having animals given him to bring up for himself. 1024 RuRAL ScHOOL LEAFLET District 9, Town of Otsego, Otsego County Cooperstown, New York, January 28, 1914 Dear Mr. Tuttle: I have been looking over one of the Cornell leaflets, and saw that chil- dren from different schools have written to you and told about their schools; so I am going to write and tell you about the many improvements which have been made in the past two years at our school. Two years ago our schoolhouse was situated on the opposite side of the road. It was about three yards from the road. We had no school grounds, so we had to play in the road and by the roadside. Inside of our schoolhouse there were twelve double seats which were full of carvings. The walls were not painted, the plaster was loose, and ink stains were on the desks, floors, and ceiling. We had an old stove and board blackboards, which were battered by boys throwing knives at them and trying to hit a mark which they put there. Now our schoolhouse is moved on the other side of the road. It is newly painted a white color, and there are cement steps, and a gravel walk from the steps to the road. There is a half-circle road which leads up to the back door, where teams may drive when children are brought to school in bad weather. The pupils always enter the schoolroom by the back door. We have about half an acre for playground. Next sum- mer we are going to have some shrubbery set out on each side of our walk, and some shade trees. Also we girls are going to have a nice flower bed. Inside of our schoolhouse we have a new stove, slate blackboards, new window shades, desks, recitation bench, and maps. Our school gave a school party from which we raised money enough to get a clock, a teacher’s desk, a dictionary standard, and a bookcase. Our floor has been oiled and our schoolhouse looks very neat and nice. Some of our schoolmates have some talent for drawing, and we have ever so many pictures on the wall. Some are from the first grade. We also have a few mottoes. One is ‘‘ No backward steps,” another is ‘“‘ Look up, not down.”” We have a picture which we all like very much; it is the “Horse Fair,” by Rosa Bonheur. I have told you all about our school. If you ever come up our way, I am very sure our school would enjoy having you visit us. Sincerely yours, LOTTIE JANNETTE MCRORIE Editors’ note-—We were glad to hear of the many improvements at the school that Lottie attends, and we feel sure that she and her schoolmates are proud of the building and the grounds and will work hard to keep them clean and neat and unmarked. It is easier to study when one has such pleasant surroundings, and these boys and girls must be very happy in their school life. 1025 -é €njg nok op sauips oY faryrsaypuny ay qoiq NOLYOW SNYZA AB GSHdVYSOLOHd AFLET RuRAL SCHOOL LE 1026 RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET CHRISTMAS ON THE FARM Let us suppose that all the boys and girls in the rural schools of New York State are sitting around the fireplace and planning for Christmas, the happiest of all times. Thanksgiving has gone, and now we must be ready for the next great day. Out in the country Christmas is more wonderful than anywhere else, and we all want to make the most of it. If we do not look ahead we may leave out some real joy that would be a great loss. In the first place, we must all read again the story of the Christ child whose birth nearly two thousand years ago made such a powerful change in the world. Your teacher will read to you the story of the little child born in a stable at Bethlehem, who gave His life that the world might find truth and light. Through all the glad Christmas time, even the little children should remember that we are celebrating the coming into the world of One who taught for all time the great lesson of life. Then we must ask the teacher, or the mother or father, to read to us “A Christmas Carol,’’ by Charles Dickens, so that we may learn from one of the greatest writers of stories what the Christmas spirit means. As you listen you will all come to know and to love Tiny Tim, the little boy who has been very real to us for many a year. I hope that in every rural school in New York State there is a copy of this work, and that every year it may be read aloud as a part of the Christmas festival. There should be plans for an entertainment at the school, with a Christ- mas tree of course. Every class should have the fun of going out into the woods with the teacher to get the tree, and there should be very great care in choosing it. A tree is always of value, and when one is cut-down it should be taken from some place where it is least needed. Do not cut RurRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1027 down a tree that has the best conditions for growth. Take one so near to another that its loss will give a better opportunity for growth for the tree left than if both remained. Of two trees, always take the one that is the less thrifty. While choosing the tree for the school, find one more that can be left where it stands, on which may be hung gifts for the birds. They will like to find suet, a ham bone, some seeds, and other food to their liking, on the early Christmas morning. There should be a program at the school when the Christmas tree is ready, and all should contribute something to the entertainment. The following may be suggestive: 1. The singing of Christmas carols. 2. A composition on the festival of Christmas. 3. A talk by one of the pupils on the common evergreens in the neigh- borhood, and specimens of the trees shown. It will be interesting to tell where the trees grow; whether they are native; facts as to their uses; and the like. Which evergreen is best for Christmas trees, and why? Where the city folk get their Christmas trees. 4. A talk by one of the pupils on the Christmas dinner. What farm crops are available for the festival? What are purchased at the store that come from other places? Who will cook the dinner? In what ways can boys and girls help? s. One of the girls might tell how to set the table for the Christmas dinner. What out-of-door things may be used for decoration, such as Christmas ferns, red berries, little brown cones on branches of hemlock, and the like? 6. A farmer in the neighborhood could give a talk on the growing and storing of vegetables and fruits that add to the Christmas festival, and how boys and girls can help in this farm work. 7. One of the mothers might tell of helpful contributions that young folk can make at the busy Christmas time. 8. Recitations suitable to the season and occasion, not forgetting ‘‘ The Night before Christmas,” which has made the hearts of little children beat joyfully for many years in the past, and will give pleasure for all the years to come. g. A little play given by the children—a scene, perhaps, from Dickens’ “Christmas Carol,” closing with Tiny Tim’s ‘“‘ God bless every one!” ro. A gift basket prepared for some one in the neighborhood who is ill or alone. This should be trimmed with evergreens and brightened by red berries if possible. When the program is finished, it would be interesting to have refresh- ments consisting of nuts, apples, popcorn, and homemade candy. RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET Co | foy What a good time you will all have as you help to make the school day a success, and prepare for the joys of the holiday at home! Then, when the long, happy day has passed, you will go to your own room, and perhaps A district school in Oneida county you will look out of your windows and see the wonderful night with star- light, or falling snow, or some other magical sight that is always out of doors in the country on winter nights. And at this time, with deep rever- ence of spirit you will again remember the Christ child. Cornell Rural School Leaflet FOR BOYS AND GIRLS Published by the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, B. T. Galloway, Director; George A. Works, Head of the Department of Rural Education. Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York ALICE G. McCLOSKEY and EDWARD M. TUTTLE, Supervisors and Editors ARTHUR D. DEAN, C, H. TUCK, W. E. PIERCE, and G. F. WARREN, Advisers Vol. 8 ITHACA, NEW YORK, JANUARY, 1915 No. 3 PHOTOGRAPH BY VERNE MORTON And one shall never quite forget The voice that called from dream and play, The firm but kindly hand that set Her feet in learning’s pleasant way,— * E = * * * Hers is the sober summer noon Contrasted with your morn of spring; The waning with the waxing moon, The folded with the outspread wing. * * * * * * And, when the world shall link your names With gracious lives and manners fine, The teacher shall assert her claims, And proudly whisper, ‘‘ These were mine!”’ JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER [1029] 1030 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET THE. DISTRICT SCHOOL From rural schools have come men and women who have made the United States prosperous and powerful in the world’s history. In rural schools to-day are boys and girls who will add to the prosperity and the power of our great country. Every opportunity should be given to them for education that will fit them for country life or for city life. The school should be comfortable and attractive. There should be plenty of land around it for out-of-door experiments, for playgrounds, for planting that will give an approach to the school building that will dignify it, for a trembling poplar near the window to make music when breezes are about, for maples or elms that provide quiet and shade, for evergreens that give shelter to winter birds, and for crocuses and tulips that add a joyful note to the spring coloring,— all these things can be made a vital part of education. Is your school comfortable, attractive, well heated? Are the grounds around it planted? Have you a place for farm crop or garden experi- ments? Are the outhouses so clean and well cared for that you would be willing at any time to have the trustee, your parents, or any one from the Department of Education inspect them? Is there a good library in the school? Are the walls well cared for, the windows clean, the doors and entrances in good repair? Have you individual drinking-cups? If there is no water jar, is there a dipper that will enable you to fill your cup without dipping a cup that has been used into the pail? Why should you avoid dipping such a cup into the pail? Is your stove jacketed as are some stoves in rural schools in order that the heat may be more evenly distributed throughout the room? Is the interior of your building free from clutter? Has it neat walls on which there are one or two good pictures simply but carefully framed? If you cannot answer “ yes” to these questions your school is behind many others, and we know that you will want it to be among the best. Older folk, trustees, parents, and teachers, will help boys and girls to have many advantages when all work together to secure the best educational surroundings, particularly when pupils show appreciation of improvements. Tell us all about your school and be sure to write to us when anything has been done to make the building and grounds more serviceable and attractive. RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1031 SPECIAL STUDIES FOR WINTER We have often heard boys and girls say that there is nothing in nature to study in winter. This is because everything is quiet, and because boys and girls sit around the fire so much more than they go out of doors. To many persons who love nature there is more wonder in winter than in summer. There are the great stretches of snow-covered fields, the wonderful greens of the pines and the hemlocks, the silent, cold, snow-capped mountains, the buried brooks, the drifted highways, the music of the winds, the frost pictures on the windows, the strange, weedy stalks that appear above the snow, the butterfly that comes out of its hiding place in the February thaw, and the sparkling starlight through the leafless branches of the trees — yes, nature in winter has rich stores for us. Among the interesting sights and sounds that are a part of the out-of- doors these days, there are a few that we would like to have you find this year, and we shall ask you, therefore, to consider the following: I. Be on the lookout for the snowflake, a winter bird. Ask your teacher to read to you the article written by Doctor Allen in the teacher’s leaflet. Every person who has seen a flock of snowflakes will never forget the experience. Perhaps these birds will come into your neighborhood, and if you will look at the picture in the September leaflet and note the description, you will be sure to recognize them. In Doctor Allen’s article you will learn something of the behavior of these birds in the winter fields, and this will help you also, because habits of birds are very 1mportant when we are trying to identify them. The suggestions given below will be useful to you in your study: t. Look for a bird about the size of a sparrow, very white, traveling in a flock. 2. The snowflake is found in open weedy fields, often near the house, but preferably near the more open country. 3. Note the shape of the bird with its large head and shoulders and heavy bill. Is it a sparrow? 4. Look for the snowflake’s tracks in the snow. Does it hop, as do the junco and the tree sparrow, or does it run? s. Watch the flock as it rises from the ground or as it is about to alight, and see in what unison the birds turn or circle. 6. Do they ever alight on trees? On fences? 7. What other birds do not alight in trees? II. The bluebird sometimes arrives in New York State in February; be on the lookout for it. III. We want you to be sure to have a feeding station in the winter- time because then the birds need it most. Your teacher will perhaps let 1032 RurAL ScHOOL LEAFLET you read the article in her leaflet so that you will not forget the things that may be done in order to make the birds comfortable and happy. IV. This is the time to build a bird house. The following description written by Doctor Allen will give you instructions as to what to do: ‘ Some birds, notably wrens and bluebirds, will avail themselves of any- thing in the way of shelter you see fit to put up; while others, such as woodpeckers and nuthatches, are more particular and require something more natural in the form of a hollow limb. The chief difficulty will be not in the construction of the boxes nor in attracting the birds, but in keeping out the English sparrows. These interlopers are ever present and ready to begin building as soon as the box is in place. Needless to say you do not wish these rascals, but prefer our native birds. There is no sure way of keeping them out except by hanging the box on wires so that it swings freely in the wind. The objection to this box is. that it proves less in- viting to our native birds, and so should be attempted only as a last resort. One meets with greatest success with boxes placed on exposed poles Find the bird house. Last spring a. pair of blue- or in trees, with the opening birds lived in this house close beside a school in : Ontario County no larger than is necessary for our native birds, one and a half inch for swallows and bluebirds, smaller for wrens and chickadees. ‘“ The box.— No money need be expended on this. Old, weather- beaten timber is more attractive to the birds than smooth, painted boards. The best boxes may be made from sections of a hollow limb, covered above and below by weathered boards, and with a hole drilled near the top of one side. Artificial limbs can be made from bark or by hollowing out solid branches with the bark still attached. Old boxes or new ones made for the purpose are next best. For the smaller birds, such as chickadees, Set eS ee eee RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1033 wrens, bluebirds, and tree swallows, the boxes should measure not more than 12 by 5 by 6 inches, and they may be considerably smaller to advan- tage. The ordinary crayon box of the schoolroom is very serviceable, but requires reinforcing with wire or nails so as to withstand the weather. “The box shown in the illustration is a crayon box, with an additional roof of tin from an old can, used because of the leaky condition of the box. Cigar boxes and codfish boxes are generally less satisfactory than odorless ones, and all bright surfaces should be avoided. A box with the top or one side hinged is better for observation, but care should be used to keep it per- manently fastened. fas? “Pp = “ Old teakettles, tin funnels, and cans a > ea. Bas of various sorts have been used by some . . persons with success, but the box is > more sightly and usually more attractive to the birds. The opening should be made circular or square, preferably the former, and | toward the top of one side. It should be no larger than the dimensions given above. “Tf one is not bothered with sparrows, a perch should be provided beneath the opening; but inasmuch as sparrows do not take so readily to boxes without perches as do other birds, it can be removed if necessary. A perch should be placed in the near vicinity, however, on which the birds may alight before proceeding to the nest. ; “A layer of sawdust may be placed in the bottom of the box but the use of other nesting material is to be avoided. For chickadees and swallows, however, cotton or feathers scattered near may prove attractive if there is no poultry to furnish a supply. “ Placing the box.— Inasmuch as the birds prefer weatherworn materials to bright surfaces, it is well to have the box in position by early spring, and thereafter left from year to year. In placing it, three things should be borne in mind: attractiveness to the birds, comfort, and protection. For the swallows that prefer the open, the box should be raised on a AS, a - 1034 RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET slender pole several feet above the fence, clothes pole, or outhouse, to which it is attached. The pole should be strong enough to prevent it from swaying in the breeze, and yet sufficiently slender to protect it from marauding cats. Sometimes if squirrels are abundant, it is necessary to place a metal shield about the pole in order to prevent them from climbing to the nest for the eggs or for the young. The pole should be near a build- ing, a dead tree, a telephone wire, or other natural perch. Wrens and blue- birds also may frequent this box, but they prefer to have a tree in the immediate vicinity. Boxes placed seven to twenty feet up in a tree generally prove more attractive to the latter birds as well as to the chick- adees and nuthatches; but care should be used to guard the tree from cats by shields of metal or wire netting. As exposed a position as possible should be chosen for the site yet one that is more or less shaded from the sun during the heat of the day. It is better to have the box face toward the South. ‘Frequently boxes placed on the house or the school building, below or beside an upper window, prove attractive to wrens, swallows, or blue- birds, and are then near enough for observation. These boxes, however, are frequently overrun with English sparrows and are generally unsuc- cessful for that reason. “The best results with bird boxes are always obtained by studying the habits of the birds of the neighborhood that nest in holes, and by reproducing their nesting conditions as nearly as possible.” V. Make a bird calendar and have it ready to record the birds as they come back from the South. The migration table on page 11 of the teachers’ leaflet will help you in this. VI. Ask your teacher to let you have an examination on the winter weeds that you find above the snow. Who will know the greatest number? VII. Of the trees for study this year, how many can you tell in winter and how can you tell them? Elm, locust, hemlock, beech, birch, cedar, chestnut, white pine, pitch pine is the list. VIII. Remember the notebook on the horse that you are going to send us. We would like all these notebooks by May 1, in order that we may look them over and make the award before the schools close. You remember that we promised to send a book on the horse for the school library in the school from which we receive the best notebook. In the November leaflet next year we shall give a report of this competition. IX. Some Friday afternoon you may enjoy an hour looking over seed catalogues in preparation for garden plans. It is well for boys and girls in the country to know what is being sent out from seed houses, because good gardeners must always be up to date in matters of this kind. We know many scholarly people who enjoy happy winter evenings looking RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET Types of bird houses 1036 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET over seed catalogues and making plans for gardens that will be planted at their homes when garden time comes. X. Five more weeds. In the November leaflet we pictured the seeds of five weeds and suggested that each school begin to make a collection of weed seeds. We also described one good way to preserve seeds for study, and on this page there is a picture showing the kind of mount described. The mount in the picture, however, has a sheet of paper between the cardboard and the back cover of glass, and on the back of the paper the names of the seeds are written corresponding to the letters under the samples. The method of labeling the samples directly on the front as outlined in the November leaflet is, perhaps, a better one because then Seed collection. See page 283 in the November leaflet the name can be constantly associated with the seed. In this case the sheet of paper may be omitted, and should one desire to study the seeds without the names in order to test his memory, the mount may simply be turned over for the purpose. Five more weed seeds are shown in this leaflet and they have been chosen because it will be possible to find them even in the dead of winter. Many schools already have very complete collections of weed seeds, and we. hope that they will spend some time in studying the different kinds so that each boy and girl will be able to identify a large number of the more common weed seeds at sight. This is a valuable work and will be useful in connection with the farm-seed-testing work that will soon be started. See page 1039. A word about each of the five weeds whose seeds are shown in this leaflet may be of interest, although every boy and girl is probably familiar with them. RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1. Common, or broad-leaved, plantain is found in lawns and gardens. It growsclose to the ground and has large broad leaves and long upright seed stalks. It lives year after year and must be cultivated out or dug out in order to be controlled. 2. Burdock is familiar to all boys and girls. It is found around buildings and sometimes in fields or orchards. It lives two years, producing seed the second season, and can be killed by cutting off the plants below the ground before seeds are produced. 3. Ragweed is the most serious weed in newly seeded meadows, and while it lives only one year, it is difficult to control because the seeds will keep alive a long time in the soil. They will remain dormant until the ground is plowed again and will then spring up. No plants should be allowed to go to seed. 4. Pigweed, or redroot, is very persistent in cultivated crops. It can be distinguished by its rosy pink root and small, shiny, black seeds. It can be controlled by cultivation of the soil where it is prevalent and by pulling. 5. Beggar-ticks, while not a common weed, is one easily remembered for its curiously shaped seeds, which sometimes cause trouble in the wool of sheep. * Plants are arranged in three groups according to their length of life. Some start from seed in the spring, grow during the summer, produce seed, and then die. Their life is completed within one year, and they are there- fore known as annual plants. Of the five weeds mentioned on this page, ragweed, redroot, and beggar-ticks are annuals. : A second group of plants takes two years to produce seed, and plants of this group are called bzennial. During the first year of growth a rosette-like cluster of leaves is formed close to the ground, and this lives over winter. The second year a seed stalk is produced from the center of the rosette, and then the whole plant dies. The burdock mentioned above belongs in the biennial group, as do also the familiar mullein and the wild carrot. y The third group of plants lives for more than two years and produces seed season after season. These plants are called perennial, or hardy. There are many examples of 1037 9. Common plantain Redroot, ' pigweed Begegar-ticks Five weed seeds, this group among the weeds, the common plantain being natural size and one of them. much enlarged 1038 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET TO BOYS AND GIRLS WHO WISH TO RAISE POULTRY W. G. Krum The farm is not only a home but a place of business. Many boys and girls are looking forward to the time when they will have a business of their own. You do not need to wait until school days are over for there are many pleasant ways for boys and girls to earn money and at the same time to learn good business methods. One of these ways is to keep poultry. Would you like to start a poultry plant now? Is there an unused building, an empty stable, a place in one corner of a building that could be partitioned off for a small pen, or possibly some lumber or large boxes that could be used in building a colony house? Perhaps your father or A start in the poultry business an older brother would help you to make a place suitable for a small flock of choice hens, and would help you to purchase them. From these you could hatch your chicks in the spring and possibly sell some eggs for hatching purposes at a good price. Another good plan would be to buy or borrow a sitting hen or two in March or April and purchase some eggs for hatching from pure-bred stock near home at a reasonable price. The sitting hen should be dusted with plenty of lice powder. She should be kept in a comfortable place where other hens cannot disturb her. Plenty of water, corn, and wheat, should be kept near her at all times. When the chicks are hatched, place them with the mother hen in a large coop under the shade of a tree. Have a board floor for the coop and a strong screen door to shut out rats at night. Then with good care, what fun it is to watch them grow! Of course, you RuURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1039 will want to buy your own feed and keep a good record of the cost. Then at the end of the year, you will be able to know how much real profit you have made. A large number of boys and girls in central New York are this year starting small bank accounts on the profits of their poultry plants begun two years ago. Editors’ note.-— Boys and girls should remember that a good way to help toward success in raising poultry is to study the fowl and to acquire skill in understanding and meeting the fowls’ needs. It would be interesting every year to have some lessons in the school on the poultry in your neighborhood so that boys and girls might learn something about the differ- ent breeds, the methods of successful poultry-raisers, the knowledge that is necessary to make poultry-raising profitable, and the like. Perhaps from time to time a hen or a rooster might be brought to school for the study of the different breeds; and when it is there, much interest might be developed in a quest for knowledge of the particular breed. In the teachers’ leaflet for last year will be found some lessons that will help boys and girls in their plans for poultry-raising. SEED STUDY Last spring we received a letter from a rural school in Seneca County containing a description of some seed-testing work that the school had been doing. We were greatly pleased because for a long time we have wanted to start this kind of work. To do it well, however, requires a knowledge of farm seeds and of weed seeds and before we publish the letter on seed- testing it seems best to make some suggestions for the study of seeds of various kinds. In the November leaflet you remember we suggested making a weed- seed collection, and in each leaflet we shall picture five kinds of weed seeds. (See page 1037.) Every school should begin such a collection and gradually enlarge it, all the while studying the seeds. It is also necessary to make a thorough study of the seeds that the farmer sows. While it is comparatively easy to learn to tell the different kinds of seeds in bulk, how many boys and girls can tell one wheat seed from one rye seed, or from one barley seed? It is even more difficult to learn to know the smaller seeds — seeds of the clovers and grasses. The study of seeds is fascinating work, however, and many boys and girls will become expert in their ability to identify seeds of all kinds. Some day each boy and girl should bring a small quantity of a different farm seed to school. Begin at first with the larger seeds, such as oats, rye, wheat, barley, buckwheat, vetch, rape, and the like. Only after these are thoroughly familiar should work be attempted with smaller seeds. At 1040 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET first make a study of each kind of seed by itself. Then ask the teacher to mix a small quantity of two kinds for you to separate and to identify; then three kinds, and so on until you can take a mixture of all the kinds of farm seeds and separate each kind, giving it the proper name. This makes a sort of game and will be interesting as well as instructive. The same method should be used in studying various kinds of weed seeds, and this will be much harder as the weed seeds are smaller as a rule. For all seed-study work a magnifying glass is necessary, and while a reading glass, such as is found in many homes, is satisfactory for the larger seeds, a stronger lens is needed for the smaller seeds. Every school should have such a lens for it will be of value not only in the study of seeds, but in observing small insects, the parts of flowers, and other interesting things. We know that many schools have a little money to spend during the year, and feel sure that no one thing would be of greater usefulness and interest than a lens. We have asked a number of reliable firms to give us their lowest net price, postpaid, on tripod magnifiers for use in schools. The magnifiers supplied by these firms may vary a little in quality, but any one of them should be satisfactory for seed study. If there should be any delay or difficulty in obtaining the magnifiers, please let us know at once. The firms and the prices are as follows: Bausch and Lomb, Rochester, New York............ $.50, postpaid Central Scientific Company, Chicago, Illinois....... .50, postpaid Kny-Scheerer Company, 404-410 West 27th Street, New York City. . Sg er gee ree eee ee .50, postpaid Leitz Company, 20 East 18th Street, New York City. .40, postpaid Spencer Lens Company, Buffalo, New York.......... .45, postpaid Renut by stamps or postal money order to the firm selected. In the study of seeds you will be getting ready for some very valuable and interesting work. In the March leaflet we expect to suggest methods of testing farm seeds, and we hope that in the years to come this will be a regular part of the rural school work in this State and that the crops grown will improve because of the better seed sown. Meantime, honest work must be done in preparation. In every rural school, boys and girls will come to have a thorough knowledge of all kinds of seeds. Write to us that you have begun the seed study, tell us what you have done, what you have learned, and whether or not you have found new and interesting methods to use. The work must grow through reports such as these, and we are looking to some schools to point the way to others. Let your school be one of the leaders. Tripod magnifier RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1041 A LETTER TO GIRLS AND BOYS Dear Girls and Boys: Often have I thought of the letter I would write to you in this January leaflet, yet I am having hard work to begin now that it is time. Sucha lot of things are tumbling over and over in my mind, that words on paper cannot express them as I wish. Recently I have visited a number of schools and talked with some of you face to face. These visits made me wish that I could see you all, but I know that is impossible and I shall have to try to write what I would say. Some of you are going to schools in small villages where there are several teachers; others, to schools right out in the open country where at this time of year the wind is howling outside the windows and perhaps it is snowing. I hope you are neither too warm nor too cold. We cannot work with our minds when our bodies are uncomfortable. Nowadays we know about a type of stove for country schools that makes all parts 66 1042 RurRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET of the room of the same temperature. It is far better than the stove that is sometimes found in schools, which overheats those near it and leaves the far corners of the room cold. Many rural schools have this new kind of stove that has a metal jacket around it. Fresh air comes in from out of doors through an opening in the bottom of the jacket. The air is heated as it rises between the jacket and the stove, and when it leaves the top of the jacket the heated air spreads to all parts of the room. Since fresh air is always coming in, the bad air needs to be taken out; an open- ing is made for this purpose in the chimney flue below the place where the stovepipe enters it. There is not space in this letter to tell you all about these stoves even if you could understand the explanation, but I want you to know of them so that you can talk the matter over with the teacher and your parents and perhaps next year your school will have such a stove, if there is not one in it at present. The district super- intendent will have something to say about this, if you ask him the next time he visits the school. There is great danger these winter days that the schoolroom will be overheated. The air often gets impure when so many are breathing it in a closed room. Perhaps you will say that the teacher should take care of these things; but if you will think a minute, I am sure you will see that you should know about them too so that you will be able to help intelligently. I was in a schoolroom not long ago where my head ached before I had been there ten minutes, and I wondered how the boys and girls and the teacher could stand it. Every recess time the schoolroom should be aired for a few minutes while you are playing out of doors, and, even though it is a little cool when you come in, it will soon be comfortable again. You know we do not take cold easily just by being cold; but when we get too warm and then cool off suddenly, or when the air is not fresh and pure, we are certain to catch cold. The best temperature is one that is just high enough to keep our feet and hands warm and that leaves our minds clear and active. A temperature 66° F. to 68° F. is about right. Every school should have a thermometer or two, and with a little practice it will be easy to keep the temperature right and the air pure. You will wonder why I am telling you these things and what they have to do with nature study and agriculture. It is because they are so very important and must be right before we can study nature, reading, history, or anything else. First of all, we must take care of ourselves and build strong, clean, well bodies. Then our minds will be strong also, and will be able to do more easily the work that comes to us each day. I like to see boys and girls with rosy cheeks that show the good red blood in their veins, boys and girls who can stand steady on two feet and hold their bodies straight, who can look me in the eye and shake hands in a firm, true way that makes me feel their friendship. I expect these things in Rurat ScHoor LEAFLET 1043 my friends, and shall give them in return. It takes two to be friends, you know, and each must be the things the other looks upon as good and worth the while. In many schools where I have been, we have sung together. There are some songs that I like to sing, and always there are some that you like to sing, SO we can sing to each other and with each other. There are schools that do not have an organ or a piano and for that reason cannot sing much, but I hope that every school is looking forward to the day when the opportunity will come. A good organ is very much better than a cheap piano and costs less. An organ is most like the human voice of any musical instrument, and it is a pleasure to sing with one. Whether or not there is an organ in the school, there must be one somewhere in the neighborhood, and it seems to me that sometimes you might find it possible to gather round it for an hour and sing together. There is nothing lke a good song to loosen us up and make us more natural and human. And when we sing, let us sing the good old songs and hymns that have lived for years and years and been loved by many persons. Your teacher, or your mother, or your schoolmate’s mother, or some one will help if you really want to sing and show that you are glad of their help. One thing we all need to do is to learn by heart the words of a number of songs. Suppose I should come into your school to-morrow and ask you to sing three songs for me all the way through without books. Could you do it? Some could, but I am afraid many could not, for I have tried it. Decide to know at least three songs before June and as many more as you can. Once you start you will want to keep right on learning them. I have a word to say especially to the boys. It is not at all a criticism, for I was a boy myself not long ago and know that often we do not think about such things unless we have our attention calledtothem. The thing I refer to is the matter of removing your hats whenever you enter a build- ing and of raising your hats to older persons whom you greet in passing. I have noticed many boys keeping their hats on at school fairs and other public meetings where I have been, and one time a boy sat in the front tow with his hat on when I was talking to a group of folk. On the other hand, I remember with a great deal of pleasure standing with a lady watching some outdoor sports when a twelve-year-old boy whom she knew passed by. He raised his hat and said good morning in such a polite and cheery way that I wished that I knew him too and had him for a friend. All these little things count, and we are judged by them. I could not let the matter pass without a word to you because I want the boys in this State to be good, clean, manly fellows, considerate of others, and with eyes open to see that neighbors and friends always have a fair show. It is not what we get, you know, that counts; it is what the other fellow gets through us. 1044 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET Now, I have at last come to say a word about the out-of-door and home study for the next few months. In this leaflet there are many suggestions that you will want to follow. If any of you have never found the joy of studying the life in the open, begin now, for it cannot be possible that all who love the world of nature are in the wrong, and that there is nothing for you too. Take, for example, your weed seed collection. Did you start making it after reading about the work in the November leaflet? You should have at least the five kinds of seeds given there, and in this leaflet there are five more, illustrated on page 1037, that you can find even in the dead of winter and can add to the collection. Read the article about seed study. I feel sure that this is a chance for some very interest- ing and valuable work. Lay your plans well and do not rush ahead without knowing where you are going, because when we are preparing to do work for others, we owe it to them to be careful and responsible. You will be pleased and astonished at the report on collecting the egg clusters of tent caterpillars. Perhaps your school has never done much with this piece of work. Begin now and help to control this serious pest. Read very carefully the article on page 1031, and write to me that you have done some of the things suggested. Start your plans for next year’s garden. The March leaflet will have something about gardens. Continue with the study of the trees and see whether you can do as well as the four boys I know who can tell fifty kinds of trees by their twigs in the wintertime. Make friends with the birds and have a bird calendar ready for the first robin, bluebird, and the others that follow. Work hard, play hard, remember the things I have said in this letter, and write often to Your friend, Goad bi hile RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1045 LETTERS FROM GIRLS AND BOYS District 9, Town of Johnsburg, Warren County Wevertown, New York, March 26, 1914 Dear Mr. Tuttle: The pictures you sent came to our teacher and she gave them to us, and I thank you very much for mine. I think they were very pretty. The cow looked very natural. The man must be kind to his animals, and what a cunning little eirl! In this letter I am going to tell you about our chickadees. At first we hung some meat in the windows and they would come and eat. But one day Miss Armstrong went to the door and one of the chickadees flew in, and we were surprised, for we did not think they would get any tamer than coming to the windows. After a while we opened a window a little at the bottom and top, and they would come in the bottom opening and get a mouthful and go out at the top. At noon we would pick up all the crumbs and put them in a dish and set it out on the window sill, and in the morning when we came to the schoolhouse the chickadees would seem to be so glad to get in where it was warm. When it was cold nights we would bring in what the birds did not eat and thaw it out so they could have a warm breakfast. They soon got so tame that they would come in and eat from our hands and they would fly all around the room and did not seem the least bit frightened. One thing we noticed was that two chickadees never eat together. If one should come while another was eating, no matter how hungry he was he would always wait; and if he offered to eat, the other one would make a noise which sounds like this, chur up, chur up. When they are singing they say chick-a-dee-dee-dce and phoebe, and when they are startled they go tweet tweet. When they first began to come into the schoolroom, they would forget to go back through the same window and then they would fly around the room so we would have to catch them and they would make a queer noise which sounded like this, cluck, cluck. The prettiest I think is when they sing tweety-tweet-tweet-twect as they fly through the air. I did not know they sang so many different songs until this winter. We have seen five different blue jays around the schoolhouse at one time, but they were very wild. They would not come up to the window the way the chickadees would, so we threw pieces of bread out a little ways, then we would keep still and pretty soon they would fly down and get a piece. They are very pretty. They are bright blue with some black on their necks. Their tail feathers are very pretty. They are darker blue with black stripes. The queerest thing about them is that they have to straighten up when they say jay and another different noise. They act lots different than the chickadees do. The blue jays act as though they were nervous. Looking for your next leaflet, Sincerely your friend, MYRTLE MALONEY Editors’ note-— Myrtle’s letter is full of interest. This school did some real bird-study work last winter. Not only were many new things learned, 1046 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET but there were the pleasant experiences of gaining the confidence of the chickadees and of receiving their welcome visits. Every rural school can do many things to attract the birds during the winter season, and interesting observations can be made while the birds are eating the food supplied. Ask your teacher to read again to you Doctor Allen’s article on How to Attract Wild Birds, which begins on page 12 of the September leaflet. District 1, Town of Van Buren, Onondaga County Baldwinsville, New York, April 8, 1914 Dear Mr. Tuttle: Since we have received the prize ears of corn of Onondaga County, I thought I would write a letter to you. The name of the school that I attend is called Pleasant Valley school. It is about three miles and a half west of Baldwinsville. My teacher’s name is Mr. Silas F. Parry. I like to read the little leaflets that come from Cornell, and from reading these we decided to celebrate Corn Day. In the leaflets there are many interesting things that I like to read. We held Corn Day on December s, 1913. During the day we decorated the schoolhouse with corn and cornstalks. We also planned to have a box social so that we could buy a new recitation seat. We also asked Professor Maxwell of the Jordan High School to speak upon growing corn. We lighted the schoolhouse with lanterns. The farmers had a good talk with Mr. Maxwell on farm questions. The school collector sold the boxes. There were about sixty persons to it. I think they all had a good time. At the Christmas exercises we had an organ loaned us for the rest of the year to help us in the singing. We asked the older people to help us in the singing. There were about seventy persons to it. Later on we had a spelling school for the old and for the young people. The old people spelled the young people down. On the twelfth of February, 1914, the older people gave an entertain- ment. The older people were in all the dialogues but one. The children spoke a few pieces. We lighted the schoolhouse with bracket lamps and lanterns. Before the exercises commenced we sold popcorn and candy. The money was counted up and there was four dollars and eighty cents. We are going to buy some more bracket lamps with the money. These meetings have made the schoolroom pleasant for the children by buying a new seat and pictures and creating interest in the school. We are going to have two weeks of vacation — this week and next. We have cleaned up the school yard some and are going to clean it up more when we go back. I am very interested in nature study and have read some books. We are going to have some gardens this year. There is to be a prize given for the best garden. On Arbor Day we are going to have another entertainment in the evening. I remain Your friend, ERWIN AUYER RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1047 Editors’ note-— They are doing things in the school that Erwin attends. It is easy to see from his letter that the school and the community are interestedin each other. The spelling bee between the old and the young and the entertainment given by the older folk are both interesting and valuable forms of social activity and make a pleasant change from the usual school entertainments. Corn Day was a really worth-while occasion and every one learned something from it. The school had an organ loaned to it for a year. This might easily happen in many districts until the school can own an organ of its own. The photograph of the school shows that the teacher takes an interest in the children, out of doors as well as in Recess at District 1, Town of Van Buren, Onondaga County the schoolroom. We hope that this spring something will be done in the way of shrubbery planting around the school building. This would add greatly to its attractiveness and supplement the fine shade trees on the grounds. District 2, Town of Pendleton, Erie County North Tonawanda, New York, February 19, 1914 Dear Mr. Tuttle: How glad I was to receive your letter telling me that you had not received three letters! I am sure I wrote three but maybe one was lost. I love to write to you so it makes no difference, and I’m so glad I gota letter from you. I want to thank you for the January leaflet. I liked it the best of any so far. The pictures and letters were so very interesting, and I’m going to try and set the table the way that was suggested in the leaflet. 1048 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET A few days ago one of our boys brought part of a mud dauber’s nest tous. We all looked at it and our teacher told us about it. He is going to bring a yellow jacket’s nest and then we shall look at it. It seems so wonderful to think that those little wasps can build such nests. In the school we have a calendar telling us the time the sun rises and sets and when the moon comes up. We are trying to learn more about the things in the sky. Our teacher has told us to be looking for the birds when they come, and we are going to do that. One of the boys has seen a bluebird. Our nature study notebooks are beginning to get full of descriptions and pictures. We all lke them. I am in the sixth grade in District 2, Town of Pendleton. My teacher’s name is Miss Borman. When I have passed my regents’, I want to go to high school. Thanking you for writing me that letter which I’m going to keep, I am Your little friend, RUTH HARTMAN Editors’ note-— Ruth’s letter shows us that she and her schoolmates are wide-awake to the opportunities everywhere about them. Especially we are glad to hear of their resolve to study what they can of the sky — the sun, moon, and stars. This is a fascinating subject. Some persons do not know that the stars are all arranged in groups with names and that it is possible for any one to learn a number of the larger and the brighter groups, or constellations, as they are called. There is a very good book that might be added to the school library some time: The Children’s Book of Stars by Mitton, published by the Macmillan Company, New York City. It costs two dollars. District 5, Town of Cobleskill, Schoharie County Barnerville, New York, April 10, 1914 Dear Friend: I have just received the last leaflet that you sent and have nearly read it through. The boys of our school have been trying to do some good through the advice of our teacher. We have been helping an old woman who lives near our school. We shoveled snow to make paths for her, and yesterday we drew some wood for her which our teacher bought. One boy obtained a horse and a wagon and was teamster, while the rest of us loaded and piled 1t up. I like to read very much and have read a good many books that are in a school library. The one I like best is The Man Without a Country. am Your friend, EARL D. STEVENS Editors’ note.— We publish this letter from Earl Stevens because we believe in the kind of service he and his schoolmates are giving. In RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1049 every community there are little acts of kindness that boys and girls ean do if they will be on the watch for the opportunity and be willing to make the sacrifice. There is only one thing to remember, and that is, to do the kind act because you really want to and not just for the sake of showing off. The less said about it the better. We have known persons who all their lives have been giving to others without any one’s knowing it except those who received their gifts. The knowledge that we have done a kindness out of the fullness of our heart is reward enough, and it makes no difference whether or not what we do is known to others. In fact, those who give most unselfishly do it quietly and without thought of praise. We are glad that Earl wrote to us because his letter will be suggestive to others. PHOTOGRAPH BY VERNE MORTON The start 1050 RurRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET TO THE OLDER BOYS AND GIRLS There will come a day when you will leave the rural school, either to go to high school or to go to work. We have been such good friends through the leaflet that it is too bad for us to cease to keep in touch with each other. If you are interested, suppose you send us your name and address for a special list that we will keep, and in return we will write to you occasionally, and send you whatever publications from the College we think would be of interest and of help to you. As you grow older you will be in a position to do much for your own and other rural schools. We know of a rural school where every time there is an entertainment or some special occasion for a community gather- ing, a large number of boys and girls fourteen to twenty-one years old come back and help to make it a success. These are those who have gone ahead but who still keep fresh the memory of their first school and have a desire to see that it prospers. We know that in the years to come there will be more and more of this, and that you will be loyal to the school that has given its best service to you. In order that you may help intelligently you will need to know some of the things that the rural schools are doing and planning, and it will be a pleasure to us to keep in touch with you as closely as we may, and through you to strengthen the schools of the State. Therefore be sure to write to us when you leave the rural school, asking to have your name placed on the Advanced List. Address the Editors of the Cornell Rural School Leaflet, New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. A REPORT A year ago last November it was suggested in the leaflet that boys and girls in the rural schools could be of great service in helping to control the ravages of a serious insect pest, the apple-tree tent caterpillar. This was to be done by collecting and destroying the egg rings that could be found in large numbers on the twigs of apple and wild cherry trees. The suggestion met with instant response, and many hundreds of sharp eyes and willing hands went to work: It was found that the egg rings could be stripped off easily without injuring the twigs, and that with a little effort a fair-sized tree could be completely freed of the eggs so that in the spring there would be no unsightly nests and ravenous caterpillars. Such good work was done that we have tried to obtain a report from all the schools that collected egg rings. Up to the time this leaflet went to press, 1,655 schools had reported work done, and the total number of egg rings destroyed by actual count was 3,617,291. When RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET IOSI we consider that each egg ring will average at least 150 eggs, we see that the number of eggs destroyed reaches the enormous figure of 542,593,650. This is good work. There has often been an element of competition introduced in order to see who could collect the most in a school, or which school could do best in a supervisory district or county. Small prizes have sometimes been offered by teachers, superintendents, and others, but even without such encouragement the boys and girls have been interested to work hard because they could see the useful results of their efforts. In the northern part of the State another tent caterpillar, which works on forest rather than on fruit trees, has been abundant. It has similar habits to those of the apple-tree tent caterpillar, but the egg rings have flat instead of rounded ends. Reports have come to us of the very large number of egg rings and nests of the forest tent caterpillar destroyed by the boys and girls particularly in Clinton and Franklin Counties. The figures given above do not include complete reports from the rural schools in these counties. Special credit is due the teachers and boys and girls for their efforts. There are some sections of the State that are comparatively free from tent caterpillars. This is true whenever thorough spraying is practiced and fence rows and roadsides are not allowed to grow up to wild cherry trees. In these days all farms with a number of fruit trees on them should have some kind of spraying outfit, and the trees should be sprayed ~annually both for insects and diseases. Likewise well-kept farms have clean fence rows and roadsides, thus preventing the breeding of weeds, insects, and diseases, and their subsequent spread to cultivated crops. These are conditions toward which we are working gradually, but mean- time the tent caterpillars are not all gone. This winter again there are large numbers of the egg rings to be found in many parts of the State, and there is opportunity to continue the good work until the very time the eggs hatch in the spring. We can now go a step farther and learn of an interesting thing in connection with the apple-tree tent caterpillar. In spite of all the efforts of man to check this and other insect pests, he would make slow head- way were it not for the natural enemies that they have. There is an enemy of the tent caterpillar, a small insect belonging to the same family as do the bees and the wasps. Because it lives on another living insect, we callit a parasite. The wasp-like insect lays its eggs in the tent caterpillar’s body, and when the caterpillar spins its cocoon, the egg of the parasite hatches, and the young larva kills the tent caterpillar so that it never transforms into a moth. Instead the parasite transforms, and the wasp- like insect comes out and attacks more caterpillars. 1052 Rurat ScnHoor LEAFLET The tent caterpillars begin to spin cocoons during the latter part of June. One school reported that last year 8,000 of these cocoons were destroyed. Now, it is quite probable that in doing this a large number of the beneficial parasites were killed. Professor Herrick, who prepares the insect work for the teachers’ leaflet, has suggested that after the cocoons are collected they be kept in jars with cheesecloth or netting covers until the wasp-like parasites emerge. Then the parasites can be set free to continue their good work, and the old cocoons and any tent caterpillar moths remaining can be destroyed. This will be interest- ing work for the summer, and we hope that the boys and girls will keep it in mind and have the added interest in not only fighting an insect pest directly, but in fighting it with another insect that is its natural enemy. Notice—We are advised by the Government Printing Bureau of Canada that the book entitled “Farm Weeds,” which we recommended in the November leaflet, is out of print. We would suggest in its stead ‘““A Manual of Weeds,” by Ada E. Georgia, published by the Macmillan Company, New York City, and costing $2 net, postage extra. Cornell Rural School Leaflet FOR BOYS AND GIRLS Published by the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, B. T. Galloway, Dean; George A. Works, Head of the Department of Rural Education. Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York ALICE G. McCLOSKEY and EDWARD M. TUTTLE, Supervisors and Editors ARTHUR D. DEAN, C. H. TUCK, W. E. PIERCE, and G. F. WARREN, Advisers Vol. 8 ITHACA, NEW YORK, MARCH, 1915 No. 4 43 Le J ae Zi (A> ap There are no surprises to him who 7 haf has ordered his life. “ wet | BS gex- Who planted the tree at his window a ZEG, VMIZEA > ledge is not surprised that birds LG) We TE: f= Gar should come singing there. Who nurtured the shrub by his garden wall is not sur- prised when the roses bloom. Who set his tent by a heaven-blue lake is not sur- prised at morn that great white swans are resting near. From My Little Book of Prayer* MURIEL STRODE 4 ff a | Not in a bed of hothouse roses, but in a way- ward roadside flower. Not in an August seashore, but in a hidden woodland stream. Not ina stately ocean liner, but ina tiny boat that drifts and dips and trails among the water lilies. Not in the emblazoned halls of revelry, but out under the quiet stars. From My Little Book of Prayer* MURIEL STRODE Zl ia | leek ; ] I will find my joy — | * By courtesy of Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, Illinois. [1053] 1054 RuRAL ScHOoL LEAFLET BIRD NOTES Every year boys and girls in New York State are learning to know the birds better. We are receiving hundreds of letters from rural schools in which teachers have this year helped the children to establish feeding stations for the birds, and have encouraged the building of bird houses. We are constantly receiving excellent descriptions of birds that the children have seen, but the names of which they do not know. The descriptions are improving, and the expert is nearly always able to give the right names of the birds described. ‘These are sent to the schools. All young persons who are now making effort in country districts to have the New York State farms the best in the world are taking an interest in birds, because knowledge of bird life is important to good farming. Added to this is the fact that song birds give joy in country places, and that through the years farm folk are going to take greater interest in them as they come to know them better. There are a few birds that are troublesome, and whenever they cause disturbance in your locality, your parents will be able to get information regarding the means of con- trolling them by writing to the State College of Agriculture. It is a mistake for boys and girls to think that they are doing good by killing birds; on the contrary great harm is likely to come as the result of the destruction of bird life. Boys and girls should study the habits of birds that are considered a nuisance, for information gained from such observa- tion is valuable. Nearly all the school children of the State are familiar with the birds given for study this year with the exception, perhaps, of the great blue heron. If any of you live near a lake shore, you may have an opportunity to see one of these stately birds standing, as Dr. Allen expresses it, “humped up like a piece of driftwood.” If you chance to see one, notice how he waits for his prey, and how he catches it. Try to find out whether he has any bird note, pleasant or otherwise. Try to find out what he eats. Have you seen him hunting alone or with other herons? When you are on the lookout for the great blue heron, perhaps you will see the little green heron, which is about the size of a crow, and is described in the teachers’ leaflet. To learn to know all the birds about your country home by sight and by their songs will be an achievement. If you learn to whistle the notes of the birds that whistle, there will be an added interest in your study. If in your garden a family of birds is living in a house that you have made, you will watch them with much pleasure. Daily thought for these farm helpers should be given; the cats should be controlled particularly during the birds’ nesting season, so that they are not free to wander about the place at night. Water should be left where the birds can use it freely. BALTIMORE ORIOLE RuRAL ScHOOL LEAFLET 1055 QUOTATIONS SONG SPARROW A lofty place he does not love, But sits by choice, and well at ease, In hedges, and in little trees That stretch their slender arms above The meadow brook; and there he sings Till all the field with pleasure rings; And so he tells in every ear, That lowly homes to heaven are near In “ sweet-sweet-sweet-very merry cheer.” From The Song Sparrow by HENRY VAN DYKE CHIPPING SPARROW I hear the sparrow’s ditty Anear my study door; A simple song of gladness That winter days are o’er; My heart is singing with him I love him more and more. From A March Glee by JOHN BURROUGHS WHITE-THROATED SPARROW I take my way where sentry cedars stand Along the bushy lane, And whitethroats stir and call on every hand, Or lift their wavering strain. From In October by JOHN BURROUGHS WILD GEESE Hark, what a clamor goes winging through the sky! Look, children! listen to the sound so wild and high! Like a peal of broken bells,— kling, klang, kling,— Far and high the wild geese cry, ‘‘ Spring! It is spring!” From Wild Geese by CELIA THAXTER BLUEBIRD The world rolls round — mistrust it not Befalls again what once befell; All things return, both sphere and mote, And I shall hear my bluebird’s note, And dream the dream of Auburn dell. From May Day by RALPH WALDO EMERSON 1056 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET VEGETABLE GARDENING Pau Work A garden is a source of good fun because every day there is something new to be seen and learned in it. Every year the crop can be made a little better, new combinations can be planted, and new results can be achieved. Besides being good fun a garden is worth while for its products. Fresh vegetables for the home table go far toward making living better, and . good vegetables may be sold so that they will yield a ready return of cash. The young gardener is, moreover, learning things that will be useful to him throughout life and that will enable him to enjoy life better. Best of all, he is learning to love plants and the out-of-doors. In considering garden work for 1915, you must first decide whether you are to have a home garden to supply vegetables for your family, or whether you are to have a market garden. The former will be of help to your mother and will give pleasure to the whole family; the latter will give you business experience and ready cash. If your garden is to be a money- making proposition, you must keep account of the cost as well as of the income, and you must handle the garden so well that it will pay for itself and yield a profit besides. Whether you start a home garden or a market garden, do not undertake it on too large a scale. A small garden well tilled is much better than a large one neglected. Do not try to plant all of the kinds of vegetables. For a market garden do not plant more than three kinds. For the home garden ten or twelve kinds of vegetables should be enough for the first year. If you are successful with these, you may include more the next year. It is better to regulate the size of your garden according to the amount of weeding and hoeing you are willing to do in the hot sun of next July rather than according to your enthusiasm for looking at catalogues by the fireside in January. Begin work on your garden early. The plan should be made and care- fully studied, so that time may be saved during the planting season. Seed should be bought well in advance and should be tested. Too much care cannot be used in the spading and raking of the soil. If the garden plot is large enough to work with horse labor, your results will be achieved with less cost, and the profits will be greater. Above all, give the garden good care from the day the spade is first driven into the soil until the last bit of refuse is cleared away in the fall. Hoeing, weeding, thinning, and training are absolutely necessary. Every. neglect is followed by loss in the crop, and poor crops mean discouragement and failure. They spoil the fun. It is better to have no garden than a poor one. ea, RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1057 If you do not know how to make a garden, the general directions in this leaflet will help you, and more complete information may be found in Cornell Reading-Course Lessons Nos. 33, 34, and 58. Your teacher may obtain a copy of each of these lessons for the school library by writing to the College for them. One of the best ways to learn gardening is by talking with good gardeners in your own neighborhood and by visiting their gardens. They know the limitations and possibilities of your soil and your climate, and can help you better than almost any one else. Keep a record of your garden work. Save a copy of your plan. Record each day the work that you do and the plantings that you make. This will help you greatly next year. You will thus learn how to repeat your successes and how to avoid mistakes. THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN Note.— This article is for the older boys and girls who want to have a garden that will provide food for the home table. In the March leaflet last year we gave a plan for a home vegetable garden thirty by fifty feet. Reports have come to us in letters from boys and girls who tried to follow the plan, and in order to test it ourselves we made such a garden last summer. The result of all this experience showed that there are some changes that can be made to advantage. The new plan is given in this article, and we hope that this second season more boys and girls will plant a garden of this size. Of course, the plan given is merely suggestive, and it will not be the same as yours, but perhaps it will help you. After deciding on the kinds of vegetables to be grown, the first thing to do is to make a plan of the garden. Take a clean sheet of paper and determine on a scale of measure. For example, let every inch on the paper stand for eight feet in the garden; then each foot will be represented on the plan by one-eighth inch of space. In order to avoid confusion, make all rows two and one-half feet apart. The vine vegetables, cucumbers, summer squash, and muskmelons, need more space between hills; and they can be placed by themselves in one corner of the garden. With this in mind, begin at the south edge of the plan, with the scale measure off toward the north five-sixteenths of an inch, the equivalent of two and one-half feet in the garden, and draw a line representing the first row. Continue this process until the entire garden has been divided in rows. There is space for eleven rows. In looking over the list of seeds, we find that some should be sown early in spring, that others must not be sown until after all danger of frost is past, and that still others must be started in the house and the 67 ScHOOL LEAFLET RURAL 1058 jaaf Kify Kq Kp41yy uapavd ayqnjasaa amoy v sof unig i=) 44) = UIF 2029 S SAIUSAOA hasA4of SUOIU() SLOAA Dd) S92 AD/ OUUUO/A PUODIAS:) SOZ/S DUAL AD, NG Pamoyjol (ODUYUUD/IA 4S4/,] SUDIAG YIDUIAS PUD *SAYSiPO4 "Z2NYA) Ab] hq Pamojjop “aleqGqooD Pijioyxy Yysorbhs AIWLUNIS SIOLDUIG/ x x x x (DULYLUO/A PUODAS) WAOD {FANG S4IGUITIOVID SUO/ALUYSHIL x x x x (PUYUL/T 4Sily) UIOD JIIMG Pe AMOSD HZ ANOYID RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1059 growing plants set in the garden later. Beets, carrots, lettuce, onions, parsnips, peas, radishes, and early turnips should be planted early. Since none of these are tall growing, they can all be planted on the southern half of the garden. We remember that one of these vegetables, parsnips, is treated differently from the others in that it is left in the ground and dug during the winter. Since we are going to clean up our garden plot in the fall and should not like to have a row left somewhere in the middle, we place the parsnips on the very southern edge of the garden, making an additional row. We decide on a row of onions, a half row each of carrots, early beets, early turnips, and spinach, a row of lettuce and radishes, and a row of peas, and indicate them on the plan. This completes the first group of vegetables, and leaves all the ground to the north unoccupied and in good shape to be raked over occasionally so as to kill weeds and preserve moisture before sowing the second group of seeds, which must not be planted until all danger of frost is over. This group includes vine vege- tables, sweet corn, and beans. The young plants from tomato, cabbage, and parsley seed, sown in the house, will be ready to set out at the same time. We need only a few plants of parsley, and, since they grow the entire season, they might well be placed in a few feet of the parsnip row at the south side of the garden. We must provide for two plantings of sweet corn, and we should have a second sowing of peas. All these things should be kept in mind as we begin next the northern row of Group I to indicate on our plan a row of peas for a second planting, a row of snap beans, a row of early cabbage, a thirty-foot row of tomato plants, and two thirty-foot rows of corn. These — except the second planting of corn, which, of course, should be a week or two later than the first plant- ing of corn in the outside row— the cucumbers, the summer squash, and the muskmelons can all be sown about the same time, after all danger of frost is over. This completes the garden for early summer. It is quite possible, however, that several of the vegetables will be through bearing about the first of July, and we can fill their places with late vegetables for winter. Begin at the southern side of the garden, look over the plan, and decide which vegetables may be replaced and with what we shall replace them. In actual practice our plan may not work out inall cases because of a back- ward season or for some other reason, but it is well to be prepared, and no ground should lie idle if we can help it. The parsley, the parsnips, the onions, and the carrots will surely remain all season; and probably the early beets, the early turnips, and the spinach will not be out in time for anything else to be sown. Lettuce and radishes may be followed by late cabbage, which can be set even before all the lettuce has been used. The first 1060 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET planting of peas will be out in time for a second planting of snap beans, and the second planting of peas may be followed by late beets. The first planting of snap beans will probably be completely used, and the vines can be pulled in time for a sowing of late turnips. The early cabbage will be out of the way in time for a sowing of late lettuce, radishes, and spinach, about the middle of August. The tomatoes, the corn, and the vine vegetables will, of course, remain. If the garden is a success, we should have a good variety of vegetables to store for winter use: parsnips, onions, carrots, cabbage, dry snap beans, beets, and turnips. The plan is now complete, and by measuring with our scale we can determine how many feet of row and how many hills of each vegetable there will be. By looking at the offers of the seedsmen on pages 1073 and 1074, we can determine how many packets of seed we shall need and what they will cost. It is always wise to buy a little more seed than will be needed. The seed order should be made out and sent at once. The garden plan, which we have given in order that you may see how to prepare your own plan, will serve merely as a guide. Each boy and girl who is going to have a garden should sit down and work out his or her plan in the same way, whether the garden is to be large or small. The garden of thirty by fifty feet is a good size for an active boy or girl twelve years of age and upwards. If you are younger than twelve years, perhaps it would not be wise to undertake such a large garden. For a smaller plot of ground, fewer vegetables had better be grown. Even a boy or girl eight or nine years old can take care of a strip of ground ten by fifteen feet and grow a crop of radishes and lettuce, or cabbage, tomatoes, sweet corn, or any one or two of the vegetables that the family will enjoy. Now let us suppose that your garden plan is complete and that you have sent for the seeds that will be needed. For plants that should be started indoors, you can prepare the boxes, or “ flats,” before the seeds come. Early cabbage and tomato plants and a few plants of parsley are all that it is necessary to start in this way, but, if you choose, you may also start cucumber, squash, or lettuce. Find or make shallow boxes, three or four inches deep and a foot or more square, and bore holes in the bottom for drainage. Next the bottom, place a layer of coarse spongy material, such as moss, sawdust, or coarse manure. On top of this, place very fine rich soil, and take pains to have this soil right. You can make a screen out of some wire netting to use in sifting the soil. As the soil is put into the box, pack it down firmly. When the box is full to within a half inch of the top, it is ready for the seed. Use one box for each kind of seed. Do not sow the seed until about six weeks before it is time to set plants out- doors. At one side of the box make a straight furrow in the soil and sow RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1061 a row of seed. Sow two or three rows if you think that they will be needed. Cover the seed with finely sifted soil from a quarter to a half inch deep, and firm gently. Leave the rest of the space in the box unoccupied so that the plants may be transplanted into it after they are well started. This transplanting process is called “ pricking out” and simply means that you take the tiny plants (about an inch high) and set them in new places, an inch or two apart. Be very careful to do this without injury to the plants, and be sure to press the soil firmly around them. They will have room enough to grow until you are ready to set them out of doors in the garden. A south window in the kitchen is a good place to set the flats, which should be kept moist. While the plants are starting indoors, you will be watching the outdoor garden plot each day; and finally it will be dry enough so that it can be worked. Begin at once. If the ground was plowed last fall, it has been broken and crumbled by the freezing and thawing of winter and can be put in shape quickly. If spring plowing must be done, cover the ground with a good coating of barnyard manure. The labor of plowing or spading the ground is always the heaviest part of the werk and often is discourag- ing. If you show your father or big brother that you are in earnest about the garden and mean to make it worth while, you will surely have help with this part of the work. After the soil is turned over, begin to level it and to make it fine with a rake or a harrow. One of the secrets of a good garden is to have the soil in the best possible condition before the seeds are sown. Moreover, it is very much easier to work when there are no young plants to avoid. Perhaps there will be several weeks between the time you plow and the time when it will be safe to sow some of the seeds. Certainly this will be true of the seeds included in Group II. Meanwhile there is opportunity to kill two or three crops of weeds by letting Hoeing potatoes 1062 RuRAL ScHOOL LEAFLET them sprout and then raking the garden. Every weed killed before planting the garden means less trouble afterward. Work faithfully in order to obtain a good seed bed — one that is fine, firm, moist, warm, and free from weeds. It is impossible to give exact dates for planting the seeds. The time will vary with the kind of seed, with the season, and also with the location. There is considerable difference in temperature between southern and northern New York, for example, Long Island and St. Lawrence County. You will have to develop judgment about time of planting. Those seeds that may be hurt by frost should not be planted until all danger is past. Sow the seeds according to the plan you have made, measure distances carefully, and make the rows straight and even. It is always well to use a garden line as a guide. Be careful not to sow the seed so thickly that you fail to cover the space allotted. Tiny seeds slip between the fingers easily and are gone before you realize it. Guard against this. Sow the seed as evenly as possible, and cover it to the required depth, firming the soil well. The best garden is not all sown in one day and then left for a couple of weeks until plants and weeds have sprouted. Each vege- table is studied and sown at the best time for its development. Often, however, it is not practicable to do this, and then certain seeds can be grouped as indicated on our plan. Boys and girls who have opportunity to visit their gardens daily will find much success and pleasure in treating each vegetable by itself and studying its peculiar needs. Care of the garden should be constant and thorough. Nota day should go by that does not find you in the garden for a time doing those things that need to be done. ‘‘A stitch in time saves nine,’”’ and often a few hours or a day will make all the difference between success and failure. One of the most important matters is that of thinning. It hardly seems right at the time to thin a row of fine little beet or turnip plants by pulling out most of them, leaving only the strongest plants six inches apart. Later on, however, you will realize that the plants that were left have grown better and more rapidly because they have had room,- and they will be tender in quality and fine in flavor because they were not stunted. There are often vacant places in the garden that can be used by setting in a lettuce or a cabbage plant. Do not leave such places unfilled. Trans- planting is not a difficult process although many persons are not success- ful because they are not careful. Good gardeners are able to transplant almost any plant. It should be done late in the afternoon, and, if possible, while the soil is moist after a rain. The plants should be well soaked before they are dug up, so that plenty of soil will cling to their roots. Dig a hole in the proper place, larger and slightly deeper than the roots of the plant, and set the plant in the hole. Cover the roots with soil, RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1063 and press it firmly around them; fill in more soil, pressing it down now and then, until the level of the ground is reached. The secret of the operation is to transfer the plant to a new place without exposing the roots to the air for any length of time, and to see that they are closely covered when reset. Cultivation, or the stirring, of the soil has two functions: it kills weeds, and it helps to hold moisture in the soil. Weeds should never be allowed to get a start. Natural moisture is better than water put on with a hose or from a watering pot. Any loose material lying on the surface of the soil will prevent the moisture from evaporating in the heat of the summer sun. You can make the top layer of soil act as the protective covering by keeping it loose and crumbly. After each rain, as soon as the soil can be stirred, take a rake and break up the surface soil. This will soon dry out, and, to one who does not know, will seem too dry. But if this layer of an inch or so of dry soil is brushed off, firm, moist soil will be found under- neath, and it will remain moist even during a long drought. Whether there are weeds or not, you should cultivate whenever the surface becomes packed, in order that at all times the surface soil, or “soil mulch,’’ as it is called, may protect the under soil and save moisture. - If watering becomes necessary, do it thoroughly. Do not merely sprinkle the surface of the soil, for the moisture will evaporate in a very short time and leave it baked. Soak the ground well, and, as soon as the surface begins to dry, stir it into a mulch as you would after a rain. There will be injurious insects and diseases in the garden; but the better kept the garden is, and the healthier the plants are, the less the danger will be. If the trouble is serious, find out what causes it, and ask some one who can help you what to do to control it. See page 1066. In the fall the garden plot should be cleared and left in good condition for the winter. All vegetables that are usable should be carefully harvested and stored where they will keep. The vines and the plants should be pulled and piled, the sweet corn should be cut and shocked, and the garden should be cultivated and raked until it is free from weeds and is in good order. If the soil is heavy, plow or spade it in the fall. All that is written here, and much more that might be written, is of little value compared to your own personal study and care of the garden. There are a few general rules for gardening, but there are, in addition, hundreds of detailed practices that will come to one who watches intelli- gently and who loves to make things grow vigorously and well. The rules we have tried to give; the details you must find out for yourselves. If you have a garden that is worth while this summer, if you plan it thought- fully, and if you care for it faithfully, you will find one of the real pleasures of life. In years to come, no spring will approach without finding you 1064 RuRAL ScHooL LEAFLET making plans, no summer will pass without your presence in a garden, and each garden will be better than the last. To sum up, a successful vege- table garden depends on the following considerations: . A well-thought-out plan Good seed Thorough preparation of the soil Careful sowing and transplanting Proper thinning The soil mulch Control of pests — weeds, insects, diseases Watchfulness, study, care ey ANY DH SOME GARDEN RULES C. E. Hunn TIME OF SOWING The following statement will be found helpful as a general guide for sowing seeds: 1. Flower seeds that may be sown as soon as the ground is fit to be worked in the spring: alyssum, bachelor’s-button, calliopsis, candytuft, four- o'clock, marigold, mignonette, morning-glory, nasturtium, pansy, phlox, pink, poppy, scabiosa, sweet pea, verbena, zinnia. 2. Flower seeds that should be sown after danger of frost is over. The best results are obtained if the plants are started in the house in April and are set out after the tenth of May: aster, balsam, cockscomb, larkspur, petunia, sunflower. 3. Vegetable seeds that should be started indoors: early cabbage, parsley, tomato. 4. Vegetable seeds that may be sown as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring: beet, carrot, lettuce, onion, parsnip, pea, radish, spinach, turnip. 5. Vegetable seeds that should not be sown until the ground is warm and all danger of frost is over: bean, corn, cucumber, muskmelon, squash, watermelon. DEPTH OF SOWING The following statement will be found helpful in planting seeds: 1. Flower seeds that should be planted not over one-half inch deep: alyssum, balsam, candytuft, cockscomb, four-o’clock, larkspur, mignonette, morning-glory, pansy, petunia, poppy, scabiosa. 2. Flower seeds that should be planted one inch deep: aster, bachelor’s- button, calliopsis, marigold, phlox, pink, verbena, zinnia. RuRAL ScHOOL LEAFLET 1065 3. Flower seeds that should be planted two inches deep: nasturtium, sunflower, sweet pea. 4. Vegetable seeds that should be planted one-half inch deep: cabbage, carrot, cucumber, lettuce, muskmelon, onion, parsley, radish, tomato, turnip. 5. Vegetable seeds that should be planted one inch deep: beet, parsnip, pumpkin, spinach, squash, watermelon. 6. Vegetable seeds that should be planted two inches deep: bean, corn, pea. THINNING AND TRANSPLANTING In order to have a good garden, each plant should have room for its fullest development, and since most of the seeds of garden flowers and vegetables are small, it is almost impossible to sow the seeds sparsely enough so that each plant will grow to perfection. Since this is the case, the plants must be thinned, and the excess either thrown away or trans- planted to some other part of the garden. If the thinning is done in cool, cloudy weather, the seedlings may be transplanted with great ease; but if it is done in dry, sunshiny weather, the seedlings must be shaded after being set out. It is best to thin the plants when they are small, before they have become crowded; but if one wishes to save them for transplanting, they may be left until they are large enough to handle. The following statement will be found helpful to young gardeners in thinning and trans- planting: 1. Flowers that should be four inches apart: alyssum, balsam, candy- tuft, poppy. 2. Flowers that should be six to eight inches apart: bachelor’s-button, dianthus, four-o’clock, mignonette, morning-glory, pansy, phlox, sweet pea. 3. Flowers that should be twelve inches apart: aster, calliopsis, cockscomb, larkspur, marigold, nasturtium, petunia, scabiosa, verbena, zinnia. 4. Flowers that should be eighteen to twenty-four inches apart: sun- flower. s. Vegetables that should be six inches apart: beet, lettuce, parsnip, parsley, spinach, turnip. 6. Vegetables that should be twelve inches apart: snap bean, cabbage. 7. Vegetables that may be sown thickly: carrot, onion, pea, radish. 8. Vegetables that should be two to three feet apart each way: corn, Lima bean, tomato. 9. Vegetables that should be three to five feet apart each way: cucumber, muskmelon, pumpkin, squash, watermelon. 1066 RuraL ScHoOoL LEAFLET FOUR COMMON GARDEN PESTS GLENN W. HERRICK THE STRIPED CUCUMBER BEETLE Appearance of the beetle-— The striped cucumber beetle is only about two-fifths of an inch long. Its ground color is yellow above, with a black head, and with three black lines running lengthwise of the back. The underside of the body is mostly black. The larva is a slender, white, wormlike grub, which lives below the ground on the stem and roots of cucumbers. Story of its life-—The beetles spend the winter hidden away beneath leaves and other rubbish, but they appear early in spring and feed on such flowers as they can find until the cucumbers and melons are up. They lay their eggs in crevices of the soil near the roots of the melon plants, where they hatch, and where the white, slender larvee live for about one month. When full-grown the larvee change to whitish pupz, and in about a week the adult beetles appear. The life cycle occupies probably about six weeks, and there are two genera- tions a year in most parts of New York State but perhaps three on Long Island. Injury and control,— In spring the hungry beetles eat the leaves and flowers of the young plants of cucumbers, melons, and squashes, and cause severe Geer edieacumier belle. injury, sometimes destroying the plants. The slender enlarged larve also do some injury by gnawing into stems underground, and into the roots. Plants may be protected from these beetles by putting boxes around them, by keeping the leaves covered with finely sifted ashes or air-slaked lime, by planting an excess of seeds, by spraying the plants with arsenate of lead (two and one-half pounds to fifty gallons of water), or by sprinkling powdered arsenate of lead on them. Whatever is done must be done thoroughly and often. THE COMMON SQUASH BUG Appearance of the squash bug.— The adult squash bug is usually more than half an inch long; very large ones may be nearly three-fourths of an inch in length. It is blackish brown above and specked with yellow under- neath. Its head is small and narrow and bears a prominent black eye on each side. Reaching out in front are two long antenna, the joints of which are long enough to be counted with the naked eye. On the under- RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1007 side of the head is a long, slender beak, which is carried close to the body between the first two pairs of legs. This beak constitutes the mouth parts of the bug, and makes it, there- fore, a sucking insect. The beak has a deep groove on the upper side. Lying in this groove are four tiny, threadlike bodies. These have fine, sawlike teeth at their free ends, and are used by the insect to puncture a leaf or a stem. The juice of the plant is then drawn into the mouth of the insect. Story of tits life-— The full-grown bugs hide in the fall beneath stones, The squash bug: a, adult; n, nymph boards, leaves, and any rubbish that they may find. In spring they come from their hiding places and begin their search for squash vines. When they find the plants, they soon commence to lay their brown eggs on the underside of the leaves, and sometimes on the upper side also. Occasionally the eggs are laid in regular rows, as shown in the illustration. In from eight to twelve days small green and black bugs hatch from the eggs. They are somewhat like the full-grown bugs, but without wings and with long legs. They are called nymphs, and each one has a beak with which it punctures the leaf and sucks out the juices. The nymphs grow and shed their skins five times before they become adults. More than a month is usually required for the bug to reach full size. Injury and control— The squash bug punctures the leaf, sucks out the juice, and injects into the leaf a poison that kills the cells and causes the leaf to turn brown and wilt. It also carries a disease from one vine to an- other that may cause the death of the plants. Poisons will not kill the bugs, but early in the spring one should keep a sharp lookout for the adult bugs and catch them by hand before they lay their eggs. A little later the eggs may also be destroyed. The bugs may be trapped under pieces of boards, bark, or shingles laid on the ground. The bugs will crawl under these for shelter, and there they may be caught and killed. =~" q es a tee ON By F Eggs of a squash bug on a leaf 1068 RuRAL ScHOOL LEAFLET THE IMPORTED CABBAGE BUTTERFLY Appearance of the insect— The parent imported cabbage butterfly has two pairs of large, strong, white wings. Each of the front wings has a black patch in the outer corner; the wings of the mother butterfly bear two black spots in addition, while those of the father insect bear but one black spot, or patch. The wings are sulfur- or straw-colored on the underside. The body of the butterfly is long and slender, and dark in color. The long, slender feelers, or antenne, project from the head. Each antenna ends in a swollen knob. The caterpillar is velvety green in color, and about one and one-fourth inches in length when full-grown. There are a faint yellow stripe down the middle of the back and a row of yellow spots along each side of the body. Story of its life-— The butterflies appear early in the spring, and the mother insect The imported cabbage butterfly; soon begins to deposit her whitish or pale mae ab ones female Pele yellow eggs on the leaves of the cabbage, one ina place. These hatch in about one week, and the tiny green worms appear. The velvety green caterpillars become full-grown in about two weeks, and each one transforms to a pupa which, owing to its peculiar appearance and silvery markings, is called a chrysalis. The chrysalis may be fastened to a cab- bage leaf or to a board or paling in an adjacent fence. The insect re- mains in the chrysalis stage for from one to two weeks, then the butterfly appears, thus completing the life cycle, which is passed in from twenty-two days to five weeks. There are at least Unies Parts of cabbage leaf, with eggs at A, caterpillars at B, and broods in a season in chrysalis at C New York. Injury and control— The caterpillars riddle the outer leaves of the Se Oe eee RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1069 plant and crawl down into the head, where they injure and soil the tender white leaves. This cabbage pest is best controlled by spraying the plants with one of the arsenicals, paris green or arsenate of lead. There is no danger in spraying cabbages with a poison up to the time when they are half grown, and even Jater. The outside leaves never fold up about the head, hence there is little danger of enclosing the poison within the cabbage. If paris green is used, it should be applied in the proportion of one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of water, or sifted on dry, in the latter case being thoroughly mixed with flour in the proportion of one pound to twenty-five pounds of flour. This should be applied in the morning, when the dew is yet on the cabbage leaves. Arsenate of lead may be ap- plied in the proportion of two and one-half pounds to fifty gallons of water. THE CABBAGE APHIS Appearance of the insect.— The cabbage louse, or aphis, isa small insect with an egg-shaped body covered with a whitish mealy substance. It has long antennz and sucking mouth- parts in the form of a beak. Story of its life-—If late in the fall we were to examine carefully leaves of cabbages that had been infested with this aphis, we should almost surely find some of the dark brown eggs of this little pest. The eggs seem to have a thick, heavy covering, and they remain on the old cabbage leaves throughout the winter, exposed to all the vicissitudes of the season. In the spring the eggs hatch, and the young lice find a living for a time, at least, by sucking the juices from the tender leaves of the sprouts sent out by the old stump. In about two weeks another genera- tion of aphids is borne alive by the mother aphids, and in the course of two or more weeks a third generation appears. This rate of increase continues during the whole summer season; for generation after generation is produced as long as the food supply lasts and the weather is favorable. Finally, late in the autumn the shining black eggs are again laid on the leaves, thus completing a very interesting life history. Injury and control— The cabbage aphis, like all other aphids, has a Mother aphis with colony of young aphids 1070 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET tiny beak, or proboscis, with which it pierces the leaves of the cabbage and through which the juices of the plant are sucked into the mouth of the insect. It is this constant drain on the plant caused by thousands of tiny beaks sucking out the juices that produces the injury. The leaves remain small, become deformed and rolled up, and finally wither and per- haps die. The whole plant remains stunted, fails to head, and so becomes worthless. The cabbage aphis is exceedingly difficult to control, but the lice can be killed if they are hit with whale oil soap or “ black leaf 40,” a tobacco extract. Whale oil soap should be dissolved in water in the proportion of one pound to five gallons. The “ black leaf 40’’ should be used in the proportion of one ounce to six gallons of water, but a little soap should be added to help it stick and spread. The undersides of the cabbage leaves should be sprayed in order to actually hit the lice. In the fall all cabbage stumps should be removed from the garden; otherwise they would carry the eggs of the aphis over winter. THE FLOWER GARDEN We are hoping that the day will come when in every country home in New York State there will be a few house plants grown each year, and when there will be enough flowering plants in the garden to give a note of joy to all who pass. We hope, also, that the time will come when every rural school building will have near it trees and shrubs and a border of perennial and annual flowers that will be kept in good condition because of the community pride of the young folk. A beginning must be made for such a state-wide movement, and we want you all to help by giving some serious thought to the growing of flowers. It is important that you should do a real piece of work this year so that you will have some first- hand knowledge. We have asked Professor White, of the Department of Floriculture at the State College, to prepare for the next September leaflet for teachers an outline for an entire year’s work on flower gardens in rural communities in New York State. This will mean that with the beginning of the school year you can all make a good start, and by the end of the year you will have carried out some work that will be of value to you all your lives. In preparation for next year’s work in flower culture, we want you to look through the list of flowers on page 1075. The teacher will tell you how many of these plants she knows, and you can talk over those that you know. Look at all the garden flowers in the neighborhood during the spring and summer so that you will be able to recognize them easily, and also obtain advice from the growers if you care to have flowers like them next year. You will find many of the old favorites: lilies-of-the-valley, RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1071 Canterbury bells, peonies, violets, pansies, English daisies, baby’s-breath, hollyhocks, petunias, and a host more. Do not fail to see every garden, so that next fall you will know a good many plants from which to make a first choice when you start your permanent work at home or at school. There are a great many flowers on the list that you will not find, but you may be interested in looking them up in one of the well-illustrated seed catalogues. Some of these flowers grew in our grandmothers’ gardens, and perhaps in the future we may revive an interest in them. Many boys and girls will grow the flowers listed on pages 1073 and 1074, seeds of which can be bought for two cents a packet; but others may want to try other kinds, and if so, reliable seed houses will sell the seed according to the space you wish to plant, and the catalogues will give prices. In growing flowers keep in mind the following points: 1. Plan to grow flowers in a border along a fence, a building, or where there will be shrubbery in the background. Do not make a flower bed in the middle of a lawn. Read what Dr. Bailey says on page 1072 about the defects in flower growing. 2. Use good garden soil for your flower gardens. Learn from your father what this means. Handle good garden soil. Learn how to get the nght quality of soil in your garden. Perhaps one of the farmers in the neighborhood who is successful in gardening will talk to your school some Friday afternoon about soils for a garden, and let you see samples of different kinds of soils so that you may become skillful in recognizing good quality. A trp with your teacher to some garden that is thrifty will be of value. Plants need suitable soil if they are to be strong and productive. The best soil for growing flowers is a light loam, a soil about three-fourths of which is sand and the rest clay, silt, and decayed organic matter. The term organic is used in connection with forms that have, or have had, life, and should be distinguished from inorganic as applied to substances that have no life, such as stone, metal, sand, and the like. The gardener’s way of adding organic matter to the soil is by means of manure, which, if applied directly before the flowers are planted, should be well rotted. Your father will tell you how much to apply and how to work it into the soil. 3. Many flower seeds are very small. Be careful not to plant them too deep. See page 1064. Let every one make an experiment in growing flowers. Do not try to do much this year, for we want you to give your best attention to the vegetable garden; but there will be time for a little work toward flower culture in the future. 1072 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET DEFECTS IN FLOWER GROWING Dr. L. H. Bailey in his Manual of Gardening* says: “The greatest defect with our flower growing is the stinginess of it. We grow flowers as if they were the choicest rarities, to be coddled in a hot-bed or under a bell jar, and then to be exhibited as single specimens in some little pinched and ridiculous hole cut in the turf, or perched upon an ant hill that some gardener has laboriously heaped on a lawn. Nature, on the other hand, grows many of her flowers in the most luxurious abandon, and one can pick an armful without offense. She grows her flowers in earnest, as a man grows a crop of corn. One can revel in the color and the fragrance and be satisfied. “The next defect with our flower growing is the flower bed. Nature has no time to make flower-bed designs: she is busy growing flowers. And, then, if she were given to flower beds, the whole effect would be lost, for she could no longer be luxurious and wanton, and if a flower were picked her whole scheme might be upset. Imagine a geranium bed or a coleus bed, with its wonderful ‘design,’ set out into a wood or in a free and open landscape! Even the birds would laugh at it! “What I want to say is that we should grow flowers freely when we make a flower garden. We should have enough of them to make the effort worth the while. I sympathize with the man who likes sunflowers. There are enough of them to be worth looking at. They fill the eye. Now show this man ten feet square of pinks, or asters, or daisies, all grow- ing free and easy, and he will tell you that he likes them. All this has a particular application to the farmer, who is often said to dislike flowers. He grows potatoes and buckwheat and weeds by the acre: two or three unhappy pinks or geraniums are not enough to make an impression.” SEEDS FOR CHILDREN’S GARDENS The following two firms have agreed to furnish seeds under the con- ditions stated, but children should understand that they are free to get seeds from any source they may desire: W. Atlee Burpee & Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (A, page 1073) James Vick’s Sons, 189 Main Street, East, or 18-20 Stone Street, Rochester, New York (B, page 1074) * By courtesy of Macmillan Company. RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET (A. See page 1072.) SEEDS FOR CHILDREN’S GARDENS 1073 Prices: Two cents per packet — postage prepaid. No order for less than twenty-five cents for twelve packets. (Special rate — If teachers will send an order for the school and distribute packets to the children, the price will be $1.40 per hundred packets. Express collect.) SENDER: Any boy or girl may send directly for twelve or more packets. Parents may send for seed for their children. Teachers may send for packets for the school as indicated in the special rate abc IVE. Number | One Number of packet | Flowers of One packet Vegetables packets will packets | will sow desired SOW | desired a me | PANY SSUMD Soo ecard tefl 15 feet-._.|) Bean, bush lama _ eee ee PA SUC Tre Oe eae sage lassen veensearcae ce Py Stee. s| Beat, Sua ee Sh) ease et ee ee BO Meets ||| Beet _ z- | Celosia (cockscomb).......|................| 200 plants| Cabbage, early or Ree ue 2 a Centauria (bachelor’s-but- late = (0) 0) SS ee pee nes SEReNave. eer 15 feet..... Carrot Pe 8 @ | Dianthus (pinks)................|................| 15 feet... Corn, pop a Sees 9) cer ttt ace ceeengem ten teee sae eosteanneeenns|) — 25 Hills.) ‘Comm, sweet AES oe OE teas Oe. | “Marigold. oie ceseescocceeee |e tcen| 1S hills. | Cacumber pores 8: etic Hs leet onaeneee BIE ste-tex-| “20 feeti...| Lettuce eee & @ | Morning-glory.. ee-| 18 hills... Muskmelon ee 3 | Nasturtium (climbing) Bee os yO teete | Omion 29 | Nasturtium (dwarf)! 2222) 15 feet Parsley ee te ma [ey tity Sen Oe oe Notas ah 20 teet....| Parsnip Ses eee Ors) |) loses ee) ST Seieets..| Pea Peete | POPPY oases | ccc “EO hills!) Pumpkin et eee Z * | Scabiosa (mourning bride)|........| 10 feet... Radish ae ER Pl) SOUT OW ET 2c rete taeceetca- |! tore at-cesa4] 25, LOGE. 4| opinach 2p Sabena SW WECL Caran. eee eee || TO his) Squash, early ee As WERE ch ctaereee rotate daa dee ee. 10 hills...| Squash, Hubbard Se, Cae LAS RO, ca) Eide eee ee Pereee ae ec | pen aner at 175 ae Tomato S10 | ED G00 | erro emenn 20 feet..... Turnip, early or ct late Ee 1 nk INIIETA | eee ede a 12 hills...| Watermelon DY AUG ee Se ee accor meee eS , 1915 For enclosed remittance Of..............--------+-+-- you will please forward promptly, postpaid, (1132 packets of seeds indicated above. (Special rate to teachers. For enclosed remittance Of................-00--00--+- you will please forward promptly, express collect, the packets of seeds indicated above.) Street address or box number Post. office © ra yo Mea Lo OT OP a. A ad ee Order blank from Cornell Rural School Leaflet 68 RuRAL ScHOOL LEAFLET (B. See page 1072.) SEEDS FOR CHILDREN'S GARDENS Prices: Two cents per package — postage prepaid. No order for less than twenty-five cents for twelve packets. (Special rate. One hundred packets for $1.75 postage prepaid.) SENDER: All orders must be sent through the teacher. Number | One Number of packet of One packet packets | will Flowers packets | will sow Vegetables desired SOW desired ee ae Ber) | Ady Sordtna Sees ot ene 2 ee 2 TO feet eiseeL 5 Se ee & | Aster (our own famous A. strain). minSiabe es 300 plants| Cabbage Besa eae 3: | Bachelor’s-button............|.............| 15 feet....| Carrot Bane st +8 Calli@psis si... Baek acc alten vrocke | peel pea Corn, sweet ees eons Sea) Candytutte.. 2 oe see SO ums t Cucumber ee ee Se ts Dianthus, Gomiks)..-/ 2-21. /|- 2 20 feet. 2)| Lettuce Bees eenattcs! me | Mour-o! clock...) Jesse iniise || Miuskmelon peer ne Eee sMiarigold se 222 is eee | ONCC Er MOMOn (a) - Beanies ae o 8 Mige Chee mertere op |e al ws feeth..| "Parsley; a eee = | Morning-glory.. 20 feet....| Parsnip re $Q | Nasturtium (climbing) Sse tor oeetss-|" Rea! pre eel oe 52 | Nasturtium (dwarf)... Joes) a2 thls! || Pumpkin pee eek. Bah | pamsye foe ee ee |e |) ee Oseet eenacisk Renee |) (eC) Petanint 2) eae pe buleet --} opidach. pmeae betes igen Plitox 2 es ee Pl oh eee") qe inills “| Squashwearly i eee RS ef il Poppy sass eto ereinniiss |) Squash, Hubbard = | Scabiosa (mourning bride)}--............. 100 plants} ‘Fomato AIM WICE DCA RS etree [ees 20 feet... Turnip Zeina nash eee ae Ru ORL Jeena 12 hills.| Watermelon Date: 2.22: 252. Se eee LOLS Hynclosed*find.: 5... to cover cost of the 22.222] packets of seeds indicated above. IPOS to tic cmeeeeeee oS EN RE LE Fea Rae Ere eens Fe ee ee re ee ease A eS iS ol 0c ,2) lee) \ Ce pes ee a Grade 422 ee ees MUCAGHOL'S DAM oo ne Order blank from Cornell Rural School Leaflet RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET SOME COMMON GARDEN FLOWERS ANNUAL Ageratum Alyssum Aster Baby’s-breath Bachelor’s-button Balsam California poppy Calliopsis Candytuft Castor-oil plant Chrysanthemum Cockscomb Cosmos Dahlia Dwarf phlox Everlasting Forget-me-not Four-o’clock Gailiardia Lobelia Love-in-a-mist Mari £¢ Id Mignonette Morning-glory Nasturtium Nicotiana Petunia Pink Portulaca Pot marigold Scabiosa Scarlet sage Schizanthus Shirley poppy Snapdragon Snow-on-a-mountain Stock Sunflower Swan River daisy Sweet pea Verbena Zinnia PERENNIAL Canna Canterbury bell Columbine Coneflower English daisy Flowering maple Foxglove Gaillardia (hardy) Hollyhock Larkspur Lily-of-the-valley Pansy Peony Pink (hardy) Poppy (hardy) Sunflower (hardy) Sweet william Violet 1075 1076 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET THE SCHOOL GROUNDS Each year we have included in the spring leaflet a discussion of the improvement of the school grounds in connection with the Arbor Day se A fine opportunity for attractive planting activities. While some schools have greatly improved the grounds by the planting of trees, shrubs, or flowers, by the development of fine lawns, and by constantly keeping the school property neat and attractive, there is much yet to be done. This is an important subject, because boys and girls get more out of their school life when the surroundings are attractive, and when they have a share in the development of the school property. Arbor Day is rather late in the season to do work on the school grounds. Moreover, Arbor Day is usually devoted to some kind of school exercises in which the community shares. There is a tendency to lay greater emphasis on the program than on the work for the improvement of the grounds. It is much better to plant a tree or a shrub so well that it will be sure to live, even though no song is sung or poem recited at the time, than it is to plant it carelessly and have ever so fine a song or a poem. However, it is possible to do both and to do them well. The planting and other work should be done before the leaves begin to grow in the spring, and for most parts of the State this is some time before the last week in April, depending on the season. Earnest, serious work in planting can be done as a part of the work of the school day. The grounds can be studied, and a plan can be made ahead of time so that RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1077 when the right day comes, every one can take part in the work. On Arbor Day, exercises may be held celebrating the improvement of the grounds. By that time, the trees and shrubs will be well started, and it will be a satisfaction to see them actually growing. The exercises will be better if they are not interrupted by heavy work. The spirit of Arbor Day will still be there and will be stronger than ever because the results will be plain to see. Planting and clearing up the yard ahead of time is as important as learning songs and recitations ahead of time. It is part of the preparation for a successful Arbor Day. We hope that boys and girls will think about this and will talk it over with their teacher. It is time that the schools should begin to see progress as each Arbor Day comes round. The following suggestions will be helpful in the work of improving the school grounds: The best trees to plant are elm, sugar (hard) maple, red oak, scarlet oak for dry places, and pin oak for wet places. The best wild shrubs to plant, given in the order of their size from the tallest to the lowest, are nannyberry, common elder, red-berried elder, red-twigged dogwood, barberry, arrowwood, laurel (evergreen), wild roses, fragrant sumac, and Japanese honeysuckle. The best wild vines to plant are Virginia creeper and climbing bitter- sweet. The best cultivated shrubs to plant, given in order of their size from the tallest to the lowest, are lilac, syringa, ibota privet, Van Houtt’s spirea, Japanese barberry, Indian currant, and snowberry. The best cultivated vines to plant are Japanese clematis, Hall’s honeysuckle, and Boston ivy for brick and stone walls. In general trees should be planted near the boundaries of the school ground, and an occasional tree in some suitable place in the open. No tree should be planted nearer to the building than twenty feet. Whenever possible a tree should be planted on the south or southwest side of the building in order to provide protection from the sun. If the schoolhouse is on an exposed site, trees that are planted on the windward side with reference to the prevailing wind will serve as a windbreak. Shrubs usually look better planted in groups than singly. They should always have some background, such as a building, an outbuilding, or the boundary fence of the school property. Shrubs should be planted according to their habits of growth, the low ones in the foreground, the medium-sized ones next in order, and the tallest ones in the background. Vines are used as ornamental screens, and they need something to support them. They are attractive when trained over porches, and they are useful in screening outhouses. 1078 RuRAL ScHooL LEAFLET SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PLANTING AND CARE OF TREES AND SHRUBS PLANTING TREES AND SHRUBS In planting a tree or a shrub remember a few simple rules: 1. Plant a tree or a shrub before it starts to grow in the spring. 2. Do not dig up the tree or shrub until you are ready to reset it, and never allow the roots to dry out between digging and setting. 3. Dig the tree or shrub carefully and retain a good supply of roots. Trim off broken or split roots, leaving the ends with a clean, sharp-cut surface. 4. Make the hole large enough to receive the roots without crowding, and deep enough to set the tree or shrub about two inches lower than it originally grew. 5. In digging the hole in which the tree or shrub is to be set, keep the surface soil and the subsoil in different piles. After the hole is dug, throw some of the surface soil into the bottom of it. Rich surface soil is better for roots than subsoil. Do not put manure or fertilizer in the bottom of the hole. 6. Set the tree or shrub in the hole and arrange the roots carefully. Be sure to keep the stem vertical, or plumb. 7. Throw in a little surface soil and work it around and between the roots with your fingers, so as to be sure that there are no air spaces left. 8. Throw in more soil and firm it carefully around the roots until they are covered. Then fill the hole, firming the soil constantly. The earth around the tree—except in the case of a fruit tree—should be dished slightly to catch the rain, and the surface should be covered with loose soil that will act as a soil mulch. In the fall the soil around the tree should be leveled in order to prevent water standing and freezing around the tree. g. Prune the top of the tree or shrub in order to balance the loss of roots. This operation is necessary and must not be neglected because the reset roots are not able to supply food for as many branches as there formerly were. Thin out from one-third to one-half of the branches, leaving the strongest ones to form the framework of the tree. 10. Protect the newly set tree or shrub from injury, and water it thoroughly if the weather is dry. PRUNING As in the case of transplanting, pruning should be done before the leaves start in the spring. On the school ground the only pruning necessary will be on fruit trees or on shrubs that have grown ragged and unshapely. Pruning is interesting work because by means of it a tree can be trained into a desirable shape. Remember these few rules: RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1079 1. For pruning twigs and small limbs use pruning shears or a sharp knife, and for larger limbs use a small saw. 2. Remove any limb or twig that is growing across another and that, if left, would rub and injure the bark. In deciding between two crossed limbs leave the stronger one or the one that keeps the shape of the tree most perfectly. 3. Always cut off a limb close to the parent branch and parallel with it. Wounds made in this way heal quickly because they are near actively growing tissue. Never leave a stub. 4. Do not have too many branches coming from the trunk of the tree. Four or five are plenty, and will make an open tree that will allow the sunlight to enter. 5. In pruning small branches and twigs, always cut just above a strong leaf bud. The bud will probably grow into a branch and should therefore be on the side toward which you want the branch to grow. By choosing these buds carefully, the tree can be trained as desired. 6. Prune out all dead wood in both trees and shrubs, and in the case of the latter trim the shoots back somewhat so that the shrub will form a well-shaped and compact clump. Always cut above a bud. GRAFTING If there is a wild fruit tree on the school grounds, perhaps it will be possible to graft a good variety on it. Do not attempt this work, however, unless some older person in the neighborhood will show you how, and will lend you the tools and the grafting wax. Grafting is the operation of setting a twig, or scion, from one tree in the stem of another in such a way that the twig will unite with the stem and will grow. The twig is called the scion, and the tree is called the stock. Between the hard wood and the bark of a tree there is a layer of tissue which is alive and growing. This is called the cambium layer. In order that a graft may grow, the cambium layer of the scion must touch the cambium layer of the stock. This is the principle underlying all methods of grafting. The following descriptions of whip grafting, cleft grafting, and the making of grafting waxes and bandages were written by Mr. R. D. Anthony and published in a teachers’ leaflet some years ago. Whip grafting — The fruit grower may use whip grafting to top-work a two-year-old or three-year-old tree if the branches are not too large to be easily cut. In such a case, the work is done just before growth starts, in the spring. A part of a branch from the previous season’s growth is chosen for the scion. The lower end is cut off with a smooth diagonal cut at such an angle that the cut is three-quarters to one inch long.. The knife blade is, 1080 RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET then placed squarely across the cut surface a little above the center, and a thin tongue, about half an inch,is cut. The scion is then cut off so that it contains three or more buds, the cut being made just above the top bud. The stock is prepared in the same way as is the base of the scion. The two are then placed together so that the tongue of one fits into the cleft of the other. If the two are of the same size, the cambium layers can be placed together on both sides of the branch; but if one is smaller than the other, the cambium layers are placed together on one side only. The graft is then tied and waxed. Frequently in the West, and occasionally in the East, the nurseryman obtains his apple varieties by whip grafting | the scion on a piece of apple seedling root from three to six inches long. The grafting is done in the winter or early spring. Cleft grafting — When a tree is five or six years old and comes into bearing, the grower sometimes finds that the variety is not what a yy) C he wants, and he wishes to top-work the tree | _/ with the desired variety. The tree is too at large for whip grafting; therefore cleft grafting pear is practiced. In early spring before the buds start, a branch is sawed off, and care should be () Y taken that the stock does not split. The stub is then split two or three inches through the center with a grafting chisel or a heavy knife. A one-year-old branch of a good variety is used for the scion, and the base is cut off about an inch below a well-matured bud. Two straight cuts are made; they start on either side of this bud and come out at the bottom in such a way that the base is wedge- shaped from the bud downward, and is somewhat thicker on the outer, or bud, side. This wedge should fit the cleft in the stock. The scion is then cut off just above the third bud from the bottom. With the narrow wedge on the grafting chisel, or with a wedge-shaped piece of wood, the cleft on the stock is forced open and the scion is inserted so that its outside cambium layer is in contact with the cambium layer of the stock at one side of the cleft. In order to insure this contact, the top of the scion is tipped out a little so that the two cambium layers will cross each other. A second scion is prepared and inserted in like manner on the other side of the dleft. When the wedge is removed the cleft should grip the scions firmly. Since the scion wedges are thickest Whip grafting RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1081 on the outside, the contact will be firmest where the cambium layers are in contact; and at this point growth should start. The entire cleft and all cut surfaces should be covered with good grafting wax. Directions for making grafting waxes and bandages.— In order to make common resin wax, place in a kettle one pound of resin, one-half pound of beeswax, and one-quarter pound of rendered tallow, which is obtained by melting beef or mutton tallow and allowing it to cool. Melt these three ingredients, being careful that the mixture does not boil. When they are completely melted, take the kettle from the fire, and pour the hot liquid into a pail of cold water. Grease the hands thoroughly, and flatten the spongy mass beneath the water so that it will cool uniformly. — It is impor- tant that it should be removed from the water when it \ is cold and tough, but not brittle. After it has been N taken from the water, pull it as you would molasses ¥ candy until it is ductile and fine-grained. If it is lumpy, | remelt it, and pull it again. Make the finished wax into balls or small skeins and put them in a cool place, laying them on greased paper so as to avoid sticking. Alcoholic wax is made from a pound of white resin, an ounce of beef tallow, and eight ounces of alcohol. Melt the resin slowly, and when it is completely melted, add the beef tallow. Remove the kettle from the fire, and add the alcohol slowly, stirring constantly. When finished, this wax is a thick paste, and it should be kept in closed bottles or cans. Waxed string for tying small grafts is made by dip- } ping a ball of No. 18 knitting cotton into melted resin e wax before it is removed from the fire. Leave the ball in ©/@/! srastung the wax for a few minutes, and turn it frequently so that it will become thoroughly saturated. After removing it from the hot wax, allow it to drain and dry. Waxed bandage is made in the same manner as waxed string. A roll of bandage or any kind of cloth is used in place of the string. = TES ——>>- tr SSS SSS = Sv=> =—S>= = Editors’ note — The planting and care of trees and shrubs on the school ground is not only a profitable occupation for boys and girls, but also an interesting one. Faithfully done it will result in permanent improvement to the school property. All of this work is a little difficult to start, but if some one in the neighborhood who understands it could come to the school and give a practical demonstration, it would be the best kind of a beginning. We should like to have reports this year from any schools that do work of this kind. 1082 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET SEED TESTING For the purpose of making the work in seed testing more simple in the beginning, we have decided to postpone publishing the first article until next fall. There will then be opportunity to become familiar with the work during the winter, in time for the testing of seeds to be sown next spring. Meanwhile the coming summer may be used to good advantage in collecting and studying weed seeds and the various kinds of farm seeds. We hope every school will supply itself with a tripod magnifier, as was suggested in the January leaflet. It will greatly aid in the seed study. The better the preparation for seed testing is, the better the results will be, and the more quickly they will be realized. Consequently we feel it wise to wait for the opening of the next school year to start the work. FIVE WEEDS AND THEIR SEEDS Editors’ note.— Descriptions of five weeds and illustrations of their seeds are given below. All of these weeds are very serious pests, and their seeds are frequently found in farm seeds. During the summer it would be well to make a special study of these weeds and of their seeds in order that they be instantly recognized. With the exception of the one of the black bindweed, the descriptions were prepared by Professor Paul J. White, and have been published in the leaflets of former years. White daisy.— The white daisy is a perennial; therefore it lives more than two years. The roots are rather shallow and branching. The plant propagates itself to a limited extent by means of underground stems. The seeds of daisies are produced in flat-topped heads, which closely resemble the heads of sunflowers. There is a large number of seeds in each head. White daisies are common in pastures and meadows in New York State, and especially in those which have not been recently plowed. During the last weeks of June and the first weeks of July, many fields are white with daisies. They are cut with the grass at haymaking time, and cured with the hay. If cut before they are too old and tough, they are eaten by cattle with apparent relish. In pastures sheep and even cows will eat daisies although they prefer grass and clover. If a field once becomes infested with daisies, the only cure is to plow the soil and grow on it a cultivated crop, such as corn or potatoes, for one or two years. Grass and clover seed used on the farm often contains daisy seeds. The use of weed-infested farm seeds is largely responsible for the spread of troublesome weeds. Good seeds cost a little more, but they are always safer to use. Sour dock.— Sour dock is an unsightly weed that is common by the roadside and about farm buildings. It is found also in old meadows that RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1083 have not been plowed for several years. It grows from two to three feet tall. Its most distinctive feature is its leaf, which is crinkly at the margins; and because of this the plant has been named curled dock. The tender leaves are often used as greens. The blossoms are greenish with no brightly colored parts. The roots are deep and straight. The small, dark brown, shining seeds are common in clover and grass seed. Sour dock is a long-lived plant, but it can be easily killed if the plants are plowed up or grubbed up before seeds are formed. Black bindweed.—- Black bindweed is often called wild buckwheat. It is a twining vine with drooping greenish flowers in small clusters. Unlike the field bindweed, or wild morning-glory, which is a perennial, the black bindweed is an annual plant, but it is none the less a very trouble- some weed especially in grain fields. The seeds are often found in grain seed. Many of the black bindweed seeds do not germinate until late in the season, and the plant often becomes a pest in corn and potato fields after cultivation has ceased. 1 2 3 “ 5 Seeds of five common weeds, natural size and much enlarged: 1, white daisy; 2, sour dock; 3, black bindweed; 4, field bindweed; 5, quack grass Since the black bindweed is an annual, its spread is controlled by destroy- ing the plants before they go to seed, and by sowing pure farm seeds. Field bindweed.— Field bindweed is one of the most troublesome weeds in the State. It is not so common as some other weeds, but if it becomes established in a field or a garden, it is next to impossible to free the soil from. it. This bindweed is sometimes called wild morning-glory. The pink blossoms are smaller than those of the cultivated morning-glory. The weed has a twining habit, and when it is abundant it winds around other plants and smothers them. It increases both by seeds and by under- ground stems. The smallest part of the creeping root is sufficient to start a new plant. This pest appears most often in rich fields and gardens. It will spread in a circle from a single plant until a whole garden is infested. Many ways of destroying this weed have been tried, but most of them have been unsuccessful. The only sure way to destroy it is to cut the plants off as fast as they appear. Any kind of plant may be killed if it is not per- 1T0o84 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET mitted to send stems or leaves above ground. In cultivating a field con- taining bindweed, care should be taken to avoid dragging pieces of the roots from place to place on the tools. The weed may be widely spread in this way. Quack grass.— Quack grass is one of the most harmful weeds. If it once becomes established in a field or garden, it is an almost impossible task to get rid of it. It is common in old meadows, in gardens, and in cultivated fields. Many of the most troublesome weeds have the means of propagating themselves even when they do not ripen seeds. Quack grass is one of this class. It spreads by means of underground stems or rootstocks. The rootstocks are near the surface, and if they are broken in pieces by a plow or a cultivator, each piece may form a new plant. The drag or other implements may carry these pieces from place to place, thus spreading the weed. Quack grass is also spread from farm to farm as an impurity in other grass seeds, and in hay. The best method of controlling quack grass is by shallow plowing and thorough cultivation. If quack grass is very abundant in a field, stock may be pastured on it until July, or it may be cut for hay before the seeds are ripe. The field should then be plowed and harrowed at frequent intervals until the ground freezes. All rootstocks that are brought to the surface should be gathered and burned. The following year the field should be planted with some crop that is to be thoroughly cultivated. Cultivation will destroy the quack grass that has escaped the plowing and dragging. Were it not for its troublesome habits of growth, quack grass would be a valuable forage plant. It makes fairly good hay and is relished by cattle when pastured on it; but because it so readily becomes a weed, it is unsafe to plant. v ¥, a 2037 at i 7 4 i \ AU ANA WIL af PATA eae 0 S ROU th » we Ofte 4 a \ \ / \X\ Ves \ a RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1085 LETTER TO GIRLS AND BOYS Dear Girls and Boys: This morning I have taken a long walk so that I may be full of a fresh joy in the out-of-doors as I write this letter to the readers of the Cornell Rural School Leaflet. It is a beautiful day in midwinter with a hint of spring to come. The air is full of the sound of running water and of the distant call of crows. The fields and orchards are resting. The world of the open country seems the finest possession that a person can have. This is my last letter to you this school year, the fourth year that you and I have known each other through our letters. These years have been good ones, and I hope that there are many more like them to come. We are always sorry when the March leaflet is complete because there is not another until the next November, but this time we have given you so much to think about and do that I am sure the time will seem short. Read all of the articles carefully, and keep the leaflet where you can take it up now and then and reread parts of it. JI wonder how many girls and boys have kept all of the leaflets that they have received in the last four years, and how many look them over once in a while. The surprise in this number is the picture of the Baltimore oriole. Each year in the March leaflet we have sent you the picture of a bird drawn by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, who is one of the most noted bird painters in the world. The pictures are worth keeping carefully and some of you, no doubt, have the three that have been sent in previous years—the red- winged blackbird, the goldfinch, and the bluebird. There are some suggestions for garden work beginning on page 1056. Springtime is garden time, and I thought as I crossed the fields this morning what a joy it is to take a bit of the surface of the earth and produce fruits or flowers or vegetables on it. Every year I have a garden, and, from the letters that come to me, I know that many of you girls and boys have gardens too. Each year I try to make my garden better than the one of the year previous, and I do not need to urge you to do the same. On pages 1073 and 1074 there are seed order blanks. We recom- mend the two-cent packet of seed rather than the one-cent packet because the former contains enough seed to make planting worth while. The amount of ground that a packet will sow is given in each case, and you can easily estimate how many packets you will need. At the school there are things to be done in improving the grounds, and I want you all to read the article on page 1076 and make progress in this work during this year. On page 1o94 there are a number of suggestions for work between now and next fall. Each one of you should find there something to do that will give you new knowledge and capacity. There are other things that you 1086 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET will find in the leaflet if you look for them: the little story of the bird notes, and the page of bird quotations; the list of garden flowers; descrip- tions of five more weeds with pictures of their seeds; the articles on the house fly and the house mosquito; and the various letters from the girls and boys. The letters I am sure you will read carefully, for I learn from your letters to me that you find them among the most interesting things in the leaflet. Some of you will want to carry out the suggestion of writing to another school, which we make on page 1093. It will take a little time to get this started, but it will surely be worth while, and I know of nothing that will be more interesting. The note to the older boys and girls on page 1093 should not be over- looked by those of you who complete the work of the grades or who leave the rural school this year. The advanced list is growing, and those whose names are on it are a fine group of young persons living in the open country and anxious to help in any way in their power. We expect great things from them in the years to come. During the spring and fall many of you will take trips with your teachers to the woods and fields or to neighboring farms. Such trips are a valuable part of your school work because they add life and interest. I think that sometimes girls and boys do not fully realize that they are as responsible to the teacher on the occasion of trips afield as they are in the classroom; on the contrary they should feel greater responsibility because out in the open greater effort has to be made by each one to keep with the group and to give attention. Whenever there is something to be discussed, all should hear it in order that the whole matter may not have to be repeated to some one who had strayed off or been inattentive at the time. A very short trip will afford a great deal of new information if the most is made of every minute. There is one message that I want to send to you girls and boys in this letter. In other letters we have talked about our health, our habits, our work, and our play, but we have never spoken about the thing I have in mind now. It is the fact that we may keep putting off some thing that we mean to do and want to do until, in the end, it is never done at all. I am sure, from what I have seen and heard, that there are letters written to me that are never sent; that some of you mean to write but do not get around to it; that ears of corn selected to represent the school at Farmers’ Week never leave the schoolhouse; that prize ears returned are some- times left unplanted; that gardens that have been planned are not planted because seeds are not sent for in time; and so on. Now, this is not a criticism of any particular school or person, because we all fall into this error of putting things off, and the only way to conquer it is to keep er. —— = rr US ee RuRAL ScHOOL LEAFLET 1087 fighting against it. The old saying that we see often in mottos, “ Do it now,’ is a good one when we really stop to think what it means. Therefore, whenever we have an impulse to do some good and worth while thing, let us do it at once, and it will be astonishing how much we accomplish. Very often we hear it said, “Oh, I haven’t time.” Perhaps we have said it ourselves. If we think a minute we will see that what we mean is that we do not care to take time for the thing in question. We need constantly to use our time so that we shall always be doing the most worth while thing. No little thing that we have decided to do should stand in the way of a bigger thing that presents itself. The only limit that we have is that of duty, which may sometimes necessitate our doing what seems to be the lesser thing. In this case, however, the doing of it often gives it greater value. Perhaps, at first, you will not understand what I have just written, but if you will read it over now and then during the next few years, I think you will come to see what I mean. It is a fine lesson to learn. It is time to say good-bye. I shall be thinking of you all during the time between now and next November. Perhaps I shall see and talk with some of you. At any rate I shall look for your letters, and expect to find in them a report of the good things you are doing, and how you are growing day by day in knowledge and in friendship for the world of nature and of folk. Your friend, Codd Hb Cle, LETTERS FROM GIRLS AND BOYS District 9, Town of Otsego, Otsego County Cooperstown, New York, December 22, 1914 Dear Mr. Tuttle: I am going to write and tell you about our chickens which were raised on the school ground by the boys in this district. The hen and eggs were given to us by a man who took a great deal of interest in our school. The hen was set on fifteen eggs in a dark corner of the woodhouse. Everything went all right until one day the door blew open, and the hen went outdoors for a long time. We were all very much frightened and afraid the eggs would get cold and would not hatch, but we let her have her own way. After a time she went back on her nest. When school was out we closed the door and she was all right again. We fed her every day and gave her fresh water. T1088 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET One morning in June when the three weeks were up we .heard some chickens calling. We went out and she had hatched fourteen of them all safe. One of them was under a board and could not get out. We took it out and thought it would die, but it did not. We put the hen and her family in a box and tied a string to her leg. During the day we opened the box and let her out. We commenced: to feed them bread and milk and other things from our dinner pails for a while, then cracked corn, then whole corn, which we have fed them ever since. They grew very nicely during the summer. I live near the school- house and I took care of them during the summer. We took them to the county fair and received five dollars which was the first prize. The flock of plymouth rocks at District No. 9 We have not planned what we will raise next year, but think we will raise some corn and potatoes. The girls are going to set out flowers, and have flower beds. Sincerely yours, GEORGE B. MORE Editors’ note-—— George writes an interesting letter about a piece of work that is worth while. Raising this flock of plymouth rock chickens at the schoolhouse was valuable experience. What an opportunity there was to study the habits of the hen during the three weeks that she was sitting on the eggs, to watch the young chicks growing day by day from the time they left the shell, and to read in poultry journals and books about the best methods of feeding and caring for such a flock! It was responsible work, too, for the chickens had to be cared for regularly and faithfully. From their appearance in the picture, and from the fact that POW RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET To89 they took a prize at the county fair, it is evident that they had good care. As a result of this experience the boys and girls have a better knowledge of what to do and of what not to do in raising chickens, and they will be able to use this knowledge in taking care of the home flocks. Another year this school is going to raise a farm crop, and each year there will be some one definite piece of work done at the school that will be valuable in pointing the way for home work. In this way school and home will be brought together by practical work. District 4, Town of Wilton, Saratoga County Wilton, New York, May 27, 1914 Dear Mr. Tuttle: I am writing my third letter, but I am not writing to get the picture. I am writing because I like to write and tell you what we are doing, what we have done, and what we are going to do. I will tell you what we are doing with our yard first. The boys of the school are making a place all along the yard to set out trees. The district let us send to get trees to make a hedge around the yard. The scholars were going to do it at first. We were going to all put in together and get money enough to do it, but the district volunteered to get them for us, so we will not have to get them. It is quite a hard task for the boys to do what they have started. They have dug a solid trench about two hundred feet long. They are very faithful at their work. We have got two window boxes all ready to put plants in them. The boys made the window boxes for us. We are going to have plants from the greenhouse to put in the window boxes. Our yard looks quite bad this spring because the railroad is right back of the schoolhouse and all the rubbish from the unloading of the cars came over on our school yard, and the teams drove on the yard. But now we have got it so they do not drive on it any more. We took an afternoon off and raked the yard so now it looks a great deal better. A gentleman gave us grass seed and sowed it on the yard for us. We have two hanging baskets fixed for the porch. The scholars got up a soap order to get a bookcase to put our library in, and then we “took the old bookcase to put the specimens in which we collected: we have quite a few things in our collection now. We have birds’ nests, different kinds of bark, leaves, different kinds of Indian arrowheads, galls, evergreen cones, ores. We have a bird chart, and it is the first one that we have had in our school. We were not very much interested in it at first because we did not think there were so many kinds of birds around our place as we have seen. Our teacher told us the reason was that we did not have sharp eyes before and did not see all the different birds. Some of the pupils in the school said that we would not have more than fifteen birds reported, but we have thirty-four reported already. I have seen more birds this year than I ever saw in my life before. I have kept a good lookout for the birds ever since I wrote my first letter to you. Jam interested in the birds and all nature study more than ever 69 1090 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET before. We have had very nice times in our Audubon society since we have learned what good the birds are to the people and that they do not do any harm to people. The boys who persevered in making the trench for the hedge We have a bird for discussion in every meeting. We also have had a few animals to study. Some of the birds that we have studied are the English sparrow, bluebird, purple grackle, song sparrow, mourning dove, vesper sparrow, and the kingfisher. We have had other birds, but I cannot think of the names just now. The animals that we have studied are the fox, coon, weasel and wolverine. We have been on a few walks this year, and they have been very interest- ing because we have learned so many things about nature that we did not know. I wish that you would come to our schoolhouse and see what we have done this year. This year of school has been the most interesting year of school that I have ever had. I am very sorry that we cannot have the same teacher next year of school that we had this year because we all like her very well and she makes everything interesting. We have had the picture taken of the schoolhouse before we got it fixed up and if we get the picture after the hedge is set out and our window boxes fixed, I will send the pictures to you if you would like them. We have only two weeks more school after this week. I am glad it is near vacation time, and yet I do not like to see our teacher go. Well, I think I have told you all that we are going to do so will close for this time. Hoping to hear from you soon. Yours sincerely, ANGELEAN E. DEYOE RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET LOgl Editors’ note-— The letter from Angelean tells its own story. Here is a wide-awake school, constantly doing things to improve the grounds, the building, and the equipment, and to increase the pupils’ knowledge and interest. Behind it all there was a good teacher with whom, rather than for whom, the boys and girls worked. We are sorry that she could not stay to carry on the work another year, but we feel sure that with such a start each year will be full of new and valuable experiences for the children. We would like to receive more letters telling of work of this kind. District 11, Town of Lisle, Broome County Marathon, R. D. 4, New York, December 15, 1914 Dear Mr. Tuttle: My teacher and superintendent are anxious I should write you a letter in regard to rabbits so I will do my best. I have about thirty rabbits and enjoy their company first-rate. I have all colors and all sizes. Some are black, some white, yellow, maltese, and striped ones. My rabbits are usually larger than the common gray rabbits of the forest and when I wish to pick one up I usually take it by its long ears, and they will curl up their little bodies like balls. My rabbits have very long hind legs, too. When a rabbit hears a noise like danger he moves his long ears as fast as he can to locate the sound and when he moves away he always uses his long hind legs to jump with. He always leaps and never runs. The rabbit’s nose is always sniffing, too, and this helps him to avoid danger. Their eyes are very bright and round, and the white rabbits have pink eyes. The others have very dark eyes. Did you know that rabbits have hair on the bottom of their feet? What is that for? They eat their food from the ground or from dishes or even your hand. My rabbits dig holes in the ground but not very deep ones, and these they use for nests for their little ones. They line them with fur from their bellies,and grass and weeds which they pull, and when the old mother rabbit leaves her babies for a little while she covers them up with this hair and grass. When a rabbit is three or four weeks old it can run very fast. Rabbits have two long teeth in front to gnaw with. It is these they use when girdling young trees, and they have a little crease in the upper lip so these teeth can work better. This fall I had an old mother rabbit die and leave seven little ones. These little ones were taken in by another mother rabbit that had seven of her own about the same age and she and I together raised these rabbits until they were old enough to wean. My mother let me keep them in the kitchen behind the stove where it was warm, and it was lots of fun to watch the old rabbit eat. It is amusing, too, to hear and see rabbits drum with their hind legs to let the others know of danger coming. I think I have made you tired, but when I talk of rabbits Iam wound up. Yours truly, BLENFORD HAMILTON 1092 RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET Editors’ note— One of Blenford’s schoolmates wrote us that he was especially interested in rabbits, and so we asked him to tell us about his experiences. His letter makes interesting reading and is full of observa- tions that show his careful study of his pets. We are always glad when a boy or girl does a piece of work well. It makes little difference what the work is, so long as it helps the boy or the girl to grow in character and in the capacity to take responsibility. We have had Dr. Allen read Blenford’s letter and thought that some of his comments might interest the boys and girls. He said that the hair on a rabbit’s feet is for protection and is a special provision made in the case of some of our smaller animals that live wholly on the surface of the ground. He said, also, that in addition to the drumming that rabbits make when nervous, they will give a single sharp stamp with one hind foot before starting to run after being frightened. Dr. Allen mentioned the difference between the true rabbits and the hares, or cottontails. The domestic rabbits, such as Blenford has, belong to the true rabbits and probably came originally from the Old World. They differ from the hares, which include our wild ‘‘ rabbits,” or cottontails, in that they dig a shallow hole to make a nest. Hares make a nest on the surface of the ground. A LETTER AND TWO SUGGESTIONS District 1, Town of Kirkwood, Broome County Great Bend, Pennsylvania, December 7, 1914 Dear Miss McCloskey and Mr. Tuttle: We, the pupils of District 1, Town of Kirkwood, County of Broome, would like you to know what pleasure we took in the ear of corn that our superintendent, Mr. Hurlburt, brought us from Cornell. The ear of corn came from Honeoye Falls, Monroe County. We shelled the corn and gave the resident farmers each a tablespoonful in little boxes which we made for drawing. One of the farmers took interest enough to plant the corn and keep it separate, and found that he had forty-two ears of corn. After we had distributed the corn we wrote letters to the pupils of that school, and what interesting letters we did receive in reply! They told us what farm products and different fruits they raised and how to play some of their games. Friday we observed Corn Day. The ear of corn that I had came from the seed taken from the ear from Honeoye Falls. My ear took the prize. Very truly, MILDRED CONKLIN Editors’ note.— We like the letter Mildred writes in behalf of her school. It contains two definite ideas. The first idea is that something worth while was done with the ear of corn that the pupils of another school selected. Their efforts were RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1093 not wasted. Moreover, because this ear was well chosen, it produced good corn, and an ear of it represented the Broome County school at this year’s Farmers’ Week. Corn Day will mean a great deal more when there are many schools taking the interest shown in this letter. We hope that you will keep track of the ear of corn sent by your school this year if any one writes to you about it. Perhaps it won a prize and has been returned to you. If so, be sure that some one plants it this summer and takes good care of the crop, for seed from such an ear becomes better and better each year. Perhaps you have had a letter from a farmer or another school telling you where your ear of corn is. If so, do not fail to keep in touch with them. At any rate, keep track of the corn selected from year to year in order that the work you do in selecting good ears on Corn Day may be put to some good use. The second idea in Mildred’s letter is that her school and the school in Monroe County wrote to each other and became acquainted in this way. For some time we have considered suggesting to schools in the rural districts that they write each year to some schools in other parts of the State. This would be not only interesting, but it would help you to become familiar with farming conditions in various sections, and you could tell each other about your school and home life. You could also exchange information about the various industries in your locality and about the geography of the region. We shall be glad to introduce your school to some other school if you write us that you would like to have us do so. Should you have any preference for corresponding with a school in a particular county, we shall try to meet your wishes if we can. In writing to us, do not fail to give your district number and township, and the name and address of some one in your school who will be sure to receive the letters, preferably one of the older pupils who is likely to be there during the whole year. All of the pupils in one school should write to all of those in the other for a year. Another school in a different section may be added the second year, and so on. Discuss this matter with your teacher. She will be glad to help in starting the correspondence. TO THE OLDER BOYS AND GIRLS There will come a day when you will leave the grades or the rural school, either to go to high school or to go to work. We have been such good friends through the leaflet that it is too bad for us to cease to_ keep in touch with each other. If you are interested, suppose you send us your name and address for a special list that we will keep, and in return we will write to you occasionally, and send you whatever publications from the College we think would be of interest and of help to you. 1094 RuRAL ScHOOL LEAFLET As you grow older you will be in a position to do much for your own and other rural schools. We know of a rural school where every time there is an entertainment or some special occasion for a community gather- ing, a large number of boys and girls fourteen to twenty-one years old come back and help to make it a success. These are those who have gone ahead, but who still keep fresh the memory of their first school and have a desire to see that it prospers. We know that in the years to come there will be more and more of this, and that you will be loyal to the school that has given its best service to you. In order that you may: help intelligently, you will need to know some of the things that the elementary schools are doing and planning, and it will be a pleasure to us to keep in touch with you as closely as we may, and through you to strengthen the schools of the State. Therefore be sure to write to us when you leave the grades or the rural school, asking to have your name placed on the Advanced List. Address the Editors of the Cornell Rural School Leaflet, New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. SOME THINGS TO DO IN SPRING, SUMMER, AND EARLY FALL 1. Make a calendar of the wild flowers as they appear this spring. If you find any that you cannot identify, leave a blank space, and send a specimen to the College to be named. ‘Try to find all that are given for study this year— geranium, hepatica, strawberry, goldenrod, bluet, columbine, bloodroot — for this will be a definite piece of work; but do not neglect to list any others that you may see. In a few years you will know when to expect each of the wild flowers in your neighborhood, and this is always interesting. We are wondering who will find the first hepatica and report its coming? the first wild geranium? Who will be able to tell the teacher in the fall when the first goldenrod was in full bloom? 2. You may prefer to make a calendar of the time of the flowering of the trees. This will be exceedingly interesting. Perhaps no one in your class can tell when the chestnut tree will blossom, although every one of you can tell when the chestnuts will be ripe. Find out when the first blossom of apple, plum, beech, elm, locust, birch, chestnut, and cedar appears. 3. The study of ferns is always full of interest, and although a large part of their life history must be left until you are older and can use microscopes, very young persons can learn much that will give new joy in the woodland places. The dark wood banks that call you by the ferny RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1095 odor, and the strange little fern forms creeping out from among the rocks —all have some story, and the young and patient observer can read it. A good quest will be to find out how many different kinds of ferns you can recognize. Notice how and where the spores, which correspond to the seeds of flowering plants, appear on the ferns. Do you find them on central spikes or on the backs of the fronds (leaves)? Have you ever found spores on cultivated ferns? Notice the differences in the way the fronds are cut. Plant a small fern in soil from the woods in a dish on the teacher’s desk or on the table at home. There is no more attractive centerpiece for the dining room table than a fern. 4. Be able to tell us next year what you have done in helping to destroy two of the most injurious insect pests, the house fly and the mosquito. Read carefully the articles by Professor Herrick on the house fly and the mosquito on page 1097. So harmful are these two pests that every one should help to keep them in check. Continue your study of the tent cater- pillar. Watch for the cocoons of the tent caterpillar, collect some of them, and keep them until the fly-like parasites hatch, as was suggested in the January leaflet, page 1052. The report to date on collecting the egg rings is that 1,846 schools have collected 4,090,442 egg rings. Allow- ing 150 eggs for each ring, 613,566,300 eggs have been destroyed. 5. Learn one or more of the bird quotations in this leaflet, page 1055, and you will be very glad some day that you have done this. 6. Plant a tree or help to plant one. Take this piece of work seriously. Plant the tree at the right time, in the right place, and be sure that the tree is one that will be satisfactory when grown. See page 1078. You have enjoyed the trees planted by others years before you were born — the old apple-tree where the swing hangs, the maple or elm that gives you shady places, the butternut tree, and the fine, old hickory. What will you plant for others to enjoy? 7. Graft a tree for your very own. Have your teacher or your father help. Read directions for this on page 1079. 8. Plan to have your own grapevine. You will find interest in it even if you have to wait two or three years for the fruit. Some day we are planning to ask every boy and girl in the rural schools to plant a good grapevine, and perhaps the report of your experience will help them. You cannot plant your grapevine until fall, but there is always much to be done before growing any new plant. You should know its habits of growth, its favorite situation, the soil best adapted for it, and, above all, the varieties that grow best in your locality. You probably know who has the best grapes in the neighborhood. Consult the grower. The article on the next page will help you to start the grapevine properly and should be read carefully. 1cg6 RuraL ScHoot LEAFLET GROWING GRAPEVINES FROM CUTTINGS CoE -HuNN All grapevines that are used for vineyard purposes are grown from cuttings, and it is only to obtain new varieties that vines are grown from seed. The reason for growing the vines from cuttings is that by this method one is sure to have the identical variety wanted, while in growing vines from seed one cannot tell whether the resultant vine will have good or poor fruit. It will be what is called a “ seedling,” or “ natural fruit.”’ Grape cuttings are usually made late in the fall after the leaves have dropped from the vines and after the summer’s growth of wood has become firm and well ripened. Always use wood of the last summer’s growth, and select the best developed portions. It is better to discard the ends of the shoots, for they are usually only partly ripened. The cutting should have three joints, or nodes. Make the lower cut just below the \ lower node, and leave a short piece of the cane pro- \% jecting above the upper node in order to protect the > bud. These cuttings should be set in the ground in the fall, having the two lower nodes in the soil and the upper one above. A little straw or manure should be placed over the cutting during the winter and taken off in the spring. The cuttings will produce roots and grow the following summer, and the second year they. may be planted where the vines are to remain per- manently. If the vines are grown on a trellis, they should be planted nine or ten feet apart; but if they are to cover an arbor, they should be pianted closer — about six feet apart on both sides of the arbor. One should be able to obtain grape cuttings from persons near who have growing vines, for the wood used for cuttings is usually cut from the vines in the annual pruning and thrown away. Start with a few of the best-known and strong-growing: varieties, such as Concord, Worden, Niagara, or Catawba. Afterwards choicer varieties may be added. Grapevines thrive best in a gravelly loam soil, but they will grow well on heavy soil if there is good water drainage under the roots. Grapevine cuttings RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET 1097 TWO HOUSEHOLD PESTS GLENN W. HERRICK THE HOUSE MOSQUITO Appearance of the mosquito.— The house mosquito is a small fly with two wings, long, slender legs, and a slender proboscis, or beak, with which it penetrates the skin and sucks the blood. The male mosquito has hairy appendages on the head, but does not “ bite.’ Story of its life-——The house mosquito lays its eggs in boat-shaped masses, which float on the surface of water in rain barrels, tin cans, ponds, streams, and pools. The masses of eggs are dark brown, and look like minute specks or soot floating on the water. In one or two days the eggs hatch into tiny wigglers, or larval mosquitoes. These wigglers, or wrigglers, are verv active, but they have a tube on the end of the body through which they take in air, and therefore they rest during a part of the time near the top of the water with the head hanging downward and the tip end of the tube projecting into the air. In about a week the wigglers change to pupe, which appear to have large heads and slender tails. The pupz live for four or five days, when the skin breaks open along the back and the mosquito crawls out, dries its wings, and flies away. Control.— Drain all pools and ponds of water, and empty tin cans and rain barrels in which mosquitoes may breed; or pour oil on top of the water, which will kill the wigglers. Sometimes small fish, such as minnows, can be put into ponds and pools, and these will destroy the wigglers. The ‘windows and porches of houses may be screened as a protection from the annoyance of mosquitoes. THE HOUSE FLY Appearance of the fly.— Several kinds of flies are often mistaken for house flies. The house fly varies in size according to the quantity of food that the maggots obtain and to the temperature surrounding them while they are growing. The house fly is grayish brown in color, with four dark lines on the thorax just behind the head; and one of the main long veins in each wing turns abruptly upward at the end. The body and the legs are covered with rather long, stiff hairs. Story of its life-— The small, white, slightly curved eggs are laid in decaying vegetable material, especially horse manure. They hatch in twenty-four hours into maggots, which reach their full growth in five or six days and change to dark brown objects known as puparia. The pupz, inside the puparia, rest quietly for about five days, and then trans- form to the adult flies. There may be eight or ten generations each season — each generation, of course, containing more flies than the pre- ceding one. 1098 RuRAL SCHOOL LEAFLET Injury and control.— House flies are known to be carriers of typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, and other intestinal diseases, and are there- fore very dangerous insects to allow in the house. All stable manure should be drawn to the fields once a week, or put in a dark, tight room or pit. The closet or outhouse should be tight so that no flies can enter it. The windows to kitchens and other rooms should be screened against flies. Flies should be caught in traps or on tanglefoot paper, or killed with formalin baits. Two tablespoonfuls of formaldehyde (40 per cent) in a pint of equal parts of milk and water, set about the room in plates, will attract the flies and kill many of them, provided there is no other food or water for them to feed on. A piece of bread placed in the middle of each plate for the flies to alight on will make the bait more attractive. A constant warfare should be maintained against house flies. Editors’ note—Ask your teacher to let you see the illustrations of the mosquito and the house fly in the various stages of their development. They can be found on pages 147 and 148 of the September leaflet. An adult house fly. Much enlarged CORNELL RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET PUBLISHED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION, NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT. -CORNELE UNIVERSITY VOLUME IX ITHACA, NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER, 1915 NUMBER | THIS ISSUE IS FOR TEACHERS SUBJECT MATTER IN NATURE STUDY AND IN ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE FOR 1915-1916 AS OUTLINED IN THE NEW MORK STATE SYLLABUS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Entered at the post office at Ithaca, New York, as second-class mail matter [1099] “AKO ep P/1) JOOK Jes pe it OPO EEE 6 iad ea ae ¥4 = {’ 2 l= 7M Were ue 4 b Ree “PRT ae ae ie Ps eG Ge te wie Si T a (ieee A SiG 7 ee ; es, : } ; a “A ii ea fae ere "sl Sx1TAM qoatr ie i Wee aes teers CORNELL RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET PUBLISHED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY, IFHACA, NEW YORK BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, DEAN OF THE COLLEGE GEORGE A. WORKS, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISORS AND EDITORS OF THE LEAFLET EDWARD M. TUTTLE ALICE G. McCLOSKEY ADVISORS ARTHUR D. DEAN LAYTON S. HAWKINS CHARLES H. TUCK GEORGE F. WARREN RAY P. SNYDER EDITORS FOR THE COLLEGE BRISTOW ADAMS RUTH VAN DEMAN {rrot] : sv) Be ake is ad Sia : Zs se WER A = a i) oA a aa nF Pa GIAO ar ; | AM 2 AE CAPA at et t! ya a en 5 ft AS oh | oe a , : : oa 1. 10°} Rial AD Uae Bre ioe ive tie | mts — 1 “Ae shee aia “AGY AA 2H Pe eat ee f , | a , at = te 7 = 7 ; ; ee ee ere eA pe Le fe OP NN itp eee i ¥ a be Dis 2 ; ; AA i : ; «| atiict nie Ti ha 7 7 a 7 = Cae : TAM hy a tae ; ; : a ' . = ; 7 . if ae evel wt ; } ; ee ; P é = : = =e rn “ : a - ¢ ie ie Cee ok ; : ~ (ae a. mies S. ease aoe p ; oa 4 OE gine 4 i ae - . - : oy eg) leat ra ium” - =o |" ea ie Ge ani. i : : SARS VAIEST - Tam ay S i : = 7 : ( o' - [ 7 - ‘ ae ’ i a : z : - . =~ 4 an : : ~ ; tits . i = - - _ cs ¥ 7 7 : mm 4 i = 7 . : : i i Coat a ‘Ss . 5 : < Y = os ry _ , e = 7 : ’ 7 ? 5 — ao 2 — a4 <. N SEAR EIGELL lL He BAILEY I slept night long in the starlight Under the calm great sky; The cool of the depths was about me As the silent hours went by. The day had been one of dejection It had followed me on to my rest, And I took me out to the starlights When the day went down in the west. Often I woke from my slumber And the silent stars were there, In passionless steadfast legions On guard in the welkin bare. Under the gleam of the starshine Motionless long I lay, Knowing at last | had mastered,— As calm and as silent as they. [1103] CORNELL RURAL SCHOOL. CLEARER: VOLUME IX ITHACA, ‘NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER, 1915 ‘NUMBER i FOREWORD THe Epitors The purpose of this number of the Cornell Rural School Leaflet is to give to the teachers of New York State subject matter that may be use- ful in teaching nature study and elementary agriculture as outlined in the New York State Syllabus for the year 1915-1916. No teacher is expected to make use of all the material presented in the following pages; but according to the ages of the boys and girls and the amount of interest and inspiration that a teacher has in the subjects, a selection from the articles may be made. The various topics are presented by specialists who, from their knowledge, have given what they consider important in their lines of work in the education of children. The leaflet is made up of two parts. In Part I will be found subject matter that will be helpful in teaching nature study and elementary agriculture as outlined in the syllabus. In Part II is given some material that will doubtless be suggestive to many of the rural teachers who have special interest in outdoor study. In order to make the country-life instruction in the public schools of greatest value, the following should be considered: 1. Nature study is the study of nature. Every boy and girl should be encouraged to find education and resources in the out-of-doors. They should know the wild life about them — the birds, the trees, the flowers, the weeds, the insects, the animals of field and wood. They should take interest in the soils, the rocks, the brooks, the hills, the woodlot, the forest. They should learn to love the music of the wind, the soughing of the pines, the clear, true starlights, the restfulness of rains, and the magic of the snows. Love of nature is a valuable asset in the lives of farm folk. 2. Agriculture is a dignified industry that, for its greatest develop- ment, must be founded on science. Boys and girls even in the elementary grades should be taught to seek the truth in all that has to do with farm experiences and practices, and to turn to scientists for information that relates to farm problems. They should know who are investigators along the many lines of scientific agriculture in state and national insti- tutions, and why they have the right to receive help from these persons. 3. Agriculture should not be taught from a printed page. The boys and girls should enter during each school year some agricultural activity, such as the making of a school or home garden, a farm or home project, an exhibition of farm products, the planting of school grounds, or the [1104] RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET L105 like. Books and bulletins may be used for reference and suggestion, but the real education in this work will result from actual experience in the out-of-doors. The school enterprise must be planned in such a way that it will appeal to the young folk as important. Farm boys and girls are not much interested in doll gardens on the school grounds. In country districts there is much need of a home garden on the farm, and the boys and girls should take care of this. Fresh garden vegetables for the home table will contribute to the well-being of the family. The teacher who encourages this effort is doing a fundamental work in a com- munity. There is need for a home fruit-garden. An interesting work would be to find out the most desirable variety of grape for the locality and teach the children how to procure and plant a cutting. Boys and girls, with help at home and the encouragement of the teacher, can do muchin raising poultry. Some teachers have fostered a small poultry enterprise at the school. This has aroused interest in home poultry. It is not the amount but the character of work done in nature study and elementary agriculture in the rural school, that is important in edu- cation. Studies in these subjects for young children should lead to out- of-door interests and activities, in which the boys and girls take part because they enjoy them. Teachers often hesitate to introduce such subjects from a mistaken feeling that the children may know more about them than the teachers themselves do. It is true that many boys and girls have some knowledge of the natural world and of agricultural practices, but, for the most part, this knowledge is superficial and general, and they need to see that there is much that they have never learned. Teachers and children can work together and learn together, and this is, perhaps, the very best way. A large number of rural teachers are accomplishing excellent results by suggestion and encouragement in this work for the most part outside of school hours. Simple competitions in outdoor quests in natural history, and in some farm or home practices, will bring a wholesome interest into the schoolroom for days and often for weeks, and will result in a closer relation between the children and their sur- roundings. If encouragement is given in practical lines of study, the parents will often become interested, and the school and the home will be working together in the education of the boys and girls. Fie: - var Re ae el) en Pe eae ' 7 rf > rrrd Li ' 5 : : rt ri Fi ; i "i ei of wi ine aT eax te d “x Ae od Celie (ede iat Tt ‘ -? ot Sgn < ae TSS Cath yo Pitgn or 1 Ge Tuy - 7 : wae WD ire are spose ach! - ; j re, Lt en © - & | i) Mont | : ee P y Li 2 ot - , Ble Sette a hee a FY, GA Waser (0) * . Pl Cara ae = 5] 2. teroe , “= Popa! ue ‘ - ite ¢< ite, 2 6 Pe Teo 2 pening | ifs ! an i i » och 0 -saGI De act cane 7 "ny DIS (@ it? ly © an ye hay Hi is an oo \eett a Sao ae 7 P i yf LePage kK) i a) mH wy) fh Tes ee ‘ Ce oe a OL a igh! recut | +g aie eae ae Jed) oe UE) ee | APL PO C4 &. ‘Ut be a) geet.) Leanne) ae NE Stee wit- Co) sroiy M4 Tse. Gael) AA Feeriere ai: ae 77 6,33 i ot Pm | rex ryote OM ral aes Dae SemseapTeotee , FG Cs & Tye ye, GPRS St Sh oNikiee, wt te qrtiteg= Seem re ee Re i Perey bass ery ee! ; ree, int enh a feat p - Soy. Olea a> Wm. eee “ue a.) “ < eA] : rail if aati ware’ 2 ¥ sos ie | f : : : ;, ; re ney os Pi, Q ee sae 9°C clea H )*)Quh..2seeree d ‘ ¢ «ite ah aie UN Gheus f » Vigo er rej Sater ‘ae pAI®.. limiter?) 2 lasted apis! ei. an een ae 7 = 4 + 1e fe cra hfe’, sir we Sy : ol! ie: 1, Bee oA ore We ai ' . ee mee SW ae ; 7 i FM vir ¢ Y y) La ‘ She, ' dint Vie ts — Wh at tee Wee.) lot ee pv ioetol ‘AY 4G jee : - 7 bd a Sas lS) Re ole: a att j bin : f Ay ofA 3. >t ud 7 aoe ee re ay Pe anel ety Pia say = Pa ee eee “l te 1 ia 2 S| ’ i ash dit tye' tatty! Ge tre ee ae : mil) afiieed a ee eed), ee peer 3)! f gore Seep a etn Sree: a ——_ - Vl Gs Fe et} lo th lagotales ets tpmaibienes *: re PART | LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR 1915-1916 IN NATURE STUDY AND IN ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE AS OUTLINED IN THE NEW YORK STATE.SYLLABUS BIRDS For special study, the chickadee and the hen; to be recognized, any two of the winter birds and any five of the following: bluebird, chipping sparrow, brown creeper, barn swallow, pewee, oriole, hawk, crow, flicker, Maryland yellowthroat. ANIMALS For special study, the horse and the cow; to be recognized, any four of the following: donkey, deer, turtle, field mouse, squirrel, woodchuck. INSECTS For special study, the monarch or (for Adirondack region) the sovereign butterfly, and one biting and one sucking insect; to be recognized, any four of the following: grasshopper, wasp, cricket, potato beetle, house fly, luna moth, dragon fly. PLANTS For special study, the corn; to be recognized, one of the clovers, one of the grains, one of the grasses, and any six of the following: violet, pansy, aster, milkweed, skunk cabbage, claytonia, poppy, pear, lady’s-slipper, sweet clover, cabbage, carrot, also any four of the following weeds: bur- dock, white daisy, shepherd’s purse, wild carrot. TREES | For special study, the oak and one conifer; to be recognized, two kinds of fruit trees and any five of the following: American hop hornbeam, or ironwood, arbor vit«, aspen, butternut, catalpa, sassafras, shadbush, sycamore, witch-hazel. 1 There is no tree work outlined in the syllabus for this year, but in this leaflet. is given some material on common trees in which many of the schools of the State are interested. [1107] 1108 RuraAL SCHOOL LEAFLET BIRD STUDY THE Epirors N preparation for bird study for t1915—1916, teachers should read over the material in this publication and make simple plans for the year’s work, both as to method of instruction and as to results to be accomplished. This does not mean to have outlines made to be followed by the children, for nature study should be largely spontaneous. Instead of following outlines in bird study, the birds them- selves should be followed. It is very important, however, for the teacher to decide what will be most helpful in leading the boys and girls to make the right kind of observations. No one should plan to do too much, but should consider the following suggestions carefully, and perhaps use one or more of them in outdoor teaching. ' 1. As you read over the articles on birds in this leaflet, write down in your notebook some things that you will be able to work out with the boys and girls. During your reading you will get a fairly good knowledge of the possibilities of educational work connected with the birds for study this year. You may not know these birds, but when your interest is once aroused, the knowledge comes easily and rapidly. Some teachers have known only a few of the commonest birds at the beginning of the school year, but with the aid of the children they have become familiar with twenty-five, thirty, and even a larger number before the close of the spring term. 2. Make a list of the birds given for this year’s work that you do not know. Try to become familiar with the descriptions of these birds, so that if you should come across one of them you would recognize it. En- courage the boys and girls to help. 3. Have a canary at school some day. Caged birds are most unsatis- factory to any one who has associated with birds in the open, and from the experience with the canary a desire to leave the birds free, and yet have their companionship, can be encouraged. Any stories that you know of the experiences of bird lovers with wild birds will be valuable. Often some of the shy birds will respond to human kindness and become very friendly (page 1114). 4. The boys and girls will take an interest in making bird houses. At least one should be placed in every school yard in New York State. Some of the most attractive birds, such as the bluebird, the wren, and the purple martin, will build in houses. In view of the fact that children RuRAL ScHOOL LEAFLET TIOO are often awakened to interest in work that will attract the attention of the public, some competition in bird house structure among the schools of a supervisory district is suggested. The bird houses might be made and exhibited at the county fair, and then placed on the school grounds to become well weathered before the birds return the next spring. On this page will be seen an exhibition of bird houses made by the boys and girls in Saratoga Springs. A thousand were completed, nine hundred of which were of suitable material, and carefully made as to size, location of entrance, and the like. eee 1301 EEE EC ers Ses ne Aine seg e eRe kh Rese ee vanes Soa teciee a meee 1290 Deri AOUE a s So ae oS face aed s oes Sete a Ae ncaa eeeee 1293 Seen resuue the sermunation of Seed. (22.2.2. 2 - ee ea wee Je ee ces c ates 1305 EN ec tea si ene Ee! 6) 9 Pen oak o.tle cya niece, ae, 2 on Seta ease 1200 SH er Mee ee ob ad he A a hs Oe esac Ste 9 Sete ae eae ree 1202 - pete CINCO oe Aa oe a) cohen S cataia Due we A ae ae ois Kos bapa 127 ala cana tne oe ee Sie tel Oe DE TLS es te ee ei oreo ee 1134 Meeter oWmeeT. ENE TTIGTLGd.. <2 <5 Sodje co > Sate ays Sad since es see es a Sees 1272 mms Sole ras hs ae ee ae eee = aa eee mae Uae ae So ee 1330 eee I in BP Sa Nes ele eee ns Oe Og a eed Se ee RIA 1235 OT SI ea See ous Ses oe ee on eae 2 So ets 1234 TE ee re ee nr Mer errr LAr 1287 prranmucnesd tor farmers Week ic ¢ 51220. Sa foe os tA ns 2 ao eee os 1384 eer cen. ccHeral Cxtnbil fOr jo. 202s Sa ee ts ee» op ayy ayes ee 1384 RiEeSsIRS Ce ee oe he ms al EA eng se) is Se OE 1246 Sele ne SN 7 ee a Me BeBe. REY Sn Matai OPe ee reed Aes 1135 Sibeeeraeate Le THT Al SCHOO. 2 oe Fo 8 Norah a sa tae a see fe sos al soe i pina Swe 1343 Rarereaarear cee ed enn) no ee Be say ony Mies Pe Os ee ae II04 REMEBER EC SCG WOS yn ie ror os eid SSeS PRET eee g te cies aR ee S St aoe 1361 LL. FRE ee A een eee eee oes i ne I31I “SE Ty a eee aes eae he ee ee Ree 1275 TG SIREN UNINC). 0h SOs ie os ans pe ea Ay hoes 2 1310 OE. SES ee ee ee ae ee eae eee ae BS chaise Ye 1131 1436 RURAL SCHOOL LEAFLET PAGE ELOME prOj COUS artes Ai fous. ota gne es eee ee Ree ee Ns tee eee ee IgOOhe Hop Normbeats ty AMenCAan . 5). ./ s.2.ccgsetees ce re Reet es = eles cose Eee 1356 ELORSE et GES TOT ELE on hn. Ss Sve ine lo cui cy) SPe lly ncan dpe) Ren Rene RA ErInTO © 0-1 cokes ke Rees 1171 EAGESCSPMLESSOLS Of) oie's jc. an. io e'a 7 5s, store gels cinie nucle us on EON sooth apse SE 1175 House fly Be oi ies. aoa. o's a lend antne ae eenaMlat ess Cathet aye oh ce OMI te Te eae os. cys ee ea 1282 Insect ie INCTCASING? ALE. ic, Oe eco teh cg ae ene: rk Ree eS aa, ee nee eee 1255 imiseeis: (OtLing aNd Sucking... 3s hence sad scte © el ncle/e neem te elena ss) 5/5 u8) Nae 1264 BSCR ELY cots. ncn tases ecg tae ti th ye 1251 LTS an ae GS eRe MP SN = Pl PAP penn 3 1121 Be SSID DET x (2) 5.5 oie a ocah eerapete Settee tas ee eat ue EL Seen ne ce cern iey Se 1323 Ieeatlet? distrib tition: Ofc ccc sence ches eee op eet ee eR ease 1431 Wetter, extract trom GOnvests)..,aa-r ene Ae oh steht no eee eae eau ties sete ey eed 1410 MeGters (Children's. wacyenies cur nic wer eects Sy oA eos Gist he e eCete o re Mee ee 1417 NEAT THO thee ete ais RE eecye ease ENON Se Cae ae Ee OG Cer gS. a nee 1284 Nantis mE UrOpeall prayane soy. oeylis aategies ee Ae ea eR re ea stair tees 1264 Meany lands yellow throaticn. 0. ss crate se ccreatske ese Rees sue sen ate el. yc ee ee 1136 INT yee yc, tee ie ee Sooee bts RES eyaute cee ee ceveaa Suatele Sn osege es A Metre te etek ae ee 1321 Wionarchy Dabberiiy ss cis poe a ecm ete kee eee lade ae ae ak se one Pe eee 1258 INAa Sine tec etc cas Sects Sesh ote To USS re et Sg eee ty ton 1234 MalksrorsNewn Vor the cis 4.5 0ray Ate ee Buses Nile Pe te ce he hater a a eae 1346 @riOle nee: eee es eS eek se, Ne 7 fen es CS eae eee oe 1130 JOYEE Ve Bere ae asin Sean eet eR SIC INCE Be antennae Pe AV ec Nin, 1361 IDEA CHEELCe DOLE sree ec tee ea Mee ae ee ie lee Feira gt te rn ea gene ee 1266 a Re er Mm Ne Ayo ak Ah gh ey Re olny ee £323 Re WEC Ee te esi seen tee notin EN ee Neh J eae NN ee a an 1129 Pine sto RONG WHCODLS ALN Cie martin eft cud reas cderthgs Vaile rey oeakaae se cooeemans evar an Ao areas 1353 Piants helpsanethe: Stud WuOb: sre eit 3 orogens at es sah Ba Sa a ee nase gE Plants, studies with’ cultivated.: 25 ...5¢ 2550... 00. phe iy re Ree ee OE: 1332 Plat study neck eitis osteo neck ckga ks ice some ex: PT RR eT FR 1289 Rlantestucdy mn CCneralcn:. oc oiuot. ace haga ainthivass capig a's Aine: siyaiig ane ihe, Aaa tegen [siz OW OVI Titra _ Sa = ss a - enartment of Home Economics is ready to assist in your study OL FiO EIOTERCS bom aime We wernt womr acaoctancre ac well Eo EERE Ct tlcs t= - *¥ Waitl YOULL GQSSISLGEICOe aS WCll, AASA 4 1 + + ~ - . er sugges let us Nave the DeneHt OF your experience. You thus become a vital part of the Department of Home Economics in + a hat aa Te Sit £50) ousekee -~—> = = _ 4 ae 7 ee Pear: a Will you please send your Opimions on we roll owing points to the Super- Ui VPVLEEViid Vii ti = WILE LOS visor of the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home? 4 —ae es hac you Had experience in makimsg = “APA 19m Mmawne ca. money? If so, briefly describe your methods, including advertising, selling, and delivery. 1460 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 2. What are your uses for stale cake? How do you keep cake moist? 3. What method or what labor-saving device have you found to be the most useful in making cake? 4. Which are the more economical of time, labor, and money — cakes or puddings? The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York B. T. GatLtoway, Director A. R. MANn, General Editor COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors VOL. IV. No. 75 NOVEMBER 1, 1914 NOON a MAKING CAKE.— PART II KATHERINE H. MILLs Success in making cake depends not on the perfect proportion of the recipe but on the thorough understanding of the principles governing the making of cake. In Part I of the lesson on making cake these prin- ciples were discussed, in order that the housekeeper might become more certain of her results in making cake and that she might know the reasons for her failures. This part of the lesson should be carefully studied before the recipes given here are tried. For this same reason a short discussion of the principles of sugar cookery is given before the recipes for cake frostings and fillings. A well-made frosting or filling adds much to the attractiveness as well as the palatability of a cake. It also helps to retain the moisture of the cake and in this way adds to the keeping quality. Cakes may be simply frosted with a quickly made frosting or they may be put together with a rich nut © and fruit filling and elaborately decorated. It should be remembered, however, in decorating a cake, or any other object, that the fundamentals are simplicity and good quality. SELECTED AND TESTED RECIPES FOR CAKE Sour cream cake 2 cupfuls sour cream 33 cupfuls flour 2 cupfuls sugar 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder 4 eggs 3 teaspoonful soda (scant) Thick sour cream is equivalent to one third to one half of its measure in fat. The above recipe corresponds very closely to formula II.!. Two cupfuls of sour cream corresponds to about 13 cupful of liquid plus 2 cupful of fat, or, reduced to the exact terms of the formula, 14 cupful of liquid and about 3} cupful of fat (if sweet milk and fat were used instead of sour cream). The baking powder plus the soda corresponds to 5 ‘téaspoonfuls of baking powder alone if used without soda and with sweet Beli trne Cain — Part I. page 1457. The Cornell Reading-Courses, Lesson for the Farm Home, No. 73. [1461] 1462 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES milk, or, in terms of the formula, 43 teaspoonfuls of baking powder. Buttermilk or sour milk may be substituted for sour cream in this recipe by using 14 cupful of either liquid and adding } cupful of fat. The same amount of soda and baking powder that the recipe calls for should be used in this case. The cake made from this recipe may be baked in one large or two medium-sized cake pans. Sweet cream cake 2 eggs 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder Sweet cream, of medium grade 3 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful of sugar Flavoring if desired 1% cupful flour Break the eggs into a measuring cup and fill the cup with sweet cream of medium grade. Pour the contents of the cup into a mixing bowl, add the sugar and salt, and beat thoroughly until the mixture is well blended. Then add the flour, which has been mixed and sifted with the baking powder. This recipe makes one loaf of cake that is delicious if eaten soon after it is baked, but it dries out quickly. Lightning cake } cupful butter | 1 cupful sugar 2 eggs 14 cupful flour Sweet milk 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder Melt the butter in a measuring cup, but do not let it become hot. Add the unbeaten eggs to the melted butter, fill the cup with sweet milk, and beat the contents of the cup two minutes with a dover egg beater. Add the sugar and beat again. Then add the flour, which has been mixed and sifted with the baking powder, and beat the whole mixture again. The cake made from this recipe may be baked as drop cakes, and sprinkled with powdered sugar; or it may be baked in one loaf in a small bread pan or in two layer cake tins. Grated orange peel or orange extract may be used for flavoring, or nuts may be added. Frost the cake with a fruit-flavored frosting. Prize cake Yolks 4 eggs ¥ cupful milk Whites 2 eggs 2 cupfuls flour t cupful sugar 24 teaspoonfuls baking powder + cupful melted butter Mix by method II? and bake the cake in one loaf. FANNIE MERRITT FARMER 2 All references made to methods I, II, III, and IV of mixing cake in this lesson refer to Making Cake.— Part I, pages 1453-1455, Reading-Course for the Farm Home, No. 73. MakiInG Cake.— Part II 1463 ’ White layer cake 4 cupful butter 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 cupful sugar 12 cupful flour ° 5 cupful milk Whites of 4 eggs, beaten stiff Mix by method I, leaving out the yolks of the eggs. Bake in two layers or in a loaf. The layers may be put together with any desired frosting. Ice cream cake 2 cupful butter 2 cupfuls flour 1z cupful sugar z teaspoonful soda Grated rind and juice of } lemon Whites 6 eggs Mix by method I, leaving out the yolks of the eggs. This cake, if properly made and baked, is fine grained and very good. In this case the lemon juice is the acid constituent that takes the place of cream of tartar. JANET MACKENZIE HILL Bride’s cake ? cupful butter 4 cupfuls flour 25 cupfuls sugar 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 cupful milk Whites 12 eggs 1 teaspoonful vanilla or almond extract Mix by method I, leaving out the yolks of the eggs. Care should be taken not to beat the whites of eggs until they are too dry. Lady Baltimore cake 1 cupful butter 3 cupfuls flour 2 cupfuls sugar 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 cupful milk t teaspoonful vanilla Whites 6 eggs Mix by method I, leaving out the yolks of the eggs; bake in three layers; put together with Lady Baltimore filling; and frost with twice-cooked frosting. This cake may be made with two, three, four, five, or even six teaspoonfuls of baking powder, and it offers an interesting illustration of the effect of baking powder on cake. With two teaspoonfuls of baking powder, the cake will be close grained, and inclined to be bready. With six teaspoonfuls of baking powder, if the cake is carefully baked, it will 1464 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES rise very light, falling slightly during the last part of the baking, but will still be very light when the baking is finished. It will be more open in texture and more tender than the cake made with two teaspoonfuls of baking powder. The use of so much baking powder is not advocated, however, since it is not really needed, and it is believed that it is unwhole- some to eat a great deal of baking powder. The housekeeper may be interested, however, in experimenting for herself to see the effect of the varying amounts of baking powder in a cake mixture. Gold cake t cupful sugar 1¢ cupful flour Yolks 8 eggs 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 3 cupful milk 1 teaspoonful vanilla 3 cupful butter Mix by method II. Bake in tube cake pans or in small individual cake pans. Lord Baltimore cake Use the same recipe as that given for gold cake. Bake in three layers; put together with Lord Baltimore filling; and frost with twice- cooked frosting. Pound cake (recipe 1) 1 cupful butter 4 eggs 14 cupful powdered sugar 1 teaspoonful baking powder 2 cupfuls flour 5 cupful milk Mix by method I; bake the cake carefully in a-.moderate oven. JANET MACKENZIE HILL Pound cake (recipe 2) 1 pound butter Whites 10 eggs 1 pound sugar 1 teaspoonful mace Yolks to eggs rt pound flour 2 tablespoonfuls milk Mix by method I. Powdered sugar will make a finer-grained pound cake than granulated sugar, but the general appearance of the crust is better when granulated sugar is used. Sponge cake 4 eggs 1 cupful sugar 1 cupful flour 4 teaspoonfuls lemon juice MakInG CakE.— Part II 1405 Separate eggs; beat the yolks until lemon colored; add sugar and beat; fold in flour and then stiffly beaten whites of eggs; bake in an ungreased pan in a moderate oven. Hot-water sponge cake 2 eggs 3 tablespoonful lemon juice 3 cupful sugar 1 cupful flour 6 tablespoonfuls hot water 13 teaspconful baking powder + teaspoonful salt Beat yolks of eggs until thick; add half the sugar, then the water, lemon juice, and remaining sugar; fold in the stiffly beaten whites of the eggs and the flour, which has been mixed and sifted with the baking powder; bake in a greased tin. Chocolate sponge cake Use the recipe given for hot-water sponge cake; add two ounces of chocolate which has been reduced.to a thick smooth paste with 4 table- spoonfuls of hot water. Sponge jelly roll 2 eggs 24 teaspoonfuls baking powder + cupful sugar 3 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful flour 4 teaspoonful vanilla, if desired 2 cupful hot milk Mix the ingredients in the order in which they are given. Bake in a well-greased dripping pan in a thin sheet. Be sure that the heat of the oven is such that it will give a good under crust. Turn out on a clean towel or bread board, spread with jelly, and roll. Angel cake Whites 8 eggs t cupful sugar 3 teaspoonful cream of tartar ? cupful flour 3 teaspoonful vanilla Pinch of salt Sift the sugar twice and the flour and salt four times, measuring the flour after the second sifting as usual. Beat the whites of the eggs until frothy, add the cream of tartar, and continue beating until the whites are stiff, but not too dry. Add the sugar gradually and continue beating. Carefully fold in the flour, salt, and vanilla. Pour the batter into an ungreased tube cake pan, and bake in a very moderate oven. Invert the pan when the cake is removed from the oven, and place it in such 1466 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES a position that a current of air will surround the cake on all sides. If a chocolate-flavored cake is desired, 4 cupful of cocoa may be substituted for } cupful of flour. Mock angel cake 1 cupful sugar teaspoonful salt 13 cupful flour cupful scalded milk 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 teaspoonful vanilla Whites 2 eggs Galbo cole Mix and sift the sugar, flour, baking powder, and salt three times. Pour the scalded milk on this mixture and stir until smooth. Add the flavoring, and fold in the stiffly beaten whites of the eggs. Bake in an ungreased tube cake pan in a moderate oven. This is a good cake to eat with ice cream. It is better if made on the day it is to be eaten, since it toughens and dries out if kept several days. Soft gingerbread egg 1? cupful flour cupful sugar teaspoonful ginger cupful New Orleans molasses teaspoonful cinnamon teaspoonful soda mixed teaspoonful salt with 1 cupful sour milk cupful butter PS) ) RIS Be Se Mix by method II; bake the cake for one half hour in a shallow, paper-lined pan. Maggie's molasses cookies I egg 3 cupfuls flour 1 cupful sugar t teaspoonful cinnamon t cupful molasses teaspoonful cloves t teaspoonful soda mixed with teaspoonful salt 1 cupful sweet milk cupful butter + cupful lard ai ei Ble Mix by method II, bake the mixture in muffin pans. Apple sauce cake 1 cupful sugar 14 cupful unsweetened apple sauce t tablespoonful cinnamon 25 cupfuls flour 3 tablespoonful cloves 4 cupful butter 2 teaspoonfuls soda 1 cupful raisins MakinGc CakE.— Part II 1467 Mix the first three ingredients in the order in which they are given in the recipe. Stir the soda into the apple sauce, and let this mixture foam over into the ingredients already mixed. Add the flour, the butter which has been melted, and the raisins which have been dredged with two tablespoonfuls of flour. In this cake the large amount of soda helps to make the cake soft and light. The large amount of spices and fruit prevent the soda from giving the cake a soapy taste. Botled-raisin cake 1 cupful raisins 1 teaspoonful soda 13 cupful water 1 teaspoonful cinnamon 1 cupful sugar 1 teaspoonful nutmeg I egg 1 teaspoonful cloves 2 cupfuls flour 3 teaspoonful vanilla 4 cupful shortening Boil the raisins slowly in the water until there is one cupful of water left and the raisins are plump, and allow the mixture to cool. Then add the sugar, egg, flour which has been mixed and sifted with the soda, spices which have been wet with 3 teaspoonfuls of boiling water, and the melted shortening. If the cake is to be eaten within a day or two, the amount of shortening may be reduced to §{ cupful. Date cake 14 cupful brown sugar 3 teaspoonful cinnamon 2 eggs 3 teaspoonful nutmeg 4 cupful milk 4 teaspoonful cloves 1? cupful flour 3 teaspoonful salt 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder x cupful shortening 3 pound dates, stoned, cut in pieces, and lightly floured Mix the ingredients in the order in which they are given, using method Mi: LADIES HOME JOURNAL English gingerbread cake 1? cupful flour + cupful butter 3 cupful raisins 1 cupful molasses 3 cupful nut meats, broken in 4 cupful sugar pieces 13 teaspoonful cinnamon 2 eggs 13 teaspoonful cloves 3 teaspoonful soda 1 teaspoonful ground ginger 1468 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Mix together flour, soda, raisins, and nuts. Put butter, molasses, and sugar into a saucepan, and boil the mixture for one minute after boiling commences. Beat the eggs and stir the boiling mixture into them, stirring vigorously. Add this mixture to the dry ingredients, and mix thoroughly. This recipe makes one loaf of cake which can be kept for a long time. Spice cake I egg 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder + cupful sugar 3 teaspoonful cloves 4 cupful molasses 3 teaspoonful cinnamon 4 cupful sour milk 3 teaspoonful allspice 3 teaspoonful soda stirred into 4 cupful shortening milk -3 cupful raisins, cut into small 1% cupful flour pieces and floured lightly Mix the ingredients in the order in which they are given. This recipe may be varied by omitting the raisins and adding nuts, currants, or citron. Nut spice cake 1 cupful butter cupful brown sugar cupful molasses Yolks 4 eggs 1 cupful sour milk 3 teaspoonful soda 23 cupfuls flour teaspoonful baking powder teaspoonful cloves teaspoonful cinnamon nutmeg, grated cupful raisins cupful currants cupful English walnut meats Nik oH Nie tl Rie Rie HH BIR OH ole oH Sweet milk and 33 teaspoonfuls baking powder may be used instead of sour milk and soda. It will be noted that this recipe differs from the one given above for spice cake in the amount of each essential ingre- dients except molasses and fat. Each one of these recipes, however, is well balanced and cake made by either of them will keep moist for several days. Coffee cake 3 cupfuls flour 1 pound raisins ja 2 pounds r pound currants } raisins 1 teaspoonful cinnamon 1 teaspoonful cloves 3 teaspoonful allspice 1 cupful butter 2 cupfuls brown sugar 5 eggs 1 cupful black coffee 1 teaspoonful soda MakINnG CakE.— Part II 1460 Compared with the formulas*, this recipe corresponds to cake formula IV, except that the amount of liquid is increased in order to balance the large amount of dry fruit that is included. The soda should be mixed with the coffee. Dried-apple cake 1 cupful dried apples I egg 1 cupful molasses 1 cupful sugar + cupful butter 33-4 cupfuls flour 1 teaspoonful soda dissolved in t teaspoonful cinnamon 1 cupful sour milk or butter- 1 teaspoonful cloves milk 1 teaspoonful nutmeg 1 cupful raisins, lightly floured Soak the dried apples over night, drain them, and cook them with the molasses until the mixture is thick. The cooking will require about half an hour. Add the butter to the hot mixture and allow it to cool before adding the remaining ingredients. Bake this cake in a good-sized loaf; it can be kept for some time. Wedding fruit-cake t pound flour (browned) 1 pound figs 1 pound brown sugar rt pound currants 1 pound butter rt nutmeg, grated 1 pound almonds, bleached and 3 tablespoonfuls cinnamon cut fine t tablespoonful cloves 14 pound raisins 3 pound citron, cut fine 12 eggs t teaspoonful soda dissolved in Juice of 2 oranges 4 cupful black coffee Juice of 2 lemons Mix fruit and nuts together and dredge with browned flour. Beat sugar and butter to a cream, and add beaten eggs, fruit juice, and coffee. Add the other ingredients and stir the whole mixture well. Place thick buttered paper in the pans before pouring in the cake mixture. Bake the cake in a very slow oven. Chocolate caramel cake 3 cupful grated chocolate 2 eggs (2 squares, or 2 ounces) 5 cupful milk ¥ cupful butter 1 cupful flour 1 cupful sugar 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 3 Given on page 1457 of Making Cake.—Part I. 1470 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Steam the chocolate until it is soft, add the butter, and stir until the butter is melted. Add the sugar, and allow this mixture to cool before adding the remaining ingredients. Bake the cake in two or three layers and put them together with caramel filling. Dom econ cake‘ ounces (2 squares) chocolate, 1 cupful flour to erated 3 teaspoonful soda mixed with ¢ cupful butter + cupful sour milk 4 cupful boiling water I egg t cupful sugar Mix the ingredients in the order in which they are given. The boiling water will melt the chocolate and butter. Do not wait for the mixture of chocolate, butter, and water, to cool before adding the other ingredients. The cake batter will be exceedingly thin but must not be thickened. Bake as a loaf cake and frost with twice-cooked frosting flavored with chocolate. A delicious variation of this cake is to bake it in two layers in a moderate oven, put it together with chocolate filling, and ice it with boiled or twice-cooked frosting. If properly baked this cake will be delicious and moist. It can be kept for several days. Chocolate puffs 1} cupful flour + teaspoonful salt 1 cupful sugar I egg 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder Milk t tablespoonful melted butter 2 squares chocolate, melted Mix and sift together the flour, sugar, baking powder, and salt. Break one egg into a measuring cup, fill the cup with milk, and add the contents of the cup to the dry ingredients. Beat this mixture thoroughly and add the melted butter and the melted chocolate. This cake is easily and quickly made. It should be baked in small gem pans. It is delicious when eaten at once, but dries out very quickly. Chocolate fudge cake 2 eggs 2% cupfuls flour 1 cupful sugar t teaspoonful soda mixed with 3 cupful molasses 3 cupful hot water 4 cupful sour milk 3 squares chocolate, melted 3 cupful melted butter JANET MACKENZIE HILL: 4 Dom econ, a shortening of domestic economy, is the popular name among the students at the College for the Department of Home Economics. This recipe for cake has been gradually evolved by the students and teachers in their work in the Department and has received its name from the girls. Makinc CakE.— Part II 1471 Devil’s food 4 eggs 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 cupfuls sugar teaspoonful vanilla tr cupful milk cupful butter 2% cupfuls flour cupful (2 squares, or 2 o11nces) grated chocolate, melted — le nl Mix the ingredients by method I or II, putting them together in the order in which they are given. JANET MACKENZIE HILL Chocolate cake without eggs cupful sour milk cupfuls flour teaspoonful soda 3 squares (3 ounces) chocolate cupful sugar cupful sweet milk cupful sugar teaspoonful salt cupful shortening teaspoonful vanilla or 3 teaspoonful ground cloves Se OS) oe) Ld Rol bole i) H Cook together the chocolate, one half cupful of the sugar, and the sweet milk until the mixture is thick. Add the remaining cupful of sugar, sour milk which has been mixed with the soda, flour, salt, and shortening. Potato chocolate cake 4 eggs 33 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 cupfuls sugar 2 squares chocolate, melted 1 cupful hot mashed potatoes % cupful shortening + cupful milk 1 teaspoonful cinnamon 2 cupfuls flour 3 teaspoonful cloves r cupful chopped nut meats t teaspoonful grated nutmeg Mix the ingredients by method II. This recipe makes two loaves of cake that can be kept moist for some time. SUGAR COOKERY Boiled frosting is one of the most popular as well as the most delicious of all cake frostings. To be successful in making it, however, requires a certain amount of care and a knowledge of some of the essential points in sugar cookery. Many otherwise delicious cakes are spoiled by the addition of unsuccessful frostings, and because of these failures many housewives hesitate to attempt the making of boiled frostings. Therefore 1472 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES in order to encourage housewives in this kind of cookery as well as to guard them against failure when trying some of the recipes for frostings and fillings given in this lesson, the following points essential to a thorough knowledge of sugar cookery are given. Certain properties of cane sugar The ordinary sugar of commerce is known as cane sugar. This name was originally given to indicate the source from which the sugar was made, but it is now used instead to distinguish cane sugar from other sugars, such as glucose, maltose, lactose, and the like, and may refer to sugar produced from either sugar cane or sugar beets. Cane sugar possesses properties that differ greatly from those possessed by glucose. 1. Cane sugar crystallizes readily and in large crystals from a con- centrated cane sugar solution. Glucose is crystallized with great difficulty and the crystals formed from a concentrated glucose solution are extremely fine. 2. The presence of glucose in a cane sugar solution prevents or retards crystallization and decidedly modifies the kind of crystals formed. When sufficient glucose is added to a concentrated cane sugar solution and the solution is made to crystallize, instead of the large cane sugar crystals, very fine crystals are formed and the mixture has a creamy consistency. This fact is fundamental to the making of certain frostings and candies. 3. When cane sugar is cooked with an acid, it is gradually changed to glucose and fructose. The amount of glucose and fructose produced depends on the amount of acid used and the length of time required to concentrate the solution. Relation of temperature to concentration in sugar cookery Sugar cookery means the process of concentrating a sugar solution. When sugar and water are cooked together the mixture becomes thicker, or more concentrated, in proportion to the amount of time the mixture is cooked. There is a very interesting relationship between the con- centration of a sugar solution by heat and the temperature of the solution. At a given concentration a sugar solution always has the same temperature. A fact of equal value in sugar cookery is the reverse of the last statement; that is, at a given temperature a sugar solution in process of cooking always has the same concentration. These facts make the use of a thermometer that can register high temperatures of great value in making cooked frostings and candy. It is possible by using a thermometer to know the exact concentration of a sugar solution. It is also possible by testing the concentration of a sugar solution to know about what the tem- MakInNG CakKE.— Part II 1473 perature is. The following tests will help the housekeeper in obtaining accurate results when cooking a sugar solution with or without the use of a thermometer. 1. Soft ball stage.— If a sugar solution is cooked until the thermometer registers a temperature of 234° F. to 242° F., the concentration will be such that a little of the sirup poured into cold water will form a ball that holds its shape under water but that loses its shape when lifted from water.® This is called the soft ball stage of concentration and this is the degree of concentration used for cooking almost all boiled frostings and for such candies as fudge, panocha, and fondant. Another test for this stage is that the sirup begins to thread when some of it is dropped from the tines of a fork. 2. Hard ball stage-—— A temperature of 246° F. to 250° F. in cooking a sugar solution gives a sirup sufficiently concentrated to form a ball that is firm under cold water and that still holds its shape when lifted from the water. This is known as the hard ball stage. 3. Soft crack stage— When a sugar solution in process of cooking reaches a temperature of 290° F., the sirup is sufficiently concentrated to form small balls or threads that will snap when kept under cold water but that lose their brittle quality wher removed from the water. This is called the soft crack stage. 4. Hard crack stage-— A temperature of 310° F. in a sugar solution gives a sirup sufficiently concentrated to form balls or strings that snap when held under cold water and that retain their brittleness when removed from the water. ‘This is called the hard crack stage, and a sugar solution cooked to this degree is used for coating nuts and in making candies such as peanut brittle. 5. Caramel siage-—— When a sugar solution reaches a. temperature of 350° F., the sirup turns brown, loses its power of crystallization, and develops.a peculiar agreeable flavor. This substance is known as caramel. The presence of caramel in a cane sugar solution helps to retard or prevent crystallization and when the solution does crystallize it has a creamy consistency. Caramel is frequently added to sugar solutions for flavoring and in order to influence crystallization. It is also used in other foods, such as soups and desserts, for flavoring and in order to give color. After sugar has been caramelized, it will harden into a brittle mass and it may be used in that form or may be dissolved in a small amount of water and bottled ready for use. 6. Carbomizing stage.— If a sugar solution is cooked beyond the tem- perature of 350° F., it begins to decompose, or carbonize. 5 Fahrenheit temperatures may be changed to centigrade by using the following formula: Fahrenheit temperature — 32 x § = centigrade temperature. 93 1474 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Use of acids and glucose in sugar cookery If a cane sugar solution is cooked with an acid, such as lemon juice, cream of tartar, sour milk, or vinegar, the cane sugar is gradually changed to glucose and fructose. If there is a sufficient amount of acid or if the cooking is continued for a sufficiently long time, all the cane sugar will be changed to glucose and fructose. Glucose is only about three fifths as sweet as cane sugar, and, as has been said before, it is very difficult to crystallize glucose and the crystals that form are very fine. Its presence in a cane sugar solution, therefore, modifies the type of crystallization that takes place when the solution is cooked, and decreases the sweetness of the solution. Acids are used in making candy and in making frosting because of their effect in producing glucose. Very small quantities of acids are used because there is a limit to the amount of glucose desired and because they affect the flavor of the mixture. If too much glucose is produced in a sugar solution, a sticky mixture results instead of a creamy one. Instead of cooking a cane sugar solution with acid in order to produce glucose, glucose may be purchased as such and may be added directly to the sugar mixture. This is the common practice in making candy on a large scale. Acid impurities in some grades of sugar cause the change from cane sugar to glucose. In making candy and frosting from brown sugar no acid need be added, since the sugar contains sufficient acid impurities to aid in producing glucose. Effects of premature formation of crystals in a sugar solution If crystals are allowed to collect on the sides of the pan while a cane sugar solution is cooking, they may cause a coarse recrystallization of the mass. These crystals, therefore, should be kept washed down with a wet cloth or a small wet brush. If the pan in which the sugar solution is cooking is covered for the first part of the cooking period (about five minutes), sugar crystals are not likely to form in any quantity on the sides of the pan. The steam formed by the boiling of the solution will dissolve any such crystals. Method of reducing an overcooked sugar solution Success in sugar cookery depends on the ability of a person to cook a sugar solution to the proper degree of concentration for the use that is to be made of it. Sometimes in cooking a sugar solution for frosting cake it becomes overcooked, or, in other words, it becomes too concen- trated. If the sugar mixture has not reached the caramel stage, it is a simple process to reduce the amount of concentration by adding more Makinc Cake.— Part II 1475 water. Good results may not always be obtained, however, by this method, for the addition of more water makes it necessary to prolong the time of cooking the solution and that in turn means a continuation of the action of any acid that may have been used and an increased production of glucose. In most cases, however, only enough glucose has been pro- duced in this way to effect the desired crystallization. SELECTED AND TESTED RECIPES FOR FROSTINGS AND FILLINGS Any kind of work is materially aided by the use of the proper kind of tools for that work. Therefore, a list of the utensils that have been found to be most suitable in making frostings and fillings for cake are given here. A smooth aluminum or granite-ware dish with a handle is the best kind to use in cooking a sugar solution. A dish that is deep enough to hold a candy thermometer is better than a broad, shallow dish, because, during the last stages of boiling, the sirup may be watched more closely and the changes in its concentration are not so rapid as in a shallow dish. Besides the usual measuring cup, stirring spoon, round-bottomed bowl, and dover egg beater, a double boiler, a spatula, a small brush with which to wash down the sides of the pan, and a candy thermometer are useful. The thermometer may be dispensed with, but its use saves much trouble in testing the frosting. A copper-hooded candy thermometer that will be found sufficiently accurate for household use may be purchased for seventy-five cents. Boiled frosting In making boiled frosting, just as in making cake, it is possible to vary the amounts of ingredients used in proportion to the time of cooking. There are three ingredients essential to the making of any so-called boiled frosting, water, sugar, and white of egg. Cream of tartar may be used with good effect, for it gives the frosting a creamy consistency, but if none is at hand the same effect may be produced by substituting vinegar or by increasing the amount of water and thus prolonging the time of cooking. When the amount of white of egg used in a recipe is increased, the tem- perature to which the sugar solution is cooked should be increased. The following are three recipes for making boiled frosting. Any one of the three methods given may be followed in using these recipes. Recipe I 1 cupful sugar zg teaspoonful cream of tartar 3 cupful water White 1 egg This is the old standard recipe and it makes a rather dense, sweet frosting. The sugar solution should be cooked to 238° F., the soft ball stage. 1476 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Recipe IT 1 cupful sugar 7s teaspoonful cream of tartar 3 cupful water Whites of 2 eggs This recipe makes a fluffy frosting. The sugar solution should be cooked to a temperature of 244° F., the beginning of the hard ball stage, because of the increased amount of white of egg used. Recipe [II 1 cupful sugar 7s teaspoonful cream of tartar 4 cupful water ~ cupful white of egg This recipe for boiled frosting is the best one to use because it calls for the careful measurement of all ingredients, including the white of egg. Eggs vary in size and when they are used in making frosting this varia- tion may make the difference of success or failure of the frosting. By measuring, all inaccuracy can be avoided. This recipe will make enough frosting for the top of a cake about nine inches in diameter. The amount of frosting desired may be easily increased or diminished by taking the amount of sugar as a basis. Use one half as much water as sugar, one sixteenth of a teaspoonful of cream of tartar to a cupful of sugar, one sixth as much white of egg as sugar. Any one of the three following methods of making boiled frosting may be used with any one of the three recipes already given. Method I Dissolve the sugar and cream of tartar in the water. If one egg is to be used, let the sugar mixture boil until it reaches the soft ball stage (238° F.), or until it forms threads when some of it is dropped from the tines of a fork. If two eggs are to be used, boil the sugar mixture until it reaches a higher temperature, about 244° F., the hard ball stage. Do not move the dish or stir the sirup during this period of cooking. Cover the pan during the first few minutes that the sugar solution is boiling, so that steam may collect on the sides of the pan. This will help to prevent the formation of large crystals that would cause the sirup to crystallize in coarse grains and that would spoil the texture of the frosting. After removing the cover of-the pan, insert the candy thermometer and wash from the sides of the pan any crystals that may form, using a brush or cloth that has been wet with cold water. When the sirup is cooked, pour it slowly on the beaten white of the egg, using the dover egg beater and beating continually while pouring. Continue beating until the frosting is cooled and is stiff enough to MakInG CakE.— Part II 1477 spread on the cake and remain in place. If the mixture does not thicken properly it may be cooked again by method III, twice-cooked frosting. Method II Melt the sugar in the water, add the cream of tartar, and boil the mixture, following carefully the directions given under method I for making boiled frosting. As soon as the sirup boils, begin to add it slowly, a tablespoon- ful at a time, to the stiffly beaten white of egg, beating vigorously after the addition of each tablespoonful of sirup. Continue to add the sirup in this manner until about half of it has been used, and the white of egg is very light and frothy. Cook the remainder of the sirup to the hard ball stage (246° F.). Wash down the sides of the pan with a brush when- ever it becomes necessary. Add this sirup gradually to the mixture of eggs and sirup already made, beating continually with a dover egg beater until the frosting is stiff enough to spread on the cake and remain in place. If the frosting proves to be too thin, put it in a double boiler, stir constantly, and cook the mixture until it rises. This indicates that the white of egg is cooked, and it should be removed from the fire at once. After the frosting has cooled, it should be thick enough to spread and should have the proper consistency. Method IIT Melt the sugar in the water and boil the mixture without stirring until it reaches the hard ball stage (246° F.), or until the sirup when dropped from a spoon will form a long thread with short threads branching from the main one. Remove the sirup carefully from the fire and allow it to cool while the whites of the eggs are being beaten until they are stiff and dry. They should be beaten in the upper part of the double boiler, as this will save utensils, materials, and time. Pour the sirup slowly over the beaten whites of the eggs, beating the mixture as long as possible with a dover egg beater and after that with a spoon, until the mixture is light and stiff. Set the dish containing the frosting over hot water and allow the mixture to cook. Beat the mixture constantly untilit is light and fluffy, rises slightly in the pan, and as it is stirred begins to give a slight scraping sound against the sides of the dish. This scraping sound may be learned only through experience, but it is easily detected. Remove the dish of frosting at once from the hot water. If the frosting is cooked too long over the hot water it will be granular. The frosting will probably be stiff enough to spread at once, if it is not, stir it until it has reached the proper consistency. This frosting may be piled on a cake to any desired thickness, or it may be used in a tube to make ornamental frosting. When it is properly made this frosting will be very light, fine grained, soft, and springy. After it 1478 THE CoRNELL READING-COURSES has been spread on a cake, it wiil form a thin crust on top and will keep moist and soft underneath for several days. This method makes a frosting known as twice-cooked frosting. Twice-cooked frosting may be varied by allowing a thin layer of melted sweet chocolate to flow over the top of the frosting after it has been spread on the cake and a thin crust has formed on the top. The cake should then be cut with a thin-bladed knife that has been wet in boiling water. Twice-cooked frosting may be made from brown sugar or maple sugar as well as from white sugar and when these sugars are used the sirup should be cooked to a slightly higher temperature. Other variations of boiled frosting may be made in the following ways: 1. Brown sugar may be substituted for white sugar. When brown sugar is used, the sirup must be boiled to a higher temperature (240° F.) before the mixture will reach the soft ball stage. 2. Use } cupful of dark-colored strained honey and ? cupful of granulated sugar, or use 4 cupful light-colored strained honey and } cupful granulated sugar. Add 3 tablespoonfuls of water and boil the mixture until it reaches the soft ball stage (240° F.), or until it begins to form threads when some of it is dropped from the tines of a fork. Add the sirup to the white of egg in the manner described in method I. This frosting stiffens but does not grain, and should be spread on the cake immediately before using. 3. Freshly grated coconut may be liberally sprinkled on the top of a cake immediately after the frosting has been spread on it. 4. Chocolate frosting may be made by recipe I for boiled frosting by adding 2 squares (2 ounces) of chocolate to the sugar and water mixture before it has been cooked. The directions given under method I may be followed. Another method is to add melted chocolate to the white frosting after it has been beaten and is stiff enough to spread. The amount of chocolate may be varied to suit the individual taste. 5. One half cupful of chopped nuts, figs, raisins, dates, or any com- bination of nuts and these fruits, may be added to the frosting just before spreading it on cake. In frosting a layer cake, it has been found helpful to pin a strip of glazed paper about an inch higher than the cake around it. This will serve as a retainer when the frosting is poured on the cake. After the frosting has set, remove the strip of paper, using a thin-bladed knife that has been wet in hot water. MakiInG CakeE.— Part II 1479 Marshmallow frosting 14 cupful brown sugar White of 1 egg + cupful water 3% pound marshmallows Follow the directions given under method I for making boiled frosting. Before the frosting cools, add the marshmallows that have been partially melted over hot water. This frosting may be made in another way, omitting the white of egg. Cook the sugar and water together until the sirup reaches a temperature of 230° F. Pour this sirup over the par- tially melted marshmallows and beat the mixture until it is cool. The frosting is then ready to spread on the cake. Caramel frosting 14 cupful light brown sugar 3 tablespoonfuls butter 3 cupful cream 4 teaspoonful vanilla Boil the sugar, cream, and butter together until the sirup will form a very soft ball in cold water (234° to 236° F.). Ina rather deep dish this will take about fifteen minutes. Remove the mixture from the fire and beat it until cool. Add the flavoring and spread the frosting on the cake quickly. One half cupful sweet milk or $} cupful of evaporated or condensed milk may be used instead of cream in making this frosting. For chocolate frosting add 2 squares of chocolate, which have been grated, to the sugar solution before it is cooked. For nut fudge frosting or for coconut fudge frosting, add chopped nuts or grated coconut to caramel frosting just before it is ready to put on the cake. Raisins may also be added at this time or marshmallows cut in pieces. Mocha cream # cupful butter 24 cupfuls confectioners’, or 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls coffee essence XXXX, sugar Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, and beat until the mixture is smooth and creamy. It will also be somewhat light and fluffy in appear- ance. Flavor this mixture to suit the taste with essence of coffee that has been made by cooking one part coffee with three parts water for about ten minutes and draining off the liquid. If the mixture is inclined to curdle when the coffee is added, the coffee essence is too weak. When finished the frosting should be a light straw color. It will not spread smoothly on the cake. It is delicious, quickly made, and it can be kept in a cool place for an indefinite time before using on cake. 1480 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Chocolate mocha cream Use the recipe and method given for making mocha cream. During the last moments of beating the mixture, add two squares of chocolate which have been melted. If the coffee flavor is not desired, the coffee essence may be omitted, and one teaspoonful of vanilla used instead. . Orange frosting 2 tablespoonfuls orange juice, part of orange peel (grated), confectioners’, or XXXX, sugar Mix the orange juice and grated orange peel together, add confectioners’, or XXXxX, sugar until the mixture is thick enough to spread on cake. Jelly coconut frosting Spread the top of cup cakes with slightly melted fruit-juice jelly, and while it is still warm, sprinkle grated coconut on the jelly. Pineapple filling 1 cupful grated pineapple 2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice t tablespoonful grated orange peel Confectioners’, or Xxxx, sugar Mix the pineapple, fruit juice, and orange peel together. Add enough confectioners’ sugar to make the mixture the right consistency to spread on cake. Chocolate cream filling % cupful sugar 2 cupfuls scalded milk 4 cupful (6 tablespoonfuls) flour 2 ounces chocolate x teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla Yolks 2 eggs Mix the dry ingredients, including the chocolate which has been grated, add the yolks of eggs slightly beaten, and add this mixture gradually to the scalded milk. Cook the mixture for fifteen minutes in a double boiler, stirring it constantly until it is thickened, and after that stirring it occasionally. Cool the mixture and flavor it with the vanilla. The filling is then ready to spread on cake. Plain cream filling This may be made by the same recipe and method used in making chocolate cream filling except that the chocolate is omitted. MakinG CakeE.— Part II 1481 Coffee cream filling Use the same recipe and method given under chocolate cream filling, substituting, however, 1? cupful coffee in place of the milk called for in the recipe, and omitting the chocolate. Coconut cream filling Add 3 to ? cupful of grated coconut to chocolate cream filling made by the recipe and method given on the preceding page. The filling should be cool before the coconut is added. The chocolate may be omitted, and if this is done, use 3 instead of 3 cupful flour. When the cake, put together with the filling, is to be used immediately, the filling may be varied by omitting the chocolate and coconut and adding sliced ripe bananas to the filling after it has been thoroughly cooled. Fig filling 3% pound chopped figs 3 cupful boiling water + cupful sugar ’ x tablespoonful lemon juice Mix the ingredients in the order in which they are given in the recipe. Cook the mixture until it is thick enough to spread on cake. This recipe may be varied by substituting an equal quantity of raisins for part of the figs, and by adding } cupful of chopped nut meats. FANNIE MERRITT FARMER Apple-butter and nut filling 3 cupful chopped nut meats 3 cupful apple butter Stir the nut meats into the apple butter and sweeten the mixture if it is necessary. ‘This filling is especially good for winter use. Lightning cake made by the recipe given on page 1462 of this lesson is delicious-when baked in two layers and put together with this filling. Orange filling 3 cupful sugar t tablespoonful lemon juice 3 tablespoonfuls flour Grated rind 1 orange 3 cupful water I egg + cupful orange juice t teaspoonful butter Mix together the dry ingredients, add the egg which has been slightly beaten, the orange peel, water, and fruit juice. Cook the mixture for ten minutes in a double boiler, stirring it constantly. Remove from the 1482 THE CORNELL READING-CoOURSES fire and add the butter. After the filling has cooled it is ready to spread between layers of cake. Lemon filling 1 cupful sugar + cupful lemon juice 25 tablespoonfuls flour I egg Grated rind 2 lemons 1 teaspoonful butter Mix together the dry ingredients, add the lemon juice and egg which has been slightly beaten. Cook the mixture in a double boiler for ten minutes, remove it from the fire, and add the butter. FANNIE MERRITT FARMER Fruit and nut filling for Lady Baltimore cake 3 cupfuls sugar 1 cupful raisins, seeded and t cupful water chopped Whites 3 eggs t cupful pecan meats, chopped 5 figs, cut in strips Boil the sugar and water together until the sirup reaches the soft ball stage (238° F.), or until it forms a thread when some of it is dropped from the tines of a fork. Pour the sirup gradually into the whites of the eggs, which have been beaten stiff. During this process beat the mixture constantly. Continue beating until the mixture is of the right consistency to spread; then add the raisins, nut meats, and figs. Spread this filling between the layers and on the top of the cake and cover the top with twice-cooked frosting. One half of the quantity of this recipe may be made, and the filling put between the layers of the cake only. FANNIE MERRITT FARMER Filling for Lord Baltimore cake 3 cupfuls sugar + cupful blanched almonds, 1 cupful water chopped Whites 2 eggs 12 candied cherries 3 cupful rolled dry macaroons + teaspoonful orange extract ; cupful pecan meats, chopped 2 teaspoonfuls lemon juice Follow the directions given for making filling for Lady Baltimore cake. The lemon juice and orange extract should be added to the sugar solu- tion before it is cooked. Spread the filling between the layers of the cake and frost the top layer with twice-cooked frosting as suggested in the preceding recipe. MAKING CakKE.— Part II 1483 TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES mataplespoontuls butter. 24, 0. -58o2. Sha ek I ounce PUMEUESEEL GLC LEI irteh > fava 3d, Gar lane Ot earls det iat os 3 pound ereHpluls cranulated sigan. 0230 aa 229 1 pound PRP PES ASE Wi HOUL.,2 J to aige et nc.s othe Poa nett 2 1 pound PoLamiespoonnuls=*s..st s< bys ae Ato eke 1 cupful BEPCASDOOO RIS ac) ee ee toe 1 tablespoonful SUGGESTIONS FOR A CAKE CONTEST Within the last few years there has been a greatly increased apprecia- tion of the value of contests between individuals and organizations engaged in many kinds of work. This is especially true of rural com- munities where the corn clubs for the boys and canning clubs for the girls have become exceedingly popular. The idea of a cake contest is not a new one but the following rules have been used with success by the Department of Home Economics at the State College of Agriculture and they are here offered as suggestions. 1. Each competitor must bring two loaves of cake made from any two of the formulas given in this lesson. One of these cakes must be made from cake formula No. II and may be a modification of that formula. 2. Only the formulas given in this lesson shall be used. The com- petitor must state which formula has been used and any modification she has made in the formula. 3. The cakes must be baked in tins of uniform size and the measure- ments made by cups of uniform capacity. 4. Two cupfuls of batter must be the amount baked in each tin. One half of each recipe will be sufficient to make at least two cupfuls of batter. Any batter left over may be baked in muffin tins and need not be wasted. 5. If possible, the cakes must be made on the day before the contest. Cakes should be submitted the day after baking. Cake formulas to be used in contest AMOUNTS OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS USED Flour Sugar | Fat | Number Liquid Baking Salt Number of (cup- (cup- (cup- of (cup- powder (tea- cake formula fuls) fuls) fuls) eggs fuls) (tea- spoonfuls) spoonfuls) | | nent cae a i 3 ; : ree ea 6-5 St 3 3 i 2-3 | I 5-4 i No. III... 3 3 t a4 |, 8 4-3 3 Ne. iV...5... 3 : I 5-6 | 4 3-2 + | 1484 : THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Characteristics a cake should possess 1. The flavor and odor should be sweet, free from taste or smell of poor and strong-flavored ingredients. 2. The texture must be judged for grain, lightness, moisture, and tender- ness. The grain should be even and fine. The richer a cake is, the finer the grain will be. Lightness means that the cake should not be heavy in spots due to lack of thoroughness in mixing and carelessness in- baking. The correct amount of moisture in a cake means that it be free from doughiness or staleness. A cake should be tender, breaking easily without crumbling. It should not be bready. 3. The shape should be symmetrical, not noticeably higher on one side or in the middle. 4. The crust should be light golden brown in color, thin and even over the entire surface of the cake, not gummy or sticky in texture, and easy to break. Score card for cake In scoring the cakes submitted in the contest the following credits should be given for a perfect loaf: flaviore ant Pane ee: RU ae eee 15 OCOReM A: Gish pS COST ee ot LEO ees See ee marine. eee 5,2 Rane. 8G sles ete IO texture........ 4 lightness ene? psit-y. See. 20 moisttire 2)272)..41) bees 10 [ | PENGERIESS: Sissi eee IO palepakl( Shape) st sis. git: HRA Ue Ae tk BER anes Cerone IO Colon, 2c axht. Ad s Rese RE ee ae & ay (Cig ee eg [eh Taste 2s Ste Gaps ae lee 5 ple? -<1 DOU ste pete e CAR at hao aeeeie ry aS Ie, oe 5 [ tenderness! eli hemedl Maes tok ae 5 SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York B. T. GALLoway, Director A. R. MANN, General Editor COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors FOOD SERIES No. 13 VOL. IV. No. 75 NOVEMBER 1, 1914 MAKING CAKE.— PART II DISCUSSION PAPER By means of the discussion papers we have an opportunity to become acquainted. We shall take it as an indication on your part that you are interested if you answer the questions and return them to us. The staff of the Department of Home Economics is ready to assist in your study of scientific home-making. We want your assistance as well. Ask questions, offer suggestions, let us have the benefit of your experience. You thus become a vital part of the Department of Home Economics in its efforts for scientific housekeeping. Will you please send your opinions on the following points to the Super- visor of the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home? 1. Under what conditions is cake a wholesome part of the dietary? [1485] 1486 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 2. Is cake an expensive form of food? Give reasons. 3. Experiment with one of the formulas for making cake given in Parts I and II of this lesson and describe your results. 4. If you should hold a cake contest in your community tell us of your results. The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York B. T. GALLowAy, Director A. R. MAnn, General Editor COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors VOL. IV. No. 77 DECEMBER 1, 1914 RS eenres SONGS THAT LIVE RosE MorGANn The child who grown old finds himself in possession of the blest tra- ditions and memories of the places and things cf his childhood, enjoys a legacy whose worth increases with the years, whose meaning unfolds with life. Probably there is no form of early home influence more enduring than the home song; and its power is continuous in propor- tion to the place it occupied in that early home influence. The home song, therefore, should be fundamentally a thing of truth. It should not be the woven tinsel of fancy and sentimentality, but it should be composed of words and melody that are coined from the heart’s pure gold. Such a song lives. There are few homes in this State where a good song, if once it became installed, would not be appreciated, and there is no home that would willfully cancel or lose the power of that song as a memory-maker and as a character-builder. Unworthy songs have crept in not because our home-making hearts are wrong but because our home-making heads and hands are so full of the work of the insistent present and the foreshadowing future that we do not often stop to weigh the values in songs as in other things. We believe the song to be a character-making force. We believe that there are better songs for the country school, the grange, and the occasional country-life program than are ordinarily used in them. We believe that there are better hymns for the country church and Sunday school services. We believe, and it is this phase of the question we wish to deal with especially, that the home is the natural center of that power for good which we rest in song, and that there are better songs for it than the average home of to-day provides. : Already work has begun to meet the problem, which our weighing of the values has revealed to us, touching song in the home. The conclusion that the country home should, and can, and will, make a radical change in the character of its songs is being reached by the consent and coopera- tion of fathers, mothers, teachers, preachers, and others who are vitally interested. These men and women are working to the end that the [1487] 1488 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES c country home shall be clean of the “ praise that cannot purify,’”’ of the passing lilt wherein life’s sacred relations are made a joke, of the song that cannot possibly bring a sweet home-memory in the after years to the children who have gone out from the home. This subject of songs for the home has been discussed in country-life conferences, institutes, extension schools, and at Farmers’ Week at the State College of Agriculture. The speakers at these meetings have tried first of all to impress upon their audiences the hold that trashy popular songs have gained in homes. At the close of a recent conference a New York State mother called attention to the March (1913) issue of the Woman’s World, through whose columns Mr. George Weston has made a strong appeal to the makers of homes for their support in a demand for better songs. Read what Mr. Weston has to say of trashy songs. It is a just attack, and having read or re-read what we here quote from it, it may be that you will wish to go through the words of the songs that have collected about your organs and pianos so that you may be certain of what really constitutes your home songs. It may be that in these days when there are many worthless new songs in comparison with the few that are worthy, some latest hit entirely foreign to the tone of true home songs may have intruded itself. Mr. Weston says: Without a doubt it may be accepted that songs have a deep influence upon man- kind. This influence should always be for good. But we sometimes, indeed in these days often, find it working for evil. The latter reflection is aroused by the shocking decline which has recently taken place in American song writing. Think of the tender humanity in that old favorite, My Old Kentucky Home. And then think of such near- filth as Oh You Beautiful Doll and those similar outbursts which stand at the head of our popular songs to-day. Truly, ‘ the old order changeth.’ Let us consider, for a moment, what a wonderful thing is the spread of a popular song. Suppose the president of the nation rises to-day and, dealing with a subject of vital influence to our welfare, speaks a few sentences of wisdom. How many would be able to repeat his words a month hence? Would a thousand men have them stored away in memory? But suppose that a catchy popular song is launched, with some such refrain as ‘Polly Wolly used to work But she’s too wise now!’ In a few short months 1t will be known by millions. It is interesting to trace the popu- lar song to its lair and to see its effect. It is the home which is the final lair of the popular song. The piano, the cabinet organ, the talking machine, and every other musical instrument call for the popular song. It needs only a short memory to recollect the time when such a call was answered by songs like Kathleen Mavourneen, Believe Me If All Those Endearing Young Charms, or In Days of Old. Now, however, if your daughter is entertaining a caller they no longer sing such simple songs. Listen and you will hear them shouting: Put Your Arms Around Me Honey, or Cuddle Up Closer, or some similar erotic syncopation. Moreover, it isn’t necessarily your daughter’s ‘steady’ young man who is singing these songs with her. It’s any young man. And their only excuse for singing such stuff is that they’re the latest popular successes. Songs of romance have changed to lyrics of license, and virtue finds itself assailed in its last retreat. Let us go back a long, long way and ask ourselves how people ever started to sing, and why they go on singing. Inits purest sense, song is a mode of expression used Soncs TuHaT Live 1489 when the spirit of life is so stirred that it bursts from the confines of ordinary speech and rises into harmony. Speech was born of the mind, but song is a child of the spirit. Then what a pity, when we ought to be rejoicing and uplifting our souls in song, to find that the wells of harmony are being polluted with a moral poison. We search for reasons. Why are such songs sung? For the slightest and yet for the strongest of reasons. Why does a bride wear a veil? And why does a man have lapels on his coat? Because such things are the style. So, too, with suggestive ragtime songs. They're the style, the latest popular successes. If you don’t know them, you’re not up to date. It is a mournful commentary upon public manners that our sons and daughters must be in touch with filth in order to be up to date. But it isn’t only a mournful commentary. It is a fact. And, as a fact, it’s a thing to be faced. It is true that most of the cheap and vicious songs originate in cities, but all too quickly they find their way into rural communities and homes. During the last two years many persons have gone over the matter together, have given testimony, and have compared conditions and experiences. From data that have been collected it has been found that for some reason it is true that to-day the young people in the country homes are almost or quite as much exposed to the blight and contamina- tion of trashy and filthy songs as if their homes were not aloof from and independent of the sources and sites of such songs. The reason for this has been searched for and has been found. Mr. Weston stated it in the part of his article that was quoted. Dr. L. H. Bailey stated it when he once said in speaking to us of the country that we “ are in danger of a crying foolishness, that of the fear of not being up to date.” The “‘fear of not being up to date”’ in the matter of songs, and the eagerness to have country homes and boys and girls enjoy what purports to be created for the giving of pleasure as exploited in the city, has set country people to hasty and indiscriminate buying of ‘the latest’ music. The unworthy type of city music has been adopted, and it has been called representative; the vast amount of worthy music that is heard at its perfection in the city has been temporarily forgotten. Think of the church music, the operas, symphonies, and oratorios, the concerts and recitals of high grade! Many of these musical entertainments are free to the public and are even organized to be carried free to every part of the city. Think of the great choral societies, the carefully taught music in high schools and graded schools, the chances for the best of training in every phase of music — all of which tends to shorten the life and the influence of the bad song in the city, even though its spread is universal. Better songs in the country home is quietly becoming one of the work- ing texts in many communities of this State. There is not only the desire on the part of people in rural communities to choose between the good and the bad in songs, but there is the ability when thought and care are given to the judging. As proof we are about to quote from letters written by men, women, and children, telling of their appreciation of the theme 04 1490 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES of good songs; better yet, telling what is to be done in the particular home or community of the writer; best of all, telling what has been done. All reports of work begun quicken our appreciation of Dr. T. N. Carver’s remarks made in opening his address before the Rural Community Interests Convention in New York City last winter: “We all believe, of course, in religious work, Christian work. We all sing, ‘Work, for the night is coming.’ It seems to me if we could make that a little more pointed and instead of singing ‘ Work ’— everybody wants to work, but does not know what to do first — say, ‘ Clean out these fence corners, for the night is coming,’ ‘ Build better bridges and schoolhouses, for the night is coming,’ we would get somewhere.” “‘ Sing better songs, for the night is coming ’’ has added itself. The following extracts from letters that have been received recently seem a fulfillment of Doctor Carver’s injunction to us regarding this phase of rural com- munity interests: Cuba, Allegany County “We had a bonfire last night and we've mighty few songs left.” Canton, Saint Lawrence County “There has been a general house cleaning with us and we were surprised to find how much musical rubbish had collected. It won’t occur again.” Worcester, Otsego County “Will you please send me a list of good victrola records, old and modern. I don’t want the children to play the others any more.” Lockport, Niagara County “T’m that one who was afraid of being known as an old fogy. The stuff is burned that I always knew ought to be.” Manlius, Onondaga County “T mean that my little daughter shall have as good home songs as I was raised on.” Wallkill-on-Hudson, Ulster Courty “'T came away from Farmers’ Week determined to use my influence for better music. I have ‘ begun at home.’”’ Schuylerville, Saratoga County ' “JT don’t think I've heard that song Tombigbee River since war days. Us G. A. R. boys need scme good songs bad. I've been thinking up some old ones and we'd be obliged to you if you’d help us get hold of them.” Dansville, Livingston County ‘We want to get rid of our jig tune Sunday school book and try to put one in that will live. What is good?” Riverhead, Long Island “‘ Father used to forbid the ‘ rags’ on Sunday and now my brother and I are sifting out the worst week-day ones. My father says what are left are good enough for Sunday.” SONGS TuHaT. LIVE 1491 When the trashy song secures a place in the country community, what is there with which to meet and annul its power for lowering the tone of life and the “ blessedness of the country’’? Perhaps there is a pastor and choir with appreciation of the value of good songs, perhaps there is a high grade music teacher or school teacher. It may be that the com- munity has a patron saint who invests thought and time and patience and money to the end that good music shall meet and conquer the invad- ing bad. The most effective influence for good in songs is the influence that emanates from the home, for it is lasting. The solution of the problem, however, rests largely with the individuals that make up each household. They may show their devotion to the high ideals of the country by refusing to buy, sing, or tolerate besmirching songs of the hour. Suggestion is the birth of thought; Thought dwelt upon becomes action; Action repeated becomes habit; Habit is character. Because of the comparative isolation of the country home many desir- able features of good home-making must come to it slowly. Its very isolation and independence make it the natural friend and advocate of the good song. Its open windows do not let in, perforce, the contaminating street song. Its doors can remain closed to the rap of a blighting ‘‘ best seller’ until the family within have taken time to pass upon the merits of that song, to discover whether or not it is in harmony with the family’s aspiration to secure good things for itself, and whether it voices the family’s spirit of independence in the obtaining of these things. Here- tofore, the people of rural communities have hardly considered their responsibility in the setting of standards for good home and community songs. Now that the whole American people are waking — slowly, it is true!—to the question of good and bad songs for their homes, is it not reasonable that the country people should assume a strong leadership in the matter? Should they not be the ones to say what shall and what shall not constitute their home and community songs? The meaning of a song is conveyed by the combined force of its words and its melody. In a good song the melody seems to give rise to the words and the words to the melody. Men naturally sing of what fills their heads and their hearts. The resulting song is good to the degree in which it suggests the good and the beautiful through its words or melody, or through both. A song is to be neither approved nor condemned because itisnew. Nor should it be counted without merit if in actual use it seems to touch the hearts of young and old as it finds its way out into the world. But time and opportunity are as precious as they are fleeting; and what 1492 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES family is there that can afford to rest its family traditions and future memories on songs of uncertain quality when good ones can be had? FOUNDATION FOR THE MOVEMENT FOR GOOD SONGS In order that the reader may know that the present movement for the betterment of songs for homes is not a new idea, the following quotations are given. These quotations are the thoughts of some well-known men and women who lived long enough before they spoke to realize that they were saying neither new nor startling things, but that they were speaking the belief of all and the experience of many. The first of the quotations is from the preacher Phillips Brooks, who loved boys and girls and was loved by them: Much stress should be laid upon the fact that the youthful memory being exceedingly tenacious, impressions made upon the child are likely to be indelible. The great incidents in the history of the Israelites were woven into song, and these eucharistic epics were required-to be diligently taught to their children. So, in the present day, the simple doctrines and thrilling events of Christianity should be wrought into verse and impressed upon the mind of the teacher by the power of music. Truths thus inculcated will cling to the soul forever. We all know that cherished memories of home and friends are ours with such enduring vividness that the record can never be effaced. But in all the reminiscences of days gone by there is nothing that so haunts the spirit as the songs to which we were accustomed in childhood. The sweet tones of a mother’s voice will live and speak in the heart long after the voice has been hushed to silence. The recollection of the hymns which were first heard amid the throng of worshipers in the city, or in the embowered country church, may remain in morning freshness long after the sanctuary has mouldered into ruins. We may cross oceans, and wander in foreign climes; the erect frame may be bowed with the weight of years, and raven ringlets may be changed to locks of snowy whiteness; but the old home songs heard in the distance in the still morning, or sung by ourselves in some calm hour of reflection, or by the home-circle on a winter’s evening, will bring around us the friends and the scenes of other days and of far-off lands; and while the dim eye of age sparkles with unwonted brilliancy, the heart will beat with the buoyancy of early youth. It is not at all improbable that the songs learned in the nursery, or around the fireside, will be used by the Holy Spirit in after years as a means of conversion toa better life, it may be our final salvation from endless ruin. On the contrary, bacchanalian or ribald songs, which are apt to be learned and used by those who are unaccustomed to religious melodies, are, in the hands of the Destroyer, a potent means of ruin. Shall we quietly allow this tremendous power to pass into the hands of the enemy, or shall we not eagerly seize upon it as our lawful right, and wield it for the good of our race and the glory of our God? The second is from Henry Ward Beecher, the singing of whose congre- gation would have served as a model and inspiration to the country church: The tunes which burden our modern books, in hundreds and thousands, utterly devoid of character, without meaning or substance, may be sung a hundred times, and not a person in the congregation will remember them. There is nothing to remember. They are the very emptiness of fluent noise. But let a true tune be sung, and every person of sensibility, every person of feeling, every child even, is aroused and touched. The melody clings to them. On the way home snatches of it will be heard on this side and on that; and when the next Sabbath, the same song is heard, one after another of the people fall in, and the volume grows with each verse, until at length the song, breaking forth as a many-rilled stream from the hills, grows deeper and flows on, broad as a mighty river! Such tunes are never forgotten. They cling to us through our SonGcs TuaT Live 1493 whole life. We carry them with us upon our journey. We sing them in the forest. The workman follows the plow with sacred songs. Children catch them, and singing only for the joy it gives them now, are yet laying up for all their life food of the sweetest joy. Such tunes give new harmony and sweetness even to the hymns which float upon their current. And when some celestial hymn of Wesley or of the scarcely less than inspired Watts, is wafted upon such music, the soul is lifted up above all its ailments and rises into the very presence of God, with joys no longer unspeakable, though full of glory. In selecting music, we should not allow any fastidiousness of taste to set aside the lessons of experience. A tune which has always interested a congregation, which inspires the young, and lends to enthusiasm a fit expression, ought not to be set aside because it does not follow the reigning fashion or conform to the whims of technical science. There is such a thing as Pharisaism in music. Tunes may be faulty in structure, and yet convey a full-hearted current that will sweep out of the way the worthless, heartless trash whose only merit is a literal correctness. When a tune has been found to do good work, it should be used for what it does and can do. The third is from Dr. P. P. Claxton, chief of the United States Bureau of Education: Whatever has at any time appealed to the best emotions and moved the heart of a people must have for their children and their children’s children, political, historical, and cultural value. This is especially true of folk tales and folk songs. The fourth is from Frances E. Willard, ‘‘a national defender of the Nation’s homes ”’: In the spring of 1863 two great armies encamped on either side of the Rappahannock River, one in blue and the other in gray. One evening as twilight fell, the bands of music on the Union side began to play their martial music, The Star Spangled Banner and Rally Round the Flag; and that challenge of music was taken up by those upon the other side, who responded with The Bonnie Blue Flag and Away Down South in Dixie. It was borne in upon the soul of a single soldier in one of those army bands to begin a sweeter and more tender air, and slowly, as he played it, they joined in a sort of chorus of all the instruments upon the Union side, until finally a great and mighty tide of harmony swelled up and down our army — Home, Sweet Home. When they had finished there was no challenge yonder, for every band upon that farther shore had taken up the lovely air, so attuned to all that is holiest and dearest, and one grand chorus of the two great hosts went up to God. When they had finished, from the boys in gray came a challenge, ‘‘ Three cheers for home! "’ and as they went resound- ing through the skies from both sides of the river, ‘‘ something upon the soldiers’ cheeks washed off the stains of powder.” The fifth is by Mary Anderson, a great actress and a noble mother: Listen to a bit of advice from a woman who has been as young as any of you, who is a mother now, and who would have thanked somebody if she had said the same to her at your age. If you have a voice, whether remarkable for strength or sweetness, or neither, strive to cultivate it. A woman who cannot sing is asa flower without per- fume. I do not mean you must sing scales and trills by the hour; these notions have left me long ago. Learn operatic wonders, if you like, only be sure to learn them correctly; but they are easily forgotten, rest assured. Learna hundred or more beautiful little ballads. Not the kind that take a town by storm and die out in one season, but real songs that never grow old, whose tunes are melody, and whose words are poetry. The years are coming when you will find that your joy and your love, your modesty and your pride, blend more sweetly as you sing Annie Laurie or Within a Mile of Edinboro’ Town than in executing the most wonderful gymnastics with your vocal organs. In sorrow, too, some such song, with all the sweet memories of the past clinging about its tender notes, will call forth tears to ease an aching heart. And there may come a time when a weary little head lies on its mother’s bosom; little eyelids are drooping, twilight is drawing about her — too early for a lamp, too early for any 1494 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES but little folks to sleep; then it is that all the accomplishments of her girlhood are as nothing compared with one simple song that lulls a tired baby to sleep. There is something soothing to the child in the mother’s voice at any time, and it instinctively loves the melody of a song; so, girls, while you can, think of the mine of wealth you may lay up for the children that may one day come with their smiles and their kisses to brighten the way. The last is by the author and poet, Richard Le Gallienne, author of An Old Country House. This extract is from his A Defense of Old Songs (Harper’s Magazine, December, 1912). Young men in the country may also defend old songs. The song life of the farm home that is about to be established can be made the best illustration of such defense. In Mr. Le Gallienne’s article he tells us that he found a songbook on the piano in the Connecticut farmhouse where he was living: The book itself is not old, being, in fact, a cheap paper-backed collection made com- paratively recently, such as can be bought in any music-store; and it is, therefore, the more significant, for it is thus not merely reminiscent of the tastes of the past, but representative of the tastes of the present, too, as it bears witness also to the remarkable longevity of popular favorites. It would seem, indeed, that when a song possesses the peculiar kind of vitality to capture the popular heart or the popular fancy, it can never quite lose its hold; but, indeed, goes on strengthening it, generation after generation, by the cumulative power of association. The fashions of human feeling change not, and though new forms of its expression naturally arise and have their hour, man in his realer moments is best pleased by those old forms, consecrated and endeared by familiar usage, the words he is most at home with, and the tunes he used to whistle when a boy. And it must be a “ superior,” sophisticated eye, indeed, that would not soften and fill as it glanced over the titles alone of the book of ‘‘ home songs’? that is before meas I write. Take the first dozen, just as they come: Alice, Where Art Thou? Annie Laurie. Auld Lang Syne. Be Kind to the Loved Ones at Home. Ben Bolt. The Blue Bells of Scotland. The Blue Juniata. By the Sad Sea Waves. The Campbells are Coming. Come Back to Erin. Comin’ Thro’ the Rye. Darby and Joan. What doors of memory fly open with each quaint old-fashioned name. * * * * Old Folks at Home, the magnetism of the melody is undeniable, but con- sider, so to say, the emotional voltage of the mere subject-matter of the words. There is the advantage for the writer of popular songs. The very words he uses— “Home’’ — ‘“‘ Mother ’’ — “‘ Country’? — are poems in themselves, traditionally charged with human feeling. They are things rather than words, conveying their meaning as directly, and awakening as immediate response, as a national flag. * * * Yet man’s feelings are crude, or at least strong and simple when he feels at all; and it is hard to imagine such a theme, say, as a man’s love for his mother — perhaps the most favorite theme of these popular songs — treated otherwise than with the heart- felt. directness of simple affection; though, doubtless, there are some who would con- sider that the proper way to treat a mother in art is Whistler's way, merely dispas- sionately, as a “‘ study ”’ or an “‘ arrangement.”’ : The world at large, however, has decided in favor of Eliza Cooke’s method in The Old Ariachair. ‘‘ Reeking sentimentality! Maudlin emotionalism!’ one can hear some one — our old sophomoric selves, maybe — exclaim; yet one may well ask how an excess of sentiment or emotion is possible on such a subject as a mother’s memory, or what object could more naturally focus our wistful affection than an old chair in which a beloved mother so long has sat and now sits no more. Here surely is an occasion on which the human heart may let itself go in unrestrained simplicity of its sorrow, however naive and unlettered in its expression. Often we refer to the preacher, the teacher, and the author, as we have just done, for a formal answer to a question regarding the moral and Soncs TuaT Live 1405 intellectual welfare of our homes. Often, too, that answer differs little in meaning from the one we have already made to ourselves. It helps, however, to clear our thinking and to add further conviction. Having read what these men and women said on the question of good songs, we feel quickened in our judgment as to the elements that combine to make a good song. We study the component factors; we apply to songs the tests that will bring an answer which shall represent our personal esti- mate of their worth; our power to judge grows; we become censors of our home songs. TESTS TO BE APPLIED TO A SONG Has it lived? Though time is not an absolute test of a song, yet long life becomes a guarantee of its worth. The critics say that half a century should be asked of a song before it can be said to have lived. The maxims say “a good song is sung by more generations than its own,” and “‘ a song is good that sees a man through his lifetime.” Songs that have lived may be grouped in three classes, the folk song, the folk ballad, and the art song. 1. The folk song.— Louis Elson describes the folk song as the ‘‘ wild brier rose of music springing up by the wayside of art, and coming into being without any care being lavished upon it, without the artificial aids of music; it represents the natural side of an art that has gradually become scientific.”” Folk songs are the outgrowth of experience and feeling on the part of persons whose names the world, which has kept the songs alive for years and centuries, may never have known. The special value of these songs is their quality of recording folk, racial, and national char- acteristics in the simplest of songs. ‘‘ History is punctuated with folk song,’’ Carlyle wrote. 2. The folk ballad and the national song.— There seems to be no hard and fast rules whereby folk songs and folk ballads may be distinguished. However, the folk ballad ordinarily records its authorship, and it tells its story with more attempt at verse and at melody. Unlike the folk song, it asks the world to yield to its spirit by joining in a refrain or chorus. Sir Hubert Parry tells us that the opposite of a pure folk-song is the song made with commercial intention out of ‘‘ snippets of musical slang,’’— he refers to the cheap song of the day. In between this song and the pure folk-song the folk ballad seems to have its place. Longfellow in speaking of ballads says: They are the gypsy children of song, born under green hedgerows, in the leafy lanes and bypaths of literature in the genial summer time, and many a life story is con- tained in the simple words of a favorite ballad. Nevertheless we seldom realize what lies beneath the surface of the words, when we hear some of the simple old songs of our 1496 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES youth. Many of them, indeed, are more or less epitomized versions of incidents in their author’s lives, thus accounting for the sympathetic interest they awaken. They contain, although in veiled form, that one ‘‘ touch of nature that makes the whole world kin.” The folk ballad may call people to a lively sense of patriotism, and may remain the lilting narrative; or it may lend its tune to other words, or vice versa, and may develop into a serious national song. The national song, however, may be born as Professor Brander Matthews has said: A national song is one of the things which, it would seem, cannot be made to order. No man has ever yet sat him down and taken up his pen and said, ‘‘ I will write a national hymn,’’ and composed either words or music which the nation was willing to take for its own. The making of the song of a people is a happy accident, not to be accom- plished by taking thought. It must be the result of fiery feeling long confined, and suddenly finding vent in burning words or moving strains. Sometimes the heat and the pressure of emotion have been fierce enough and intense enough to call forth at once both words and music, and to weld them together indissolubly once and for all. Almost always the maker of the song does not suspect the abiding value of his work; he has wrought unconsciously, moved by a power within; he has written for immediate relief to himself, and with no thought of fame or the future; he has builded better than he knew. The great national lyric is the result of the conjunction of the hour and the man. A national song of the kind Professor Matthews describes may properly take its place among art songs. 3. The art song.— This type of songs that have lived is spoken of as classic. Ordinarily the classic song is the combined work of the poet and the musician, the result of the skillful treatment of carefully chosen subject- matter. There are instances, however, of folk songs and ballads with authorship unknown or humble, being accepted as song-classics because of their artistic trueness to type and their simple beauty. The art song that time as well as art has marked with the stamp of worth has double value, the song’s own beauty and its standardizing qualities for song- making. Will it live? We do not sing songs merely because they have lived. We sing as a mode of self-expression; and if the song that is new to our ears and possibly newly created answers us, we sing it with much the same right that we use in adopting the style of the hour in house-furnishing or in dress. There are few of us, however, who fail to appreciate that a song, by its very nature, is more a matter of the spirit than is dress, and singing a more permanent influence in the home than is house-furnishing. Yet we are careful to-day to teach ourselves that the home that is artistically fur- nished, however simply, has a moral advantage over the home that is filled with the useless and the unbeautiful; and that the latest fashions in dress may make of us caricatures of our real selves if in adopting these Soncs TuHaT Live 1407 styles we forget that clothing should indicate self-expression as well as conformity to mode. This second test of a song, ‘‘ Will it live?’’ refers to the modern song and includes an answer to the question, “‘ Are there no good popular songs?” 1. The popular song.— The vogue of the present day popular song is due to its ‘‘ ragtime,’ pretty, often very pretty, and full of sprightliness and suggestion. The word-maker knows this and the suggestive rhythm of ‘‘ ragtime ’’ seems to be his license. The “‘ ragtime ’’ becomes the color, gaudy but attractive, when skillfully used; the words — what do they become in this song which is claiming a place in the home as expressing the spirit of that home? Study them, read them separated from the tune. You will know if that song be not the dime novel of music. Its very tune, pretty as it may seem with its tinkly rhythm, is bad because it suggests and supports words that should never have been printed, much less sold or sung. Study again some of the songs and ballads that have lived. Many of them were at one time so-called popular songs and “‘best sellers.”” Why did not they, too, perish within the year of their birth? Read their words separated from their tunes. Now take the tunes and see if they were once popular merely because they tinkled; is there not something more there than the suggestion of a clog dance? Compare these century-old songs that were once ‘‘ best sellers’ with the popular songs of to-day that have crowded them out. The result of this comparison will be a thinning out of the songs on the organ or piano, and many of the latest hits will go to the flames at once. 2. Other modern songs.— The unworthy popular song, though threatening a defeat of our good sense and musical taste, does not claim the whole field of modern songs by any means. Do you know Ethelbert Nevins’ melodies for Eugene Field’s and James Whitcomb Riley’s words? Do you know the songs of Coleridge Taylor and of MacDowell, of Cowen and Cowles and Buck and Homer and Denee, and of Mrs. Beach and Margaret Ruthven Lang and Carrie Jacobs Bond? These names are but a few from the list of modern song writers. Apply your songs-that- have-lived yardstick to their songs and discover how well you invested when you brought them, or the phonograph and victrola records of them, into your home. Get more of the songs by these writers along with the time-tried ones that ‘‘ age has not withered nor custom made stale.” Remember that modern songs whether popular, semi-classic, or classic, that merit the will-live stamp, will in time become songs that hawe lived. Remember, too, that we Americans are not always to be the people of a new country, bearing the more or less just jibes put upon us for not being able to sing a single American or national song through without 1498 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES the text before our eyes. Use good-song standards, measure American songs by these standards, learn them, sing them. The country home, with its agricultural ‘‘ backbone of the nation” to keep straight and to make use of, has a privilege and a duty to perform in the founding of a musical system that will bring credit to America from the nations that now choose to judge her by American “ ragtime.” The test of personal possession Has the song lived? Will the song live? In addition to these tests of a song there is a third, which we may call the test of personal possession. Does or will the song live for me, the individual? Has it a place in my life for reasons personal and of value to me? Has it had the power with me to suggest thought, action, habit, character? As a memory, does it leave me unashamed and glad to recall it? Is it a song by which I shall be happy to have my children remember their home? All these are questions that the test of personal possession applies to a song. Songs that can stand this test may be folk songs and folk ballads, the class of which Dr. Claxton spoke, or they may be the “ old songs ”’ defended by Richard Le Gallienne. To whatever class they may belong, they are our songs and we are quick to defend them, with or without the test proofs of their having lived for any one else than ourselves. They may be recent, but more than likely they are good songs to us because they are the songs of our early homes. They have stood the test of personal possession. These songs are the children’s heritage. A HERITAGE OF SONG There is no life so well favored that it has no need of a heritage of home song. Few there be of that great family of persons whose child- hood lies well in the past who do not consciously realize from such an inheritance. A very few songs may constitute their riches and these of little intrinsic merit, a mother’s bedtime croon, a father’s simple old hymn, a family chorus or glee, some favorite from old days that association has kept. Yet no price could buy this heritage of song. The sons and daughters of other lands, seeking better opportunities for living for themselves and for their children, cross to the American shore. In New York State are to be found thousands of men, women, and children whose native land lies far away from this new home of their adoption. Many families that thus bravely began home-building in a strange country brought with them very little of this world’s goods, yet not one came without a heritage of song as a gift to the community into whose life the members of that family went to become citizens. In Soncs TuaT LIve 1499 many instances we have heard the fathers and mothers in their farm homes, “Sing to their sons those melodies, Those songs their fathers sung.” How welcome such songs are with their age-long standards of loyalty and purity and truth! Songs that have lived years and centuries in the Old World because they sang of country, and home, and mother, and God, should go on living in the New World, singing of country, and home, and mother, and God. Richard of Saltoun said, ‘‘ Let me write the songs of a nation and I care not who makes its laws.” Sing the songs of the country whose blood you bring to America and you will help make the laws that must best govern song-making and song-singing in this ‘land of the free and home of the brave.” If we are to become a music-loving nation, we must have American music; it must smack of our soil; it must embody the character and express the tendency and trend of American life; it must bear the marks of our weal and woe; it must show in strongly marked rhythms the effect of our developed and developing national energy; it must be the faithful interpreter of the true American. Last year the December number of the Reading-Course for the Farm Home was entitled The Christmas Festival, and on the last page of the pamphlet were the music and words of the beautiful carol, Szlent Night, Holy Night. It was sung around many Christmas firesides last year and it will be sung again this year. We want all of the readers of the Reading-Course for the Farm Home to sing on this Christmas Day. We want you to sing songs that have lived and that will live. Therefore. we are devoting the remaining pages of this number to a program of songs for the home for Christmas Day. You will find included songs for the old and for the young, brave songs and tender songs, songs of the Christ child and of home and of native land. Add to these songs those that are particularly loved in your own home and let us all join in this Christmas festival of songs that live. 1500 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES THE NATIONAL HYMN OF THE WESTERN HOMELAND AMERICA S. F. SmitH coun - try! ’tis of thee, Sweet land lib - er- ty, na -tive coun - try, thee,— Land of _ the no - ble free— mu- sic swell the breeze, And ring from all the trees fa-ther’s God! to Thee, Au- thor of lib - er - ty, thee I sing; Land where my fa - thersdied! Land of the Thy name I love; I love thy rocks and rills, Thy woods and Sweet free - dom’s song: Let mor - taltongues a-wake; Let all that To Thee we sing: Long may our land be bright With free -dom’s Pil -grims’ pride! From ev - ’ry moun- tain side Let free - dom ring! tem- pled hills: My heart witb rap - ture thrilis Like that a - bove. breathe par - take; Let rocks their si - lence break,—The sound pro - long. ho - ly light; Pro - tect us by Thy might, Great God, our King! ee Be asco ne a. see See Me ge ea: See ee Soncs THaT Live I501 THE SONG OF THE HOME FLAG THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER Francis Scott Key Ts Oh; say, can you see, by thedawn’sear -ly light, Whatso proud-ly we hailed at the 2. On the shoredim-ly seen thro’ the mists of the deep, Where the foe’s haughty host in dread 3. And where is that band who so vaunt-ing - ly swore, That the hay -oc. of war and the 4. Ob, thus be it ey - er when frecmen shall stand Be - tweenthcirloved home and wild & a a a Se Reema Gales 2 mete Se eS tf aes oe = IG: sh ed os ee Te a a a | , a a 2 fd j sl --S o-v { y~-s twilight’s last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars,thro’ the perilous fight, O’er the ramparts we si-lence re-pos - es, What is that which the breeze,o’er the tow-er-ingsteep,As it fit-ful-1 bat-tle’s con-fu-sion, A home and a coun-try should leave us no more? Their blood has washed war's desolation ; Blest with vict’ry and peace,may the heay’n-rescued land Praise the Pow’r that hath ! aN ; . ~ o 2 ess Gace mize mites minal # = S333 18-4 Sea wae Se ee (Pawel Ree Se D [ifeseeee ees eee Se eal Lae o_o] OS! Bere a = a o rox fale us a 2 = = (Ae a a el a er Sie a 6 aad Ca ae OF 2 eee eee r = Fy ae! aa a v = a> eal —, UE has tm Stat | Saat | A eet — so , Sem St ae 1 a a om oe ce ae Ao a I ho dl i watched, were s0 gal-lant-ly streaming? And the rockets’ red glare,the bombs burstingin air, Gave blows, half conceals, half dis-clos-es? Now it catch-es the gleam of the morning’s first beam, In full out their foul footsteps’ pol-lu-tign. No ref-ugecouldsave the hire-ling and slave From the made and preserved us a na-tion! Then con-quer we must,Whenourcauseitis just, And | Spee es) fees ms ; : el a SY wom! 1S Bs ot Pee Pe Soest we fee ae al eae ee > SS bee nl el Oe Se ey ot esa See ee * er SS 9 eet De ee ed be a a CHORUS. ff = | es a a a ae, bb 2 Gees NEE. eee ae |; _— af 7. OBE St Le 2 ee Ss 2 eee Ss seed ~~ = lees Ee es >= SP, EE TT J ht Se | at Bat Bee ERR A Wa =. AE Yo Eee - oe . CA ==] A JAS ea == - Sey proof thro’ the night that our flag was still there. Oh, say, does that star-span-gled glo - ry re-flect- ed,nowshineson the stream: ’Tis the star-span-gled ban-ner; oh ter - ror of flight or the gloomof the graye: Andthe star-span-gled ban-ner in this be our mot- to: ‘“InGod is our trust!’? And the star-span-gled ban-ner in ’ e= = : ee SS SSS eo = | = re SS a Cee ee ee Ee ee = eee ier Cres. iA Be set —A Ts ea? : Sp, Br" Wl A aaa Fe, 4 . z a a y Khe | w> Ow tc mar YY | ee ban - ner yet wave long may it wave ) tri - umph doth mera O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave. tri - umpb shall wave ree: are ~ aus = -—-—_# Fe ee Ss ee emo is — | aa) eee o> ume 6 Sn SS EE add 9) ore ES a Eee" Se eee Qe ‘THE CORNELL KEADING-COURSES i) U1 1e) to A SONG OF AMERICAN PATRIOTISM BATTLE HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC JuLt1a Ward Howe n Allegretto. by ® < we oS, re a a ae » Ab fF ae a eS _ CSS le 4 SS a \—— a tae — 7. | _ a ‘Ss ~— ° -@- |. — 1. Mine eyes have seen the glo - ry of thecom~ ing of theLord, He is 2.1 haveseen Him in thewatch-fires of | a hun - dred cir-cling camps; They have 3.1 haveread a_ fie - ry gos- pel,writ in bur-nishedrows of steel; “As ye 4. He has sound-ed forth thetrum- petthat shallnev - er call re-treat; He is 5. In the beau-ty of the lil - ies, Christ wasborn a-cross the sea, With a ~_~ ss e e = Oar SS <<< a eas oF a es oo os et me = A. PES Pe)» eee ee ee eed tramp-ling out the vin - tage where the grapes of wrath are stored; He hath build -ed Him an al - tar in’ the eve-ningdews anddamps; I can deal with my con-tem- ners, so with you my grace shall deal; Let sift - ing out the hearts of men be -.fore his judg + ment seat; Oh, be i his bos -om that trans-fig- ures you and me; As . He 3) eS SSS es SSS eS Oe. eee eee es Bee ee eee eee = eae Ss > ra ee > Gees ee Pe Pe eee ee qe eo ae OE Bee ee ES ee ee es) ee ee Ss “$2: TS SS —~ loosed the fate - ful light-ning of His ter - ri-ble swiftsword. His truth is marching on. read His nghteoussen-tence by the dim and flar - ing lamps. Hisday is marching on. He - ro,born of wom -an,crush the ser - pent with his heel, Since God 1s marching on.” swift, mysoul, to an-swer Him) be ju - bi-lant, my feet! Our God is marching on, died tomakemenho- ly, let us die to make menfree, While God is marching on. Py Glo - ry! glo - ry! Hal- le- la - jah! en” ES eee Ca > Re ee EE ee ‘7 ——— ae ee WA Es Ce Sau Ss Se ee Sa == | Soncs TuHaT LIvE 1503 A STORY OF YANKEE DOODLE ANONYMOUS mz: = > hea =a] 2 ee es hae ES) DSSS ED en ee 7. = ye Sa Sa obs Ges Gee ee eer 1 EE aE a | fw A , a . | oe fe SE ee oe Bz 7 4 : 7S Ee Se ed ee Ge De ——. 1. Orice on a time old John-ny Bull Flew in a rag-ing fu + ry, And 2. Then down he sat in bur - ly state, And blus-terd like a gran-dee, And 3. John sent the tea from o’er the sea With heav- y du-ties ra - ted; But 4. Then John-ny sent a_ reg + i-ment, Big wordsand looks to ban ~ dy, Whose 5. A long war then they had, in which John was at last de~ feat - ed, And las a Ss a eee = (Os >—s |__| —_4—_,, | _*—__3-—_4-- ——_,, — 8 23 —le—s_ ea SoS oe ee ee aad ae an {\ # ma? oe eee Sees Re a ee a SS Sa ee == Ss eee ag | fay ji =e 2 —— : a a said that Jon - a - than should have No ti- al, sir, by ju - ry; in de - ri- sion made a_ tune Called“Yan- kee doo-dle dan - dy.” wheth - er hy - son- or bo - hea, I nev - er heard it sta - ted. mar - tial band, when near the land, Played“ Yan-kee doo-dle dan - dy.” “Yan-kee doo- dle” was the march To which his troops re - treat - ed! A A eo That no e-lec-tions should be held, A - cross the bri - ny wa - ters; “And “Yan - kee doo-dle’’—these are facts— ‘‘ Yan - kee-doo - dle dan - dy: My Then Jon - a-than to pout be- gan, He laid a strong em - bar - go,“I’ll “Yan - keedoo-dle—keep it up! Yan - kee doo - dle dan- dy! Ill Cute Jon - a-than to see them fly, Couldnot re-strain his laugh-ter: “ That « | i i | ] i ‘ rN mi | i i 4 tl li ul at ( tt ai “his now,” said he, “ ran tax the tea Of ll his sons and daugh - ters.” son of wax, your tea I'll tax— Yan-kee doo-dle dan - dy.” drink no tea, dear sir!” so he Threw o- ver-board the car + go. poi - son with a tax your cup, Yan-kee doo-dle dan - dy.” tune,” said he, “suits to a doy =A7ll:= ‘sing tt ev - er af-< «ter? Ch A a 5S eee eS oe ee 2 —— SS ee ae ee 2 ee 6, With “ Hail Columbia!” it is sung, 7. No matter how we rhyme the words, In chorus full and hearty; The music speaks them handy, On land and main we breathe the strain, And where’s the fair can’t sing the air John made for his tea-party. Of “‘ Yankee doodle dandy!” “Yankee doodle—ho! ha! he! “Yankee doodle, firm and true, Yankee doodle dandy, Yankee doodle dandy, We kept the tune but not the tea, Yankee doodle, doodle doo! Yankee doodle dandy!” Yankee doodle dandy. 1504 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES AN AMERICAN’S SONG OF HOME HOME, SWEET HOME JoHN HowarD PAYNE 1. "Mid pleasuresand pal :- a-ces.. though we mayroam, Be it ev - er so gaze on the moon as I tread thedrearwild, And.. feel that my ex - ilefrom home, splen-dor daz - zles in vain; Oh,... give me my hum-ble, there’s no place like home. A charm from the skies seemsto hal - low us moth-er now thinks of her child; As she lookson that moon from our own cot- tage low - erases cot-tage a - gain; The birds sing-ing gai- ly, that came at my aa ae ee See ee 9 ee a ©5--— ==as == Ze === : \ \ ! r— there, Which, seek thro’ the world, is ne'er met with else-where. door. Thro’ the wood - bine where fra - granceshall cheer me no_ more. call, Give me them, and that peace of mind,. dear - er than all. REFRAIN. b es —+- —;-—— (Somes eee oe a= Senet pall Home! home! sweet, sweethome! Be it ev - er so hum- ble, there’sno place like home. Soncs THAT LIVE 1505 A SONG OF HOME MEMORIES BY AMERICA’S BEST-KNOWN “OLD SONG” WRITER MY OLD KENTUCKY HOME STEPHEN C. FOSTER 1 The sunshines brightin the old Ken-tuck-y home, °Tis sum-mer, the dark-ies are 2. They hunt no more for the pos-sum and the coon, Onthe meadow, the hill, and the 3. The head must bow and the back will have to bend, Wher-ev-er thedark-ey may ff. @. @. eer Sep cheer Bs te Giese ee sae 2 eee 8 8 8 $$36a5-3455 ve pap gay; The corn-top’s ripe and the meadow’s in the bloom, While the birds make mu-sic all the shore; They sing no more by the glimmer of the moon, On the bench by the old cab -in £0; A few more days, and the troub-le all,will end, In the field where the su- gar - canes —— as eet day. The young folksrollon the lit-tle cab-in floor, Allmer-ry, all hap-py and bright; door ‘The day goes by like a shad-ow o’er the heart, With sor-row where all was de-light; grow, A fewmore days for to tote the wea-ry load,— No mat-ter, ’twillnev-er be light; . 2. @. ~@. 2. @. 2: #. @_@ = o= By’m-by hard times comesa-knocking at the door, Then my old Ken-tuck-y home, good-night! The time has come when the darkies have to part, Then my old Ken-tuck-y home, gooa-night! A few more days till we tot-ter on the road, Then my old Ken-tuck-y home, good-night! eat (Oo 2. Pere —3 #282 (eee = —Y— 4% O weep nomore to-day! We will sing one song for the @. . -e- -&. «—e—8—~ 1500 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES ANOTHER AMERICAN’S SONG OF MEMORY THE OLD OAKEN BUCKET SAMUEL WoopWoORTH #,—— ————$-+ S$ 4&§ 5-6 > ————————— S in SSS SSS >. --— ~ ss Se= sy +; sa — aN a a SS SS ee —— o v) 1 { How dear to thisheart are the scenes of my child-hood, When fond ree - ol- *. The or - chard,the mead - ow, the deep - tang-led wild-wood, And ev - ’ry loved = ———— | Sc a ae ec ee es e 7 lec - tion pre -sents them to view! per wide-spreading pond,and the mill that stood spotwhich my in - fan-cy knew, |The cot of my _ fa - ther,the dai - ry house a -o S——— ——— = ae = 2 a ae ee ee SS a ——— == —=— —— {= —tnZ 2—),- 1 o—_§ =o oo 6 _ «oe amen) | De) gp? ape a OL cec nay ae ae =r 2 ae We ee eS Sey es aes SS Se — =< : 35 5 te ss s+ Vv oor G The bridge and the rock where the cat - a- ract fell. The old oak-en And e’en the rude buck - et that ENS in the well. @- @* »- ele 7 er Te) es sa a oon a Se Se ee SSS 5= == Sarma kas or diefaa eakacal cs Soy PEALE. Oh oa v v 4 v v ess SNeja == SS SS Se SSS See aaa Scat oss 1S -S e —— sia a ov 4 ; Ca iy ie buck-et; the i - ron-bound buck-et, The moss - cover’d yaaa ys in me well. fe ee Si ers me ee ee oe ee ES is =e “ aie — acs = = 2 That moss-covered bucket I hailed as a treasure, For often at noon, when returned from the field, I found it the source of an exquisite pleasure. The purest and sweetest that nature can yield How ardent I seized it, with hands that were glowing, And quick to the white-pebbled bottom it fell, Then soon, with the emblem of truth overflowing, And dripping with coolness, it rose from the well, The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket arose from the well. 3 How sweet from the green, mossy brim to receive it, As, poised on the curb, it inclined’to my lips! Not a full-Mushing goblet could tempt me to leave it. Tho’ filled with the nectar that Jupiter sips. And now, far removed from the loved habitation, The tear of regret will intrusively swell, j As fancy reverts to my father's plantation, And sighs for the bucket that hung in the well. The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, The moss-covered bucket which hangs in the well. Soncs TuaT LIvE 1507 THE SONG OF AN AMERICAN BOY GROWN OLD BEN BOLT THoMaAs DUNN ENGLISH ig 1. Oh! don’t you re-mem-ber sweet Al-ice, Ben Bolt, Sweet Al - ice whose hair was 50 2. Un - der’ the hick-o - ry _ tree, Ben Bolt, Which stood at the foot of the 3. And don’t you re-mem-ber the school, Ben Bolt, With the mas - ter so kind and so u ee a a eo—-2~-#-4 2 — S- brown, Who wept with de- light when you’ gave her a smile, And hill, To geth - er we’ye lain’ in the noon - day shade, And And the sha - ded nook by the - run - ning brook, Where the . Ly J Sit eee eee ee ae ~ ~~ trembled with fear at yourfrown? In the old churchyard, in the val-ley, Ben Bolt, In a lis-tened to Ap = ple-ton’s mill. The mill-wheel has fall-en to piec-es, Ben Bolt, The fair - est wild - flow-ers grew? Grass grows on the mas-ter’s graye, Ben Bolt, The 0 = Seae = a oe. s—s— : -e cor-ner ob-scure -and_ a = lone, They have fit - ted a slab of the raft-ers have tum - bled in, And a qui-et that crawls round the spring of the brook is...... And of all the boys who ye gran - ite s0 gray, And sweet Al-ice lies un - der the stone, They have walls as you gaze, Has fol-lowed the old - - en din, And a school - matesthen, There are- on - - ly you....... and I And of fit- ted a slab of the gran-ite so gray, Andsweet Al-ice lies un qui -et thatcrawlsround the wallsas you gaze, Has fol-lowed the old - - en din, all the boys who were school - mates then, Thereareon - - ly you.. .... and I. — 1508 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES AN OLD SLAVE HYMN SWING LOW, SWEET CHARIOT FoLtk SONG Swing low, sweet char - i - ot, Com-ing, for to car- ry me home, Swing low, sweet char - i - ot, Com - ing for to car - ry me _ home. looked o - ver Jor-dan, and what did see, Com-ing for ; you get there be > fore do, Com-ing for 3. The bright- est day that ev - er saw, Com-ing for 4. I’m _ some - times up and some - times down, Com-ing for home? A band of an- gels com-ing af-ter me, Com-ing for to car-ry me home. home, Tell all my friends ’m com - ing too, Com-ing for to car-ry me home. home, When Je - sus wash’d my _ sins a +» way, Com-ing for to car-ry me home, home, But still my soul feels heav-en - ly bound, Com-ing for to car-ry me home. Soncs TuHaT LIvE 1509 A NEGRO LOVE BALLAD TOMBIGBEE RIVER S. S. STEELE ae ee 7~ oe ™= -®A FA ————— —< ah ee = — 2 abe = “@1$-S-Ste 3-6 le o- - 2. Allthe day in the field thesoft cotton [I hoe, And think of my Ju-lia and sing as I go; Oh, I 3. With my hands on the banjo and toe on the oar, I sing to the sound of the river’s soft roar; While the 4. One night the stream bore us so far faraway, We couldn’t come back, so we tho’t we'd just stay, But we NS there J first met with my Ju-lia a true, And I rowed her about in my Gum-tree canoe. Singing catch her a bird, with a wing of true blue, An’ at night sail her'roundin my Gum-treecanoe. Singing stars they look down at my Ju-lia so true, And dancein her eye in my Gum-tree canoe. Singing spied a tall ship with a flagof true blue, And it took usin tow, with our Gum-tree canoe. Singing x L= a-way, row, o’er the a-way, row, o’er the I510 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES A BALLAD OF THE SOUTH LISTEN TO THE MOCKING BIRD ALICE HAWTHORNE Moderato. jc Jane, —s ele “eeas's oe “8 s=9 0 wes ©. ve iby 1. a aed now = Hal lie, sweet Hal - lie, ee Hal-lie, I’m dreaming now of 2. Ah! well I yet re - mem-ber, re - mem-ber, re - mem-ber, Ah! welll yet re- 3. Whenthe charms of spring awaken, a - wak - en, a - waken, When the charmsof spring a- For the thought of her is one that nev-er dies; She’s sleep-ing in the When we gathered in the cot~ton side by side; ’Twas in the mild Sep - And the mocking bird is sing-ing on the my I feel like one for - = = ——- o—e—o— a =: i= 8 = a ai a a the val - ley, the val-ley, She’s sleeping in the val - ley, And the ipa Sep - tem-ber, Sep - tem-ber, ’Twas in the mild Sep-tem ber, And the sak - for - sak - en, for - sak en, I feel like one for - sak - en, Since my —_s : 678-47 #0? _ $373 6 5 PS fo eee peg ==! ype Fer ca ee ae aS rs Si “Nk srt: a= yogi a id z oe 2 2 oboe we v ESE Ss oo. mocking bird is singing where she jes Listen to ms ilies bird, Listen to the mocking bird was singing far and wide. Listen to the mocking bird, Listen to the Hal-lie is no longer with me now Listen to the mocking bird, Listen to the a ee pasa A tes eral aart 4 eo 8 @ a ‘@ Se jo—e Bs . @ c= wwwe av a gs Se ere er ees mock - ing ed, The mock - ing bird still sing-ing o’er her grave; Lis- ‘s to the Se ene aaa = eee eee: mocking bird, Listen to the mocking bird, Still singing where the weeping willows wave. eee Ss ee ae ee “S33 3333 [) oe = o_ o_o. pp + —_ 9-8-8 9 oe siees aoe earns Base eww Soncs THaT LIveE 1511 A POPULAR BALLAD OF ’61 GENTLE ANNIE STEPHEN C. FOSTER 1. Thou wilt come no more, gen-tle An-nie, Like a flower thy spir - it did de- 2. We have roamed in youth ’mid the bow-ers Whenthy down - y cheeks were in their 3. Ah! the hours grow sad while I pon-der Nearthe si - lent spot where thou art ST, a = \ Rs oa” — 2S = ey ane ee Se SS ee I) {) = » ——E —h 9 eS NC _ a“ Gee Ee] Ge a, ee a [ oe Se Sl ae Gee ee) ey aa 7.22 ee a] A Se =] BD ae es Pe SS el \ GF A > Baas Se KD oe | ee tg @ a a © BP es es A bloom, Now I stand a - lone ’mid the flowers, While they mingle their perfume o’er thy laid, And my heart bows down whenI wander By the stream and the meadows where we a =F re Zoe oe F pa f = . | wl | ww py iv ma , ae : heart. Shall we nev-er more be- hold thee, Never hear thy winning voice a - tomb. Shall we nev- er more be- hold thee, Never hear thy winning voice a - strayed. Shallwe nev-er more be-= hold thee, Never hear thy winning voice a - | Ih Sa “Sar e Beer aes iS 1 SS ee, Tel eal “Gaara | C= i ee a e+e \s y we SS. gain, When the spring-time comes, gentle Annie, When the wild flow’rsare scattered o’er the plain ? eof Re yg tee i ee eto pP—-p— foes a ea gree , a” oe ooo tH ve id “a 1512 THE CoRNELL READING-COURSES AN CLD SCHOOL SONG JOLLY OLD SAINT NICHOLAS ANONYMOUS 4 SS SS. Ss, aes, ee 1. Jol - ly old Saint Nich-o - las, Lean your ear this way! Don’t you tell a 2. When the clock is strik-ing twelve, When I’m fast a - sleep, Down the chimney, 3. John-ny wants a_ pair * of skates; Su - sy wants a dolly; Nel - ly wants a a | CA = — sin - gle soul What I’m going to say; Christmas Eve is com - ing soon; broad and black, With your pack you'll creep; All the stockings you will find sto - ry - book; She thinks dolls are folly; As for me, my - lit - tle brain Now, you dear old man, Whisper what you'll bring to me; Tell me if you can. Hanging in a _ row; Mine will be the shortest one; You'll be sure to know. Is-n’t ve - ry bright; Choose forme, Old San- ta Claus, What youthink is right. j ; Pe _ SAS RSE Mer-ri- ly, mer-ri- ly, mer-ri-ly,mer-ri- ly; Life is but a dream. Soncs TuHaT LIvE 1513 AN AMERICAN CHRISTMAS CAROL O LITTLE TOWN OF BETHLEHEM * t+ ¢ dreamless sleep The si - lentstarsgo by: Yet in thy darkstreetsshin-eth The ev - er- : ae i oes ; ji ta : last-ing Light; The hopesandfearsof all theyears Are met in thee to-night. A-MEN. ] Site. De. : « | | ; a 5 cos eS a ees oe ce ae ee ee 2 er eas = | a 2] eal en eee aa ean eee” a” a | 1 a iced Oa Tae 2 For Christ is born of Mary ; No ear may hear His coming, And gathered all above, But in this world of sin, While mortals sleep, the angels keep Where meek souls will receive Him still, Their watch of wondering love. The dear Christ enters in. O morning stars, together Proclaim the holy birth ; And praises sing to God the King, .And peace to men on earth. 4 O holy Child of Bethtehem, Descend to us, we pray ; Cast out our sin, and enter in, Be born in us to-day. 3 How silently, how silently, We heat the Christmas angels The wondrous gift is given! The great glad tidings tell; So God imparts to human hearts C come to us, abide with us, The blessings of His heaven. Our Lord Emmanuel. *Taken by permission from Christmas Songs and Easter Carols, published by E. P. Dutton and Company, New York City. 1514 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES ANOTHER AMERICAN CHRISTMAS CAROL IT CAME UPON THE MIDNIGHT CLEAR E. H. SEARS —)~———-—- =) SE We = Ee $$ ee Se ee eee = = 3 zs a eae =ueo= =3 rie a a a a 1.It came up-on the mid-nightclear, That glo - rious song of old, 2. Stillthrough theclo- ven skies they come, With peace - - ful wings un - furlea, 3. O ye, be-neathlife’s crush-ing load, Whose forms are bend-ing low, 4. For lo! the daysare hast-’ning on, By proph -et- bards fore- told, sss Se ase eee ey be amg —4g—#--9 9 — Sia 2 StS Seis ee = PE a] From an- gels bend-ing near theearth To touch their his Ne ifs And still their heav’n-ly mu - sic floats O’er all the wea -ry world; Who toil a - long the climb-ing way With pain - ful steps and slow, Whenwith the ev - er - cir-clingygars Comesround the oie of Sie SSeS SSS 3S —Lets a Gs. 2e = ji sibel ot paar Sse a Peace on the earth,good will to men, From heav’n’sall-gra-cious King; A - bove its sad and low- ly plains They bend on heav’n-ly wing, Look now! for glad and gold-enhours Come swift-ly on the wing; When peaceshall o - ver all theearth Its an-cient splen-dors fling, ey Sea ea a DR a eee ae fA ox fies <= Eee SaaS a. ‘ oe pee jee = = A Saree J NESSES =a Serer re Se GS pa pees sve The world in sol-emnstill-ness lay To hear the an- hes sing. And ev-er o’er its Ba-belsoundsThebless-ed an- gels sing. 10) rest be-side the wea- ry road, Andhear the an- gels sing. And the whole world send back the song Which now the = se oe A-men. Saniaee itary ote ee Sa ea ee i SoNGS THAT LIVE ESTs AN AMERICAN MOTHER’S SONG OF THE HOMELAND HOME OF THE SOUL Mrs. ELLEN GATES t = | A ry 5 7 a - Pi s+ o@ = 1 BE bb 4 — eo} Sit S15 Fs =e es rt. I will sing you a song of that beau- ti-ful land, The far a-way a Oh,that home of the soul, in my vis - ionsand dreams, Its bright jasper 3. Oh,howsweet it will be in that beau - ti- ful land, So free from all 4. Therethe great trees of life intheirbeau-ty do grow, Andthe riv - er of e oe ee | WW Y =, f if the soul, ieee storms ev-er beat on the glit - ter-ing strand, While the walls I can see; Till I fan - cy but dim - ly the veil in-ter- venes Be- sor - rowand pain; With songs on our lips, and withharps in our hands, To life floweth by; Forno death ev-er en-tersthat ci - ty, you know, And Hg*8 5-833 years of e- ter -ni-ty roll, Whilethe years of e - ter - ni-ty roll; Whereno tween thatfair-ci - tyand me, Be - tween that fair ci - ty and me, Till I meet one an - oth -er a - gain, To meet onean - oth - er a-gain, With noth-ingthat maketh a lie, And nothing that mak-eth a lie, Forno storms ev - a beat onthe glit - ter-ing strand, While the years of e-ter-ni-ty roll. fan - cy but dim - lythe veil in-tervenes Be - tweenthatfaircit-y and me. songs on our lips, and with harps in ourhands, To meet one an-oth-er a - gain. death ev-er en- tersthat ci - ty, youknow, And _ noth-ing that mak-ctha jie. - —~ i —, | an cn ees 7 a ae The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY B. T. GALLoway, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York VOL. IV. No. 79 JANUARY I, 1915 eOONGEEAS = PROGRAMS FOR USE IN STUDY CLUBS MirRIAM BIRDSEYE The programs given in this lesson are based on A Syllabus of Lessons for Extension Schools in Home Economics,! which was published last year as the February issue of the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home. Members of extension schools often wish to continue their study of home economics in study clubs, and these programs have been planned with this end in view. They may be used in the order in which they are given, or any one or ones may be omitted, according to the preference of each club. In preparing the papers outlined in the programs the syllabus will be found indispensable, but more complete books are needed for constant reference. For this purpose Foods and Household Management, by Helen Kinne and Anna M. Cooley, and Food Values, are recommended, and each club is advised to get two copies of each. The former, although written as a textbook for high school students, is a practical, up-to-date, and readable guide for the home maker as well. The latter is a bulletin published by the American School of Home Economics, and gives practical methods in diet calculations. The farmers’ bulletins, published by the United States Department of Agriculture, and the Cornell reading-course lessons that are cited as references for some of the papers, may be obtained in the manner described on page 11o of the syllabus. For persons who wish to go deeper into the study of foods, A Laboratory Hand-book for Dietetics, by Mary Swartz Rose, and Food Products, by Henry C. Sherman, are recommended. In addition to the reference books, each club should own or have the use of a tested scale that will register half ounces. A reliable letter scale will be satisfactory; such a scale may be bought at a hardware store for about a dollar and a half. A blackboard may be used to good advantage. A set of large food charts in color, which make excellent illustrations for 1The fellowing corrections should be made: Page 138, first line, the words ‘‘ legumes, and nuts” should be omitted; page 143, under Boiled dressing in quantity, ‘‘4 teaspoonfuls salt” should be changed to ‘2 teaspoonfuls,” [1517] 1518 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES the study of foods and which later might be presented to the local school, may be bought from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for one dollar. The secretary of the club should make a list of the reference books and all material needed, and should see that everything is at hand before an attempt is made to carry out any of the programs. THE DAILY EXPENDITURE OF ENERGY Roll call— Each member should respond with some quotation relating to food. Paper.— The body’s need for energy-giving material Suggestive outline 1. The three needs that the body must satisfy from its food a. Energy requirement b. Body building substances ce. Body regulating substances 2. The purpose for which the body spends energy each day a. Internal work b. External work c. Maintaining the warmth of the body . Foodstuffs from which the body obtains energy . Foods that are recognized as valuable sources of energy . The factors that govern the amount of energy expended daily . The Calorie, or measure of energy, and its equivalent in work and in heat The housekeeper’s dietary short cut, the too-Calorie portion . Method of determining the daily energy requirement, some- times called the fuel need, of the body on the basis of body weight and of work done g. A specimen energy requirement for one day, worked out by the writer of the paper References Cost of food. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. .29 Principles of nutrition and nutritive value of food. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 142 Foods and household management, p. 7-12, 295-303. Kinne and Cooley Aun & Ww oom Paper.— Sugar as a food Suggestive outline 1. The way in which plants manufacture sugars and starches 2, Representative foods rich in sugar PROGRAMS FOR USE IN StTupyY CLUBS 1519 3. Digestion of sugar; storage of unused sugar as fat 4. The use and abuse of sugar in the diet s. Sugar as an energy-yielding foodstuff References Sugar andits value as food. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 535 Rules for planning the family dietary, p. 189. Cornell reading- course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 41 Foods and household management, p. 164-168. Kinne and Cooley Discussion.— The members of the club should question the writer of the first paper until they understand clearly the methods of calculating the daily requirement for energy, in order that each member may calculate her own requirement on the basis of her weight and the kinds of work done so that she can report it at the roll call of the next meeting. A simple method of estimating a person’s probable daily expendi- ture of energy is suggested by the following tables. Energy requirement for each pound of body weight for a person at complete rest. oc... les o24a sew awe: 14 to 16 Calories Ror a person doing light work. .....:...6....e8805-055 16 to 18 Calories For a person doing moderate work.................4.4. 18 to 20 Calories Ponta person doing hard work .. [425.4 sce kee cadaven 20 to 23 Calories Complete rest includes reading, resting, and sitting at meals. Light work includes walking; standing at one’s work, as in cooking, dish washing, or bed making; hand and machine sewing; typewriting; and the like. Moderate work includes washing, sweeping, and other equally vigorous forms of housework; bicycling; carpentering; and the like. Hard work not only involves a good many muscles, but also causes enough strain to harden and enlarge them. House cleaning and heavy sweeping are included under this heading. Lumbermen, excavators, and a few others do even heavier work than this. Energy requirement during growth? Calories per Age in years pound per day LISS (2s ei cL en Po DA 8 a re eee A 45 T= LEE ee Pe iP Cae rer Arn Lea et Wy ae en ei 45-40 ee Me ee Ee Mees OS i oe AA aN ea Me ears nek ae See es ceca 40-36 OEP Se cans a vate Gv AC Re ee ES Ge eee eae ae 36-30 NC eMGR ty 2 c26 cos 8 Sina oa Suthce nM, A leans en AA REE RD etn 320-27 ATR Lc Lia: B28 LORE SR pata Deel Ee BS SUAS 27-20 ee oe REE rr hee ee eres gore ar Not less than 18 2 This table is taken from Foods and Household Management, by Kinne and Cooley. 1520 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES The data given in the tables may be worked out in the following way: Mrs. B weighs one hundred and thirty pounds. If she sleeps eight hours, spends two hours a day dressing, two hours sitting at meals, two hours in reading and recreation, four hours in preparing and clearing away meals, four hours in house cleaning, and two hours doing hand sewing, she does a day’s moderate work and expends eighteen to twenty Calories for each pound of her weight. Therefore her daily expenditure of energy is 2340 to 2600 Calories. Exhibit— During the discussion, two members should be appointed to weigh, measure, and label 1oo-Calorie, or “ standard,” portions of gran- ulated, lump, and brown sugar, maple sirup, molasses, dried and fresh fruits. A tested scale that will register half ounces should be used. Members should fix the measures carefully in their minds, as well as make a list of 10o0-Calorie portions to be inserted on an extra page in the syllabus. The troo-Calorie portions of nonperishable foods may be put in small paper bags and saved for more complete exhibits in the future. These portions should be carefully labeled, and a suggestive form for a label is given here. 1oo-Calorie Portion Granulated Sugar .g Ounce — 2 Level Tablespoonfuls Refreshments.— If refreshments are to be served, they should include nut caramel pudding, made according to the recipe given on page 118 of the syllabus. The hostess should write on the board the quantity of materials used in terms of weight and measure and the number of individual portions of the pudding made from the given materials. She should calculate the energy, or fuel, value and the cost both of the whole quantity of pudding and of an individual portion. The whipped cream should be omitted in making this calculation. One-hundred-Calorie portions of the foods used in making this pudding are: 0.9 ounce light brown sugar; 0.5 ounce English walnut meats; I.o ounce cornstarch. 3 Illustrations of exhibits of roo-Calorie pcrtions of different foods are given in Foods and Household Management, by Kinne and Cooley; a table of ro0o-Calorie portions of some commonly used foods is given on page 301 of the same volume; and in Food Values, pages 14 to 20, will be found a table of 100-Calorie portions of a large number of foods. This last table gives not only the weight of the too-Calorie portions, both in ounces and in grams, but the approximate measures as well. PROGRAMS FOR USE IN Stupy CLuBs L521 CEREALS AND OTHER STARCHY FOODS Roll call— Each member should respond by giving her own energy re- quirement for one day, based on her weight and the kind of work she does, as outlined in the preceding program. These figures should be tabulated on the blackboard. Paper.— Starchy foods Suggestive outline 1. The way in which starch is manufactured and stored as a source of potential energy by the plant 2. Representative foods rich in starch 3. The starch grain 4. The parts played by the starch grains, the plant fiber, or ] the cellulose, and the water in the cooking of starchy foods 5. Reasons for the difference in the time necessary for the proper cooking of potatoes and of cracked wheat; of rice and of oatmeal 6. The digestion of starch and ie necessity for the erode chewing of starchy foods 7. The use made of starch by the body and the way in which the potential energy stored up by the plant is liberated for the use of the animal 8. Starch versus sugar as an energy-yielding food g. Storage of surplus energy-yielding digestive products in the form of fat 10. The place of starchy foods in the diet References Foods and household management, p. 134-137. Kinne and Cooley Rules for planning the family dictary, p. 187-190. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 41 Potatoes and other root crops as food. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farm- ers’ bulletin 295 Course in cereal foods and their preparation for movable schools of agriculture, p. 24-26, 34-36. U. 5S. Office of Experiment Stations. Bulletin 200 Paper.— Breakfast cereals OS al outline . Place of the breakfast cereal in the dict for young and old 2. Kinds of breakfast cereals 3. Comparison of the amount of energy contained in ten cents’ worth of the most-used breakfast cereals and of other starchy foods 96 1522 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 4. Breakrast cereals as sources of protein; a comparison with other foods rich in starch in this regard 5. Breakfast cereals as sources of mineral matter; a comparison with other foods rich in starch in this regard 6. The cooking of breakfast cereals 7. Cereals and the fireless cooker 8. Various methods of serving cereals 9. Cereals preferable for young children References Cereal breakfast foods. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 249 Rules for planning the family dietary. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 41 Cost of food. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 29 Foods and household management, p. 126-137. Kinne and Cooley Discussion.— The following is a list of questions that may be used in leading the discussion: Why is it poor economy to serve potatoes and rice or potatoes and macaroni at the same meal? What are the qualities of a well-boiled potato? a well-baked potato? How may baked potatoes be kept from becoming soggy if they are not used immediately? Should the skin of a baked potato be eaten? Has a potato boiled in its skin a higher nutritive value than one which is pared or scraped before it is boiled? Exhibit.— One-hundred-Calorie portions of common starchy foods, such as bread, uncooked macaroni, potatoes, rice, flour, and cereals should be prepared by the method given on page 1520. Refreshments.— Chocolate cornstarch pudding served in individual cups is a suitable refreshment to serve at this meeting. The cost aid the energy value of the whole amount and of each portion should be calculated. Six-tenths of an ounce of chocolate is a t100-Calorie portion. Suggestions for next meeting. — If a bread contest is to be held at the next meeting, all necessary preliminary arrangements should be made at this time. For the next meeting each member should prepare a written state- ment of the following facts to be read at roll call: 1. Name and price per package and per pound of the cereal best liked by each member. Cereals that are sold in packages have the net weight printed on the package. PROGRAMS FOR USE IN Stupy CLUvuBs 1523 2. Number of half-pint cupfuls in a package and in a pound of the cereal selected. 3. Energy value of a half pint of the uncooked cereal. All uncooked cereal products, except oatmeal, have an energy value of about one hundred Calories an ounce; oatmeal has an energy value of about one hundred and ten Calories an ounce. 4. Amount of cooked cereal made from a half pint of the uncooked cereal. . Energy value of the portion of cereal usually served. 6. Cost of a roo-Calorie portion of the cereal. mn BREAD-MAKING CONTEST Roll call— Members should respond with facts concerning cereals (page 1521), which the secretary should tabulate on the board as they are read. Paper.— Flour Suggestive outline -. Cereals used in making flour 2. The structure and composition of wheat: parts of the grain valuable in making flour for bread 3. Milling of wheat a. Methods of making flour used by primitive women b. Later methods of milling c. The modern roller process d. Grades of flour 4. Characteristics of good flour 5. Comparisons between bread flour and pastry ‘acu white flour and whole wheat flour References Foods and household management, p. 191-197. Kinne and Cooley Bread and break making. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 389 Paper.— Scoring bread: brief explanation of the score card to be used by the committee in scoring and judging the bread Reference Some points in the making and judging of bread. University of Milinois, Bulletin 25 1524 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Rules for the contest.— 1. All contestants must use standard half-pint measuring cups, bread tins of uniform size, and the same recipe. This recipe may be chosen from the syllabus, from a reference book, or from some standard cookbook. 2. The secretary should assign to each member a number to be used in labeling her entry, and should record these names and numbers in a book. Thus the committee that judges the bread will not be influenced by knowing who baked the loaves entered in the contest. 3. Each contestant must submit one sample loaf of standard size. This loaf must have been baked the previous day, and must be labeled, not with the contestant’s name, but with the number assigned to her by the secretary. 4. A committee of three persons must be appointed to judge the bread. The following score card may be used: laVOn cece ay beaker ee OROr ase 20 taste 20 ( moisture... 10 Crumbs 5 Wa fe INCh an ee ba | lightness... 5 | CEXtUTE.5).410 Colors » A215 ( color 5 | Crustee ene are emer depth. .... 5 | crispness. . . 5 CEXCUTE oe oS General appearance. «45,4 +.e. 0s." Size. ee 5 shape... .. 5 Perlectiscore eee Sec ee eee 100 5. A score card must be filled out for each loaf of bread judged by the committee. These cards will serve as the basis for the dis- cussion, which is the most important part of this program. 6. A prize’ may be awarded to the maker of the loaf receiving the highest score. Discussion— The committee should comment on the different loaves of bread and give reasons for scoring them as it did. Members should ask questions and discuss these points, for this is the most helpful part of the lesson, and should not be passed over hastily or carelessly, PROGRAMS FOR USE IN StuDy CLUBS 1525 Refreshments.— Sandwiches made of graham nut bread with dates (page 114 of the syllabus) should be included in the refreshments. FATS Roll call— Each member should respond by giving the name of some home-rendered fat, other than lard, which she has used in flour mix- tures or in deep frying. Paper.— Fats and fried foods in the diet of young and old Suggestive outline 1. Energy value of fat as compared with that of carbohydrates and of protein 2. Balance to be maintained between fats and carbohydrates in the diet 3. Growth-stimulating fats: simple dishes suitable for children in which foods containing such fats play a prominent part 4. The effect on a school child or an office worker of a breakfast or a noon meal overrich in fat s. Kinds of fat and types of cooked food that are difficult of ' digestion, and therefore should not be given to young chil- dren or to persons of delicate digestion 6. The place of fat in the diet of the active out-of-door worker . The place of fruit in the meal rich in fat 8. Three menus for a farm breakfast that shall provide simple food for the growing children and at the same time satisfy the needs of the hearty man of the family ~ References Foods and household management, p. 158-162, 309. Kinne and Cooley Food for school boys and girls. Teachers College, Columbia University. Technical education bulletin 23 The feeding of young children. Teachers College, Columbia University. Technical education bulletin 3 Rules for planning the family dietary. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 41 Paper.— Fat as used in cooking Suggestive outline 1. The effect of fats in making a flour mixture tender 2. Forms of fat suitable for use as shortening 3. Methods of trying out, or rendering, fat that insure the least waste and the best flavor 1526 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 4. The use of fats in making sauces and gravies that are smooth and free from floating grease 5. Cooking in deep and in shallow fat a. Comparative wholesomeness of food cooked by these two methods: reasons b. Reliable tests for proper temperatures of fats for frying cooked and uncooked mixtures c. Draining of food cooked in deep fat d. Clarifying fat after use in frying e. Forms of fat suitable for use in deep frying References Foods and household management, p. 163. Kinne and Cooley Making cake— Part I. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. IV, No. 73 Any standard cookbook Discussion.— The following points should be brought out in the discussion: the uses and the limitations of various butter or lard substitutes: reasons why it is dangerous to pour water on burning fat; materials that should be used to put out such a fire. Exhibit One-hundred-Calorie portions of foods rich in fat, including 1.8 ounces of ordinary cream testing 20 per cent fat, .g ounce of thick cream testing 40 per cent fat, and .6 ounce of chocolate, should be prepared. Refreshments.— Fried cakes should be included in the refreshments. Try dipping the fried cakes for an instant into a kettle of boiling water immediately after they are taken from the hot fat. In order to show how much grease is removed from the fried cakes by this process, chill the water, and remove and measure the grease. MILK Roll call— Each member should name some simple dish of which milk is the chief constituent, and which is suitable for a young child or an invalid. Paper.— Milk as a growth-promoting food: its place in the diet of the young child and of the adolescent boy and girl References Rules for planning the family dietary. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 41 The feeding of young children. Teachers College, Columbia University. Technical education bulletin 3 PROGRAMS FOR USE IN Stupy CLUBS 1527 Food for school boys and girls. Teachers College, Columbia University. Technical education bulletin 23 The use of milk as food. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 363 Foods and household management, p.146-152. Kinneand Cooley Suggestive topics for town and city clubs.— 1. Local standards for the cleanliness of market milk and ways in which these standards compare with those enforced in other communities of the same size 2. The attitude of members of the club, as consumers, as mothers of children, and as club women, toward the local milk question References The milk question. M. J. Rosenau The control of bulk milk in stores. U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry. Circular 217 Publications of the Rochester Board of Health relating to clean milk. Obtainable from the secretary of the board Discusston.— The discussion should be based on the following questions: What improvements in the milk supply of this town or in methods of distribution are still to be desired? How may such improvements be brought about? ; Suggestive topic for country clubs— Sources of contamination of milk on the farm; effect of dirt on milk; equipment and methods that may be used on the small farm in order to insure cleanliness of milk for home use or for the local market References Clean milk. S. D. Belcher The milk question, Chapter IV. M. J. Rosenau Discussion.— The following question may be used in starting the dis- cussion: What share of moral responsibility has the woman of the small dairy farm in regard to the selling of clean milk? Exhibit— The exhibit should consist of 1too-Calorie portions of whole milk, skimmed milk, buttermilk, thick cream (40 per cent fat), and thin cream (18-20 per cent fat). Refreshments —— A caramel or vanilla junket, served with chopped nuts and whipped cream, or a junket ice cream are suitable refreshments to serve at this meeting. The energy value and the cost of the whole amount and of an individual portion should be calculated. CHEESE Roll call— Each member should respond by naming, without describing, a well-liked dish that contains cheese. 1528 THE CORNELL READING-CoURSES Paper.— Feeding and serving the invalid References Foods and household management, p. 273, 275, 318-320. Kinne and Cooley Paper.— Cheese as a food: some attractive and novel ways of serving it References Foods and household management, p. 154-156. Kinne and Cooley Cheese and its economical uses in the diet. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 487 Discussion.— The making and serving of cottage cheese should be dis- cussed in this connection, and the following questions may be used in directing the discussion: In making cottage cheese how may even texture and tenderness be secured? How may cottage cheese be used in salads? in sandwiches? How does cheese made from buttermilk compare with that made from sour milk? Exhibit— The exhibit should consist of too-Calorie portions of bread, butter, lean meat, eggs (in shell), dried beans, shelled nuts, and any kinds of cheese that can be obtained in the local markets, also a 100- Calorie cheese sandwich. Refreshments.— For refreshments serve, with coffee, any one of the deli- cious cheese dishes made by the recipes given in Farmers’ Bulletin 487. MEAT SUBSTITUTES Roll call— Each member should respond with the name of a dish that contains sufficient protein to be substituted for the meat dish of a meal. Paper.— Protein in the diet Suggestive outline 1. The unique service that protein renders in supplying nitrogen for building tissue . Value of protein as a source of energy . Common foods rich in protein . Foods containing protein especially valuable for growth . The place of meat in the diet . The main factor in determining the daily protein requirement of the healthy adult 7. The daily protein requirement measured in ounces, and meas- ured in ratio of protein calories to total calories 8. The amount of protein needed by growing children compared with that needed by persons fully grown Aum f& WwW ND PROGRAMS FOR USE IN Stupy CLuss 1529 References Rules for planning the family dietary. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 41 Cost of food. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 29 Foods and household management, p. 11, 301-305. Kinne and Cooley Economical use of meat in the home. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 391 Paper.— Meat substitutes and ways of extending the flavor of meat References Beans, peas, and other legumes as food. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farm- ers’ bulletin 121 Foods and household management, p. 243-245. Kinne and Cooley Economical use of meat in the home. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 391 Discusston.— The members should give their experiences in using fireless cookers. The following questions may be asked: Can a workable fire- less cooker be made at home? What materials would be needed for making sucha cooker? What would be the cost of these materials? What are satisfactory commercial makes of fireless cookers? insulated ovens? Exhibit.— The exhibit should consist of portions of food containing ap- proximately a quarter ounce of protein, or from one-eighth to one- thirteenth the total daily protein requirement. The following list of such portions has been calculated from A Laboratory Hand-book for Dietetics, by Mary Swartz Rose: Approximate weight in ounces of portion containing one-fourth ee ounce protein Beef, salted, smoked, edible portion.............c0cccccccccccerecccccees 2.205; S15) 016 | OR Py a ee ea Serer 2: Wodnsh® salt, boneless, as. purchased). scr. hc aele ors sels eo Sie Bate ssa bre 3 ord Mieese,. American pale. z . 5... i os vs dawns age stcvohbel aha, citaystasy evs yaisgy Sue) ete toys ee COLCA Creat gels ots ho rn ee Gene Ait, o Sect sl Manenny Neate el ie iad ath hap wees EPUB WENO Borah SAM hag tle SE AE dA Bota ucies See eee eae 4 nak ae MEA SOME ESERIES A Foye dan Blick, Bin eich hep BG Sa PRI Sp adres 28x Utero a Selatan ie BRS IRIE 8 yrs 4. sta Marhss gia Seder PCRs Ce ak Le DLS Came SAC Maes 87 She sg. tec hates eae ae Ue Rie Oh aS eG eons EE ee Beanse Maced Canned. sc s cuales, cauccans seeieeke PRLS nat deeb bc ie ahogtow sles “SELES! SETAE bg gh ea tone 6 tn ek a chee Bee TOLLE ICAV CLARE) ¢ ole c scesste acct Sees BS Oe sate glow sate ain dele wa ROe Ra Me OhOTIUEM eT Tes 5,0 Sicha ae Beet | Ravn arelshiord ecient ek aber we Py nee ae Re PERSE ACCT G So hi aire cee Sd eta id eayeths tse Sin UAW w y's) yea a's Be ere eee SEN tse Calitormia eshelled: 2 aes baste an ee wc ise ceed Pak come mn tn Sa Be RINT SHG LLC ey, Ae, Tessks ch PEANUT Oe soc sd Mad Sach haga le Rhea Raster L2ES AGT LOTR ee ea Ay Bee a eR ae cot, I Ae er On MU aces oe nS Lean meat, (beef, veal, lamb, mutton, chicken), edible portion, raw‘........ 17 = me Nw Ne De eS oe NWOWBNONMNDCORMNDOOHSO 4 The same meat cooked would probably furnish about one-fourth ounce protein for each ounce of meat. 1530 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Refreshments.— Appropriate refreshments for this meeting are thin slices of cold veal loaf, pork loaf, or salmon loaf, served with bread and butter; a tart jelly or pickle; coffee; and dates stuffed with peanuts or with dairy cheese. MEAT Roll call— Each member should respond with the name of the cut of meat from which she obtains the most satisfactory return for the money expended, and the present price of it per pound. Paper.— The selection, the care, and the cooking of meat, with especial emphasis on the treatment of the tougher cuts, particularly tough steak References Foods and household management, p. 209-221. Kinne and Cooley Any good cookbook Economical use of meat in the home. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 391 Market classes and grades of meat. University of Illinois. Bul- letin 147 Relative economy, composition and nutritive value of the various cuts of beef. University of Illinois. Bulletin 158 Paper.— The sanitary market Suggestive outline 1. Conditions under which a careful housekeeper would like to have meats marketed 2. Market conditions that could be insisted on by the housekeeper 3. The accepted requirements of a sanitary market as shown by a study of sanitary score cards 4. Local sanitary standards of food distribution that have been established by groups of women 5. Outline of a practicable plan by which women and local dealers could cooperate in establishing sanitary market conditions Reference The pure food victory won by the women of Grand Forks. Kath- erine G. Leonard. The American city, June, 1913 Score cards for use in judging provision stores may be obtained from the boards of health of most large cities and from the Housewives’ League, New York City. Several popular magazines publish articles regularly concerning the work of club women for town betterment. The Women’s Municipal League of Boston publishes reports on its successful methods of market inspection. The following is a specimen sanitary score card: PROGRAMS FOR USE IN StupDy CLUBS 1531 SANITARY SCORE CARD Issued by Food Committee of the National Consumers’ League General surroundings Perfect ican 5. -Paily clean oo) Dirty. 02.50.5533 y sftsiasees bales oti 5 Ventilation Ree) yen) aie eg SA Oise a cicels china cha als Sedimistingt arsenate Sataets 3 Lighting COOL oe ALS) May AVAGO arn glee wale ae aller a eeror meth Ailsa Conese aes Ghee 3 Walls, windows, and ceiling Gleam24>: - Partly clean i. Dirty. Oivass.be0s 4. bine aclsaatnene eee 3 Floor and fixtures Clean a5 Fairly clear rs. “Winty O22 2h. eo eee a ek oe eee et 3 Blocks, counters, and the like Cleans: ;Hairly cleam 3. “Dirty /Oij. 6 c09 fa. ode cids eaia ieee 5 Utensils, instruments, and tools Clean s.. -Rairly clean a2" Dirty: O10 ag ies oo ne a ase me aes 5 Refrigeration Adequate 5. Inadequate 2. No refrigeration 0............... 5 Refrigerators Clean 5.) Fale 24 Dirty Gus esos oc book esc hae mee 5 Sewage arrangement * amitary. 3.) ) Wisanitary 02 x2 joie. bac ae cae eee eee eee 3 Plumbing Open. ~ Closed O07 5.0 os dhents voae neh Kesgd a Qiemetiee oamanees 3 Cellar floors, walls, windows, ceiling Cleana. Haitly clean 2. 0 Dirty Ons: sack odp ne oe oaivasiaetess 4 Cellar ventilation (Goodaice WBadiOs penned rt a oe tae ae ea tian cepacia I Employees Healthy and apparently free from contagious disease........... 5 Clearly te HAD IES f.2.cc 3. erbysiscs ag erase acme 8 s, Sate tens se eeeheeale ole NE ard, a7 ide 5 Westie lent Clothes ais a orrcited « mete. wean ane ease > a eremeedtions 5 Store unconnected by door with living room.................. 10 Storeaboveistreet levields seen ene ee tee ee ene 5 Store ma DASemIeMt As ce c'euie cacy be ops caet Boe epee aoy eee anes (e) Food, meat, etc., kept in cleanly manner after receipt.......... 5 Rood, meat, /ete:, not, exposed to aime: tice een te coh vee os 7 Door. and: window screéns in summers) Soren. sce tes se! 3 Delivery of goods (whether by individual o- wagon) conducted invarcleanlyman mene ates eee ee ws rate a hte ae 7, Grand -totall nc es desl do eens al aloe sere Se Saud ae als 100 *Sanitary sewage arrangement means a condition that conforms to local health regulations, This term will have to be defined separately in each community. er 1532 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Discussion.— The following question should be used in starting the dis- cussion: What specific improvements should the members of a study club, as consumers and as club women, seek to bring about in the handling of the food supplies of a town? Exhibit— Score cards for stores that handle foods should be collected for the exhibit. VEGETABLES Roll call— Each member should name the vegetable, except the potato, that she has served most frequently during the past twelve months. The secretary should tabulate the answers given. Paper.— The part played by mineral matter in building tissues and in regulating the processes of the body; and the place of fruits and vegetables in the diet References Rules for planning the family dietary. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 41 Foods and household management, p. 303-305. Kinne and Cooley Paper.— Selecting and cooking vegetables Suggestive outline 1. Deterioration of vegetables after picking 2. Methods to be used in selecting vegetables in the market 3. Loss of mineral salts and other nutrients during the cooking of vegetables: ways of preventing or remedying this loss 4. Some practical yet unusual ways of preparing common vege- tables References Preparation of vegetables for the table. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 256 Foods and household management, p. 109-125. Kinne and Cooley Any standard cookbook Losses in the cooking of vegetables. Josephine T. Berry. Journal of home economics, December, 1912 Discussion.— The discussion should center around the subject, tested methods of storing vegetables. A list of the vegetables commonly stored should be given by one member. A simple prize — a packet of vegetable or flower seeds, for instance — might be given to the member. who succeeded in keeping the greatest number of vegetables until the latest date of the previous spring, PROGRAMS FOR USE IN Stupy CLuBs 1533 Exhibit.— One-hundred-Calorie portions of common vegetables should be prepared according to the method given on page 1520. Vegetables that are particularly rich in iron should be so labeled. GARDEN-PLANNING CONTEST Roll call— Each member should name some rather uncommon vegetable she has used for a green salad. References Home-garden planning. Cornell reading-course for the farm, Vol. II, No. 34 Vegetable-gardening. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 33 Rules for the contest— Each member should bring a plan of her last season’s vegetable garden, drawn on the scale of one-quarter of an inch for each foot, a list of the vegetables raised, and a statement of the size of her family and the quantity of vegetables canned from this garden. After the club has seen all the plans, a vote should be taken to decide which garden most successfully met the needs of its owners. A comic prize may be given to the member whose family proves to have the best educated taste in vegetables, judged on the following basis: Provide a list of the common fresh and canned vegetables. As the name of each vegetable is read, each member should score one point for each person in her family over four years of age who eats this vegetable. Each member should divide her total number of points by the number of persons in her household over four years of age in order to obtain the final score. The highest score wins the prize. For another contest a list should be made of the green potherbs and green salad vegetables, cultivated and wild, used by members of the club. A prize should be given to the woman who has used the largest variety. Exhibit— Samples of home-grown and home-canned vegetables would make a suitable exhibit. AGRICULTURAL CLUBS FOR BOYS AND GIRLS Roll call— Each member should give the name of some child of her acquaintance who might be interested in agricultural club work. Paper.— The agricultural club work being done by the United States Government for school children: A description of the garden clubs, canning clubs, poultry clubs, pig clubs, potato clubs, corn clubs, and 1534 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES other clubs, organized by the Office of Farm Management of the United States Department of Agriculture References What the Government is doing for the farmers’ boys and girls. The country gentleman, November 15, 1913 The Government’s men have to hustle to keep up with this woman. The country gentleman, November 29, 1913 What the farmers’ boys and girls are doing for the government. The country gentleman, December 6, 1913 Paper.— The Cornell canning clubs References A canning business for the farm home. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 47 Canning clubs in New York State.— Part I. Organization. Cor- nell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. III, No. 67 Canning clubs in New York State.— Part II. Principles and methods of canning. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. III, No. 69 Canning clubs in New York State.— Part III. Canning equipment. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. III, No. 71 Discussion.— The discussion should include the following question: Would it be advisable for the members of a club as such to promote, through the school or otherwise, some form of agricultural club work among the boys and girls? Exhibit— Sample instructions, forms, and the like may be obtained from the Department of Home Economics, New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. This material should be mounted on large sheets of cardboard or suspended from cord stretched across one side of the room. CANNING Roll call— Each member should give as nearly as she can remember the number of cans of vegetables put up in canneries that she has used in the last twelve months. Paper.— Standards used by commercial canners in grading their fruits and vegetables for packing References Principles of jelly-making. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. I, No. 15 The preservation of food in the home.— Part I. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. I, No. 17 PROGRAMS FOR USE IN Stupy CLuss 1535 The preservation of food in the home.— Part II. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. I, No. 19 Canned foods: fruits and vegetables. Teachers College, Columbia University. Technical education bulletin 18 Canned fruits, preserves, and jellies: household methods of preparation. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 203 Paper._— What shall the consumer demand of the commercial canner, and how may these demands be made effective? References Same as those given for first paper Discussion and exhibit— Samples of two or more brands of tomatoes and corn bought at the local stores should be examined for truthfulness of labeling and comparative returns on money invested. This is easily done by following the directions in the bulletin on canned foods given for reference. FRUITS AND SALADS Roll call— Each member should name, without describing, some well- liked or unusual salad. Paper.— Salads Suggestive outline 1. Salad greens available in the neighborhood in early spring, summer, autumn, and winter 2. Ways of preparing salad greens for the table 3. Vegetables, meats, and fruits, which combine well with salad greens 4. Marinating a salad 5. The dietary mission of green salads in winter and spring 6. Hearty salads for supper during the hot weather References Foods and household management, p. 247-253. Kinne and Cooley Rice and rice cookery. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. III, No. 55 Any good cookbook or book on salads Paper.— Dried fruits: their value in the diet; old and new ways of using them References Use of fruit as food. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ bulletin 293 Any good cookbook Foods and household management, p. 95. Kinne and Cooley 1536 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Discussion.— Each member should give her most-used recipe for salad dressing. The subject of palatable and inexpensive substitutes for olive oil in salad dressings should be discussed. Exhibit. Each member should bring a sample of some home-canned fruit, preserves, marmalade, jelly, or the like, plainly labeled. If possible the recipe should be brought with the sample. Refreshments.— A rice or a fruit salad, bread and butter sandwiches, and coffee would be suitable for refreshments. PLANNING A DIETARY FOR ONE PERSON Roll call. Paper.— Factors to be considered in planning the dietary of an adult References Rules for planning the family dietary. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 41 Foods and household management, p. 308-315. Kinne and Cooley Paper.— A dietary for one day for a woman 30 years old, weighing 120 pounds, and doing light work. This dietary should supply approxi- mately 2160 Calories and 2 ounces of protein,’ and should include as well generous amounts of the foods that will supply iron, lime, and phosphorus. There should also be borne in mind the necessity for neutralizing the inorganic acids left behind in the body when certain high-protein foods are used (syllabus, p. 128) by the basic residues, which result from the free use of milk, legumes, fruits, and vegetables. References Foods and household management, p. 299-315. Kinne and Cooley Food values, p. 14-20. American school of home economics. Suggestions —The menu should be very simple and 1oo-Calorie portions, or fractions of them, should be used. The following points should be brought out concerning each food: (1) the number of portions used, (2) the measure, (3) the energy value in Calories, (4) the weight of protein present in the high protein foods calculated from the table given onpage1529. The small quantities of protein present in butter, watery fruits, and vegetables should be disregarded. 5 Two ounces of protein consumed in the body yield 226.8 Calories, thus providing in this dietary about 11 Calories derived from protein alone for every 100 Calories derived from the total food. The advocates of a low protein diet suggest a proportion of about 10 so-called protein Calories to every 100 total Calories, while the authorities who favor a larger proportion of protein in the diet suggest a proportion of 15 protein Calories to each 100 total Calories. The advocates of a diet rich in protein would therefore prefer about 2.9 ounces, instead of 2 ounces, of protein for a dietary providing 2160 Calories from the total food. The opinion seems to be gaining ground to-day, however, that the amount of protein provided is less important than the kind of protein foods selected, and preference is being given to those forms of protein that do not readily putrefy in the large intestine or leave behind them in the body a large amount of inorganic acids, PROGRAMS FOR USE IN Stupy CLuBsS 1537 Before this paper is presented the dietary should be written on the blackboard or on very large sheets of wrapping paper with ink and a camel’s-hair brush. The reasons for choosing the foods that consti- tute the dietary and the methods of calculating the results should be fully and clearly explained. This paper should be assigned to a member who Roll call figures accurately and easily, and who is able to lead the discussion. PLANNING THE FAMILY DIETARY Paper.— How to plan diets for growth ® References Foods and household management, p. 300-307, 311. Kinne and Cooley Rules for planning the family dietary. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 41 The feeding of young children. Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity. Technical education bulletin 3 Food for school boys and girls. Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity. Technical education bulletin 23 The box luncheon. Cornell reading-course for the farm home, Vol. II, No. 43 ; Foop REQUIREMENTS * Weight Members of family Age in Total | Protein pounds | Calories | Calories PMI as. wis che SAE 40 154 2,680 |268—-402 BEAN ec ig Seca ass Seee o e 38 120 2,160 |216-324 “She | 3 reer 16 Ilo | 2,200 |220-330 De niece. Sb ns 5.0. Senge og 6 40 1,600 |160—-240 Morals requirements. <2). 4rn|ee ase Ieee ne 8,640 |864-1296 %* Adapted from Foods and Household Management. ® In case the majority of the club members have young children, this topic might profitably be expanded to occupy one or more whole programs. 97 1538 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Paper.— A simple dietary for one day for a family of four persons, as indicated in the table given. The protein should furnish from ten to fifteen per cent of the total Calories, and this should be compared with the protein requirements of the dietary outlined in the preceding program References Foods and household management, p. 302, 307-314. Kinne and Cooley Food values. American school of home economics Discussion.— Members should discuss the dietary to see whether it pro- vides sufficient lime, iron, and easily utilized protein for the growing children and for the adults. SUGGESTIONS FOR A FINAL MEETING As a social meeting to conclude the series of programs outlined in this lesson a ‘‘ Calorie supper ’’ might be planned somewhat as follows: Small groups of members should be appointed to submit menus and estimates for a supper in which all dishes would be served in individual 1oo-Calorie portions, or multiples thereof. The total estimated cost of the materials should be divided by the number of 1too-Calorie portions they supply, in order to obtain the cost per 100 Calories of food. The menu that provides the most attractive supper at the lowest cost per 100 Calories and the smallest expenditure of human energy for preparation, should be selected. A menu card in the form of a dietary should be placed on each table. The energy value and the cost per 100 Calories of each portion should be shown on each card. The columns should be totaled so that each person can see the total energy value, the total cost, and the average cost per too Calories for the meal. CORNELL STUDY CLUBS IN HOME ECONOMICS The Cornell Study Clubs in Home Economics are an outgrowth of the reading-course for the farm home. There are now 40,000 members enrolled in the reading-course, and in numerous study clubs the women are using the lessons as a basis of study and of program making. The clubs meet in some cases monthly throughout the year and in others bimonthly at a central place in the community. The program is made in advance. The lessons are studied at home and discussed at the meet- ings, and the members prepare and present papers on various subjects relating to the reading-course. In many instances other subjects form a part of the program. z The Department of Home Economics of the New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York, will be glad to correspond with any group of women who desire to form a club. Sometimes a member of the staff may be sent to assist in organizing, and later on assistance may be given in lectures and demonstrations before the clubs. At the present PROGRAMS FOR USE IN StTupy CLUBS 1539 time the following clubs are organized either as separate clubs or as branches of larger clubs. Date of Place Name of club organization DB SES. SORA er eet cree a December, 1913 Adams Center... 5... University: Extension ... s'. tse tates @ opin oy October, 1909 AE oe he Mothers: Clap oe s:ctuyen Raw ne aioe owe e January, 1914 PRUE teen Sate es ene Corelle Study. Club: eae cs eae ao ole May, I9QII JMB LO abd als cit eae ee eee Housekeepers) Clubae fase: oe ee cet April, 1913 Baldwinsville......... Pleasant Hour sa osttstens ad su os eee August, 1912 Baldwinsville......... Beaver Lake.c-.67 0. seuss i actin oe te February, 1914 Baliston-Lake:.:..... Charlton Cornell Study Club. .....:...... 1907 Ballston Springs...... Ballston Center Study Club., ....4..5.-.; January, 1913 Dataviar ss «ctitis. » --.' Oakfield Road Ladies’ Aid Society......... February, 1913 Bay Onder ste fae StmRegign (och eaumyyes be at vad Ai eet July, 1914 Bellonate cs ctascy s+ Farmers Wives’ Club.2.- eso..-0..2+sse-e October, 1909 Belmont ier Bes es SIANOY olde Savie Pours eg aeee ae aes S Eerae 1906 aCe Gree ey soe Ses oelan set i aiden se ee ee we A eS alee January, 1914 Blodgett Mills........ Cannine:Clubi(Group Wisacecaecs oso. 2 5 June, 1914 Blodgett Mills........ Cannine Club (Group es va seece a ee June, 1914 Breakabeen.......... CornellMReadineiClubee gseae cesta on June, 1912 Brewerton........... Neighborhood Sunshine. occ: ce wees eas November, 1909 Brookhaven.......... Fireplace dibrary. Chub sje. ee cl sere te se ss October, 1913 IBULdCLb ydeweascu ses Wednesday Afternoon Club............... January, 1908 @assvillee. oie ieee Bridgewater Valley-.es 4: a0 5. op ce tse ve 1904 Wassvilles cio ice eee yeneseye Pokanokety. 5 -ce.: Makers actae coarse etek July, 1912 Chadwicks: . 2.2.3. : Sacl=da-Gui-da ga.acrciecc er 2s eecielrs tel tener eye September, 1908 Wincinnatuss.. sem. GanninosC@luby. 5.4. an aot n dere eer June, 1914 Clay valleys Sheed ass Walley (Clube sviacveacrtee oie ce ete ee January, I913 Chinon a4. e.8E asa Brine asstreeta aerate sk Seis ci see eee 1906 Clinton aa) fej cle Chuck ery Ae eS ohie chet is eee on otto eee aisle October, 1906 Clin FoMke5 Lveiei es bos Waited! Proeressive. 2 o.a0e.. es etalacre es oe November, I9g12 Constableville........ Harm and Village Clubiii. 4. tec: ese es 1914 GoopersePlainsSe A 5 6 fn. ood ceeuel os Sienolaue os pe ES BRU GS oe PEGE he es tes November, 1912 Wortland sa 207513 sn. Canning: Clubssac 2 anesy oat teal et oe 6 June, 1914 Or aAnGy (acts Ws)". U5. sp) s crv nisin oie. ohgeliton a mene ean eae e als ane June, 1914 Ciba Bek eit 8 eee: Domestic science Clubi gas. see sors a. January, 1914 Guylersad ch wins § Cuyler Canning Club). vee see eee eee 1914 Weansboro’. ./2:5/- HHill-en-dale ns wets teases Sa tye te dea oe January, I914 IDEMStererd. Side. ha abhe Kountry S1Stersiterieteiye snes cm ne eo June, 1914 Wo evra brea seyted as ves Ne ols Stas ustevasenersjadeqe eas setae ae Sees aanciele August, I914 PASUCILESUCTAEr Pes obers, spa 3s. ents a F5 yx. ecct9,o,2gh 128d saya se Gee pulp slg aIG onsen wise gue January, I915 Basti Homenisss. t!:t0.0%.2 Canning (Clubs pa sesece fess ct ato oleae June, 1914 East Smithfield, Penn- SVT cere coe ace ys Cornell Reading Clubsatist Fa) see eal oe teu July, 1913 East Worcester....... Pine: Hill Aventie-Clubis.. . coc). a8 2. nen January, I912 eMC RPA A teen fest ude Sree vartye terete de b apent faceted teh tad Bute May, 1914 BUUEAOLS ticles web ancora Rurali Improvement. ci-me. 2, stue sas = 1909 Ege cLoniates fetes. & Ae Cornell (Reading: Circle yee. scc55.. dee -- 5. = 1909 CrenOae Ss sche ccs is ae sf aids Farm’ Home Reading Circle a. 4\.:.0.0 - 02. October, I9II Gowanda............ Singing Social Societycmmc wees cies. se es May, 1912 | SINGIN 3) Se a East Groton Political Equality............ November, 1912 [Sie] es Phe Rounder ales ever. 5 Mle B vent tease February, 1910 amiltOm® ssldcie ts s 6 = Hamilton C@enteriClibe. such soes boas March, 1913 Efannibales ohh cls cs Mutualgrel pi Clube terse enen eerie acre e January, 1912 rannipal ici. ces es 5. Political and Domestic Economy Club...... 1909 Banmibal sco s. ss... Stone, SCHOOMMOUSES ceirajcrect byes) ste orssers oe od March, 1912 PEGI Tayetaiscd ow ale vo o).8 Cornell Study Club of the Gore........... April, 1913 UU CoS 20 ea eee ee MOurists! Club wy are ese au, ota eoe eo ee October, 1912 LTE RC a eee Ladies; Wednesday Clubistn nn cwtsian ds sees February, 1910 er re Ane, aera ey A see EIT for tals Sac 0% December, 1914 MEAWILONS, Atrio: 3600, es Home Economics (Clute «aa siseee oss March, 1914 LSAT EG Se 2S aie Fa AE es ee September, 1912 1540 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Date of Place Name of elub organization beeds3. t.n eeepe Priday Clubh pais uct. ke ete roe October, 1910 TEC WIStONe eircom ere) ecb ve ne na trohte Cuero ae Sie rn temas January, 1913 Little Balist-eies-.-. Rural Progress. cA bic whe as Phe eat June, 1914 Littewvorkyeees.- Canning Club... Jnista i. ee ss eee June, 1914 LOCkes hci his ys East. Genoa ‘Club... Dat tintectowehecs one February, 1915 Lockport 5. as a Rubs Rte ae Roe BRR eee ne ae A ee ae October, 1911 MicGraweaac. ck: ..: CanningiGlubes, oi ..e eae ee eee June, 1914 IMiadisoms sftlor. « ees52 The Indian Opening’ Club. o7is.5% oe... February, 1915 Marathon... 6:54.25 Canning Club... 2 228.26. Sea ee June, 1914 Merrifield.......... Bolt’s:Cormiers. ¥fy.i) i Un ei ft sate ee eee February, 1915 Messen perville te, on rece held weit a4 icra tosh CAL ceR Ie, TAREE ESOE Bi February, 1915 Milan Pennsylvania .y-0 ny 15 recites c ose eee eee eens ere July, 1913 IMIOIN ERR, sos Grater enn ee wile tole eels tole toes dace ye te ede NATE reer March, 1914 Mongaiup: Valleyc ce ace cos tories wtereiuc ore ees Chita COREE: nici 1910 Moravia’ ec. 0-4-2 = Four Town Canning:Club. :.:..2524..:.<. October, 1914 Morrisonville....... ita Re GG Ia,re wile Oe Teneiewe Se Re ee TARE R|s Bs euyoc eee December, 1914 Mormisville......... Pleasant Valley. 412 17 tase eee ee ones June, 1912 INewheldit ote hs. Ladies’ Monday#Glub. ....)+.).. 25) ane .n ne 1893 New York City..... College Settlement;.1 2262/5055 STALE. 222: December, 1910 INonthe@ollinsee 5.20 2 cor neers oleistoutarersenalen ee tee ee eR A REIN April, 1914 INorthvRosev 42... Assodorns Camp Fire Girls: 20. .0 02... October, 1914 Ossimin gsc. ists te 28 Women’s Neighborhood: 2.0/2 4225.25 .ens November, 1914 ( OXE IG I Si ea gree Twentieth Century ‘Chab.. 32.20 S095. 2. 1909 @wasco. ise at: 5. Ladies’ ‘Aid-Society.+ 1s... F 06922 et oe ot February, 1913 Oxford ast Thursday: Afternoon Clabi) 58; {252.2 50: March, I910 IBATIS MaMa RAR eho: Hilltop’ Clubs. -: 5. ors. neS sites gente pianos 1908 Penn! Varta gh Uae cpu? 2G be ee ethie wuss sister Raye ahd ietors Catal ae iti March, 1915 Portland's. 2) <5... 5 Oneida. Glubintie crn ean ae One. May, I9I2 Preblesn se eek Ganning Clubt. cts ints toe eae May, 1914 Richmondville...... Marion ss ss 00sh2is ef Cosa bs eee 1906 Richvilles 2... Granoe. so. eA BAe LE ee, aCe eter: 1907 ROXDUTy needa | ee Morse Settlement... sss .22 cues se wees November, 1912 Sangertielde #2205: sangertield Center Clubs: 454 oie. oe August, 1914 Sabata Cum een ee te Saranac-Valley- Club... =: ..20-.s25s+-"2"- December, 1914 SAUGUOItL se. = 2. =e Meadow thank. 369 Sethi ere eee orate July, 1914 SaAuguoltee ma acm sors Hillside ‘Clubi. 2. 5 Mess oe here ee November, 1907 Satquoit.c. ss a = Hill-Dale: Cornell Chub. 5-922 2s oe see August, 1913 SAUGUOIGs a5 eee. ae Norwich Comers saeesien se ete stem. ne ie July, 1914 Schenectady ac iir.t 22 Et ste sie s aie ee Glee eee Rabe Oh ol Oee December, 1912 Schenectady........ AI DIAUS)s sok net anaemic ke, tlatatat eset January, 1914 SUDIOVUNE As. te bs a aes vik es Ss mnie vs aMetebs = anetd seetene ele mene June, 1913 Sidhleyeans vectors American Untversity a. 4.2 sec see ee eet: March, 1915 Sidney Center...... of Womens: Clubi... ase diet cite. co ance 1910 Smithville’South’ .-....: Lhe Mothers’ Society in wae. 3.2% waren November, 1913 Springville. 2.72... Home Economics Club. ....22%4.2.2.2.245% November, 1911 SyTACUS Ne ewe ee ay National Railway Mail Clerks’ Association . October, 1912 Trumansburg......... Deh-ge-wa-nas Camp Fire................ February, 1914 Mrmixtoncy cat eae Canning Club ja. ieee SA. Bee tae i 1914 Union Springs........ Barber’s Corners Reading Club........... November, 1908 Waterville. ........ Beaver! Greele nn! tea SS Bie ORR Tan oe tit January, 1914 Waterville. > 2... sangerfields fick... Pea Oe es See July, 1913 Waterville. ce .2..: Sunnyside:Clubyee +. Bite Pee onset July, 1912 NV ANGLE ia 6 eae ae gS aR rei sory ORS ESR REALS DAG hret OF butaces octane: July, 1914 Webster. < s.n..-.' Discovery Cliabise sacs tee ete November, 1906 Westfield. 32225... Round-the-Corner Club? 22005. 2.20, «ns December, 1912 West Winfield...... Bast Wintieldst 22.02 OR Lee ot arin November, 1913 West Winfield...... North Winfield... :.:.2. - Ghede Seeilae on roe November, 1912 West Winfield...... Hackley: Streetitac ea be. . ecto ele cretohors December, 1908 Williamsville....... Auld. Tang Syme cies tists 010 to yats oie tore te ton otattoteds 1905 Woodhull v3.5. <=. Sunnyvale Social Improvement Society..... August, 1914 Vorkshire es sen Farm Home Reading Club.....0.0.0......... December, 1909 Yorktown Heights. . November, 1914 The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY B. T. GALLoway, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York FEBRUARY 1, I915 VOL. IV. No. 81 FOOD SERIES No. 15 POTATOES IN THE DIETARY HELEN CANON Of the millions of bushels of potatoes produced annually in the United States, by far the greater proportion is used as food. This is due largely (1) to the mild flavor, of which the appetite does not tire; (2) to the estab- lished wholesomeness of the vegetable; (3) to the low price, considering the nutriment furnished; (4) to the comparative success of storage. The demand in the American market is for potatoes from two to three inches in length and from five to ten ounces in weight. These cook more uni- formly, give a better appearance when served, and insure a more accurate weight when sold by measure than do large potatoes. Moreover, the waste involved in cutting a large potato is eliminated. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS QUALIFICATIONS FOR COOKING PURPOSES Much attention is now being paid to improving the potato for cooking purposes. In America the market demand is for potatoes having a starchy flavor, a mealy texture when cooked, and a white appearance. Mealiness appears to be due to the presence of a certain amount of starch in the cells. The grains expand with heat, and if sufficiently numerous they will cause the walls of the potato structure to break down, while an in- adequate number will result in the potato’s retaining its form and. be- coming soggy. Potatoes with a starch content of from 18 to 20 per cent usually have a mealy quality, although this content may not be the direct cause. Other factors also enter into the question. From Professor Gilmore’s! investigations it seems that the cooking value of the potato depends on its structure, together with the arrangement and distribution of the starch and water areas. Even experts have difficulty in judging the quality of potatoes by appearance. In general, however, the following characteristics will be of help to the housewife in selecting a potato: (1) a netted skin with a corky appearance; (2) crispness when cut. 1J. W. Gilmore. Quality in potatoes. Cornell Univ Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 230. 1905. [1541] 1542 Tue CoRNELL READING-COURSES Although there seems to be a greater demand for varieties with a yel- low or a whitish skin, experiments show that the pink-skinned varieties are equally good for table use. Europeans, more discriminating than Amer- icans in their selection, choose with reference to the method of cooking. They prefer a more waxy potato—one low in starch content and high in protein —for frying in deep fat or for salad, in which cases mealiness is not desired, but prefer the mealy potato for baking, mashing, and such purposes. Passing by the several important factors influencing the pro- duction of a good quality, the fact remains that handling and storing both play an important part in the condition of the potato at the time of cooking. PLACE IN THE GENERAL DIET It has been shown from the data of fifteen American dietary studies representative of ordinary food habits that potatoes represent 3.9 per cent of the total cost of food, and that they furnish 5.3 per cent of the total Calories, 4.2 per cent of the total protein, 8.7 per cent of the total phosphorus, and 13.5 per cent of the total iron. Since phosphorus and iron compounds are as important to include in the dietary as protein and fuel foods, it is seen that for the small percentage of money expended for potatoes a generous supply of nutrients is obtained. DIGESTIBILITY There has been some contention over the digestibility of potatoes. While there may be individual peculiarities in this respect, experiments have shown that from 68 to 73 per cent of the protein and from 92 to 99 per cent of the carbohydrate of potatoes is digested by the average person. The occasional statement that its large content of cellulose makes the potato difficult to digest has been answered by the fact that nearly all the cereal and vegetable foods contain as much cellulose as does the potato, or more. The method of cooking probably has a slight effect on digesti- bility, the well-cooked mealy potato probably being in better condition for the action of the digestive juices than the poorly cooked one in which the starch grains have not broken the cell walls. FUNCTIONS OF FOOD The purpose of food is to supply the body and all its parts with material for its growth and repair and with the energy required by its daily activi- ties, and to keep it in good running order. We have long realized our dependence on starches, sugars, and fats for energy with which to do our work and keep warm; on proteins, as furnished by milk, eggs, meat, and legumes, for building material both in the development and in the POTATOES IN THE DIETARY 1543 repair of the body; on water for its important part in the transportation of the food within the body, for keeping the food in dilute form, and for washing out waste from tissues and intestines. However, the majority of housewives have not realized the importance of another group of food- stuffs, the mineral, or ash, constituents of our food. Although their percentage in foods is small, the part the ash constit- uents play in constructing tissue and in keeping the body in good working order is by no means a minor one. Calcium is important in building bones and teeth; phosphorus is essential not only to build tissue but also to stimulate growth; iron is necessary for making red blood cells and other tissues. Vegetables furnish iron in larger proportions than do most animal foods. All the fluids of the body must be kept slightly alkaline. This is best accomplished by including sufficient base-yielding substances in our foods. Certain of the ash constituents in the food materials are so changed in their course through the body that the final product is an acid; others yield as a final product a base, or alkali. In most of our food materials both these kinds of ash constituents are included. The quantity of the acid-forming elements as compared with the quantity of the base-forming elements therefore determines whether a particular food material is acid-forming or base-forming in the system. The acid-forming foods, which are meats, eggs, and cereals, should be balanced in every meal by those that are base- forming, namely, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and milk, in order that an acid condition in the system may not result. An excess of bases in the daily dietary is probably more favorable to health conditions than an excess of acids. This explains why a meal of meat and cereal, while being fairly well balanced as to starch and protein, needs the addition of a fruit or a vegetable. In vegetables lies our chief dependence for salts of potassium and magnesium, two of the important base-forming elements. SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS AS SERVED BY THE POTATO Constituents Turning now to the potato it is found that a very high proportion, from 75 to 79 per cent, is water; from 18 to 20 per cent is carbohydrate, chiefly starch; from 2 to 2.5 per cent is protein; about 1 per cent, a relatively large amount, is ash; and an inconsiderable proportion is fat. From this it is seen that the potato is rightly called a starchy food. Its value is not dependent on its high starch content alone, however, for it supplies also bulk,? another requirement in the diet. Further, in the mineral content are found moderate amounts of the necessary compounds 2By bulk is meant that part of a food which is not digested and absorbed and which therefore is of service in hastening waste products along the intestinal tract. 1544 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES of calcium and phosphorus, a relatively high percentage of iron, and a very high percentage cf the base-yielding potassium. From the standpoint of acid-forming and base-forming qualities it is fairly exact to say that one medium-sized potato furnishes enough bases to neutralize the acids of two average slices of roast beef. Now if we should substitute rice for potato in such a meal, we should find that, while rice supplied the necessary starch, it did not serve to counteract the acids produced by the meat, but rather increased them. Consequently we should have to restore the balance by adding a vegetable or a fruit or both. Another property, or constituent, possessed by the potato is of consider- able importance although it is not yet fully understood. For want of a better name it is often called witamine, because it is essential to life. Speaking of the property of preventing scurvy, possessed by fruits, vege- tables, and milk, Dr. Sherman* says: ‘‘The evidence has seemed to favor the view that this property is chiefly due to the predominance of base-forming ash constituents, but recent work indicates that vitamines must also be taken into account in this connection.” This makes it appear that there is still more to be learned about the constituents of the potato that make it a valuable article in our meals. In this regard it is especially beneficial in a dietary in which white bread is used, because in the refining process the wheat loses this vitamine property, or con- stituent. Cost as compared with flour and bread The low price of the potato has been mentioned as one cause of its ex- tensive use as food. A comparison of the values to be obtained from ten cents’ worth of potatoes, of patent flour, and of white bread, respectively, shows the following: When potatoes are selling at 60 cents a bushel, or rt cent a pound, after removing the inedible portion (in this case the skin) the cost of the edible portion is really 1.2 cents a pound; when they are selling for $1 a bushel the cost of the edible portion is 1.9 cents a pound. Patent flour at $1.10 for 25 pounds costs 4.4 cents a pound. White bread, averaging twelve ounces to a five-cent loaf, costs 6.6 cents a pound. In ten cents’ worth of each of these three articles, potatoes give from 62 to 99 grams of protein (depending on the price paid), flour 115 grams, and bread 64 grams. Comparing the energy value, one of the main pur- poses for which these foods are usually included in our meals, potatoes furnish from 2362 to 3780 Calories,* flour 3639 Calories, and bread 1773 Calories; thus, from potatoes at either price we are getting considerably more energy than from bread. Of the minerals, ten cents spent for potatoes may buy from three to four times as much calcium and from three to 3H. C. Sherman. Food products, p. 356. 1915. : " ; 2 : 2 4In measuring the energy value of food a unit 1s necessary, just as in measuring weight. The Calorie is this energy, or heat, unit. POTATOES IN THE DIETARY 1545 five times as much phosphorus as in the flour or the bread purchased; from two to four times as much iron as in the flour, and about ten times as much as in the bread. From the standpoint of acid-forming and. base- forming materials, the excess of base-forming elements in ten cents’ worth of potatoes may be 161 to 258 units; while in flour there may be an excess of 99 units and in bread of 48 units of acid-forming elements. The ac- companying table shows these facts clearly and in condensed form: Wuat TEN CENTS WILL Buy IN GRAMS | g 2g 42 | 22) 22 ~ 4 = nD 34 os | © a 6 o 2O Sass a Excess bo E sone) : Sebel s a = a Bae a hee Bo & oth] Food « | ® | 4 B ese ee las | & 2 £ << a 5 Oo8 ie) ise) ¢ 2 9 8 a 3 §.0/ BOs) Loe] 6 Acid | Base iS) ra om Oo O O ~~ 1.6, Aa 4 Potatoes. ...2....|/8.012 |)-90.30 4.50 |834.60 |3780.0 -720 | 24.0 | 6.35 |.0580 258.0 Potatoes.........] .019 | 62.06 2.81 |521.62 [2362.5 -450 | 15.0 | 3.96 |.0362 Maiere 161.3 Flour (patent)....] .044 |115.31 | 10.28 |771.23 [3638.8 | .183 EsA7) | OLAS: |) ODs3) |e craters Bread (average white))s. .-.4.002| «006 |’ 63:60 8.21 |360.96 |1772.7 .194 Tis33) 20052) ||) A815 .|tc cn METHODS OF COOKING POTATOES EFFECTS OF COOKING Cooking a potato increases its palatability and makes it more easily digested. Heat transforms the water into steam, and the resulting ex- pansion breaks down the cell walls and lets out the starch grains; the protein becomes coagulated, just as the white of egg does when cooked; the mineral salts are only slightly affected. However, by the methods of preparation that are perhaps most commonly used, a very large pro- portion of the nutritious substances may be lost. From all points of view, baking and steaming are apparently the best methods of cooking potatoes, and the latter method has the advantage in economy of fuel used. A potato baked in a slow oven is much inferior to a potato properly boiled, however, because the heat has not been intense enough to cause the cell walls to be broken down and the result is a soggy mass on which the digestive juices cannot act freely. Too rapid boiling is likely to pul- verize the outside of the potato before the inside becomes tender, thus causing waste and an unattractiye appearance when served. The method by which potatoes are cooked deserves consideration because it affects both the nutrition and the pocketbook. LOSSES IN COOKING The chief ways in which losses of nutritive matter occur in cooking potatoes are (1) in paring, both by cutting away valuable material and by exposing the soluble substances to the action of the water, (2) in exposing 1546 THE CoRNELL READING-COURSES a large amount of surface to the water, as when the potato is cut in dice, (3) in soaking before cooking, (4) in the use of cold water at the beginning of the cooking. It has been estimated that in paring a potato the loss may be 20 per cent. When it is remembered that the larger proportion of the valuable protein and mineral matter is in the outer layers, it is seen how serious this loss is. Must the skin be eaten, then, in order to get all the nutriment? The skin-is not palatable to all persons, although some like it. But if it is to be removed, it should be borne in mind that the waste of total substance is about twice as great when the paring is done before the boiling as when it is done afterward. The skin tends to hold back the mineral salts, the protein, and the starch. Since the juice of the potato contains 85 per cent of the protein and 85 per cent of the ash, these substances are easily extracted without this protection. Only the skin comes off after cooking, and it peels off with much greater ease; there is thus a saving of both nutriment and time in removing the skin after cooking. If the potato is cut into dice before cooking, the increased amount of surface exposed will result in still greater extraction of nutriment, although if prepared just before cooking and plunged immediately into boiling water the loss is minimized. If potatoes are pared somewhat in advance of the time of cooking, it is noticed that on standing they become dark. In order to overcome this difficulty the potatoes are covered with water and allowed to stand until it is time to cook them. Old potatoes are often soaked in cold water. Experiments have shown that a pared potato soaked for from three to five hours loses about three times as much of its mineral matter and seven times as much of its protein as one that is pared and put on to cook im- mediately. When potatoes are both pared and soaked, the loss in one bushel is estimated as equivalent to one pound of sirloin steak. This indicates that time should not be taken “ by the forelock’’ when preparing vegetables for a meal, except in case of emergency. If old potatoes must be soaked in order to improve their condition, let it be with the skins on. Another factor influencing loss of nutriment is the temperature of the water in which the potatoes are put on to cook. Here again experiments prove that there has been waste of the materials for which money has been spent. In this case the use of cold water instead of boiling water at the beginning gives an inconsiderable loss of ash, but over twice as great a loss of protein. If the potatoes are washed thoroughly, and then, with- out being pared or soaked, are put on to cook in boiling water, there is practically no loss. In other words, when potatoes are cooked by the most wasteful method (skins removed, potatoes soaked, cooking started in cold water) the loss POTATOES IN THE DIETARY 1547 of protein is 51 per cent and that of ash is 38 per cent; when cooked by the least wasteful method (skins not removed, potatoes not soaked, cooking started in boiling water) the loss of protein is 1.6 per cent and that of ash is 4.9 per cent. . The following conclusions, then, are inevitable: (1) potatoes should be cooked in such a way as to retain the valuable nutritive matter; or (2) the material extracted from them should be used in soups, sauces gravies, and the lke. RECIPES FOR USING POTATOES It will be found that practically all potato dishes may be made successfully and at the same time the above principles of economy be observed. In the following recipes, therefore, let it be understood that baking, steaming, or cooking in boiling water with the skins on, is the preparatory step to any of the more complicated processes. if the skins are imperfect and paring is necessary, do not let the potatoes soak, but plunge them immediately into boiling water. Left-over potatoes may be used successfully in the recipes that are in- dicated by an asterisk (*). BAKED POTATOES Select potatoes of uniform size; wash them with a vegetable brush; place them on the grate in a hot oven; and bake them for forty-five minutes or until soft. Crack the skin in order to let out the steam which otherwise would condense and cause sogginess. Stuffed potatoes Cut baked potatoes in half, remove the pulp, mash it, add enough milk for the usual consistency of mashed potatoes, and season with butter, salt, and pepper. Fill the cases with this mixture, dot the tops with butter or brush with milk, and bake for eight or ten minutes in a hot oven. Potatoes may be stuffed in the morning and heated at noon or in the evening for dinner. Variations.—To the mashed potatoes, before the cases are filled, may be added any one or a combination of the following: a. Beaten white of egg (1 egg to 3 medium-sized potatoes) b. Grated cheese (3 cupful to 3 medium-sized potatoes) c. Chopped meat ($ cupful to 3 medium-sized potatoes) d. Chopped parsley (1 tablespoonful to 3 medium-sized potatoes) Scalloped potatoes * Remove the skin from boiled potatoes and cut in slices one-fourth inch thick. Arrange the sliced potatoes in layers in a buttered baking 1548 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES dish, covering each layer with white sauce (recipe below). Sprinkle the top with buttered crumbs and bake for about twenty minutes. Raw potatoes may be used, the loss being minimized by careful paring. In this case, sprinkle each layer with flour, butter, pepper, salt, and lastly pour in just enough milk to be seen through the top layer. Bake for about an hour, or until the potatoes are tender. Variations.—Add in layers: a. Hard-cooked egg, sliced b. Grated cheese c. Minced ham White sauce 2 tablespoonfuls butter 3 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls flour Pepper 1 cupful milk Melt the butter, remove it from the fire, add the flour, the salt, and the pepper, and stir the mixture until smooth. Replace the mixture on the fire, add the milk, and stir the sauce until it thickens. Cook it for fifteen minutes over boiling water or for five minutes directly over the fire, stirring it constantly. POTATOES COOKED IN BOILING WATER OR STEAM Boiled potatoes Select potatoes of uniform size; wash them with a brush; and plunge them into boiling salted water (1 teaspoonful salt to 1 quart water). Cook them with the cover of kettle ajar, until tender, from twenty to thirty minutes. Drain the potatoes; remove the skins; dress the potatoes with butter if desired; and serve them immediately. If it is necessary for the potatoes to stand a few minutes before being served, cover them with a cloth, not a lid, in order that the steam as it condenses may be absorbed by the cloth and not returned to the potatoes to make them soggy. This is the reason for serving potatoes in an uncovered dish. Variations.— a. Add white sauce b. Sprinkle with chopped parsley Potato salad* 6 cold boiled potatoes 3 tablespoonful salt 4 tablespoonfuls salad oil or melted Cayenne pepper butter 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar Few drops onion juice POTATOES IN THE DIETARY 1549 Cut the potatoes in one-half inch cubes. Make a dressing by mixing thoroughly the other ingredients. Pour this dressing over the potatoes, and allow them to stand for fifteen minutes. Drain off any dressing that may not have been absorbed by the potatoes. Garnish the salad with sprigs of parsley and serve with cream dressing or mayonnaise.® Variations.—Add any of the following: a. 1 cupful chopped celery b. 2 cucumbers, chopped or, as a garnish, sliced c. 2 hard-cooked eggs, chopped or, as a garnish, sliced Steamed potatoes Prepare the potatoes as for boiling. Place them in a steamer, cover tightly, and steam for about thirty minutes, or until tender. Serve them in the same way as boiled potatoes. Diced potatoes Cut cooked potatoes in dice of uniform size; season, and sprinkle them with chopped parsley. Variations.—These variations may also be used for sliced cooked potatoes: a. Creamed*: Add white sauce. b. Au gratin*: Put creamed potatoes into a buttered baking dish; cover the top with buttered bread crumbs. Bake until brown. ce. Delmonico*: Arrange creamed potatoes and grated cheese in alternate layers in a buttered baking dish. Cover the top of the dish with buttered bread crumbs, and bake until they are brown. Riced potatoes Force cooked potatoes through a ricer or a coarse strainer into a hot vegetable dish. Avoid rehandling in order to keep the potatoes light and attractive in appearance. Variation.—Brown in a buttered baking dish in the oven. Mashed potatoes Thoroughly mash cooked potatoes. Add four tablespoonfuls of hot milk, one tablespoonful of butter, and a little salt and pepper, to each pint of potatoes. Beat the mixture with a fork until light and pile it lightly in a hot serving dish. Variations.— a. Cakes*: Shape mashed potatoes into small cakes. Brown them in a frying pan in a small amount of hot fat. 5See page 1553 for recipes for salad dressing. 1550 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES b. Puff*: Add beaten whites of eggs (2 eggs to 6 medium-sized potatoes). Pile the mixture lightly in a baking dish, and bake it in the oven until it puffs and browns. The yolks of the eggs and grated cheese also may be added. c. Croquettes*: Add a little chopped parsley and the yolk of an egg (1 yolk to 6 medium-sized potatoes). Shape this mixture into balls; roll them in bread crumbs, beaten egg, and crumbs again; fry them in deep fat. d. Croquettes en surprise*: Use the recipe given for croquettes, fill the center of the balls with peas, minced chicken, or small frank- furters, before frying them. e. Potato border*: Spread a wall of mashed potatoes one inch thick around the outside of a buttered pan. Remove the pan, and fill the center with creamed meat or fish. Reheat before serving. Potato soup 2 cupfuls hot riced or mashed 2 tablespoonfuls flour potatoes 13 teaspoonfuls salt 1 quart milk Celery salt 2 slices onion Pepper 3 tablespoonfuls butter Cayenne t teaspoonful chopped parsley Scald the milk with the onion; remove the onion; add the milk slowly to the potatoes. Melt the butter; add to it the dry ingredients; stir the mixture until it is well blended. Add this to the liquid mixture, stirring constantly, and boil the soup for one minute. Strain it if necessary, add the parsley, and serve. Meat loaf* Riced or mashed potatoes may be very satisfactorily substituted for part or all of the bread crumbs generally used in making a meat loaf. They may also be used with the meat in sausage cakes. Codfish balls* 2 cupfuls mashed potatoes I egg 15 cupfuls shredded codfish (freshened 1 tablespoonful butter slightly and parboiled until soft) t tablespoonful milk To the mashed potatoes add the codfish, the butter, and the milk. Beat the mixture until light. Add the egg which has been well beaten. Drop spoonfuls ef this mixture into a kettle of hot fat, frying not more than six or seven hells at a time. Remove the balls when a delicate brown and drain them on unglazed paper, POTATOES IN THE DIETARY 1551 Potato stuffing for fowl 2 cupfuls hot mashed potatoes t teaspoonful salt 11 cupfuls bread crumbs t teaspoonful sage 4 cupful butter ¢ cupful finely chopped fat salt pork I egg 1 finely chopped onion Add to the potatoes the other ingredients in the order in which they are given. FANNIE MERRITT FARMER ROASTED POTATOES Franconia potatoes Parboil potatoes for ten minutes. Remove the skins and place the potatoes on a roasting rack with meat. Bake until the potatoes are soft, or for about forty minutes, basting them occasionally. Sliced potatoes Prepare potatoes as for Franconia. Cut them in one-fourth-inch slices, and sprinkle with a little flour. Put them into a pan containing a small amount of hot fat, and cook them in an oven until evenly browned. FRIED POTATOES French fried potatoes Pare potatoes with as little waste as possible. Cut them lengthwise into eight or ten uniferm pieces. Lay these pieces on a towel in order to absorb moisture. Fry in deep fat. Drain on unglazed paper, and sprinkle with salt. Serve immediately. THE SUBSTITUTION OF MASHED POTATOES FOR PART OF FLOUR In the following recipes the best results are obtained by the use of freshly cooked potatoes that have been forced through a fine strainer, which makes them more easily blended with the other ingredients than mashed or riced potatoes although these may be used. Cold left-over potatoes may be used but they cannot be mixed with the other ingre- dients so thoroughly, nor is the flavor so pleasing as when freshly cooked potatoes are used. Biscuit t cupful potatoes 2 teaspoonful salt t cupful flour t tablespoonful butter 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder t tablespoonful lard Milk, about $ cupful 1552 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Sift the dry ingredients. Add these to the potatoes, mixing with a knife. Work the fat into this mixture lightly. Add gradually enough milk to make a soft dough. Toss the dough onto a floured board, pat and roll it lightly to one-half inch in thickness. Cut it into shapes with a biscuit cutter. Place the biscuits on greased pans and bake for from twelve to fifteen minutes in a hot oven. Dumplings t cupful potatoes 2 teaspoonfuls butter t cupful flour Milk, about ? cupful 3 teaspoonful salt Mix and roll out the dough according to directions given for biscuits in the preceding recipe. Place the dumplings close together in a buttered steamer; place the steamer over boiling water; cover it closely and steam the dumplings for twelve minutes. Muffins 4 tablespoonfuls butter 1 cupful flour 4 tablespoonfuls sugar 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder I egg Salt 1 cupful potatoes 1 cupful milk Cream the butter and the sugar; add the egg which has been well beaten, then the potatoes; and mix these ingredients thoroughly. Sift the flour, the baking powder, and the salt together, and add them and the milk to the mixture alternately. Bake the muffins in greased gem-pans for from twenty-five to thirty minutes. Rolls 2 cupfuls potatoes I egg 1 tablespoonful lard 1 cupful milk 1 tablespoonful sugar Yeast Flour To the hot potatoes add the lard, the sugar, and the salt. When the mixture is cool, add the egg and the milk in which the yeast cake has been dissolved. Beat the mixture well; then mix in enough flour to make a soft dough. Put the dough to rise in a greased bowl. When light, turn it out on a floured board and roll it into a sheet one-half inch thick. Cut it into shapes with a biscuit cutter, brush them with melted butter, and fold them over like Parker House rolls. Place the rolls on a greased pan; let them rise; and bake them in a quick oven. POTATOES IN THE DIETARY 1553 Yeast bread 2 cupfuls potatoes t cupful milk t tablespoonful lard Yeast t tablespoonful sugar Flour, enough to make medium dough Mix the ingredients according to the directions given for rolls, and foliow the general rules for bread making. Doughnuts 4 tablespoonfuls butter t cupful milk t cupful sugar 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 eggs Spices, if desired 1 cupful potatoes Flour, enough to make soft dough Cream the butter; add the sugar, the eggs, and the potatoes. Then add the milk, and sift in the dry ingredients. Turn the dough out on a floured board. Pat and roll it into a sheet one-half inch thick. Cut out rings with a doughnut cutter, and fry them in deep fat. RECIPES FOR SALAD DRESSING Mustard dressing 1 tablespoonful cornstarch 3 eggs 1 tablespoonful mustard 3 cupful vinegar 1 teaspoonful salt 5 cupful water Scald the vinegar and the water. While hot, pour them slowly over the other ingredients, stirring the mixture well. Cook the mixture over hot water until it is thick, stirring it constantly. Whipped cream dressing cupful vinegar t teaspoonful salt teaspoonfuls sugar 2 eggs or 4 egg yolks t cupful heavy cream to le Beat the eggs until they are well broken and add to them the vinegar, _ the sugar, and the salt. Cook this mixture over hot water until it thickens. Cool it, and when cold add the cream, which has been whipped. German salad dressing teaspoonful salt teaspoonful paprika Whip the cream until it is stiff. Add the other ingredients slowly. The dressing is then ready to serve. 98 1 cupful cream (sweet or sour) 1 tablespoonful vinegar RI ble 1554 THE CORNELL READING-COoURSES Quick mayonnaise dressing I egg ; 1 teaspoonful salt 1 to 2 cupfuls oil 3 teaspoonful cayenne pepper 1 tablespoonful vinegar Break the egg into a small, deep bowl. Add to the unbeaten egg three tablespoonfuls of the oil and all the other ingredients. Beat this mixture vigorously with a dover beater for two minutes. Continue beating while the remaining oil is being added. Add sufficient oil to make the dressing stiff enough to stand. If only the yolk is used, less oil will be required to make a stiff dressing. This dressing may be kept for a week or two if it is kept cool. An equal quantity of whipped cream may be added as the dressing is used. Boiled mayonnatse dressing 4 eggs Red pepper 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful mustard 2 cupful vinegar 1 cupful oil Beat the yolks of the eggs and add to them the sugar, the mustard, the red pepper, the salt, and the vinegar. Add the oil, and the whites of the eggs beaten until stiff. Cook the mixture over hot water until it thickens, stirring it constantly. Do not cook it too long. Cornstarch thickening in mayonnaise dressing 4 tablespoonfuls cornstarch cupful vinegar cupful water NiH Ne Dissolve the cornstarch in a small amount of the water, add the remainder of the water and the vinegar. Cook the mixture until it becomes thick and clear. While it is hot, add it to mayonnaise dressing in the proportion of one part of the cornstarch mixture to two parts of mayonnaise. This makes a less oily dressing than mayonnaise alone, and for this reason is sometimes preferable. REFERENCES John W. Gilmore. Quality in potatoes. Bulletin 230, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. 1905. H. Snyder, Almah J. Frisby, and A. P. Bryant. Losses in boiling vege- tables, and the composition and digestibility of potatoes and eggs. Bulletin 43, U. S. Office of Experiment Stations. 1897. C. F. Langworthy. Potatoes and other root crops as food. Farmers’ Bulletin 295, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1910. POTATOES IN THE DIETARY 1555 Edward M. East. A study of the factors influencing the improvement of the potato. Bulletin 127, Illinois University Agricultural Experi- ment Station. © 1go8. The cooking quality of potatoes and factors which affect it. Farmers’ Bulletin 244, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1906. H. C. Sherman and A. O. Gettler. The balance of acid-forming and base-forming elements in foods, and its relation te ammonia metabo- lism. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. XI, p. 323. 1912. Henry C. Sherman. Food products. rg1s. Josephine Thorndike Berry. Losses in the cooking of vegetables. Jour- nal of Home Economics, Vol. IV, No. 5. 1912. } fis 1 Fe fr Pdi if i) THR, SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE , NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY B. T. GALLoway, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York VOL. IV. No. 81 FEBRUARY 1, 1915 NO ee POTATOES IN THE DIETARY DISCUSSION PAPER By means of the discussion papers we have an opportunity to become acquainted. We shall take it as an indication on your part that you are interested if you answer the questions and return them to us. The staff of the Department of Home Economies is ready to assist in your study of scientific home-making. We want your assistance as well. Ask questions, offer suggestions, let us have the benefit of your experience. You thus become a vital part of the Department of Home Economics in its effort for scientific housekeeping. Will you please send your opinions on the following points to the Supervisor of the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home? t. What reason, if any, have you for using potatoes more extensively at the present time than in the past? 2. What method of cooking potatoes have you most commonly used? [1557] 1558 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 3. In what ways have you used potatoes as a substitute for wheat flour before this bulletin reached you? Give any good, tested recipes you may have. j 4. If potatoes are the most common vegetable in your family dietary, what have been your reasons for including them? The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY B. T. GALLowAy, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York GARDEN SERIES No. 3 VOL. IV. No. 83 MARCH 1, 1915 RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING ALBERT E. WILKINSON The interest in canning has increased so remarkably in recent years that almost every housewife is familiar with the canning process. Many desire more information, however, and in order to meet this need a country- wide movement has developed. Canning clubs have been and are being Fic. 1.— Growing beans for canning formed in many sections, and children, especially girls, are encouraged to join. This movement has resulted in a wider knowledge of modern methods. At the same time, knowledge regarding the growing of vege- tables for canning is much needed, for, in order to obtain a good canned product, it is necessary to grow vegetables that are the best. To this end, certain definite work must be performed, and certain favorable con- ditions must be provided; growers who are willing to study these factors and to follow the best practices are able to offer a better finished product. The character and the general requirements of the leading vegetables that are grown for canning are discussed in this lesson. [1559] 1560 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES BEANS The bean, one of the oldest and most useful of the vegetables grown for human food, has been a well-known crop in New York State from very early times. Site.—Farmers are likely to plant beans on sites unsuited to their best growth. For example, in some sections, beans are placed on thin hilltops and dry knolls; this is a mistake, because beans require good soil for their best development. For early maturing varieties, a southern exposure is preferable, though if a poor northern exposure or a hilltop is the only site available, certain soil improvements may be made, by the addition of manure or fertilizer and by the proper rotation of crops, which will coun- teract the influences of a poor site. Soil and tts preparations.—Beans will grow, however, on a variety of soils, though profitable bean growing requires good, fertile soils well adapted to the crop. Leguminous plants seem to be partial to limestone soils, and beans are no exception to this rule. Soils possessing a great abundance of organic matter are undesirable, as they produce a rank growth of vine and a corresponding decrease in the crop yield. Gravelly loams, containing considerable amounts of fine silt and some humus, with an application of fertilizer, will grow profitable crops of beans. Moderately heavy clay loams may also be favorable for their growth, if well drained and supplied with humus. Very heavy clay and very light sandy soils are less suitable. A medium loam is probably the best. Land that will produce good corn or good wheat will produce beans, though beans will not thrive on as heavy a soil as wheat will, nor on as light a soil as corn. Early plowing is essential to best results with beans. As the seed is not to be planted until late spring, the average farmer delays plowing until the latter part of May, much to the disadvantage of the crop. The soil should be plowed five or six weeks before the time of planting and should receive frequent harrowings to bring it into the best possible con- dition. The plowing should be as deep as possible, and the harrowing should be very thorough, because this treatment retains a larger amount of moisture in the subsoil to become available for the use of the plants later in the season. More frequently than otherwise, the crop suffers for moisture at some time during the season, and the early plowing and the thorough tilling are the best means of guarding against this. Rotation.—Beans seem to fit naturally into ordinary farm crop rota- tions. They follow corn or potatoes to advantage. In some cases beans have been successful on freshly turned sod land. In rotation, the bean crop exhausts the soil less than most others, and it is noticeable that crops following beans are benefited, due no doubt to the nitrogen-gathering bacteria of the root nodules of the beans, in common with other legumes. RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1561 Manure and fertilizers.—If the crop preceding beans has been heavily manured or if a clover crop has been plowed under, the addition of manure may not give as good results as the use of commercial fertilizers, because the use of too much manure is followed by an overproduction of leaves and stems. Where manures have not been used, an application of from eight to ten tons of manure per acre, preferably well rotted, will prove satisfactory. Manure should be broadcasted in the fall or whenever made. A 1-8-3 or 1-8-4 commercial fertilizer gives good results. Sometimes one hundred and fifty pounds acid phosphate per acre will give very good results on land in good tilth, though where the land is decidedly poor and when nothing but commercial fertilizer 1s available, it may be advisable to use from three hundred and fifty to five hundred pounds per acre of a 2-8-10 fertilizer. The fertilizer, if used in small amounts, should be placed in the drill. Varieties.—A great many varieties are listed in the seed catalogues, and with beans, as with other vegetables, seeds vary from different seeds- men. Some seedsmen have specialized in developing certain sorts, and it is usually advisable to buy from such seedsmen, and thus gain the ad- vantages derived from their special study. Some seedsmen are intro- ducing new varieties, which may well be tried out in a limited way until their worth can be proved for the individual. For the green type of dwarf beans, Stringless Green-podded Valentine, Refugee, and Bountiful are very good sorts. Desirable pole beans of the green type are: Kentucky Wonder, White Creaseback, and Lazy Wife’s. Wardwell’s Kidney Wax, Refugee Wax, Saddleback Wax, Golden Wax are good types of dwarf wax beans; Kentucky Wonder Wax and Golden Cluster are desirable pole beans of the wax type. These lists do not begin to exhaust the possi- bilities, and other varieties may prove just as satisfactory in certain loca- tions. Where shell beans are in demand, Red Kidney, White Marrowfat, Horticultural, and Goddard Horticultural are desirable. Climate is a deciding factor in the growing of lima beans, because most varieties require a long growing-season. Limas also prefer a more sandy soil, which must be well supplied with plant-food and humus. In western New York, Henderson, because of its hardiness and earliness, seems to be most commonly grown for canning purposes. Other good sorts of bush lmas are Burpee-Improved, Fordhook, and _ Dreer’s Wonder. Of the pole types, Carpenteria, King of the Garden, and Leviathan are good. Time and methods of planting —The time of planting varies somewhat with the locality, but mainly in accordance with the variety of beans grown. Some of the sorts mentioned are hardier than others, and hard- iness may be readily tested by the grower for a specific locality. As a 1562 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES general rule, however, early planting is not to be recommended. The seeds rot, quickly if the soil is too cold or too wet for quick germination, and even though there is a fair stand, the young plants do not get an even start because the stronger seeds start first and the weaker ones later. If planting is delayed until the soil is thoroughly warmed and in condition to produce quick germination and rapid growth, an even start is obtained, and a large number of pods or seeds may be harvested at each picking. Nearly all growers plant beans, except limas, in drills, which are about twenty-eight inches apart, though the distance varies from twenty-four to thirty-two inches. Lima beans are planted in drills from three to four feet apart. If the beans are to be cultivated with hand tools, the drills may be less than twenty-four inches apart. It is important that the rows should be straight and that the seeding should not be too thick. From four to eight seeds per foot of row is enough. If comparatively small plantings are made, the well-known planters operated by man power are used, and they may be adjusted to plant the beans in drills or in hills at the required depth, about one to one and one-half inches. If plantings are made on a large scale, the ordinary grain drill is widely used, especially for planting the smaller varieties, by closing some of the tubes. In some cases special bean planters are used, particularly for lima beans and other large sorts. The amount of seed required per acre varies slightly with the variety —for pea beans from two to three pecks is the correct amount, for kidney and other similar beans from five to six pecks, and for lima beans six pecks. If the seed has strong germinating power, and if the soil is in prime condition, it is evident that a smaller amount of seed is required to get a good stand than if the seed is poor and soil conditions less favorable. If the hill system is to be used, from three to five seeds should be dropped from every twelve to fifteen inches in the row. Ona small plot, which is to be worked by hand, the hill system may be adopted, and the rows may be only eighteen inches apart. Cultivation.—lf soil conditions are favorable, beans come up quickly, and cultivation may begin as soon as possible. When the young plants first appear above ground, they are tender and break easily; therefore care should be used in working among them. The culture required by beans is similar to that of other intertilled crops. Cultivation should be frequent enough to keep the weeds from starting and a crust from forming on the surface of the soil; for in this way, moisture that was held in the soil by early plowing and harrowing may be conserved. Cultivation should be shallow because the bean roots are felatively surface feeders. Beans should not be cultivated while their leaves are wet with dew or rain, for at that time disease may be carried by the tools from plant to plant and from field to field. On small patches man-power tools may be used, RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1563 but shallow cultivation may be done with horse-power tools if they are handled properly. For this purpose they should have eleven or twelve small teeth. Between the plants in the row or between the hills, the hoe should be used in order to break the soil just under the surface and to destroy weeds at the same time. Some persons prefer to use the light onion hoes, so that they may work quickly and easily near the plants. For climbing beans, poles should be erected or a trellis constructed. A single pole from five to nine or ten feet high should be set in the center of each hill, or a trellis may be made of chieken wire four or five feet high or a system of strings running from one wire to another. Diseases and thetr remedies.—-There are a number of diseases affecting the bean in New York, and the most destructive of these is the bean anthracnose, though the bean blight often causes considerable loss. In order to avoid anthracnose, only clean seed, obtained by selecting seed from pods free from the diseased spots, should be planted. Hand sorting of seed and seed treatment will not control this disease, but spraying the plants thoroughly by hand with bordeaux mixture 5-5-50 is a good remedy. The plants should be sprayed three times: first, when they break through the ground; second, when the first pairs of leaves are unfolded; third, when the pods have set. Blight affects the leaves chiefly, forming large dead spots. Spraying with bordeaux mixture, as for anthracnose, is said to reduce the injury. Insect pests and methods of control—The principal insect enemy of the bean in New York State is the bean weevil. This pest proves very destruc- tive when attempt is made to grow beans in the southern counties of the State, but ordinarily it does little damage in the northern counties. As a means of controlling this insect, the bean seed should be treated in the following way: Place two or three bushels of beans in an ordinary tight barrel, such as an oil barrel, and pour over them six ounces of bisulfide of carbon for each bushel of seed. Close the top of the barrel with a tight- fitting head, seal it by covering the top with moistened newspapers, and leave it thus for forty-eight hours. Buisulfide of carbon is highly explosive, and care should be exercised not to have lighted cigars, pipes, or matches near the barrel. After the beans are removed from the barrel, they should be tested in water before they are planted. All good seeds will sink, but those infested with weevil will float. Harvesting.—Beans should not be harvested when the pods are moist, for this is conducive to the spread of anthracnose on the pods. Beans should be harvested when they are of the proper size and are tender. If the small, or French, beans are desired for canning, the pods should be picked when very small, three-sixteenths inch in diameter and from two to three inches long; otherwise, harvesting can be delayed until the pods 1504 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES are larger. Beans are tender when the pods will break with a snap and when there are no strings. Lima beans should be harvested when the seeds are of larger size, but before they become too hard. Beans should be picked with the least possible injury to the pod and the plants, for it should be remembered that the plants are tender, living things, and they should be treated as such. Beans may be put into any convenient receptacle as they are being picked, but a basket holding a peck or a half bushel is very serviceable. One picking may be followed by another in a very short time, and with some varieties of beans two pickings are all that can be made satisfactorily. After the frost has killed the plants, the patch Fic. 2.— Harvesting snap beans should be cleaned up either by plowing or by burning or composting the weeds and vines. Yields.—Green, or snap, beans yield from seventy-five to one hundred and twenty bushels per acre, lima beans, not shelled, from seventy-five to one hundred bushels, and shell beans from ten to twenty-five bushels. BEETS The most valuable part of the beet plant is its root, which, in order to be of high quality, must be tender, smooth, and symmetrical. These high qualities are produced by rapid growth in a deep, rich, loose soil during a cool season. If the soil is very hard or shallow, the roots are short, have a tendency to branch, and are irregular in form. In growing beets good tilth is an important factor, for it produces quick growth. Beets are rather hardy and relatively easy to grow. RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1565 Soil and its preparation.—The best soil for beets is a sandy loam that contains a large amount of plant-food in the form of humus from well- rotted manure or from green crops plowed under. Manure, if used, should be applied at the rate of about ten to fifteen tons or more per acre, and should be well rotted, for fresh manure has a tendency to increase scab. The soil should be plowed as deeply and as thoroughly as possible — from six to seven inches is none too deep —and it should be harrowed very fre- quently until it is fine. Some growers practice the back-furrowing method of preparing the ground, which is as follows: The soil is plowed in the fall or very early in the spring to the depth of from six and one-half to seven inches or more, and, after a short time and just before the crop is planted, it is plowed a second time four inches deep. It is better to begin the plowing in the middle of the garden or the field. The furrows should be thrown against each other, that is, as the plow moves from north to south, the first furrow is thrown toward the west, and as the plow returns from south to north, the second furrow is thrown toward the east, or against the first furrow. Hand raking may be begun after four furrows have been turned, and all coarse material should be raked into the dead furrows. If the work of plowing and raking has been done carefully, the topsoil to the depth of four inches will be in fine condition for planting or culti- vation. Back furrowing is one of the best intensive methods of crop production, and, although it 1s expensive, it is justified by the returns re- ceived from the crops grown. If back furrowing is not practiced, and if very fine soil is desired, plowing may be followed by harrowing with the disk, the spike-tooth, and the Meeker harrows, which will level and fine the soil and leave it in good condition for planting. Varteties.—Probably the variety of beets grown more for canning than any other is Detroit Dark Red; however, Crosby Improved Egyptian and Edmand’s Blood Turnip are good sorts for this purpose. Just as in the case of bean seed, there is a variation in the beet seed from different seeds- men, for some give special attention to the improvement of this crop. In buying seed, growers should take advantage of this work in seed selection. Time and methods of planting.—Owing to the fact that most persons wish to do all their canning at one time, it is sometimes advisable not to plant beets until late in the spring. They may, however, be planted any time from May to August. They are ready for use from sixty to eighty-five days after planting, and the date of planting should be governed, therefore, by the time one desires to can the beets. . Beet seed is generally sown in drills. If the beets are to be cultivated by horse power, the rows should be from twenty-four to thirty-six inches apart; but if they are to be cultivated by hand, from twelve to twenty- four inches is sufficient. In both cases the seed should be planted not 1506 THE CoRNELL READING-CoURSES deeper than one inch, and one-half inch is deep enough if soil conditions are right. The rows should be marked out straight with a common home- made marker or with stakes and line. Beet seed may be planted with one of the man-power planters, which will regulate the depth and the replacement of the soil over the seed. These planters will work efficiently only when the soil is thoroughly prepared. The use of machines for planting is discussed in Planting the Home Vege- table Garden, Reading-Course for the Farm, Vol. III, No. 58. If one of these machines is not available, the seed may be planted by hand. The rows should be marked out with stakes and line, and the furrows should be opened with a hoe, which should be used to cover the seed and firm the soil over it. If beet seed is planted by hand, it may be soaked over- night in lukewarm water, thus hastening germination. When the plants are from three to five inches tall, they should be thinned so that there are from four to six plants to every foot of row. The leaves of these young plants make very good greens. As a rule, each so-called seed contains more than one real seed, and this fact may account for an over-thick stand of beets. Cultivation.—Beets should be given frequent but shallow cultivation, for they are surface feeders. The soil should be kept free of weeds, and moisture should be conserved by preventing the formation of a soil crust. If beets are cultivated by horse power, the best tools to use are those with small teeth, such as the twelve-point cultivators; and if they are culti- vated by hand, any of the several good man-power cultivators may be used. With the latter tools it is possible to cultivate very close to the rows, thus eliminating to a very large extent the tedious work of hand weeding. The hoe should be used two or three times during the season in addition to the cultivator, in order that all weeds in the rows may be destroyed. Insect pests and methods of control.—The beet leaf-miner sometimes causes great loss by destroying the leaves. The best method of control is to cut out and destroy the leaves containing miners. Another method is to eradicate pigweed, for it furnishes a breeding place for the leaf miner. Cutworms occasionally do considerable damage to beets, but they may be controlled by placing poison bait, consisting of bran, molasses, and some arsenical poison, along the rows of beets. Diseases and their remedies.—Scab, similar to potato scab, is sometimes prevalent on beets. The most satisfactory remedies are rotation of crops and planting beets in acid soils. Harvesting —The following method is used in harvesting beets. They are pulled from the ground, and the tops are twisted or cut off an inch or so from the crowns. It is important that a small part of the leaf stems RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1567 should be left on each beet in order to avoid bleeding, which would injure the appearance and the quality of the root. For canning purposes small beets are generally required, and it is therefore necessary to harvest them when rather young. It must be remembered that beets are tender plants and should not be injured, but should be handled with care and taken from the field or garden and washed as soon as possible after they are pulled. Leaves trimmed from beets should be gathered together and placed in the compost pile or destroyed. Yields.—Beets yield from four hundred to seven hundred bushels per acre. SWEET CORN Soil and its preparation.— Sweet corn seems to be cosmopolitan as far as soil conditions are concerned. It thrives best, however, in a fairly rich loam, and it is not advisable to plant it in soil that is too hard or clayey and therefore rather backward. Sandy or gravelly loams or even a silty loam, if they are deeply tilled, will produce good sweet corn. In crop rotation, corn may follow any other crop, but as a general thing, it is grown where sod, preferably clover sod, has been plowed under. The ground should be plowed deeply early in the spring, from six and one-half to seven inches or even deeper. Care should be taken not to- mix too much of the new subsoil with the topsoil, from one to one and one-half inches being sufficient in any one year. Following the plowing, the ground should be harrowed thoroughly, that is, three or four times rather than once. Good practice is to harrow twice with a disk harrow and several times with a spike-tooth harrow. If the land is plowed early, especially sod land, and thoroughly harrowed, a larger amount of moisture will be conserved, particularly if harrowing follows soon after rain, than if the plowing and harrowing is done at a later time. Manures and fertilizers.—If manure is used, it should be applied broad- cast at the rate of from ten to fifteen tons per acre. If possible, it should be well rotted, though corn is less injured by fresh manure than some other garden crops. If the soil is of a relatively heavy type and backward, high-grade fertilizer in addition to manure may be applied to good effect at the rate of from two hundred and fifty to five hundred pounds per acre. If manure is not available, a fertilizer containing two per cent nitrogen, eight per cent phosphoric acid, and ten per cent potash will give satis- factory results if applied in the hill at the rate of about five hundred pounds per acre. This fertilizer produces better results if used on soil where sod has been plowed under than if used on bare ground. Varieties.—In the eastern United States, the variety of corn used for can- ning more than any other is Crosby Early, which is a second early variety among the named sorts in time of maturing. It has an ear of fairly large 1568 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES size and very choice kernels, and, owing to its earliness, the grower is practically assured of obtaining a crop. Stowell’s Evergreen, which bears very large ears and white kernels of high quality, is the standard late corn for canning purposes. However, in the last two or three years, owing to the early frosts in the fall and the length of season required to mature this variety, it has proved a failure in this State. Country Gentleman is a good type if shoe-peg kernels are desired, for the ears are fairly large and the kernels are deep and placed irregularly. on the cob. Where the length of the growing season must be considered, it is better to plant the early rather than the late sorts for canning purposes. It is well to take advantage of improved types of seed. Time and methods of planting.—Corn should not be planted too early in the spring, or, as a general rule, while there is danger of frost; the best time is probably from May 15 to June 1 or even a little later in some localities. By that time the soil should be warm. If the seed is to be planted by hand, the following method may be used: After the rows have been marked out in some way, small holes should be dug with a hoe where the hills are to be located. Fertilizer may be placed in these holes, and, if so, it should be covered with a little soil before the seed is dropped. After the seed is covered, the soil should be firmed over it with the hoe or the foot. If man-power planters are used, fertilizer has to be broadcasted. If the horse-power corn-planter is available, this may be utilized. It plants the seeds and distributes the fertilizer at the same time. It is sometimes advantageous to use the hand method of planting corn, for then the patch may be marked out in rows running at right angles, and the corn planted at the intersection of these rows. It is then possible to cultivate on every side of a hill of corn, and the amount of hand hoeing, if indeed any is necessary, is decreased materially. If corn is to be culti- vated by horse labor, the rows should be from thirty to forty-two inches apart, and the so-called hills from eighteen to thirty-six inches apart in the row. Five or six seeds should be planted in a hill, but the young plants should be thinned so that only three strong stalks remain in each hill. If the corn is to be cultivated by hand labor, the rows may be somewhat closer together, from eighteen to twenty-eight inches apart, but the hills ‘should be from eighteen to thirty-six inches apart in the row. In some instances, corn may be planted in rows and later thinned so that the stalks are one foot apart. The seed should be planted not deeper than one and one-half.inches, and one inch is even better. Some kind of marker should be used to make the rows straight, or if the planting is a small one, stakes and line may be used. Cultivation.—Corn should be given clean but shallow culture, for corn roots are relatively surface feeders. For this work a good horse-power RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1569 cultivator is the twelve-point, which has fine teeth made in such a way that they will not dig deeply into the soil. For hand tools, there are many wheel-hoes. Besides these tools, the hand hoe is recommended, especially for work close to the plants. It is advisable to remove the suckers that spring up around the base of the stalks, for they tend to decrease the productiveness of the plants. Corn is a hot weather plant and thrives best in the fullest exposure to sunlight. It is not able to withstand drought so well as many other crops; therefore conservation of moisture by maintaining a dust mulch is essential. An insect pest.—The corn-ear worm, or bollworm, is injurious to sweet Fic. 3.— Pole lima beans, growing under favorable conditions corn in several sections of New York State, but no satisfactory means of control has been found. A disease and tts remedy.—The same smut that attacks field corn is found on sweet corn. The following remedy for this disease is recom- mended: Plant corn on soil free from the disease, do not use manure containing smutted fodder for this crop, and destroy any portions of the plant found diseased. Harvesting.—When the silk at the end of the ear of corn has become dried and brown, the corn, as a rule, is ready for harvesting; but this is not always a reliable indication. If the ear appears plump and mature, it is ready to harvest; but if a person is not experienced in judging these appearances, 1t may be best to open the husk far enough to look at the kernels. They should be in the milk stage, plump, dull white — not glossy — 99 1570 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES and soft. Sweet corn should be harvested carefully so that the stalks are not broken as the ears are severed from them, and so that the kernels are not pressed too hard. After all the corn has been harvested from the entire plot or after there have been killing frosts, the stalks should be cut dlown and the garden made as attractive as possible. The stalks may be fed to stock, composted, or destroyed. Yields —Sweet corn can be made to yield per acre from eight to nine thousand ears, or from two and one-half to five tons of husk, cob, and kernels. PEAS Peas, which are native to Europe as well as many sections of the United States, have been cultivated for centuries; they were, in fact, commonly grown by the early Greeks and Romans. In this country, peas are most generally grown in the northern states, for they thrive in a cool, moist climate. Site.—The best site for the late varieties of peas is a northern exposure, because it 1s cooler and more moist than any other location. The early varieties, however, should be planted on a southern exposure, for the grower must sacrifice a small amount of the yield in order to obtain early maturity. Soil and its preparation.—The writer has found by careful observation that a nonacid clay soil or a silty loam is best for the late varieties of peas, whereas a sandy loam is seemingly best for the early sorts. Muck soils have an abundance of moisture and a relatively cool temperature; however, they are not as a rule desirable for growing peas, because they produce a rank growth of vines but a limited amount of pods. The very light sandy soils are not suitable, because they produce neither thrifty vines nor pods of good size. As a rule, peas should be grown on different soil each year. If an acre or more is planted, they may follow sweet corn, cabbage, potatoes, or some other cultivated crop. In the garden, peas may be planted after root crops or other crops that have been weed free. For peas heavy soil should be plowed in the fall and lighter soils, such as sandy or gravelly loams, in the spring. In either case, the ground should be thoroughly harrowed and smoothed a short time before the seed is planted. A disk harrow is adapted for use on heavy soil, and either a spring-tooth harrow or a spike-tooth harrow for use on light soils. The preparation of the seed bed for this crop is very important. Manures and fertilizers —For peas the soil may be oversupplied with nitrogen and humus, and stable manure must be used sparingly. As a rule, it had better be applied the year previous on some other crop. There is rarely too much available potash and phosphoric acid in soil for peas; wood ashes and well-composted hen manure will supply these RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1571 ingredients with very good results. It is better to apply these substances separately, and they should never be mixed together any length of time before they are used. A commercial fertilizer suitable for this crop should contain one per cent nitrogen, from six to eight per cent phosphoric acid, and from five to seven per cent potash, and should be broadcasted at the rate of from three hundred and fifty to five hundred pounds per acre. In some cases where the soil was very rich, a half-and-half mixture of potash and phosphoric acid broadcasted at the rate of from four hundred to five hundred pounds per acre has given good results. Inoculation.—The inoculation of soil to which leguminous plants are not native or on which they grow only in a limited way, has been found to produce an increased number of nodules on the pea roots, but no very striking benefit to the pea crop itself. However, the benefit comes to the crop following the peas. Inoculation of the soil for peas may be tested on a limited area, by the same method as that used for clover, alfalfa, or other legumes. Varteties—For canning, Alaska is one of the most common early varieties, though it 1s not of high quality. Good sorts maturing a little later than Alaska are Surprise, Gradus, Thomas Laxton, McLean’s Ad- vancer, Duke of Albany, and British Wonder; good late maturing varieties are French Canner (Petit Pois), Everbearing, Champion of England, Telephone, Stratagem, and Carter’s Daisy, or Dwarf Telephone. For a succession, Alaska could be planted first, followed by Surprise, Thomas Laxton, and Duke of Albany. There are many other sorts good for can- ning, and it is recommended that they be tested whenever practicable. Good pea seed, which is essential to the production of a good crop, may be bought from growers or seedsmen whose pea seed is produced in New York, New England, other northern states, or Canada. As a rule, pea seed produced in the northern sections of the United States and in Canada is to be preferred to seed produced in the southern part of the United States. Seed from reliable seedsmen who have made a specialty of certain varieties should be bought in preference to the ordinary run. Time and methods cf planting.—The time for planting peas will vary somewhat according to the locality and the variety selected, but the gen- eral rule is to plant them as soon as the soil is in condition in the spring, which generally means from April 20 to May 15 in this State. Peas should be planted from one and one-half to two inches deep. If they are planted three or four or more inches deep, it is likely that the small seeds will be unable to thrust stalks and leaves through this amount ‘of soil and make the proper growth. Sometimes nature will overcome this difficulty, but if it is desired to plant peas three or four inches deep, the following method may be used: Sow the peas in a trench three or 1572 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES four inches deep, but cover them with only an inch of soil. After the seedlings come above the ground, gradually draw the soil towards them, and continue to do this as the plants grow, until the trench is filled. Peas grown on a large scale for canning purposes are generally sown with a grain drill. The old practice was to sow them in drills running but one way across the field, using from two to three bushels of seed to the acre; the more modern practice, which gives better results, is to plant half the peas in drills running lengthwise of the field and the other half in drills running crosswise, using at least four bushels of seed to the acre. A more uniform stand and a larger yield are thus obtained. If a grain drill is not available, peas may be sown by hand and harrowed into the soil, which in this case should be in very fine tilth and weed free. In a small garden, the one-row seeder may be used, and, if so, the seed should be planted from one to two inches deep in rows from twelve to eighteen inches or more apart, according to the habits of the variety used. The amount of seed to plant varies from two to six bushels per acre according to the soil and the variety. In general, four bushels per acre is the best amount, but if the peas are grown in a small garden and the pods hand picked, six bushels may be necessary. Cultivation.—lIf peas are sown with a grain drill or broadcasted, no cultivation is possible; therefore, in that case, the preparation of the ground should be most thorough. If they are planted in rows that are some space apart, cultivation should begin soon after the plants appear above the ground and should be repeated very frequently. Some persons think it advisable to cultivate peas at least every five days. It is im- portant to conserve all moisture possible in the soil, for this crop requires four hundred and seventy-seven pounds of water to produce one pound of dry matter. Shallow cultivation will give the best results, because the roots of this plant come very near the surface of the soil and spread so far that deep cultivation would injure them seriously. In home gardens, where tall-growing varieties of peas may be desirable, some form of a support is necessary. Brush, chicken wire, or a trellis made with strings will be found satisfactory. Insect pests and methods of control.—Pea weevil is one of the most com- mon pests, and the method of control is the same as that given for bean weevil on page 1563. The annual loss caused by pea louse is very large. On small plantings, this insect may be controlled by spraying the plants with a ten or twelve per cent solution of kerosene emulsion or a solution of nicotine, laundry soap, and water, mixed in the following proportions— three-fourths pint nicotine, five pounds laundry soap, and one hundred gallons water. Many birds and insects are the natural enemies of the pea louse. During the RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1573 summer of 1912 the writer saw the work of the swallows and the martins, which destroyed millons of these insects on his patch of peas. Another method of controlling this pest is to cultivate the peas immediately after a person has gone along the rows and knocked the insects from the vines; in this way they are buried by the cultivator. A disease and its remedy.—Mildew is a whitish or grayish coating generally found on the leaves late in the season and after the weather has become somewhat warm; the remedy for it is dusting with sulfur the plants that are affected. Peas grown on cool sites are less likely to be troubled with this pest. Harvesting.—As soon as the pea pods become filled with seed, the vines should be cut. This may be done witha scythe or a mowing machine. If the latter is used, the vines may be collected in small piles with an ordinary hand rake, and these piles may be combined with a fork into larger ones, which are thrown on a wagon, If peas are raised on a large scale, it would be advisable to own a pea swather for harvesting the crop. The swather lifts the vines with long finger guards, which are placed on the cutter bar; cuts the vines with specially constructed knives, and throws them to one side in a swath. Under favorable conditions ten acres of peas can be harvested per day by this method. The vines should then be collected in wagons and taken from the field to the cannery without delay. If peas are grown on a comparatively small scale, they are generally picked from the growing vines by hand into baskets and carried to the house for canning. Care should be taken not to injure the pods or the vines. The average price for picking a bushel of peas by hand varies from fifteen to twenty-five cents according to the labor supply and the heaviness of the yield. If peas are to be held in the pod for any length of time, they should be kept cool, for they heat very quickly. Yields.—This crop often yields from fifteen to twenty-five hundred pounds of shelled peas per acre and under very favorable conditions as high as two tons per acre on plantings of one acre or more. The average yield for the garden of less than one acre is from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty bushels of unshelled peas per acre, according to the method of planting and the variety grown. Ina garden of less than an acre, a row about one hundred feet long will yield from one to three bushels of unshelled peas. Canneries pay from two to two and one-half cents a pound for shelled peas. Oftentimes the small gardener will sell the earliest peas for immediate consumption at from one to three dollars a bushel, and after the price has dropped to less than a dollar he will use them for canning purposes. On plantings of more than an acre, the cost of producing an acre of peas for canning varies from thirty to forty-five 1574 THE CoRNELL READING-COURSES dollars, and the profit varies from fifteen 4o twenty-five dollars or more per acre if conditions are favorable or if good methods of culture are used. In the small garden where but one acre or less is raised, and some of the peas are sold as a green vegetable, the cost ranges from forty to seventy- five dollars, according to the method of planting and the yield, and the profit varies from fifty to seventy-five dollars. In the small garden, after peas have been harvested, another crop may often be grown on the same soil during the remainder of the summer. SPINACH Spinach is one of the most- important crops grown for greens in the United States. Soil and its preparation.—For spinach, rich, sandy loams are satisfactory for the early spring crop, and muck soils after being subdued are especially adapted to the early summer or fall crop. Poor soils that dry out can be improved by applications of humus-making material. As this crop is relatively hardy, it can be grown where the temperature falls rather low in the spring. This plant will not grow on a soil that is in a highly acid condition. It is therefore very important that lime should be used. Soil for spinach should be plowed deep, and harrowed and smoothed until the topsoil to the depth of four inches is in very fine condition and leve! on the surface. The more thorough the preparation is, the better will be the crop. Muck soils should be “‘planked”’ before the spinach is planted. Manures and fertilizers —Composted manures are of the greatest value with this crop on soils other than muck, as they bring about the best conditions of the soil. These manures should be applied in the spring at the rate of from twenty-five to fifty tons per acre, depending on the con- dition of the soil. If the crop preceding has been fertilized very lightly, a fertilizer con- taining two per cent nitrogen, five per cent phosphoric acid, and seven per cent potash, if broadcasted on the soil before the spinach is planted, will give good results. Spinach requires no additional fertilizer if it is grown in rotation on muck soil and follows a crop that has been heavily fertilized. Care must be taken not to oversupply nitrogen. Rotation.—As spinach is a crop that requires only a short period to mature, it can be used advantageously in rotation with other crops. Ail crops preceding spinach should be kept free of ~veeds. Good rotations are: spinach followed by late celery the same year, onions, and spinach; or spinach and tomatoes; or peas and spinach. On soils other than muck, manure or clover should play an important part in the rotation, on account | of the humus that is derived from them. RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1575 Varieties.—Some of the best varieties of spinach are Victoria, Long Standing, Giant Thick Leaf, and Savoy Leaf. The seed of spinach is so cheap that very little attention has been given to producing high quality strains. Time and methods of planting.—In New York State fall plantings of spinach should be made during August; spring plantings as soon as the ground is ready, which is probably during April. For fall harvesting, spinach should be planted about the fifteenth of July. In some localities, especially near cities, spinach is planted on soils other, than muck in the fall in beds consisting of four or five rows from ten to fourteen inches apart. The seed should be planted from one-half to one inch deep, and a one-row drill operated by man power or a larger drill that will sow four or five rows at a time may be used. If spinach is planted in the spring, particularly in muck soils and other good. garden soils, raised beds are not made because drainage is generally not necessary during the summer months, but seed is planted from one-half to one inch deep with a oné-row drill in rows from ten to fourteen inches apart. Spin- ach should be planted at the rate of from fifteen to thirty pounds of seed to an acre, and some growers use as much as from forty-five to fifty pounds per acre. If the seed is sown in upland soils, it may be necessary to thin the plants in order to obtain the best growth. There should be from four to six inches between each plant, for if the rows are from ten to fourteen inches apart, the plants will soon spread and cover this entire space. Spinach planted on muck soils is not thinned. Cultivation.—Spinach should be cultivated every four or five days dur- ing the early stages of growth, for it soon grows and covers the ground, and cannot be tilled. One of the wheel hoes operated by man power or a scuffle hoe is a good tool to use for this work. Insect pests and methods of control—Karly in the spring this plant is not troubled very much with insects, but during the early summer the two following pests may become serious. The leaf miner affects the spinach in the same way that it affects the beet, and the same methods of control should be used (page 1566). There is a green fly, or aphis, that injures spinach by checking its growth. No effective method of controlling this insect has been found, but rain or cold weather hinders its progress, and if the plants are kept in thrifty condition they are less likely to be injured. Harvesting.—Spinach should be harvested when the plants have grown to large size and have completely covered the ground. In a soft soil, such as muck, a wheel hoe or a scuffle hoe can be used to cut the root just below the crown, or if particular care is required, a good knife may be used. In the harder soils, such as the gravelly loams, a butcher knife 1576 THE CoRNELL READING-COURSES is the best implement. Spinach should ‘be harvested with as little injury to the plants as possible. As soon as it has been cut, it should be placed in baskets, taken to the house, washed, and placed on a rack to drain. It is then ready to be prepared for canning. Yields.—Spinach often yields from two to two hundred and fifty barrels per acre, four to six tons, if it is grown on sandy or gravelly loam, or from seven to ten tons if it is grown on muck soil. In a small home garden, a row one hundred feet long should yield from two to four bushels, according to the cultivation given. TOMATOES The tomato, one of the vegetables most commonly grown for canning in the United States, requires a long, warm season for its best development. Site.-—The best location for a field of tomatoes is a southern slope, where there is sufficient air drainage to insure the tomatoes from injury by light frosts. "Tomatoes will grow fairly well on less suitable sites in favorable seasons, but considerable risk is involved. Soil and its preparation.—From tests made in various sections of the United States, it has been found that the tomato is adapted to a wide range of soils. In experiments carried on by Will W. Tracy, the ten largest yields of tomatoes were obtained from a great variety of soils, ranging from heavy clay loam to the lightest types. If it is possible to choose the soil, a deep, fertile, sandy loam will probably give the best results. On farms that are managed systematically, the soils are generally well maintained and in good condition to grow a satisfactory crop of tomatoes. The tomato has an extremely large root system; therefore the soil should be plowed six inches or more deep. It should then be harrowed and cross- harrowed until the soil is fine and in good condition for transplanting the young plants. Tomatoes, as well as other vegetables, should be grown on different soils each year. Tomatoes may successfully follow corn, cabbage, or almost any hoed crop or clover sod. They should not follow timothy sod, for great injury may result from cutworms and grubs. Manures and fertilizers —It is seldom wise to use fresh manure on to- matoes, for it causes the plants to produce an excessive amount of vines. However, it may be the only kind of manure available; if so, it is well to apply it the previous year. If well-rotted stable manure is to be had, it may be applied to the soil, just before the young tomatoes are planted, at the rate of from ten to fifteen tons per acre, depending on soil conditions. For the average soil, if commercial fertilizer is used, one containing two per cent nitrogen, eight per cent phosphoric acid, and ten per cent potash is recommended. It should be applied either in the hills or broadca:t = | RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1577 at the rate of about five hundred to one thousand pounds per acre, ac- cording to the richness of the soil. For soils poorer than the average, a 4-8-10 fertilizer applied at about the same rate is recommended. In some localities, fertilizer containing two per cent nitrogen, ten per cent phosphoric acid, and six per cent potash has produced good results. A good formula to use in mixing this type of fertilizer at home is: one hundred and thirty pounds nitrate of soda, two hundred and fifty pounds high- grade tankage, or one hundred and fifty pounds dried blood, fourteen hundred and thirty pounds acid phosphate, and two hundred and fifty . pounds sulfate of potash. In case the plants are small and seemingly backward, if part of the fertilizer is applied in the hills, it quickens growth and has a tendency to promote early maturity of the crop. If soil con- ditions are right, and the plants are thrifty, it makes but little difference whether the fertilizer is applied in the hills or broadcasted. Varieties Many varieties, some of which are of questionable value as far as canning is concerned, are listed by the seedsmen. The following varieties are recommended: for the early crops, Bonny Best and Chalk’s Early Jewel; for the midseason crop, Trucker’s Favorite, Success, My Maryland, Greater Baltimore, and Globe; for the late crop, Ponderosa and Stone. The following small-fruited varieties are recommended for preserving: Yellow Plum, Red Plum, Yellow Pear, Red Pear, Peach, Yellow Cherry, Red Cherry, Red Currant, Yellow Currant, and Straw- berry, or Husk — all of which, except the last, somewhat resemble the fruits of the same name. The fruit of the last-named variety is a small berry enclosed in a husk. Many seedsmen offer other sorts than those listed here, and some of them are results of work on the part of the seedsmen to develop something better than the original varieties. In tests carried on at one or two of the experiment stations, it has been found that seed __ of one variety bought from different seedsmen may vary so much that there will be a difference of two or three tons per acre in the yields. Seed bought from the firms that specialized in a certain variety produced the highest yields. Tests of the comparative yields of different varieties _ have been made, and, at the Illinois Experiment Station, Greater Balti- more was shown to be the heaviest yielding tomato. Time and methods of planting—Good plants may often be bought if there is a grower of tomato plants in the community. The price for these plants will vary from ten to twenty-five cents a dozen, or from a dollar and a half to eight or ten dollars per thousand, according to the character of the plants and the variety. When purchasing plants, the color and the shape should be taken into consideration. The stem of the plant and the top leaves should be tinged with purple, not a yellowish green, because a purplish tinge denotes that the plant has hardened and 1578 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES is fit to be set in the garden or the field. The plants should be as broad as they are tall; spindling plants are not desirable. It is not difficult to grow tomato plants, if one has hotbeds or a green- house. Suggestions about plant growing may be found in Reading- Course for the Farm, Vol. III, No. 58, page rrr. The seed should be sown six or eight weeks before the plants are needed in the field. Special attention to watering and ventilation should be given; the amount will depend on the amount of sunlight and the outside temperature. Tomato plants require a high temperature for their best growth, but toward the end of the eight weeks, the sash should be raised a few inches during the daytime in order to harden the plants so that they will be in a condition Fic. 4.—Tomatoes growing at will, the general practice where grown for canning to withstand the outside temperature. This subject is discussed in fur- ther detail in Reading-Course for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 90. If the plants are transplanted once or twice, they will have better-developed root- systems than if they are left in their original positions. If they are to be transplanted once, the seed should be started nine or ten weeks before the plants are needed in the field; if more than once, from ten days to two weeks should be added for each transplanting. Growing tomato plants in paper pots or veneer bands is one of the most successful methods. The plants may be started in a greenhouse, a hotbed, a cold frame, or a box in the house, and when they show the third leaf, they should be trans- planted to four-inch paper pots or veneer bands. The plants should then be given careful attention as to ventilation and watering and should be properly hardened, or gradually brought under outdoor conditions. RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1579 They should be ready to set in the field from ten to twelve weeks from the time the seed is sown. The plants at that time should be about one foot tall and as broad as they are tall. If early varieties are grown on very thin soils, the young plants should be set three feet apart in rows that are three feet apart; on heavier, richer soils, the distance between the rows should be increased to from three and one-half to four feet. The late varieties need more room, for the plants are larger than those of the early varieties; therefore they should be set four feet apart in rows four or five feet apart. If early tomatoes are grown by the stake method, the plants may be set as close as eighteen inches apart in rows that are three feet apart. The stake method is particularly adapted to the production of early tomatoes on a limited scale. The rows should be marked out either with a homemade marker drawn by horse power or man power, or with stakes and line. In some cases the rows may be marked off by plowing furrows the proper distance apart. If the rows are to be cultivated crosswise as well as lengthwise, it will be necessary to mark off the field in both these directions so that the plants may be correctly placed. The tomato plants may be set either by hand or by horse-power planters. If the former method is used, the plants may be set in the following ways: A small hole should be dug with a trowel, a spade, or some other implement, the plant should be placed in the hole, and the soil should be firmed rather tightly against the roots. Or if a furrow has been opened with a plow, all that is necessary is to place the plant in this furrow and to pack the soil about the roots. Plants grown in paper pots or veneer bands have to be set by hand, for the plants are taken to the field in these receptacles and the paper pots or the bands removed from around the roots, leaving them as undisturbed as possible. There are several good planters operated by horse power on the market. If tomatoes are to be planted on a large scale, one of these machines will be found of great value. They open the furrow, place the plant in position, water the soil around the roots of the plant, press the soil against the roots, and leave the surface of the soil smooth. With skilled labor, five or six acres can be planted in a day with one of these machines. Cultivation.—Careful attention to cultivation throughout the season insures conservation of soil moisture. No weeds should be allowed to grow in the tomato patch, as they rob the plant of sunlight above the ground and of moisture and plant-food below the ground. Cultivation should be shallow, for the roots of the plants come rather close to the sur- face. A nine- or eleven-tooth cultivator, having small teeth, is preferred for this work, and if the plants are staked and grown close together, a 1580 THE CORNELL READING-CoURSES man-power cultivator is found useful. If it is not possible to cultivate close to the plant with a machine, the plants should be hoed by hand. If the tomato plants are to be staked, a six-foot stake should be set securely on the north side of each plant. As the plant grows, it should be tied to this stake, at first three or four inches from the ground and then every foot above this mark. If the plant is to be pruned, as well as staked, all side shoots should be removed as they develop. The side shoots spring from the axils of the leaves, which are formed by the joining of the leaves to the stems of the plant. Early, clean, bright-colored fruit that can be easily harvested is the result of staking. Insect pests and methods of control—Cutworms frequently destroy tomato plants by cutting them off near the ground. If a small portion of poison bait made by the following recipe is placed near the plants, this pest may be controlled: bran, two quarts; paris green, one tablespoonful; molasses, one-half cupful; water, enough to wet the mixture thoroughly. Flea beetles often injure newly set tomato plants to a considerable extent. Spraying with bordeaux mixture is the best method of control known for this insect. The large green tomato-worm is sometimes a serious pest. The best way of controlling it is to pick the worms from the vines and kill them. Diseases and their remedies—The tomato is susceptible to a great many diseases. A rot that affects the blossom end of the fruit sometimes causes great loss because no complete remedy for it is known. Con- servation of moisture in the soil is a partial remedy. This disease is es- pecially prevalent during dry seasons and on dry sites. Septoria, leaf spot, is a disease that often attacks tomato plants before they have been transplanted from the seed bed, and it is controlled with difficulty because it is carried over winter in the diseased leaves and stems that fall to the ground. When the plants are set out, all the leaves that touch the ground and others that show suspicious-looking dead spots should be pinched off. The plants, especially the underside of the leaves, should be sprayed then and afterwards at intervals of a week or ten days very thoroughly with bordeaux mixture 5-5-50. The plants should be staked and tied for greater convenience in spraying. Harvesting —For canning, tomatoes should be picked when fully ripe and showing good color. They should not be pulled from the vines, but the stems should be broken at the joint that nature has provided at a little distance below the calyx. Before placing the fruit in the basket, it is well to remove the calyx and stem by bending the stem slightly. It is necessary to handle the fruit very carefully; hence a rigid basket is the best to use for this work because it does not bend, and therefore crowd the tomatoes. They should be removed from the field quickly and used RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1581 as soon as possible. If they are to be sold, they must be graded to meet the requirements of the purchaser. After the crop has been fully har- vested, the vines should be destroyed in order to prevent the spread of disease. Yields.—Yields vary greatly. One hundred bushels per acre is an average yield in several states, though this is exceedingly small. In some sections of this State, tomatoes yield from two to five hundred bushels, or from six to fifteen tons, per acre, and under intensive methods of cul- ture as high as from eight hundred to a thousand bushels, or twenty or more tons, per acre. For canning, the price paid for tomatoes is from seven to twelve dollars per ton. A fair profit may be realized if nine or ten dollars per ton is paid, providing labor is reasonable in price, the haul to market is not too great, and other conditions are favorable. The cost of growing an acre of tomatoes varies from fifty to sixty-five dollars. There is, therefore, from twenty-five to forty dollars profit per acre in this crop. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY B. T. GaLLtoway, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York MARCH 1, 1915 GARDEN SERIES No. 3 VOL. IV. No. 83 RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING DISCUSSION PAPER By means of the discussion papers we have an opportunity to become acquainted. We shall take it as an indication on your part that you are interested if you answer the questions and return them to us. The staff of the Department of Home Economics is ready to assist in your study of scientific home-making. We want your assistance as well. Ask questions, offer suggestions, let us have the benefit of your experience. You thus become a vital part of the Department of Home Economics in its effort for scientific housekeeping. Will you please send your opinions on the following points to the Super- visor of the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home? 1. What differences in the beans, the beets, the sweet corn, the peas, the spinach, and the tomatoes that you have grown from year to year have you noticed that can be directly traced to sources of seed? [1583] 1584 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 2. In growing beans, beets, sweet corn, peas, spinach, and tomatoes, have you found that growth or yields have been influenced by the differ- ences in soil? Explain. 3. State your method of preparing soil for any one of these crops? 4. Would you consider rotations of crops a valuable panetice in growing these vegetables? Why? RAISING VEGETABLES FOR CANNING 1585 5. Under what conditions have you obtained large yields of beans, beets, sweet corn, peas, spinach, or tomatoes? 6. Are there problems in the growing of the vegetables discussed in this lesson that you would like to have solved? Explain. The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York VOL. IV. No. 85 APRIL 1, r915 FARMHOUSE SERIES THE ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS HELEN BINKERD YOUNG T IS the common experience of mankind that the | human race cannot live much above its envi- ronment. The grandeur of purpose of some rare souls has lifted them above the touch of mere earthly trappings, but, for the most part, men are molded by the thoughts and things that are about them. Slowly and silently an exchange of influence takes place between the individual and his environ- ment. Each gradually absorbs the most conspicu- ous qualities of the other. Stupid and commonplace surroundings at length breed a dull and unimaginative outlook on life and render the mind insensitive to new ideas and impressions. Still more baneful are such influences as untidy yards and buildings, which are in the first place the result and later the cause of careless habits of work and of thought; on the other hand, orderly, attractive homesteads not only express but in their turn create orderly habits of thought and of work. In the last analysis, disorder and ugliness are destructive agencies, while order and comeliness are constructive agencies in a person’s environment. A sound home environment is, therefore, nothing more nor less than a set of outward conditions so adjusted as to encourage the richest living. While the amount of human energy that is lost through working against unfavorable conditions is not measurable, the evidence of all nature, as well as the intelligence of mankind, points in the direction of harmony or cooperation of forces as favoring healthy growth. This elemental fact justifies the spending of serious thought on the subject of home environment. If dwelling places can be made, first of all, sound for their use, and second, comely to view, both the practical and the esthetic needs of the home will be recognized. [1587] 1588 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES The ability to create frictionless home surroundings depends chiefly on the cultivation of two qualities, a sense of arrangement and a sense of selection. By arrangement is meant the systematic placing of objects within a given space, as the placing of rugs on a floor, pictures on a wall, furniture in a room, shrubs, lawn, and paths in a yard, or even such lesser things as dishes on a dinner table. By selection is meant the choosing of materials or objects that will suitably fit into the proposed plan, as the selection of rugs, wall papers, furniture, pictures, dishes, or plants. THE MEANING OF A FURNISHING SCHEME In order that success may attend the housewife’s efforts at creating a sound environment, a study of arrangement should precede any attempt at furnishing, or even the selection of new articles. To be sure, many of the practical problems of the home arise quite the other way round, that is, certain articles have been inherited or have been acquired through a number of years, and the main problem is to find a place for them. Such a method is, however, a back-handed approach to the problem of furnish- ing, and has been the original cause of the usual conglomerate effects; for if furnishings are bought under pressure of immediate need and without any relation to a comprehensive scheme of arrangement, the rooms where they are used will naturally lack unity of idea and therefore of effect. Although it will take more time, it is, in the end, far more satisfactory to work out a definite plan for the completed room, arranged and equipped according to its use, and, as time and means permit, to assemble the various objects that are needed. Whether old or new furnishings are to be used, the most pleasing and livable interior will result from such a procedure. Little by little the plan can then be developed until the rooms are completed. Such a result is sure to be more rational, more simple, and more effective than if an attempt is made to combine an unstudied assortment of objects. A STUDY OF ARRANGEMENT When a number of useful objects are to be disposed in a given space, it is necessary to consider first the practical and then the decorative aspect of the arrangement. To use a homely example, the contents of a jelly closet should, for convenience sake, be arranged on shelves in neat, orderly rows, with like kinds of fruit grouped together. While the use of many kinds of jars is entirely feasible, it is evident that if only those of a uniform size and shape are used, the display will be more shipshape and impressive. Indeed so friendly are the elements of beauty and of convenience that THE ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 1589 ordinarily if a number of articles are arranged in the most attractive way, they will be found to be arranged at the same time in the most con- venient way. Thus the neatest looking arrangement of a closetful of clothes results from hanging garments on a row of hangers suspended from a single rod. This is, at the same time, the most sensible arrange- ment, since it not only keeps the clothes in shape but displays the contents of the closet without search. Although the fruit closet and the clothespress represent the idea of arrangement in condensed form, they illustrate the fact that the basis of both convenient and effective arrangement is system, order, classification, and common sense, and that the arrangement in any case will depend on the needs of the problem and the space at one’s disposal. If such familiar ideas of arrangement are applied to the larger problem of furnishing, a similar solution is possible. The exact use of the room is, Fic. 5.—Three furnishing arrangements worked out on plan or should be, definitely settled in order that the furnishings may be so selected and arranged as to fit it for its use. The spaces in which the furnishings may be disposed are determined by the size of the room, the location and the size of the various windows and doors, and the size and the shape of the resulting wall spaces. In brief, the problem is to arrange the necessary furniture within a given space, in a way that will be reasonable for use and pleasant to see. The plan of a living room fourteen feet wide and twenty feet long is shown in figure 5. This room has four openings, two windows (one of them double) and two doors; each of these openings is located in the middle of a wall, thus leaving large equal spaces to right and to left. Asa result, each wall of the room is symmetrical and is therefore balanced and dignified in appearance. Diagrams A, B, and C represent three possible arrangements of the same furnishings, with the exception of rugs. The instant impression given by diagram A is one of confusion and unrest: by diagrams B and C, one of order and repose. 1590 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES In A the eye glances restlessly from one object to another. Diagrams B and C are instantly pictorial because they are in keeping with the principles of good arrangement. They are characterized by large open spaces and by furniture placed around the walls. The eye is at rest in either of these arrangements. In diagram A the objects are scattered about the room, creating an impression of too many things and too little free space. The placing of the furniture is irregular and unexpected, so that persons are likely to bump into things when moving about the room. The larger pieces are placed diagonally across the corners. Each time this is done, a triangle of space is wasted behind the object, and two corners are awkwardly projected into the room. Consequently each object so placed not only appears to, but actually does, occupy more room than if placed against the wall. Furthermore, the space behind the piece becomes a dust hole, so that the furniture must be moved for cleaning. A diagonal arrangement cannot therefore be considered a sensible one except perhaps for chairs, which can be moved easily and which are often of a suitable shape to fit into the corners. Nor is a diagonal arrangement of furniture an effective one, for the main lines set at defiance the outlines of the room, which are rectangular. Consequently the objects seem to be located without reference to the space that contains them. In diagram A small rugs are used in place of large ones, thus breaking up the central space and giving a scrappy appearance to the floor. Moreover, for a room used by a number of persons small rugs are likely to be kicked up at the corners and to slip as they are stepped on. The style of rug used, whether it be a rag rug or an oriental one, does not in the least alter the manner of arrangement. In diagram B the furniture is arranged parallel with the walls, thus following the outline of the room. The pieces that are related in use are grouped — desk, books, library table, and comfortable chairs occupy- ing one end of the room, and piano, music cabinet, and more seats, the other end. The room thus has two centers of a rather definite nature and use; one center is quiet in character; the other is sociable. ie dow and door are on the same level, and so may be joined by a molding. > <> fa | Other illustrations of the foregoing : = principle are shown in figures 7 and 8. A Cc The arrangement of square mats in diagrams A and B of figure 7 is logical and poor, because it does not follow, repeat, or fit the structural outlines of the table top. By the same analysis the arrangements shown in diagrams Cand D are good. By similar reason- ing it is evident that the arrangement of pictures on a page, illustrated in figure 8, is poor in diagrams A and B and good in diagrams C and D. Both reason and visual repose are expressed in the good arrangements of figures 7 and 8. The diagrams in figure g illustrate the second essential of good arrangement. In diagram A three windows are placed at wide intervals along a wall, thereby breaking both the lighting and the wall area into several insignificant parts. Indiagram er Fic. 7.—Good and poor arrangements of mats on a table B the windows are grouped. This arrangement is not only more interest- ing than the one shown in A, but it is ares} more sensible, since it leaves large wall spaces on either hand for furniture. Furthermore, a single flood of lght coming through a group of windows is more effective than three separate ree. shafts of light that so cross and recross Ee in ae each other that it is almost impossible to place a piece of furniture or to work ee — [2] et out a color scheme with any certainty of effect. Therefore both sense and B D beauty favor arrangment B. Fic. 8.—Scattered and orderly arrange- These two essential ideas of arrange- Sy ae g ment are general, and hence may be applied to any problem of arrangement whether large or small. For instance, thus tested, the old nursery {aca THE ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 1593 method of planting shrubs and trees was a violation of good arrangement, since it merely scattered them here and there over an open lawn. BACKGROUND AND ORNAMENT Any tendency to cover up plain space by sprawling objects over it should be checked at the start, for it spoils rather than creates an _ effective arrangement. Vines, ribbons, and flowers strewn at random over a dinner table with the idea of making it appear festive, defeat their purpose and end in nothing more attractive than fussiness. Table deco- rations condensed into definitely placed spots or central masses are much more effective, since each is set off by the plain cloth that surrounds it. It should be remem- bered that with any arrangement of objects the idea is not to cover all the space but rather to preserve as much of it as is possible and yet comfortably include all the necessary fea- tures. Plain space, or background, is the sig- nal that draws atten- B tion to an object or an arrangement. The tree that commands attention as it stands alone on a hill, would not be noticed in a forest; the group of persons that arouse interest when met in the open road, is of small consequence when lost in the crowd. Where there is no background, there is no picture. Fic. 9.— Separate and grouped window arrangement Ordinarily it is not the purpose of home decoration to display any one object, but rather to use it as a unit in the general scheme. If, however, there be some object so rare or so lovely as to be worthy of especial notice, it should be set apart from its fellows with plenty of space around it. 1594 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES In acquiring a sense of arrangement one must keep coristantly in mind the purpose for which objects or materials are chosen and used. They must be true to the function for which they stand. Qualities that would be unbearable in a picture can be forgiven in a chair, for, if a chair is comfortable and soundly built, it must be granted a grudging respect even though it be cursed with poor ornament. But a weak or ‘an inane picture has no excuse for being, since its only value is an esthetic one, and if it fails in this, its very presence gives the lie to its apparent purpose. Unless objects that pretend to be artistic are of a superior quality, they are of no use whatever; the space they leave unoccupied is more valuable than their presence. Better an excess of empty space than one article too many, for space is expressive of dignity and repose and acts healingly on the tired mind and body. It has been said that the sculptor is thrilled at the sight of an uncut block of marble because of the enormous possibilities it suggests to his imagination; likewise that the artist is stimulated to great dreams before a stretch of empty canvas. Even so do the free spaces of an uncrowded home react on the minds of the occu- pants. THE VALUE OF A PLANNED ARRANGEMENT FOR FURNISHING The diagrams in figure 5 are suggestive of the way in which the arrangement of other rooms may be worked out. Not only the living room but also the study, the office, the dining room, the kitchen, and the bedrooms may be completely planned out with pencil and paper. The advantages of furnishing or refurnishing according to a definite arrangement are several: First, the plan is fixed before it is carried out. In this way every decision can be wisely balanced without the pressure of hurry. Second, a plan makes for economy, for it reduces the usual mistakes in purchasing to a minimum, and puts a check on needless and impulsive buying. At the same time it finds a place for and uses to advantage present belongings. Third, it eliminates trash and bric-a-brac. No one would seriously include in a furnishing scheme the mass of trifling stuff that is allowed to accumulate in the home. Fourth, it simplifies the problem of selecting new articles, for the nature and the use of the various things are defined by the plan. Fifth, it secures a coherent result. Last and best, the planning of the arrangement gives play to the imagination. It becomes, for the time being, a game. It is so easy, so inexpensive, and so delightful after a hard day’s work, to sit down in an easy chair and give vent to a dream. Without waste, disorder, or a THE ARRANGEMENT OF HouUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 1595 penny’s worth of expense, one can mentally sweep a room bare of its furnishings and work out a new furnishing scheme as one would like to have it. The next day that scheme may be discarded and replaced by a different one. The third day a fresh idea may arrive, until the one desired result is finally crystallized, after many moods and thoughts have been brought to bear on the problem, and impressions have taken shape. Then it is time to get pencil and paper so that all the data on walls, floors, curtains, chairs, and the like, may be grouped together and used as refer- ence material. The room or rooms in question should then be accurately measured and drawn out on paper at a scale of perhaps one-quarter of an inch to the foot. Every window, door, jog, or built-in feature should be exactly located on the drawing, and its size marked. The various pieces of furniture to be reused should be measured, and their sizes recorded. A person thus has in graphic form the actual sizes and the structural con- ditions of the space and the furniture at his disposal. SOME GENERAL SUGGESTIONS It is evident that the task of selecting new furnishings becomes simple in proportion as the plan of arrangement becomes definite. In order to experiment intelligently with the problem of final arrangement, it is necessary to canvass the details of the whole situation. The selection of new things then becomes a matter of choosing such objects as will fit a definite place, a definite purpose, and a more or less definite color scheme. Nothing so helps a tradesman to show a customer the right goods, as a specific description of the article desired. If a customer asks to be shown plain or two-toned wall papers in warm gray, tan, or brown, he immediately classifies his request in such a way that the salesman can without waste of time show whatever goods he has of the sort described. Then, too, the purchaser not only sees what he asks for, but is spared the bewilderment that usually results from being shown an array of undesirable showy papers. A salesman has no way of knowing what is wanted if the customer himself is vague in his request. Consequently the clerk is forced to show his whole stock and to use whatever powers of suasion he has to. make some sort of a sale. Frequently the maze of material that is shown confuses rather than clarifies the mind of the customer, so that he is easily persuaded to buy something, which, on reflection, his common sense or taste would declare unfit. Two or more trips to the store are usually better than one, unless one’s taste and decision have proved especially reliable. Several shopping excursions are hardly more waste- ful of time and effort than the energy that is lost through disliking or regretting or even enduring for years a misfit purchase. 1596 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES No one should count as lost the time that is consumed in a personal cultivation of taste. There is in every human being, and especially in every woman, an innate yearning to express herself in the things around her. If she can learn to translate human qualities into material ones, that is, if she can learn to see the relation between orderliness of arrange- ment and tranquility of soul, between confusion and nervousness, between harmony of color and harmony of mind, between honesty of form and directness of thought,— then she will have realized the essential meaning of art in daily life and will be able to mold the home surroundings, not according to outward rules and conventions, but according to inward needs. THE ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 1597 THE CORNELL READING-COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME This course was instituted so that the problems of the farm home could be studied in the same scientific way as are those of the farm. The lessons are on such household subjects as relate to food, shelter, and clothing, and are accompanied by discussion papers. The discussion papers contain questions that bring out the point of view of the practical housekeeper. As a result there has been a large personal correspondence with the women of the State, who are at liberty to ask questions at any time relating to their home problems. The Reading-Course for the Farm Home is free to residents of New York State. A lesson is issued each month. For further information address the Department of Home Economics, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. The lessons available in the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home are as follows: 13 Cornell study clubs 51 A story of certain table fur- ts Principles of jelly-making nishings 17 The preservation of food in the 53 The Christmas festival home.— Part I 55 Rice and rice cookery 19 The preservation of food in the 57 A syllabus of lessons for ex- home.— Part IT tension schools in home 21 The preservation of food in the economics home.— Part III 59 Sewage disposal for country 23 Rules for cleaning homes 25 Saving strength 61 Attic dust and treasures 27 Choice and care of utensils 63 The young woman on the 29 Cost of food farm 31 Household bacteriology 65 Farmhouse amusements for 33 Vegetable-gardening girls and boys 35 The flower garden 67 Canning clubs in New York 37 Home economics at the New State-— Part I. Organiza- York State College of Agri- tion culture 69 Canning clubs in New York 39 The farmhouse State.— Part: |i > Erne 41 Rules for planning the family ciples and methods of can- dietary ning 43 The box luncheon 71 Canning clubs in New York 45 Hints on choosing textiles ptate— Part Iil.. ‘Cane 47 A canning business for the ning equipment farm home 73, Making cake.— Part I 49 Household insects and meth- vo. Making cake-—— Part IT ods of control 77 Songs that live 1598 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 79 Programs for use in study 83 Raising vegetables for canning clubs 85 The arrangement of household 81 Potatoes in the dietary furnishings The preceding list is correct to April 1, 1915. The demand may at any time exhaust the supply of particular numbers. Requests will be filled as long as the supply lasts. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York APRIL 1, 1915 FARMHOUSE SERIES No. 7 VOL. IV. No. 85 THE ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS DISCUSSION PAPER By means of the discussion papers we have an opportunity to become acquainted. We shall take it as an indication on your part that you are interested if you answer the questions and return them to us. The staff of the Department of Home Economics is ready to assist in your study of scientific home-making. We want your assistance as well. Ask questions, offer suggestions, let us have the benefit of your experience. You thus become a vital part of the Department of Home Economics in its effort for scientific housekeeping. Will you please send your opinions on the following points to the Super- visors of the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home? [1599] 1600 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES t. What points do you consider important in the arrangement of a dining room? 2. What features have troubled you most about the arrangement of your kitchen? 3. What points do you consider important in the arrangement of a bed- room? THE ARRANGEMENT OF HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS 1601 4. Do you notice and enjoy the pictures on your walls, or do you regard them as space fillers? 5. What three features about your home are most restful to you? The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 VOL. IV. No. 87 MAY 1, 1915 POR HOUSE SERIES THE DECORATIVE USE OF FLOWERS ANNETTE J. WARNER N THE reading books used in school two or three generations ago, there was a poem by Mary Howitt, entitled The Use of Flowers in which was advanced the startling proposition that God might have made the earth bring forth Enough for great and small, The oak tree and the cedar tree Without a flower at all. The world would be empty indeed if from mountain and plain, garden and greenery, literature and song, art, language, and the soul of man, had been absent the potent influence of the gentle race of flowers. Gems and birds, dawns and sunsets, earth and ocean, would have given manifestations of nature’s superabundant wealth, but not with that intimate sympathy with which the flowers, nestling deep into the heart of man, have interpreted the wonderful color possibilities in a ray of light, and expressed nature in her most friendly mood. A few grasses, the warm earth after rain, the salt tonic of the sea, might have suggested a secret garden beyond sight and sound, where the air was imbued with a new vitality; but without the flowers where would have been found the key to this perfumed paradise or the vocab- ulary wherewith to name its treasures? With no consideration of the part that structure and odor of flowers play in the perpetuation of plants, or of their value as reservoirs of honey or as storehouses of medicine, this lesson deals with only their esthetic service, ‘‘ To minister delight to man, to beautify the earth.”’ Before men were bidden nearly two thousand years ago to “ consider the lilies,”’ flowers were used in decorative design and religious ceremonial, probably for their symbolism rather than for real delight in their beauty. The poets of Japan, however, celebrated the beauties of flower and tree [1603] ‘ 1604 THE CORNELL READING COURSES in verse and song as early as the seventh century. But, though Chaucer and Shakespeare were close observers of nature, it was not until the time of Wordsworth and Ruskin that there was among western nations the human response to nature’s appeal that is known to-day. Now there is no important function in the social world, A wedding or a funeral, A mourning or a festival, in which so-called floral decorations do not play a part. There is much yet to learn from the canons of good taste as to the appropriateness of a mere lavish display, especially of exotics and forced hothouse flowers. The Japanese would be as ready to wear summer clothes in winter as to use flowers that are out of season for decorative purposes. The term flowers, as used in the title of this lesson, refers not only to blossoms but to leaves, berries, seed packs, and any other form of plant life that has decorative possibilities. An arrangement of flowers may be a work of art in which every essential of design in form and color may be exemplified. In such creative work there are four steps: 1. Gathering the plant materials 2. Selection of the receptacle that is to contain them Effective placing of the arrangement Manner of arranging the flowers in the receptacle WwW GATHERING THE PLANT MATERIALS The three general sources from which to obtain plant materials are the greenhouse, the garden, and the fields and woods. The greenhouse.— The greenhouse is the most specialized and expensive source for plant material. While on certain occasions and at certain times of the year it is necessary to use hothouse plants, the greenhouse cannot be considered a general source of supply for everyday use. Hot- house flowers bear about the same relation to garden and wild plant materials as fresh tomatoes in winter bear to the bulk of the family diet. For this reason the hothouse product will not be further considered in this lesson. The garden.— By the garden is meant any place where plants are invited to grow, in fence corners, beside walks, against buildings, around door- ways, in beds or borders. It is not necessary to have a large plot cultivated as a garden, but from frost to frost let no one who has even a bit of land connected with his home be without a succession of bloom, which may be gathered to grace the THE DECORATIVE USE OF FLOWERS 1605 table, enliven the living room, give welcome to the guest, or bear a message of sympathy or congratulation to other households. A careful study of any good seed catalogue will supply a list suited to the needs of all homes. Even so limited a variety as small beds of lilies of the valley, pansies, and nasturtiums, with a row of sweet peas, should furnish a succession of flowers throughout the season. All of these flowers are grateful for being picked, are delicate in odor, have great variety in color and form, and would add to every meal a touch that would lift it from the plane of mere physical necessity to one where the spirit also is refreshed. In some Fic. 10.—It is a pity to despoil the roadsides of flowers, sprays of berries, and other growths flower-loving cities, such as Washington, Baltimore, Indianapolis, and the cities of California, the markets afford an opportunity to buy flowers as well as foods. “ Tf I had two loaves of bread,” Mohammed said, “T would sell one that I might buy Sweet hyacinths to satisfy My hungry soul.” By planting one new shrub or one or two perennials each year a person would, almost before he is aware of it, have a group of garden materials that would never be without blossoms. Such a planting would furnish 1606 THE CORNELL READING COURSES a variety of color schemes from month to month, which would make a decorative feature on the outside of the house, and which would be ready to add its quota to the special occasion in home, church, or town. There are plants, such as hollyhocks, foxglove, and some other border plants and shrubs, that should not be asked to spare their flowers for any ordinary occasion, but when placed within view of the windows such flowers help to complete the adornment of the room. The school may also have its garden. There is a wonderful sense of proprietorship in the flowers brought up by hand in the school yard. Here again formal beds and garden plots are not desirable. Flowering plants are much more decorative when planted near fences and steps, or beside walks, walls, and buildings. If seed catalogues were carefully studied in the winter, and if each child or a group of children were respon- sible for flowers certain weeks in spring and fall, what joyous lessons in gardening, in color, and in design might result! Hardy perennials that are early or late bloomers would be the better choices, of course; otherwise arrangement must be made for the care of the plants during the long vacation. It would be better to have no plants at all than for the children to grow weary and leave a group of famished flowers to testify to a passing affection. Nowhere are flowers more appropriate than in the church. Here the scale or the size of the flower arrangement is an important consideration. The charming little nosegay suitable at home is entirely lost in this larger place. Only large blossoms or sprays are adapted to church decoration; therefore, when the garden is planned it should include not only small, intimate flowers, but some of a bolder nature. The fields and woods.—The school, with its many eager messengers, can easily depend for its decorative material on field, forest, mountain, and meadow. The supply is boundless, the season a complete circle. Experience teaches, however, that some flowers, which are exquisite in their native haunts, do not lend themselves happily to the conventional environment of the interior of buildings. Children should be taught what flowers to gather and how to gather those. Any one who has an extended acquaintance with children or with schools, is familiar with the bunches of flowers gathered, short-stemmed and leafless, by eager little perspiring hands and brought as offerings of devotion to the teacher, who crowds them all — violets and buttercups, sturdy growths and dainty growths— into one receptacle, where color and form fight with each other and not even the fittest survive. One teacher takes her children on a collecting expedition, but instead of handfuls of flowers they bring home mental pictures. After studying the flowers carefully in the places where they grow, they shut their eyes and describe THE DECORATIVE USE OF FLOWERS 1607 them. If they have an incomplete picture, they open their eyes and study the plants again. Such pictures are indelible and may be referred to at will through life. A single flower or sometimes a bunch of flowers may be taken for the schoolroom, but thoughtless waste of a harvest that one has neither planted nor watered should be discouraged. Such verses as the following by Juliana Horatia Ewing may well be com- mitted to memory: Little kings and queens of the May, Listen to me! If you want to be Every one of you very good, In that beautiful, beautiful, beautiful wood, Whatever you pluck Leave some for good luck. Picked from the stalk or pulled up from the root, From overhead or from under foot, Water wonders of pond or brook; Wherever you look and whatever you find, Leave something behind. Some for the Naiads, some for the Dryads, And a bit for the Nixies and Pixies. O little sisters and little brothers, Think for others and care for others! And of all your little fingers find Leave something behind! Children are not the only offenders: The ruthless devastation of some of the choicest plants by grown persons is even less excusable. The dainty arbutus, which ten years ago used to steal out from under the snowdrifts to lay a carpet for the coming spring, is nearly extinct now in many locali- ties. There are street venders who make it a business to go out to the country to capture these babes of the wood, tie a cord tightly around their necks, surround them with galax, and offer them for public sale in the city streets. The few native Nantucketers who know it could not be induced to tell the cherished secret of the hiding place of the heather. They know too well the greed of the summer visitor, which would not leave a single plant to tell the romantic tale of these little wanderers from over the sea who have found a few rare places in this country where they feelat home. The finger of shame should be pointed at any one who brings home from his woodland walk an armful of orchids or trilliums or cardinal flowers. Such vandalism defeats its own end, for nature has indicated, by the rarity with which she has placed them, that one, or at most three, are enough for one person. The distinction of the orchid is in its form. 1608 THE CORNELL READING COURSES One plant of the Cypripedium acaule is better than many to show the forceful curve of the stem rising from the ground with its one rare blossom. No line of this unusual plant, from the root leaves to the toe of the moccasin with its fluttering ribbon ties, should be lost. It is a pity to despoil the roadsides of flowers, sprays of berries, and other growths that have been arranged so picturesquely by the landscape gardener, Nature. By going a bit out of the way into wood or pasture one can usually get any quantity of the same flower and thus leave un- molested those by the wayside to gladden the eyes of all later passers-by. The amateur botanist has doubtless been responsible for the disappear- ance of some rare plants. It used to be “ accounted for righteousness ”’ in the schools to capture as many specimens as possible, press, mount, label, and file them for future reference. One enthusiastic high school teacher was accustomed to require each member of her class to secure seventy-five specimens. BEANS AND SIMILAR VEGETABLES AS Foop 1647 String bean soup 14 cupfuls cooked string beans, 1 cupful tomato juice finely cut 1 small green pepper, minced I pint beef stock 1 tablespoonful onion, minced Combine the ingredients; simmer the mixture for ten or fifteen minutes. Serve this soup with slices of hard-cooked egg as a garnish. Fic. 37.— String bean salad REFERENCES Mary Hinman Abel. Beans, peas, and other legumes as food. Farmers’ Bulletin 121, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1906. W. O. Atwater. Methods and results of investigations on the chemistry and economy of food. Bulletin 21, U. S. Office of Experiment Stations. 1895. W. O. Atwater and A. P. Bryant. The chemical composition of American food materials. Bulletin 28 (revised edition), U. S. Office of Experi- ment Stations. 1902. W. R. Beattie. Peanuts. Farmers’ Bulletin 356, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1909. W. D. Bigelow and R. F. Bacon. Tin salts in canned foods of low acid content, with special reference to canned shrimp. Circular 79, U. S. Bureau of Chemistry. 1911. A. W. Bitting. The canning of peas, based on factory inspection and experimental data. Bulletin 125, U. S. Bureau of Chemistry. 1909. L. C. Corbett. Beans. Farmers’ Bulletin 289, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1907. 1648 THE CORNELL READING COURSES H. A. Harding and J. F. Nicholson. A swelling of canned peas accom- panied by a malodorous decomposition. Bulletin 249, New York (Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station. 1904. C. F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. Use of corn, kafir, and cow- peas in the home. Farmers’ Bulletin 559, U. S. Department of Agri- culture. 1013. Lentil. Jn the New International Encyclopedia, Vol. XII. 1910. Lafayette B. Mendel and Morris S. Fine. The utilization of the proteins of the legumes. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. X, p. 433- 458. 912. Kintaro Oshima. A digest of Japanese investigations on the nutrition of man. Bulletin 159, U. S. Office of Experiment Stations. gos. C. V. Piper and W. J. Morse. The soy bean; history, varieties, and field studies. Bulletin 197, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry. 1910. Henry C. Sherman. Food products. 1o1s. Harry Snyder. Human foods and their nutritive value. 1908. —__—_—_——. The digestibility and nutritive value of cottage cheese, rice, peas and bacon. Bulletin 92, University of Minnesota Agri- cultural Experiment Station. 1905. Chas. E. Wait. Studies on the digestibility and nutritive value of legumes at the University of Tennessee, 1901-1905. Bulletin 187, U.S. Office of Experiment Stations. 1907. W.F. Wight. The history of the cowpea and its introduction into America. In Bulletin to2, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry. 1907. Thomas A. Williams and C. F. Langworthy. The soy bean as a forage crop, with an appendix on soy beans as a food forman. Farmers’ Bulletin 58, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1897. C. D. Woods and E. R. Mansfield. Studies of the food of Maine lumber- men. Bulletin 149, U. S. Office of Experiment Stations. 1904. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLowaAy, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 VOL. IV. No. 8 JUNE 1, 1915 AERO SSIES BEANS AND SIMILAR VEGETABLES AS FOOD DISCUSSION PAPER The desirability of using legumes as food and the large quantities in which they are grown in New York State have led to the publishing of this lesson. The staff of the Department of Home Economics is aided in its work by questions and suggestions based on your experience. The discussion papers offer opportunity for keeping in touch with you. By answering the following questions and returning the discussion paper to the Supervisors of the Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home, you will indicate your interest. t. What success have you had in canning peas and beans? What method have you used? 104 [1649] 1650 THE CORNELL READING COURSES 2. How many quarts of peas and beans did you can last year? 3. What varieties of peas and beans have you found to be good for cooking fresh and for canning? 4. Has it been customary in your household to use dried legumes as a substitute in part for meat? BEANS AND SIMILAR VEGETABLES AS Foop 1651 5. Have you ever used dried cowpeas or soy beans as food? 6. Have you any good recipes to offer for the cooking of legumes? Peal OGG fete tap deve. 2, 8-4 pee RRO aaa CAE Ns MW nL aah Moke PDL cate ae ceases BEE a VS eect tart i wart Bi cgs see en UIC trach p Stnvsal as dA OG "td EET RGU eae | i , e6e ft ee ts , Lit Aged ee TL Tul SPAN Ce he | © ay “ee 2 ARLE Sa PAu Me eee Cre) oe ise BUNT, fee nie CA res CaP Sis See velit od * i eT ee 11 ‘ ’ ae ce 2 irk Pig babes ee nk ae The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 RURAL LIFE SERIES VOL. IV. No. gt JULY 251975 No. 11 THE LIFE OF PRIMITIVE WOMAN BLANCHE Evans HazZaArpD Wy fhe] O know how the Eskimo mother keeps house, feeds and clothes her husband and children, teaches her daughters to cook and to dress skins, would be a source of interesting study for any woman in New York, and such knowledge would seem like a veritable treasure-trove to her boy and his comrades. In a small community a boy whose mother knows so much about Indians that she can actually help him ‘“ play Indian,’ is one to be envied by his playmates. Yet to the civilized woman of to-day, the daily life of the uncivilized or primitive woman of the past or present time is a matter of indifference. She tolerates rather than understands her boy’s delight in all things connected with Indians and Eskimos, and is glad that he is not the Fiji Islander he aspires to be. When she has bought him an Indian play- suit, a feathered headdress, and a bow and arrow, she dismisses all thought of primitive boys or men, girls or women. Yet few efforts on her part to please that boy could be productive of more enjoyment to him or of more interest to herself, than the telling of good stories about Eskimo or other primitive boys and their mothers. It is not for their children alone, however, that the mothers in farm- houses all over this State are urged to inform themselves as to the life and the achievements of primitive women of all countries and centuries. It is as a citizen and as a probable future voter that she may well take an interest, based on knowledge, in the women of the Indian reservations, which are scattered over the State from Cattaraugus to St. Regis. What are the rights, the hopes, the abilities of these Indian women? What can the New York farmer’s wife give to this Indian sister, and what can she receive from her? Will she be ready to welcome the successful [1653] 1654 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Indian artist, or craftsman, or farmer, who settles in her midst? Will she be willing to aid actively in securing for the Indians on the reserva- tions the best and fairest means of civilization and its benefits? These are real questions for New York women in clubs, reading circles, and homes to discuss and then decide intelligently. A winter’s study of primitive women, including the Eskimo of the Northeast, the Alaskan of the Northwest, the women of the Pueblo regions of the Southwest, and the Filipinas across the Pacific, will help to make the New York woman ready for such discussion and decision. She will find her interest widening beyond the Indian women of her State and reaching all the primitive women and their families who are wards of this nation. What the citizens of the United States are to do with the Filipinos is a live question to American statesmen. While the men are thinking about giving the vote to the men of the Philippines, it will be a good thing to have the women thinking about the women and children of those islands. What will be best for them—more or less of American ways and education, more or less of American law and government? Shall they leave their old crafts, and make with their skillful fingers only the things Americans and Europeans want them to produce? Or shall American and European women learn to appreciate and to use the time-honored crafts and designs of these Filipino women just as they have come gradually to prize the Navajo rugs and the baskets from the Hupas of California? From these primitive peoples Americans should want to get the best their inheritance can furnish. Their case is akin to that of the European emigrants to this land. “In Old Nuremburg one day a famous wood carver, fashioning the wooden draperies of a statue, whereof the delicate work betokened a lifetime of artisanship, paused to say to one who watched him, ‘ You are from America. I have a son in America. He is working in a furni- ture factory, fitting the arms upon chairs. He is not happy in that new land fitting arms to chairs, because he is the son and the grandson and the great grandson of wood carvers in Old Nuremburg.’ The old Ger- man’s words raise the query ‘ Is the United States making the most out of its immigrants?’ In these times of specialists and machine-made articles, in a period when the immigrant is so rapidly formed into a mere cog in the wheel of vast industrial enterprises, is it not often forgotten that some of these men at least are offering to the western world the heritage of great talent which is slowly being crushed beneath the wheels of a materialistic Juggernaut? ”’ } The civilized woman of Europe needs to join her American sister in an interest in the welfare of primitive women and in seeking for knowledge of their physical, intellectual, and spiritual development, which has comg 1 Quoted from the Christian Science Monitor for April 6, 1915, I i i ame” THE Lire oF PrimMITIvE WOMAN 1655 through their own efforts and through contact with the civilized people who have entered their midst. These women and their children are the wards of the more highly developed world races, whether the husbands and the fathers are uncivilized men of their own race, or white men from Europe and America. Which of their many myths and legends, games and amusements, shall Americans encourage and perpetuate? Americans have already taken ‘‘ Brer Rabbit’ from African negroes, and lacrosse from the Indians of the western plains. Shall they hope and help to educate primitive peoples, keeping the best and worthiest results these peoples have attained while they add the finest of their own?’ Or, are they to keep on giving only the white man’s fire-water to make the Indians drunk, teaching deceit in trade and selfishness to the islanders of the Pacific at the same time they take the Christian faith and ideals to them? All American women, whether in cities or in the country, ought to know and care about their primitive sisters. There are persons who have traveled among them with seeing, sympathetic eyes, and have put their stories in print. There are books to read that will make a woman quickly and surely know and care about the daily life of primitive woman and all her problems and achievements. Certain phases of her life, certain duties and privileges, can be taken for each program of the club for a series of eighteen meetings. Programs that have been used by some of the Cornell study clubs last winter, are given here for future use in scores of other clubs, with the encouraging assurance that they have already proved practicable as well as stimulating to many women in this State. PROGRAMS AND STUDY TOPICS FOR CLUB MEETINGS On the following pages are given programs for each of the eighteen meet- ings to be devoted to the study of primitive woman. Since fewer topics can be treated in any one meeting than will serve to give each club member a satisfactory view of the main topic for that day, a carefully selected list of study topics is given for each member to use in her own preparation, in order that she may be ready to appreciate the papers and to join in’ the general discussion. The titles and authors of books with definite references are printed on pages 1674 to 1692 of this lesson, following a discussion of libraries and special collections of books that are available in the State of New York for the study of primitive woman. The club members who are responsible for papers on programs should be notified in writing by the secretary or the chairman of the program committee at least two months ahead. A leader should always be chosen beforehand for the general discussion that is arranged for a pro- gram. 1656 THE CORNELL READING COURSES PROGRAM 1 INTRODUCTION TO PRIMITIVE WOMAN AND HER DAILY LIFE Roll call.— Members should respond by giving the name of some primitive people or race living anywhere in the world to-day. Paper.— Does civilized woman owe anything to primitive woman as her neighbor and as her nation’s ward? General discussion. ; Paper.— Illustrated talk on the stone and bone implements with which primitive woman has had to do all her housework, that is, cooking, weaving, skin dressing, basket and pottery making. Pictures of some of these tools drawn on a large scale on a blackboard or big sheets of paper will help the speaker to hold the attention of her audience. STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 1 Interest to be derived 1. From considering the primitive woman of to-day as the neighbor and the ward of the civilized woman. 2. From realizing and appreciating her skill. 3. From estimating her contributions to the arts and crafts of present civilized peoples. 4. From following sympathetically not only her material but her in- tellectual and spiritual development. 5. From a careful consideration of her gains and losses by voluntary or compulsory contact with civilization. Study of details of stone and bone tools, which primitive woman has used. Note the material, the shape, the size, and the hafting of each tool, and consider the handicap each presented to the worker. PROGRAM 2 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS FOOD BRINGER Roll call— Members should respond by giving the name of a vegetable or a meat and one way it may be cooked. Fic. 38.— Beginning at the left: a rough stone ax from Arizona; a Mexican grinding stone for making meal; a less primitive scraper made of steel fastened with thongs to a deer’s leg bone; a mortar and pestle from lower California; a stone ax from the country of the Shenandoahs in Virginia; a scoop made of musk ox horn from Alaska THE LIFE OF PRIMITIVE WOMAN 1657 Paper.— How primitive woman cured, preserved, and stored meat and fish. Paper.— Primitive ways of planting and cooking grains and vegetables. Reading.— Kipling’s The Cat That Walked by Himself in Just So Stories. Paper.— Humorous and realistic story of primitive woman’s escape from death by poison while she tasted and experimented on foods for her family. Fic. 39.— Indian caches for storing acorns used for food in California STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 2 Finding, preserving, storing such foods as grain, roots, meats, and fruits. Struggles of primitive woman to discover food in the “three kingdoms.”’ Appetites and needs of the primitive family considered and met, with no aid from books or recipes except traditions. Rule and process was to taste and find out what was satisfying, nutritious, and non-poisonous. Discoveries made from results of the planting of seeds by winds and birds led to cultivation of grains with better harvest. Invention of implements, such as stone hoes, knives, mortars, and pestles, for use in producing and preparing foodstuffs. Invention and need of granaries. Use of baskets for picking, drying, sifting, and storing berries and grains. Skin cases for pemmican, which is the primitive woman’s sausage or canned meat in all cold countries. Domestication of animals — goats for milk, cats to guard granaries, horses to help in transportation. Drinks; their discovery, preparation, and effects. 1658 THE CORNELL READING COURSES PROGRAM 3 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS COOK Roll call— Members should respond by giving the name of a kitchen utensil that is now considered absolutely necessary in the prepara- tion of meals, and that they are sure a primitive woman did not have. Paper and discussion.— Relative success in boiling, roasting, and steaming meats and vegetables to-day. Paper.— Description of ovens, pots, and kettles used by primitive woman all over the world. Paper.— Discoveries of primitive woman in cooking, viewed from a modern scientific standpoint. STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 3 Cooking and serving grains, roots, meats. Methods of cooking: boiling, roasting, steaming. Ovens and the primitive fireless cooker. Pots and kettles. Experiments with tough vegetables and meats, made tender by cooking; with roots and fruits that can be made to lose poisons and acids by cooking. Fic. 40.— The work of American Indians of the Southwest. The basket on the extreme left is from California, all the others are from Arizona and New Mexico. The bottle- shaped one is a water container, being made water-tight by smears of pitch. The large at one is a winnowing basket for tossing threshed grain into the air so that the wind will blow the chaff away as the grain falls THE LIFE OF PRIMITIVE WOMAN 1650 Yeast for bread. Summary.— The discoveries and inventions of primitive woman reviewed from a modern, scientific point of view. Fic. 41.— Navajo weavers PROGRAM 4 : PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS BASKET MAKER Roll call— Each member should respond by naming a use for a basket among civilized peoples to-day. Paper.— Material, shapes, sizes, and uses of baskets made by primitive woman. Paper.— Experiences, difficulties, and triumphs of a modern basket maker. Study and discussion— Baskets made by civilized and by uncivilized women. Need of baskets 1. For storing and carrying grain and dried fruit. 2. For carrying water. Invention of baskets; whence came the idea? Can it be traced to the use of gourds and shells? STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 4 1660 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Methods of making baskets: (1) coiled; (2) woven. Shapes and designs of baskets. Colors, natural juices and pigments, used for dyeing baskets. Materials used, such as palm leaf, cedar bark, twigs of elm, osier, and wil- low, rattan, reeds, hard woods, splints, yucca fiber. Mud-lined and mud-coated baskets, the forerunners of pottery. PROGRAM 5 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS WEAVER Roll call— Members should respond by giving rapidly names of dif- ferent fabrics used by modern civilized women. Paper.— Primitive woman’s supply of materials and colors for cloth. Forum.— Members should show (for five minutes) bits of cloth woven in their own families between 1750 and 1850. Paper.— Description of the essential parts of all looms and the essential processes for weaving of any kind or any time. Simple illustrations, such as are found in Woolman and McGowan’s Textiles, should be drawn on the blackboard to illustrate this topic. STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 5 Need of clothing for warmth, ornament, or protection.’ Sources of the present knowledge of primitive weaving. Patterns and designs found now on prehistoric pottery. Grave wrappings, for example, in Egypt and Peru. Heirlooms among primitive people. Survivals of ways of weaving among Navajos and Filipinos. Material: 1. Qualities and quantities provided by nature. 2. Differences and difficulties in use. 3. Cotton and flax, rabbits’ hair, palm leaf fiber, stripped bird and rab- bit skin, goats’ hair, cedar bark. Spinning: forms and uses of spindles; skill required; position of spinners. Weaving; forms and uses of looms. 1. Parts of looms: frame, treadle, shutter, batten. 2. Processes: shedding, picking, battening. Colors of fabrics: 1. Natural colors. 2. Use of vegetable and mineral dyes. 3. Use of applied pigments. Fashions and patterns of clothes made of woven materials. PROGRAM 6 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS SKIN DRESSER Roll call.— Each member should respond by naming an article made nowadays of leather or fur. THE LIFE OF PRIMiTIVE WOMAN 1661 Paper.— Skin dressing by the primitive hunter’s wife. Processes de- scribed and explained. Paper.—Fur clothes for the hunter’s children. Patterns, needles, and sinews for making such clothes for Eskimo children. The Department of Home Economics has a set of slides to illustrate this topic. They can be borrowed by a Cornell study club if request is made to the Department of Home Economics. STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 6 The naturalness of using the skins of animals for clothes in cold countries. Processes and skill required for curing skins in order to make leather and fur. Knives of stone, thread of sinew, needles of bone, for cutting and sewing fur. Use of leather for tents, parfleche cases, harnesses, and furniture. Visualization of the duties of the hunter’s wife from the time the game is shot until the skin is made into garments for the household. PROGRAM 7 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS POTTER AND DISH MAKER Roll call— Members should respond by giving the name and the material of a dish for cooking or serving food that they consider necessary for comfortable and efficient housekeeping. Paper.—The materials and processes necessary for making dishes and jars used by primitive women. Demonstration.— Shapes, colors, and designs that have appeared in the pottery made by primitive women. The leader would do well to make colored charts, copying and enlarging colored plates given in reference books. Fic. 42.— Pottery made by women of American Indian tribes. The two pieces on the right are from Peru 1662 THE CORNELL READING COURSES STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 7 Transition from clay-coated and clay-lined baskets to pottery jars and dishes. Summary of experiences that have determined shapes and patterns of pottery, such as handles, legs, lips, necks, and the like. Processes in making pottery: 1. Moulding from lumps. 2. Building by coils. Miniature animal-shaped dishes for children’s use. Sources of information concerning primitive pottery: 1. Survivals in burial mounds and ruins. 2. Pictures on walls of tombs and caves. 3. Present day repetitions. PROGRAM 8 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS ARTIST Roll call—— In place of the roll call it would be well to have three children of ages from ten to twelve speak parts of Longfel- low’s Hiawatha. General discussion.— Ideas of beauty held and expressed by primitive woman: 1. Ideas that civilized woman of to-day admires, for example, in Pueblo pottery, Navajo rugs, and Chilcat blankets. 2. Ideas that civilized woman of to-day discards or scorns, for example, nose rings and tat- tooing. The leader chosen for this discus- sion should organize her subject Fic.43.—A birch bark wigwam of the present matter well and have at least five day on a Wisconsin Indian reservation members prepared to speak for two minutes in order to make the discussion lively from the start. Songs ——A group of Indian songs. MacDowell’s To a Water Lily and Cadman’s Land of the Sky Blue Water are particularly appropriate. songs for this meeting and could be delightfully combined with a group of three native Indian songs. Paper.—Nature as the primitive woman’s art teacher in form and color. THE Lire oF Primitive WOMAN 1663 STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 8 Crafts and customs in which primitive woman shows artistic desires and ability : In weaving baskets and fabrics. In pottery; form, color, design. In clothing. In furnishing and decorating tents or other shelter. In personal adornment of hair, skin, lips, ears, teeth, ankles, and arms. 6. In music. 7. In story-telling. 8. In religious rites. mn BW DN Fic. 44.— The tepee of an Indian family in Idaho PROGRAM 9 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS HOUSEBUILDER Roll call.— Each member should read and then give to her right-hand neighbor a simple question on any topic that puzzles her in the first eight programs. This neighbor should bring a written answer to the question to the next meeting. 1664 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Paper.— Descriptions of different kinds of shelter used by primitive women in America, such as the snow igloo, the bark house, the skin tent, and the pueblo. Illustrations and ground plans drawn either on the blackboard or on large sheets of paper should be used to illustrate this paper. Paper.— Furniture in primitive houses. STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 9 Determining factors in the shelter of primitive people: 1. Natural conditions and_ re- sources; that is, climate, supply of wood, snow, skins, and granite. 2. Race habits: that is, whether the peoples are sedentary or nomadic. Ground plans and illustrations for the kinds of shelter made by primitive peoples in America, Africa, and the Philippines. Necessary furniture; details of pat- tern, material, and arrangement. Accommodations for the children of the primitive family. PROGRAM 10 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS HOME MAKER Roll call Members should respond by mentioning one duty of any woman as home maker in her efforts to secure the well-being of her family. Paper—A brief summary of a primitive woman’s duties and Fic. 45.— Statue of Sacajawea, who guided privileges in securing creature Lewis and Clark on their expedition to the comforts for her family through eee cooking, planting, storing, spin- ning, weaving, skin dressing, basket and pottery making, with the aid of her children. Paper.— The education of the Indian girl in arts and crafts by her mother. Discussion.— Why civilized woman ought to respect primitive woman as a housekeeper and a home maker. THE Lire OF PRIMITIVE WOMAN 1065 Paper—Modern Indian homes on Indian reservations in the State of New York. This paper should be given by a member who has seen these homes. STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 10 Each member should review all the topics of the earlier programs from the point of view of primitive woman as a home maker and see to it that she grasps the significance of each phase of primitive woman’s daily work, whether it be cooking or planting, build- ing or weaving, and that she visualizes the processes. This program should round out the previous study of primitive woman's daily life and achieve- ments. It should also suggest her possibilities and duties as a mother, as well as a house- keeper, and as a counsellor and guide for her children. In giving this program in Cort- land County in the spring of 1915, the leader emphasized the primitive mothers’ intt- mate care and teaching of the daughters who were just coming into womanhood and wifehood, with the suggestion of the lessons civilized mothers might take from primitive women in this respect. So far, the club members have followed primitive woman in the work of her hands for the Me phe material welfare of her family. Fy¢. 46.— Sioux mother and child. This and later programs will as a baby carriage follow her into the more intellectual and spiritual phases of her life and work. roa iz ie AN ere gic.m fe! RS eg i The back PROGRAM 11 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS BEAST OF BURDEN Roll call— Each member should respond by mentioning and illustrating by silent gestures one way employed by housekeepers to-day in lifting their burdens: for example, a tub of water, a basket of eggs, a baby, or a bolster. 105 1666 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Paper.— Baskets and packs for burdens of babies and baggage. Paper.— Sleds and kaiaks used by the Eskimos. Paper.— Modern survivals in Europe, Asia, and Africa of primitive methods and means of transportation. STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 11 Animals and forces of nature as teachers of primitive woman in solving the problems of transportation. Agencies and devices for conveyance of persons: 1. Back, shoulders, hips, for babies. 2. Boats and sleds. Agencies and devices for the freight- ing of baggage: Poles, yokes, headrings. Forehead and back straps. Trays and suspended shelves. Back, knees, hips, arms. ' Trailing poles. wm BW DH H PROGRAM 12 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS LINGUIST, STORY-TELLER, AND MYTH MAKER Roll call— Each member should re- spond by giving one verb or noun that came from a woman’s daily occupation: for example, sew, cook, jar. Paper.— Brief, interesting report on Fic. 47.— With the Cocopas, mother’s hip is some of the nature mvths of the baby’s saddle y Greeks and Romans. Paper.— Explain the need and the growth of language in the home life of primitive woman. Reading.— Kipling’s How the Alphabet Was Made or How the First Letter Was Written. STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 12 Memories of primitive women trained by the need and the custom of carrying traditions, myths, and legends. Woman’s part in the invention and the development of speech. Picture writing on tents and cliffs. The beautiful word-picturing in myths should be noted, and the charac- teristic religious myths of the Iroquois Indians should be studied for both content and expression. THE LIFE OF PRIMITIVE WoMAN 1667 / Fic. 48.— A Moki Indian mother 1668 THE CORNELL READING COURSES The growth of language should be traced, its modifications, its use in song and story among primitive peoples in Africa, Europe, and America. African myths about “ Brer Rabbit” should be followed to the planta- tions in the South. PROGRAM 13 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS FOUNDER OF SOCIETY Roll call— As a substitute for roll call one member might read the lines from Matthew Arnold’s Sohrab and Rustam that tell of the love-making of Sohrab and his oriental bride and of the birth and the care of the baby Rustam. ive woman as wife, mother, and widow. General discussion.— Is there romantic love among primitive people? Paper.— A summary of the political, social, maternal, civil, and religious rights of the Iroquois women of New York in olden times. Paper.— Contrast the early Iroquois woman’s rights with those of the white woman of New York State to-day. (A study in woman’s suf- frage.) STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 13 The clan system among primitive peoples. Birth of a child in savagery. Training of the primitive girl and maiden. Is there romantic love among primitive people? Marriage customs and forms; polyandry. Descent in female line; in male line. Divorce among savages and barbarians. Provisions for widows and children. Abstinence and morality among primitive women. Courage and adaptability among primitive women. Summary of the political, social, maternal, civil, and religious rights of the Iroquois woman. Primitive women in councils and in battle. PROGRAM 14 THE AMUSEMENTS OF PRIMITIVE WOMAN AND HER FAMILY? (An evening meeting for the club members and their families) Roll call.— Each member should respond by reporting a game that she and some of her family will play, or by giving the name 0! a toy made after the pattern of some primitive toy. Games.— Games of primitive boys and girls. These should be enacted by children of members of the club. Games.— Games of primitive men and women. These should be played by club members and their husbands. *Substitutes for these games and papers can be found in the moving picture film entitled The Cheva- lier’s Return. It shows a group of Iroquois Indians at play. This film is owned andwill be lent on appli- cation by the New York State College of Agriculture to any club that has the proper apparatus for using it. THe Lire oF PriwitiveE Woman 1669 Paper.— Eskimo, Hopi, and Iroquois dolls. It would be interesting to have a group of small children piaying with toys like those of Indian and Eskimo children. Paper—— Pipes and smoking among primitive men and women. STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 14 The common human need of amusements; therefore, games of chance and dexterity for grown-ups, and toys for small children. Three classes of toys: 1. For attracting, soothing, and amusing iniants: for example, rattles. 2. Those invented or appropriated by chil- dren for their own use: for example, bits of wood, rags, and the like. idealized by imagination. 3- Those supplied by adults from religious, educational, or esthetic motives: for example, dolls, miniature implements, and dishes. World-wide development of games: 1. Games of chance. 2. Games of dexterity. Summary of modern games derived from those of primitive peoples: for example, lacrosse and jackstones. PROGRAM 15 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS PATRON OF RELIGION Roll call— Each member should name an object or a force in nature that might be ae feared and worshipped by primitivewoman, ¥6. 497 corm ust dal, suck Paper— Iroquois religious beliefs and the always enjoyed. This was priestesses, or keepers of the faith. made by an Iroquois woman Discusston.— Are primitive people at all religious in the modern sense? Paper— Religious dances and their meaning to primitive people. Sur- vivals among the Hopi and the Iroquois. Parts of Roosevelt’s article on this subject from The Outlook, October 18, 1913, and of Morgan’s League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois, should be read aloud. STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 15 Definition of creed and cult. Altars, totems, and symbols used in primitive religious ceremonies. Common elements in religious beliefs and worship of all primitive peoples: that is, worship of sun, moon, stars, winds, thunder, and other forces of nature. 1670 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Personification of the elements of nature. Belief in their volition and their good or ill will; therefore practice of propitiation, which becomes worship. Altars and votive offerings from flocks and herds, from gardens and hunt. Use of symbolic offerings, such as feathers and honey. Creation and God myths of all times and peoples. Religious festivals; rites, games, dances. Detailed study of the Iroquois creed, cults, and customs. Religious societies and fraternities. Beliefs and practices of medicine men. PROGRAM 16 BURIAL CUSTOMS OF PRIMITIVE WOMAN Roll call— Each member should name one of the present day mourning : customs practiced before or after funerals. Paper.— Descriptions of different kinds of burials. Paper.— Duties, privileges, appear- ance, and probable future of prim- itive woman in her widowhood. General discusston.— What relics of barbarism in the mourning cus- toms of to-day should be dis- | carded or modified? What mourn- Fic. 50.— An Indian grave of the present ing customs might be adopted ey Manesoe from primitive peoples? ons STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 16 Disposition of the dead by (1) cremation or (2) burial. Modes of burial: in urns; under floor of tent or hut; scaffold or aerial burial; aquatic burial; canoe burial; mound burial; cliff burial. Care of dead body and preparation for burial; embalmment. Egyptian and Peruvian mummies should be compared. Funeral ceremonies: songs, mourning feasts, dances. Postfuneral care of the dead; food and offerings at the grave. Customs of the Greeks and the Romans should be compared with those of the American Indians. Customs of mourners, especially the women. “Burial of the name ”’ of the dead — ceasing to use or mention it. Significance of certain funeral customs with regard to: 1. The spirit of the deceased. 2. The surviving relatives and friends. The willow token of the Omaha mourners. The tribal moccasin. THE Lire oF PrimitivE WoMAN 1671 PROGRAM 17 EFFECTS OF CONTACT WITH THE CIVILIZATION OF WHITE MEN ON PRIMITIVE WOMAN Roll call— Members should respond by giving the name of any coun. try where white men are trading with primitive men and women to-day. Paper.— The effect of the tastes and the demands of civilized women as customers on primitive basketry, pottery, and weaving. Paper.— The usual fate of the primitive woman as the wife of a white man and as the mother of half-breed children. Glory of the Morning by Leonard should be read aloud. Discussion.— Should intermarriage of primitive woman and civilized white man be encouraged or discouraged, and under what conditions as to the care and the education of the children born to the uncivilized mother? STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 17 Primitive woman’s relations with the white man coming from Europe and America: (1) as trader; (2) as husband; (3) as father of her children. Gradual change in the character of design and skill used in making com- mercial pottery, basketry, and weaving. Assumption of these crafts by men for commercial supplies. General adoption by primitive woman of red flannel, glass beads, clothing, pots, pans, and kettles, manufactured and sold by civilized man. Conditions and results of intermarriage. Is this intermarriage good for the world? Care and future prospects of half-breed children. PROGRAM 18 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. FUTURE RELATIONS OF PRIMITIVE AND CIVILIZED WOMEN Roll call — Each member should respond by mentioning one gift or inher- itance from primitive woman: for example, the use of yeast, coiled basketry, nature myths, and the like. Paper.— Civilized man’s inheritance from primitive woman. Paper.— The Indian agency system. Is it valuable, and is it fair? Paper.—Civilized woman’s responsibilities toward the primitive woman of to-day. General discussion.— Is it fair to unsettle or to destroy creeds, customs, and crafts of primitive woman and her children without giving them something definite and better in their place? STUDY TOPICS FOR PROGRAM 18 Review all arts and crafts, creeds and customs, of the primitive women of all times that have led to something that is cherished or depended on to-day. 1672 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Indian good faith to clan, guest, and friend. Is not primitive woman the neighbor, in the Bible sense, of all civilized women to-day? If Indians in America, Negroes in Africa, Bushmen in Australia, have been driven from their old hunting grounds and fishing stations to make room for farms and city lots for civilized men, do the latter owe them the education and the sympathy that will fit them for the new sort of existence? Should world’s fairs and circuses present false ideas of the real or the would-be life of uncivilized peoples? REFERENCES FOR THE STUDY OF THE LIFE OF PRIMITIVE WOMAN For all club members: When the call came last winter from some of the Cornell study clubs for programs, study topics, and references to aid in the study of primitive woman’s life and achievements, it seemed likely that other clubs might join in this work another year, and accordingly the programs were care- fully made to fit the needs and the library facilities of the average rural community in New York State. Knowing full well that some commun- ities would be shut off by winter storms from towns where libraries could be used, one book was given as a steady source, Woman’s Share in Prim- ttive Culture, by Otis Tufton Mason. It is hoped and advised that at least one copy of this textbook will be bought and used in common by the members of each club.* It can be kept at a central place or at the club secretary’s house if that is centrally located. This book should be placed where it will be accessible at all times to any member, who in turn should be held to definite rules regarding the time for holding and returning it. This one book, Woman’s Share in Primitive Culture, can in and of itself supply enough material to stimulate interest and to answer questions on nearly all the topics suggested. It can be most advan- tageously supplemented, however, by the Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, issued in two large volumes by the American Bureau of Ethnology as Bulletin 30. This handbook is a veritable treasure bag, full of just the pieces of information that not only the mother but the boys and girls of the family can use with profit and enjoyment. These volumes are arranged alphabetically and are very fully illustrated. The articles are written by specialists on each subject, and they represent the latest information from research and observation. These books would make a valuable addition to the grammar school library of the village when the club members have finished their studies in them. 3 Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, published by D. Appleton and Company. Cornell study club members can buy this book at a discount by ordering it through the club secretary. THE Lire oF Primitive WoMAN 1673 As a supplement to these principal sources of information on primitive woman that can be available for each study club, there may be found material in books on travel in Africa, Labrador, and South America in the public library of the village or on private bookshelves. If any one in the community is taking The National Geographic Magazine and has by happy chance a file of back numbers, she should be courted by others and made enthusiastic enough to use them to advantage for the interest and the information of the whole study club. There are, besides, two small, inexpensive books written and published by the curators of ethnology at the New York Museum of Natural History in New York City. These books are well illustrated, carefully indexed, and can be ordered and delivered by mail. To both of them, Wissler’s North American Indians of the Plains and Goddard’s Indians of the South- west, references have been made throughout these lists. The ethnological department at Albany has issued several bulletins on Indian affairs, which can be bought from the department or borrowed from the State Library at Albany. To these, frequent references have been given. This leads to the question of how far the traveling libraries can be made available to meet the needs of study classes at work on the primitive woman course. The State Library authorities at Albany will send on application books of travel and some United States Government docu- ments, such as the annual reports of the Smithsonian Institution and the reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, in so far as they can make their sup- ply meet demands. In Cortland County, for example, where over a dozen clubs have been eager for the same books for working up these programs, a set of books has been furnished by the Albany library on condition of its being kept together in the farm bureau office in Cortland, the most central and the largest town in the group. Because such wonder- fully interesting and valuable accounts are given and fully illustrated in these reports, references are given to them under each program, so that special papers suggested in the outlines can be prepared by those members who can obtain the use of these reports. There is opportunity for choice among the numerous references given under each program. If one of the club members happens to be in a city, such as Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, or Utica, where she could use the books in the public library, she could go with speed and surety to the very volume and page cited in the refer- ence lists. The list, then, is longer than any one club or club member needs to use, and it is graded as to the probabilities of securing the books. It need not discourage any one, but rather it should offer to each woman who owns this reading course lesson a stimulating sense of further possi- bilities during a lifetime for finding out more about a subject in which she has become interested. 1674 THE CORNELL READING COURSES The references for each program are divided into two groups. The first group is to books suggested as texts; the second group, arranged alphabetically, is to books recommended for wider reading on special topics. REFERENCES FOR PROGRAM I INTRODUCTION TO PRIMITIVE WOMAN AND HER DAILY LIFE GROUP I Mason, Otis T. 1907. Woman’s share in primitive culture, Chapter I. Goddard, Pliny Earle 1913 Indians of the Southwest, p. 50-55. Wissler, Clark 1912 North American Indians of the plains, p. 23-28, 69-76. Mason, Otis T. 1910 The origins of invention: a study of industry among primitive peoples. Chapters II and IV. Wilson, Thomas 1897 Arrowpoints, spearheads, and knives of prehistoric times. U.S. National Museum. Report for 1897, p. 811-988. GROUP II Bernard, Kate 1914 Friend of friendless Indian children. The Quarterly Journal of the Society of American Indians, October-December, LOLA, Pp. 212-314. (Compilation) Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 30, part 1, p. 601-603 (Implements, tools, utensils). Kershaw, William J. 1914 The red man’s appeal. The Quarterly Journal of the Society of American Indians, October-December, 1914, p. 275-276. Parker, Arthur C. 1914 The awakened American Indians. The Quarterly Journal of the Society of American Indians, October-December, 1914, p. 269-274. Frachtenberg, Leo J. 1914 Our indebtedness to the American Indian. The Quarterly Journal of the Society of American Indians, July—Sep- tember, 1914, p. 197-202, Tue Lire oF Primitive WomMAN 1678 (Compilation) Tenth report of the director of the state museum and science department. New York State Museum. Museum bulletin E72, °)2-03-102) 143-150: Worcester, Dean C. 1913 The non-Christian peoples of the Philippine Islands. The National Geographic Magazine, November, 1913. REFERENCES FOR PROGRAM 2 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS FOOD BRINGER GROUP I Mason, Otis T. 1907 Woman’s share in primitive culture, Chapter II and p. 142-150. 1910 ©The origins of invention: a study of industry among primitive peoples. Chapters VI and VIII. (Compilation) Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico. Smith- sonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 30, part 1, p. 461-463 (Fishing), 466-469 (Food), 580-581 (Hunting), 790-791 (Maize). Goddard, Pliny Earle 1913 Indians of the Southwest, p. 39-41, 79-85, 136-140. Parker, Arthur C. 1910 Iroquois uses of maize and other food plants. New York State Museum. Museum bulletin 144, p. 9-45, 89-1009. Wissler, Clark 1912 North American Indians of the plains, p. 19-29. GROUP II Joyce, T. Athol, and Thomas, N. W., editors 1911 Women of all nations; a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs, and influence. Kipling, Rudyard 1902 Just so stories. The cat that walked by himself. Parker, K. Langloh 1905 The Euahlayi tribe: a study of aboriginal life in Australia. Chapter XIII. Roscoe, John 1911 The Baganda; an account of their native customs and beliefs. Chapters XIII and XIV. 1676 THE CORNELL READING CouRSES Thomas, N. W. 1906 Natives of Australia, Chapter VI. Weeks, John H. 1914 Among the primitive Bakongo, Chapter VIII. Werner, A. 1906 The natives of British Central Africa, Chapters VI and VIII, Pp. 176-165. REFERENCES FOR PROGRAM 3 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS COOK GROUP I Mason, Otis T. 1907. Woman’s share in primitive culture, Chapter IT. (Compilation) Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico. Smith- sonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 30, part 1, p. 456 (Fermentation), 459-460 (Fire-making) ; part 2, p. 176-177 (Ovens), 295-299 (Pottery). Goddard, Pliny Earle 1913 Indians of the Southwest, p. 15, 33, 83-84, 136-140. Parker, Arthur C. 1910 Iroquois uses of maize and other food plants. New York State Museum. Museum bulletin 144, p. 45-80. Wissler, Clark 1912 North American Indians of the plains, p. 26-29, 51, 69-71, 72-75. Parker, K. Langloh 1905 The Euahlayi tribe: a study of aboriginal life in Australia. Chapter XIII. GROUP II Roscoe, John 1911 The Baganda; an account of their native customs and beliefs. Chapter XIII. Weeks, John H. 1914 Among the primitive Bakongo, Chapter VIII. Werner, A. 1906 The natives of British Central Africa, Chapter VI. REFERENCES FOR PROGRAM 4 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS BASKET MAKER ‘ GROUP I Mason, Otis T. 1907. Woman’s share in primitive culture, Chapter III, p. 41-53. THE LIFE OF PRIMITIVE WOMAN 1677 ims, (Compilation) Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico. Smith- sonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 30, part 1, p. 97-99 (Arts and industries), 130-132 (Bark), 132-135 (Basketry); part 2, p. 643-644 (Storage and caching). Goddard, Pliny Earle 1913 Indians of the Southwest, p. 45-48, 94-95. Parker, Arthur C. 1910 Iroquois uses of maize and other food plants. New York State Museum. Museum bulletin 144. GROUP II James, George Wharton 1903 Indian basketry, and how to make Indian and other baskets. Lane, Franklin K. 1915 From the war-path to the plow. The , National Geographic Magazine, January, 1915, p. 81. (Illustration.) Mason, Otis T. 1902. Aboriginal American basketry: studies in a textile art without machinery. U. S. National Museum. Report for 1902, p. 171-548 and plates 1-248. Simpich, Frederick and Margaret 1914 Where Adam and Eve lived. The National Gesenahie Magazine, December, 1914, p. 555, 571. (Illustrations.) Werner, A. 1906 The natives of British Central Africa, Chapter VIII. REFERENCES FOR PROGRAM 5 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS WEAVER GROUP I Mason, Otis T. 1907 Woman’s share in primitive culture, Chapter III, p. 53-60. (Compilation) Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 30, part 1, p. 310-313 (Clothing); part 2, p. 928-929 (Weaving). Goddard, Pliny Earle 1913 Indians of the Southwest, p. 49-53. Joyce, T. Athol, and Thomas, N. W., editors 191m Women of all nations; a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs, and influence. 1678 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Wissler, Clark 1912 North American Indians of the plains, p. 52. Woolman, Mary Schenck, and McGowan, Ellen Beers 1914 Textiles, Chapters I and III. GROUP II Holmes, W. H. 1881-82 Prehistoric textile fabrics of the United States, derived from impressions on pottery. Third annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for 1881-82, p. 397-425. Mason, Otis T. 1910 The origins of invention: a study of industry among primitive peoples. Chapter VII. Matthews, Washington 1881-82 Navajo weavers. Third annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for 1881-82, p. 371-3901. Parker, K. Langloh 1905 The Euahlayi tribe: a study of aboriginal life in Australia. Chapter XIV. Werner, A. : 1906 The natives of British Central Africa, p. 195-201. REFERENCES FOR PROGRAM 6 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS SKIN DRESSER GROUP I Mason, Otis T. 1907. Woman’s share in primitive culture, Chapter IV. (Compilation) Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 30, part 2, p. 591-594 (Skin and skin dressing). Wissler, Clark 1912 North American Indians of the plains, p. 41-50, 52-69. GROUP II Boaz, Frank 1884-85 The central Eskimo. Sixth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for 1884-85, p. 471-516. Joyce, T. Athol, and Thomas, N. W., editors 1911 Women of all nations; a record of their characteristics, habits, manners, customs, and influence. THE Lire oF PRIMITIVE WoMAN 1679 Murdoch, John 1887-88 Ethnological results of the Point Barrow expedition. Ninth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for 1887-88, p. 109-140. Raphael, John R. 1914 Through unknown Nigeria, Chapter XIII. Roscoe, John 1911 The Baganda; an account of their native customs and beliefs. Chapter XIV. REFERENCES FOR PROGRAM 7 PRIMITIVE WOMAN AS POTTER AND DISH MAKER GROUP I Mason, Otis T. 1907 Woman’s share in primitive culture, Chapter V. (Compilation) Handbook of American Indians north of Mexico. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 30, part 1, p. 94-96 (Art); part 2, p. 149-155 (Ornament), 295-299 (Pottery). Goddard, Pliny Earle 1913 Indians of the Southwest, p. 41, 43, 45, 90-93, 143-145. Wissler, Clark 1912 North American Indians of the plains, p. 69-72. GROUP II Cushing, Frank H. 1882-83 ... yeep ee at cia kono © Suara nck ang rbtede 1,238 Everace-enroliment.for each School ©... . coche eee we 32.5 1722 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Largest enrollment........... Cts aid 5 alelg CRRA EA ere eee aay: 60 omiallest enrolbment ey ease 32). 1b. hae eee oe Ee 14 Average percentage of attendance of enrolled members (16 schools) 88 .3 Highest percentage of attendance recorded of enrolled members. . 96 single paidyacdmarssions:/< (1. sits Saver) ie oedmchees Na) conic eee ae Pe 583 Averacemttendamce). t... Sirs Wits Sahvetis. ti onke ves de oes ciseaeeaar k 2250 AVverace number Ol INStructOrsiaiinw ~.c1sWit. «aan kites eke eee TitE Average number of schools.a weelk. 1): .2'.2 . Whar yee. bs anes. Lets Number of schools held in connection with farm demonstration SCHOOIS ES x Bi teeneal Nees Oe ae cic cere ne ee Sere eee 22 Number of schools held independently of farm demonstration SCHOOLS Hie hia ti SUMS oral suerte ta vs eae see en 15 Number of schools with one session each day................. 36 Number of schools with two sessions each day................ 2 abe En- | Single ne Average County Place Week micuce roll- Jadmis— ee attend- hone ment | sions centage ance Allegany-....... Cubaaeerene Mar «1 I 23 Onl Rae 22.0 Broome. =o. :: Whitney Point} Jan. 25 3 60 30) |e 58.0 Cattaraugus...| West Valley...) Jan. 11 I 25 SH Meee! 26.0 Cayuga. 9... -:| Sherwood. :... .| Feb. 15 I 30 34 85.8 32.0 Chemung..... Horseheads...| Dec. 28 I 14 5 92.8 20.4 Clinton.......| Ellenburg Depot..... Jan. 25 I Gieva| |eeedietonel entrar b 202 Columbia.....| East Chatham.} Sept. 21 I 32 DSnigey reer 3582 Cortland’... ..... Cincinnatus...] Oct. 12 I 30 GRTe es chols-o 33.0 Cortland? <2.” Little York...| Oct. 19 I 23 Ate ares 23.0 Cortland? 3~. Abrabb:qvoroe ome Oct=a"26 I 18 ZiCy | ea cio 20.2 Cortland?) 3. Marathon....}| Nov. 2 I 35 PADI eee 50.0 Cortland) ¥.~. Cortland 2.7 Nov. 16 I 46 AGI Bereta 49.0 Cortlandita.. Cortlanda= 2 .\-Novs, 16 I OWS | eae ell peneeees Ome 11.5 Cortland: 3... Blodgetts Millss. 2) Mart a I 25 20 94.4 32.0 Delaware..... Brankdiny 2. 2: Mar. 15 | I 29 AX ale rent. 47..0 Dutchess. ....| Pine Plains...) Feb. 15 I 45 ANN Ss s-ctoe 31.0 Franklin: 2... Burke eye Jan. II I 40 Il 78.8 32.5 Braniklingas..): North Bangor.) Feb. I I 32 TOs enue 40.2 Jefferson...... Chaumont....| Mar. 22 I 37 ) 94.0 35.8 Livingston....| Dansville..... Jan. 25 I 53 sit 87.2 46.2 Livingston....} Linwood..... Feb; 418 I 2 17 86.4 25.0 Montgomery..| Fort Plain....} Dec. 14 2 21 Mere toate orkie 21.4 Niagara. Joi. - Gasportt.s.. 0: Feb. I I 34 27 96.0 38.0 Onondaga... .} Lysander..... Mar. 8 I 25 2 OM meee 38.4 Ontarioy--. 1 tanley...... Feb. 22 I 3I TS ies. « 31.0 Oswego....... Sandy Hook..| Feb. 1 I 39 Sor MIRE TENE. ole 19.4 Oswego. -. :.....| saannibal .:. +>: Dec. 28 I 28 88.1 42.6 Oswego.......| Pennellville...} Dec. 7 I 31-4 ee ailbenars: 26.8 Otsego......- Cherry Valley.| Mar. 29 I 40 12 89.5 38.2 Otsesoutn nae: Mit) Visions. s+| Jan. 2 I 36 2 90.0 2370 FarM HomME DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS £728 Number Attend- of En- |Single| ance, | Average County Place Week instruc- | roll- |admis-| _ per- attend- tors ment | sions | centage | ance Sullivan...... Jeffersonville...) Nov. 30 I 35 5 81.0 28.4 sullivan\.2 54% Monticello....| Dec. 14 I 24 4 87.0 20.4 Schuyler......} Catherine....| Nov. 30 2 47 Sint.) Sas ese 33).0 Schuyler.......|. Watkins......|.Mar. 8 I 19 20) |; cmerie' 31.0 St. Lawrence..| Gouverneur...| Feb. 22 I 58 9 89.0 52. Tompkins......| Jacksonville...| Aug. 6 8 | 200 PPE era toc Ceo ee WiISter ec 2x Wallkill. ..... April 12 I 25 46 92.0 2242 Wyoming... ..| Pike. sc... 66] Jan. 18 I 34 5 81.8 28.8 IVA LCS M2 actus © Dundee......| Nov. 9 I 35 7 el eect ee 34.0 THE CORNELL READING COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME The lessons available in the Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home are as follows and are free to residents of New York State: II 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 3/ 39 4 43 The laundry Cornell study clubs Principles of jelly-making The preservation of food in the home.— Part I The preservation of food in the home.— Part II The preservation of food in the home.— Part III Rules for cleaning Saving strength Choice and care of utensils Cost of food Household bacteriology Vegetable-gardening The flower garden Home economics at the New York State College of Agri- culture The farmhouse Rules for planning the family dietary The box luncheon 45 Hints on choosing textiles 47 A canning business for the farm home 49 Household insects and meth- ods of control sr A story of certain table fur- nishings 53 The Christmas festival 55 Rice and rice cookery 57 A syllabus of lessons for ex- tension schools in home economics 59 Sewage disposal for country homes 61 Attic dust and treasures 63 The young woman on the farm 65 Farmhouse amusements for girls and boys 67 Canning clubs in New York State— Part I. Organiza- tion 1724 THE CORNELL READING COURSES 69 Canning clubs in New York State.— Part II. Principles and methods of canning 71 Canning clubs in New York State— Part III. Can- ning equipment 73, Making cake.— Part I 77 Songs that live 79 Programs for use in study clubs 81 Potatoes in the dietary 83 Raising vegetables for canning 85 The arrangement of household furnishings 87 The decorative use of flowers 89 Beans and similar vegetables as food gt The life of primitive woman (In press) 93 Farm home demonstration schools The preceding list is correct to November 1, 1915. The demand may at any time exhaust the supply of particular numbers. Requests will be filled as long as the supply lasts. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLowAy, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 RURAL LIFE SERIES VOL. IV. No. 93 AUGUST 1, 1915 No. 12 FARM HOME DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS DISCUSSION PAPER If you have been a member of a farm home demonstration school, your reply to the following questions will be appreciated. Your criticisms are invited for the good of future schools. 1. Have you, as a result of the discussion in the farm home demon- stration school, made any changes in the feeding of the family; for example, the more liberal use of milk, vegetables, or fruits, the restriction of meat, or a more thoughtful regulation of the children’s diet? 1726 THE CORNELL READING COURSES vegetables; or paid more attention to the storing or the use of winter vegetables ? 2. Have you had a better garden; canned a greater variety of summer 3. Have you taken greater interest in housekeeping through knowledge of the composition of everyday foods and their effects when used by the body ? 4. Have you been stimulated to further study of household prcblems: a. In general? b. In using the Reading Course for the Farm Home? c. As a member of a study club? FarM HomME DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS I ~ ~ 5. Have you made changes which you consider to be for the better in: a. Sanitary conveniences? If so, what? b. Homemade or commercial labor-savers? If so, what? 6. Have you made or bought a fireless cooker? If so, do you find it as serviceable as you hoped it would be? 7. Have any steps been taken by the women of the community toward the improvement of sanitary conditions in schools, markets, or other parts of the community household? 1728 THE CORNELL READING COURSES 8. Have you noticed any difference in community spirit as a result of the five days’ session of the demonstration school? If so, in what direction ? g. Please name the three subjects that would be most helpful to you if it were possible to hold another demonstration school in your neigh- borhood. First choice: Second choice: Third choice: The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 VOL. IV. No. 95 SEPTEMBER 1, 1915 aaa ee pecs THE FIRELESS COOKER AND ITS USES HELEN CANON AND LUCILE BREWER To any one interested in labor-saving devices the possibilities of the fireless cooker are alluring. Within the last ten or fif- teen years much ingenuity has been exercised in per- fecting the construction of commercial’ fireless cookers, with the result that at the present time the principles of physics and sanitation are so well observed that the fireless cooker is in many house- holds and institutions an indispensable piece of equipment. THE PRINCIPLE AND ITS APPLICATION The principle underlying the construction of home- made and commercial fire- less cookers, including in- sulated ovens, is the main- tenance of a_ constant temperature, high or low, by surrounding the food compartment with some good insulator, which tends to prevent the passage of heat. The food to be cooked is first thoroughly heated; it is then placed in the cooker where the stored 109 [1729] Fic. 64. A HOMEMADE FIRELESS COOKER IN USE 1730 THE CORNELL READING COURSES heat is locked up and utilized for cooking instead of being allowed to escape. Primitive people have made use of leaves and earth to prevent the escape of heat from food being cooked by means of hot stones or hot ashes. Campers, who necessarily employ the more primitive ways of cooking, can testify to the long time that heat can be retained by covering hot ashes with earth. The bean hole of lumber camps continues the cooking of parboiled beans for twelve or fourteen hours by the heat stored up in the food, the bean pot, and the stones, and retained by a covering of earth. The following extract is taken from a government bulletin entitled Studies of the Food of Maine Lumbermen, by C. D. Woods and E. R. Mansfield: The beans are not baked in the cookroom, but in the bean hole, which is simply a hole in the ground protected by a small log building. The beans are parboiled during the forenoon in an ordinary iron kettle on the stove in the cookroom. The bean pot in which they are baked is of iron with an overhanging iron cover, and it is filled with alternate layers of salt pork and parboiled beans. A fire is then built in the bean hole with both soft and hard wood to a depth of two feet, and when well under way is covered with stones and old iron, when the covered pot of beans is suspended over the fire. By the time the pot of beans has been heated to the boiling point the fire is burned to coals, and the stones and pieces of iron are red hot. The pot of beans is then placed directly upon these, covered with hot ashes and earth, and left to cook overnight, usually twelve to fourteen hours. In the morning the beans come from the hole steaming hot and are served for breakfast. Feathers have been used as an insulator by the peasant folk of certain countries; they have followed the practice of placing kettles of boiling soup in feather beds, thus keeping the soup warm overnight. The idea of a special box for conserving heat for cooking purposes seems to have-originated in Norway, where hay was commonly used as the insulator. However, a close approach to this apparatus, according to one of the old Roman poets, was the Jewish beggar women’s baskets lined with hay to keep warm the bits of food given to them. The farmer who lines with hay the box in which he carries home ice from town, makes use of the principle on which the fireless cooker is constructed. Many interesting applications of the principle could doubtless be brought to light by a definite search for them. The Scientific American of October 28, 1911, in an article entitled Inventions Ahead of the Times, says: ‘‘ Frequently inventions are made before the time is ripe for them to go into general use. This is illustrated in the so-called fireless cooker which has recently come into popularity and is now used to a great extent.’’ The article mentions an English patent of 1857 and a United States patent of 1866, both of which embody THE FiIRELESS COOKER AND Its UsEs 173% principles used in modern cookers. At the World’s Fair in Paris in 1867, a Norwegian automatic cooker was exhibited and attracted fairly wide- spread attention. It is within only about the last ten years, however, that the fireless cooker has come to be a common piece of kitchen equip- ment. In 19005 a United States consular report calling attention to the use of the hay box in Germany led to an investigation of this method of cooking by the commissary general of the War Department — Present- day scientific knowledge has made possible many modifications tending toward efficiency and convenience. INSULATION Heat moves from one place to another place of lower temperature by conduction, by convection, or by radiation. Conduction is the method by which heat moves from one part of a substance to another without visible motion of the parts of the substance; the heating of a flatiron is accomplished by conduction. Convection is the method by which heat moves from one place to another by the movement of the heated matter; the heating of a room by a stove is accomplished in part by convection currents in the air. Radiation is the method by which heat moves from one place to another by means of ether waves; in this way the earth receives heat from the sun. Certain substances are better conductors of heat than are others; thus, metals are good conductors of heat, and nonmetals are poor con- ductors of heat. This fact is well exemplified by the use of a fireless cooker. First, the food is placed in a metal container, which readily conducts the heat from the stove to the food; then the metal container is quickly passed from the stove to its hole in the fireless cooker where it is surrounded by some nonconducting material, which tends to prevent the escape of the heat. Various nonconducting materials, or insulators, are used for this purpose. The table (page 1732) from Carleton John Lynde’s Physics of the House- hold compares certain substances on the basis of the number of heat units that pass through a layer of given thickness under given conditions. Air is shown by this table to be the best nonconductor of heat, but since it carries heat by convection currents, it would not be a good insulator if used alone. The best results are obtained by using one of the other substances of low-conducting power, packing it loosely enough to contain air, but closely enough to prevent convection currents in the air. The nonconducting property of the substances most often used is due largely to the air that they contain. A vacuum is the most efficient insulator, and it is used in the thermos bottle and in certain fireless cookers. 1732 THE CORNELL READING COURSES RELATIVE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SUBSTANCES Number Substance of heat units SHIR eA oes O US EE EE eee nhs Soe Aro ama eoioo OSG taste orc 1.0 (C0, 0 a'2! ote dean a eee ana eer eprieanl A nieheneniced = bt. apmbcmmstn erred nice. fe 9 Gol etasts, Heya lse sc nlenSece 3°¥ DAS aS he Ses ee eae 7 PAM A TIATTATATTA Soo. 7e foe wjoyalich sna Boece ne eke e erer eee epee ines ata ee ae ae 5 EB TASS ree octaves sk ecore eatians eves caine GPE Saeed Chee cee tears TE Rem LST Renae oar a ea 26 BTM recy Fait ovis bile Sag Ris sn) Sec 3S hoes RU hee ane ie EN Oe oe eae eee 16 MPOMN 5 Geese. ¢ cris wae hie aie oslo ops © wise oe FeO edhe SE oe ote: corer co Ecos 12 Porcelain’. hac. shisha at aieseietare) Seen etal CORTE elie ee OP e een eee 0025 Glass eisincsads seins dre see he) a aee eS - Beare. Se ee eee 0020 NGC a) or eS Re ae ane ee re Mee Mr Ariana 3 aoe eo an eae oe OOT4 Gemeente ee ee SO oe te etc leg ee CoN ey Ae a .0007 Asbestos: papets.t.s. 1:2) se ritanteh abe qos ners Opes aateno Seeeepa eer eter .0006 Cottonyclothintrcs: $4 h.fot eek a. hea Oe oes Ree ees pe es yo Seber dor ee 00055 AGES 00 Ue ora Re SARA ei ae es ees ht APO 5 OTF are ee AI SemNet Na | .00050 DAD CT Re ycusccre Roth =: e¥) FSosESTe Opie e hes Rea ane rons GSR ete cata. Wes ee .00030 Blanmell soy cc aes the onckettisis, api ns 2 Sat Nee cpa eae aren ce eae eae .00023 Ny arate Sam ican EER Or hae ele eae one tor ee a neers nami A Raa ELEN Wife 4 . 00022 Mineralswoole 7-4. aetack dearer ethene ae eat ie Ree . 00019 GOrke ses oteetncic olin ansat emote cles penises Cpa Bee ekas ater Sor aera Ceara .00013 RYE G15 KS] egies Rai tative ten aR State ce ict ooies thes Pdi otn eee acrammecne tat acid Wola lehistevaran 6 00012 1 =) Nt ae ee ee ee aa rN Ae Ae SACRE TA ants oes Ela st Bite net 5.5 GUS fc . 00009 THOT Reel eS a ate GASIG Shc cai ER TAG set eee SON EOD ae .000085 Cotton wooly) eiccc oc 1 Ske ches ead SL hase CSE ere .000050 TT) safe Be Lander ef a oss RATS eb VS LORI DRT EL ae es ot eee 000040 ADVANTAGES OF A FIRELESS COOKER In these days when fuel is so easily available, perhaps it is only the particularly thrifty manager who is alert to the saving that may be effected in the wise use of a good fireless cooker. Hotels, cafeterias, college dormitories, hospitals, and various other institutions where there is ordi- narily more careful management than in the average household, are using the fireless cooker extensively, especially for cooking certain meats, cereals, and other foods requiring a long application of heat. For example, the diminished shrinkage in hams when cooked in a fireless cooker has led to the use of this method by certain packing houses. However, economy in fuel, as well as in time and labor, is largely determined by local prices and conditions; that which may be economical in one locality or for an institution may not be economical in another locality or for a small home. The problem requires study on the part of each manager of a household. ECONOMY OF FUEL If a coal fire must be built in order to accomplish the initial heating of the food, the utilization of the heat as the fire is dying down must be THE FIRELESS COOKER AND Its UsEs 1733 considered in estimating the cost of the fuel. If such a fire without replenishment of fuel would complete the cooking process, there would obviously be no saving in fuel effected by the use of the fireless cooker. However, there might be a saving in time and labor, as discussed further on. FIG. 65. A COMMERCIAL FIRELESS COOKER WITH UTENSILS A slow fire continued for the greater part of the day to boil a ham, for example, may be well utilized in winter for heating the house, heating water, and cooking other foods; in summer such a fire may be the cause of so much discomfort to the workers in the house that it is wiser to use the fireless cooker for long cooking processes, and to use the stove only during the cool part of the day and for short cooking processes. The same is true when wood is used as the fuel, but in this case there is likely to be a greater saving in labor, because a wood fire generally requires more frequent replenishment than does a coal fire. 1734 THE CORNELL READING COURSES With such fuels as kerosene, gas, and electricity, a slow, even heat may be maintained at a comparatively low cost, depending on the local prices. However, for long cooking processes, the amount of heat needed to bring the food and the radiator to the required temperature before their being placed in the cooker, is generally less than the amount needed to cook the food on the stove. ECONOMY OF TIME If fuel is being burned, there is always more or less uneasiness about leaving the house or the room in which food is being cooked. Variation in the amount of heat may occur or the food may be forgotten, with the result that it may stick to the bottom of the utensil and burn. The fireless cooker makes it possible to leave the food without worrying about the results, although, as stated further on, there is a certain point at which the cooked product is at its best and should be removed from the cooker. In households where it is necessary for the woman to be away from home all day, the fireless cooker helps to solve many a problem. Especially is this true in the case of families having small incomes, which necessitate obtaining the most nutriment at the lowest cost, because the nutritious foods of low cost, such as cereals, dried legumes, and tough cuts of meat, are those that require long, slow cooking to be made most palatable and of greatest use to the body. Under such conditions the fireless cooker is an absolute necessity if the family is to be properly nourished. Whenever it is necessary for the various members of a household to have their meals at different hours, the fireless cooker is found to be a time- saver because the food may be kept hot in it until each member is ready to be served. The fact that the cooking process need not be interrupted during trans- portation has led to the wide use of the fireless cooker by armies on the march; at the end of the journey the meal is ready to be served. COMMERCIAL AND HOMEMADE FIRELESS COOKERS The commercial fireless cooker costs more than does the homemade one; on the other hand, it is likely to be more durable, it seldom has any absorbent material exposed to the odor and the steam from food, the cooking compartment can be more easily kept clean, and it is frequently provided with a ventilating valve or some such device that makes baking and roasting possible. However, the homemade fireless cooker has proved to be wholly satisfactory for such foods as cereals, vegetables, dried fruits, custard, fowls, and certain cuts of meat. There is practically no danger of fire from a homemade cooker unless THE FIRELESS COOKER AND Its UsEs 1735 very hot radiators are used. Since thermometers are not used in the average home, and the radiators may be heated to an unnecessarily high temperature, it seems safest to advise against the use of radiators unless the insulator is not inflammable. Under no conditions can a very hot radiator above the food be safe, because it is too near the muslin of the cushion. While baking is impossible without the use of radiators, there are sufficient other processes for which the homemade cooker may be used to warrant the trouble and the small cost of making one. The cost of a homemade fireless cooker may range from about one dollar and a half to eight dollars or more, depending on the materials used. If several sizes of aluminum pails with clamps and covers are bought for food containers, the cost may equal that of a small commercial cooker. Fic. 66. A HOMEMADE AND A COMMERCIAL FIRELESS COOKER These are slightly more than one foot high, which is the smallest size practicable The insulated oven, or automatic cookstove, has the advantage over the ordinary fireless cooker of being still more economical in regard to heat and labor and of eliminating an additional piece of equipment in the kitchen, because, as ordinarily made, it has top burners also, and hence takes the place of the usual range. In the insulated oven both the preliminary heating of the food and the complete cooking process are accomplished; consequently, both the loss of heat occasioned by transferring the food container from the stove to the cooker and the labor of this motion are eliminated. Moreover, the walls of the oven itself are heated and do not draw the heat from the food. There are now on the market insulated ovens. adapted to the use of gas, electricity, and 1726 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Fic. 67. AN INSULATED OVEN This has an advantage over the ordinary fireless cooker in being still more economical of heat and labor THE FIRELESS COOKER AND Its USES 1737 kerosene. The heat supply in some of these ovens is controlled by a dial hand that may be adjusted for the number of minutes for which the heat is required, at the end of which time the heat is cut off with- out further attention. A large insulated oven, modeled somew! like an ordinary gas stove, is more expensive than is a fireless cooker; but the cost of a moderate-sized range with an insulated oven is practically the same as that of both a gas range and a fireless cooker. This is a subject worthy of inves- 1 { tigation Dy one Who 1s pure *hasing new kitchen equipment. POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN BUYING A FIRELESS COOKER INSULATION The more perfect the insulation, the better are the results. There are certain trade mixtures of insulat- ing materials, the secrets of are not divulged. However, a re- liable manufacturing company may be trusted to offer a good product. EXTERIOR CASE Attention should be paid to the durability of construction, and the ease and thoroughness with eee which the cooker may be cleaned. The heat is furnished by gas, the supply cf which The outer case may be made of ae Seba emee well-seasoned and well-finished hardwood or of metal. Wood 1s better Fic. 68. ANOTHER TYPE OF INSULATED than metal as a nonconductor of heat, but metal is more easily cleaned. INTERIOR LINING The material used for lining the interior should be durable and such that it may be easily and thoroughly cleaned. Seamless aluminum, also nickle-copper, and enamel are used for this purpose. The old models containing flannel-covered cushions were distinctly inferior to the present models that have nothing but metal exposed on the interior and are consequently nonabsorbent and easily cleaned. In this respect the home- made cooker is necessarily deficient. Special attention should be paid in the case of an electric insulated oven to a seamless lining for the food 1738 THE CORNELL READING COURSES compartment, because without this the moisture due to the condensation of steam in the cooking compartment may reach the coils through which the electric current passes. COOKING UTENSILS The utensils used for food containers should be durable and free from crevices and seams where particles of food and harmful microorganisms may lodge. Seamless aluminum is perhaps most commonly used for this purpose. Each utensil should be supplied with a tight-fitting cover that can be clamped down. VENT VALVE For baking or roasting, a vent valve or a similar device for the escape of steam is desirable to produce the best results. HOT PLATES All fireless cookers are not equipped with hot plates, or radiators. For some cookery processes they are not necessary; but their use makes a baking temperature possible, and also prolongs the time for which a lower cooking temperature can be maintained. The plates are commonly made of soapstone, or steatite; iron is occasionally used. For baking, there are various kinds of racks on which to rest the plates, usually one plate being placed below and one above the food to be baked. LOCKS AND HINGES The locks, or clamps, and the hinges should be strong and well-fitted to insure absolute tightness. Some cookers are provided with stop hinges to prevent the lid from swinging back when it is opened. SIZE The quantity and the kind of food ordinarily to be cooked should determine the size of the cooker. In most cases a small amount of food in a large container does not hold the heat satisfactorily, but this difficulty aay be overcome to a certain extent by using a small food container placed in a larger kettle and filling the intervening space with boiling water. Cookers with food compartments of various sizes are convenient because they allow the cooking of such foods as ham and chicken, as well as small quantities of vegetables, cereals, and the like. COST The cost varies with the size, the materials used in construction, and the number of conveniences and appliances furnished; it ranges from about five dollars to sixty dollars or more. Some cookers are supplied with bases, which raise the cooker to a good working level, thus eliminating - unnecessary labor. Others that are so equipped utilize the space under the cooker for the storage of the cooking utensils and the radiators. There is also a cooker made as a part of a kitchen cabinet. THE FIRELESS COOKER AND Its UsEs 1739 DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING A FIRELESS COOKER A wooden box, a trunk, an ice box, a galvanized iron ash-can, and a wooden candy-bucket are among the articles that have been successfully used in the construction of a fireless cooker. If an ordinary box is used, it should be of heavy enough material to permit the use of good hinges and fastenings. The inside container for the food utensil may be a bucket of agate, galvanized iron, or tin. It should have a tight-fitting cover. Ground cork, sawdust, excelsior, min- eral wool, paper torn in small pieces and crumpled, powdered asbestos, shavings, straw, hay, wool, and cotton batting are commonly used as insulators. Mineral wool and powdered asbestos are both good insulators and have the additional merit of not being inflammable; but they are harder to work with than are the Otier mMiaterials: Gloves should be worn by the person doing the packing, and care should be taken not to allow the material _ to enter the nose and the mouth. Cork is light in weight and has proved to be good. Excelsior is good and is easily obtained. Sheet asbestos one-eighth of an inch thick has proved to be the best weight for lining the outer case and covering the inner bucket; it is more durable and efficient than is the lighter weight, and it can be made to fit the curved surfaces more easily than can the heavier weight. 1. Select a box, a bucket, or a can of suitable size, and line it with sheet asbestos of one-eighth inch thickness. There should be a close- fitting cover, and this, too, should be lined with sheet asbestos. 2. Select an inner bucket or kettle with a tight-fitting cover and of such a size that there may be a space of at least three inches between the outer box or bucket and the inner bucket. Cover the outside of the inner bucket and its lid with sheet asbestos of one-eighth inch thickness. 3. Pack into the bottom of the asbestos-lined outer box or bucket a layer at least three inches deep of whatever nonconducting material is to be used. 4. Place the asbestos-covered inner bucket on the layer of noncon- ducting material in the bottom of the outer box or bucket, and pack the FiG. 69. A HOMEMADE FIRELESS COOKER 1740 THE CORNELL READING COURSES space between the outer box or bucket and the inner bucket with more of the nonconducting material, filling the space to within about one-half inch from the top of the inner bucket. 5. Make a collar of zinc, cardboard, or sheet asbestos, to cover the exposed surface of the insulating material. Zinc is good for this purpose because it does not tear with constant use as do the other materials, it can be washed, and it does not rust. An old piece of muslin, which can be washed fre- quently, may instead serve the purpose of keeping the insulating material clean and in its proper place. 6. Make a cushion of such material as muslin, which when filled with the nonconducting material will be at least three inches thick and will, as exactly as possible, fit into the space between the top of the inner bucket and that of the outer box or bucket. This cushion may be made by cutting out of the ma- terial two pieces of the desired shape and size, and putting them together with a straight strip of the desired width, with extra al- lowance for seams. EE OE A EEE ELERERETS. ° 7 THE CARE OF A FIRELESS IG. 70. DIAGRAM OF A HOMEMADE FIRE- d LESS COOKER COOKER Horizontal section: A, rim of outer bucket; B, rim ‘ 1 A of inner bucket; C, collar for keeping insulator in The interior of the fireless place Longitudinal section: A, outer bucket; B, cushion; cooker should be kept absolutely C, inner bucket; D, food container; E, insulator clean. It should be washed, dried, and sunned, if possible, each time after being used. It should remain open for several hours after use, and it should never be tightly closed when not in use. The observance of these precautions prevents the food from acquiring an unpleasant taste from odors or remnants of food previously cooked. For convenience, all equipment to be used in connection with the cooker, such as hot plates, hooks, racks, and cooking utensils, should be kept near THE FIRELESS COOKER AND Its UsEs 1741 the cooker. A shelf, a cupboard, or an improvised cabinet made from a box may serve as a convenient storage place. The cooker itself should be placed near the stove both to prevent unnecessary loss of heat in transferring the food from the stove to the cooker and to save labor on the part of the worker. The soapstone radiators when not in use may be kept warm on the back of the stove or in the sun in order to reduce the length of time required to bring them to the desired temperature when they are needed. FIG. 71. A FIRELESS COOKER COMBINED WITH A CABINET FOR UTENSILS THE USE OF A FIRELESS COOKER The fireless cooker, like any other piece of equipment, should be used intelligently in order that the best results may be obtained. As previously stated, for certain cooking processes and under certain conditions it may be no more economical in fuel, time, or labor, than is the ordinary range; therefore, fireless cookery should be studied carefully by the housewife in order that she may discover its best applications. A few experiments with various kinds of foods, based on recipes adapted to the use of a fireless cooker, are necessary in order to give one the desired mastery. 1742 THE CORNELL READING COURSES The efficiency of insulation, the quantity of food, and the rapidity of the transfer from the stove to the cooker, influence the length of time required for the cooking. The temperature to which the radiator is heated also determines to a certain extent the length of time the food should remain in the cooker. The period that gives the best results is more or less definite for each food. However, since individual tastes differ, definite statements in regard to the required time should be verified for each household. Care should be given to correct proportions, because there is no oppor- tunity for the evaporation of excess moisture in the cooker. Foods, such as pancakes, that require rapid cooking over a hot fire, are not well suited to the fireless-cooker method. Biscuits may be successfully baked in the cooker, but since the heat required to raise the radiators to the proper temperature will bake the biscuits in an ordinary oven, there seems to be no justification for its use in this case. However, for foods that require long cooking in order to be made more palatable and digestible, the fireless cooker is admirably suited. Cereal products, such as rolled oats, cracked wheat, and hominy, give excellent results when cooked in a sufficient quantity of water in a fireless cooker. The first rapid cooking on the stove bursts the starch granules; the long-continued, slow cooking in the fireless cooker softens the fiber and completes the cooking of the starch, thereby making the nutritive matter available for use by the body. The tough, and consequently cheap, cuts of meat are equally as nutritious as are the more tender and more expensive cuts, but they require long cooking at a low temperature in order to be made palatable. Intense heat shrinks and hardens meat fiber. The extraction of meat juices for soup, which necessitates long cooking at a low temperature, is well accom- plished in the fireless cooker. If it is desired to retain the juices in the meat, the outside of the meat, should be seared for a few minutes at a high temperature; the meat should then be cooked at a temperature somewhat below the boiling point of water until it becomes tender. The meat should be thoroughly heated to the very center before being trans- ferred to the cooker. Fowls are especially good when cooked by this long, slow method. Steamed breads and puddings are well adapted to the fireless-cooker method. Hot beverages and sauces may be set aside in the cooker to be kept hot for serving. The use of the fireless cooker for canning fruits is recommended by some persons. The juices of fruits may be satisfactorily extracted for jelly making. Various conditions, however, determine the practicability of its use for this purpose. THE FIRELESS COOKER AND Its UsEs 1743 By means of the fireless cooker, frozen mixtures may be kept for several hours without melting; or a frozen mixture that does not require being stirred may be surrounded with ice and salt and placed in the food compartment to freeze, because, as stated above, proper insulation tends to prevent the passage of heat from either the inside or the outside of the cooker. A well-insulated cooker maintains a high temperature in one hole and a low temperature in another at the same time. As a means of enabling one to have warm water at hand without keeping a fire, the fireless cooker is of use in homes where there is no boiler connected with the range, and especially where the fuel used is coal or wood, which necessitates building a fire. RECIPES TESTED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS In testing the following recipes it was found that there was only a slight variation between the time required by the commercial cooker with one radiator and that required by the homemade cooker in which one radiator was used. The homemade cooker contained powdered asbestos as an insulator, which made the use of one radiator safe. In the recipes in which no mention is made of a radiator, none was used. If no radiator is to be used, the time as stated with the use of a radiator may in some cases need to be increased; and the food may have to be reheated on the stove before being served. BOILED BEEF A piece of the under part of the round of beef, weighing three pounds, was boiled for fifteen minutes on the range, transferred to the fireless cooker, which contained one hot radiator, and cooked for three hours. This meat required ten minutes’ heating before being served. It was tender and palatable. FLANK ROLL A piece of the cheapest, toughest part of beef flank, weighing three pounds, was rolled and fastened with skewers. It was then rolled in flour, seared well, and seasoned. One cupful of boiling water was added, and the meat was boiled for five minutes and transferred to the cooker. With two radiators in a commercial cooker, it was done at the end of two and one-half hours. With one radiator in the homemade cooker it was done at the end of three and one-fourth hours. As it was to be served cold, it was not reheated; otherwise reheating would have been necessary. It was perfectly tender. 1744 THE’ CORNELL READING CouRSES BROWN STEW 3 pounds beef bay leaf 4 tablespoonfuls fat small celery stalk 2 tablespoonfuls flour green pepper r small onion Salt and pepper 1 quart boiling water Nik ee The beef was cut from just above the soup shank and was very tough. It was cut into one-inch pieces and seared well in the hot fat. The flour was added and mixed to a smooth paste. The remaining ingredients were then added, and the meat was cooked for five minutes before being transferred to the cooker. Two radiators were used in the commercial cooker. The meat was tender and hot enough to serve at the end of four hours. BEEF CASSEROLE 2 pounds beef 2 green peppers, minced 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 turnip, diced 2 carrots, diced 1 cupful tomato juice 1 onion, sliced Salt and pepper The beef was a tough cut from the neck. It was seared well and placed in a hot casserole. The other ingredients were added. The contents were allowed to boil for five minutes before being transferred to the cooker. The casserole was left in the cooker for four hours. The beef was tender and had a delicious flavor. ROAST PORK A roast of pork weighing two pounds was seared and placed in the commercial cooker with two radiators. At the end of one and one-half hours it was thoroughly roasted and was hot enough to serve. DRIED PRUNES The prunes were washed and soaked overnight in twice their quantity of cold water. They were then boiled for five minutes in the same water in which they had been soaked, and were cooked in the fireless cooker for four hours. No sugar was added. The result was about the same as if the prunes had been cooked on the range for two hours, with the possible exception of a slightly better flavor in the fireless-cooker product. STEWED APPLES The apples were pared and quartered, and the cores were removed. The apples were boiled in a thin sirup for three minutes before being THE FiIRELESS COOKER AND Its USEs 1745 transferred to the cooker. One radiator was used. One and one-half hours were required for cooking the apples, which were somewhat pink from the long, slow cooking. They kept their shape well, and the flavor was good. RHUBARB SAUCE The rhubarb was washed and cut in pieces one inch long without being peeled. Three layers each of fruit and sugar were placed alternately in the kettle. The amount of sugar used depends on the desired richness of the sauce. No water was used. The kettle was placed over the fire until the boiling point was reached. It was then transferred to the cooker, where it remained for two and one-half hours. The sauce was a rich red color and had an excellent flavor. EXTRACTION OF FRUIT JUICE FOR JELLY A mixture of currants and raspberries was used. Enough cold water was added to just cover the fruit. The mixture was brought to the boiling point and placed in the homemade cooker overnight. The juice was clear and rich in appearance. The same method was used satisfactorily for the first and the second extractions of grape juice. CANNED RASPBERRIES Raspberries were prepared and packed into the jar, the rubber was adjusted, and the jar was completely filled with hot sirup. The cover was adjusted, and the jar was sealed immediately. It was placed in the fireless-cooker kettle, which had been warmed in order to prevent the jar from breaking, and was covered completely with boiling water. The kettle was covered at once and set away in the cooker overnight. This method proved to be particularly good for raspberries, plums, and peaches. BAKED BEANS I pint navy beans 1 tablespoonful minced onion 4 pints cold water 2 tablespoonfuls molasses 3 teaspoonful soda + teaspoonful paprika 1 teaspoonful mustard Salt 1 4 pound salt pork The beans were washed and soaked overnight in the cold water to which the soda was added. They were then cooked in the same water for about thirty minutes, or until the skins slipped off easily. The remain- ing ingredients were then added, and the kettle was transferred to the commercial cooker. Two radiators were used. The beans were brown and tender at the end of six hours. Ilo 1746 THE CORNELL READING COURSES STRING BEANS The beans were plunged into boiling salted water to which soda was added in the proportion of one-fourth teaspoonful to.one quart of beans. They were brought to the boiling point and then transferred to the cooker. They were well done at the end of two hours. RECIPES NOT TESTED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS BEEF STEW WITH DUMPLINGS 2 cupfuls cooked beef, cut in 1 teaspoonful salt cubes Pepper 2 cupfuls potatoes, cut in cubes + cupful flour 3 cupful tomato juice 1 tablespoonful parsley, minced t onion, sliced 2 cupfuls water 4 tablespoonfuls fat Make a brown sauce of the fat, the flour, the seasoning, and the water. Add the vegetables, the meat, and enough water to almost cover the stew. Place the dumplings on the top. Boil the stew for five minutes, and cook it in the fireless cooker for one and one-half hours. DUMPLINGS FOR STEW 2 cupfuls flour 4 teaspoonful salt 2 teaspoonfuls fat Milk, about ? cupful 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder Sift together the flour, the baking powder, and the salt; work the fat into this mixture with the tips of the fingers or with a knife. Add enough milk to make a stiff dough. Drop the mixture by spoonfuls on the top of the stew in order that the dumplings may steam without being covered with the gravy. BREADED VEAL CUTLETS 2 pounds veal cutlets ' I pint water or stock 3 cupful dry bread crumbs 3 cupful fat Salt 4 tablespoonfuls flour Pepper 1 tablespoonful parsley, minced 1 egg, slightly beaten Prepare the cutlets in pieces suitable for serving. Dip them in the crumbs, the egg, and the crumbs again, and brown them in the hot fat, using one-half the total amount of fat. Place the cutlets in the food container, and pour over them a brown sauce made from the remaining THE FIRELESS COOKER AND Its UsEs 1747 ingredients. Reheat the contents to the boiling point before placing the kettle in the fireless cooker. Allow it to remain in the cooker for from two to four hours. MACARONI ITALIENNE t cupful macaroni, broken in one- t bay leaf inch pieces 1 teaspoonful salt 2 cupfuls stewed tomatoes, 2 teaspoonfuls sugar strained. Pepper 1 cupful stock or water 1 cupful cheese, grated or shaved I medium-sized onion Soak the macaroni in cold water for one hour, drain it, and place it in the food container. Add the other ingredients, except the cheese, bring the mixture to the boiling point, and set it in the cooker for two hours. Remove the onion and the bay leaf, and add the cheese. Allow the kettle to remain in the cooker until the cheese is melted. TURKISH PILAU 4 cupful rice t tablespoonful butter 2 tablespoonfuls green pepper or t teaspoonful sugar onion, chopped 1+ cupfuls stock or water 1 cupful tomatoes t teaspoonful salt Wash the rice. If the pepper is used, discard the seeds. If fresh tomatoes are used, remove the skins, and cut the tomatoes in pieces before measuring them. Place all the ingredients together in the food container, bring the mixture to the boiling point, and transfer the kettle to the fireless cooker. Allow it to remain in the cooker for one hour. Stir the pilau lightly with a fork before serving it. STEAMED CORN BREAD teaspoonful soda teaspoonful baking powder teaspoonful salt cupful lard or drippings cupfuls sour milk cupful molasses eggs cupfuls cornmeal 4 cupfuls white flour H NH NH wl bo CS) ee Beat the eggs, and add to them the milk and the molasses. Sift the dry ingredients, and add them to the liquid. Then add the melted fat. Pour the mixture into a well-buttered mold. Place the mold in a kettle, and surround it with boiling water. Allow it to boil for thirty minutes; transfer the kettle to the cooker, and steam the bread for five hours, 1748 THE CORNELL READING COURSES GRAHAM PUDDING teaspoonful baking powder teaspoonful soda teaspoonful salt cupful raisins, seeded cupful butter cupful molasses cupful sweet milk egg ? cupfuls graham flour SH eS Nie Nie RI BH oe NIK Ne Melt the butter, add the well-beaten egg, the molasses, and the milk. Mix the dry ingredients, and add to them the liquid mixture. Pour the'mixture into a well-buttered one-quart mold or into several smaller molds, filling them not more than two-thirds full. Place the molds on arack, such as a perforated can, in the cooker pail; pour warm water around the rack, bring the water quickly to the boiling point, and allow it to boil for thirty minutes if a large mold is used or for fifteen minutes if small molds are used. Place the pudding in the cooker for five hours. If sour milk is available, omit the baking powder, and add an extra one- fourth teaspoonful of soda. MARGARET J. MITCHELL STEAMED PUDDING cupful raisins or currants teaspoonful cinnamon teaspoonful ginger teaspoonful salt t cupful sweet milk 1 cupful molasses 4 cupful butter %) I Hal |e bole bole 4 cupfuls flour teaspoonful soda Stir the soda into the molasses, add the milk and the melted butter. Add the flour sifted with the spices and the salt, and lastly the raisins or the currants dredged with some of the flour. Turn the mixture into a buttered mold, place it in a kettle of boiling water, and boil it for thirty minutes. Transfer the kettle to the cooker, and allow the pudding to steam for five hours. STEAMED APPLE OR BERRY PUDDING t cupful flour t tablespoonful butter 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 cupful sweet milk + teaspoonful salt 4 apples cut in eighths or 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 cupful berries Mix and sift the dry ingredients; cut the butter into them or rub it in with the fingers; add the milk, cutting it in lightly with a knife. When the dough is barely mixed and no loose flour is left, toss it on a floured board, and pat or roll it lightly into a sheet one-half inch thick. Spread THE FIRELESS COOKER AND Its USEs 1749 the apples on it, and roll it as you would a jelly roll. Carefully place it ina well-buttered one-quart bread mold or a water-tight can. Cover it tightly, and place it in a cooker pail with enough warm water surrounding it to come two-thirds of the way to the top. Bring the water quickly to the boiling point, and allow it to boil for thirty minutes. Transfer the pail to the cooker, and allow it to remain there for three hours. Serve the pudding immediately with warm apple sauce and hard sauce. If pre- ferred, instead of the apples add one cupful of berries to the dough, and serve the pudding with berry sauce instead of apple sauce. MARGARET J. MITCHELL SUET PUDDING teaspoonful salt teaspoonful ginger teaspoonful grated nutmeg teaspoonful ground cloves teaspoonful ground cinnamon cupful chopped suet cupful molasses cupful sour milk + cupfuls flour teaspoonful soda PIO HH RI Re Dole iH Ole RIA RI pico Mix and sift the dry ingredients, and add the suet. Mix the milk and the molasses, and add them to the dry mixture. Turn the dough into a buttered one-quart bread mold or water-tight covered can, place the can in a cooker kettle, and surround it with warm water to within three inches of the top of the can. Boil the pudding for thirty minutes on the stove, transfer it to the cooker, and cook it for five hours. MARGARET J. MITCHELL STEAMED CRANBERRY PUDDING tablespoonful baking powder 4 cupful butter I 2 cupful sugar % cupful milk 2 eggs 1 cupful cranberries 2 3 cupfuls flour Cream the butter, and add the sugar gradually. Separate the eggs, and add the beaten yolks to the butter and sugar. Sift the baking powder and the flour together, and add this alternately with the milk to the mixture. Add the stiffly beaten whites of the eggs and the berries. Turn the mixture into a buttered one-quart mold, set the mold in hot water, and bring the water gradually to the boiling point, allowing it to boil for thirty minutes. Place the kettle in the cooker for five hours. Serve the pudding with sweetened cream or with hard sauce. MARGARET J. MITCHELL 1750 THE CORNELL READING COURSES HARVARD PUDDING + cupful butter + teaspoonful salt 4 cupful sugar 2% cupfuls flour I egg 1 cupful milk 33 teaspoonfuls baking powder Cream the butter, add the sugar and the well-beaten egg. Sift the dry ingredients together, and add them to the mixture alternately with the milk. Turn the mixture into a buttered one-quart mold, set the mold in a kettle of warm water, and boil it for half an hour. Transfer the kettle to the cooker, and allow the pudding to cook for five hours. Serve it with warm apple sauce and hard sauce. MARGARET J. MITCHELL TAPIOCA FRUIT PUDDING 4 cupful pearl tapioca 3 cupful sugar I quart water 3 teaspoonful salt 6 apples, pared, cored, and sliced 2 tablespoonfuls butter Soak the tapioca for one hour, place it and the other ingredients in a cooker kettle, and bring the mixture to the boiling point. Place the kettle in the cooker for one hour. Serve the pudding cold with cream. If it is preferred to serve the pudding warm, use only three cupfuls of water. MARGARET J. MITCHELL ST. JAMES PUDDING tablespoonfuls butter cupful molasses cupful thick sour milk 2 cupfuls flour teaspoonful soda teaspoonful salt teaspoonful cloves teaspoonful allspice teaspoonful nutmeg pound dates, stoned and cut in pieces Blo HH NIK NF Ww NIK pie BIE RIE RI Mix the molasses, the melted butter, and the milk, and add them to the dry ingredients, which have been mixed and sifted. Add the dates, and turn the dough into a buttered one-quart mold. Place the mold in water in the pail of a cooker, and boil the pudding for one-half hour. Place it in the cooker for five hours, Serve the pudding with hard sauce, MARGARET J. MITCHELL THE FIRELESS COOKER AND Its UsEs 1751 TIME TABLE FOR USE WITH A FIRELESS COOKER Propor- Minutes tion of for Hours Food food to boiling in the water | on the cooker | stove Cereals Comma pou eg ease esc dcop tone 4 the, So as. Bs I to 6 10 | 6 or all night Cracked=wheatn ts .ucerae taste heca. au seas I to 5 25 | 8 or all night Creamy Off wiheateri.1%.5.5 0 ch Maenssrety aia cs 2 1 to6 5 | 2 or all night LENE iv 0 E22 Oe RS aa ire eee ear 1 to7 5 | 2 or all night lOmum yor tS ee ls acct cd ene bie aide 2s ile Tstor5 15 | 8 or all night IEA CAT OMNIA xlscsy5.s.tas-slo-desiald a hae Gibirays Mia ee Ot I to 4 5 | 2 RIC C Mp eet Aone AS NGs, «yn ulster ea Ae I to 4 Br eZ OME OATS AER. aioli stort Sie «i setteheavaieata tos I to 3 5 | 3 or all night Vegetables Beans, dried (soaked and cooked in the SAMMER WA LCT) he cicjete ra tet sheteyesfs Gus sicpe oo sgese I to 4 5 | 6 or more BOAT SMES ULIT Sey ens Baw hoa tyres 48 os eee Sage I tol 2 \k2 CAD Ag Cee ee Te itera lect Ri sueyene oh arses I tol 2c (CATTOUSHE., Besar Hint S Saaleie Aedes Salo cbs 1 tOnt 22 OTMONS arash rte eein scales te a 1) tO 252 NEO GATOS aeeeee | MARC Biol hte See eietor sy Say I tol 2ulp2 Dried fruits PSTD LOSE reeves cet cele Ae yes a 8 slo Lto2 5 | 4 or all night PSP EICOUS a we heckitne nels Gia A ooten le Seas eaten ae t to 2 2 | 4 0r all night IRSA CIN CS eee A Soaheus ce oh aes eV peers en Seater hor aeaiehs I to 2 2 | 4 or all night Prunes (soaked and cooked in the same WUC) emer nei ars Ris cievcvals dr- 30 | 5 REFERENCES Antecedents of the fireless cooker. Pure Products, Vol. VIII, p. 156-157. LOL2. Anna Barrows. Principles of cookery. 1907. C. Briggs. In defense of my servant —the fireless cooker. Good Housekeeping, April, rg12. Georgie Boynton Child. The efficient kitchen. 1914. Cornelia French. A comparison of methods of cooking. The Journal of Home Economics, Vol. VI, no. 2, p. 131-135. 1914. Inventions ahead of the times. Scientific American, October 28, rort. Carleton John Lynde. Physics of the household. 1914. 1752 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Manual for army cooks. Document 379, Office of the Commissary- General, U.S. War Department. 1g10. Otis T. Mason. The origins of invention: a study of industry among primitive peoples. gro. Woman’s share in primitive culture. 1907. Margaret J. Mitchell. The fireless cook book. 1913. Josephine Morris. Household science and arts for elementary schools. 1913. George H. Murphy. Fireless cook stoves. Monthly Consular Report 295, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Department of Commerce and Labor. 1905. Frances A. Seely. Tables of quantities. [A time card.] 1910. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOwAy, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM HOME, MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER and FLORA ROSE, Supervisors Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 SEPTEMBER 1, 1915 Se oon VOL. IV. No. 95 tage THE FIRELESS COOKER AND ITS USES DISCUSSION PAPER The discussion papers offer an opportunity for the staff of the Depart- ment of Home Economics to become acquainted with the readers of the lessons in the course for the farm home. Will you ask questions, offer suggestions, and let us have the benefit of your experience in our effort to improve the home of to-day? Please answer the following questions, and return the discussion paper to the Supervisors of the Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home. 1. Have you a fireless cooker? 2. For what foods do you most often use the fireless cooker ? [1753] 1754 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 3. What foods have you cooked successfully in the fireless cooker? 4. If you use a homemade fireless cooker, describe how it is made. Is it a success? 5. What methods based on the fireless cooker principle have you seen used for keeping foods either hot or cold? The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York B. T. GALLoway, Director A. R. Mann, General Editor COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor VOL. IV. No. 74 OCTOBER 15, 1914 oe OC eees INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF SOIL FERTILITY ELMER O. FIPPIN This lesson is the first of a series dealing with the maintenance of a proper physical condition and adequate productiveness of the soil. It points out the primary means by which soils are made productive, and outlines and introduces the discussion of the various factors by which this is accomplished. GA TA tYH4 % fi 1M SS MAINTENANCE OF FERTILITY OF THE SOIL The most fundamental prob- lem in agriculture is the main- tenance and increase of the productive capacity of the soil. All important forms of plant as well as of animal life depend on the soil for the ultimate supply of material necessary to their growth. The materials that come from the soil are the most likely to become the limiting factors in crop Wmp § VE 7AN Va a S NYY production. Therefore} %~#¢z, the great problem “= 4422 - SSN 9 > identified with agricul- ture, and RE eee a ' Peres: re - 4 . Fic. 1.— This diagram represents the essential factors 1m a with all other industry, fertile soil in the order in which they should be adjusted, be- is the maintenance of ginning at the base. ‘It also calls attention to the primary adequate produ epee practices by which these essential factors are controlled ness of the soil, commonly considered under the head of soil fertility. [1755] mh SN NS til Va AAS) THE CORNELL READING-COURSES The soil is a great natural resource and its proper conservation is a problem of public concern. The soil is productive just in proportion to its ability to meet the needs of plants for their best growth. These needs are diverse, including food, water, oxygen, heat, light, physical support, and sanitation. With one exception — light — these requirements are largely met by the mechanism and the constitution of the soil. This is accomplished by three inter- acting properties of the soil—dits physical nature, its chemical constitu- tion, and its biological activity. Each of these properties has many variations, which react on and largely affect the other two; so that the maintenance of fertility — the ultimate rational aim of all agriculture — presents an exceedingly complex array of problems. In farm practice the soil is changed for the better or for the worse by a variety of treat- ments, such as manuring, applications of lime, tillage, drainage, and fertilizers. Intelligent soil management involves the treatment of the soil by the most convenient and economic methods, so that the desired change in its character will result. The findings of the laboratory must be translated into terms of farm practice and reduced to the simplest form for the guidance of the busy tiller of the soil, taking into account the normal nature of the soil, the requirements of plants, and the limita- tions of farm practice. The diagram on the preceding page represents, by a succession of courses built into the form of a monument, the essential factors in a fertile soil. The conditions represented by these courses are arranged, beginning at the base, in the order of their breadth of influence on the properties of the soil. They are also arranged so that one set of conditions will con- tribute most to the efficiency of the conditions represented by succeeding courses. Every person, in proceeding to improve his soil, should, so far as is practicable, eliminate the need of these treatments in the order suggested, so that the highest efficiency of the soil and the greatest benefit from the treatments and materials applied may be realized. In order to understand the reasons for the arrangement of the means of soil improve- ment in the order given, and to know when as well as how to apply them to a particular soil, it is essential that one have a considerable knowledge of the nature of the soil, of its modes of formation, of the many inter- acting properties of moisture, ventilation, food supply, temperature, and biological characters, and of the ways by which these are controlled. No simple rules will suffice. The variety of soils is so great that each farmer must to a large degree decide what is the best method of managing his particular soil, in the light of the principles involved. The preliminary statement in this lesson, together with the introductory diagram, perhaps as nearly as is possible summarizes the principles involved in the main- tenance of permanent fertility of the soil, It has been well said by INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF SoiL FERTILITY 0757 Dr. W. H. Jordan that “ the art of agriculture will rise no higher than the man on the land.’ The farmer must have a considerable knowledge of the intricate processes that com- ; ; YW spe Qa bine to make a soil fertile, and his OM AES ges ke ; SPR : function is to cooperate with natural YS ‘ agencies and to direct their operation in his interest. LEE NZ Nien LL GI WOs/L Soil moisture Underlying all other requisites for maintaining the fertility of the soil is the proper regulation of the mois- ture supply. It determines the solution of plant-food, the physical condition of the soil, the efficiency of tillage, the effect of fertilizers, and the biological activity. It is there- fore the first thing to be adjusted. This may involve irrigation, as in arid sections; or it may necessitate drainage, as in New York. Always, ’ however, it means the proper hand- 3 ling of the soil in order to conserve and effectively use the water received and stored therein. Large areas of 7 SUASOU Lower SUASOUL oer IUOSOl/ land in New York require better drainage, particularly of the subsoil. 4 Fic. 2.— Ideal section of soil, showing Lime stands second in range of the large distribution of roots in the : I : : hy topsoil and their somewhat smaller importance, t maintains the proper distribution in the subsoil. Roots of balance between the acid and the many plants will penetrate to a depth . ; ; of several feet if the drainage is good. alkaline constituents of the soil. As The topsoil ts generally richer in decay- a result of tillage and cropping, soils ing organic matter, which gives it a . “oan darker color may become more acid —a condition unfavorable to most of the important farm crops. Lime is best suited to counteract this tendency. It may be used in different forms, depending on the local situation of the farm. Lime Organic matter, or humus The maintenance of a fair amount of decaying organic matter is essential because of the nitrogen which it contains and which is most economically 1758 THE CoRNELI READING-COURSES secured by the aid of certain soil bacteria and leguminous crops, and be- cause of its many beneficial physical effects on the soil. Its increase is accomplished, according to circumstances, by means of large crop residues to which rotation and inoculation contribute, by the use of stock manure, and by the The atmosphere utilization of green- manure crops. Oxygen 4 @ a Ne f Ry eect Tillage we Tillage, deep and Z x Wh ye ~sCarbon dioxide thorough, stirs and Carbon dioxide ae Pe fines the soil, incor- as ee ees Seer ies porates manures and ry] hd fertilizers that may be Root hdirs-- 77 — | y se Tes oreress added, and contributes : Als to general ventilation “ff i= and= isanwpaltio n- We Various implements ( The soil may be employed, according to the needs The soil atmosphere of the soil. Woter ve Fertilizers The chemical k Se nature of the average soil is such that, by ai the proper adjustment of the conditions of moisture, lime, organic Fic. 3.— Diagram of a leguminous plant (clover), showing matter, and _ tillage, its parts in relation to the soil and the atmosphere, and : something of the circulation of the plant-food elements. the largest possible From the atmosphere and water the plant derives carbon, quantity of plant- hydrogen, and oxygen. From the soil it derives potassium, ae phosphorus, sulfur, iron, calcium, and magnesium. Nitrogen food will be made from the soil atmosphere is elaborated in the root tubercles by available and the soil certain bacteria. Products of growth are given off by the . 3 : ; leaves will be maintained in a sanitary condition. Nitrogen should be supplied through the organic matter. On many soils devoted to the deep-rooted, slow-growing crops, such as fruit, commercial fertilizers may not be needed. In other cases their use should be reduced to such quantities and forms as will give the greatest economic results. The treatments preceding the application of a fertilizer should all contribute to a rise in its efficiency. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF SoIL FERTILITY 1759 CONSTITUTION OF THE SOIL The most evident fact to a person examining any soil is that it is a mass of more or less pulverized rock thrown together either in layers or pro- miscuously. Mixed with this rock material is partly decayed plant and animal material, which gradually takes on a uniform dark color and pul- verized condition and is known as humus. In the spaces between the particles of this mass of pulverized rock and organic material, water and air are held, and usually there is present a numerous flora of micro- scopic plants. The mass has a temperature that depends on the physical nature of the soil as well as on the prevailing climate. The food for plants is derived from the soil particles, from the soil atmosphere, and from water, by chemical, physical, and biological proc- esses. FORMATION OF SOILS, AND CLASSIFICATION We may first consider the ways by which soils are formed and the chief properties that result therefrom. While the farmer can materially modify any soil, the extent of such change is usually limited by economic considerations. In practice the agricultural development of any region that has been settled for a generation or more is a very reliable index to the soil resources of that region. The variation in agricultural develop- ment of different sections is largely a reflection of the inherent differences in soil conditions. In the study of soil conditions in the United States up to the present date, more than sixteen hundred different soils have been recognized and many others remain to be identified. In New York State, which has an unusual variety of soils, more than one hundred types have been identified and described and many others will doubtless be recognized as the investigation proceeds. The source of this information is the soil survey reports published by the United States Department of Agriculture and by many States. These are the most reliable general guides to the soil conditions and possi- bilities of any region. The soils are classified into types that include all material of essentially the same crop relation. This takes account of the material to a depth of three or more feet, since the subsoil, quite as much as the topsoil, influences plant growth, and in the subsoil the roots of plants are usually distributed. The occurrence of the types of soil is represented on maps; and in the accompanying report the types are described, together with the general agricultural situation of oe region ' and its agricultural history. The usual unit of these surveys is the county. In New York twenty areas have been surveyed or are in process of survey, and these have an 1760 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES aggregate area of about fifteen thousand square miles. Not all the areas embrace an entire county, as smaller areas were sometimes made the unit in earlier work. The reports on many of these surveys are out of print, but they can usually be consulted in the Annual Reports on the Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture, usually to be found in the larger libraries. Every public MAP STATE er NEW YORK ‘> ‘ ast. Cx SRR PREPARED BY THE AEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE . SCALE ~ 1 INCH G8 MILES. Lines of equal elevation Days between hilling frosts SS; BSS SY Pare ae. 8 Mts: Fic. 4.— Map showing the distribution of the important types of soil-forming rocks in the State 1, Calcareous (lime-bearing) rocks. Includes limestone, dolomite, and calcareous shales and sandstone 2, Gray, blue, and a little brown shale and sandstone. Non-calcareous, horizontally bedded 3, Red shale and sandstone. Non-calcareous 4, Gray and blue shale, slate, and sandstone. Much folded and somewhat metamor- phosed 5, Igneous rocks. Mostly siliceous 6, Unconsolidated material of the Atlantic coastal plain library should have a complete set of these reports, the current volumes of which can be procured through the Congressman from the district. The making of soil Rain, wind, frost, glacial ice, streams, waves, plants and animals, and the solvent power of water, are at work continually on every exposed rock. By these agencies mountains have been reduced to plains, and lakes, and even oceans, have been filled to the condition of dry land. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF So1L FERTILITY 1761 We may see these processes in operation by the roadside after a shower of rain, or in the garden, as well as in mountain parks. In the Alps Mountains, in Switzerland, the mountain tops are capped by snow and ice which slide down the gorges with a tremendous grinding force; the MAP 4¢, W104 JB SETING ISLAND <~LECEND— Lines of equal clevation “ i Detween killing frosts POS Fic. 5.— Map showing the distribution of the more important groups of soils in the State 1, Calcareous (lime-bearing) glacial soils. Mostly gray to brown heavy loam. Ontario series dominant 2, Southern New York highland region. Glacial soils, yellow to brown stony loam. Volusia series dominant. Non-calcareous. Valleys occupied by gravelly and sandy terraces 3, Red glacial soil. Mostly stony loam. Highland region. Non-calcareous. Lacka- wanna series 4, Hudson valley upland. Gray to yellow and brown glacial stony loam. Surface very uneven. Rock exposures frequent. Non-calcareous. Dutchess series dominani - 5, Glacial granitic and gnetssic soils. Stony and non-calcareous. Heavy sandy loams. Gloucester series dominant 6, Igneous, mountain country. Non-agricultural 7, Lake bottom soils, stratified. Range from heavy clay to loose sand and gravel. Silt loam and clay loam predominate. Moderately calcareous. Dunkirk and Vergennes series dominant 8, Atlantic coastal plain soils. Chiefly rather loose quartz sand and gravel, with yellow silt loam topsoil 9, Catskill mountain region. Very thin, rough glacial soils of shale and sandstone origin. Largely non-agricultural ice melts, and the great volume of water resulting flows away with such violence as to furrow the rock slopes and carry away every bit of loose material. Trees and smaller plants pry their roots into the fissures, and winds send blasts of sand and dust against the ledges. Thus by degrees the mountain of rock becomes a plain of soil. LET 1762 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES One may see these results wherever he is, and may observe the processes that have given rise to them. They may differ in magnitude, but not in kind. Note how frost breaks up clods of clay and even of stone; how the rivulets after a rain gully the hillside and leave a mass of gravel or mud where the water comes to rest. Then note the plants that spring up, and observe their roots — how they thread their way about through the spaces in rock and soil, expanding each a little by their growth and their search for water and food. Scheme of classification The differences in the physical and chemical properties of soil which determine : SS its crop relations and FAN Wa CO: ‘ its tillage properties ane AN Bou/den: - are due to (1) the ee : oe oS Soe ‘ i ae RE gaan wees tie Seed = «method by which the soil was formed, (2) the 4 ee ; kind of material fr Fic. 6.— Diagram representing a characteristic section of a aterial from glacial till soil, and showing the lack of sorting and which it was formed, stratification. Coarse and fine material are mixed and (3) the condition together promiscuously under which it has existed since it was laid down. As in the case of all natural objects, soils are classified according to a regular system of factors. These in the order in which they are applied, beginning with those of widest area of influencé, are: 1. Mode of formation Under this head come the various processes by which rocks and other soil materials are broken down to form soils, and by which they are carried, sorted, and deposited. They are: (a) The natural weathering or decay of rocks to form residual soils— The decay of many feet of limestone may form only a few feet of soil. Shale rock may be changed to soil with very little loss. In New York residual soils are of limited extent and are found south of the Allegheny river in southwestern New York where they form rough land derived from shale and sandstone rock. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF SOIL FERTILITY 1763 (b) The growth and accumulation of plants to form peat and muck soils.— Many small areas of these are scattered throughout the State, usually in swampy places. (c) The transportation, sorting, and deposition of soil material by water.— This includes stream bottoms, and material laid down by lakes and by the ocean. Such soil is always stratified, or banded, each layer with nearly one size of material. Much of the best land in New York belongs in this group. It includes the rich river and creek bot- toms, the clays and sandy loam soils of the larger valleys and adjacent to nearly all the lakes, and the greater part of Long Island. (d) The — transpor- tation, sorting, and deposition of soil material by wind.— This includes sand dunes, and_ probably also great areas of fine soilin the Middle West, called loess. There is Fic. 7.— Diagram representing a_ section of stratified no such soil in New (layers) soil deposited by water. The different sizes of rie particles that make up each layer were sorted out by flow- : ing water. The more rapid the flow, the larger 1s the (e) The mixing and size of the particles deposited. Clay is formed only in . very quiet water of soil trans portation material by glacial 1ce-—— The northern half of the United States, includ- ing nearly all of New York, was at one time, ages ago, covered by a great mass of ice that pushed down from the North. The influence of this experience on our soils was profound, and accounts for the great variety of rock usually found in our soils and for their heterogeneous nature. Nearly all the hill land belongs in this group. It includes practically the entire State above an elevation of eight hundred to one thousand feet, and considerable areas below that elevation adjacent to Lake Ontario. It has a great variation in agricultural value, depending on its thickness, the amount of stone, and the kind of rock from which it was formed. Such soils are without layers or stratification. 1764 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES (f) Gravity— A further agency in soil formation, which is of small importance in this State, is gravity, which accumulates a mass of rock débris at the foot of steep slopes. 2. Source of soil material Soils are made up chiefly of pulverized rock, and the kind or kinds of rock from which a particular soil was formed has a considerable effect on both its physical and its chemical nature. A large number of kinds of rock are recognized by geologists. A few of the groups that cause con- siderable differences in soils are: (a) original crystalline rocks, such as granite; (b) sandstone, shales, rocks, and slates; and (c) limestones and marbles. The proportion of lime in a soil is determined to a large extent by the kind of rock from which it was formed, as well as the way in which it was formed. Where the rock is pulverized without much washing, this effect is especially marked. In New York the most calcareous soils occur in the neighborhood of the limestone formations, but not necessarily on them, due to the movement and mixing by glacial ice and water. They are especially well developed in a strip of country ten to twenty miles wide and extending southward from a line through Utica, Syracuse, Rochester, and Niagara Falls. They are also found in detached areas in the St. Law- rence valley, the Mohawk valley, and the Hudson valley region. 3. The series properties The color, drainage, content of organic matter, and lime, have important influence on the productive power of soil, and are therefore recognized in their classification. This is called the series division. 4. The type properties Finally, and perhaps most important in practice of any single property, there is the fineness, or texture, of the material — whether gravel, sand, silt, clay, or some mixture of these. As a result of mixture, there are produced loams, clay loams, sandy loams, and silt loams. The composition of these will be described in a subsequent lesson. FACTORS THAT MAKE A SOIL FERTILE The soil must be viewed as a factory, in which the various materials essential to plants are contained and in which many processes that con- tribute to fertility are carried out. The efficiency of the soil depends very largely on the nature and openness of the soil structure, and this in turn is largely determined by the fineness of the soil particles and their arrangement. If the soil is too open and porous, sufficient water is not retained, the soil is inclined to be warm and droughty, and crops do not thrive. On the other hand, if the soil is too compact and impervious, INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF SOIL FERTILITY 1765 sufficient water is not retained. or is unavailable, ventilation is poor, the growth of the microscopic organisms that contribute to fertility is hindered, and the plant-food that the soil may contain is largely unavailable. Through the fineness of the soil, and its tilth, or condition of granula- tion, all these properties are largely regulated; and the function of tillage is to exercise some measure of control over them. But if a soil is too full of water, it has poor ventilation, and, when tilled, is inclined to run together and become puddled and hard. Hence reasonable drainage is essential to good tillage. The proportion of humus, or well-decayed organic material, has a great influence on the tilth of the soil. Not only does the humus help to keep the soil loose and friable, but also it makes the color dark; thereby the soil better absorbs the rays of the sun, which results in a higher average soil temperature. Humus is also the chief storehouse of nitrogenous plant-food in the soil. The successful farmer has always assigned great value to the presence of this constituent in the soil, and its gradual exhaus- tion under unwise management is one of the most noticeable changes in the process of soil exhaustion. In fact, soil exhaustion frequently means merely a change to such a bad physical condition that the soil cannot carry on its proper functions, and the plant-food that may be present is therefore not available. Plants use large quantities of water during their growth, and practically all of this must come from the soil. It is-held in the pores in the soil, much as a sponge retains water. In all sections of New York the rainfall is sufficient to produce maximum crop yields if the water can all be used effectively. Not only must the soil be able to collect and hold this water in forms that plants can use, but also loss of the water by evaporation must be prevented as far as pos- sible by the maintenance of a mulch. Tillage at the right time and in the right manner is an important aid in securing this result. An intimate understanding of all the processes of moisture retention, movement, and loss, together with the means for their control, is essential to the best utilization of the rainfall. The adjustment of the water supply in the soil largely controls the ventilation of the soil, which is essential to the growth of the beneficial forms of soil organisms and to the penetration of plant roots. The amount of water in the soil, and the color of the soil, largely regulate the soil temperature. Plants use ten elements as food. These are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, and iron. The first three of these are obtained from the air and from water. The last six are obtained entirely from the rock particles of the soil. Nitrogen 1766 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES stands alone. Available nitrogen is derived from the decay of the organic matter in the soil. The original supply of the element is the atmosphere, of which it forms about eighty per cent. But this free nitrogen is not available to the higher plants, and the operation of certain microscopic plants in the soil, called bacteria, is essential to its collection and elabora- tion into available forms. The plant-foods derived from the rock particles are termed mineral elements and are used in different quantities by different plants. They are arranged above in the order of the quantities used by plants. In the soil particles they occur in various chemical combinations, and the amounts present vary greatly in different soils. In an acre of soil a foot Fic. 8.—A clay soil in bad tilth (physical condition). Too lumpy and coarse deep, there is usually many hundred times as much of these plant-food elements as is used by a single crop. Similar amounts occur in the subsoil. The elements are taken up by plants in solution in the soil water. In the soil particles they are very slightly soluble, and their availability is largely controlled by the fineness of the soil, its permeability, the amount of water present, the temperature and ventilation, and the amount of humus and lime in the soil. These constitute a further reason for the proper adjustment of the soil factory. The use of commercial fertilizer in a soil in poor condition would have small effect to make it fertile. This is the reason for presenting the diagram on the first page, in which com- mercial fertilizers are placed as the last instead of the first means usually to be employed in order to increase crop yields. It is not usually possible to determine by chemical analysis the kind of fertilizer needed by a particular soil, since such analysis gives no infor- INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF SOIL FERTILITY 1767 mation about the availability of the large amounts of plant-food already present in the soil. Trials of fertilizers on growing crops in the field are the most reliable guide. CONCLUSION It may be evident from this brief discussion, how complicated is the soil in which plants grow, as well as the processes, natural and _ artificial, by which it is rendered productive. It is the part of the farmer to direct those processes by his various treatments, such as drainage, irrigation, the use of lime, organic matter, and fertilizer, and the practice of tillage, manuring, and crop rotation. He must consider not merely the thin Fic. 9.— Soil in good tilth. Fine and granular, and in proper condition to have a good relation to moisture and ventilation surface layer turned by his plow, but also the subsoil to a depth of at least three feet, which may be as capable of holding water and feeding plants as the topsoil when it is put in proper condition. Neglect of the subsoil is frequently the cause of poor crops. The soil, and the subsoil to a depth of two, three, or even five and six feet, should be in condition to permit the growth of crop roots. When that is possible there will be much less complaint because of the lack of rainfall and the exhaustion of plant-food. That such use is possible is frequently shown on individual farms in many parts of the State, and especially by the use made by plants of the deep subsoil in arid and semi- arid regions under small rainfall but where wise irrigation is practiced. Deeper farming is one of the great needs for better soil management. This means much more than deeper plowing, helpful as that will prove. The depth of soil that can be turned by the plow is greatly limited. Deeper farming means the better use of the subsoil, which is to be accom- plished by good underdrainage and by the use of deep-rooted crops in 1768 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES rotation, so that the large store of plant-food in the subsoil, and its capacity when in good physical condition to hold available moisture, are utilized. A root zone of three to four feet should be the aim; and when this is realized and well managed, there will be much less need of fertilizers and of irrigation in New York. The recuperative power of the soil is very great, and if deeply utilized and well managed it will continue to produce good crops for unnumbered centuries. The accomplishment of this possible production is one of the most fundamental general benefits that can be conferred, for through the products of the soil all persons are ultimately touched. An under- standing of these fundamental facts and principles in soil management should be possessed by all persons as a basis for wise public policies. To secure, by means of local experiments, the information that will per- mit the correct application of these basal principles to each important type of soil in the State, should be the common purpose of the farmer and of the public institutions charged with such studies. ADVANCED READING The Reading-Course lessons are designed merely to introduce the sub- ject; they are elementary and brief, and are intended to arouse a desire for more complete knowledge along particular lines. The study of Reading- Course lessons should be introductory to the study of standard agricultural books, and of bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and the state experiment stations. The Supervisor of the Reading-Course will suggest, as far as possible, agricultural literature to meet the needs of any reader. Particular books or bulletins are recommended because they are thought to be of special interest to the reader in his individual study, not because they are considered superior to others on the same subject. The following is a list of books in which the data presented in this lesson are much amplified and to which the student will naturally turn for more complete information: Principles of soil fertility. By Alfred Vivian. Orange Judd Company, New York. $1. Principles of soil management. By T. L. Lyon and E. O. Fippin. The Macmillan Company, New York. $1.75. Soil fertility and permanent agriculture. By C. G. Hopkins. Ginn & Co., Boston. $2.25. Fertilizers and crops. By L. L. Van Slyke. Orange Judd Company, New York. $1. Engineering for farm drainage. By C. G. Elliott. John Wiley & Sons, New York. $1.25. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRINCIPLES OF SoIL FERTILITY 1760 CORNELL STUDY CLUBS Cornell study clubs are local organizations of farmers and their families, aiming to promote the study of Cornell Reading-Course lessons. One of the chief benefits of these clubs is that they furnish an opportunity and an incentive for study. Often a helpful lesson will reach a farm home at a time when the members are too busy to give it attention and it is soon forgotten. If, however, a special time is set aside for the study of Reading- Course lessons at a club, it is likely that much more reading will be accom- plished. The secondary purpose of Cornell study clubs is to increase a neighborly feeling in the community and to offer an opportunity for an exchange of thought on subjects of common interest. In the meetings of a club the members should find enjoyment in an interchange of ideas and a training for free and orderly self-expression. The organization of a Cornell study club can be easily effected even if at first only half a dozen persons desire to form a group. The president and the secretary of the club should be chosen, and the dates and places for meetings decided upon. The meetings should be held frequently enough to maintain an active interest in them; regularly every two weeks during the fall and winter is usually considered sufficiently often. If it is not advisable to meet every fortnight in spring and summer, monthly meetings are suggested. Study clubs hold their. meetings in churches, grange halls, and at the homes of the members. The meetings should proceed under a definite order of business. Each study club should first become fully informed as to the material available in the two Reading-Courses. The Reading-Course for the Farm discusses farm practices and important rural problems. The Reading-Course for the Farm Home takes up such household subjects as sanitation, foods, household management, and household furnishing. If the study club is composed of men, the lessons should be related to local agricultural conditions and should deal with operations in progress at the time of year in which they are being discussed. If the club is composed of both men and women, the lessons in the two courses may be alternated, or two separate groups may be formed, holding part of the program in common. If the club is composed of women, a number of yaluable sug- gestions will be found in Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, No. 13, Cornell Study Clubs. The clubs are most successful when the programs are planned carefully several weeks in advance and leaders are selected to be responsible for the success of each meeting. The super- visors of the Reading-Courses will be pleased to suggest reference books — and bulletins to leaders who desire additional material for study. Read- ing-Course lessons should be distributed to the raembers of the clubs at 1770 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES least one week in advance, so that the members may be prepared for a general discussion, which should follow the opening talk given by the leader. Cornell study clubs may bring about cooperation in matters of public concern, and may grow to be influential factors in promoting community welfare. They may also prove of financial benefit by becoming agencies for cooperative buying and selling. The success of the Cornell study club must depend principally upon local leadership. It is hoped that public- spirited persons will find in the Cornell study clubs a means of improving the agricultural and social conditions in their communities. Visits from representatives of the college will be arranged when possible. Cordial cooperation in establishing study clubs may be obtained by writing to the Supervisor, Reading-Course for the Farm, or the Supervisor, Reading-Course for the Farm Home, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. Whenever desired, study clubs may be conducted in connection with the educational work of granges, churches, schools, and local agricultural societies. The following three ways are suggested in which Reading- Course lessons may prove valuable to a study club or to any other organi- zation: 1. For study by the entire membership previous to a general discussion at a regular meeting. 2. To aid leaders in preparing for a program at a regular meeting. 3. For reference. literally spewed out of a RRS the soil and left on the © (XXX \ WOW surface to dry up. All WCB#REWKWS winter eae ae parlic- Fic. 46.— Area of land nearly level, but having compact ularly subject to this subsoil with undulating subsurface, thereby causing wet ete : pockets that force plants to form short roots. Weeds type of injury, which are abundant in such areas. Drainage removes the water is frequently called and permits deeper penetration of the plant roots, thus “winterkilling.” Wet- enlarging their feeding zone ness of the soil is its cause and drainage its remedy. PURPOSE OF DRAINAGE The object of drainage is to remove quickly from the root zone of the soil the excess of water above that which may be retained in thin films 1824 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES on the soil particles, which is commonly known as capillary water.! Any sort of a channel that accomplishes this purpose is effective and many methods of drainage may be employed. Some are less efficient and per- manent than others. OBJECTION TO SURFACE DITCHES Surface ditches and canals are used where temporary results are desired, or where a large volume of water must be removed. For agricultural purposes the common surface ditches, or furrows, are of low efficiency and very expensive. They do not remove the water from a sufficient depth of soil; their grade is usually poor; the water flows slowly or not at all, or, if it flows rapidly, cutting results. The earth thrown out in forming the ditch hinders the entrance and removal of water; the ditch obstructs the surface, interferes with tillage and harvesting operations, and harbors weeds. Further, such ditches must be renewed from year to year — all of which make them more expensive over a period of years than covered drains. OLD-FASHIONED COVERED DRAINS Poles, brush, and stone have been used in constructing covered drains and have done good service in affording drainage. Their use was much more permissible in former years than at present when a good quality of drain tile can be had in most sections of the country. All these materials have the disadvantage of short life and often high cost of construction. If stones are used they had best be arranged without any definite throat. The ditch should be relatively large. The stones should be dumped in promiscuously, except that the small, flat stones should be on the top and the bottom. The water finds its way through the large spaces, and the small stones on top reduce the danger of clogging. Flat stones may be arranged face to face, with the flat sides parallel to the walls of the ditch. The top should be covered with small, flat stones. TILE DRAINS; THE BEST QUALITY OF TILE The preeminent material for modern land drainage is tile. It comes in different shapes and quality. By a process of evolution we have come to prefer round or hexagonal tiles because they are easiest to lay and least likely to clog. They may be made of burned clay or of concrete. Clay tile may be either vitrified or unvitrified. The former is the more durable because its walls are less porous. The difference lies in the quality of clay used and the degree of heat applied in burning. Vitrification means partial 1 This subject was explained in Soil Moisture and Crop Production. Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, No. 70. LAND DRAINAGE AND SOIL EFFICIENCY 1825 melting of the clay particles, which run together in a very dense mass. A low degree of porosity coincident with a moderate degree of vitrifica- tion is especially desired ,, where the tile is likely to - 4 freeze. In the soil the pores in the tile become filled with water, and if it freezes in this condition the walls of the tile may be fractured and broken up into scales. If even one or two tiles in a long line are thus destroyed, the service of the drain is jeopardized. Since vitri- fied tile cost no more on the average than soft tile, there is no excuse for tak- ing the risk in using the Tiga nM Fic. 47.— The most common types of drainage tile and other materials used for land drainage 1. Cobblestones with smaller pieces of stone on top 2. Flat stones placed face to face and parallel to line of soft tile. The drainage ditch efficiency of the tile is not 3 seas nou constructed of flat stones affected by the difference 5. ed she rae : ye 6. Triangular box drain aD the porosity of the walls, 7- Square box drain. Note construction for admis- since the water enters at sion of water along lower edge Fine soit 8. Horseshoe tile laid on a board eg OUlts. . 9. Horseshoe tile, bottom attached Cement tile that are of 1o. ue Mae Be with round opening : : II. Voudle sole tile fairly good quality may >. Hexagonal tile be made by hand or in 13. fae op ee 7 : 14. Y-shaped junction piece machines. It is doubtful fe, Plbowi piece whether they can be made as durable as the best clay tile. Sand that is a little loamy improves the quality, if the mixing mixture. is thorough, as it reduces the amount of pore space. They should be carefully made of a rich Whether cement tile can be made at prices to compete with clay tile depends on the size made and on the local situation in labor and materials for the two kinds of tile. Only sound tile giving a true ring should be put in the ground. The ends should be reasonably square and smooth, so that a good joint can be made. soil of a quicksand nature. are necessary. rrs This is most important when laying tile in Here special precautions against clogging 1826 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES PROTECTION OF JOINTS The upper half of the joint either should be very close, or should be covered with a strip of tar paper or burlap or a handful of thick cement mortar. This will force the water to enter from the under side of the joint. In heavy clay soil a very close joint is not desirable, and openings to an eighth of an inch in width are permissible, especially if the upper part of the joint is protected, as indicated above. Collars and bell-shaped ends, like those on sewer tile, are not necessary, although the latter may be serviceable in soil inclined to afford a soft bottom on which the tile rests. Such construction will protect the alignment. ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS The arrangement of the drains, of course, will always depend on the structure of the soil and the slope of the land, a factor that determines the direction of movement of the water. The aim should be to intercept the flow of the water and to remove it from the land by the shortest prac- ticable course. On flat land the drains must be arranged generally in more or less parallel lines at such intervals as will accommodate the soil. Their purpose is to remove the water derived from rainfall on that area. In clay land they may be forty to sixty feet apart for the common field crops. On sandy soil that is moderately porous they may be eighty to one hundred and fifty feet apart. For intensive cultivation, as in grow- ing truck crops, a greater frequency may be justified. Where the surface is undulating and where there are strata more porous than others, so that the surface or the underground water is concentrated, the drain should be located only after careful study, in order to determine the way in which the water moves. Much land that is undulating is particularly wet only in the low places, and a line or two of tile through these places will suffice. Sometimes surface water from a hillside accumulates at the foot of the slope and spreads out over the low land. In that case there should be a drain near the foot of the slope. If there is seepage from the hill- side, the drain should be cut near the upper edge of the wet soil and should’ be deep enough, if possible, to let the tile be laid on the impervious sub- stratum and thereby intercept the flow. Whether the drains shall be laid across the slope or down the slope depends much on the local conditions. In many cases an arrangement diagonally across the slope at a high angle is best, for it combines many of the advantages of both the other arrange- ments. ; Clearly defined springs should be tapped by the most direct route. If the water seeps out of a considerable area of ground around the spring, Y-shaped spur drains may be helpful. Lanp DRAINAGE AND Sort EFFICIENCY 1827 DEPTH OF DRAINS The depth of drains will range from about twenty inches to three and a half or four feet. The commonest depth is two to three feet. In sandy land the drains may be placed deeper than in clay land. Uptoa depth of four feet an increase in the depth of the drain will permit an increase in the interval between drains of about two rods for each foot in depth. In clay land an increase in the depth of laying the tile will usually not permit an increase in the interval between the drains. GRADE Drains must always have some grade in order to insure the flow of water. If the direction or extent of the natural grade is questionable, a leveling instrument should be used in order to determine the conditions. Often a homemade instrument, using a carpenter’s level, is very serviceable. A very small grade will suffice for the flow of water in a tile. Tile drains will operate on a grade of a half inch per hundred feet, but a fall of six inches to a foot per hundred feet is much more desirable. The less the fall, the more careful all the construction must be in order to insure permanency. Relatively larger tile must be used also. In soils of a quicksand nature it is important that the lateral drains should have no greater grade than the main, or that silt wells be constructed at intervals in order to collect the sediment and permit xe Vaya its removal. j SILT WELLS t between tiles Wye Lome ie Li; Y/ 0/7) f ¢ L, f movement of wafer yp / DL py pf Yy Uy ha / VM hhhhhe A silt well is a pit in the course of the drain, the bottom of which extends two or three feet below the line of tile. The water comes : in at one side and Fic. 48.— Section across tile drain at joint, showing the goes out at the other. entrance of water at the bottom of the joint, the protection Any coarse material by burlap on top of the joint to keep out silt,and the shape of the surface of the water table in a drained field, a short will settle at the bot- time after it had been in operation following a rain. The PREM OT cor two Sec water table, or zone of saturated soil, rises between the tile tions of sewer tile placed on end with junction connections make the most simple and permanent construction. Surface water may be admitted to advantage through the silt wells, thereby protecting the system of drains from surface wash. 1828 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES SIZE OF TILE The size of tile will, of course, vary with the area drained, and with the grade and presence of surface and underground courses. The tendency of the day is to increase rather than decrease the minimum size of the tile used. From the minimum size the tile will increase in size according to the extent of the system. It is now not uncommon for tile as large as two feet in diameter to be used. Three-inch tile in lines not more than six hundred feet long are usually best for lateral drains. For drains up to fifteen hundred feet in length, four-inch tile may be used, provided the grade is not less than four inches per hundred feet. It is difficult to make an exact statement concerning the proper size of main drains. In general they should be capable of removing one fourth of an inch of water from the drainage area in twenty-four hours. Treatises on drainage give tables and formulz by which these relations may be calculated. An increase in the grade increases the rate of flow of water. Doubling the grade increases the carrying capacity of the drain about one third. The following figures give some idea of the area of land drained by some common sizes of tile when laid at different grades: NUMBER OF ACRES FROM WHICH ONE FourtH INCH OF WATER WILL BE REMOVED IN TWENTY-FOUR HourRS BY OUTLET TILE DRAINS OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND DIF- FERENT LENGTHS WITH DIFFERENT GRADES Grade in inches per 100 feet I 2 | 3 | 6 9 Diameter of tile -— in inches Length of drain in feet 1,000 | 2,000 | 1,000 | 2,000 | 1,000 | 2,000 | 1,000 | 2,000 | 1,000 | 2,000 Acres of land drained by different sizes of tile Syoley avec siieleleleieresa. he 19.1 1G Si7/ 22.1 19.4 7A Soa | 22.7 32.0 30). SEHR RIOTING 29.9 24.8 34.8 30.5 39.6 35.9 30.5 47 aan a gotadoepatT 44.1 36.4 Zier 44.8 58.0 52.8 74.0 70 BS eeiciatech ekeleveterea. 61.4 50.7 Tei 62.6 80.9 73.00 Al 1LO3)43 98. (OS adicorkoan ooc Ooo 82.2 68.1 95.3 83.8 | 108.4 89.6 | 138.1 131 WN Hose QovOUOOaS 106.7 885° | 123..9%| LO8.9)|| 140.6 | 128.1°) 179.2 | XT0. ANGLE OF JUNCTION Drains should join at an acute angle rather than at aright angle. In other words, the union of two lines of tile should have the Y rather than the T form, in order to prevent the accumulation of sediment where the two streams of water come together. If the arrangement of the laterals is at right angles to the main, the laterals may be curved in the last rod of their course. The union should be made at the center of LAND DRAINAGE AND SOIL EFFICIENCY 1820 the main, so that the water from the lateral will havea slight drop. The grade of the last few feet of the lateral drain may need to be increased in order to secure this construction. It is a good plan to use junction tile that have the proper size of connection. For example, a 1o-inch by 4-inch junction means a ten-inch tile that is cut to receive a four-inch lateral. If the junction is made by cutting the tile by hand with a trowel, the union should be well bedded in cement, after first laying around the tile a single layer of paper in order to prevent the cement from running into the tile. CONSTRUCTION OF TRENCHES Short ditches may be dug by hand, using spade, pick, and shovel. The lack of adequate help often makes it difficult to get extensive drainage systems constructed in this way. The use of horse and machine powers reduces the difficulty of construction somewhat. If the land is very stony or full of roots, hand labor must be employed, perhaps with the use of dynamite. On land that is not too stony, the ditching plow drawn by one or more teams is very helpful. There are-on the market a number of plows that are very useful for this purpose. Next in complexity is the large ditching plow equipped with wheels and drawn by several teams. This plow tears up the soil and elevates it out of the ditch. There are two or three machines of this type, such as the Cyclone and the Bennett. Finally, there are the large engine-driven ditching tractors, including the Buckeye, the Austin, and the Pawling machines, which cost upward of twenty-five hundred dollars. The large plow is suitable for the in- dividual farmer who has a_ considerable area to drain and has the horses for other purposes. The tractor ditcher costs so much that it is seldom a single farm Fic. 49.—Ditching plow used for loosening the earth in the : bottom of the ditch. A number of patterns of plows cy = large enough to this type are on the market. The handles and the hitch justify its purchase. are usually adjustable, in order to suit the depth of the trench. The plow is drawn by two or more horses, attached toalong evener so that they travel on either side of the trench It may be purchased conjointly by a number of farmers who have drains to be constructed, or it may be pur- chased by one personand the ditches may be dug by contract. Machines of this kind have been put into several communities for this purpose. 1830 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES For tile drains the ditches are usually dug twelve to fifteen inches wide, according to depth, and with vertical sides in order to minimize the amount of earth moved. The bottom is finished with a compact surface and a small lateral curvature, in order to afford a good base for the tile. LAYING THE TILE The tile are best laid by hand by a person in the ditch, who should work backward and place each tile firmly in position, and if necessary wedge it a little with pebbles or earth in order to hold it in place. Where the ditch is deep and narrow, a hook is sometimes used to place the tile. Fic. 50.—Tools for ditching 1 and2. Ditching spades for removing the major part of the earth from the ditch 3. Grading scoop used to finish the bottom of the ditch and the grade 4. Skeleton spade adapted for use in very plastic soil 5. Shovel for removing crumbs and loose earth 6. Hook used to place tile in deep, narrow trenches 7. Pick for loosening stone and hard earth BLINDING THE TILE As soon as the tile are laid they should be lightly covered with earth, which process is known as back filling, or blinding. The sides of the ditch may be trimmed off with a sharp spade. This should be done carefully, as should also the tramping, in order to avoid pushing the tile out of line. As soon as the tile are covered three or four inches deep, one may proceed to fill the ditch roughly, using shovels, a team hitched to a plow with a long evener, or a horse and a dumpscraper. On long lines of ditch the filling is sometimes done with a road scraper. LAND DRAINAGE AND SolL EFFICIENCY 1831 ENTRANCE OF ROOTS INTO TILE The tile is sometimes clogged by the development of roots that gain entrance through the joints of the tile. The depth at which the tile are laid has very little to do with this difficulty. It is determined by the presence of a perpetual flow of water in the tile from some spring. In dry periods this water seeps from the joints and moistens the soil, which condition attracts the roots. Protection of the upper half of the joint against the admission of silt is some aid in preventing the entrance of roots into the tile. CONSTRUCTION OF OUTLETS The construction of a drainage system should begin at the outlet and end at the same place. There must be a sufficient grade to dispose of the water at the outlet. After the remainder of the system is constructed, the outlet should be carefully protected, especially if the grade is slight. This part of the system is especially in danger of being closed by tramping, caving of banks, freezing, growth of roots, and other obstructive processes. If possible the water should have a free drop from the end of the tile. It is usually advisable to build up an abutment of concrete or stone, with an apron on which the water may fall without cutting out the bottom of the ditch. In laying out the ditch as few outlets should be provided as practicable. Where several laterals might empty into an open ditch, it is often better to drop back a couple of rods from the open ditch and put in a submain to receive all these laterals. This arrangement gives one outlet, instead of several, to be finished and cared for from year to year. COST OF DRAINAGE The cost of drainage varies greatly, depending on the nature of the soil, the presence of stones and roots, the depth, the size of tile, the season when the work is done, the method of construction, and the local labor conditions. For 3- or 4-inch tile the cost of the finished ditch per rod in soil not par- ticularly foul with stone and roots is 60 to go cents per rod. Ona system of 2560 rods constructed by hand where the size of tile ranged from 3. to 10 inches, the average cost per rod including all charges was 68 cents. Systems aggregating 8398 rods were constructed under the same manage- ment and on the same farm by using a traction ditching machine. The size of tile ranged from 3 to 13 inches, and the average cost was 63 cents per rod. Some of the work done with the machine was more difficult than any done by hand. The range in the cost of tile per rod was 17.5 cents to 94.5 cents. The average cost of trenching with the machine was 17 cents per rod, The cost of drainage on this farm was $29.74 to 1832 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES $43.80 per acre. The soil was a clay loam containing a few stones. A large part of the drains were arranged systematically. In New York State much of the land is stony and frequently has a subsoil that exhibits hardpan properties.. Such soil is more difficult to excavate, the cost per rod is higher, and the drains must be more fre- quent — all of which increase the cost of drainage per acre. Where a few lines of tile are laid in wet places, the cost per acre will be less than where the drains are placed at regular intervals. The farmer had best begin by draining the wettest places, having in mind that he may wish to extend the system. RETURNS FROM DRAINAGE The returns from drainage are large. As a matter of fact very little land is well drained naturally. Drainage will usually increase the yield of crops. The value of such increase depends on the nature of the crop. Some special crops, such as flowers, ginseng, and certain vegetables, will quickly pay for a very frequent system of drains even as close as ten feet, if the land is naturally wet. In mixed farming and fruit-growing it is the observation of many practical farmers that the need for drainage is increasingly apparent under the usual system of cropping, and that a moderate amount of drains well placed is about the best investment that can be made on the farm. Systems of drains in land that had been tilled but that was more or less wet have usually paid for themselves in four or five years, and often in much less time. A very considerable part of the returns from underdrainage is due to increased efficiency of the farm equipment. Since drained land quickly comes into condition to permit tillage in the spring and after rains, the farmer has more time to work the land. The seasons are made longer, and less preparation is necessary in order to get land ready for a crop, for the soil has less tendency to puddle. Further, the crop grows more uniformly and ripens at one time. Not only is the normal yield con- siderably increased, but the risk of loss of labor, seed, and fertilizer is much reduced. An experienced farmer has remarked that ‘ under- drainage is the acme of good farming.” The life of a well-constructed tile drain should be measured by decades and centuries, rather than by years. LAWS RELATIVE TO DRAINAGE It is frequently necessary for a farmer to seek an outlet for drainage water across or on a neighbor’s land. The value of land drainage to the public is being more and more recognized, and provision is being made for its installation. It is now possible for a person to require his neighbor LAND DRAINAGE AND SOIL EFFICIENCY 1833 to let him have a right of way to a suitable outlet for drainage water. The person benefited must of course pay the cost of construction in order to secure the outlet. In these cases, where a large area of land embodied in several farms is involved, cooperative action is essential. There are two provisions in the law of New York for the drainage of wet land for agricultural purposes. The first of these is under the Agri- cultural Drainage Statute, Consolidated Laws of the State of New York, chapter 15, as amended by chapter 624 of the Laws of 1910. The second provision is contained in the act establishing the State Conservation Commission, Consolidated Laws, chapter 65, article 8. The general procedure is the same under both acts, and the cost of securing the right of way and constructing the drainage ditch is assessed against the land benefited. These laws usually deal with the large outlet canals, but are applicable in securing an outlet for the drain from a single farm. In a general way, advantage may be taken of the natural fall of the land in establishing an outlet for a drainage system, and adjoining property owners must provide for the drainage water so discharged as surface water. As yet no such obligation is recognized to apply to water collected and discharged by tile drains except as it reaches the adjoining property as surface water in a natural drainage course. There are very few cases of drainage that are not provided for in the existing drainage laws of the State. ADVANCED READING The Reading-Course lessons are designed merely to introduce the sub- ject; they are elementary and brief, and are intended to arouse a desire for more complete knowledge along particular lines. The study of Reading- Course lessons should be introductory to the study of standard agricultural books, and of bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and the state experiment stations. The Supervisor of the Reading-Course will suggest, as far as possible, agricultural literature to meet the needs of any reader. Particular books or bulletins are recommended because they are thought to be of special interest to the reader in his individual study, not because they are considered superior to others on the same subject. The following is a list of books in which the data presented in this lesson are much amplified and to which the student will naturally turn for more complete information: Engineering for land drainage. By Charles G. Elliott. John Wiley and Sons. 1912. $1.25. Physics of agriculture. (Chapters XII-XV.) By F. H. King. Pub- lished by the author, Madison, Wisconsin. 1907. $1.40. Land draining; a handbook for farmers. By Manley Miles. Orange Judd Company. 1892. $1. 1834 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Proceedings of the New York State Drainage Association. For the years IgI0-I9I1, p. 1-96, 25 cents; for the years 1912-1913, p. 1-140, 35 cents. Address E. O. Fippin, Secretary of the Association, Ithaca, New York. (These pamphlets contain much practical data on the methods and cost of and the returns from drainage.) Tile drainage on the farm. By A. G. Smith. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 524, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ADVANCED READING-COURSE IN FRUIT GROWING The Advanced Reading-Course in Fruit Growing aims to assist those who desire to make a careful and systematic study of fruit growing at home. It is especially provided for those who have completed a study of the available Reading-Course lessons in fruit growing. The particular advantage of this course consists in an opportunity of preparing state- ments on important questions of orchard management, which are graded by a specialist and returned with helpful comments and suggestions. Individual attention is thus given to each member of the course. A text- book and correspondence are used, so that the course is conducted in a manner somewhat similar to a correspondence course. The textbook may be obtained at a cost of $1.35, which is the only expense connected with the course except the necessary postage. Any resident of New York State who desires to enroll for the Advanced Reading-Course in Fruit Growing should write for further directions to the Supervisor of the Reading-Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York B. T. GaLLoway, Director A. R. MANN, General Editor COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor VOL. IV. No. 78 DECEMBER 15, 1914 a Nee LAND DRAINAGE AND SOIL EFFICIENCY DISCUSSION PAPER A supplement called the discussion paper is sent with each Reading- Course lesson, for the purpose of bringing out the main points covered and of calling attention to related agricultural facts, practices, or methods. The College encourages an expression of opinion or a statement of experi- ence by means of the questions asked. Each discussion paper filled out and returned will be read carefully and a personal reply will be made if agricultural information is desired regarding personal or community problems or the subjects studied. New readers should enroll in one or more of the following series of Reading-Course lessons: THE SOIL, POULTRY, RURAL ENGINEERING, FARM FORESTRY, THE HORSE, DAIRYING, FRUIT-GROWING, FARM CROPS, STOCK- FEEDING, VEGETABLE GARDENING, PLANT-BREEDING, COUNTRY LIFE. The first lesson in each series desired is sent on enrollment, and subsequent lessons are sent, one at a time, on the return of discussion papers. There- fore, in order to receive the other lessons in this series, readers should sign and return this discussion paper, whether the questions are answered or not. As an aid to students taking Reading-Courses, study clubs may be formed in various localities. References for advanced reading will be given on request. The space below on this page 1s reserved for correspondence concerning Reading-Course work, and also for names and addresses of any persons likely to become interested on receipt of information. [1835] 1836 THE CORNELL READING-CouURSES (In answering questions, attach additional paper tf needed and number the answers.) The following questions will call attention to the soil conditions in your home region. We should be glad to have you direct our attention to any soil conditions that you consider as needing special investigation, or to any practices that you consider especially successful or especially unwise as applied to your soils. t. Explain the relation of underdrainage to the forms and amounts of moisture in the soil. 2. Enumerate and explain twelve beneficial effects of land drainage. 3. Explain why hill land may need drainage. LAND DRAINAGE AND SOIL EFFICIENCY 1837 4. Describe four materials that may be used for drainage purposes, and point out the advantages and disadvantages of each. 5. Does your farm or your neighborhood need more underdrainage? What are the indications of such need? 6. Enumerate and explain briefly the indications of poor drainage of the soil. 7. State briefly any personal observation you may have made of the effects of underdrainage, enumerating benefits. 1838 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 8. State how you would decide on the plan of arrangement of drains. What chief factors would you take into account? 9. Name the most important operations in constructing underdrains, and briefly state why you consider these the most important. to. State the more important legal privileges and restrictions involved in land drainage in this State. The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York B. T. Gattoway, Director A. R. MANN, General Editor COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Mote HY Na, fo JANUARY 15, 1915 Nos. 1 and 3 revised INCUBATION F. T. Fincu! The essentials for successful incubation are: (1) eggs possessing strong hatching qualities, (2) a good hatching device, (3) correct methods of oper- ation, (4) a favorable environment. The absence of one or more of these factors means that a lower percentage of the eggs will be hatched than should be, and that the chickens hatched will be weak. In order to secure the quality of eggs desired for hatching purposes, there must be strong, active breeding-stock that is skillfully housed, yarded, and fed; and the eggs must be properly handled and selected before incuba- tion. It is the purpose of this lesson to discuss how the other three essen- tials of successful incubation may be secured. NATURAL INCUBATION In most respects a hen is still superior to an artificial incubator as far as methods and results are concerned. However, there is as much opportun- ity for choice between the different breeds of hens for incubation purposes, and between different hens of the same breed, as between the different types of incubators. If the natural method of hatching chickens is to be employed, it will be well to choose sitters from the general-purpose breeds, such as the plymouth rock, the wyandotte, the Rhode Island red, the orpington, and others of this type. Sitters from the breeds of the type most suitable for use as meat, such as the cochin, the brahma, and the like, are usually faithful but clumsy. Hens from the breeds of the type most valuable for egg pro- duction, or the so-called non-sitting breeds, such as the leghorn, the ham- burg, and the like, are too small, usually light, and untrustworthy. In selecting hens for brooding purposes, it is well to choose those that are the least excitable when approached. A nervous hen is likely to break some of the eggs in the nest or to step on the little chicks. 1 Revised by H. P. Buchan. [1839] 1840 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES The success of natural incubation depends not’ only on the hen’s ability to hatch fertile eggs, but also on the nesting place and the surrounding conditions. The hen that steals her nest and sits undisturbed usually hatches a good brood of chickens. The conditions existing in a henhouse or any building where hens are set should be made as nearly like the natural conditions as possible. Hens should be set where laying hens cannot be with them, and where they may have free access to a dust bath, to fresh water, and to a supply of grain. If necessary a small coop may be used, provided it is placed in a shady spot and the hen is allowed her freedom or the run of a small yard. If a broody hen is to be moved, this should be done at night in as gentle and careful manner as possible. The nest- ing box should be placed where the hen will have easy access to it, preferably on the floor or on the ground. If it is placed on the ground, the bottom of the box should be knocked out and the earth underneath should be covered with clean straw or leaves. If the box is elevated, or if it is on the floor, some damp soil may be placed in the bottom of the box. This soil should be arranged to con- form to the hen’s body, and should be covered with a layer of straw. (Fig. 51.) The box should not be too deep, lest the hen break the eggs when she jumps down into the nest. On the other hand, if the box is too shallow the chicks may get out of the nest at hatching time and may be unable to get back. The most satisfactory nesting box is about fourteen inches square and twelve inches deep. - When all is prepared for sitting, the hen and the nest should be thoroughly dusted with lice powder, and this dusting should be repeated three or four days before the eggs hatch.” The hen should be set on china eggs until she becomes accustomed to her new surroundings. If she settles down at once, the hens’ eggs may be placed under her the following night. It is best to keep her shut in the nesting box at first, in order to make sure that she does not leave the eggs. In case any eggs are broken in the nest, they should be removed at once, and the straw should be replaced by a fresh supply. If any of the remaining eggs become smeared, they should be washed with warm water. Fic. 51.—Box nest 2 Lawry lice powder may be used very successfully for dusting hens or young chicks. It consists of 3 pint of crude carbolic acid, } pint of gasoline, and 2} pounds of plaster of paris. The liquids should be mixed thoroughly before adding the plaster of paris. The latter should be well mixed with the liquids and rubbed between the hands, then the mixture should be passed through a mosquito-wire screen and allowed todry. Great care should be used in applying this powder; otherwise both hen and chicks may be injured. A small pinch of the powder is sufficient for each fow!. This should be worked in through the feathers, especially about the vent and under the wings. The powder may be kept indefinitely if it is placed in a tight package. It should not be applied until several days have elapsed after it is made. It should not be kept in a hot place. INCUBATION 1841 After the eggs have been incubated for seven days they may be tested, and those that contain dead germs or those that are infertile may be re- moved. If several hens are set at the same time, the eggs from two hens may often be placed under one hen after the undesirable eggs have been re- moved. The other hens may then be set again, or may be placed in a special coop for broody hens. Before the chicks are hatched, provision should be made for the hen and her brood. When the chicks are twenty-four to thirty-six hours old they may be removed from the nest and placed in coops provided for them. After the hen and the chicks have been removed toa coop, the nest should be disinfected and the litter burned. - A liquid disinfectant is best for this purpose, and it should be used with a spray pump. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION The operation of the incubator is but one of the several factors deter- mining the success of a hatch; yet it is possible, through carelessness or neglect in such operation or through ignorance of the principles of incuba- tion, to destroy completely the hatching power of strong and fertile eggs. On the other hand, careful and intelligent operation may secure excellent results from strong eggs and really satisfactory results from weaker eggs. By slightly changing his methods the experienced operator is able to counter- act, to some extent, the effect of certain mistakes in operation. Success in artificial incubation comes only through a thorough understanding os Fic. 52.—Diffusion method. A, Hot-air the factors discussed in this lesson. pipe; B, porous diaphragm; C, egg tray; Incubators may be divided into D, space between bottom boards for ventilation two classes: those heated by hot air, and those heated by hot water. The former system is employed more extensively in heating incubators ranging in capacity from sixty to six hundred eggs. Incubators holding one thousand eggs or more are heated by a hot-water system. There is little reason why either one of the means of heating should have greater success in hatching eggs than the other, pro- vided the same method of supplying heat to the eggs is used and other fac- tors are equal. The most successful methods of supplying heat to the egg chamber of an incubator are by diffusion and by radiation. There are incubators that combine these two methods successfully, and others that use one or the other method with good results. 116 VLA LLL | 1842 THE CoRNELL READING-COURSES Diffusion.—By the diffusion method the fresh air enters the heater, is warmed, passes into the upper part of the egg chamber, and is diffused through the pores of a diaphragm of burlap or other material. It then passes down over and around the eggs, and out of the incubator through the ventilators or the heater.2 (Fig. 52.) Radiation.—By the radiation method heat is supplied to the egg chamber by Fic. 53.—Rad tation method. A, Metal direct radiation from a hot-air or a hot- radiator; B, C, egg tray; D, ventilators water tank or pipes. (Fig. 3.) The contact method of supplying heat to eggs that are being incubated is little used. Although this method approaches natural incubation most nearly, it is the least successful. (Fig. 54.) QUALITY AND CAPACITY OF INCUBATORS Quality should be the first consideration. The main qualification of a good incubator should be first-class material put together in such a way that the process of incubation may be carried on successfully, conveniently, and inexpensively. The value of an incubator should not be based on a record hatch that was obtained when the incubator was operated by an expert; neither should an incubator be condemned because an inexperienced operator fails at first to get good results. The best incubators for average operators are those by which the problems of supplying heat, moisture, and ventilation, are so simplified and controlled that good hatches may be obtained in various localities and under varying atmospheric conditions. If enough chickens are to be hatched each season to make it advisable to incubate by artificial means, a con- siderable amount of time and extra expense may be saved by installing incubators of large capacity. Incu- bators holding two hundred and fifty to four hundred eggs are desirable. The expense for oil and labor required in operating large incubators 1S Surpris- Fic. 54.— Contact method. a heated ingly small in comparison with the surface is brought in contact with the amount used in operating enough 60- ¢ ee Oe ees eR ae or 100-egg incubators to hold the same number of eggs; and the results usually obtained with the former are enough better to warrant their use. The smaller the incubator, the more 3 Nearly every company manufacturing incubators has its own method of letting out of its incubator the air that has been used. -INCUBATION 1843 easily is the temperature of the egg chamber influenced by the outside temperature. The size of the incubator should be governed by the number of chickens to be hatched each season, due consideration being given to the possible desire to increase the number. DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP INCUBATORS When an incubator is received from the manufacturer, the first thing to be done is to remove the crating and to place the incubator in the room in which it is to be operated. A list of the different parts should be checked with the parts in order to make sure that no mistake has been made by the shipper. The detachable parts should be removed from the ineuba- tor, and the legs should be fastened in place. The front legs should be securely fastened first, and the machine should be raised to an upright position; then the rear legs should be screwed on in the same way, and the incubator should be placed where it is to be operated. The machine should be perfectly level in order to afford an even distribu- tion of heat. In order to insure this, a spirit level should be laid on the top, both crosswise and lengthwise. When the incubator is properly leveled, small blocks of wood or pieces of shingle may be placed under the legs, where necessary, in order to keep it in that position. The regulating device The regulating device for most incubators consists chiefly of (1) a wire connecting-rod, (2) a thumbscrew, (3) a counterpoise rod, (4) a counter- poise weight, (5) a regulator bar, (6) a thermostat, (7) a metal connecting- Fic. 55.—A common type of regulating device with the parts properly connected tube, (8) a base and pivot casting, and (9)a disk. (Fig. 55.) These parts of the regulating device are named in the order in which they are numbered in the figure, but they are discussed in the following paragraphs in the order of their importance. The apparatus shown represents only one type of 1844 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES regulator, and this is used because it happens to be the one at hand. How- ever, the principles followed are very similar in all incubators. The thermostat. — The thermostat is a most important part Of an incubator. The ability of an in- cubator to hatch eggs depends largely on the sensitiveness and the power of the thermostat. As the heat expands the thermostat, the latter, if it is properly connected, pulls down on the connect- ing rod that is fastened to the regulator bar by the thumbscrew, raising the disk that is hooked to the end of the regulator bar over the heater, and thus allowing the surplus heat to escape. As the amount of heat de- creases, the thermostat contracts, allowing the disk to drop down on the heater. The thermostat is usually in place when the incubator comes from the factory, but if it is found loose or detached, little difficulty should be found in screwing it into place. There are several styles of thermostats now on the market, as seen in Fig. 56. This illustration. shows (1) the six-bar type, (2) the double-disk type, (3) the single-disk type, (4) the three-bar type. The style most com- monly used is composed of three metal bars, usually a bar of steel between two bars of zinc. These bars are riveted together at both ends and ex- pand in the center when heated; therefore the connecting rod is passed through the bars at this point and is fastened to the lowest bar (Fig. 56, 4). The six-bar thermostat is merely two three-bar thermostats riveted to- gether (Fig. 56, 1). Both these types are very satisfactory. The disk, or wafer, thermostats (Fig. 56, 2 and 3) are usually made of copper and are filled with a very sensitive fluid. They are very susceptible to a slight change in temperature. In addition to the types shown in Fig. 56, there is a four-bar thermostat that is both sensitive and powerful (Fig. 57). It is composed of two bars of steel and two bars of zinc, which are riveted together in such a way that the expansion is greatest at one end. To this end the connecting rod is fastened. Fic. 56.—Several styles of thermostats Fic. 57.—Four-bar thermostat INCUBATION 1845 The regulator bar.—The regulator bar should be placed so that the pivot casting rests squarely on the base casting, as indicated in Fig. 55, with the disk, when it is attached, hanging directly over the exhaust in the top of the heater. The disk should cover the exhaust hole evenly, entirely closing it when it is down; otherwise some heat will be lost and the effectiveness of the action of the thermostat will be lessened. The connecting rod.—The connecting rod should be passed down through the connecting tube and into the hole in the top of the thermostat. In some incubators the connecting rod passes through the thermostat and is fastened by screwing a nut to the bottom of the rod; in others, the rod merely screws into the thermostat; either way is satisfactory. The counterpoise rod and weight——The counterpoise weight is usually adjusted on the rod before the incubator leaves the factory, and should not be moved unless it has been pushed back so that it overbalances the bar, thus preventing an easy action of the bar when it is lightly pressed down from the wire connecting- Fic. 58.— Parts of heater. 1, Screen; 2, fume exit; 3 (below rod:. In the latter 2), fresh-air entrance; 4 (below 3), metal cap; 5, asbestos case, the weight may = J#eket be moved until the bar works freely when the thumbscrew on the con- necting rod is loose above the bar. The counterpoise weight should never be moved in order to regulate the heat. The heater The heater is attached to the incubator when it comes from the factory, and no changes should be made unless it has been damaged. The heater should be gas-tight, fireproof, and strong, and it should be constructed of a material that will hold all the heat given off by the lamp, thereby making it necessary to run only an ordinary flame with an economical use of oil. The heater should be cleaned very carefully and thoroughly, especially if the lamp has smoked. A wire witha cloth fastened to one end should be used, and the cleaning should be done by inserting the cloth into the opening and twisting it until all the soot is removed. The isinglass should be cleaned thoroughly after the soot has been removed; otherwise it will be difficult to see the flame. An oily cloth should never be used in cleaning incubator heaters. In case 1846 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES the isinglass has been broken, it should be replaced in order to prevent fumes from getting into the egg chamber and in order to protect the flame from drafts. The different parts of the heater are shown in Fig. 58. Felts and diaphragms One type of incubator has felts or burlap diaphragms in the bottom. The operator should be sure that these are arranged properly before undertaking to heat the incubator. To remove these felts or diaphragms while eggs are being incubated, except as advised by the maker of the incubator, would greatly lessen its hatching power in most cases. The thermometer When an incubator is in operation, the thermometer should be kept in the place designated by the manufacturer. No other make of ther- Fic. 59.—Several styles of thermometers. 1 and 2, Hanging; 3 and 4, contact; § and 6, standing mometer than the one recommended by the manufacturer of the incubator should be used. The most common types of thermometers are the contact, the standing, and the hanging (Fig. 59). A new thermometer should be tested before it is used; an old one should be tested each season. In order to test a thermometer successfully, a physician’s clinical thermometer should be used as a standard, or any standard thermometer that registers correctly between 100° and 11o° F. The two bulbs should be dipped at the same time into water registering about 100° F. If the temperature recorded by the thermometer being tested varies from the temperature recorded by the thermometer being used as a standard, the amount of variation should be marked on the back of the thermometer or on a tag tied to it, and allowance should be made INCUBATION 1847 for this variation when the thermometer is used in the incubator. If the variation is great, the thermometer should be returned to the company that furnished it. If the mercury in a thermometer should become separated, it may usually be brought together by swinging the bulb downward quickly, or by running the temperature up several degrees above the point indicated by the separated mercury. INCUBATING CELLARS An ideal incubating cellar is a very valuable factor on a large poultry farm, or in case enough eggs are to be incubated each year to make it necessary to operate several incubators. Otherwise, a clean, well-venti- lated cellar in a dwelling house or any other suitable room may be used if proper precautions are taken. If a cellar originally designed for other purposes is available, it should be thoroughly cleaned before being used > as an incubating cellar. Good venti- lation should be provided, and _ this may be obtained by opening the windows and placing a thin muslin curtain. over each opening. There should be at least two windows arranged in this manner, even if only one incu- bator is to be operated. In very cold weather the windows should be partly closed, especially on cold nights. When a cellar is not available, a room above ground may be used, but the best conditions for successful arti- ficial incubation prevail in a room that is partly underground. There it is easier to keep an even temperature and to retain moisture. If possible, incubators should be operated in a building used for no other purpose. The location.— If a cellar is to be built especially for incubators, a site should be chosen far enough from the other farm buildings to avoid great loss from fire in case of accident, but not so far away as to be inconvenient. Sloping ground is an ideal building site for an incubating cellar. The building may then be erected parallel with the slope, having one end of the incubating room almost entirely below ground and the other end coming out above ground, or nearly so, thereby making it possible to secure good air and drainage. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 60. The building— A room ten feet high, with a distance of seven feet from the floor to the bottom of the windows, is very satisfactory. A high ceiling is especially beneficial. If the windows are placed properly, they are not at all objectionable in an incubating cellar. If the windows Fic. 60.—A good location for an incu- bating cellar 1848 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES are hinged at the bottom, they may be allowed to drop part of the way open and they may be fastened securely in this position by a small chain or a strong cord. By this method of ventilation the air passes over the windows and into the room, an arrangement that does not permit direct drafts to reach the incubators. It is also advisable to place muslin curtains over the windows that are left open permanently, depending on the other windows for most of the light. The latter may be shaded in case the sun shines through them on the incubators or in case the sunlight affects the temperature of the room. The writer’s idea of a very good incubating cellar is represented in Fig. 61.4 Fic. 61.—A_ good incubating cellar THE OIL SUPPLY A considerable amount of labor may be saved by piping the oil to the incubating room. This is often done by placing an oil tank under- ground a few feet from the cellar wall, the oil being conveyed from the tank to the cellar by means of a small pipe. This pipe is connected with one or more faucets. A very simple and inexpensive arrangement is shown in Figs. 62 and 63. The framework on which the barrel of oil rests is made of planks about twelve inches wide. The upper edges of these planks are cut so that they conform to the shape of the barrel. The barrel should be placed in the shade in order to prevent evaporation of the oil, and if possible it should be placed on the north side of the build- ing. If this position is inconvenient, the barrel may be placed on the east or the west side of the building, under an open shed. 4 The incubating cellar in the illustration belongs to Mr. Joseph Tolman of Rockland, Massachusetts. INCUBATION 1849 A short pipe, with a faucet attached, should be screwed into the spigot opening of the barrel. The barrel may then be rolled into place, and the faucet connected with the pipe leading into the cellar by means of a short rubber hose. The oil faucet in the cellar should be placed in a convenient location, pref- erably in a corner at some distance from the incu- bators. A pan should be placed underneath the faucet in order to catch the dripping and to prevent waste of the oil. A small table on which to place the lamps should be provided near the faucet. Fic. 62.—The oil barrel in position THE LAMP The results of incubation will depend largely on the care given to the lamp, for which one person should be responsible. No one else should raise or lower the flame, or interfere with the lamp in any way except in order to prevent an accident. The lamp should be filled, the wick trimmed, and the burner cleaned, once each day. Filling the lamp—A_ regular hour should be assigned for filling the lamp, preferably in the morn- ing and never at night, and all other work should be arranged to conform to this time; otherwise the lamp may be neglected and serious results may follow. The best time in the morning for this work is immediately after the eggs have been cared for. If the lamp is handled before the eggs are Fic. 63.—The interior arrangement for draw- turned, the hands may become ing the oil oily and thus the eggs may be soiled. Incubator lamps should be filled to within one half inch of the top, and never completely full. Only the best grade of oil should 1850 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES be used. Before replacing the lamp, the oil should be carefully wiped off with a cloth kept for the purpose. Trimming the wick— The wick should be trimmed so that it will produce a square, clean-cut flame. The proper method of trimming the wick is to throw back the top of burner, turn the wick down slightly, and cut away the burned part. A putty knife is best for this purpose. The charred part should be simply shaved off, and no attempt should be made to cut into the wick. Scissors should not be used, for too much of the wick is likely to be cut away or the wick tube may be pinched. Cleaning the burner.— Before cleaning the wick tube, the wick should be turned down in order that it may not be disturbed and the flame thus be made irregular. All the black material should be removed by sand- paper, a knife, or any sharp instrument, and the tube should be wiped with a cloth. Care should be taken not to bend the wick tube; such bending will prevent the wick from working freely. The other parts of the burner should be cleaned thoroughly. The screen around the wick tube should be cleaned once each week, and the burner should be boiled at least once each season in hot water containing washing powder. Regulating the flame.—A new wick or one that is newly trimmed should be watched at first in order to prevent the flame from running up and smoking. The flame should be maintained sufficiently high to keep the temperature at the proper degree and to keep the disk raised slightly during the day. In case the room temperature drops at night, the surplus heat will be used to prevent a drop in temperature in the egg chamber. If the flame flickers, the operator should look for a broken isinglass in the heater and should see that the burner is in place and is working properly. Regulating the heat— The heat is regulated by turning the adjustment nut that is above the regulator bar on the connecting rod. By turning the adjustment nut to the left until the disk over the heater drops flat on the exhaust of the heater, all the heat will pass into the incubator and the temperature will be increased. By turning the adjustment nut to the right and thus raising the disk, the heat will be allowed to escape. When the proper degree of temperature has been reached, the thumb- screw should be turned until the disk is about one eighth of an inch above the heater. When the amount of heat is once correctly regulated, the temperature will vary only slightly if proper care is given to the lamp flame. Changes in the temperature of the air outside should be met by altering the lamp flame, not by changing the regulator; as the chicks develop, however, more heat will be given off from the eggs, and the result- ing increase in temperature will necessitate changing the regulator. The eggs should never be placed in the incubator until the temperature is properly regulated. CO on a INCUBATION I TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE, AND VENTILATION Temperature After the eggs have been placed in the incubator, the temperature will drop and will remain low for several hours; it will then gradually rise, taking perhaps twelve to fourteen hours to reach the desired degree. The operator should not attempt to increase the heat too rapidly, but should allow it to increase gradually. When the correct degree of temperature 1s reached, there should be only slight variations of tem- perature during the period of incubation. Although it is best to maintain an even temperature, it is not always possible to do so, and an occasional variation of one half degree, or slightly more, will not result seriously if the average temperature is correct. A high temperature should be avoided, especially at the beginning of incubation. The temperature should be read through the glass door of the incubator, and this door should be opened as few times as possible. Temperature during the first week of incubation.— The position of the thermometer should always be considered in determining the proper degree of temperature to be maintained. If the thermometer hangs above the trays of eggs, as 1t does in some incubators, thereby registering the temperature of the air and not that of the eggs, the actual temperature of the eggs is 1 to 13 degree lower during the first week than the registered temperature of the egg chamber. Therefore, in order to give the eggs the proper amount of heat during the first week, if hanging thermometers are used, it is necessary to keep the temperature at 102.5° or 103° F.; if contact thermometers are used, the temperature should be 102° F. Contact thermometers should always be placed between two fertile eggs. Temperature during the second week of incubation.— The temperature within the incubator is less influenced by that outside after the first week, owing to the increasing amount of animal heat given off by the growing embryos. If hanging thermometers are used, the mercury should be held at 103° F.; if contact thermometers are used, the heat should be increased to 103° F. Temperature during the third week of incubation.— The temperature should be maintained as near 103° F. as possible until about the eighteenth day, when it may be allowed to rise to 104° F. Moisture and ventilation Oxygen is essential for the normal development of the embryo chick, the amount required increasing with the growth of the embryo. Eggs that are being incubated give off carbon dioxide, which is formed in the - § Directions for controlling the temperature after the eighteenth day are given under the heading ‘The hatching period,” 1852 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES developing chick by the combining of carbon and oxygen, and this in- creases in amount as the embryo grows. The eggs need, therefore, only a comparatively small amount of air during the first few days of incubation, as only a small amount of carbon dioxide is given off during this period. It is asserted by some authorities that the natural amount of carbon dioxide given off by the eggs is beneficial, on the ground that it aids in dissolving the carbonate of lime in the shells. Some experimenters go so far as to assert that it is really necessary for the successful development of the embryos. The writer is not yet ready to indorse this statement. Excessive ventilation, permitting a rapid circulation of air in the egg chamber, would result in rapid evaporation of the moisture. Hence, for normal development of the embryos it is necessary to provide moderate, well-controlled ventilation throughout the period of incubation, or to check ventilation during the first part of the period and then to increase it as it becomes necessary. With either method it is essential that mois- ture shall be present in order to prevent undue evaporation. If the ventilation is checked, it is not considered so necessary to supply moisture as it is in cases where ventilation is continued through the entire period of incubation, because evaporation takes place much more slowly when the change of air in the egg chamber is lessened than when it is increased. The amount of evaporation of the egg contents may be controlled very successfully by maintaining a proper degree of humidity in air that is taken into the incubator. The humidity under a sitting hen usually registers about 60 per cent. If a non-moisture incubator is operated in a room in which the air is dry, owing to climatic conditions, or a room in which several incubators are being operated, it may be necessary to supply moisture. Supplying motisture-— Unless the manufacturers so direct, moisture should never be supplied in an incubator.’ If non-moisture incubators are operated in a dry place, the floor of the room may be kept wet unless it is of wood, in which event pans containing water may be placed under the incubators. The amount of moisture exhaled from a surface in a given space of time is governed by the extent of the surface and not by the depth of the receptacle. This principle should be remembered when supplying moisture in a room or in an incubator. In using incu- bators in which arrangements have been made for supplying moisture, certain days should be set for looking after the supply in order to avoid a possible chance of the moisture receptacle’s becoming dry. The correct amount of moisture to be supplied to a given number of eggs can be determined only by watching and studying the size of the air cells. 6 Thé same amount of moisture placed above the eggs that is often placed underneath them would cause complete suttiration and would damage the hatch in most incubators; hence the manufacturers’ directions should always be followed. INCUBATION 1853 Moisture on the glass door of the incubator at pipping time usually in- dicates a good hatch. This moisture is due to the large amount evaporated from the chicks. Controlling ventilation.— In some cases ventilation is controlled by slides over the ventilator openings, which are usually in the bottom of the incubator. In using incubators of this type, it is a good practice to restrict ventilation during the first five days of incubation by keeping the slides closed, opening them gradually after the fifth day until they are wide open. The temperature of the room must be considered in regulating the ventilators; and the warmer the weather is, the wider the ventilators may be opened. Some incubators have additional ventilators to be opened only after the chicks are through hatching; these must not be mistaken for the ventilators that are to be used during incubation. Con- stant ventilation is provided in some types of incubators that are not fitted with slides. Such machines should never be tampered with. The necessity of following the manufacturers’ directions in regard to venti- lation cannot be too strongly impressed on the mind of the novice. HANDLING THE EGGS The eggs should not be placed in the incubator until it has been heated for several days and properly regulated, and all directions have been followed in regard to adjustment of parts, special attention having been given to the manufacturers’ directions concerning ventilators, felts, trays, and the like. Eggs of a uniform size, shape, and color should be chosen so far as possible, and those with very porous or otherwise defective shells should be eliminated (Fig. 64). A few more hours are usually required FIG. 64.—Eggs for incubation; 1, : : lected; 2, non-selected in hatching eggs from the heavy type of fowls than are needed for leghorn eggs; therefore it is not advisable to set the two kinds of eggs together in an incubator. Turning the eggs — From the time when the eggs become thoroughly heated until the chicks issue from the shells, more or less evaporation of the egg contents takes place. The yolk being lighter than the albumen, unless the position of the egg is changed at frequent intervals, there is a tendency for the yolk to gradually rise; and, as the developing germ retains its position on the upper side of the yolk, it will in time be forced against the inner shell membrane and become dried fast to it, this condition resulting in death to the germ. It is said that the sitting hen turns her eggs several times during the day and night; but conditions existing Se- 1854 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES in artificial incubation do not admit of so many turnings. However, it has been found essential to turn the eggs twice daily, beginning twenty- four to thirty-six hours after they are put in the incubator and continuing until the nineteenth day of incubation, on and after which the incubator should be kept closed. The additional fact that, as a rule, incubators do not supply an even distribution of heat to all parts of the egg tray, makes it doubly necessary not only that the eggs shall be turned twice each day, but that their positions on the trays shall be changed as regularly as the eggs are turned. Regularity in turning the eggs has much to do with the success of the hatch. The best time to turn the eggs in the morning is before any other work has been done in connection with the care of the incubator. The eggs must be turned again in the evening. These times for turning the eggs should be twelve hours apart, as nearly as possible. Not only does this ar- rangement enable the operator to have a specified time for doing the work, but it keeps the times for turning the eggs as far apart as is conveniently possible, and it equalizes the space of time between turnings—two im- portant factors. Since the principal reasons for turning eggs are (1) to prevent the germ from drying to the shell and (2) to equalize the heat, it is necessary that the eggs be given a thorough shuffling (Fig. 65). This may be done satisfactorily by removing a few eggs from the center of the tray and by rolling the remaining eggs with the palms of the hands. The eggs should be rolled in such a way that those around the outer edges of the tray and in the corners will be worked toward the center, and those from the center toward the outer edges. The eggs taken from the center of the tray at the beginning of the operation should be placed in the corners of the tray. The eggs must not be shoved roughly against one another, nor rolled too vigorously. The tray may be turned end for end at each turning of the eggs; and if two trays are used they may be interchanged at one turning and turned end for end the next time. Cooling the eggs—— The successful cooling of eggs during incubation counterbalances, to some extent, the still imperfect methods of ventilation. In order to cool eggs properly, the operator must consider the length of time they have been incubated, the weather conditions, and the room temperature. It is not known just how much cooling is necessary for the best results, nor can a time-table be made that will work successfully Fic. 65.—Turning eggs INCUBATION 1855 with all types of incubators and under varying atmospheric condi- tions. But the fact that eggs incubated by hens undergo more or less cooling and yet hatch well, makes it appear essential that those artificially incubated shall be treated correspondingly. Results prove this theory to be true. It has been proved that excessive ventilation causes a too rapid evaporation of the egg contents. Eggs cooled too much are affected similarly. Therefore, for the first seven days of incubation it is best not to leave them out of the incubator longer than is necessary for proper turning. The length of time to cool eggs may be determined by touching several of the eggs to the eyelid or to thelips. If the eggs are cooled suffi- ciently, they will feel cool at the first touch. They should never be left out of the incubator long enough to become cold. The expert operator can tell when the eggs are cooled to the proper point by placing the palms of the hands on the eggs. In this way he gets the average temperature of several eggs. The loss of heat from all eggs is not the same in amount during a given time. Eggs containing embryos of low vitality give up their heat much more rapidly than do eggs containing embryos of high vitality. Eggs should be cooled to the point at which they cease to give off heat and are about to become cold. When cooling is begun, it will take only a very few minutes, perhaps four or five, to cool the eggs sufficiently; the length of time depends on the temperature of the room. The cooling should be gradually extended over a longer period as the embryos grow. In warm weather thirty to sixty minutes may be needed in order to air the eggs properly during the latter stages of incubation. On very sultry days extra cooling is beneficial; less is desirable on cool days. In cold weather only a com- paratively short time will be required in order to cool the eggs sufficiently. Cooling may be done after either the morning or the evening turning of the eggs, or at both times. If the eggs are cooled twice each day, a period of only half the length of time mentioned above should be re- quired each time. Eggs may be cooled on a table, or perhaps on the top of the incubator. Care should be taken that no part of the tray containing the eggs shall project over the edge of the table or the incubator, for the eggs on the projecting part of the tray would be likely to become overcooled. Some authorities advise cooling the eggs in the incubator by opening the doors. This is not good practice. While the doors remain open the heat is con- stantly escaping, and the incubator becomes cooled as well as the eggs. A longer time is then required in order to bring the temperature of the egg chamber back to the proper degree than when the eggs are cooled outside and the incubator kept closed. Cooling should be discontinued on the nineteenth day of incubation. 1856 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Many accidents may be avoided if the operator forms tle habit of looking at the incubators before leaving the room, making sure that the doors are closed and that everything is in place. TESTING THE EGGS Probably the most important of the several reasons for testing eggs during the period of incubation is that the person operating the incubator may learn the percentage of fertile eggs and the strength of the germs. If those are known to be unsatisfactory, it may be possible to make such changes in the mating of the breeding stock or in the environment surround- ing the breeding stock as will add to the fertility of the eggs and will strengthen the germs in them, thereby increasing the percentage of eggs that will hatch and also im- proving the quality of the chickens hatched from them. If infertile eggs are left in the incubator, they are likely to make the temperature registered by the thermometer non- representative of the eggs as a whole if a contact thermometer is used, for Fic. 66.—Testing eggs: 1, Common testing : i device; 2, egg properly held; 3, incubator the temperature of an infertile egg lamp; 4, untested eggs; 5, infertile eggs; or of one containing a dead germ is 6, good eggs : considerably lower than that of an egg containing a strong, living germ. The value of testing eggs during the period of incubation is shown particularly when three or four incubators are set at the same time, for the fertile eggs left in one incubator may be divided among the other incubators, thus saving oil and lessening the amount of labor. Removing the eggs containing dead germs helps to prevent the bad odors that are sure to accumulate during the time when eggs are being incubated. Odors from ducks’ eggs are more noticeable than those from hens’ eggs, and if they are incubated artificially, it is the more necessary that the bad eggs be removed from the incubator. Infertile incubated eggs that have been carefully tested may be sold for a certain percentage of their original value if they are put on the market promptly. Incubated eggs offered for sale should always be labeled as such. In large cities they are used in bakeries and in house- holds for cooking purposes. There is no reason why eggs of this kind should not be used in this way. They are, without doubt, as good as or better than many of the so-called fresh eggs on the market. If white eggs are being incubated and those that are infertile are to be sold for INCUBATION 1857 cooking purposes, they may be tested on the fourth or the fifth day. Brown eggs are less easily tested, and it is usually advisable not to test them before the sixth or the seventh day. In order to obtain the best results, the eggs should be tested first on the seventh day of incubation and again on the fourteenth day. A common method of testing is illustrated in Fig. 66. If the germs are strong and the eggs have been properly incubated, only a few dead germs should be found on testing the eggs a second time. It is better to do the testing at night unless the room can be darkened during the day. A convenient movable room for testing eggs either during the day or at night is easily constructed at a low cost in the following way: The framework should be made of 2x2-inch lumber. The side and back walls should be made of thin lumber down to about one and one half inch from the floor, and these walls should be painted black on the inside. Heavy black cloth or paper may be used in place of the 1 lumber. Black cloth is preferable ia RERT to lumber for use in covering the top, as the former will allow the heat to escape. The size of the room is governed by the space it is to occupy and by the size of the egg trays. A dark-colored window shade or a black cloth curtain should be hung over the entrance. A hole a little smaller than an ordinary egg should be cut in the rear wall of the room sufficiently high and at the proper distance from the side walls to be convenient in testing eggs held in the right hand. The work is less tiresome if this open- ing is directly opposite the right arm, and as low as possible without caus- ing the operator to stoop. Brackets “*"* whe ae for the egg trays should be placed Fic. 67.—Interior view of testing room: inside of the room along the sides, 1, Curtain rolled; 2, shelf and tray for : tested cL: infertile and and boards the width of the tray Bee peop rd ee should be placed on the brackets before the tray of eggs is placed on them in order to prevent the eggs from cooling too rapidly. ‘A shelf is placed lower down in order to hold the trays for the infertile eggs and those containing dead germs. On the outside of the rear wall a third shelf should be provided for holding the lamp that is used in testing. Any ordinary lamp that can be fitted rE, 185! THE CORNELL READING-COURSES with an egg-testing device will answer the purpose, provided it gives a good flame; or a Rochester burner may be used without the testing device by placing a sheet of asbestos between the testing room and the lamp chimney. In case a testing device is used, the opening in it should be placed against the small hole in the rear wall of the testing room. By placing casters on the four legs of the testing room it may be moved from one incubator to another, thus avoiding the extra labor of carrying the eggs toand from the place where they are tested. This arrangement will prove a decided advantage in connection with incubators of large capacity; also, testing may be done very accurately during the daytime. The construction of this testing room is shown in Figs. 67 and 68.’ If the operator prefers to do the testing at night, a common testing device and a house lamp are sufficient for the purpose. On bright, sun- shiny days testing may be done accurately without a testing room by using a frame that fits tightly against a window facing toward the sun. This frame should be covered with heavy black cloth or paper, in which is cut a round or oval opening about the size of an egg. This arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 60. During the winter it is advisable to cover the trays of eggs while they are being tested. This is not neces- Fic. 68.—Side view of testing room, wall cut away, showing: 1, Testing device; 2, lamp; 3, egg tray; 4, tray for in- sary in a warm room unless the eggs ertile and dead germ egg : f g 88 are out of the incubator for some time. In case the first test is made on the seventh day of incubation, the live germ, if it is strong, will show distinctly the blood vessels branching in various directions. The germ should be centrally located in this network of blood vessels, and it is usually found near the air cell, provided the egg is held with the large end up. A live embryo is easily moved by turning the egg about. Occasionally the germ will be hardly visible, but its presence is readily detected by a darker appearance of the egg contents than is shown by an infertile egg. If for any reason the person doing the testing is in doubt as to whether a germ is alive or dead, it is well to mark the egg and test it later; this practice will 7 Mr. Robert Herman of Lakewood, New Jersey, designed a room very similar to the one shown here. INCUBATION 1859 help to make the person testing the eggs more expert, and will add interest to the work. An infertile egg that is being tested has the same appearance as a fresh egg, the only apparent difference being in the size of the air cell. In Fig. 70 may be seen several types of eggs and conditions of development as they appear after seven days of incubation. Dead germs are found on the seventh day in various forms and sizes, the most common of which are shown in Fig. 71 (2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). All these types should be discarded. Blood rings, also shown in Fig. 71, are caused by the bursting of the blood vessels, due to overheating or to other reasons causing a weakened condi- tion of the embryos. FIG. 69.—A convenient arrangement for sunlight testing: 1, Tray for untested eggs; 2, tray for good eggs; 3 and 4, trays for infertile and dead germ eggs; 5,curtain in place The second test is more difficult to make than is the first. Many of the weaker germs will not differ materially in appearance from those that are dead, and some that have died within a few days of the time of the test cannot be distinguished from the living embryos. However, if an egg contains a strong living germ, the germ will be dark in color and apparently fairly well developed; the space below the membrane forming the air cell will be filled, making the division dark and firm; and occasionally life will be denoted by motion within the egg. The less developed the embryo appears to be, the fewer are the chances of its hatching. If the egg con- tents immediately below the air cell appear uneven and indistinct, and if the remainder of this division shows no development of the embryo as in the other eggs, it may be concluded that the germ is dead. t860 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES In Fig. 72 are shown drawings of some eggs containing living germs on the fourteenth day of incubation, and of other eggs in which the embryo is dead. By comparing the air cells as shown in Figs. 70 and 71 with those shown in Fig. 72, it will be seen that the air cell increases in size during the first two weeks of incubation. This increase continues until about the Ly 5 6 en Fic. 70.—Eggs as they appear when held before tester after seven days of incubation, compared with fresh egg: 1, Fresh egg; 2, infertile egg; 3, weak germ; 4, strong germ as most commonly found; 5, strong germ very near atr cell; 6, germ not visible nineteenth day, the size of the cell varying somewhat with the individual eggs in the same incubator or under the same hen. The air cells in eggs un- der the hen are usually smaller than those in eggs artificially incubated. Eggs incubated in moisture incubators generally have smaller air cells than those incubated in non-moisture incubators. The air cell is found or- INCUBATION 1861 dinarily at the large end of the egg, but occasionally one is found a little at one side or near the small end. Various positions of the air cell, and also the comparative sizes of the air cell at different periods of incubation, are shown in Figs. 73 and 74. Fic. 71.—Dead germs after seven days of incubation (2, 3, 4, 5, and 6), to be compared with a live germ as seen in I and in Fig. 70 (4 and 5): 1, Lie germs in a double-yolked egg; 2, blood ring and germ stuck to shell, 3, blood ring; 4, floating germ, 5, floating germ and & S 5 5 ~ & 8 blood ring; 6, blood ring THE HATCHING PERIOD Hatching time is a critical period in incubation, and special attention is necessary to the successful operation of the incubator. In most cases the incubator door should not be opened after the nineteenth day, and all work requiring handling of the eggs or opening of the door should be completed 1862 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES on the eighteenth day. The trays should be so arranged that the chicks will drop into the nursery as they come toward the light. If the ther- mometer in use stands on the tray it should be securely fastened; other- wise the chicks will upset it, and this will necessitate opening the door te 5 6 Thre Fic. 72.—Egegs at fourteenth day of incubation: 1, Strong live embryo; 2, li:e embryo; 3, weak live embryo; 4, 5, 6, dead embryos of the incubator in order to right the thermometer, or running the risk of a wide variation in temperature. A temperature higher than 105° F. and one lower than 103° F. should be avoided at this time. Both these undesired extremes will occur at some time during the hatching period unless careful provision is made against them. It would be much better to remove the lamp for a time INCUBATION 1863 than to permit the great increase in temperature that usually occurs when the chicks are coming out of the shell in greatest numbers. Generally, this increase may be overcome by _— Je-——mmmyg----- turning down the lamp flame. Very often, 2 toward the end of the hatching period it is necessary to raise the flame in order to keep the required temperature. These two changes in temperature in so short a time will be readily understood when it is remembered that the eggs supply a great amount of animal heat during the last week of incubation, and that this animal heat naturally increases as the chicks commence to work their way out of the shells. After the chicks are all hatched, and after they have drop- Fic. 73.—Various positions : of air cells ped into . the nursery, the heat decreases. There is also more or less condensa- tion of moisture from the newly hatched chicks at this time, and this has a tendency to lower the temperature. The position of the ventilators at hatching time depends on the make of the incubator. It is not considered advisable to permit a very great change of air until the chicks are all out of the shell. After the hatch is completed, the egg trays should be Fic. 74.—Size of the air cell at different Peteyee eee any = peels periods of incubation: 1 day, 7 days, 14 that may have dropped into the days, and 19 days of incubation nursery, and the ventilators should be opened to their full width. If the room is warm, the incubator door may be fastened open one half inch at the top. The chicks should be left in the nursery until the day after the hatch. They should be thirty-six to forty- eight hours old when they are removed ese to the brooder. i= = aiee e eaete: SE | | deep-setting method, .17 of 1 per cent & Sale of fat. Y be This loss of milk-fat from the milk = te of a single cow giving 5000 pounds of i} “a Mm milk each year, is shown in Figure 81. The skimmed milk usually amounts to about eighty-five per cent of the whole milk, which in this case would mean “nl -M LU Mi ea \ =s' eighty-five per cent of 5000 pounds of IN fg == whole milk, or 4250 pounds of skimmed N WA milk. In the manufacture of butter vl te \WAN Za certain amounts of moisture, salt, and casein are incorporated. Thus it is possible to make more butter from a certain amount of milk-fat than there was original fat. This in- 1 The hand separator and the gravity systems of creaming. By O. F. Hunziker, Purdue University Agricultural Experiment Station. Builetin 116. Fic. 80.— The water-dilution method CREAM SEPARATION 1873 crease is known as overrun. In the computation shown in Figure 81 allowance was made for an overrun of one-sixth of the original amount of milk-fat. According to the statements given, if the price of butter were 30 cents a pound there would be an annual loss of $9.60 on each cow by the use of the water-dilution method, and $2.25 on each cow by the use of the deep-setting method. These losses are computed on the basis of the amount of milk-fat lost through the use of these methods as compared with the amount lost if a modern centrifugal separator were used. SEPARATION BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE Centrifugal force acts in direct proportion to the weight of matter. The specific gravity of skimmed milk is greater than that of cream; therefore Fic. 81.— A comparison of the amount of butter lost in the skimmed milk from one cow producing 5,000 pounds of milk in one year, by the use of different methods of cream separation. Reading from left to right: water-dilution method, 33 pounds; shallow-pan method, 22 pounds; deep-setting method, 8.5 pounds; centrifugal method, 1 pound the skimmed milk is forced from the center of a separator bowl with a greater velocity, and the cream is crowded, or concentrated, toward the center of the bowl. The purpose of the bowl devices in separators There is a device in all separator bowls which guides or feeds the whole milk into the region of the greatest centrifugal force. With one exception, all centrifugal separators with which the author is-familiar have internal bowl parts, such as disks, cones, blades, and the like. The purpose of these parts is to form pathways for the skimmed milk and cream to pass each 118 1874 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES other. It must be remembered that these devices do not cause separation; they simply aid the centrifugal force. The introduction of these devices has made possible the use of a much smaller bowl for a given capacity. In the evolution of improvement in this direction, the bowls of cream separa- tors have become lighter, and they are consequently easier to turn and to handle. The separator referred to as being the one exception has a long and narrow tube-like bowl in the smaller sizes in which it is manufactured. The regulation of the percentage of fat in cream The richness, or the percentage of fat, in cream derived from whole milk by the use of a centrifugal separator is regulated by either a cream screw or a skimmed milkscrew. Twomain facts should be re- membered in this con- nection by the person operating a centrifugal separator when he sets either of these screws. The first of these facts is that the richness of the cream depends on the point in the bowl from which it is drawn. The richest cream is that which is drawn CLs from the center of the Fic. 82.— A comparison of the amounts of cream from one : can of whole milk separated at different temperatures. The bowl, and the richness pounds of fat in the whole milk and in each pail of cream decreases as the dis- are practically the same tance from the center of the bowl increases. The other fact is that the smaller the proportion of cream is to skimmed milk, the richer the cream is in fat. The percentage of fat in cream should be regulated according to the use that is to be made of the cream. Ordinarily for churning purposes, the proportion of cream to skimmed milk should be approxi- mately one to eight, or one to ten. For example, in one hundred pounds of whole milk testing four per cent fat, there are four pounds of fat (100 pounds x 4 per cent = 4 pounds fat). In ten pounds of cream that have been separated from the given too pounds of whole milk and that test forty per cent fat, there are approximately four pounds of fat (10 pounds x 4o per cent =4 pounds). If there is no waste, pas mi. Ba Iie 755 1bs.°2. CREAM SEPARATION 1875 there are ninety pounds of skimmed milk (100 pounds — 10 pounds = go pounds). The ratio of the cream (10 pounds) to the skimmed milk (go pounds) is one to nine. If cream having a lower percentage of fat is desired, this ratio will be less. Cream with a lower percentage of fat is often used on the table and for making ice cream. In separating cream for these purposes the ratio of cream to skimmed milk should be about one to four, to five, or to six, depending on the percentage of fat in the whole milk. -It is readily seen that a comparison of the quantities of cream and skimmed milk obtained in separation gives a close approximation of the percentage of fat in the cream. These ratios are shown in Figure 82, which also gives the results of temperature study of one separator. This topic is discussed later in the lesson. The figure makes clear the fact that if cream with a high percentage of fat has been separated, no more fat has been obtained from a given amount of whole milk than if the cream has a low fat con- tent, for the weight of the cream is less. If a well-made centrifugal separator is operated properly, it will separate cream containing as high as forty-five to fifty per cent of fat, and there will be only the normal loss of fat in the skimmed milk. Usually it is not de- sirable that cream should contain more than forty to forty-five per cent of fat, for very rich cream is wasted by sticking to cans, dippers, and other utensils, and it is difficult to obtain a representative sample of it for testing. The fat content of cream cannot be controlled to a definite percentage by the regulation of the cream screw or the skimmed milk screw, and the per- centage of fat in cream will not remain constant even when these screws are not changed. There are certain factors that affect the percentage of fat in cream to a greater or less degree as it is being separated.” The effect of these factors on the percentage of fat in skimmed milk is not so noticeable as their effect on the percentage of fat in cream. Factors that affect the percentage of fat in cream and in skimmed milk separated by a hand centrifugal separator The temperature of the whole milk.—The temperature of milk that is being separated should be such that the milk will flow easily, in order to facilitate rapid and thorough separation of the cream and the skimmed milk. The temperature does not need to be as high as the body temperature of a cow, which is normally about ro1.4° F.; however, if the separation is done on the farm, milk should be separated as soon as possible after it has been milked, especially in the winter. In creameries and in other places where milk is separated after it has cooled, the temperature of the milk should be raised to 85° to go° F. before it is separated. The temperature of the 2A more complete study of the conditions that affect cream separation is recorded in Bulletin 360 of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. This bulletin will be ready for distribution July I5, 1915. as = : 1876 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES whole milk has a direct effect on the percentage of fat in the cream and the skimmed milk. In order to show the exact effect of variation in tem- perature, tests of cream and skimmed milk that had been separated by five different types of separators were made. The results of these tests are given Per- cent- age 40 30 20 Io Po go° 80° 75° So alee gevy (o go° 80° S05 7 5~ 90° 80° Separator 1 Separator 2 Separator 3 Separator 4 Separator 5 Fic. 83.— A diagram representing percentage of fat in cream as influenced by the tem- perature of the whole milk. Temperatures are expressed in degrees Fahrenheit in Figures 83 and 84. The cream and the skimmed milk separated by all of the separators were not affected alike by different temperatures. From a study of Figure 83, it may be thought that there is an advantage in having the whole milk at a low temperature because the cream from two of the separators contained a much higher percentage of fat when the temperature was low than when it was normal. However, the loss of fat in the skimmed milk was comparatively greater, as shown in Figure 84. When the amount of fat in the skimmed milk does not vary greatly, the amount of cream from CREAM SEPARATION 1877 a certain quantity of whole milk decreases in direct proportion to the in- ‘crease of the amount of milk-fat in the cream. This fact is clearly brought out in Figure 82. It should be noticed in Figure 82 that the weight of the fat in the whole milk and in all three pails of cream was approximately the same, but that there was a distinct variation in the weight of the cream. The rate of speed.—The centrifugal force that causes separation in the modern separator is produced by the rapid revolving of the bowl. The separator bowl about four inches in diameter makes approximately nine thousand revolutions per minute. Thus a point on the circumference of the bowl travels at the rate of somewhat less than two miles per minute. Z Z G Z GY ZY} Z Z ZY Z GY Z, Z Z ° 90° 80° 9024 (80. 775° go° 75° 70° 90° = 80 90°75 S r4 Separator 5 Separator 1 Separator 2 Separator 3 Separato Fic. 84.— A diagram representing percentage of fat in skimmed milk as influenced by the temperature of the whole milk. Temperatures are expressed in degrees Fahrenheit The number of turns of the crank necessary to effect thorough separation of milk varies for different machines from forty-five to sixty-five turns per minute. Aslight variation in the speed of the crank has a great effect on the velocity of the bowl; and care must be exercised in producing a uniform speed, if uniform results are to be expected. The effect of a decrease of six or ten revolutions of the crank per minute on the percentage of fat in the cream is considerable, as shown in Figure 85; and the effect on the percentage of fat in the skimmed milk is very slight, as shown in Figure 86. A slight variation in the speed of the crank does not affect the amount of fat separated from the whole milk, but it does affect the quantity of the cream separated. 1878 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES All hand separators have the number of revolutions of the crank neces- sary for efficient separation marked on the crank, and all power separators have instructions as to the proper rate of speed at which they should be op- Per- cent- age 30 20 10 fa) _- & a : i ieee Revolutions 60 54 50 60 50 45 38 55 45 60 $0 Separator 1 Separator 2 Separator 3 Separator 4 Separator 5 Fic. 85.— A diagram representing percentage of fat in cream as influenced by the number of revolutions of the separator crank per minute erated. Naturally the manufacturer is careful not to state a rate of speed for his separator that will give results just above the border line of poor separation. If these instructions given by the manufacturers are Per- cent- are o8 06 4 Revolutions 60 54 50 6 fo) 45 38 55 4 Separator 1 Separator 2 Separator 3 Separator Fic. 86.— A diagram representing percentage of fat in skimmed milk as influenced by the number of revolutions of the separator crank per minute followed carefully, the separation of milk will be found to be thorough. The fact is, however, that the rate of speed may drop several hundred revolutions of the bowl below the number designated for correct speed, and CREAM SEPARATION 1879 still the skimmed milk will contain approximately the same percentage of milk-fat as when the bowl is revolving at the so-called normal speed. In the case of the hand separators Per cent- this amounts to five or ten revo- 22¢ : : 45 lutions of the crank less than the number given for normal speed. Percentage of fat in whole ,, milk.—The percentage of fat in whole milk is variable. In this respect the milk from individual cows may vary as much as two or three per cent from one milking to another, and yet the cow may appear to be in a normal con- dition. The fat content of the milk of a herd is not so variable as the fat content of the milk from a single cow. Other things being equal, the larger the herd is, the smaller is the variation of the fat content of the milk. The difference in the percentage of fat in milk is not so great from day to day asit is from milking to milking, and this variation is still less from week to week and from month to month. The in- fluence of a variation in the fat content of the whole milk on the percentage of fat in the cream is pete ahs 5 3 4. 8 shown in Figure 87. The per- Seige ald ere ey ais . . Fic. 87.—A diagram representing the percentage centage of fat in the cream is in of fat in cream as influenced by the percent- almost direct proportion to the 4e of fat in whole milk. The figures on the at ; left of the diagram represent percentage of fat percentage of fat in the whole — jx cream, and those underneath represent per- milk. centage of fat in whole milk Variation in the quantity of whole milk or in the amount of liquid used for flushing.— There is a variation in the quantity of milk from one milking to another, and this causes a variation in the amount to be separated from one time to another. There are very few persons operating separators who use a fixed amount of skimmed milk or water for flushing the separator bowl. For the hand machines two or three quarts of flushing material are sufficient. The amount of flushing material that goes into the cream is only a small 20 1880 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES percentage of the total, and it affects only slightly the percentage of fat in the cream. Under average conditions these factors are not of much im- portance if approximately the same quantities of milk and flushing material are used each time. Slime deposit.— If the passages for the cream and the skimmed milk in a separator are closed or partly closed by slime deposit, the efficiency of the separator will be affected. The slime deposit is composed of fibrin from Fic. 88.— The barn is not a desirable location for a separator the milk and of dirt, and it accumulates in a greater or less amount even from the best of milk. Generally, this accumulation is not sufficient to cause excessive loss of fat in the skimmed milk if the separator is run the length of time of the average separation. The length of the period of sep- aration will be considered later in the lesson. ADVANTAGES OF THE CENTRIFUGAL METHOD OF CREAM SEPARATION OVER THE GRAVITY METHODS t. Ordinarily, fewer utensils are used in the centrifugal method than in the gravity methods. If the herd is composed of only two or three cows, this may not be true; but if there are eight to ten cows, it is true. CREAM SEPARATION 1881 2. The skimmed milk that has been separated from the cream by a cen- trifugal separator is fresher and warmer for use in feeding stock than the skimmed milk produced by the old methods. This may not be an advan- tage in some cases; however, in no case is it a detriment. 3. The fat, which is the most valuable constituent of milk, is immediately obtained in a small quantity and is therefore more readily cooled and Fic. 89.— A woodshed may be a suitable pluce for a separator otherwise handled. If the old gravity methods of separation are used, about thirty-six hours are required for the cream to “‘rise.”’ 4. Cream separation by the centrifugal method is more thorough than by the gravity methods because less milk-fat is left in the skimmed milk. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN BUYING A CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR A question that comes to the purchaser of a cream separator is, ““ Which is the best separator?’’ Since improvements in the construction of separa- 1882 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES tors are being made constantly, it is impossible for any one person to collect sufficient data to determine this point. However, there are a few points concerning separators that should help to guide the buyer of one. The following is a list of these points: 1. Size.— Ordinarily for farm use, a separator should be of such a size or such a capacity that it will separate the milk produced by a herd at one milking in one-half hour or less time. Usually a farmer’s time is worth enough to make it cheaper for him to buy a separator that is large enough to do his separating in the proper length of time than it is for him to use more of his time in operating a smaller machine. There are conditions on the farm that must be considered in the selection of a separator of proper size. It may be the plan of the farmer to increase or Fic. 90.— A convenient and inexpensive building in which to make farm butter. The gasoline engine is located in the lean-to decrease the size of his dairy herd, and, since a separator will wear for many years, these plans for the future must be borne in mind. In buying a separator for creamery use, both the maximum and minimum amounts of milk for different seasons of the year should be considered. 2. Supplies for repairing purposes.— The. obtaining of supplies without difficulty is one of the most important considerations in buying a separator, and this point should be especially emphasized in localities where trans- portation facilities are rather limited. Most of the companies manufac- turing cream separators have supply centers in many sections of the country, so that in case of a breakdown new parts can be quickly obtained. Some dealers in separators carry a stock of supplies. 3. Other factors—The other factors to be considered need but little dis- cussion. The following ones are mentioned so that the prospective buyer of a separator may have a fairly complete list of the points to be considered. CREAM SEPARATION 1883 The factors are: preference to certain makes; price; amount of power re- quired for operation ; accessibility to parts and number of parts to be cleaned; simplicity of entire construction ;indication of durability ; efficiency, as shown in the amount of milk-fat left in the skimmed milk and as shown in the ability of the separator to separate the guaranteed number of pounds of whole milk per hour. THE LOCATION OF A CREAM SEPARATOR The location of a separator in a creamery is not so difficult a problem as the finding of a suitable place for a separator on some farms. The two main Fic. 91.—A satisfactory building in which milk may be handled in a sanitary manner, and a good location for a separator considerations in either case are sanitation and convenience. The separa- tor should be placed in such a position that during the period of separation the milk and the cream will not come in contact with bad odors and sources of contamination from microorganisms. In creameries or other large dairy plants, no such sources of trouble should exist. On farms separators are often placed in barns and in some cases behind the cows, as shown in Fig- ure 88. Under no circumstances should a separator be placed in such a position, even though it is convenient to the cows, and to the calf pens and the pigpens where the skimmed milk 1s fed. 1884 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES There are probably more hand separators located in the kitchen than in any other one place on the farm, especially during the winter. The kitchen is a convenient location for a separator because it is a comfortable place in which to work, and it is near the source of hot water, which is absolutely essential in the proper care of dairy products. The woodshed is also usually near the source of hot water and is likewise a convenient place for a sepa- rator. Either the kitchen or the woodshed may be used with satisfactory results if the floor is sufficiently solid to prevent vibration of the machine r Fic. 92.— Interior view of the building shown in Figure ot when it is in operation, and if proper precaution is exercised in ventilation and in the prevention of such odors as those coming from burned bacon, cabbage, onions, and the like. The one great objection to handling dairy products in the kitchen, which is often the living room of the house, is caused by the danger of spreading pathogenic organisms, in case any member of the family has a contagious disease. Itis therefore preferable to have the separator in a separate room or building, even if it is necessary to take the movable parts to the kitchen for cleaning. A separate milkhouse, or dairy building, is recommended in cases where the dairy herds are larger than the average, which is probably less than ten CREAM SEPARATION 1885 cows if cream is separated on the farm; in cases where cream of a special grade is being produced; in cases where conditions in the house are too crowded; or in cases where it is desirable to use a power-driven separator. Examples of neat and simple buildings are shown in Figures 90 and gr. The dairy house in Figure go is a plain building with unfinished interior. It is twelve feet by sixteen feet in size, and the cost of construction, according to the owner’s statement, was about $65. The drainage is through a trap into a drain leading to a gravel bed. This building houses a complete out- fit for making butter on the farm, including a cream separator. The building in Figure o1 is a little more expensive and is better finished than the building just described. The view of it in Figure 92 shows a brick veneer that makes cleaning a little easier than when the interior of the building is left unfinished. The size of this building is ten feet and six inches by fourteen feet. SUGGESTIONS IN REGARD TO THE PLACING AND THE OPERATING OF A CREAM SEPARATOR 1. The placing of the separator — A centrifugal separator is a very deli- cate piece of machinery. It should be carefully placed in a level position on a solid and sanitary base. It should be held in place firmly but not rigidly. It is therefore advisable not to screw the lag screws down tight unless it is so directed by the manufacturers in the printed instructions that accompany each machine. 2. The adjustment of the parts of the bowl.— The bowl devices of a separa- tor must be placed in the bowl in proper position so that the bowl will run with perfect poise. Many separators are turned with difficulty be- cause the bowls are not properly balanced, and a separator cannot do effi- cient work when the bowl is not in proper working order. The rubber ring that is used to seal the bowl must be sufficiently soft in order to make the joint milk-tight. If the rubber ring is hard, it should be held in warm water until it is softened. 3. The oiling of the separator.— Constant care of a separator is necessary in order to supply the proper kind and amount of oil. Manufacturers of separators give directions concerning this subject. 4. The temperature of the whole milk.—Milk that is to be separated shouid be of a proper temperature. This is essential to the efficient operation of the separator, and this fact is brought out in Figures 83 and 84. 3. The place for the milk when the separator is started.—The supply tank should be filled with whole milk before the separator is started. 6. The cream container and the skimmed milk container.—A pail and a milk can may be used as receptacles under the skimmed milk spout and the cream spout, respectively. 1886 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 7. The rate of speed— The rate of speed at which the separator is operated is important, as shown in Figures 85 and 86. The subject is discussed in connection with these figures. 8. The inflow—When a separator is running at the proper rate of speed, the gate of the supply tank should be opened wide so that the proper amount of milk will flow into the bowl. If this is not done, the separator is not likely to separate atits rated capacity. The float, if working properly, will maintain a uniform flow of milk into the bowl. g. The flushing of the bowl—The bowl should be flushed with enough skimmed milk or water to force the cream out of it. Usually skimmed milk should be used for this purpose because no additional microorganisms can get into the cream and the skimmed milk through its use; whereas if water is used, there might be some bacteria present that would cause the cream and the skimmed milk to become tainted with undesirable flavors, even though the water is good for drinking purposes. Usually two quarts of skimmed milk run through the bowl while it is revolving at the full rate of speed is sufficient for flushing, but the amount depends more or less on the size of the separator bowl, the percentage of milk-fat in the cream, and the tem- perature of the whole milk. If the cream is rich in milk-fat and the tem- perature of the whole milk is low, some warm water, having a temperature of about 120° F., should be run through the bowl in order to carry out the milk-fat. This should be done after the bowl has been flushed with skimmed milk. Care should be exercised not to use so much water that the cream will be greatly diluted. 10. The setting of the cream screw or the skimmed milk screw.—lIn case the percentage of fat in the separated cream has not been regulated, it is a good plan to run water through the separator bowl while it is revolving at the proper speed. The screws should be set so that about one-eighth or one- tenth of the water should flow from the cream spout, if the cream is to be © used for churning purposes. A more complete discussion of this subject is given on page 1874. SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING THE CLEANING OF A SEPARATOR 1. Rinsing the parts of a separator.—The interior parts of the separator that have come in contact with the milk should be rinsed with lukewarm or cold water. If hot water is used, the casein of the milk is likely to be precipitated on the utensils, and it is rather difficult to remove after it has hardened because it adheres very closely. 2. Cleaning the parts of a separator with washing solution.— Water alone is not sufficient to use for cleaning a separator. A very good washing so- lution may be made by dissolving about a level tablespoonful of washing powder or a sufficient amount of soap in a gallon of water that is as hot as CREAM SEPARATION 1887 - the hands can bear. The solution should be strong enough to remove all grease from the parts of the separator; and a brush, not a cloth, should be used in washing them, for the use of the brush is a more sanitary practice. 3. Lhorough scalding of the parts of the separator —All removable parts of the separator should either be plunged in water that is near the boiling point and kept there for at least a minute, or be thoroughly steamed. If hot water is used, it will kill most of the bacteria on the parts of the sep- arator, will rinse off the washing solution, and will give sufficient heat to dry the parts. Do not use a cloth for drying these parts, for the bacteria on it are likely to be smeared on the clean surfaces. The hot-water recep- tacle should be large enough to hold a pail while it is being scalded, and it should be suitable for placing on the stove or over a steam jet. If the dairyman does not have such a receptacle, boiling water may be poured over the parts of the separator; however, this is not so effective as plunging the utensils beneath the surface of the boiling water. After the parts are dry, they should be placed where dust and flies cannot reach them. The directions given for cleaning a separator should be followed in cleaning all of the utensils that are used in the care and handling of milk. Cleanliness concerning these utensils cannot be overemphasized. CORNELL STUDY CLUBS Cornell study clubs are local organizations of farmers and their families, which aim to promote the study of Cornell reading-course lessons. One of the chief benefits of these clubs is that they furnish an opportunity and an incentive for study. Often a helpful lesson will reach a farm home at a time when the members are too busy to give it attention, and it is soon forgotten. If, however, a special time is set aside for the study of reading- course lessons at a club, it is likely that much more reading will be accom- plished. The secondary purpose of Cornell study clubs is to increase a neighborly feeling in the community and to offer an opportunity for an exchange of thought on subjects of common interest. In the meetings of a club the members should find enjoyment in an interchange of ideas and a training for free and orderly self-expression. The organization ofa Cornell study club can be easily effected even if at first only half a dozen persons desire to forra a group. The president and the secretary of the club should be chosen, and the dates and places for meetings decided on. The meetings should be held frequently enough to maintain an active interest in them; regularly every two weeks during the fall and winter is usually considered sufficiently often. If it is not advisable to meet every fortnight in spring and summer, monthly meetings are suggested. Study clubs hold their meetings in churches, 1888 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES grange halls, and at the homes of the members. The meetings should proceed under a definite order of business, the programs should be planned carefully several weeks in advance, and the leaders should be selected and held responsible for the success of the meetings. The supervisors of the reading-courses will be pleased to suggest reference books and bulletins to leaders who desire additional material for study. Reading-course lessons should be obtained by the secretary of the club and distributed to the members at least one week in advance of a meeting, so that the members may be prepared for a general discussion, which should follow the opening talk given by the leader. Each study club should first become fully informed as to the material available in the two reading-courses. The reading-course for the farm discusses farm practices and important rural problems. The reading- course for the farm home takes up such household subjects as sanitation, foods, household management, and household furnishing. If the study club is composed of men, the lessons should be related to local agricultural conditions, and should deal with operations in progress at the time of year in which they are being discussed. Valuable suggestions for a club composed of women will be found in Cornell Study Clubs, Cornell Reading- Course for the Farm Home, Vol. I, No. 13. A number of Cornel! study clubs are promoting very successfully the study of the two reading-courses, and are reaching both the men and the women of the community. Some of the clubs discuss farm subjects and farm home subjects on the same program; others divide into two groups for separate discussions, and hold the remainder of the program in common. Ifa club desires to undertake this more general organization, it may prove mutually advantageous to men, women, and young people in many practical ways. Moreover, such a club may have the inspiration of a larger membership and may exert a wider influence. Cornell study clubs may bring about cooperation in matters of public concern, and may grow to be influential factors in promoting community welfare. They may also prove of financial benefit by becoming agencies for cooperative buying and selling. The success of the Cornell study club must depend principally on local leadership. It is hoped that public- spirited persons will find in the Cornell study clubs a means of improving the agricultural and social conditions in their communities. Visits from representatives of the college will be arranged when possible. Cordial cooperation in establishing study clubs may be obtained by writing to the Supervisor, Reading-Course for the Farm, or the Supervisor, Reading- Course for the Farm Home, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. Whenever desired, study clubs may be conducted in connection with the educational work of granges, churches, schools, and local agricultural societies. CREAM SEPARATION 1889 The following three ways are suggested in which reading- course lessons may prove valuable to a study club or to any other organi- zation: 1. For study by the entire membership previous to a general discussion at a regular meeting. 2. To aid leaders in preparing for a program at a regular meeting. 3.or feference: A set of available lessons may be obtained for use by a study club or for the library of any church, school, grange, or other organization. Bulletins and circulars of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station may also be obtained for the above purpose by writing to the Mailing Room, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. AVAILABLE READING-COURSE LESSONS FOR THE FARM, ARRANGED BY SERIES Residents of New York State may register for one or more of the series mentioned below by addressing The Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. SERIES Pe SOUks 275.2 ess a 74 OGL Y: - . aty ae sive site av 80 Rural engineering..... 8 Pati LOresthyes:.42 55% i) smneshOLse. 226 < sels 2040 * Lesson for the Farm Home. 119 LESSONS Introduction to the principles of soil fer- tility Tilth and tillage of the soil Nature, effects, and maintenance of humus in the soil Soil moisture and crop production Land drainage and soil efficiency Incubation Feeding young chickens Knots, hitches, and splices Sewage disposal for country homes The improvement of the woodlot Recent New York State Laws giving relief from taxation on lands used for forestry purposes County, town, and village forests Methods of determining the value of timber in the farm woodlot Feeding and care of the horse Practical horse-breeding 1890 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES SERIES LESSONS Dairying: +. 4% .. 16 Practical dairy problems 32 Composition of milk and some of its products 54 The dairy herd 60 Farm butter-making 82 Cream separation 84 The production of clean milk (in press) Pitt OrOwing oes. &..-<% 22 The culture of the currant and the goose- berry 36 Culture of red and black raspberries and of purple-cane varieties 48 Culture of the cherry 52 Culture of the blackberry 72 Culture of the grape Parmijcrops tae. 482. ¥ 20 Alfalfa for New York 24 The rotation of farm crops 66 Meadows in New York Stock feeding........ 26 Computing rations for farm animals Vegetable gardening... 34 Home-garden planning 58 Planting the home vegetable garden Plant breeding.*...... 38 Principles and methods of plant-breeding 44 Methods of breeding oats 68 Improving the potato crop by selection Country life) Ase 64 The rural school and the community 76 Birds in their relation to agriculture in New York State The above list is correct to March 15, 1915. The demand may at any time exhaust the supply of particular numbers. Requests will be filled as long as the supply lasts. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY B. T. GALLoway, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, NewYork VOL. IV. No. 82 FEBRUARY 15, I915 a be SERIES CREAM SEPARATION DISCUSSION PAPER A discussion paper is sent with each reading-course lesson in order to assist the reader in studying the most important points. The discussion paper also encourages thought, observation, and self-expression. Each discussion paper filled out and returned will be read carefully and a personal reply will be made if further information or references for advanced reading are desired. Practical suggestions on farm problems will be sent gladly. New readers should enroll in one or more of the following series of reading-course lessons: THE SOIL, POULTRY, RURAL ENGINEERING, FARM FORESTRY, THE HORSE, DAIRYING, FRUIT GROWING, FARM CROPS, STOCK FEEDING, VEGETABLE GARDENING, PLANT BREEDING, COUNTRY LIFE. The first lesson in each series desired is sent on enrollment, and subsequent lessons are sent, one at a time, on the return of discussion papers. 7 here- fore, in order to receive the other lessons in thts series, the reader should sign and return this discussion paper, whether the questions are answered or not. By means of reading-course lessons, study clubs may be promoted, which may become important factors in community welfare. ‘Assistance will be given in organizing and conducting clubs. The space below on this page is reserved for correspondence concerning reading-course work, and also for names and addresses of residents of New York State likely to become interested on receipt of information. [1891] 1892 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES (In answering questions, atiach additional paper if needed and number the answers.) t. Are you using one of the gravity methods of skimming cream? If so, what one are you using, and what percentage of fat is left in the skimmed milk? 2. If you are using a gravity method, are you experiencing difficulty in churning because of a low percentage of fat in the cream? 3. If you are using one of the gravity methods, is the cream sold for consumption as sweet cream? If so, have you experienced any difficulty in keeping it sweet? CREAM SEPARATION 1893 4. Are you using a modern centrifugal separator? If so, what. per- centage of fat is left in the skimmed milk? 5. Have you found a variation in the percentage of fat in the cream and in the skimmed milk from one period to another? If so, how great was the variation? 6. Are you able to attribute the variations noted in question 5 to any conditions of separation? If so, what are the conditions? 7. Where is your separator located? 1894 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 8. Is the base of your separator level? Of what material is this base composed; and is it easily cleaned? 9. What are the important considerations to be observed in washing the separator? to. What do you think is the most important consideration in buying a separator? The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY B. T. GALLoway, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York INSECT SERIES oO. 1 VOL. IV. No. 84 MARCH 15, 1915 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE C. R. Crosspy ano M. D. LrEonarp EARLY five hundred species of insects N have been reported as feeding on the apple; however, a relatively small number of species are responsible for the heavy losses. In this lesson are discussed only the more important insects that attack the fruit itself: namely, codling moth, apple maggot, apple redbugs, fruit-tree leaf-roller, and green fruit- worms. The San José scale often stunts the fruit and disfigures it with red spots; but, as the more important injury is to the twigs and branches, this insect will be discussed in a future lesson. The plum curculio also causes the fruit to become knotty and deformed; it will be treated as a plum pest. Owing to the stringent requirements of the apple packing law of 1914, fruit growers have been forced to take a greater interest in producing fruit free from all blemishes caused by insects. In order to produce clean fruit it is necessary that the fruit grower should be familiar with the various types of injury caused by the more important insect enemies of his crop, and that he should be acquainted with the more important facts in their life history. Most injurious insects have at least one vulnerable point in their life cycle when it is possible to do the most effective work in destroying them. Familiarity with the various stages of each pest is necessary in order to ascertain which are these weak spots and when they occur. THE CODLING MOTH Carpocapsa pomonella Linneus For nearly a century the codling moth has been the most serious insect enemy of the apple in New York. A native of Europe it was introduced into New England in the early part of the eighteenth century, whence [1895] 1896 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES it gradually spread westward, reaching California about 1874. The losses caused by the codling moth are often severe; from one-fourth to one-half of the crop in the unprotected orchards of New York State is sometimes destroyed in this way. As a rule the percentage of infested apples is greater during years when there is a short crop than when the yield is large. The explanation of this is stmple: when the crop is small there are more caterpillars in proportion to the number of apples. The esti- mated apple crop for New York State in 1914 was 6,500,000 barrels. Assuming that one-fourth of the crop was destroyed by the codling moth, the production of that year would have been 8,666,666 barrels. Thus the loss was 2,166,666 barrels, or $2,166,666, estimating these apples at $1 per barrel. According to the census of 1910 there were 11,248,203 bearing apple trees in New York State. It is estimated that 40 per cent of these trees are sprayed at least once for the codling moth. The cost of this work is not far from to cents per tree, or about $45,000. The sum of the loss of the fruit and the cost of spraying necessitated by the codling moth is at least $2,211,500, which represents the annual tax levied on New York State by this insect. Owing to its great economic importance the codling moth has received more attention at the hands -of entomologists than any other insect injurious to fruits, and the facts of its life history have been worked out with greater detail. Ranging throughout North America wherever the apple is grown, it has adapted itself to the variations in climate by modify- ing the length and number of generations produced annually. In New York State there are one brood and a partial second brood annually, but in the Lake Champlain district the second brood is so small as to be of little importance. The insect is, therefore, not so destructive in this State as it is farther south where the longer growing season permits more generations to develop. Life history—In New York the codling moth passes the winter as a full-grown caterpillar, curled up in a tough silken cocoon under flakes of bark or in crevices in the trees. While the greater number find suitable winter quarters on the trees, a few occasionally secrete themselves«in piles of rubbish, in adjacent fences, or in other dry, protected places. Occasionally on young smooth-barked trees the catetpillars do not find a suitable hiding place on the trunk or branches, and they may then be forced to spin their cocoons under stones or in the space between the trunk and the soil; it is very doubtful if any of the caterpillars in these situations survive the winter. The cocoon measures from one-half to five-eighths inch in length and is composed of a thin tough layer of silken thread, in which is mixed bits of the bark or wood to which it is fastened. It is lined with white silk and the outside is rendered inconspicuous by the addition of bits of dirt and bark. Insects INJURIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE 1897 With the first warm days of spring the caterpillars begin to transform to dark brownish pupz. The transformation usually takes place within the cocoon in which the caterpillar spent the winter, but in case the cocoon is in a deep crevice or under a_ tight flake of bark, the caterpillar may leave its winter quarters to con- struct a new cocoon nearer the surface; in the latter pupation takes place. Sometimes the cater- pillar, without leaving the cocoon, merely opens the end and spins a silken tube out to the surface through which the moth is easily able to gain its freedom. The pupa (Fig. 93) is about one-half inch in length; it is at first yellowish in color, but later it turns brown. The rate at which the caterpillars trans- form to pupz depends considerably on the temperature, and pupation is greatly retarded by cold, backward weather. The average time spent in the pupa state is about four weeks for the spring brood. The moths emerge during a period of several weeks, but the time at which the greater number appear varies considerably with the season; it is, however, usually about two weeks after the blossoms fall. The moths with wings expanded measure about three-fourths of an inch. The front wings have the general appear- ance of watered silk, which effect is produced by alternating irregular lines of brown and bluish gray. Near the hind angle is a large light brown area, bounded on the inner side by an irregular chocolate brown band, and crossed by two similar bands of a coppery or golden color in certain lights. The hind wings are coppery brown, darker towards the margin. The two sexes are very similar in appearance (Fig. 94). Fic. 93.— Pupe of codling moth, in their cocoons. Enlarged Fic. 94.— Codling moth, enlarged 1898 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES If the weather is warm, egg laying begins in from three to five days after the moths have emerged; but if the weather is cold, it may be deferred for some time. The average life of the moth is about ten days, and each female lays from thirty to over one hundred eggs. The glisten- ing, flat, oval, scalelike eggs are about half the size of a pinhead in diameter (Fig. 95). Those of the spring generation are laid mostly on the leaves, though a few are sometimes placed on the fruit and branches. Though the eggs are deposited throughout a period of several weeks, the greatest number are laid about three weeks after the blossoms fall. The eggs of the spring brood hatch in from six to ten days. In general in New York, though the condition of the weather will alter this somewhat, the earliest laid eggs will begin to hatch about three weeks after the petals fall, and hatching will be at its height about a week later, or about four weeks after the petals fall. This point is impor- tant from the standpoint of control and should be borne well in mind. The newly hatched caterpillars are about one-sixteenth inch in length and semitransparent whitish in color with a blackish plate just behind the head and another at the hinder end, which are known respectively as the thoracic and anal shields. On the back are small blackish tubercles, which become less distinct with age. These little larve at first feed to a slight extent on the leaves, but most of them make their way directly to the young fruit where they begin feeding within the calyx lobes. Seventy per cent or more of the caterpillars enter the apples at the blossom end. It is this fact that is taken advantage of in spraying for the first brood of codling moth. After feeding for a short time in the calyx cavity (Fig. 96) the larva burrows to the core, eats the seeds, and hollows out a large cavity, which becomes filled with masses of excrement loosely webbed together with silk (Fig. 97). The length of time spent in the apple by each larva varies con- siderably, but averages about four weeks for the first brood. The larva then bur- 16. 96. Young codling moth 2 larva feeding in calyx cavity rows to the surface and makes an exit hole, usually on ‘the side of the apple, which it keeps plugged with frass (Fig. 98). When full grown the larva measures about three-fourths inch Fic. 95.— Codling moth egg, greatly enlarged Insects INJURIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE 1899 in length and is pinkish white in color with the head darker brown and the thoracic and anal shields lighter brown (Fig 99). Most of the larve come out of the fruit before it falls, and crawl down the branches until they find a suitable place in which to spin cocoons. The caterpillars of the spring brood are divided into two classes: first, over- wintering caterpillars, those that do Fic. 98.— Exit hole not transform to pup until the fol- lowing spring; second, transforming larve, those that transform during the same season pro- ducing another gen- eration. The larve that winter over spin Fic. 97.— Full-grown codling moth burrowing in an apple of codling moth larva, plugged with frass the transforming loosely woven, and are provided with an exit tube for the moth. In New York the transforming larve, as a rule, leave the fruit before August 1, but they comprise only a small percentage of the total num- ber that spin cocoons before that date. The moths of the second brood begin to emerge about the first of August and continue until the early part of September. Within a few days these moths begin to lay eggs, which hatch in about ten days. A larger proportion of the eggs of the second brood are laid on the fruit than is the case with the first brood, and a larger pro- portion of the larvee of the second thicker, stronger cocoons than those that are destined to transform during the same season. larvee are used only for a short time, are therefore more The cocoons of Fic. 99.— Full-grown codling moth larva, enlarged about three times brood enter the fruit at the side than did the first brood. These cater- pillars remain in the fruit, on an average, between five and six weeks, 1900 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES The second-brood moths begin to appear in New York during the latter part of July and the first of August, but the exact date of emergence differs somewhat with the condition of the weather and the locality. If May and June are cool and backward months, egg laying by the spring brood of moths will be retarded, and consequently a much smaller number of the caterpillars will complete their growth and leave the fruit before the first of August. Since the moths that lay the eggs for the summer brood of caterpillars must come from caterpillars that spin cocoons before August 1, under such circumstances this second, or summer, brood is greatly reduced in numbers. On the other hand, a warm May and June will accelerate the activities of the insects of the spring brood, so that a greater number of caterpillars will spin cocoons before August 1, thus producing a larger and more important summer brood. The time of emergence of the second brood can easily be determined for any given locality by banding a few trees with burlap. A suitable band may be made from a strip from ten to fourteen inches wide, folded once lengthwise, and long enough to reach around the tree and have the ends lap. The ends of the band are held in place by a nail driven lightly into the tree where the ends meet. The bands should be in place by about the first of July in order to get the first caterpillars that leave the fruit. Some of the first-brood larvee will take shelter under these bands and spin cocoons there. From about the middle of July on, these bands should be examined every few days; and when empty cocoons are found, it is an indication that the moths have begun to emerge, and that the young caterpillars of the second, or summer, brood will be entering the apples in about two weeks, depending, however, somewhat on the weather. This is the only sure method of determining when the second-brood moths are emerging, for the two broods overlap somewhat at times, and thus the first individuals of the second brood are often on the wing before the last of the first-brood moths have disappeared. Natural enemies.— The eggs of the codling moth are often seauonen by a tiny wasplike parasite that’ deposits its eggs within the egg of the codling moth. The minute larve that hatch from these eggs devour the contents of the egg of the host, transform to pupze within the eggshell, and finally emerge as adult parasites through a hole in the shell. Four of these parasites have been reared from a single egg. Other parasites attack the larve and pupz of the codling moth, and it is subject in all stages to the ravages of predaceous insect enemies. In addition to the parasitic and predaceous insect enemies that attack the codling moth in its various stages, birds are efficient agents in holding the pest in check. Over a dozen species feed on it. The downy woodpecker, the nuthatch, and the chickadee destroy great numbers of the larve that winter under bark Insects INJURIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE 19Ol flakes. Small flocks of these birds may be seen in the orchard during the fall and. winter months carefully going over the trunk and branches of the trees searching for insect food. In Figure 100 a is shown an empty codling moth cocoon on the inner surface of a bark flake, and in 6 is shown the outer surface of the flake with a hole made by a woodpecker in extracting the larva. Many such flakes of bark may be found on apple trees infested by the codling moth. These birds are such efficient aids in destroying the codling moth that it will pay the orchardist not a b only to protect them but also in Pye. too— Bark flake showing hole many cases to attract them to the through which codling moth larva nas : F been extracted by woodpecker: a, inner trees by tying strips of beef fat or surface; b, outer surface suet to a few branches. Birds will visit beef fat daily, and then spend hours in searching for insect food on the trees. Means of control.—As has already been stated, seventy per cent or more of the first-brood larvee enter the fruit at the blossom end. On this important habit of the codling moth rests the present system of controlling it with poison sprays. When the petals fall from the » blossoms, the calyx lobes are spread ~ apart enclosing a cavity, the bottom of which is formed by the bases of the stamens standing close together on the inner surface of the calyx cup, as shown in Figure 1or. In the control of the codling moth an arsenical poison is sprayed into this calyx cup. In a week or so after the petals fall, the calyx lobes close over the cavity and prevent the poison from being washed out by the rain. On entering the apple the young caterpillar feeds for some time in the calyx cup, and is thus killed by the poison before the fruit is injured. The poison is applied just as the last of the petals are falling, because at Fic. 101.— Section through newly set apple showing calyx cavity, enlarged 1902 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES this time it can be sprayed into the calyx cup most easily. This is the most important spray for the codling moth and should be applied with great thoroughness. The material now almost always employed against the codling moth is arsenate of lead. It may be used either in the paste form or in the dry, or powdered, form. From four to six pounds of the paste or from two to three pounds of the powder should be mixed with one hundred gallons of water. It is necessary that the spray be applied with a pump giving a pressure of from one hundred to two hundred pounds per square inch, and the spray should be directed downward so as to hit the young fruits squarely in the blossom end. In order to do satisfactory work on the higher branches, the man handling the nozzle should stand on an elevated tower high enough so that with an extension rod twelve or fourteen feet long he can reach out over the top of the tree and by means of an angle nozzle direct the spray downward into the ends of the young apples. In the case of very tall trees it is impossible to thoroughly spray the tops; and under such circumstances it is better to head in the trees by judicious pruning. By doing very thorough work with this first spray it is possible to produce a crop of apples from ninety-five to ninety-eight per cent free from codling moth injury without making any later applica- tions of the poison. As has already been stated, the codling moths do not begin to emerge until about a week after the petals fall, and the eggs do not begin to hatch until about two weeks later, or three weeks after the petals fall. If an additional poison spray is applied at the time when the young caterpillars are hatching, many of them will be poisoned by feeding on the foliage before reaching the apples, since a large proportion of the eggs are laid on the leaves at some distance from the fruit. The spray will also coat the surface of the young fruits with poison, and thus kill many of the caterpillars that attempt to enter at the side. While this application is not absolutely necessary for the control of the codling moth, nevertheless a spray is usually applied about this time for the control of apple scab, and it will do enough good to more than pay for the arsenate of lead used, which is the only additional expense involved. The best way to control the second brood of codling moths is to do such thorough and careful work in spraying for the first brood that prac- tically no caterpillars will survive to give rise to moths of the second generation. In case, however, a person has been unsuccessful with the earlier applications of the poison, it is sometimes advisabie to spray for the second brood about the first of August. As has been stated, the size and the importance of this second brood depend on the earliness of the first brood, and this in turn depends on the temperature during May and June, When the season has been early, there is more danger that the Insects INJuRIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE 1903 crop will suffer from the attacks of second-brood larvee, and under such circumstances, the late spray is more important than in years when growth has been more backward in the early part of the season. Here again, it is often desirable that poison be applied in combination with a fungicide in order to prevent late infections of apple scab. Spraying schedule for the codling moth A. When the last of the petals are falling Arsenate of lead, 4 to 6 pounds in roo gallons of lime-sulfur (32° Baumé) diluted 1 to 4o. This is the most important spray for the control of codling moth and should never be omitted. B. About three weeks after the petals have fallen Arsenate of lead, 4 to 6 pounds in roo gallons of lime-sulfur (32° Baumé) diluted 1 to 4o. C. About August I Arsenate of lead, 4 to 6 pounds in 100 gallons of lime-sulfur (32° Baumé) diluted 1 to 4o. THE APPLE MAGGOT Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh Summer and early fall apples in New York State are often badly infested by small whitish maggots (Fig. 102) about one-fourth inch in length, which tunnel through the fruit in all direc- tions. Although summer and early fall varieties are most susceptible, winter apples are often seriously in- jured. Subacid and sweet varieties are most liable to infestation, but acid varieties, such as Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, and Oldenburg, and even crab apples are sometimes at- tacked. Fameuse is very susceptible ; to injury by the apple maggot in the nee pre he bgt refi of xy grow ggots. nlarge Lake Champlain district. Life history— The parents of this maggot are two-winged blackish flies somewhat smaller than the house fly, with yellowish head and legs and three or four transverse whitish bands on the abdomen. The wings are marked with four confluent brownish bands (Fig. 103). In New York these flies first appear in the orchard in early July, usually from about the fourth to the middle of the month, and are common until the latter 1904 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES part of September. The flies feed for from one to three weeks before egg laying begins. During this time they may be observed lap- ping drops of moisture from the fruit. The manner in which they take their food is interesting and also important from the stand- point of control. The mouth- parts of these fruit flies are fitted for lapping or licking rather than for sucking or biting. The pro- Fic. 103.— Female apple maggot fly boscis (Fig. 104) is a tonguelike organ roughened and somewhat enlarged on the end, by means of which fluid or semifluid substances may be lapped up. As has been stated, from one to three weeks of feeding must take place before the eggs are fully matured within the body of the female. At the end of this period egg laying begins. The female bears on the end of the abdomen a sharp ovipositor with which she inserts her minute, elongate, whitish eggs into the pulp of the fruit just beneath the skin (Fig. 105). Each female is probably capable of laying between three hundred and four hundred eggs. Theeggs Fic. 104.— Head of apple hatch in from two to six days. Immediately on heed He ee fee hatching, the little maggots begin to tunnel just beneath the skin or into the fruit, but they grow slowly until the fruit begins to ripen or to decay (Fig. 106). Badly in- fested fruit often shows large brown areas on the skin, where decay has set in due to the presence of the maggots. Sometimes the maggots tunnel just beneath the skin, and in the light-colored varieties these burrows show through as winding darker areas. From this habit the insect has received, in many localities, the name of railroad worm. In many cases the apples are apparently sound at picking time, but later when they begin to soften Fic. 105.—Egg of apple maggot inserted in the } : : flesh of an apple just in storage or in shipment, the maggots develop and beneath the skin. ~ Greatly enlarged render them unfit for use. The length of time that the maggots spend in the apples varies considerably with the condition of the fruit and of the Insects INjJuRIoUS TO THE Fruit oF THE APPLE 1905 weather. If the fruit is ripening and if the weather is warm, the larve may become fully developed within two weeks after hatching from the eggs; while on the other hand if the fruit is hard and green and if the weather Fic. 106.— Apples infested by apple maggots, cut open in order to show decaying interior is cold, the maggots do not mature so quickly, and the time of emergence from the apples may be deferred for months. A case is on record where in January maggots were observed leaving the apples in storage. The presence of maggots in the fruit usually hastens decay and causes the apples to drop to the ground. When the larva becomes full-grown, it leaves the fruit by a small ragged exit-hole in the skin, burrows an inch or so into the ground, and its skin contracts and hardens to form a tough leathery protective covering known as a puparium (Fig. 107), which some- what resembles a grain of wheat. Within this puparium a series of remarkable changes takes place, in which the organs of the larva are broken down and made over into those of the adult, or fly. By the end of the second day the true pupa is formed within this protective covering, and the head, legs, and Fic. 107.— Puparium of apple maggot, : enlarged. Natural size shown in upper wings of the fly become apparent. right-hand corner In this stage the insect spends the winter, and the following spring the fly emerges through a circular split at the head end of the puparium. In New York, however, during the 120 1906 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES latter part of September a few of the puparia transform to flies and thus produce a partial second brood. This brood is small and probably does but little damage. Means of control—Injury by the apple maggot is most severe in neglected, unpruned, uncultivated, and unsprayed orchards. As a rule it is rarely troublesome in orchards that are properly cultivated and that have regularly received the usual sprays made for the codling moth. In orchards which for the past few years have been seriously infested it would be advisable to make three or four applications of sweetened arsenate of lead at intervals of a week, beginning when the flies first appear on the trees. The sweetened spray is prepared according to the following formula: PSENACE TO MICAGY 382. 8..21i ccc: tee nee eee este 6 pounds. CheapemOlasses a6 sss. ocr nett eee 2 gallons WVALLER ces SER areca tc R as ne ne ee too gallons The sweetened spray need not be applied with the care used in ordinary arsenical spraying, because it is in the nature of a bait to which the flies are attracted and on which they feed and die. THE APPLE REDBUGS Heterocordylus malinus Reuter and Lygidea mendax Reuter Although apple redbugs had been under observation for some years at Ithaca, the first serious outbreak in New York State was in the spring of 1908 in a large orchard near Syracuse. Since that time they have been increasing in importance as an apple pest until they are now fairly common through the apple-growing regions of New York except in the northern part of the State. There are two kinds of apple redbugs that are closely related and resemble each other in general appearance. For convenience in referring to them, one has been called the apple redbug and the other the false apple redbug. The adult apple redbug is about one-fourth inch in length (Fig. 108) and varies in color from red to black, and the Fic. 108.— Adult apple redbug, enlarged INsEcts INtURIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE 1907 whole upper surface of the body is thinly covered with conspicuous white, flattened, scalelike hairs. The adult of the false redbug (Fig. 109) is of almost the same size as the preceding, but the color is generally a lighter red, and there are no white hairs on the upper surface of the body. Life history —The life histories of these two redbugs are similar. The insects spend the winter in the egg stage. The eggs are dull whitish, sharply curved, and slightly compressed. These are in- serted by the females, during late June or early July, their full length into the bark of the smaller branches, preferably of the previous season’s growth. As far Fic. 109.— Adult false apple redbug, ; enlarged as is known, the eggs of the redbug are placed in a slit in the bark at the base of the fruit spurs and around the buds, while those of the false redbug are usually inserted in the lenticels of the smooth two-year-old wood (Fig. 110). The eggs of the redbug hatch after the fruit buds burst, and hatching is about over by the time the blossoms open. ‘Those of the false redbug hatch about a week later, or while the trees are in © blossom. The young nymphs of the two species are very similar in appearance. Those of the false redbug (Fig. 111) may be distinguished by their brighter red color, the absence of darker mark- ings on the thorax, and by the body’s being covered with fine short black hairs. This species retains its bright color until full-grown, but the redbug (Fig. 112) becomes nearly black on the thorax after the third molt. The redbugs pass through five immature, or nymphal, stages, the wing pads becoming more apparent each time the skin is shed until Fic. 110.— Section of twig showing egg of false apple redbug 1908 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES with the fifth molt the wings are fully developed. The insects reach maturity in about a month after hatching. ° Shortly after hatching the young nymphs make their way to the leaves from which they suck the = juices by means of the slender bristles within their beaks. The leaves become spotted with minute reddish dots due to the small feeding-punctures of the nymphs. This condition is often the first indication of the presence of red- bugs, since the insects themselves a SS are very shy and extremely dif- Fic. 111.— Fifth stage nymph of false apple ficult to locate among the opening tetas buds in an orchard. The nymphs may live on the foliage until full-grown, but usually they attack the fruit as soon as it sets (Fig. 113). The injury to the foliage though often conspicuous is of little importance, and it is to the fruit that the greatest damage is done. When the fruit is very young the bristles of the young bug’s beak may penetrate to the center. The tissue about this puncture becomes discolored (Fig. 114) and hardens so that a corky thread extends to the core. Many of the injured apples fall to the ground, others dry up on the a : trees, while the remaining ones mature but are knotty and un- < marketable. Apparently Rhode Island Green- ing, Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Sweet), Ben Davis, and Northern Spy, in | the order named, are the most susceptible to injury, but other varieties are also somewhat liable to attack. Occasionally the entire crop may be rendered worthless for market, but ordinarily the extent of the injury is much less. It sometimes happens that about twenty-five per cent of the crop is rendered unmarketable. Knotty apples are also caused by curculio punctures and by aphis injury. Red- bug injury may be distinguished from that of the plum curculio by = Fic. 112.— Fifth stage nymph of apple redbug INsEcTs INJURIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE 1909 the fact that no tissue is removed, the juice merely being sucked out, causing a smooth depression in the fruit (Fig. 115). The feeding and egg-laying punc- tures of the cur- culio cause char- acteristic scars, as shown in Figure 116. Aphis injury is characterized by a puckering about the blow end of the fruit, which does not appear in typi- cal redbug injury. Means of control. — If only the true redbug of the apple is present in the orchard, it can be effectually con- trolled by a thor- ough application of “black leaf 40” Fic. 113.— Nymph of apple redbug feeding on a young apple tobacco extract. It should be mixed in the proportion of 1 pint to 100 Fic. 114.— Small apples cut open to show discolored areas around the punctures made by redbugs gallons of water, and 4 or 5 pounds of soap should be added to the mixture in order to make it stick and spread bet- ter. This spray should be applied about the time the blossoms show pink, in order to kill the nymphs while they are still young. If, however, as is usually the case, the false redbug is also present, the application should be repeated just after the blossoms fall in order to kill the young of this species. The two applications coincide with the first scab spray and the calyx IgIo THE CORNELL READING-COURSES spray for the codling moth. ‘ Black leaf 4o”’ can be satisfactorily com- bined with the dilute lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead used at these times. In this case the soap cannot be added. These applications should be suffi- cient to control an ordinary infestation of redbugs. In case, however, the insects are present in great numbers, it is necessary to use such large quantities of the spray liquid that there is danger of folhage injury from the lime-sulfur. Under such circumstances the ‘black leaf 40”’ spray should be applied separately. It is necessary to spray for redbugs at the times indicated, because a little later, when the redbugs have become FIG. 115.—Mature apple, showing larger, they are very resistant to the injury by redbugs c fuene : sprays, and it is then much more difficult to kill them. If the spraying is done too early some of the eggs will not have hatched. In order to spray successfully for redbugs very thorough work must be done. The insects have mouth parts of the sucking type, and it is therefore necessary to hit every insect with the spray so as to wet it thoroughly. Moreover, the young nymphs are extremely agile and readily dodge to the other side of a branch or take refuge among partly expanded clusters of leaves. In order to be most effective the spraying should be done on a warm day when the young bugs are most active, for in cool weather they often secrete themselves in the curls of the unopened leaves where it is impos- : sible to reach them with a spray. A fairly coarse nozzle with a moderate pressure, from too to 120 pounds, will be found the most satisfactory. When the nicotine solution is combined with lime-sulfur and arsenate of lead, a finer nozzle should be used. . It is often desirable to determine in advance of the spraying season whether or not an orchard is infested. This may be easily done by bringing — small branches indoors any time after Fic. 116.— Apple scarred by egg-laying the first of March and by placing punctures of the plum curculio them in dishes of water to force out the buds. If eggs are present on these branches, the young redbugs will appear at the proper time and Insects INIURIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE IQII will begin feeding on the leaves and the blossoms, and in this way a person is easily able to determine which species is present. THE FRUIT-TREE LEAF-ROLLER Archips argyrospitla Walker For some years past, in Colorado and Missouri orchards this leaf roller has been one of the most serious insect pests with which apple growers have had to contend. It has been found in New York State since 1874, and in 1888 and 1892 it was recorded as injuring apples and pears to a slight extent, but it was not until 1911 that it suddenly became a serious apple pest. During the spring of that year the insects appeared in very large numbers in an orchard in Genesee County and in varying numbers in many other orchards in the State. Since then it has been increasing in importance as an apple pest, until during the past season it caused more or less injury in most orchards throughout the apple-growing sections and was very injurious in certain widely separated orchards in western New York. The fruit-tree leaf-roller, though an apple pest, by no means confines its attacks to this fruit. It is also very destructive to pears and has been found feeding in this State on sweet cherry, wild cherry, plum, quince, black walnut, and mountain ash. In the West it has been Fic. 117.— Egg observed on rose, currant, gooseberry, apricot, Osage eee orange, box elder, sassafras, and hazel, in addition to its showing holes more common orchard food plants. It has also been through which : : the young cater- COllected from a number of different kinds of shade and pillars emerged. forest. trees. Enlarged - Although this insect is not equally injurious from year to year in any given locality, on account of its wide range of food plants it is easily able to maintain itself in a section until such time as conditions are favorable to its rapid increase. It may then suddenly become one of the most serious pests with which the apple grower has to deal. Life history.— This insect spends the winter in the egg stage. The eggs are laid on the smaller twigs and fruit spurs in small oval, flat, grayish patches, about one-fourth inch in diameter (Fig. 117). The average number of eggs in one of these masses is about one hundred and fifty though this often varies considerably. Each egg mass is protected by a smooth varnish-like substance. In New York State the eggs hatch just as the buds are bursting, and by the time the blossoms show pink IQI2 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES hatching is practically complete. The young caterpillars are about one-twenty-fifth inch in length and of a light green color with a black head and a black thoracic plate just behind the head. They bore into the opening buds and feed on the expanding leaves, which they web together to form a loose nest. As soon as the blossoms fall, the partly grown caterpillars attack the fruit, first devouring the calyx lobes and then eating large irregu- lar holes in the young apples. It is to the ae fruit that the chief injury is done, though Fic. 118.— Mature apple, show. frequently many buds and much of the ing scar of wound made by foliage are destroyed, and in a number of fruit-tree leaf-roller when the ‘fruit was small cases large orchards have been completely defoliated by this insect. The most severely injured apples soon drop from the tree; those which are not so badly eaten mature but are knotty. The wounds made by the caterpillars heal over, leaving large, brownish, corky scars, which render the apples misshapen and unmarketable (Fig. 118). The scars caused by the leaf roller are, as a rule, deeper than those made by the green fruit-worm. The caterpillars become full-grown in about three weeks, at which time they measure about one inch in length and are of a light green color with head, legs, and thoracic shield varying from brown to black (Fig. 119.) They then transform to brown pupz (Fig. 120) within a rolled leaf (Fig. 121) and in about ten days, or early in June, the moths emerge. These insects have a wing expanse of from three-fourths of an inch to one inch. The front wings are mottled with various shades of rich brown and yellowish white. Some are much darker than others, and the distinctness of the markings varies considerably (Fig. 122). Fic. 119.— Full-grown leaf-roller caterpillar Fic. 120.— Pupe of fruit-tree leaf-roller INsEcts INJURIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE IQI3 The female moth lays her eggs in flat masses usually on the twigs and smaller branches. In New York most of the eggs are laid by the last of June, but they do not hatch until the following spring. There is only one brood annually, about ten months being spent in the egg stage. Means of control.— The fruit-tree leaf-roller has been found to be a diffi- cult insect to control. It often happens that its most destructive out- breaks occur in well- sprayed, well-cared-for orchards. This is because the eggs are not injured by the lime-sulfur spray usually applied, and because the caterpillars feed in the open only for a short time after the buds have burst, at which time no arsenical is ordinarily applied to the trees. Thus this insect is able to escape the applications usually given in a spraying schedule. : The method employed in controlling the leaf roller will depend entirely on the amount of infestation. This can be estimated by the amount of ‘injury done to the crop of the preceding year or less readily by an examination of the trees for egg masses. In cases where only a moderate infestation is in- dicated, a reason- able degree of control can be obtained by thor- ough spraying with arsenate of lead, 24 to 3 pounds in 100 gallons of water. This should be applied as soon as the leaves of Fic. 122.— Moth of fruit-tree leaf-roller the cluster buds begin to open. In cases of severe infestation, experience has shown that the pest can- not be controlled by the use of arsenical sprays alone. In such cases Fic. 121.— Leaf rolled by fruit-tree leaf-roller IQI4 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES the trees should be sprayed just before the buds open with a miscible oil, 1 gallon in 15 gallons of water. Great care should be taken to do thorough work and to apply the liquid so as to wet each egg mass. In this way from seventy to ninety per cent of the eggs can be destroyed, but this treatment alone cannot be relied on to control the pest. It must be supplemented by one or two thorough applications of arsenate of lead, 23 to 3 pounds in 100 gallons of water, made just after the buds have opened. That is, the trees should be sprayed as soon as the buds burst and then resprayed immediately. GREEN FRUIT-WORMS Xylina antennata Walker, and other species Although green fruit-worms are generally distributed throughout the State they do not often become of importance as apple pests. They are primarily forest insects feeding on the foliage of poplar, soft maple, hickory, and wild cherry. Serious outbreaks have occurred at long intervals, 1877, 1896, and again in 1913. For the past two years they have been especially trouble- some in the orchards of Clinton County. The scarcity of these insects over long periods of time has been at- tributed to adverse climatic conditions and to the depre- dations of parasitic enemies. In years of abundance these caterpillars are capable of causing great losses to eae the apple crop, and growers should be familiar with the of green fruit- Nature of the injury and should understand the best worm on twig, means of preventing such loss. enlarged : Although there are three closely related species of green fruit-worms commonly destructive to apples, they are all very similar in appearance and habits. The parent moths appear in the orchard in March or April and deposit their small, nearly globular, ridged, yellowish eggs (Fig. 123) singly on the smaller branches or sometimes on the under- side of the leaves. The moth has an expanse of about one and one-half inches. The fore wings are brownish gray with obscure darker markings; the hind wings are lighter in color (Fig. 124). The moths are sometimes a nuisance in sugar maple groves, where they are attracted to the sap and collect in great numbers in the sap pails. The eggs hatch as the buds are bursting, and the young caterpillars at first feed on the opening leaves. By the time the fruit sets most of Fic. 124.— Moth of green fruit-worm * Insects INJuRIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE Toms the caterpillars are half grown, and they soon turn their attention to the young apples. They begin feeding on the side of the apple and eat out large rather shallow cavi- ties, often continuing their work until nearly half the fruit is devoured (Fig. 125). If the portion injured is not too large, the wound heals over, leaving a large, corky scar, and the apple matures. The scars made by the green fruit-worm are similar to those caused by the fruit-tree leaf-roller but, as a rule, are not so deep, although in many cases it is impossible to determine from the mature fruit which insect was responsible for the injury. Green fruit-worms work on the fruit chiefly during May a = Fic. 125.— Green fruit-worms feeding on young apples though some continue feeding until nearly the middle of June. When full-grown they range from an inch to an inch and a half in length and are light yellowish or apple green in color. A narrow Fic. 126.— Pupa of green fruit-worm, enlarged cream-colored stripe extends down the middle of the back and a wide cream-colored stripe along each side with many similarly colored mottlings or spots, which sometimes form quite distinct stripes along the body above the broad lateral stripes. By the first week in June most of the caterpillars have attained their full growth. They then burrow into the soil beneath the trees to a depth of from one to three inches where they roll and twist their bodies about until a smooth earthen cell is formed. Most of them then spin about themselves a thin silken cocoon; others spin no cocoon. Soon after entering the ground the caterpillars trans- form within the cocoon or earthen cell to dark brown pupe (Fig. 126). At the end of three months, or about the middle of September, most of the moths emerge and go into hibernation. Some of the pups, however, remain in the ground and do not transform into moths until the following spring, 1916 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES Means of control— When the caterpillars begin feeding on the fruit most of them are about half grown. At this time they are very resistant to poison sprays and it is then too late to do effective work against them. The newly hatched caterpillars are more easily poisoned. Their numbers may be greatly reduced by making one or two applications of arsenate of lead, 5 or 6 pounds in 100 gallons of water, before the blossoms open. In this case one of these sprays will coincide with the first scab spray when the blossoms show pink, and the arsenate of lead should be used in combination with the dilute lime-sulfur. In cases of severe infestation it is important that a poison spray be applied just before the blossom clusters separate. ADVANCED READING-COURSES Two advanced reading-courses are now offered by the Cornell Reading- Course for the Farm: the advanced reading-course in fruit growing and the advanced reading-course in vegetable gardening. These courses aim to assist persons who desire to make a careful and systematic study of these subjects. They are especially provided for members of the reading- course for the farm who have completed a study of the available reading- course lessons and who are now ready to specialize. A textbook, questions, and correspondence are used in conducting each course. Statements on important questions are prepared by the students, and are graded by an instructor and returned with helpful comments and suggestions. This provides an opportunity to have opinions and conclusions that are the result of study or experience, judged and corrected by an expert. The requirement of effort and thought on the part of the student by means of questions, and the returning of corrected papers with the grades, offer to the student some of the advantages of a correspondence course. The only expense connected with the courses is the purchase of the textbook. As this remains in the possession of the student, it may well be looked on as a permanent investment. The cost for the textbook in the advanced reading-course in fruit growing is $1.35, and in the advanced reading- course in vegetable gardening is $1.65. The following is an outline of the nature and the requirements of the work given in the advanced reading-courses. The chapters in the text- book are studied consecutively, one at a time. The student’s purpose should be to study, and not merely to read. Each chapter should receive considerable time and thought. The best results will be obtained by setting aside a definite time each day for the work. After making a careful study of each chapter, clear and concise answers should be made to the questions on it without referring to the text. In general it is expected that the course will be completed within six months. The student should Insects InyJuRIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE IQ17 do the work regularly, covering at least one chapter every week, for by so doing interest in the course will not drag, and better results will be obtained. Any resident of New York State who desires to enroll in either of the advanced reading-courses should write for further information to the Supervisor of the Reading-Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. AVAILABLE READING-COURSE LESSONS FOR THE FARM, ARRANGED BY SERIES Residents of New York State may register for one or more of the series mentioned below by addressing The Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. SERIES SNESOU oes ede Sea $ 74 Rural engineering.... 8 arm: forestry .6%.«.. 12 *Lesson for the Farm Home. LESSONS Introduction to the principles of soil fer- vility Tilth and tillage of the soil Nature, effects, and maintenance of humus in the soil Soil moisture and crop production Land drainage and soil efficiency Incubation Feeding young chickens Knots, hitches, and splices Sewage disposal for country homes The improvement of the woodlot Recent New York State Laws giving relief from taxation on lands used for forestry purposes County, town, and village forests Methods of determining the value of timber in the farm woodlot Feeding and care of the horse Practical horse-breeding Practical dairy problems Composition of milk and some of its products The dairy herd Farm butter-making Cream separation The production of clean milk (in press) 1918 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES SERIES LESSONS Prit-srowing.<... =: 22 The culture of the currant and the goose- berry 36 Culture of red and black raspberries and of purple-cane varieties 48 Culture of the cherry 52 Culture of the blackberry 72 Culture of the grape ALMFCLOpS, 0.0% ks 2/4. 20 Alfalfa for New York 24 The rotation of farm crops 66 Meadows in New York Stock feeding........ 26 Computing rations for farm animals Vegetable gardening.. 34 Home-garden planning 58 Planting the home vegetable garden Plant breeding....... 38 Principles and methods of plant-breeding 44 Methods of breeding oats 68 Improving the potato crop by selection Wountry ites «i... 22% 64 The rural school and the community 76 Birds in their relation to agriculture in New York State IGISCCE Ry ee eke Yet 84 Insects injurious to the fruit of the apple The above list is correct to April 15, 1915. The demand may at any time exhaust the supply of particular numbers. Requests will be filled as long as the supply lasts. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY B. T. GaLLoway, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York INSECT SERIES No. 1 VOL. IV. No. 84 MARCH 15, 1915 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE FRUIT OF THE APPLE DISCUSSION PAPER A discussion paper is sent with each reading-course lesson in order to assist the reader in studying the most important points. The discussion paper also encourages thought, observation, and self-expression. Each discussion paper filled out and returned will be read carefully, and a personal reply will be made if further information cr references for advanced reading are desired. Practical suggestions on farm problems will be sent gladly. New readers should enroll in one or more of the following series of reading-course lessons: THE SOIL, POULTRY, RURAL ENGINEERING, FARM FORESTRY, THE HORSE, DAIRYING, FRUIT GROWING, FARM CROPS, STOCK FEEDING, VEGETABLE GARDENING, PLANT BREEDING, COUNTRY LIFE. The first lesson in each series desired is sent on enrollment, and subsequent lessons are sent, one at a time, on the return of discussion papers. There- fore, in order to receive the other lessons in this series, the reader should sign and return this discussion paper, whether the questions are answered or not. By means of reading-course lessons, study clubs may be promoted, which may become important factors in community welfare. Assistance will be given in organizing and conducting clubs. The space below on this page 1s reserved for correspondence concerning reading-course work, and also for names and addresses of any residents of New York State likely to become interested in the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm. [1919] 1920 THE CORNELL READING-CoURSES (In answering questions, attach additional paper if needed and number the answers.) 1. Describe the injury caused by codling moth, apple maggot, apple redbugs, fruit-tree leaf-roller, and green fruit-worms. 2. Outline briefly the life history of the codling moth. 3. When would you spray for the codling moth? Give reasons. Insects InJuRIoUS TO THE FRuIT oF THE APPLE ___Ig21 4. If at any time you have been unsuccessful in controlling the codling moth, to what do you attribute your failure? 5. What varieties of apples have you observed infested by the apple maggot, and which of these were most severely injured? 6. What has been your experience in attempting to control the apple maggot? 7. Have you ever observed in your locality any apples injured by red- bugs? What varieties are most subject to attack in your region? 1922 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 8. How can the injury to the fruit by redbugs be distinguished from that caused by the plum curculio or the apple aphis? 9g. Have you ever used a miscible oil as a dormant spray on the apple to control the leaf roller? If sc, with what results? to. How would you spray an apple orchard badly infested with codling moth, redbugs, and green fruit-worm? The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY B. T. GaLLtoway, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York DAIRYING SERIES No. 6 VOL. IV. No. 86 APRIL 15, 1915 THE PRODUCTION OF CLEAN MILK T. J. McINERNEY The milk ordinance which went into effect in New York on January 1, Ig15, is of importance to all milk producers within the State, unless their Fic. 127.— An inexpensive barn but one in which clean milk is produced by means of careful attention to methods milk has been graded by some local regulation or ordinance established prior to September 1, 1914. The chief provisions of this ordinance may be briefly stated as follows: The milk is to be graded, with the exception of certified milk, according to the health of the cows, the sanitary conditions existing in the dairy barn and the milk house as determined by the dairy score, the bacteria content of the milk or the cream, and the fact that the milk or the cream [1923] 1924 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES has or has not been pasteurized. With the exception of certified milk, the different grades of milk are defined in the code as follows: “Grade A Raw ” ‘Grade A Pasteurized ”’ ‘“ Grade B Raw ”’ ‘“ Grade B Pasteurized ”’ ‘““ Grade C Raw ”’ ‘““ Grade C Pasteurized ”’ Since the Government score card endorsed by the Official Dairy Instructors’ Association is to be used in scoring the dairies, it may be Fic. 128.— Interior of barn shown in figure 127 well to give a brief explanation of it here. This score card (pages 1925 and 1926) attempts to enumerate the points that a good dairy should possess, and gives these points a numerical value. This card may be cut out and used in scoring the reader’s dairy. Probably the dairy score card is most valuable in an educational way. It is educational to the farmer or dairyman because it points out certain defects and shows wherein he can improve; it is educational to the consumer because he can see which dairies are best from a sanitary standpoint. The score card is divided into two parts, equipment and methods. The equipment is THE PRODUCTION OF CLEAN MILK 1925 SCORE CARD USED IN ENFORCING THE MILK ORDINANCE Indorsed by the Official Dairy Instructors’ Association Rimer Obessee Or FART a2. o6. See eer eae ee Re [2G 0 ONE 2 Ce bre ce a ne See Sy ers WtaGess 4a ae ee otal number Of COWS 2.2 .-2..006. a. eee INUmber milling o24 en Gallons or mule produced daily: 00 se A ee Product is sold by producer to families, hotels, restaurants, stores, CONE AIO) Ss eo a ee ES naka a er EE dealer (Eta 1 SCE) 8) aig Ae PAR eee en ee = Permit NOx26 iit cee 2 Date OP inspection x2 en IQI.... PRES NON Sa a aca e choi scented neonate tab an 5 peste a8 ees wns ansceet ee Se ea ee ieee KS SITET) cise NN Peo i Inspector 1926 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES SCORE Score Score Equipment Methods -——___— Perfect! Allowed | Perfect | Allowed cows cows 13 (ala g nan nee oo EOE ee 6U Ea | Clean. .s.-.-..--2-25 ote eee 8 |-——-----.-- Apparently in good health... .1 (Free from visible dirt, 6) If tested with tuberculin with- . in a year and no tubercu- STABLE losis is found, or if tested Cleanliness of stable.......... 6; |e within six months and all LOOT. cess. Bese ioe eee 2 reacting animals removed. .5 Walls. i sfecigerss siseeciaece ee I (If tested within a vear and Ceiling and ledges.......... Tay reacting animals are found and Mangers and partitions... .. I removed, 3) Windows: 6205.02.27. oan I Food, clean and wholesome...... 5 eee Water, clean and fresh......... 5 Na ee ea | Stable air at milking time..... [yal Poa nas | Freedom from dust........- 3 STABLES | Freedom from odors........ 2 Location of stable............. Yl (DA eg ie | Well drained...... 25. OHS BOR I Cleanliness of bedding........ rg) eee Free from contaminating sur- AINVATA a. 21. clo,sreieb ss wieisisieres 24) ee TFOUNGINGS 2 cheesecake seek I Gléant. J. Sears oat sok aes I Construction of stable.. i. | Pee ere Well drained’: 2.0.0.8... 52 I Tight, sound floor and proper CUT OGS Capone oa ae7s Removal of manure daily...... ig [eee a Smooth, tight walls and ceil- To 50 feet or more from stable ANG eee eee eet orton i Proper stall, tie, and manger. .1 MILK ROOM OR MILK HOUSE Provisicn for light: Four sq. ft. Cleanliness of milk room. . 3 of glass per cow........... FY Beebe | [fea area hd) Gp eet 2 ead 0 een ee (bree sq. ft., 3; 2 sq. ft., 25 | UTENSILS AND MILKING sq. ft., Deduct for uneven diss ‘ : ia: ) Cece and Gennes o utensils. bh 4) [es eee. Leh N Altera atarat athe Thoroughly washed.........2 | Bedding 2: ahs 5 ren iars Sterilized in steam for 15 | Ditch Metcdote sik sucka iteease SLA D Mie Tes eeees Z | Provision fer fresh air, control- minutes..........-. tees 3 | lable flue system.......... 3 (Placed over steam jet or | (Windows hinged at bottom, scalded with boiling water, 2.) 1.50; sliding windows, 1; other ea from sales waar es 3 | openings, .50) eanliness of milking......... Quill zee Cubic feet of space per cow, Clean; dry hands........... 3 GOO Mee bette eiechc seetoeeerors Udders washed and wiped. . .6 (Less than 500 ft., 2; less than 4 (Udders cleaned with mcist 400 ft., 1; less than 300 ft., 0) cloth, 4; cleaned with dry cloth Provision for controlling tem- or brush at least 15 minutes be- Meratirese: ere eee I fore milking, 1) UURNSELS HANDLING THE MILK :; pon alae and condition of Cleanliness of attendants in milk : NILeNSIISA eee a eet | ee ee rte lie eg SPP Se Reser poacher, Wi A oa sacar Water for cleaning» --),..-..50-. : oie See Milk removed immediately from (Clean, convenient, and abun- stable without pouring from dant) DA ioe cleielajietetale ial eye s\laiasaletnjclate Pig | je tee eo Small top milk pail............ 5 See an BUS PnTS 2 os Dee: SA oe ak E Cooled below 50° F........... a ees ry SV SURUS.< iotere fore ine wiser = I 2 (51 te 55 4; 36° to 60°, 2) tored below 5c° F..........- 3) eee MILK ROOM OR MILK HOUSE (51° to 55°, 23 56° to 60°, 1) Location free from contaminat- ING SULPOUNCINGS: oo... 2 - I Construction of milk room...... 2 Transportation below 50° F.... BI eno Floor, walls, and ceiling. .... Bit (51° to 55°, 1.50; 56° to 60°, 1) Light, ventilation, screens. ...1 Separate rooms for washing (If delivered twice a day allow utensils and handling milk.... I perfect score for storage and ae for steam (Hot water, transpcrtation.) CHP SAGA AS OOO SOMO a oae aoe ui Total aie eee Gwen. AO) See ee shatale ses Se ere | 003/222 Equipment 22 = eee es —- Methods) ..o 2s re ms oe re a Final Score Note 1 —If any exceptionally filthy condition is found, particularly dirty utensils, the total score may be further limited. Note 2 — If the water is exposed to dangerous contamination, or if there is evidence of the presence of a dangerous disease in animals or attendants, the score shall be o. THE PRODUCTION OF CLEAN MILK 1927 given a value of 4o per cent and the methods 60 per cent. The reason for this difterence is that a man may have a poor dairy barn, that is, A poor equipment as to buildings and the like, but if he is neat and clean in his methods, he can pro- duce a good grade of milk a shea, 2280 bacteria and receive credit for his clean methods on the score card. In figures 127 and Increase, 1080 bacteria 128 are shown the exterior and the interior of an inex- Fic. 129.— A diagram showing the increase in the orgs By fal bacteria content of milk caused by brushing the ee a eae eee cows immediately before milking attention to methods, milk was produced in this barn that had an average for one year of 5133 bacteria per cubic centimeter in morning’s milk and 5000 bacteria per cubic centimeter in night’s milk. Because a man may have an excellent or a very expensive dairy farm, it does not follow that a good grade of milk is produced. If the methods are unclean, the milk will be of an inferior quality, and the score will be reduced under methods. Not brushed, 1200 bacteria THE COW First of all in the production of clean milk, it is necessary to have healthy cows. If the cows are diseased, their milk may contain disease-producing bacteria or be otherwise unfit for use. Special attention should be given to the condition of the udder, and any milk that appears slimy, ropy, watery, colored, or otherwise abnormal should be discarded. A skilled veterinarian may do much to determine the general health of a cow by giving her a thorough physical examination. Clean and wholesome food, as well as plenty of clean fresh water, are essential. If the watering trough and surroundings are kept clean, there is less chance of the water supply’s being contaminated. The surface of the cow’s body is one of the most important sources of milk contamination. It is therefore essential that extra care be given to keep the cow clean. Cows kept on pasture usually keep cleaner than those kept in the barn, but in either case thorough grooming is necessary to remove loose hairs, dust, microorganisms, and the like, so that they will not fall into the milk pail. The process of grooming, feeding, or bedding the cows tends to fill the air with dust and bacteria; therefore these operations should be done long enough before milking to give the dust plenty of time to settle. The increase in the bacteria count in milk drawn shortly after grooming and feeding is shown in figures 129 and 1928 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 130. The data used in the construction of these diagrams were taken from experiments conducted at the Connecticut (Storrs) Agricultural Experiment Station.! Before feeding, 1230 bacteria A damp cloth used on the cow’s udder and flanks just before milk- After feeding, 3650 bacteria ing will remove most of the dust and loose hairs that might otherwise fall Bee apace into the:milk pail. This ; _ will reduce the bacteria Fic. 130.—A diagram showing the increase in the bacteria t ; h , ‘content of milk caused by feeding the cows dry corn stover COUNT, aS 1S shown in immediately before milking figure 130. THE STABLE High ground sloping toward the south or the east is an ideal site for a barnyard in this State, for a slope in either of these directions protects the animals from the prevailing winter winds. Pigpens, outhouses, piles of manure, and. the like, left standing in the barnyard, may be sources of contamination. The construction of the stable may be of less importance than careful methods in the production of clean milk, but it should be such as to lighten the labor necessary for keeping the stable and its equipment clean. The most common defect in dairy stables is a lack of cleanliness. The interior of the barn should be so constructed that dirt, cobwebs, and the like, cannot easily collect. The stable floor and the gutter should be made of some material, such as cement, that will not absorb moisture, but that is easy to clean and disinfect in case of necessity. A swing stan- chion is more comfort- able for a cow than a Not wiped, 7055 bacteria rigid one, and should be so constructed that it does not collect dirt. The length of the stalls should be such that the tj) cease 6240 bacteria cows can stand comfort- ably and the droppings pyg, 131.—A diagram showing the decrease in the bacteria fall into the gutter. be: ural! Pileeronya she! wha italctvr Yes" anal are t het Fee wg eee 7 Pes i. ’ - ’ : . 7 L - 7 = - n igs ma es ae ge ‘1 eEIET ec ’ it 7 a 7 99 _ . — 2) is Jae. te tbat ‘haa antes pee. os er jiad> ier au -_ wis Boiaty fp ant ol ct, ot agp hrs a lve aaa gages Tires bi ie ube feet ithe of Pinata 7 pert er: icacdpied Sp peties ans “ay : se aprons Reedhycs bi eT 9 att a oe 77) : whet “Deka ead 12 | Pin Othe: : bajh ahvea txel, ty preaitsins ‘ioe dou abe yl pote nahh Hels Saati Oe Tol Moen sal cgi mid Laie me ably Be aniltiangm x of GOIN RRC est in jena aun aT 2 rma nation > 4S eel ait nl feria Norn, er ae iy fit. ih ye! bree nat aaP ke att! Jonghpt year fat lhaeaetl ae ide and Pheri. cary bay: cianet ewilrekts boven ofirattamy age pereie “ yendeg | yt. h sin ines ww pitt ‘¢ nd heeey fot alts agua aeaa itty Fi ie ‘ Buere Lipereiy a dnidnan WHA. ihe el ade wy ahs sour, anni a NulVahiod th ott jue: UN eg idee ales itpininit woh: i badly Be ais ribara Ma fst re Tem foe ear Flowing at gene Hands oe eee hres sian $84 tk thinvde ‘mali cit b caida id a ieee fottuby ark ees Ns Bain hd Be i. Mae yh iene miata 1 hepchye§ iron RhaluRee , Wifewid sj: ol ite uv ‘ait eet 994 ent fh tia | joe B ar Le Ei aeaerad ub veel nth) pad a hada. 1h. Aahivioes | Gitmiaer a ae sedi ay Sh age ape i), ij sear aun vihies, gniwend slink ni “pate orl o2 atte pips? a! pe Seett ihe rs eH ins wrt, isnt aber oti ath be Gr af ‘hiboinde tema a Distt ty ‘bay af? eat svt Yee dail A | beat icy, I; cr jae “st Cana leyizire — = Ne a ahs Ht vic Hy pels! NaN ral sy rhs ssl hes 0 eng den 9 deat Mes ime rt ri daw anit hats od astfiuie ate te Five MCT diate gotetige! a Pant eidboage. martin ae aia iets alii) rye inant eitotth iene lees Pea, 1m ae Widdergoy Wo met ioral: gett Agitioot Spires fit Ss i ATA elegy . wai wiht nea plore ‘aSetiaesiets an! ont icc a ma cahevane ai vat maa ar itn to pita aT 1d nna or meh abs take bes esa y* vas +A toy | wae} » wi OP De tltes sh iage ab dabsres vs gmimity Kiareh -Wehiior ub # wee Githie it: ihe fashare eile er Ivtott ants pate uephe fis inate series yeaa ont w_-aphtr: a woeie ts tits aA IY atin btugitlle ieee a eNO Becton o- alakuye wie vrata saa tapi" olloo” aaa 7 Pals Fai: re Papi, eck oe ; le pease arty \ eae 4] ~ BOF i ae ay eo) rasa os : 7 lovksy : bi ye § ees) ne a +) r ty g wie vee «= te aa TS % ; > — ) one oe “Ce eee aed ee ing “itn 1 (a a ; Sin bee - ‘Ne ee : Ue dsc, pz -_ s| a , a . re ie eas we '» Lited ee = aly we | 9 eet, . str rl = Ke a.) iS tn ee pal - Hiiegt oa CeWrph, aw Ke Pe Rs, wore ss - ay, aeray me =a by _ pe es a we eek ae ru ok ae eg ‘Sah nye ‘si re, ne ee 7 : re a | - ab ie. by ae 7 ny Ae - ~ ? a - - oy ie Ww v4 " . 7 a ; ‘i 7 in : aie Nee ' a t va - SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading-Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY B. T. GALLoway, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York VOL. IV. No. 88 MAY 15, 1915 POULTRY SERIES. No. 3 revised FEEDING YOUNG CHICKENS DISCUSSION PAPER A discussion paper is sent with each reading-course lesson in order to assist the reader in studying the most important points. The discussion. paper also encourages thought, observation, and self-expression. Each discussion paper filled out and returned will be read carefully, and a per- sonal reply will be made if further information or references for advanced reading are desired. Practical suggestions on farm problems will be sent gladly. New readers should enroll in one or more of the following series of reading-course lessons: THE SOIL, POULTRY, RURAL ENGINEERING, FARM FORESTRY, THE HORSE, DAIRYING, FRUIT GROWING, FARM CROPS, STOCK FEEDING, VEGETABLE GARDENING, PLANT BREEDING, INSECT, COUNTRY LIFE. The first lesson in each series desired is sent on enrollment, and subsequent lessons are sent, one at a time, on the return of discussion papers. Therefore, in order to receive the other lessons in this series, the reader should sign and return thts discusston paper, whether the questions are answered or not. By means of reading-course lessons, study clubs may be promoted, which may become important factors in community wel- fare. Assistance will be given in organizing and conducting clubs. The space below on this page 1s reserved for correspondence concerning reading- course work, and. also for names and addresses of residents of New York State likely to become interested in the Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm. [1963] 1964 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES (In answering questions, attach additional paper if needed and number the answers.) 1. What time do your pullets usually begin to lay? What are: some of the essential factors in raising early layers? 2. What are the most common sources of animal food for chicks? Which is preferable? 3. How may green food be supplied to chicks? , 4. What is the function of mineral matter in the ration, and how may it be supplied? FEEDING YOUNG CHICKENS 1965 5. How may a ration be prepared so as to have palatability, variety, and bulk? 6. Name some of the ways by which the mortality of the chicks may be kept low. 7. When should chicks be given their first food, and of what should it consist ? 1966 THE CORNELL READING-COURSES 8. How may incubator chicks be trained to find food and warmth, and to return to the brooder? 9. How may labor be saved in feeding growing-stock? 10. Give a good ration for chick feeding, and state how it should be fed. The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLowAy, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York : FARM CROPS SE E JUNE 15, 1915 No. 1 faves : VOL. IV. No. 90 ALFALFA FOR NEW YORK E. G. MONTGOMERY Alfalfa is one of the oldest cultivated plants of Asia and of southern Europe. It was brought into Mexico a by the Spaniards during the sixteenth century. About 1854 it was introduced into California, and its culture has de- veloped rapidly since that time in all States as far east as the Missouri River. The plant has been cultivated con- tinuously for more than one hundred years in the limestone region of New York with considerable success. AlI- though alfalfa was grown in New York State before its introduction into Cali- fornia, the acreage of alfalfa in this State has not shown much increase until recently. According to the Twelfth United States Census there were only 5582 acres of alfalfa in New York in 1899, against 455,000 acres in Colorado, 298,000 in California, and 267,000 in Kansas. The Thirteenth Census, how- ever, shows 35,343 acres in New York in 1909, a sixfold increase in ten years, as compared with 508,000 in Colorado, 484,000 in California, and 956,000 in Kansas. eal Doubtless the reason for the slow yg, 146.—One season's growth of alfalfa development of alfalfa growing in New im New York; first, second, and third York: and other Eastern States is lack “™“""®° of sufficient lime and of the bacteria necessary for cultivation of the crop in practically all soils except those of certain restricted areas. This [1967] —— 1968 THE CORNELL READING COURSES deficiency was not known until a few years ago; but with the present knowledge of the subject and of the means for overcoming such difficulties, there is no reason why alfalfa culture should not have a rapid develop- ment in the Eastern States. VALUE OF THE CROP According to the Thirteenth Census, New York State produced in 1909 the following yields of hay and nutrients per acre: Digestibl Digestibl Acres Yield pet netrientes: oretein Crop " acre arvested (tons) per acre per acre (pounds) (pounds) 721A ee mee eee a 343 2.46 2,608 5L7 Redclovet: ccs cce sssn 87,267 i. 3i 1,284 186 mimothychay . cl. 5 I ,078,358 1.08 1,030 60 Average yields are always low, for large areas of poor land are included. According to Bulletin 221 of the Cornell University Agricultural Experi- ment Station, successful alfalfa growers in this State report yields varying from 3 to 7 tons per acre, the average being 4 tons. This can be expected from any good alfalfa field. The food value of alfalfa is very high since it is rich in protein, being the cheapest source of that material. Valuing the various digestible nutrients in alfalfa and other standard hays, the comparative. value per ton is reported to be about as follows, in Farmers’ Bulletin 339, United States Department of Agriculture: Feed Value per ton neshrailea heim emenen Sst aetanietecds sec 2 ei haewe aera’ ysenae $7 .00 RESIN CLOM Slee ed Pe taceice ra MRD che faut (osc 5) Pat acrarseh ayn’ Woah doncges drape 5.96 italtanlayeeemomners erates cn. alias saul Mocs: Gaweem, see 20.16 Cloverulava ene ean coos cts. suserorycn sé par b afste cy ittcmpususuass 14-12 shim ER amaryl. eae ee Soh wet Sh Mee Ny 9.80 (© yy OSE NEN Se oe a a RR OER Ome AD ech 19.76 While alfalfa hay has almost the same analysis as bran, yet it is not so digestible, for it is much coarser. With bran valued at $22.50 per ton, alfalfa would be worth $16.50 per ton, according to feeding experiments conducted at the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. ALFALFA FOR NEw York 1969 THE ALFALFA FAMILY Alfalfa is related, in a botanical sense, to both red clover and sweet clover, being one of that large tribe of leguminous plants having compound leaves made up of three leaflets and known as the Trifoliec. In the genus Medicago, to which alfalfa belongs — so called because alfalfa was originally supposed to have come from Media — there are at least fifty species. Those most commonly found in cultivation are the common alfalfa (M. sativa), bur clover (MV. denticulata), black medick (M. lupulina), yellow alfalfa (M. falcata), and sand lucern (M. media); the common alfalfa (MV. sativa), however, is the only one of the family in extensive cultivation. Some of these species and several varieties derived from them range in hardiness from semitropical forms to those adapted to extremely cold climates. In general these are arranged according to hardiness as follows: Kinds suited to the coldest parts of the temperate zone Siberian, or sickle Kinds suited to warm to cool temperate climates; the first four kinds are the so-called hardy alfalfas Sand lucern Grimm Ontario variegated Hardy Blackhill Common Turkestan Kinds suited to semitropical climates Peruvian Arabian The yellow, or sickle, alfalfa is a native of Siberia and never winterkills, but is not very productive, yielding only one cutting a season. The common and the Turkestan, which is a variety of the common, are hardy as far north as North Dakota and central New York. The Turkestan is considered somewhat less productive than the common, but it is a little more drought resistant. Both these kinds are blue flowered. The so-called hardy alfalfas can be grown from two hundred to three hundred miles farther north than the common and the Turkestan. They have flowers ranging in color from blue through yellow, green, and white. In New York State the common alfalfa should be grown wherever it does well. The more hardy kinds, while more resistant to cold, are not so productive and should be tried only in exposed elevations and in parts of the State where common alfalfa often fails to winter satisfactorily. The two semitropical kinds are hardy only in climates such as those in southern Texas and southern California. 124 1970 THE CORNELL READING COURSES SOIL REQUIREMENTS FOR ALFALFA The best alfalfa soils are medium to heavy in texture, with porous subsoil. At one time it was thought that alfalfa was adapted only to deep soils with porous subsoil, so that the roots might penetrate easily to a depth of several feet; at present, however, alfalfa is grown in every State, on practically every type of productive soil except those that are acid. On very heavy soils or on those with a hardpan subsoil, while alfalfa often will grow very well, it is much more likely to winterkill; and on some of the hardpan soils of New York, alfalfa culture is uncertain because of winterkilling. Tile drainage on these heavy soils not only improves the yield, but also increases the ability to withstand winter freezing. In fact, alfalfa will winterkill on even the best = Wie Wy aT we: Wy nae Wi land if it is not properly drained. It is particularly .- cw sensitive to standing water RRNA during the winter months. \ AN -In general, the water table WX should be not nearer than A NN) “two feet from the surface for \ aN r\\ ‘N : more than a few days at a Ne \ time, and is better at about \ four feet below the surface. » The root system of alfalfa varies with soil conditions. mn In a porous soil, easy to penetrate, the taproot will \ extend almost straight downward for from 10 to 20 Ss feet, or until the water table is reached. However, if a stratum of hard soil is encountered, the taproot will break up into a much-branched root system. In a very compact soil the roots may not penetrate more ia ee Nia than 3 or 4 feet, even when the plants are several porous soil, and ina years old. compact soil. In the first case a long taproot is developed, Field and forage crops vary in their requirements while in the second : : : , case the aproot Of lime or basic substances in the soil. Redtop and breaks up into many alsike clover will tolerate some acid in the soil, while branches ; many of the most important field crops, such as oats and buckwheat, seem to be quite indifferent to the presence of lime so long as the soil is not acid. Certain crops, notedly red clover and alfalfa, are very sensitive to the lack of linte. In order to grow alfalfa, lime must be applied to at least three-fourths of the cultivated soils of New York. e Lime ALFALFA FOR NEw YorK 1971 The map herewith (Fig. 148) shows the State divided into four principal soil areas, according to lime requirements for alfalfa. Where the soil has been derived in general from a limestone formation, as in section I, it usually will not be necessary to add more lime. The presence | | Fic. 148.— This chart is intended to show in a general way the variation in lime requtre- ment for alfalfain New York State. It must be borne in mind that the map ts very general, since there are considerable areas even in section III where lime 1s not required for alfalfa culture. In general, the valleys require less lime than do the hills. This is quite true in section IV, where most of the valleys have sufficient lime and most of the hills are deficient. Keep- ing this in mind, the following statements will serve as a general guide in determining the amount of lime to apply: Section I, generally enough lime, but where required about 500 to 1000 pounds of qutick- lime per acre 1s sufficient. Section II, 1000 to 2000 pounds of quicklime per acre on halls and half as much in valleys. Section III, 2000 to 4000 pounds of quicklime per acre on halls and half as much 1n valleys. Section IV is very irregular. Many local areas and most of the valleys have sufficient lime, but hills in general will require about the same amount as do sections II and III of limestone pebbles or stones ordinarily indicates sufficient lime, while the absence of limestone pebbles usually, but not always, indicates the need of lime. When lime is required, in section I generally from 500 to 1000 pounds of quicklime per acre will be sufficient, or twice this amount of ground lime, 1972 THE CORNELL READING COURSES stone. In section II, from 1000 to 2000 pounds of quicklime per acre, or twice this amount of ground limestone, will usually be sufficient. In section III the soil is generally very deficient in lime, and from 2000 to 4000 pounds of quicklime per acre, one-half as much more of hydrated lime, or twice as much ground limestone, is required. The land in section IV is very irregular. Many of the valleys are supplied with lime, but most of the hill lands require about the same amount per acre as do sec- tions II and III. There are certain areas in the State, such as the limestone soils, where most of the productive soils will grow alfalfa. However, for a large section of the State, designated as section III on the chart, only the best land should be used for alfalfa at first. Its culture should be tried first. on well-drained bottom land and extended to upland as experience is Fic. 149.— Root nodules of alfalfa gained and as experiment indicates the best method of procedure. On the hardpan soils of southern New York, alfalfa culture should be tried only on the most favorable land at present. . Forms of lime.— There are three forms of lime. When too pounds of pure raw lime rock is burned, it is reduced to 56 pounds, because certain gases are driven off. When this burnt lime, or quicklime, is water-slaked, it takes up 18 pounds of water, giving a weight of 74 pounds. Therefore, the amount of each form of lime, if pure, to give equivalent results is ex- pressed as follows: tent wirne: or quicklime:. ti ose). Woo. SPO Nt sae 56 pounds Py CirALEGIMC isee Gita aphis BY anyother eke TS 74 pounds COs Gata CSEOTMIC oie su coc3e sche eile bao ee ee icra roo pounds INOCULATION FOR ALFALFA Alfalfa requires large amounts of nitrogen. If the soil is very rich in easily available nitrogen, the alfalfa plants will acquire a sufficient amount ALFALFA FOR NEW YORK 1973 for good growth. In ordinary soils, however, alfalfa is not able to obtain its nitrogen from the soil, but must have the aid of certain bacteria that fix free nitrogen from the air in such form that it can be utilized by the plant. Root nodules are found abundantly on the roots during most of the growing season. These nodules are the home of the bacteria that have the power of assimilating free nitrogen from the air in the soil, fixing it in the nodules, and passing it on to the alfalfa plant. Where alfalfa has never been grown, the bacteria are probably not present, unless sweet clover is found growing. The proper bacteria may be present in soil to which sweet clover is native: in fact, its presence usually indicates a good alfalfa soil. In the absence of sweet clover, bacteria must be introduced artificially. A good method of inoculation is to procure soil from an old alfalfa field and to apply it at the rate of from 200 to 300 pounds per acre to the new field just before sowing. The soil should not be allowed to dry before applying. As sweet clover has the same form of bacteria, soil from an old sweet clover patch may also be used with success. An equally good method of inoculation is by means of cultures of the bacteria. There are many prepared cultures on the market, or they can be obtained in limited quantity without charge from the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. This College sends cultures to residents of New York State at cost; the charge at present is 25 cents for enough of the culture to inoculate an acre. Persons should address Laboratory of Plant Physiology, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. Inoculation is not necessary in limestone soils where alfalfa has been cultivated in the neighborhood for many years. Under such conditions the proper bacteria for effecting inoculation seem to be present. Also on very fertile, heavily manured soils alfalfa will often live without in- oculation for two or more seasons, when natural inoculation often seems to take place. Manuring the land before plowing for alfalfa is a great help, especially in soils on which liming and inoculation are necessary. The manure not only furnishes a needed stimulus to the young alfalfa, but, what is more important, it helps to make the soil favorable for the rapid development and spread of the alfalfa bacteria. SOWING THE SEED Amount of seed Twenty pounds per acre is the usual rate of seeding. On good alfalfa land a satisfactory stand sometimes results with from 12 to 15 pounds, but with 20 pounds the stand obtained is oftener too thin than too thick, 1974 THE CORNELL READING CouRSES Time of seeding There are three general times of seeding, early spring (April), late spring (June), and midsummer (August). When the soil is suitable, midsummer seeding is probably preferred by the majority of growers, as it not only enables them to secure some other crop from the land the same year, but does away with the necessity of clipping in order to keep down weeds and with general care of the crop for the first year. The Fic. 150.— Showing advantage of midsummer sowing, as compared with early fall sowing. Beginning at the left of the picture, the seed was sown August 19, September 15, and October 1, respectively. All were dug up April 13 of the Pe spring. (At Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station) commonest cause of failure in spring-sown alfalfa is weeds; but these seldom give trouble in midsummer seeding, as the summer weed crop has practically been destroyed by that time. Midsummer seeding should be from July 25 to August 10, and never later than August 15. The soil should be in good preparation and thoroughly packed, as alfalfa will not winter well in a loose seed-bed, BiG ae ALFALFA FOR NEW YORK 1975 The two principal objections to midsummer seeding are: (1) the season may be too dry to prepare the land and sow the seed by August 10; (2) on heavy soils or those with hardpan subsoil the young plants are not strong enough to withstand winterkilling. There is a large area of such heavy soil in New York State, especially the type known as Volusia silt loam and the hardpan hill lands in the south-central part of the State. For the heavy types of soil mentioned above, the land should be thor- oughly prepared and sowed about May 1; or,if the land is weedy and not in first-class tilth, it should be plowed early and fallowed for about two months, killing the spring crop of weeds and putting the soil in fine tilth. Sowing should be done about June 1 to to. W.. Aw WHEELER, MITCHELL, SOUTH DAKOTA Fic. 151.— Hogs in alfalfa pasture. Not troubled about the high cost of living A nurse crop is seldom used except on land especially well adapted to alfalfa. In the latter case in New York, it is generally sown either with oats in the spring or on fall wheat in the spring in the same way as clover. The young plants are delicate and must be favored in early growth. How- ever, in spring sowing it is often good practice to sow a half-seeding (one bushel per acre) of oats or barley to be cut green at heading time for hay. Method of sowing Drilling is a good practice, but the land must be harrowed smooth after the drill. If the drill marks are left, a heavy rain within six or eight weeks after sowing may wash enough soil on the young plants to kill them. Broadcasting ahead of a disk drill or a spring-tooth harrow and rolling afterward is very satisfactory. 1976 THE CORNELL READING COURSES CARE OF THE STAND If the alfalfa is spring- or summer-sown without a nurse crop, the weeas Fic. 152.— Portion of alfalfa stem showing new shoots, natural size: 1, new shoots; 2, old stem showing height at which previous crop was cut; 3, soil line. Alfalfa should not be cut before the new shoots appear, and the mowing should be completed before the shoots get tall enough to be clipped must not be allowed to get ahead of theseeding. They should be clipped back with a mower, the cutter bar being set from five to six inches high. It is important not to clip the young alfalfa close to the ground, below the leaves, during the first four months, as good stands are often killed by so doing. The established field Alfalfa should be cut when the new growth that starts up from the base of the plant as itnears maturity, is from one to three inches high. If the new growth is allowed to become longer than this, there is danger of injuring the next crop when cutting the present one. At this time usually not more than one- tenth of the plants should be in bloom. The most successful alfalfa growers judge the time of cutting by the shoots at the base of the plant rather than by the bloom. It is not safe to judge by the blooming alone, for alfalfa often fails to bloom when the season is cool or wet. Disking the alfalfa field early in the spring or after the first cutting -)-3 1s often practiced in dry climates, but in humid climates, such as that of New York, the plants injured by the disk are very likely to develop root rot and thus, on the whole, decrease the stand in time. How- ever, on an old stand that is thin and must be broken up in another year, disking will stimulate growth for at least one season and destroy many of the weeds and much of the ALFALFA FOR NEW YORK 1977 grass that may be coming in. Therefore disking is good practice under such conditions, but it is not good practice on a new stand. It is reported [ W. A. WHEELER, MITCHELL, Soon DAKOTA Fic. 153.— Curing alfalfa under hay caps. It is wise to have enough hay caps for a part of the crop that thorough harrowing with a spring-tooth and a peg-tooth harrow in the early spring and after the first cutting will control weeds and grass, =~ ek. _ Snes ad A practical method in Os sit ange Fic. 154.— Baling alfalfa from the windrow in the field. good haying weather the latter especially often gives much trouble in alfalfa fields. This harrow- ing will not injure the alfalfa if done before the growth is far advanced. 1978 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Pasturing Alfalfa is the ideal pasture for hogs and horses, but if cattle are pastured on it, they are likely to bloat. For cattle pasture alfalfa should be mixed with grass, about half and half. It is important not to pasture close, as a good stand may be killed in a single season by close cropping. Ordi- narily, enough forage should be on the land at any time to cut at least three-fourths of a ton of hay per acre. The best practice is to cut for hay about twice a season while pasturing. Treated in this way the stand will last for from ten to twenty years. CARE OF THE HAY Two points are to be remembered: first, that alfalfa hay cut young — when one-tenth in bloom-—dis more digestible and better than when older; second, that the leaves of alfalfa are from three to four times as valuable as the stems. Good alfalfa hay should be about one-half leaves, but unless handled with care a large proportion of the leaves may be lost. How to cure The first crop, which is usually harvested the middle of June, is handled very much as a heavy clover crop. The first crop is generally heavy, and the stems are coarse; this crop is not easy to cure. Coming at a time when haying ~ weather js. 06 the -best, the first crop is usually cured in small cocks. The second and third crops, be- ing lighter, with finer stems, and coming in July and late August when haying weather is good, are easily cured. The sec- Fic. 155.— Alfalfa seeds below, compared with dodder seeds ond and _ third above (enlarged) crops are often cured in windrows and stacked or put in the mow directly, without cocking. FERTILIZER AND MANURE FOR OLD SODS No crop responds more readily to barnyard manure than does alfalfa. Whenever an established stand is not doing well — yielding less than three tons per acre —it will pay to manure. The manure should be applied during the winter. ALFALFA FOR NEW YORK 1979 Many successful alfalfa growers have used from 200 to 300 pounds of acid phosphate per acre with very good results. It is worthy of careful trial. ALFALFA SEED GROWING Usually the second crop, and sometimes the third, is used for seed. Dry weather is required during the blooming period to secure a set of alfalfa seed, and July is the month when the proper weather conditions are most likely to occur. In New York, however, it is seldom that a good seed crop can be se- cured, and it is not to be expected oftener than once in three or four years. The seed is harvested very much as is clover seed; as soon as the alfalfa is cured, it is threshed, either from the field or from the stack. ALFALFA ENEMIES Dodder The effect of dodder in alfalfa fields is shown by the appearance of dead areas near the margin of which is a tangled mass of slender yellowish cords entwined about the alfalfa plants. Infested spots should be closely mowed, the stubble sprinkled with kerosene, covered with dry hay, and burned. Seed free from dodder should be used. Samples of seed may be sent to the Geneva Experiment Station for examination. A 20X20 mesh sieve made of No. 34 wire will remove the dodder from alfalfa seed, if care is taken to screen a small amount of seed at a time. Fic. 156.— Alfalfa dodder, showing its habit of growth Leaf spot Leaf spot causes the leaves to become spotted and yellow, and to fall prematurely. Affected fields should be mowed early in order to save as 1980 THE CORNELL READING COURSES much of the foliage as possible. The succeeding growth is usually un- injured by the disease. EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE WHAT A GIVEN SOIL REQUIRES FOR GROWING ALFALFA Every farmer who plans to grow alfalfa extensively at some future time may determine for himself the needs of his soil by a very simple experiment. In fact, it would not be advisable to undertake alfalfa culture extensively in a region where it had not been cultivated previously, with- out first experimenting. The plan of the experiment is as follows: Lay off a plat of land eight rods long and four rods wide and divide it into eight square plats of one-fortieth acre each, as shown in the plan, setting stakes at the corner of each plat. Great care should be taken to see that the soil is uniform in quality. I ; 2 3 4 Inoculated Inoculated Inoculated Inoculated Lime Lime Manure Manure 5 6 7 8 Lime Lime Manure Manure Apply 56 pounds of quicklime or 100 pounds of ground limestone to each of plats 1, 2, 5, and 6; a liberal dressing of barnyard manure to each of plats 2, 3, 6, and 7; 20 pounds of fresh soil from amr’ old alfalfa field or sweet clover patch to each of plats 1, 2, 3, and 4. No treatment should be given plat 8. This experiment furnishes all possible combinations of lime, manure, and inoculation, with a check plat of untreated soil. Particular care should be exercised in choosing ground free from weeds and in putting it in good tilth before sowing. The land should be plowed from four to eight weeks before seeding and the lime applied at that time. The inoculation should be done at sowing time, ALFALFA FOR New YorK 1981 The experiment should be allowed to stand at least two years, as the most marked effect of the treatment is to be expected the second year. REFERENCES The book of alfalfa. EF. D. Coburn. Alfalfa in America. Joseph E. Wing. Alfalfa. Farmers’ Bulletin 339, U. S. Department of Agriculture. THE CORNELL READING COURSE FOR THE FARM This College offers to those who desire to learn but are unable to leave their work, a course of reading on the principles and the practices of success- ful farming. The course is conducted by means of lessons specially prepared for the farmer who desires to keep in touch with the latest information available, and to understand the why as well as the how of farming. The aim of the reading course is to provide consecutive agricultural infor- mation in the form most satisfactory to the busy farmer. Practical subjects are treated, and each reader may register for those of particular interest. The lessons are made as clear, interesting, and much to the point, as possible. Direction is given to the reading by the arrangement of the lessons in series and by sending the lessons in each series consecu- tively. On registering for one or more subjects, the reader receives the first lesson in each series. The lesson furnishes the text for reading and is accompanied by a supplement called a discussion paper. The discussion paper serves three purposes: First, by returning the discussion paper the reader acknowledges the receipt of the lesson and indicates his interest. As soon as the discussion paper is returned to the College, a second lesson in the series is sent. This method is continued until the reader has com- pleted the study of all the subjects in which he is interested. Second, — the discussion paper furnishes questions to encourage thought and self- expression by those who wish to make a careful study of the lessons. Answering the questions therefore is optional, but in order to continue to receive the lessons by series it is necessary to sign and return the dis- cussion papers. Third, the discussion paper furnishes a ready means of inquiring for information on any agricultural subject. Requests for information are referred to specialists for a personal reply. One new lesson is added to the reading course for the farm each month, being placed in the appropriate series. Such new lessons as are of general interest are sent to all the members of the course as soon as issued. Readers who have completed a study of all of the series in which they are interested will continue to receive new lessons. Two advanced reading courses are offered especially for those who have completed a study of reading course 1982 THE CORNELL READING COURSES lessons. References for advanced study in subjects not treated in the advanced reading courses will be given on request. By means of reading course lessons study clubs may be promoted, which may become important factors in community welfare. Assistance will be given in organizing and conducting clubs by the supervisor of the reading course for the farm. Residents of New York State may register in the reading course for the farm free of charge, but the course is not available to nonresidents either free or in return for a cash payment. A limited number of particular lessons, however, will be sent free to any one on request. Residents: of New York State are invited to register for one or more of the following subjects: the soil, poultry, rural engineering, farm forestry, the horse, dairying, fruit growing, farm crops, stock feeding, vegetable gardening, plant breeding, insect, country life. Address Reading Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLoway, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Entered as second-class matter at the post office at Ithaca, New York VOL. IV. No. 90 FARM CROPS SERIES No. 1 revised JUNE 15, 1915 ALFALFA FOR NEW YORK DISCUSSION PAPER A discussion paper is sent with each reading course lesson in order to assist the reader in studying the most important points. The discussion paper also encourages thought, observation, and self-expression. Each discussion paper filled out and returned will be read carefully, and a personal reply will be made if further information or references for advanced reading are desired. Practical suggestions on farm problems will be sent gladly. New readers should enroll in one or more of the following series of reading course lessons: THE SOIL, POULTRY, RURAL ENGINEERING, FARM FORESTRY, THE HORSE, DAIRYING, FRUIT GROWING, FARM CROPS, STOCK FEEDING, VEGETABLE GARDENING, PLANT BREEDING, INSECT, COUNTRY LIFE. The first lesson in each series desired is sent on enrollment, and subsequent lessons are sent, one at a time, on the return of discussion papers. Therefore, in order to receive the other lessons tn this sertes, the reader should sign and return this discussion paper, whether the questions are answered or not. By means of reading course lessons, study clubs may be promoted, which may become important factors in community welfare. Assistance will be given in organizing and conducting clubs. The space below on this page is reserved for correspondence concerning reading course work, and also for names and addresses of residents of New York State likely to become interested in the Cornell Reading Course for the Farm. [1983] 1984 THE CORNELL READING COURSES (In answering questions, attach additional paper 1f needed and number the answers). 1. Have hardy varieties of alfalfa been tried in your vicinity, and if so, with what success? 2. In what respect does your soil vary from ideal alfalfa soil? Is it too heavy’ too light?) hardpan? acid? or does it lack drainage? 3. Name the three most important soil treatments generally required in preparing land for alfalfa. ALFALFA FOR NEw York 1985 4. What is the probable lime requirement per acre of land in your vicinity ? 5. What month is regarded as the best time for sowing alfalfa in your county? Is it generally sown with a nurse crop, or without? 6. From inquiry do you find that new seedings of late-sown alfalfa winterkill on soil similar to that of your farm? Do old, well-established stands winterkill? 125 1986 THE CORNELL READING CouRSES 7. At present prices would it pay you to grow alfalfa rather than timothy? What yield per acre do you expect from each crop? 8. Capitalizing the net income from alfalfa, on what value per acre would alfalfa meadow pay an income of six per cent? 9. How much per acre would you feel justified in spending in order to secure a good alfalfa stand? (Address all correspondence to the Reading Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York.) The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 VOL. IV. No. 92 = , VEGETABLE GARDENING JULY 15, 1915 SERIES No. 4 SUMMER CARE OF THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN ALBERT E. WILKINSON The gardener may make careful plans for his garden, select the best site, order the most viable seeds, plant or transplant at the proper time, and yet fail of success if he does not give proper care and attention to the plants during the growing season. ‘This lesson discusses some of the details of Fic. 157.—A garden in midsummer. While this is a town garden it illustrates the fundamental principles, which are applicable in town and country alike. This garden t made to be photographed, but it shows complete utilization of space, succession of crops, large variety, attractive arrangement, and good care. Note the line and the berry baskets where a row of tiny lettuce plants has just been set. Even in the country a small garden like this one ts better than a half acre gone wild summer management that are important in bringing the vegetables to a successful harvest. CULTIVATION Cultivation is the stirring of the surface soil so that weeds will be erad- icated and evaporation of water from the soil will be checked. This is the fundamental operation in a garden during the summer, for unless [1987] 1988 THE CORNELL READING COURSES evaporation of moisture from the soil is hindered, all vegetation will suf- fer... The purposes of cultivation are several and differ slightly from those of earlier soil working, generally called tillage. These purposes are as follows: 1. Conservation of soil moisture. The maintenance of a dust mulch over the entire surface of the soil will effectively prevent excessive loss of moisture and will also offer conditions that are favorable for the entrance of rains. 2. Aeration. If proper cultivation is given, the roots of the plants are permitted much freer access to the air, which is essential to their develop- ment. 3. Modification of the soil temperature. The maintenance beneath the surface mulch of a suitable amount of moisture tends to prevent wide fluctuations in soil temperature. 4. Improved physical condition. The improvement is due to loosening of the soil, retention of the water, and aeration. 5. Increased action by bacteria. This results from the improved physical condition of the soil. Decomposition of plant-foods is hastened, thus rendering them readily available. 6. Prevention of erosion. With a good surface mulch the soil is enabled to take up a larger amount of water than is possible if the surface is not stirred. This prevents to a considerable extent the loss of soil particles, humus, and valuable plant-food. 7. Weed eradication. Weeds rob the soil of its moisture and plant- food, thus removing essentials from cultivated plants. Above ground weeds produce such strong growth that they tend to shade the useful plant. A plant robbed below ground and above ground is soon dwarfed and of very little value. It is impossible to follow any fixed rules in regard to cultivating the garden; however, some suggestions are given here concerning the most advisable time. In general the correct time to cultivate is when the soil has dried slightly following a rain, although a very sandy soil may be worked when rather wet. If heavier soils, such as silt or clay, are cultivated when wet, puddling or the formation of hard clods results. Such soils will work up more easily and better when they are dry enough to crumble. In case the soil becomes hard, or a crust is formed before rain comes, the surface soils should be worked in order to prevent evaporation of moisture. Many good gardeners cultivate every week or ten days, thus assuring the maintenance of a soil mulch and killing the weeds when they are small and more easily kept in check. It is impossible to injure garden plants by over-much timely and thorough cultivation. a 1Soil moisture and crop production. By Elmer O. Fippin. Cornell reading course for the farm, Vol. ITI, Q. 70. SUMMER CARE OF THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 1989 In order to obtain the best results, cultivation should begin just as soon as the seeds are sown or the plants transplanted. Since practically all vegetables are shallow rooted, they should be cultivated from one-half to one inch deep. Some gardeners cultivate deeply at first, from two to three inches, and, as the crop grows, gradually decrease the depth. Other gardeners cultivate deeply, at first the entire width between rows, but gradually limit the area of deep cultivation to the center of the space WATER TABLE Bee er WATER TABL Fic. 158.— Level culture is preferred nowadays between rows as the plants increase in size. As a rule, deep cultivation is to be discouraged; it is nothing more than tilling poorly prepared land. The soil should be properly prepared before the garden is planted; then there will be no excuse for deep cultivation. Conservation of moisture is easier and more efficient where level cultiva- tion is practiced because the exposed surface of the soil is not so great as when the plants are hilled (Fig. 158). To make hills requires more labor, which in turn costs more in money or effort. There is also a loss caused by severing the roots of the plant. The last point is of great importance if the gardener has not plowed the soil deeper than from four t® five inches, because hilling will rob the roots of their feeding ground. TOOLS FOR CULTIVATION There is a great variety of tools adaptable to the work of cultivating gardens. Efficiency depends in a larger measure on the character of the tools selected and on.the skill of the operator in managing them. A gar- 1990 THE CORNELL READING COURSES dener who does not thoroughly understand the use of any particular tool, should exercise considerable care until proficient. In the farmer’s home garden and in other gardens of large size, it might be well to use horse- drawn tools. Horse cultivators are of two general types: those having large, flat teeti, commonly called shovel-tooth cultivators; and those with narrow teeth, called spike-tooth cultivators. The latter are generally preferable for use in gardens, because they do not work deeply, can be operated much Fic. 159.— One horse sptke-tooth cultivator closer to the plant, and are lighter and therefore easier to handle. The shovel-tooth type includes coarse, deep-working tools of five or seven teeth; these are not adaptable to the intensive work of the average large home garden. The cost of a one-horse cultivator varies from five dollars to ten dollars. ; Many home gardeners are doing away with the horse-drawn cultivators entirely, preferring to decrease the size of their gardens, intensify their operations, and use man-power wheel cultivators. There are several types of these machines; figure 160 illustrates some of them. All of these tools are shallow working, adaptable to very close culture, easily operated, and highly efficient. The cost varies from four dollars to fourteen dollars and fifty cents. Many of the wheel cultivators have several types of attachments, such as rake, harrow, hoe, shovel, or disk, while others have SUMMER CARE OF THE HoME VEGETABLE GARDEN 1991 Fic. 160.— Several forms of wheel hoes but one. Any one wishing to buy these tools should inspect those at the local stores or should write to the manufacturers for cata- logues. With these tools not only can much shallower cultivation be practiced than with horse-drawn cultivators, but it is possible to cultivate much closer to the plants, in many cases doing away largely with hand hoeing or finger weeding. The one-wheel hoes are pushed between rows, and the two- wheel may be used similarly to the one-wheel, but are generally pushed straddling the row. In order to work these machines efficiently, a knack is required, which is gained only with practice. These hoes are light and easily operated. Thrust, or scuffle, hoes and drag cultivators are modifications of 161.— The two-wheel tool permits close cultivation on both sides of the row 1992 THE CORNELL READ NG COURSES wheel hoes; both types have proved highly efficient. Scuffle hoes represent the older type of hand cultivators and cost from fifty cents to one dollar, depending on the width of the blade. Drag cultivators cost from fifty to seventy-five cents, according to the number of prongs. Where the soil in the row is not stirred by tools of the types mentioned, it is necessary to use hoes or weeders. There are many types of hand hoes: those with the blades nearly square, as the common field hoes; those with blades wider than they are deep, as the market garden hoes; onion hoes, which are light and narrow bladed; field hoes with round teeth cut in the base of the blade; those with long teeth; those with heart-shaped blades; and many others. Each of these types has some special advantage or adaptability: for example, the heart-shaped hoe is used as a furrow opener, those with round teeth and those with long teeth for fining the soil where very shallow cultivation is desired, and the market garden and the field hoes for killing weeds, as well as for mulching. The hoe that has a blade on one side and single or double prongs on the other, is valuable for both Fic. 162.— Hoes for stirring the soil. Different ones are good for different soils and different crops close and ordinary work. All these hoes should be used for about the same purpose, that is, to stir a shallow layer of the topsoil and to kill the weeds. Hand weeders are as numerous in design as hoes, such types as the rake, the knife, or the hook being common. They are operated very close to the plants and are used generally in thinning thick stands of plants, SUMMER CARE OF THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 1993 such as onions, beets, or carrots. The main work of weeders is to supple- ment the previously mentioned tools by establishing a surface mulch and eradicating weeds in the rows. Weeders may be bought for from ten to fifty cents, or they may be made at home from other old tools. Fic. 163.— Tools used for weeding and transplanting MULCHING Probably the reader is familiar with the practice of mulching straw- berries with straw, manure, or other material. Possibly he has read of the practice of mulching other fruits, such as the gooseberry, the currant, the raspberry, and the blackberry. Some gardeners have concluded that if mulching is good for these fruits, it would also be good for vegetables, and trial has proved that this supposition is correct. Many times instead of cultivating the ground the gardener may effectively mulch it with various materials, and, to a large extent, obtain the same results as by cultivation. The principal purposes of mulching are as follows: t. To conserve moisture. The layer of mulch, being dry on top, to a large measure checks the influence of sun and air on the soil moisture. The mulch also prevents the soil from baking and cracking, which result in increased loss of moisture. 2. To check weed growth. 3. To keep the surface soil loose and friable. The force of beating rains is broken by passing through the mulch, which thus prevents the packing of the soil. 4. To supply plant-food. When manure is used, the rain dissolves some of the material contained in it, and thus plant-food is added to the soil. 19904 THE CORNELL READING COURSES 5. To save labor at a busy time. The manure or other material may be applied during a slack time, and, as it does away with cultivation, the busy farmer is free during the rush of haying and subsequent catching up of work that has been neglected. The materials used for mulching are.generally manure, straw, leaves, lawn clippings, or moss. Excel- sior, sawdust, and shavings are of less value, for the woody mat- ter may be a detriment, especially when turned under year after year in large amounts. If manure is used, it should be applied at least two to four inches thick, having the thickest part of the layer in the center of the row. It is ad- visable not to have the manure against the plant because of possible injury or discoloration. Leaves or straw should be used in the same way. From tests carried on at dif- ferent experiment stations, it has been found that by mulching asparagus, rhubarb, cabbage, to- matoes, beans, cucumbers, celery, and potatoes, the yields have been greatly increased; diseases have ; been less prevalent; the vegetables have been larger; and in some cases the quality of the product has been much improved. It has been found advisable, however, not to mulch lettuce, radishes, spinach, and a few other quick maturing crops because of the short time before the crop is harvested. In the case of lettuce or crops of a similiar nature, the mulch injures the leaves by becoming entangled with them, and sometimes by causing discoloration. Fic. 164.— Mulching with manure SUMMER APPLICATIONS OF MANURE AND FERTILIZER Celery, lettuce, chard, corn, tomatoes, and a few other vegetables are often benefited by application of food during the growing season. Often- times a side dressing of fertilizers or manures is used to hasten the growth of the plants and thus to obtain early maturity. The different materials that are so used are hen manure, nitrate of soda, fish scrap, dried blood, tankage, and liquid manure. In some particular cases a complete ferti- SUMMER CARE OF THE HomME VEGETABLE GARDEN 1995 lizer containing the three most important plant-foods, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, may be used. These materials are strewn sparingly along the rows of the crops. It is highly important when using hen manure, nitrate of soda, or chemicals of any sort, not to distribute them too thickly because injury to the foliage or the roots may result. Some- times gardeners have obtained good results by using the following method _ with such crops as celery and cabbage: A shallow furrow is opened rather close to the plants, and from one hundred to one hundred and fifty pounds of nitrate of soda an acre or twice that amount of hen manure, is placed in it, and the furrow filled. Sometimes during the development of a crop of vegetables, the gardener notices that the plants are dwarfed, that the color, instead of being dark green, is light green, or that other indications of checked growth are apparent. At times the difficulty may be traced to disease or insects, at other times, to poor soil preparation, lack of cultivation, and some- times to deficient food supply. In the latter case, it is possible to over- come the difficulty by applying fertilizers or manures as a side dressing. An old time remedy, which was in general use in many gardens a few years ago and is used somewhat at present, is liquid manure. The method of making this liquid fertilizer is as follows: Place a bushel of cow manure in a barrel of water, and allow half a day or more to elapse before using the clear liquid, which should be diluted until it has the color of weak coffee. From one to two quarts may be poured on the soil around the plant. As a general rule it is best to avoid the necessity of side dressing by applying a sufficient quantity of plant-food before the garden is planted. IRRIGATION As a protection against drought, many gardeners are taking steps to supplement the natural water supply. Cultivation helps to conserve the moisture that is in the soil or that falls on the soil, but cultivation cannot add water directly. In New York the opportunities for irrigation are abundant because the State is plentifully supplied with rivers, lakes, creeks, brooks, and other sources of supply. Ordinarily water can be obtained at very low cost. Home gardeners living in cities or towns have the advantage of the public water systems, and their irrigation problem is therefore very simple of solution. There are several methods of irrigation in gardens, one of the common being the hose method. The cost of installation is rather heavy, as the hose costs from eight to twenty cents a linear foot. Initial cost and deprecia- tion may be reduced by laying a permanent pipe through a garden and using short lengths of hose, which may be attached at any one of the 1996 THE CORNELL READING COURSES several points. The wear and tear on the hose is also serious, soon neces- sitating a new outfit. Another considerable drawback is the long time required to satisfactorily water a garden. Many gardeners, in using a hose, do more harm than good.. They spend from half an hour to an hour in watering a garden of considerable size, when in reality they have only moistened the top layer, leaving a layer of dry soil between this top layer and the lower body of moist soil. The surface soon dries out, and the labor, the wear on hose, and the water are wasted. Another method of irrigation is the furrow method, which requires a supply of water led to the highest point in the garden, through-a pipe, a spout, or an open ditch. From the main source lateral furrows or ditches are constructed, preferably between every other row in the garden. The water is then allowed to run through these furrows whenever required during dry periods. As soon after watering as conditions permit, the soil should be cultivated in order to conserve the moisture. The furrow system has the advantage of being cheaply and easily installed, but it is wasteful of water. This method is of very little value where the land is uneven in contour or where the land is absolutely level. It works best where the garden slopes gradually away from one point.» Where soils are very porous or very hard, the furrow system is not successful. Subirrigation is accomplished by means of tile that are laid below ground. The general system consists of a main from four to ten inches in diameter from which extend laterals three or four inches in diameter. The subsoil should not be open and porous, or loss from percolation will result. The best results from the use of this method of irrigation are obtained where hardpan is found two or three feet below the surface and where the topsoil is a rich sandy loam full of humus-making materials. There are many advantages in subirrigation. All of the parts of the system are below ground so that there is nothing to interfere with plowing, harrowing, and other labor on the soil. The surface of the soil is never wet as a direct result of irrigation, making it possible to till it at any time. There is no baking of the soil, and if a good mulch has been established, it can be maintained with less labor. The drawbacks of this method of irrigation. are found in the cost of installation, and in the very slow movement of the water from the laterals through the soil. The fourth method of irrigation is the overhead system, which aims to imitate a light rainfall. This method is now much used in commercial gardens in New York State in preference to others. There are several different firms that handle equipment for this method. The chief advantage of this plan lies in the even distribution of water with very little attention. Where the home gardener has water under pressure, it will be possible to install the overhead system. The cost of a line fifty feet SUMMER CARE OF THE HoME VEGETABLE GARDEN 1997 long for overhead irrigation is $9.75, f.o.b., and of a line one hundred feet long, $18.85. The shorter line will water a garden fifty feet by fifty feet, and the longer, a garden one hundred feet by fifty feet. An outfit consists of fifty or one hun- dred feet of galvanized pipe all drilled and cleaned so that the nozzles can be inserted, the full number of nozzles needed, one valve or gate to control the water supply, one specially constructed turning union, three roller-bearing pipe supports to be placed on top of posts, and one drain cock inserted at the end of the line for draining. The purchaser has to furnish the feed line or connection with the water supply and four posts for supporting the pipe line. The system is entirely portable and may be taken down during the winter. The amount of pres- sure needed for good results is thirty-five pounds, and some gar- F1G. 165.—A rain machine, overhead irrigation deners report that better results are obtained by using as much as sixty pounds. TRAINING Garden space may be economized and products of a finer quality may be obtained from many vegetable plants if they are supported from the ground by staking or training. The gardener is enabled to cultivate, to spray, and to do other work in the garden more easily and more thoroughly, while the products are kept free from dirt. Tomatoes, pole beans, tall-growing peas, cucumbers, squashes, and melons lend them- selves particularly well to this method of culture. Training and staking are especially advantageous with the tomato, as the sun is thus enabled to reach the fruit, and ripening is hastened. There seems to be less trouble from certain diseases, particularly blossom-end rot, when tomatoes are grown in this way, though drought and lack of culti- vation increase loss from this disease. For this plant a single stake driven on the north side of the stalk is ordinarily used. The plant should be tied to this stake every twelve inches, beginning about four inches from the ground. Tomatoes may also be trained on wires that are fastened 1998 THE CORNELL READING COURSES about six inches apart on posts set about fifteen feet apart in the row. Poultry wire may be used in the same way. Still another plan involves the use of two stakes driven into the ground about eighteen inches apart and carrying hoops encircling the plant at every twelve inches. Pole beans may be wound about poles nine feet tall, to which they will hold tightly. Beans may also be grown ona trellis made as follows: Place a post at each end of the row. Stretch one wire nine inches from the ground between the two posts and another near the top of the posts. Between these wires weave strings, V- or X-fashion. The beans should be encouraged to Fic. 166.— Training tomatoes to a single stem climb up these strings. In place of the two methods chicken wire may be used, especially the five- or six-foot widths. Peas may be held up with brush, or they may be supported by the aid of wires or poultry netting. Melons, squashes, and cucumbers may be trained to grow over a trellis made of wood, perhaps A-shaped or perhaps overhead. They may be trained on wires similarly to tomatoes or in other ways. PRUNING In many cases it is an advantage to prune vegetable plants, especially if they are to be trained or staked. Some growers pinch back tomatoes by taking out all the lateral growths that are found at the bases of the SUMMER CARE OF THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 1999 leaves. The tomato plant must then grow to one stem. Sometimes two or three stems are desired, in which case all lateral growths but the required number are removed. With the cucumber, it is often advisable where the plants are too thick, to remove some of the lateral shoots or even to remove the tip. If the plant tends to produce an overabundance of leaf growth, it may be pinched back in order to encourage the growth of fruit. A stockier and more vigorous growth may be encouraged in melons in the same way. Occasionally in the home garden one desires to obtain but one melon or one squash from a particular plant. In such cases all female blossoms are removed after one fruit has been set, and the vegetative growth is kept within bounds by judicious pruning. Thus the energy of the plant is centered in the development of the single speci- men. BLANCHING In order to obtain the highest quality in certain plants, it is necessary to shut-out the sunlight. This process is known as blanching. It pre- vents the formation of coloring matter in the stem or the leaves, and at the same time stops the function of food making. A blanched plant will soon decay if kept too warm or too moist. White asparagus is generally obtained by cutting shoots before they extend far above the ground, though some varieties are naturally whiter than others. A mound is generally thrown up over the asparagus crowns, and the shoots push up through the soil until they reach the surface of the ground. Asparagus grown by the blanching method generally has a shorter stalk than the green asparagus, and in some cases only the tips are cut. Endive is blanched by gathering and tying the leaves above the center of the plant. The heart of the plant, shut in from exposure to sunlight, loses its natural green color, and turns yellowish white. Endive is less bitter when blanched. Sometimes it is necessary to blanch lettuce in a similar manner, especially lettuce that has a tendency to be loose headed, such as the cos or the romaine types. Celery has a bitter flavor and dark color if not properly blanched. Well-blanched stalks vary in color from chalk-white to golden yellow according to the variety. Celery blanching may begin from two to _four weeks previous to harvesting, according to the season. Early blanch- ing may be accomplished by placing boards along the sides of the rows about six inches apart at the bottom and about two to three inches at the top. The soil should be pressed slightly against the base of the boards, and the top should be firmly held by means of a strip of wood or by a wire spanner. The boards should be from ten to twelve inches wide or more if tall celery is grown. Roofing paper or red siding of the same 2000 THE CORNELL READING COURSES width may be substituted for the boards and may be held in place by a U-shaped arch, which is pushed into the soil (Fig. 167). On a small Fic. 167.— Blanching celery with paper. Boards may be similarly used scale, tile or cylinders of paper may be used (Fig. 168). These may be slipped over the plant and a small amount of soil pressed up around the Fic. 168.— Blanching celery with a tile. A paper cylinder may be used in the same way base in order to shut out all sunlight. Earth is generally used for blanch- ing late celery. The soil is first brought around the plants, in a ridge about three inches high; four or five days later it is pushed up about an inch higher; in another four or five days it is pushed still higher; and so on until it covers very nearly all of the celery. It is important not to get the dirt inside of the celery hearts. The celery should be inspected very carefully for rust, for it is not advis- able to blanch with dirt if rust is present. If the celery is to be stored and used during January, February, or March, one week of shading by means of low banking, about six to nine inches high, will start the blanching just enough. Celery will keep better and longer if in a green condition. SUMMER CARE OF THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN 2001 The flowering head of cauliflower to be of good quality must be care- fully protected from sunlight; otherwise it will be of dark color and poor flavor. Some varieties are almost self-blanching, but it is nearly always necessary to tie the leaves over the head soon after it begins to form. Some gardeners protect the small heads by covering them with paper. AVAILABLE READING COURSE LESSONS FOR THE FARM, ARRANGED BY SERIES Residents of New York State may register for one or more of the series mentioned below by addressing The Cornell Reading Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. SERIES LESSONS PGS SOW cane 426 ed% 74 Introduction to the principles of soil fer- tility 42 ‘Tilth and tillage of the soil so Nature, effects, and maintenance of humus in the soil 70 Soil moisture and crop production 78 Land drainage and soil efficiency POUIEY 4-2. iasaen ses 80 Incubation 88 Feeding young chickens Rural engineering.... 8 Knots, hitches, and splices *xq Sewage disposal for country homes army. torestry........ - 12 The improvement of the woodlot 28 Recent New York State Laws giving relief from taxation on lands used for forestry purposes 40 County, town, and village forests 62 Methods of determining the value of timber in the farm woodlot Ane DOSE ys 25s .5< sess 46 Feeding and care of the horse 36 Practical horse-breeding MAA se a. ohn Serco uses 16 Practical dairy problems 32 Composition of milk and some of its products 54 The dairy herd 60 Farm butter-making 82 Cream separation 86 The production of clean milk *Lesson for the Farm Home. 126 2002 THE CORNELL READING COURSES SERIES LESSONS Fruit growing. . ./..2.: 22 The culture of the currant and the goose- berry 36 Culture of red and black raspberries and of purple-cane varieties 48 Culture of the cherry 52 Culture of the blackberry 72 Culture of the grape RAMI NenOWS he ethene: 2s go Alfalfa for New York 24 The rotation of farm crops 66 Meadows in New York Stock feeding........ 26 Computing rations for farm animals Vegetable gardening.. 34 Home-garden planning 58 Planting the home vegetable garden Plant breeding....... 38 Principles and methods of plant-breeding 44 Methods of breeding oats 68 Improving the potato crop by selection Country Hie’ 22))c.:.6.4 64 The rural school and the community 76 Birds in their relation to agriculture in New York State MSEC. <2. Pat nae tebae 84 Insects injurious to the fruit of the apple The above list is correct to July 15, 1915. The demand may at any time exhaust the supply of particular numbers. Requests will be filled as long as the supply lasts. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 VEGETABLE GARDENING SERIES No. 4 JULY 15, 1915 VOL. IV. No. 92 SUMMER CARE OF THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN DISCUSSION PAPER A discussion paper is sent with each reading course lesson in order to assist the reader in studying the most important points. The discussion paper also encourages thought, observation, and self-expression. Each discussion paper filled out and returned will be read carefully, and a personal reply will be made if further information or references for ad- vanced reading are desired. Practical suggestions on farm problems will be sent gladly. New readers should enroll in one or more of the following series of reading course lessons: THE SOIL, POULTRY, RURAL ENGINEERING, FARM FORESTRY, THE HORSE, DAIRYING, FRUIT GROWING, FARM CROPS, STOCK FEEDING, VEGETABLE GARDENING, PLANT BREEDING, INSECT, COUNTRY LIFE. The first lesson in each series desired is sent on enrollment, and subsequent lessons are sent, one at a time, on the return of discussion papers. There- fore, in order to receive the other lessons in this series, readers should sign and return this discussion paper, whether the questions are answered or not. By means of reading course lessons, study clubs may be promoted, which may become important factors in community welfare. Assistance will be given in organizing and conducting clubs. The space below on this page ts reserved for correspondence concerning reading course work, and also for names and addresses of any residents of New York State likely to become interested in the Cornell Reading Course for the Farm. [2003] 2004 THE CORNELL READING COURSES (In answering questions, attach additional paper if needed and number the answers.) t. Describe instances where frequent cultivations in a garden have demonstrated their value. 2. Do you find wheel hoes especially useful? Discuss. 3. Have you compared level culture with hill culture? With what result? SUMMER CARE OF THE Home VEGETABLE GARDEN 2005 4. What are the advantages of mulching? 5. Have you used the mulching method? What results have you ob- tained? 6. Do you irrigate your garden? If so, what is your method? 7. Is it better to water a garden frequently and lightly or less frequently and thoroughly? 2006 THE CORNELL READING COURSES 8. What vegetables do you train, prune, or stake? Describe your methods. 9. Have you found training and staking especially helpful for tomatoes? Why? to. Give in detail your methods of blanching vegetables. SL Gieg@) se, e,'8) oe: 6 6. \0 [0 a,0)\6, 6 \e. 0/0 -6)).0, 10). 0; @ (6) 100 "@. 16 ©) 10: ‘0 0:0) eo 0146) 4) 0) 010), ¢ fuse) 6 0..6@ fe) siete: lajie eo ef sere ene (Address all correspondence to the Reading Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York.) The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 VOL. IV. No. 94 AUGUST 15, 1915 COUN TRC ee THE FARM FISHPOND GEORGE C. EMBopy American farmers have been flooded with reading matter designed to assist them in increasing the productivity of their land areas, but that which relates to the utilization of their aquatic resources is_ scanty. Fic. 169.— The harvest of the farm fishpond It is not surprising, therefore, that there are many springs and creeks unused, and that swamp lands incapable of drainage are considered of no value. It is possible to utilize these neglected resources for the prop- agation of fishes, frogs, and possibly many other useful aquatic organisms, which have a market value. In this way one may materially increase both the output of any farm possessing these resources and also at the same time the supply of a highly nutritious animal food. [2007] 2008 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Farm fish culture has been almost wholly neglected in America even though a large part of the country possesses exceptional advantages for it. Some interest was created years ago when the carp was introduced from Europe and rather generally distributed among farmers. Much of this interest died out, however, as it became known that the carp was not very well liked by Americans. The ponds were allowed to deteriorate, and,in the majority of cases, the stock carp were permitted to escape into public waters. Little effort has been made to interest people in prop- agating the better grade of native fishes, which are already in high esteem. This inactivity may perhaps be pardoned on the ground that until a few years ago one could go to the near-by stream or lake confident of obtaining enough fish or frogs for a meal. An entirely different state of affairs prevails in certain parts of Europe; for example, in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Belgium, commercial fish culture is probably developed to its highest state. Farmers find it profitable to engage in fish culture, and, in the aggregate, immense areas of water are used for this purpose. Aquicultural experiment stations and schools, either connected with agricultural colleges or run exclusively in the interest of fish culture, teach the.farmers economic methods of raising carp and other fishes. Carp is highly esteemed in Europe, and in the countries mentioned has a market value comparable to that of the better food fishes of America. Necessity no doubt has been the primary cause of the development of this industry. The supply of fish in the public waters of these countries was exhausted long ago, and, since sufficient meat could not be raised on land to fully supply the increasing demand, it became necessary to transform waste lands into water areas and to stock them with fish. This bit of history is gradually repeating itself in this country. The largest fish-producing streams have been transformed into sewers; others have been dried up; and still others have been stripped of their inhabitants by too ardent harvesting. In order to justify the advance in the price of beef, dealers say that the supply is decreasing while the demand is becoming greater with the increase of the population. If this is true, either means must be devised for producing more beef, or other kinds of meat must be produced and utilized. There is much doubt as to whether the former will generally be possible in the State of New York, but the latter can be done by fish and frog culture. There are few farms that have not a stream, a spring, an artesian well, or a bit of swamp that could be developed into a profitable source of food supply. During the past four years, the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University has been giving instruction in the propagation of useful aquatic ariimals to a steadily increasing number of students. Letters are continually coming in from persons in different parts of this and other THE FarM FIsHPOND 2009 States seeking information concerning the propagation of frogs and fishes. For these reasons it is believed that if reliable information is widely dis- tributed, the fishpond will soon become a common feature of the farm. This lesson is written for the double purpose of answering many in- quiries that come to the College and of stimulating a more general in- terest in farm fish culture. It is based on the practices in some of the government hatcheries and on experimentation undertaken in this College. It is wanting in many particulars principally because aquicultural investi- gators have not yet supplied complete and reliable information meeting farm conditions. The pond herein described is not one that will put on its owner a great burden of labor, nor is it guaranteed to become a commercial success. It is designed merely to supply a good-sized family or two with enough fresh fish to satisfy their needs, and this with the least possible expendi- ture of labor. A commercial establishment would consist of many such ponds, and in order to make it a financial success, one would have to give it special treatment, which cannot be detailed here. TYPES OF PONDS There are in general three types of ponds depending on the method of construction: namely, the pond formed by damming a stream, the excavated pond, and the dike pond. A pond of the first type is usually formed by throwing an embankment across the bed of a stream in some narrow part of its course. Not- withstanding its general popularity, a pond of this kind is a poor invest- ment for three reasons. First, it can never be brought under complete control, for there is no sure way of preventing the escape of its inhabi- tants, especially the young fish. Second, every freshet brings in quantities of sediment, much of which is deposited on the bottom, and the accumu- lation of only a few years is necessary to materially decrease the depth. And third, the embankment, unless it be a very expensive one, is in danger during every freshet. The ponds that are most likely to give profitable returns are either excavated below the surface of the surrounding ground or formed by building earthen embankments, or dikes. A combination of these two types is often desirable. In every case the pond should be situated away from the course of a stream and in such a manner as to preclude the pos- sibility of surface water draining into it during the heavy rains. LOCATION Since every farm has its own particular conditions, only very general statements concerning the location of the pond are given. In a large 2010 THE CORNELL READING COURSES measure, it is determined by the topography of the land and the character of the water supply. Any fairly level acre of land situated slightly below a flowing spring or the water level in a creek, and at the same time a few feet above contiguous ground, constitutes an ideal location. From the water source to the lowest point on the farm there should be a total drop of at least seven feet; this will allow a gravity flow from the water source to the pond, and also from the bottom of the pond to some other point for draining. While the ideally situated pond is one that can be completely drained by merely pulling a plug or by means of some other simple device, suc- cessful fishponds have been made in low-lying swamp or marsh land incapable of drainage and worthless from an agricultural standpoint. The soil removed in excavating such a pond often possesses high value as a fertilizer and may be used to advantage on upland fields. At any rate a pond is much more profitable than a mosquito-infested waste. The principal thing to be kept in mind in making a pond in such a location is the necessity for plenty of water during the summer months. WATER SUPPLY The water supply for a fishpond may be obtained in a number of ways: namely, direct from a spring or stream by gravity flow or by the use of a hydraulic ram; from an artesian well; from a well of the ordinary type by the use of a windmill; and finally by conserving the rainfall and the ordinary land drainage. Spring water and artesian well water Flowing springs or wells are the best sources of water supply for the farm fishpond if the water from them is of the right quality, because this water is most easily controlled, is usually permanently clear, and is warmer in winter than creek water, thus making part of the pond free from ice. Much spring water is free from pollution and dangerous min- erals and gases, and may be led directly into the pond. However, water may be tested by placing a few fishes in it; if they remain alive for a week or so, the water may be considered suitable. On the other hand, water may contain a number of undesirable sub- stances in solution. Such minerals as arsenic, salt, and iron, if present in considerable quantities, are injurious to fishes, and water containing these minerals should not be used in a fishpond. Hard water is unde- sirable not because of the presence of lime carbonate but because it may contain obnoxious gases: for example, hydrogen sulfide, marsh gas, and carbon dioxide — all of which are injurious. Hydrogen sulfide imparts an undesirable flavor to fish flesh; marsh gas and carbon dioxide, if present THE FARM FISHPOND 2011 in large quantities, actually poison or asphyxiate fishes. Fortunately water containing the last two gases may be purified by passing it over a series of falls, during which process the gases are replaced by oxygen from the air. In general, the water from springs originating in limestone regions contains much carbon dioxide and should be tested before using. Spring water containing very much hydrogen sulfide should not be used, but, if there is only a slight odor or taste of this gas, it may be eliminated as in the case of marsh gas and carbon dioxide. A spring should be protected from contamination by surface water and drainage from stables and like places. It is well to dig a basin in the spring itself and to line this with a wall of concrete, loose brick, or stone, which should extend from eight to twelve inches above the surface of the ground. A ridge of clay soil thrown up around this wall will effectively turn away all surface water. Should it become necessary to build a pond at a higher level than the spring, a hydraulic ram may sometimes be used. It must be understood, however,.that only a small part of the water supply, one-seventh or less, can be forced to a higher level; and that for every rise of ten feet from ram to pond, there must be at least one foot fall from spring toram. The greater part of the water is wasted by this method; hence it is applicable only to a spring of large capacity. Creek water A creek not immediately fed by springs, as a rule, drains a rather large area of land; therefore it is subject to great changes in volume, turbidity, and temperature. A pond directly connected with such a creek is like- wise subject to the same changes. The temperature is beyond control. The turbidity cannot be regulated without the expenditure of a large sum of money. It is therefore fortunate that these two factors merely inconvenience pond management and do not in themselves seriously affect the healthfulness of the inhabitants of the pond. The volume of water, however, flowing into the pond must be kept within certain limits throughout the year, and to this end special structures are necessary. It is customary to build a low dam across the creek bed, and on one side of the bank of the pond so formed to construct an intake box, from which the desired amount of water can be taken. In locating the dam, two things must. be kept in mind: first, the fishpond should be fed by gravity flow; second, the water must not be dammed back on to another man’s property without his written consent. Thus the dam should be far enough up stream to feed the pond properly and yet not too near another person’s property. A drop of at least two feet from the line fence to the water level in the dam should be allowed. 2012 THE CORNELL READING COURSES The form and the arrangement of a structure for regulating the volume of water flowing into a fishpond is shown diagrammatically in figure 170. ins The dam need not necessarily be high; from two and_ one-half to three feet of water in the deepest part of the pond formed by it will usually suffice. The in- Fic. 170.— Diagram showing relation of dam take box (B) is built in the side and inate box. A. apron: B. intake Boe of the embankment. so that it screen; G. coarse grating; H, stream bed; 1, may be away from the swiftest epee part of the stream and therefore out of the path of ice and débris coming down during the early spring freshets. At G there should be a coarse grating in order to prevent any large masses, particularly ice, logs, and brush, from entering the intake box. F is a screen, loosely inserted so that it may be withdrawn and cleaned. It keeps leaves and other suspended material from passing into the intake pipe, which enters the box at J. The size of this pipe will depend on the size and the number of ponds to be supplied, but from four to six inches in diameter will be large enough to supply a pond of from four to six acres in extent. For a one-acre pond, the pipe must be at least two inches in diameter. At E on each side of the dam are the bulkheads, which are designed to protect the stream banks and should be as high as are the latter. The spillway (I), where the dam overflows, must be wide enough to allow free passage of ice and other débris during high water. The height must not be so great as to cause the bulkheads and the banks of the stream to overflow, yet it must be great enough to permit a gravity flow from dam to fishpond. A dam of any sort should be provided with some means for draining the pond above it. A simple way of accomplishing this in small streams is to insert one or more elbows of sewer pipe (Fig. 171, D) in the bottom of the dam in such a place that they may be opened or closed by a person standing on one of the bulkheads. A circular disk made from two-inch planking and just small enough to fit loosely into : ; Fic. 171.— Cross section of a dam showing the flange of each pipe, will serve drain made of sewer Pipe. A, apron; asaplug. By means ofawireloop, 3: dam; C, wooden plug; D, sewer pipe inserted as in figure 171, the disk can be pulled out with a rake or a hook. Each disk should be weighted down with iron or lead and should THE FarM FISHPOND 2013 be soaked in water for a few days before it is inserted into the flange. This will prevent swelling when the disk is in place and consequent breaking of the elbow. The elbows should not be more than eight inch- S&S es in diameter, and the number to be used will depend on the height of the dam and the volume of water = flowing into the pond per minute, Fic. 172.— A _ rock-filled timber dam which must be calculated in gallons. An eight-inch pipe with a head of twelve inches will conduct water at the rate of about one thousand gallons per minute. In order to find the number of pipes required, the number of gallons flowing into the pond each minute should be divided by one thousand. Reinforced concrete is probably the best material of which to construct the dam. Directions for preparing the forms and mixing the materials may be obtained from booklets published by the manufacturers of portland cement. There are several other materials that may be used, many of which may be obtained right on the farm, such as timber, earth, and rock. Where this is the case, the principal expense is for labor. The manner of construction of one of these dams is illustrated in figure 172. Of whatever material the dam is made, it should rest directly on bedrock or below the stream bed in impervious soil. A fishpond fed in this manner may be situated below the dam on one side of the stream, allowing an embankment of ample width between the pond and the stream (Fig. 173). Well water The absence of flowing water should not totally discourage an attempt to build a fishpond, for it is possible by means of.a windmill and a good . well to adequately supply one of limited size. A pond supplied in this way is described by Dyche under the title, “The Sam _ Bailey Pond ”’ (page 2018). Surface drainage and rain water A natural depres- sion in the ground re- Fic. 173.— Fishpond showing relative positions of dam, ceiving drainage from intake, pond, and outlet. A, intake; B, outlet a rather large area of land may often be made into a pond. If the depression contains soil that is wet or spongy in late spring or early summer, it is still 2014 THE CORNELL READING COURSES more favorable. By excavating and lining the depression with clayey soil, it is often possible to conserve the supply of water throughout the dry season. Many good fishponds of this type are to be found in parts of Kentucky and Tennessee, which are subject to longer droughts than are likely to occur in New York. POND CONSTRUCTION Size and shape of the pond How large a pond should be, will depend within certain limits on the amount of fish flesh desired. Taking one pound as the average amount in the rough used by one person in one meal, a family of seven in one year having fish for one meal each week will require roughly three. hundred and sixty pounds. While there is no definite data concerning the pro- ductiveness of a one-acre fishpond in New York State, the results obtained from a similar body of water in Kansas, as reported by Dyche in 1914, . lead to the belief that one-half acre of water will be ample to produce this amount of fish. It must be remembered, however, that the pro- ductiveness of a pond is dependent on the stocking and the management, and what is the best method is still an open question. Ease of manage- ment must be considered in determining the size of the pond. Several small ponds can be operated more easily than a large one of equal area. An acre is about the maximum size consistent with thorough management. The shape of the pond will be influenced by that of the area available. If this is not limited, then the ease of management should be the controlling factor. Within certain limits long narrow ponds are more easily cared for than broad ones. While it would be unwise in the present state of knowledge on this subject to set any limit, it may be said that * a pond from eighty to one hundred feet wide can be easily managed, and at the same time the bottom topography may be favorably arranged. Depth and bottom topography It is generally true that shallow waters are more productive than deep ones, but at just what depth the productiveness materially falls off cannot be stated. One would not be far wrong in making the greater part of the pond less than three feet deep, for in the shallows fishes find their sustenance. In ponds that have a heavy coating of ice in winter, there should be an area at least six feet deep, where the fishes may gather during the cold season. If this is not provided there will be a high mortality due to freezing or asphyxiation. For these reasons the contour of the bottom should be similar to that shown in figure 174; that is, there should be a shallow shelf on each side of the pond with a deep channel between. THE FarM FISHPOND 2015 For convenience in removing the fishes when the pond is drained, there should be a basin or kettle from fifteen to twenty feet in diameter near the outlet and at least one foot deeper than the contiguous area. The whole pond bottom ————#ee—____ should be so graded as to elimi- F!G- 174-— Cross section of the fishpond showing ae the topography of the bottom nate all depressions other than those already mentioned. Every part should slope gently towards the outlet basin. Excavation and dike building A pond should first be laid out by driving stakes into the ground indi- cating both the inner and the outer margins of the dike. The width of the dike at any height should be at least four times the depth of the water at that point. Thus in figure 175 the width from A to B is four times the distance from A to C. The slope AD should be no greater than what is termed a half pitch by housebuilders, and the pond may be managed better if the slope is still more gradual. The removal of all sod is next in order. It is necessary that this be scraped, roots and all, from every part of the pond and the dike area. The dike will thus rest on bare soil without any grass, roots, or pieces of wood between. Nor should any of these substances go into the dike itself, for they will decay and leave cavities, which will sooner or later give trouble. The sod should not be destroyed, however, for it will be useful in surfacing the dike to protect it from wave action. The pond may be excavated in one of two ways: namely, by the use of dynamite, or with plow and scraper. The former method will not be treated here, but those who are interested may obtain the necessary in- formation from pamphlets issued by manufacturers of dynamite. By the second method, excavation should start at the center of the pond area and gradually extend in every direction to the dike area. The soil removed may be dumped immediately along the margin to form the dike, but all rocks or other undesirable substances should be taken from it, because the material used to form the dike should be as homogeneous as possible. After each layer of soil from four to six inches deep is uniformly spread, it must be tamped, rolled, or trodden down to insure compactness, and if it is wet during the operation, a . greater degree of compactness will Fic. EL eta onl Pe Saget a result. In this manner the dike is ; built as excavation proceeds, which saves some labor and time. The top of the dike should be at least two feet above the proposed water level in the pond so that any upheaval c + ! 1 1 i] ' A 2016 THE CORNELL READING COURSES due to frost may not be low enough to cause a leak. If more soil is removed from the pond area than is needed for the dike, such excess may be dumped profitably on the outside of the dike and used to increase its breadth. Inlet From the intake box at the dam (Fig. 170, page 2012), water may be conducted to the pond either through a pipe or through an open ditch, the bed and the banks of which should be protected against erosion. The bed may be protected by paving it with stones, the banks by planting willow cuttings close together along them. It is well to insert a screen at some point along the ditch or at its entrance to the pond, in order to prevent fish from migrating upstream. Outlets The outlet is a very important part of the pond. It must be so con- structed as to Deroue a free passage of excess water without endangering the dike and a complete draining of - the pond whenever desired. It should also maintain a fairly con- stant water level and should be properly screened to prevent the escape of fish. Three types. of Bact = dependable outlets are illustrated Fic. 176.— Outlet for pond. A, flash- in figures 176, 177, and 178. boards; B, apron; C, core; D, embank- A box of wood or concrete, which pa Sacer has several flashboards (A) that slide up and down in grooves and can be removed when it is desired to drain the pond, is shown in figure176. When in position, these flashboards regulate the depth of water in the fishpond. A screen (E), inserted in grooves, can be pulled out whenever it becomes clogged. Undermining of the embankment is prevented by an apron of concrete or planking at B. The cores (C) extending well into the dike are generally necessary to prevent seepage at the junction of dike and outlet box. This type of outlet is a convenient one, for almost any water level maybe main- tained by regulating the number and the size of the flashboards. An additional advantage lies in the possibility of quick draining. It is difficult, however, to prevent leakage at the junctions of the flashboards; therefore this form of outlet can be recommended only for ponds having an abundant water supply in summer. For ponds having a small water supply in summer, the form of outlet illustrated in figure 177 is recommended. Here drainage is accomplished by means of an iron pipe (F) with a gate valve (G) on the upstream end. THE FarM FIsHPpoNnpD 2017 The dike is continuous across the outlet except’ for a sluice near the top to allow an overflow of excess water. All surfaces of the dike designated by D are protected against erosion by concrete or planking. In place of the iron pipe and the gate valve, sewer pipe may be used with an elbow and a disk plug on the up- stream end, similar to that described é for draining a pond above a dam oie Ce ee be E (Fig. 170, page 2012). apron; F, drainpipe; G, gate valve; H, Another inexpensive outlet and 9 °°” drain combined (Fig. 178) consists of the following: Sewer pipe extends under the embankment, as de- scribed, and in place of the disk plug, two three-foot lengths of pipe cemented together are loosely set in the elbow. It is necessary to select pipe and elbow that are ‘truly circular and to make the joint as close fitting as possible with Fic. 178.— Outlet for pond. A, bottom of cement. This standpipe will main- pond; B, sewer pipe; C, dike; D, standpipe tain a depth of water of a little Beers Hasan age, 2, ate Sanaa over six feet, and when it is desired to drain the pond, the standpipe is merely lifted out of the elbow. See noe ee ee ae GN ie 5 \ y i aE Au ne Ce HLL AMI MN Mes Making the pond water-tight A pond excavated in heavy clayey or loamy soil will seldom need special treatment if the dikes are built compactly and care is taken to have them rest on bare soil. If the soil is light and porous, however, puddling must be resorted to. In certain cases where there is but little sand in the soil, it may only be necessary to loosen the soil in the bottom of the pond with a harrow as the water is first turned in, and, as the water level rises, to continue harrowing around the margin of the pond, partly in and partly out of water. This will roil the water, and the finer sediment will be deposited in the pores of the subsoil. (See description of the Sam Bailey pond, page 2018.) In the case of very porous soils of sand and gravel, it may be necessary to draw in heavy soil and scatter it evenly over the bottom. This should be stirred up when the water is turned in until a very muddy condition results. Subsequent settling will usually make the bottom impervious. 127 2018 THE CORNELL READING COURSES ~ Protection of the banks In a pond of an acre or more in extent there is likely to be some wave erosion on the banks during severe winds. The sods removed in building the pond may be laid along the dike from a point just below the proposed water level at the top. In case sods are not available, the bank should be liberally seeded to grass, which should be well started before water is turned into the pond. As a temporary preventative of wave erosion, a thick fringe of brush may be laid along the margin of the pond. This is a very effective measure in a newly made pond while the banks are becoming sodded. Finally a few willow cuttings stuck here and there along the margin will help to hold the soil in place, and will also improve the appearance of the pond as well as contribute a certain amount of food for its inhabitants. Willow poles used in this way will soon become trees. The lower twigs, however, should be kept pruned, for otherwise they will constitute a hindrance to the proper management of the pond. Cost The cost of building a pond will vary with conditions. If any great amount of excavation has to be done, the cost will be high; nevertheless one must remember that this item will not recur. The pond once properly made and stocked will be permanently productive and will require practi- cally no outlay for maintenance. THE SAM BAILEY POND The following is quoted from Dyche’s! description of the Sam Bailey pond: Mr. Samuel Bailey lives on the uplands north of the valley of the Nin- nescah and about one-half mile northeast of the State Fish Hatchery grounds. He has built a pond almost on the hilltop and its sole supply of water is from a well. The water is pumped by windmill power and carried into the pond through pipes. * * * * * In size this pond covers an area less than one-fourth of an acre and is circular in shape. It was built by Mr. Bailey at an ex- pense, allowing fair wages for labor, not to exceed a cost of $25, or about five days’ work for a man with a good team, a plow and scraper. Of course this does not include the cost of a good pump and windmill. After the pond site had been definitely located, the excavation was made by plowing the ground and scraping the dirt until the pond cavity was about seven feet deep at the center and basin-shaped.. The embankment walls, rising about four feet in height, are about six feet wide on top. The embankment surrounding the water represents the amount of dirt that was removed in making the excavation for the pond. After the work of digging and shaping the pond cavity had been finished, the ground 1Ponds, pond fish, and pond fish culture. By Lewis Lindsay Dyche. Kansas State Fish and Game Department. 10914. THE FarM FIsHpoND 2019 surface of the pond basin was plowed and harrowed until the soil was thoroughly pulverized. The excavation was then ready for the water, which was allowed to run in until a pool formed in the center. Then a harrow was pulled through and around the pool a number of times. When the water had extended its surface two or three feet farther over the ground in the pond basin the harrowing was continued, half the har- TOW ‘being 3 in the water and the horses traveling on the dry ground. By the next day, when the water had extended its surface a few ‘feet further, this operation was repeated, and so on until the pond area had filled within eighteen inches of the top of the earth embankment. This method of harrowing and puddling produced an excellent waterproof mud bottom that was quite hard and firm and held water from the very first. The water for this pond is supplied by a good windmill that works a pump with an eight-inch stroke in a tubular well with three-inch casing - and -a two-inch point. The water is lifted about 35 feet from a well that is 70 feet deep. The water in the well usually ‘stands within about 32 feet of the surface. For five years Mr. Bailey has irrigated a three- or four-acre garden patch from this one pond. The water supply seems to be ample, for during a considerable portion of the time, even during a hot, dry summer like the present one (1910), the pond is full of water and the mill is running only a part of the time. Mr. Bailey has started another pond just west of the one already built. This will give him two ponds with nearly half an acre of water, which he expects to supply with one windmill and one pump. ota Mr. Bailey has recently stocked his pond with crappie and bull pout —a yellow catfish. They are doing well, as several schools of hundreds of the young fish have recently been seen feeding near the shore. SOME FACTS ABOUT FISHES FOR THE POND Suitable species The temperature of the water during the hottest days of the year will have something to do with the selection of fish. All members of the salmon family, including the brook trout, the lake trout, and the whitefish, require rather cold water. Any pond the water in which rises to a higher temperature than 70° F., is totally unfit for these fishes. If the pond is fed by springs giving an abundance of clean, cold water, it is very probable that trout will thrive in it; but if the pond is fed by a creek whose waters are exposed to the sun in various shallows, it is suitable for warm water fishes only, such as perch, black bass, sunfish, rock bass, calico bass, bull- heads, and the like. While these fishes will live in cold water suitable for trout, they will grow rapidly and reproduce only in ponds the summer tem- perature of which ranges above 70° F., and a temperature of 85° F. will not harm them. An acre pond of the type described herein will generally have warm water in the shallow parts suitable for warm water fishes, even though it be fed by springs. In this lesson only warm water fishes 2020 THE CORNELL READING COURSES will be considered, because the cold water forms require specially con- structed ponds and special methods of stocking and management, which cannot be taken up here. Spawning habits Fishes deposit their eggs in a variety of places. Several species require a gravel shoal, others sand or mud bottom, and many others spawn directly on vegetation. The spawning grounds of some forms are located in swiftly flowing water, others in quiet water. Some fishes are nest builders and protect their eggs and young; others leave them to their fate. The small-mouthed black bass is the principal food fish requiring a gravel bed as its spawning ground. In such a bed it excavates a slight depression in which are laid the eggs. The male protects both eggs and young from the depredations of other animals until the young are able to care for themselves. Artificial nests, which are easily removed after the = spawning season, are generally used by fish culturists. (t¢7/) A nest consists of a wooden box with sides approxi- LA} mately two feet long and open on two adjacent } sides (Fig. 179). Coarse gravel is placed on the /’H bottom of the box; then enough of a finer grade is added to make the bed about six inches deep. i) These nests are distributed about the pond in 4 water varying in depth from eighteen inches to two feet. There should be one nest for every male bass. Fic. 179.— An artificial Sunfish, rock bass, calico bass, large-mouthed black nest for bass bass, and bullheads are all nest builders, but they use depressions in mud or sand bottom, particularly near the roots of aquatic plants. The rock bass and the bullheads, however, often make their nests in the bank of the pond or under submerged rocks, logs, or other objects. These latter conditions are easily met by putting broken drainpipes or by anchoring logs along the margin of the pond where the water is from one to two feet deep. Yellow perch lay their eggs in long cylindric masses, which are generally wound about aquatic plants, submerged logs and brush. - A few small cedar trees or some brush anchored here and there in water from three to six feet deep will answer the purpose. Pike, pickerel, carp, goldfish, and golden shiners throw their eggs broadcast, the last three always where the vegetation is thickest. Their eggs are adhesive, and become firmly fixed to the vegetation. An abun- dance of aquatic plants will supply the necessary conditions. Suckers spawn on gravel or sand bottom usually where there is some water current. Beds of gravel and sand placed at the pond inlet may furnish the necessary conditions for a limited number. THE Farm FIsHPOND 2021 Terms applied to young fishes When a fish hatches from the egg, it has a small yolk sac filled with nutriment. This persists for a longer or shorter time depending on the kind of fish and the temperature of the water. In the case of the fishes that spawn in late spring, the sac is generally carried for a period varying from three to ten days. During this period the young fishes are termed fry (Fig. 180), and they require no food other than that carried in the sac. As soon as the sac disappears, Fic. 180.— Fry of brook trout they immediately begin to snap at the minute organisms floating or swimming in the water. The young fishes are then called advanced fry. When they reach the length of from one and one-half to two inches, they become fingerlings, which term is applied until they are one year old. Rate of growth The temperature of the water and the amount of available food are two factors among others that influence the growth of a fish. If these are favorable, then the rate of growth will vary with the species and also with the individual. Any person who has watched the rearing of a brood of young fishes has noticed the great variation in the size of Average length in inches at age of Advanced Spawning Fingerlings Name I ; § fry ‘8; § season available | available 5 months! I year 2 years | Common sucker} 2 3 to 4 6to7 | April-May..| June....../ August Golden shiner. . 14 2 | 23 to3 May-July. .} July......| September Goldfish.......| 23 33 5 to6 June-August} July...... September Carp..........| 33 to§ | 6to8 | 12 to15 | June-July. ./ July......} August Bullhead...... 27 | 3 to 4 5 to6 Mays issss «- June...... July WCE ores dani: 5to6 | 8torr | 14 to16 | March-April} April...... | June Pickerel....... 4 to5 6 to7 10 to12 | April.......| May......| June Yellow perch...| 2 to 23 | 3 to4 6 to'7 (Noollres ae ae May—June.| September Rock bass..... 13 2 3 | May—June..| July...... September Common s t n- AS IE rss. cs cosh I 2 3 to 4 June-July..| July...... September Bluegill sunfish.) 2 to 23 | 3 to4 5 to6 June-July...| July. .....| September Calico bass....} 2 to 23 | 3 tog 5 to 6. «|| June.s /.0.. July......| September Small-mouthed black bass...) 23 to3 | 4 to 5 7 to8 May-June..| July...... | September Large-mouthed | | | black bass...} 3 5 to6 | 8tor1o | May-June..| July...... September 2022 THE CORNELL READING COURSES individuals of the same brood and of the same age. It has been observed that the offspring of a single pair of rainbow trout at the age of five months varied in length from two to five inches. Some of the variation is due to the greater activity among cer- tain individuals, but there also seems to be some un- known inherent factor. It is therefore very evident that the rate of growth of fishes in any pond is impossible of prediction. A rough idea of what occurs in natural bodies of water can be given, how- ever, which will indicate what it should be the aim to produce or surpass in Fic. 181.— One of the crustaceans (Simocephalus) eaten by the larger-sized advanced fry. Enlarged wenty-eight diameters The data in the table on page 2021 are based principally on investigations of the rate of growth of fishes in natural bodies of water near Ithaca, New York, but some have been secured elsewhere. Included in the table are also the months in which spawning occurs and in which advanced fry and fingerlings are usually available. Feeding habits All young fishes are somewhat similar in their feeding habits, subsisting principally on various small animals including the microscopic Protozoa, wheel animalcules, and the smallest artificial ponds. Fic. 182.—A_ crustacean (Cyclops) abundant in all stagnant ponds and eaten by all young fishes. En- larged twenty-eight diam- eters Crustacea of which Simocephalus and Cyclops are good examples (Figs. 181 and 182). THE FarM FISHPOND 2023 Fic. 183.— Beginning at the top: common sucker (Catostomus commersonit); golden shiner (Abramis crysoleucas) from life; yellow bullhead (Ameturus natalis); northern ptke (Esox luctus) from life 2024 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Fic. 184.— Beginning at the top: yellow perch (Perca flavesens); rock bass (Ambloplites rupestrts); common sunfish (Eupomotis gibbosus) from life THE Farm FISHPOND 2025 Fic. 185.— Beginning at the top: bluegill sunfish (Lepomis pallidus); green sunfish : (A pomotis cyanellus); calico bass (Pomoxis sparotdes) 2026 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Fic. 186.— Beginning at the top: small-mouthed black bass (Micropterus dolomteu); large-mouthed black bass (Micropterus salmoides); pike perch, or wall-eyed pike (Stizos- tedium vitreum) ; THE FarRM FISHPOND 2027 Adults of the common pond fishes of New York State may be placed in four groups depending on the character of their food: namely, (1) vege- table feeders, comprising those that subsist principally on vegetation; (2) omnivorous feeders, which show little if any preference for vegetable or animal food; (3) animal feeders eating insects, worms, snails, small crustaceans, and other animals of moderate size; and (4) animal feeders that are highly predatory on larger aquatic animals, including frogs, crayfish, and the like. In the first group are included carp, goldfish, and golden shiners. The bullhead and the sucker are good representatives of the second group. To the third belong nearly all the common food fishes, such as yellow perch, rock bass, sunfish, and calico bass. Among the highly predaceous forms there. are the black basses, the pike, the pickerel, and the wall-eyed pike. It must be understood that this grouping is not a hard and fast one. Carp, goldfish, and golden shiners do many times eat moderate-sized animals, but it is important that plenty of vegetation be present for their use. Nearly all representatives of the third group also eat crayfish and small fish; likewise the black basses often eat small insects, snails, and worms. Generally speaking, however, the various species seem to prefer the kinds of food indicated by the grouping. STOCKING THE POND Putting fish into a pond immediately after it is built would be like -turning chickens into a newly plowed field to find their own food. One could expect no greater returns from the one procedure than from the other. Both fish and chickens might get enough worms to last a few days, but famine would eventually overtake them. A fishpond in order to be successful must provide (1) suitable spawning grounds, (2) abundant forage, and (3) shelter in which young and old may escape their natural enemies. When one is certain that these pro- visions are fully met, then it is time to introduce fishes. Spawning grounds suitable for the different kinds of pond fishes have been described under ‘‘ Spawning habits,”’ page 2020. Food for young fishes The propagation of minute organisms in great numbers as food for young fishes has been accomplished by the Chinese and the Japanese and more recently by the Germans. For this purpose they have used various organic fertilizers including the manure of sheep and _ horses. During the last few years the Germans have been experimenting with various commercial inorganic fertilizers, but at the present time, their use is little understood, and there is a great difference of opinion as to their value. 2028 THE CORNELL READING COURSES It is not possible to fertilize successfully a pond of the type herein described if there is any appreciable current through it, for the essential elements of fertilization will be rapidly carried away. However, if one desires to try it, a very effective method consists in first building several small ponds, about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, along the margin of the main pond, connecting them therewith by narrow chan- nels (Fig. 187). By placing well- rotted manure in these ponds at. Fic. 187.— A suggestion for increasing the the rate of about three quarts per ee Res Pee Uae hae, ee pes A, square yard of pond area and one week later by introducing mud and vegetation from some pond known to contain the necessary organisms, it is very probable that during the course of the next three weeks, there will be enough Protozoa, minute Crustacea, and the like, to feed all of the young fishes that may appear. These small forage ponds must be screened with galvanized woven-wire, having a mesh no greater than one-quarter of an inch. Advanced fry will soon find the forage areas and will pass through the screens, which, however, will effectively keep out the larger fishes. There is every reason to believe that pond fertilization follows the same principles that are involved in the fertilization of land. In the latter case, it is a recognized fact that every field is a problem in itself; this is true in respect to ponds. Hence the amount of fertilizer given in the pre- ceding paragraph for a square yard of pond area is purely tentative. It is merely a starting point from which to vary the amount as experience is gained. Even in the main pond itself there will be some natural fertilization each year derived from decaying vegetation, from excrement from fishes, and by solution from bottom soil. This will provide small food organisms for a limited number of advanced fry. The production may be increased by the addition of leaves and waste hay or even by a small amount of horse manure. This should be spread along the margin of the pond early in the spring, and, at the same time, the amount of water flowing through the pond should be cut down to the minimum. Only a narrow strip along the margin should be thus fertilized, for if too great an area is so treated, pollution of the whole pond will follow, which will be fatal to the pond organisms. Food for adult fishes Insects.— Since there is no known method for controlling the repro- duction of aquatic insects in large numbers, one will have to depend on THE Farm FIsHPOND 2029 their chance occurrence. A few insect forms, such as caddis flies, may- flies, damsel flies, midges, and mosquitoes, will undoubtedly come to the pond each year for egg laying, and nearly all of their progeny will probably be exterminated during the same year. There is good reason for believing, however, that the supply of aquatic insects can be materially increased by building a few small breeding ponds along the margin of the main pond and excluding all fishes therefrom (Fig. 187). Certain insects will naturally deposit their eggs in both breeding and main ponds. There are no very destructive insect enemies in the former; hence there are sure to emerge a goodly number of adults, which Fic. 188.— Caddis fly larva im in turn will con- a tinue year after year to repopulate the small ponds as well as the main pond. Crustacea and Mollusca.— There are a few forms of Crustacea and Mollusca that may be successfully introduced and that will naturally increase in numbers provided there is Fic, 189.— Caddis fly larva in Fic, 190.— Adult caddis fly a@ CSE 2030 THE CORNELL READING COURSES an abundance of vegetation. Among the Crustacea there are the fresh- water sow bug, Asellus, and the fresh-water shrimps, Hyalella, Gam- marus, and Eucrangonyx. These may be obtained from almost any swamp or marsh having permanent pools containing vegetation. If the plants are pulled up by the roots and rinsed in a bucket of water, the animals will fall off into the water. fi Nearly all of the fresh-water snails and small clams, Spherium, are relished by many pond fishes. The forms illustrated in figure 198 may be collected in almost any pond or stream where vegetation is thick. The food of all of these molluscs consists of vegetable matter, and when planted in a pond with growing plants they will reproduce at an enormous rate. Aquarists have introduced an African snail of the genus, Limnea, which has been successfully bred in large numbers in a pond at Ithaca, Fic. 191.— Nymph of mayfly K iW me nwar ey, <3 ¥ : Fic, 192,— Adult mayfly Fic. 193.— Damsel flies: 1, 2, 3, adults; 4, 5, nymphs THE FarM FISHPOND 2031 New York (Fig. 197). They seem to be able to stand the cold winters per- fectly, even when living in a shallow pond, which freezes nearly to the bot- tom. Each snail will deposit in one season from five hundred to one thousand eggs, depending on its age. The shells of these snails are very thin and easily crushed, and this may be one reason why sunfish, perch, and black bass eat them so readily. Forage fishes— Certain fishes can be made to furnish the principal animal forage crop of the pond, but one should be very careful to select only the proper kinds for this purpose. In order to be desirable in this respect a forage fish should possess the four following characteristics: namely, _ A a0 B (1) it must spawn in the pond; (2) its food Fic. mae Nr lc should consist largely of vegetation; (3) it must be relished by the fishes that it is desired to propagate; and (4) it must not grow so rapidly the first year as to make it too large to be eaten by other fishes. Fortunately there are two forms easily obtained that fully meet these requirements, the goldfish and the golden shiner. The former may be bought of dealers in aquaria and fancy fishes, while the latter may often be captured in a minnow seine or trap set in a_ sluggish Fic. 195.— Fresh-water shrimp (Gamma- stream, a pond, or a lake, or may rus) be bought from certain dealers whose names and addresses will be furnished on application to the College. The carp has been used in ponds as a forage fish, and would be excellent for this purpose were it not for its rapid growth. Pike and pickerel will usually keep it under control, but as a food for bass, perch, and sunfish, it is not recommended. Ordinary brook minnows are not desirable for the reason that nearly Fic. 196.— Fresh-water sow bug (Asellus) 2032 THE CORNELL READING COURSES all of them will eat the eggs and the young of other fishes. They also consume much food useful to other fishes and do not in themselves con- tribute a perma- nent supply of food. The common chub, or horned dace, is especially obnox- ious in this respect. If the common brook sucker can be Fic. 197.— African snails made to spawn in the pond, it may constitute a desirable introduction. All predaceous fishes are fond of young suckers, and the latter do not enter into competition with other fishes in their feeding, since most of their food is obtained by scraping submerged rocks, logs, and plant stems. I 2 3 Fic. 198.— Some common pond molluscs. 1, Limnea; 2, Physa; 3, Campeloma; 4, Planorbis; 5, Spherium Nearly all predaceous fishes will sometimes eat their own kind, but this will be reduced to a minimum if plenty of shiners and goldfish are present. Aquatic vegetation Many of the plants useful in fish culture are rather generally distributed over New York State, so that ordinarily one will have little difficulty THE Farm FisHPpoNpD 2033 in obtaining them. A half dozen or more desirable kinds may be found in a mill pond, a sluggish stream, or any shallow part of a lake having a mud bottom. Aquatic plants are very important in the economy of pond fishes, and some of the reasons for this are given as follows: 1. They constitute the principal food of a few fishes. 2. Directly or indirectly they furnish food and shelter to a host of small organisms that are eaten by fishes. 3. They are necessary in the spawning activities of certain fishes. A B Cc Fic. 199.— Pondweeds. A, Potamogeton crispus; B, P. amplifolius; C, P. heterophyllus 4. They purify the water by taking up certain obnoxious substances, including carbonic acid gas exhaled by aquatic animals, and by giving back oxygen. 5. They protect the water underneath them and the pond bottom from the heat of the sun. Certain plants are objectionable, however, in that they decay readily giving off dangerous substances, which affect the health of fishes and the flavor of their flesh. There are also other plants that grow too rapidly and often seriously interfere with the proper management of the pond. In suggesting the following plants for the pond, the undesirable as well as the desirable qualities have been considered. It must be remembered, however, that certain plants may be valuable in one place and mere weeds in another. To the Potamogetons, or pondweeds as they are generally called, belong a number of forms desirable in the farm fishpond. Three common 128 20 THE CORNELL READING COURSES 34 species are shown in figure 199. These and the following species are widely distributed throughout the State and can be recommended as Nor NG Sa 2 Fic. 200.— A, spiked water-milfoil; B, hornwort; C, fanwort, or cabomba fulfilling admirably the five functions mentioned heretofore: P. pectinatus (fennel-leaved pondweed); P. perfoliatus; P. obtusifolius; P. robbinsii. P. crispus, P. pectinatus, and P. robbinsii have green foliage through- out the winter; the others die down in autumn. P. crispus and P. pectinatus are very prolific and on rich bottom soil will be likely to crowd out nearly all other plants. They should therefore be introduced with caution, and it would be well to put them in a place from which =m they may be easily removed. All these pondweeds, with the possible exception of P. amplifolius, will grow in shallow water; the latter is ordinarily found in water from four to seven feet deep. The wild celery, eelgrass, or tape grass(Vallisnerta spiralis) ,is another flat-leaved aquatic, which has some value in the pond, but just how much has not been satisfactorily / determined. | The spiked water-milfoil (Myrio- phyllum spicatum) ,hornwort (Cerato- E ce i Be 2 ? pao ge | IS EO ae Fic. 201.— Water crowfoot phyllum demersum), and the white water-crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis), all with finely divided leaves, are of value because they harbor hosts of small food animals and are THE Farm FISHPOND 2035 themselves eaten to a slight extent by herbivorous fishes. The milfoil and the crowfoot remain green throughout the winter. None of these, with the possible exception of the crowfoot will become obnoxious from excessive growth. They should be planted where the water is twelve or . eighteen inches deep. a 4 = The water weed (Elodea) forms very dense masses excellent as shel- ter for food animals and as spawning places for goldfish and golden shiners, where their eggs and fry may develop unmolested. Care should be taken, however, to keep the water weeds grouped and to prevent the masses from extending over too much of the pond area. Water cress (Radicula nasturtium- aquaticum) is valuable along the margin of the pond, where the masses furnish retreats for fresh- water shrimps, snails, and certain insects. The cress is also a valuable salad plant and should therefore be grown where it may be easily picked. The duckweeds (Spirodela and Lemna) constitute one of the best vegetable foods for goldfish, and where the latter are present these plants will never become obnoxious. The fact that duckweed is a floating plant is in its disfavor, for if it becomes very abundant, trouble will be experienced in keeping the outlet screens clean. The white- and the yellow-flowering water-lilies (Castalia odorata and Nymphea advena) are valuable for their attractive blossoms, for sheltering the bottom of the pond from the heat of the sun, and for the numerous minute organisms that live on the stems. Sunfish and large-mouthed bass will often build their nests on the roots of water lilies. They seem also to prefer the shelter afforded by the broad, floating leaves of the white lily to that afforded by many other plants. On rich soil these plants may eventually take possession of the pond at the expense of other more desirable forms; therefore it is well to keep them in clumps and when too much spreading is imminent to remove the offending shoots. If some of the outer rootstocks are removed each fall, lilies are not likely to become a nuisance. There are certain other plants commonly recommended by fish culturists including the algee Chara and Nitella, more commonly called water moss, Fic. 202.— Water weed 2036 THE CORNELL READING COURSES but until more is known about their relations to the desirable pond organisms, it is unwise to advise their introduction. Among the lower plants many are exceedingly important as forage. The smallest animals constituting the food of young fishes subsist largely on microscopic alge, as do hosts of herbivorous aquatic insects. The filamentous forms, including Spirogyra and others commonly called “‘ frog’s spawn,” are eaten by goldfish, golden shiners, snails, and certain insects. Enough of these lower plants will be introduced with the other , aquatic plants to answer the purpose. The greatest trouble has been experienced in controlling these alge in the pond; however, it has been the writer’s experience that when goldfish are present, this difficulty is eliminated. Water plants collected by the reader may be sent to the Department of Botany, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York, for indentification. Such plants should be packed so that they will not become dry in the mail. Procedure in stocking the pond Late April or early May is a good time to commence stocking the pond. The aquatic plants should be the first organisms to be put into the pond. It will be well to collect specimens of as many plants as are available at this time in order to test the desirability of each in a particular pond. In setting out the plants, specimens of each kind should be placed in clumps by themselves, and the clumps distributed at intervals of twenty feet or so along the pond shelf. By following this method any species that may become undesirable can be the more easily removed. In collecting water cress and water lilies care must be taken to secure an abundance of roots or underground stems; all other plants may merely be pulled up without roots. A most effective way to plant the latter is to tie a stone to the plant stem and toss the whole into the pond at the proper place. Roots or holdfasts will grow out in a very short time securing each plant to the bottom. The forage animals should be collected next. As has been stated, until more is known about the propagation of aquatic insects, it will be impossible to give definite and reliable directions for their introduction. Certain desirable forms will naturally be attracted to the pond for egg laying, and for the present this natural method of propagation is the only one to be depended on. Fresh-water shrimps, water sow bugs, snails, and small clams should be collected, for too many of these cannot be introduced into the pond. The first two forms should be placed along the margin of the pond in the water cress. It makes little difference where the others are put, but it is probably best to distribute them in the other vegetation, keeping together those of the same kind, THE Farm FIsHPOND 2037 If some of the vegetation is started the fore part of May and followed immediately by the introduction of the small forage animals mentioned, all will be fairly well established by June, when the vegetable-eating fishes may be introduced. As given in the table on page 2021, the spawning season for goldfish and golden shiners extends from May into August. Therefore if the pond is stocked with adults the fore part of June, part of one season’s spawning will probably take place in the pond the first year.. Goldfish and shiners will spawn when one and two years old, respectively, but the number of resulting young will not be so large as when older spawners are used. In order to fully stock an acre pond with goldfish and shiners, approximately four hundred pairs of the yearlings of the former and the same number of two-year-olds of the latter will be needed. This number may be divided by two in case older fishes of each kind are used. It is not desirable, how- ever, to stock the pond fully until it is fairly well covered with vegetation. In ponds having rich bottom soil this may be the case toward the end of the first season, but ordinarily two years will be required. It is therefore suggested that only about one hundred pairs of goldfish and the same number of shiners be introduced in June of the-first year. Others may be added the second and the third year in numbers sufficient to fully stock the pond. The final stage in the stocking procedure consists in planting the edible fishes, bass, perch, sunfish, and the like. One may use any size of fish, provided all are alike. The larger the stock fishes, however, the better are the chances of their reaching maturity and also the greater the cost per fish. Which are the more economical to use, fry or fingerlings, is still a much discussed question. The proper time to introduce stock fishes will depend on the condition of the pond and the availability of the fishes. Stocking should not be attempted until the pond has had time to develop forage. Yearlings or larger fish should not be planted until at least one summer has elapsed since the completion of the pond. Fingerlings may be introduced in the fall after the first-summer, while fry and advanced fry will do little harm if planted in June and July of the first year. All the fishes mentioned in the table on page 2021 are good food fishes, but pike and pickerel on account of their voraciousness cannot be propagated unless special provisions are made for their nourishment. .- Among the other fishes mentioned a selection will naturally be determined _ by individual taste. If it is so desired, some of each kind may be used. However, nothing would be gained by introducing both species of bass, for so far as the flavor of the flesh is concerned, one form will probably be as good as the other in a pond of the kind under consideration. The 2038 THE CORNELL READING COURSES large-mouthed bass has the advantage in two particulars: namely, it grows a little more rapidly, and it will find its own nesting site in the vegetation. The number of stock fish to use will depend on the size of the fish. The principal thing to be kept in mind is that overstocking leads to over- crowding, which generally results in the pond’s containing a large number of undersized, poorly fed fishes or a very few overgrown ones, which have lived at the expense of the weaker ones. If sexually mature adults are used, only a few are necessary to stock a pond of one acre. Probably twenty-five or thirty pairs of black bass and double this number of any other species will be sufficient. In the case of fingerlings and advanced fry probably two or three thousand would not be too many of the former and from four to six thousand of the latter. The procedure in stocking a fishpond is summed up as follows: 1. Aquatic plants are the first organisms to be planted in the pond. They should be started as early in the spring as possible. 2. The various smaller food animals, such as the Crustacea and the Mollusca, should follow the introduction of the plants immediately. 3. The first year during the fore part of June, the forage fishes, gold- fish and golden shiners, should be added to the number of one hundred pairs of each. 4. Advanced fry of the edible fishes may be planted when available during the first summer, fingerlings in September and October, but year- lings or larger should not be planted until the second summer. 5. The suggested numbers of the edible fishes per acre of water are about twenty-five pairs of adult black bass or fifty pairs of any other kind, from two to three thousand fingerlings, or from four to six thousand advanced fry. POND MANAGEMENT The kind of pond described in this lesson is designed to take care of itself; there are certain agencies, however, that tend to decrease its pro- ductiveness and must be considered. Also, the fish crop must be harvested and otherwise cared for. The management of the pond, therefore, will be concerned principally with these two considerations. Protection against obnoxious animals There are many wild creatures that often constitute a menace to the success of the pond. Among birds, kingfishers, night herons, little green herons, and domesticated ducks and geese, are known to devour large numbers of young fishes. Ducks and geese are perhaps the worst offenders in that they also destroy the pond vegetation and hosts of small food animals living on these plants, If one desires to raise ducks and fish THE Farm FIsHPOND 2039 too, the former must be kept away from the fishpond. The night herons and little green herons are beautiful birds and probably do little harm along the public watercourses. Yet in the private pond where fish are more abundant and less easily frightened, they are obnoxious in two different ways: first, from their habit of devouring young fishes; second, from the fact that they are carriers of certain parasites that infest fish, especially the black bass. The shotgun is an effective agent for pre- venting their depredations, but it should not be used unless herons become numerous and regular pond visitants, and until it is evident that scare- crows are ineffective. Mink and muskrats sometimes do much damage, the former by capturing large edible fishes, and the latter by burrowing through the pond banks. The steel trap or the poisoned bait, if judiciously used, will keep these offenders in check. One must be constantly on the lookout for muskrat burrows, and whenever one is found, it must be deeply plugged with clay. Rubbish accumulations After every heavy rain and particularly during the spring freshets rubbish is likely to accumulate at the dam. Ice jams are especially dangerous. All rubbish should be speedily pushed over the dam with poles or hooks and sent downstream. The screens at the intake and the outlet often become clogged with floating débris. Mats of green alge often cover them in late spring, and in the fall floating leaves are very troublesome. If the screens are of the sliding type, they are easily removed and cleaned. With permanent screens much of the coarse material can be raked out and the finer material forced through the meshes with a stiff brush or broom. Regulation of the water inflow In ponds containing warm-water fishes, it is not necessary during the warmer months to have any perceptible current. Some of the most successful fish culturists permit an inflow sufficient only to maintain the proper level of the pond. The loss of young fishes and food animals, which would ordinarily pass through the outlet screens, can be eliminated if there is no overflow at this point. The inflow should not be reduced, however, until the vegetation has commenced its spring growth. During the colder months a good volume of water should be allowed to flow through the pond. This will often prevent the formation of a thick coating of ice in the vicinity of the inlet. It will also keep the fishes, then congregated in the pond basin, well supplied with freshly oxygenated water, and hence reduce to a minimum the danger of suffo- cation. which might otherwise occur. 2040 THE CORNELL READING COURSES It is advised, therefore, that the inflow be large from about October first to the fore part of May, and that at other times it be reduced to an amount sufficient only to maintain the desired water level. Fishing the pond In a pond run merely to meet the demands of a family or two, there will hardly be a desire to harvest the total output at one time; consequently there need be no special outlay for fishing equipment. Fishing with hook and line will no doubt be the popular method in a large number of cases. Many times, however, the largest and most desirable fishes refuse to be caught by ordinary methods of angling, and one must resort to the use of such contrivances as the set line, the seine, and the fish trap. The set line is too well known to need explanation. By its use one may be as certain of capturing a considerable number at almost any time as with almost any other device. There is one bad feature, however, in that undersized fishes so captured are generally injured beyond re- covery. A seine fifty feet long with a liberal bag at the center will be serviceable in places where vegetation is scant, but useless where it is dense. One other disadvantage is that it requires two or more persons to operate it successfully. Should it become desirable to use a seine, one having meshes no smaller than one and one-half or two inches should be selected, so that all undersized fishes may escape without injury. The fish trap is one of the most efficient devices, and at the same time one causing the least injury to entrapped fishes. In general it consists of two wings converging toward a funnel, which opens into a compartment. Fishes easily find their way through the funnel into the compartment, but on attempt- ing to return are rarely successful. A trap, which any one can easily make of chicken wire, is illustrated in figure 203. It is held in place by means of pegs (B), passing through wire loops at the various points indicated. These pegs should be about as large as broom handles, so that they may be inserted easily by hand. If the wings (A) are independent of the box part of the trap, the latter can be the more easily taken up and emptied. D is a door of sheet iron, which may be secured with a padlock. The funnel leads to an opening from three to four inches in diameter, and through which the fishes pass to the compartment (C). The wire to be used in the construction of the Fic. 203.— Wire fish-trap THE FarM FISHPOND 2041 trap should have a mesh of one and one-half or two inches. This will allow all but fish of edible size to pass through unharmed. Each wing should extend at least six feet out from the funnel, and even a greater dis- tance would insure a larger catch. The compartment ought not to be so large that it cannot be easily taken up and emptied; it has been found that one two feet wide, one foot deep, and three and one-half feet long works satisfactorily. Another style of trap, commonly called the fyke net, is shown in figure 204. This is usually made of cotton netting supported by wooden hoops. A small one can be bought for from three to five dollars. The fyke net can also be made by hand, but not so easily as the wire trap. .\ It is a short-lived affair, since the cotton netting rots out in one season of continuous use. Fishing in public waters with these contrivances is illegal and punishable with a heavy fine. It is therefore important that their use be confined to the private pond. Fic. 204.— Fyke net Keeping fish alive for future use One may desire to preserve alive part of a large catch of fish, and this - may be easily done by providing a pen in the pond itself or a floating fish-car. An easily made pen is illustrated in figure 205. It consists of a board bottom with wooden corner posts about two feet high and wooden rails extending between the posts at the top. The sides of the frame are covered with chicken wire, although wooden slats placed about three-quarters of an inch apart will suffice. If desired, a cover may be hinged to the top rail and secured with a lock. A pen two feet by four feet and about two feet high will safely hold a dozen fish of fair size for a period of one , week. The pen should be set in water not over a foot and one-half deep and in Qji! an easily accessible place, either near the shore or at the end of a small pier. When the pen is first set in the water, it may be necessary to spread some gravel over the bottom to prevent it from floating. The floating fish-car may be merely a rectangular box with ends of slats or chicken wire (Fig. 206). A wooden cover properly hinged Fic. 205.— Fish pen Fic. 206.— Floating fish-car 2042 THE CORNELL READING COURSES and locked prevents the depredations of night prowlers and eliminates all loss of fish caused by their jumping proclivities. Such a car may be easily floated to any part of the pond. How soon after stocking may the pond be fished 2? How soon after stocking may the pond be fished is a question that will occur to all, and one that cannot be definitely answered. It will depend on the growth of the fish, which, as has already been stated, is uncertain. A few individuals of all food species, particularly perch and black bass, may be large enough to catch at the end of the second summer, but the average fish will require three summers at least before it is fit for the table. If it is desired to make a catch toward the end of the second summer, the trap or the seine should always be employed. Hook and line fishing should be indulged in only after the third season, when the larger fishes are in the majority. After a pond has been in operation for three or four years, there will be a few overgrown fishes lying in the deeper water. Every effort should be made to remove these, for they are very destructive. A few bass weighing three or four pounds each, will eat up practically every other living fish in the pond, including even the adult shiners and many of the adult goldfish. If all other methods of catching them fail, the pond should be drained; whereupon the obnoxious fish can be removed from the pond kettle. Pond draining should take place in the fall or the early spring. The vegetation will give the least trouble at the latter time, and on account of the high water the pond can be more quickly refilled. Draining in summer would undoubtedly disturb the breeding of many fishes and would mean the almost complete loss of food animals and very young fishes. SOME USEFUL WORKS ON FISH CULTURE A manual of fish-culture. U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Revised edition. 1goo. Separate chapters only now available. A standard work detailing the methods employed in the national hatcheries. Modern fish culture in fresh and salt water. Fred Mather. goo. Fish culture in ponds and other inland waters. William E. Meehan. O13: Domesticated trout. Livingston Stone. Sixth edition. t1g9or. A classic work of international reputation giving the minute details of trout culture. An angler’s paradise and how to obtain it. J. J. Armistead. 1895. The most important British work on trout culture. THE Farm FisHponp 2043 The habits and culture of the black bass. Dwight Lydell. Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission, 1902, pages 39-44. Transactions American Fisheries Society, 1902, p. 45-57. The cultivation of fishes in natural and artificial ponds. Charles Haskins Townsend. Eleventh Annual Report of the New York Zoological Society. 1907. Ponds, pond fish, and pond fish culture. Lewis Lindsay Dyche. Kansas State Fish and Game Department. 1914. Excellent for fish propagation on the farm. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Parts 1 and 3 of figure 183, parts 1 and 2 of figure 184, parts 2 and 3 of figure 185, part 3 of figure 186, were taken from Fishes of Illinois by Forbes and Richardson. Part 1 of figure 185, part 2 of figure 186 were taken from Fishes of North Carolina by Smith. Part 1 of figure 186 was taken from The Seventh Report of the Forest, Fish and Game Commission of New York. Figure 1g9o is from a photograph by J. T. Lloyd. Figures rg1 and 192 were taken from A Contribution to the ae of Mayflies by A. H. Morgan. Figure 193 was taken from Life Histories of Odonata by Needham, New York State Museum Bulletin 68. 2044 THE CORNELL READING CouRSES TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE SEV IICS, OFVDONGS Hee is actntee RM Peale. ose ee clan's, oc aul uo eae en ens ee ee 2009 IO CATIOL preenn eee es cs a eI RRM 8 8 Sb days MANE gga SN gee ty Ae See 2009 NIEHS ENS) Gl 0:0) AY arse meget ah 9. 000 0 an RRS Senne oe oe et LA be 2010 Spring water and artesian well water........................-. 2010 ECO ALCE Ev. oe HR MIC Gees ss 52 Sica eR ee ee eee 2011 Wiellswater.:+...\: . come Pe Feil ets eco eetras Pht cele en gee ne 2013 putiace drainave anderaimawater: 1)... 01 es a euecs vere ee 2013 POUGeCOMStTUCliON + Ae heee Or pete. 3 ere ta ol sie ee aes ee 2014 SIZe alc SHape Ol mMeMpOnG mes kk jus ahs eaye ee. he ee eae 2014 Depthvand -bottom@mopography.<. 2. +. oo se comic sera eee ne 2014 excavation anduailkkepurdine. lsh el 215 RRGEE OR) SMa 2015 mlet screenees ovate Serres wea. UN, TEE ACA, Ah) Sa ene 2016 OT eLS Hee 7s ie tate vgn aie eta ales ole Phuc im Toa Oat ee 2016 Makiieuthespond water-tight: ty ol wy AIELE POL eee Ye 2017 Prorecuonror taeibanken. «60s. dq «sae ee eee 2018 COS Caper ne ates ste beh ALD Eh FEROS BAUR. OO) Bcd CeCe Be eee 2018 MWe at eBaALey DONG fe o...0ccck ae oe ie Le ee ee ee ee 2018 Somertacts about fishes for thespond.-,ulerty Mi BC Ree ee oe 2019 Suitable SOCCIESA jets kas Sane a eee Rye Se Nhe, erkler SARIS TEND, 2019 ney OF hirano 8 2aald =) 91 Seana ee arene arr rane operates LAL AOE Reet aor he 2020 ermsrapplied: to. young fishes. 14-1} Aue hci, Umer Baie Been 2021 RAGE VOL STO WU. gem eh ai «conde Aad aie cet es MER Ya ere 2021 HP COGIC PINAIT ESA UNS Bo casas oe odo apie eae eee ee ee, eee 2022 EOC MONG NE MO OMG Nn ceminycuye eal as adathee wots is Ge ok aM ene ee 2027 HOOUGLOn Sy OUNGUISHES 67's 12'2 8 sn icv cas bas shneacuet eats Meni ane ei eee 2027 GOCsOTaAGUlb Shes. A. reece Oe ee fale ee eee 2028 TEA SCOES HE otters ae Seca e sekoat nates oe teat tance naam ec cody anna Sa 2028 Wristaces, ang Veo SOs piticin: ones hints OX Mateh lain ates oa lade Oe 2029 OGAC CRISES eerts faut AGl Mh ahsteyay sc iad Den hts heehee gle Sue tee eR 2031 PCMItELe VCO CLALION ty, Sh Male tiaat etek Go Leauobere see's w SiGe eae 2032 Procedure in stocking: ‘the pond... ..2.si-<8 t..4.- Ne) sO eee 2036 Bong mMamacenieit. aya ats sia aay we ee Re: pation: Saket a area 2038 Protectionsagainst: obnoxious animals: (ar. .2 0) tet tote 2038 Ribas accumulatons. sn... cee Meee hs bye aie Aue 2039 ieculationvo: the Water intlow. (Se cecer e ete © ser 2a 3 ements 2039 Shatin a EMO OME: con coe Mies, Grn es aie le. 2 eRe RES Gina Ast ws sas ee meentna 2040 Keene tishvalive for future vise.) 4. babaege iden: oo eee ees 2041 How soon after stocking may the pond be fished’............... 2042 Some wisetul works on fsn Culcure::. 65 .beeeees ae oo <- eet eae 2042 THE FarM FISHPOND 2045 CORNELL STUDY CLUBS At the close of the harvest season neighbors and friends find it natural and easy to visit together during the lengthening evenings and talk over the common experiences of the passing season. The Cornell study club begins to feel that the time is at hand to arrange plans for the year’s study and for community advancement — educationally, socially, and financially. It is often helpful during the fall to hold a special meeting, — invite every one in the community to attend, and see that each one has an enjoyable and profitable time. A successful meeting, largely attended, provides an opportunity to increase the membership and secure greater interest in the work of the club. Although Cornell study clubs are con- ducted generally by local leaders, it may be advisable to obtain an out- side speaker if possible for the special meeting. The Supervisor of the Reading Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York, will be glad to cooperate with clubs as far as possible in arranging the program of the special fall meeting. For the assistance of readers who would like to form a group for the study of agriculture or who would like to organize a Cornell study club as a means of promoting community welfare, information on study club work is given below. Cornell study clubs are local organizations, which aim to promote the study of Cornell reading course lessons and to serve the community. One of the chief benefits of these clubs is that they furnish an opportunity and an incentive for study. Often a helpful lesson will reach a farm home at a time when the members are too busy to give it attention, and it is soon forgotton. If, however, a special time is set aside for the study of reading course lessons at a club, it is likely that much more reading will be accom- plished. The secondary purpose of Cornell study clubs is to increase a neighborly feeling in the community and to offer an opportunity for an exchange of thought on subjects of common interest. In the meetings of a club the members should find enjoyment in an interchange of ideas and a training for free and orderly self-expression. Clubs may bring about cooperation in matters of public concern, and may grow to be influential factors in promoting community welfare. They may also prove of financial benefit by becoming agencies for cooperative buying and selling. The success of the Cornell study club depends principally on local leadership. The organization of a Cornell study club can be easily effected even if at first only half a dozen persons desire to form a group. The president and the secretary of the club should be chosen, and the dates and places for meetings decided on. The meetings should be held frequently enough to maintain an active interest in them; regularly every two weeks during 2046 THE CORNELL READING COURSES the fall and winter is usually considered sufficiently often. If it is not advisable to meet every fortnight in spring and summer, monthly meet- ings are suggested. Study clubs hold their meetings in churches, grange halls, and at the homes of the members. The programs should be planned carefully several weeks in advance, and the leaders should be selected and held responsible for the success of the meetings. Reading course lessons should be obtained by the secretary of the club and distributed to the members at least one week in advance of a meeting, so that the members may be prepared for a general discussion, which should follow the open- ing talk given by the leader. The meetings should proceed under a definite order of business. Each study club should first become fully informed as to the material available in the two reading courses. The reading course for the farm discusses farm practices and important rural problems. The reading course for the farm home takes up such household subjects as sanitation, foods, household management, and household furnishing. If the study club is composed of men, reading course lessons should be selected that are related to local agricultural conditions, and deal with operations in progress at the time of year in which they are being discussed. Valuable suggestions for a club composed of women will be found in Cornell Study Clubs, Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home, Vol. I, No. 13. A number of Cornell study clubs are promoting very successfully the study of the two réading courses, and are reaching both the men and the women of the community. Some of the clubs discuss farm subjects and farm home subjects on the same program; others divide into two groups for separate discussions, and hold the remainder of the program in common. If a club desires to undertake this more general organization, it may prove mutually advantageous to men, women, and young people in many prac- tical ways. Moreover, such a club may have the inspiration of a larger membership and may exert a wider influence. Cordial cooperation in establishing study clubs may be obtained by writing to the Supervisor, Reading Course for the Farm, College of Agri- culture, Ithaca, New York. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1ro1r4 VOL. IV. No. 94 AUGUST 15, 1915 ee SERIES THE FARM FISHPOND DISCUSSION PAPER A discussion paper is sent with each reading course lesson in order to assist the reader in studying the most important points. The discussion paper also encourages thought, observation, and _ self-expression. Each discussion paper filled out and returned will be read carefully, and a personal reply will be made if further information or references for advanced reading are desired. Practical suggestions on farm problems will be sent gladly. New readers should enroll in one or more of the following series of reading course lessons: THE SOIL, POULTRY, RURAL ENGINEERING, FARM FORESTRY, THE HORSE, DAIRYING, FRUIT GROWING, FARM CROPS, STOCK FEEDING, VEGETABLE GARDENING, PLANT BREEDING, INSECT, COUNTRY LIFE. The first lesson in each series desired is sent on enrollment, and subsequent lessons are sent, one at a time, on the return of discussion papers. Therefore, in order to receive the other lessons in this series, the reader should sign and return this discussion paper, whether the questions are answered or not. By means of reading course lessons, study clubs may be promoted, which may become important factors in community welfare. Assistance will be given in organizing and conducting clubs. The space below on this page is reserved for correspondence concerning reading course work, and also for names and addresses of residents of New York State likely to become interested in the Cornell Reading Course for the Farm. [2047] 2048 THE CORNELL READING COURSES (In answering questions, attach additional paper if needed and number the answers.) 1. How many pounds of fish would your family be likely to consume in one year? 2. Give the area of a pond necessary to produce this amount. 3. Name four ways in which water may be supplied to a fishpond. 4. Name three objections to the construction of a fishpond by merely damming up a stream. THE FARM FISHPOND 2049 5. With reference to a combination dike and excavated pond, state how the ground should be prepared for building the dike, the thickness of the dike, and how to make the pond water-tight. 6. What do you think would be the cost of building a half-acre pond? the cost of maintenance? 7. Name the fresh-water fishes you prefer for home use. 8. State briefly the steps to be taken in stocking a fishpond. How soon after stocking may one expect to harvest fishes of edible size? 129 2050 THE CORNELL READING COURSES 9. Have you a pond that supplies your family regularly with good, wholesome fish? If so, give.an idea of its size, its depth, its water supply, the kinds and the number of fish produced annually. Are there other fishponds in your neighborhood? If so, will you kindly give the names and the addresses of the owners. 1o. What reasons can you give for not having a fishpond on your farm? ti. Would you be interested in further information about receiving stock fishes free? (Address all correspondence to the Reading Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York.) The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 VOL. IV. No. 96 SEPTEMBER 15, 1915 COUNTRY LIFE SERIES THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE FARM HOME E. Gorton Davis The possession of attractive home surroundings is not beyond the reach of any one who has a home of his.own. In fact, there is little rela- tion between the size, the costliness, or the simplicity of a home and its F1G. 207. BEAUTY BY SIMPLE MEANS Such homes are made by their owners alone, and their simplicity becomes their charm surroundings as compared to the attractiveness that may be given it by proper arrangement and careful upkeep. Beauty is not measured by cost, and ornament of any kind is not needed so much as a neat and well-kept appearance. The importance of pleasant home surroundings is not fully realized, although most persons desire to have them presentable. Few appreciate the value of homelike and inviting surroundings as a background for family life. In fact, an ideal home and home life is the reward for which [2051] 2052 THE CORNELL READING COURSES most persons strive. There is, of course, a pleasure in the possession of a home of which one may be proud, but there is an obligation on all men to furnish attractive settings for their homes. To live long with pleasant surroundings is to realize the value of their influence, and to become assured that such inspiration is needed for work and for rest. The poor of the cities, when they are marketing, will not hesitate to buy from the flower stands some bright-colored geraniums to cheer their dingy rooms. One might ask what use they can have for such things, or how they can afford flowers. On the other hand, those who live in the country may have scenes of beauty all about them, yet this does not necessarily supply a want of homelike attractiveness in their immediate surroundings. The owner of a little cottage garden, over the gateway of which was the inscrip- tion, ‘‘ Be its beauty its sole duty,’ had the right spirit. BEAUTY BY SIMPLE MEANS Farm homes may be made beautiful by very simple means. There must first of all be neatness and orderliness; these, combined with a good sward about the house and a sheltering growth of trees and shrubs, may be all that is required. By way of example, there may frequently be seen in New York State, the small, low, weather-stained cottage with one of its corners enveloped and perhaps overtopped by a large lilac bush. Not even a porch has been added to its unassuming front, and the single door, looking in the direction of the barns, is adorned and shaded by an ample canopy of vines. The immediate surroundings afford only a well-kept greensward, and, where the feet have worn this away, broad, smooth stones are firmly held in place by the encroaching turf. These limited home grounds are sur- rounded by only a trim and orderly barnyard, an orchard, and a vegetable garden, flower-bordered at the edge of the lawn, but everywhere is the evidence of thrift and care. One would not add a single touch to the completeness of such a scene; such homes are made by their owners alone, and their simplicity becomes their charm. It is the interested hand of the owner that counts for more than a wealth of materials in the development of home landscapes. The spirit of the giver, the loving hand of the gardener, shape the growth day by day and year by year. From his own stock of materials he devises useful things that are beautiful, and gives freely the labor and the care that are needed rather than dollars. Some one has said, ‘‘ Show me the garden a man has made, and I will tell you his character.”’ Among the more prosperous rural homes there may be evidences of injudicious expenditures, which mar rather than help. Plain old houses have had fancy porches added to them; more modern ones, lacking the THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE FARM HOME 205 country-like simplicity of the older dwellings, are tricked out with jig- saw patterns and gingerbread fretwork, frequently made worse by the use of many garish colors of paint. Often the old house, seeming scarce worthy of a porch, or even of paint, gathers unto itself a complement of old shrubs and vines, harmonizing: with its weather-beaten grays, and looks far better. Good white lead was the best paint for the farm and village home in bygone days and is the best to-day for both appearances and wear. If the blinds of a white house are painted green, there will be sufficient relief and contrast, and this white and green may well be the entire color scheme for all that needs paint. A house that has too much “‘trim’”’ about it will be vastly improved, and the jig-saw work made in- conspicuous, if it is all painted one color, preferably white. Mistakes are also made in the selection and the planting of trees and shrubs. With the best of intentions, purchases of shrubs are made under the guidance of the showy illustrations of the nursery- man’s catalog, and a collection of novelties is bought rather than trees and shrubs known to be especially fitting and useful. With- out a definite plan — for there can be no plan to suit all these plants —they are aimlessly scattered usually on the lawn. Its smooth turf is broken up, and what might have been a good lawn becomes The interested hand of the owner counts for more neither lawn nor garden. Such Haan wealthy of materials areas, dotted over with individual shrubs, may be well tended; the whole place may show care; there may be a profusion of foliage and flower; but there is absent the quiet, restful effect of simple charm and completeness of scene, which is characteristic of the ideal cottage home. Fic. 208. SIMPLICITY IS BEST THE PURPOSE OF THE FARM HOME A farm home is both a residence and a place of business. As the farm business is but a means to the home life, it is of first importance that the 2054 THE CORNELL READING CouRSES farm as a whole should make for pleasant home life. If it is true that the most important crop on the farm is the children, then the most important function of a farm is that of supporting a good home. Certainly no one will gainsay the fact that if every child were in a home, and every home in a garden, many of the problems of life would be solved. Since the farm as a whole has its general purpose, so will the house, the barns, the fields, the farmyard, and every part of the farm have its individual pur- pose. And just so far as each one of these parts serves its purpose best, so will it help the whole farm to be an ideal home. FIG. 209. THE WRONG TYPE OF RURAL ARCHITECTURE Tricked out with jig-saw patterns and gingerbread fretwork, frequently made worse by many garish colors of paint Since the house is headquarters, it should be connected with the high- way and the barns by serviceable walks and roadways. And as the chief place it should have an attractive setting. That is the main purpose of the yard. By a setting is meant two things: first, the house should have as a background a sufficient growth of trees and shrubs to give it a protected appearance; second, the setting should afford opportunity for pleasant outdoor life on lawns and in shaded corners. The purpose of the various farm buildings needs no explanation; yet from the way such buildings are scattered about on some farms, it would not be very easy to do the chores. The orchards, while not primarily intended to serve an esthetic pur- THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE FARM HOME 2055 pose, may form the most beautiful parts of the farm. An orchard of standard apple trees could well be planted near the house to become a part of its background of surrounding trees. Nothing is more country- like than an old apple orchard, and to turn it to the purpose of decorating the home grounds illustrates how each part may help, in several ways, to promote the purposes of the farm as a whole. Fields and meadows that may be classed strictly as farm lands will always be attractive when well tilled. Good farming is good-looking farming. No calendar is needed for reading the signs of the seasons in the FIG. 210. THE SIMPLE HOUSE DESIGN If the blinds of a white house are painted green, there will be sufficient relief and contrast vivid sap green of the spring, the deeper tones of the waving summer fields, the colors that betoken harvest, and the restful white of winter, to say nothing of the changes that have marked the seasons’ progress. The influence of farm environment has a subconscious but potent effect on children. Even while the barn is only a playground, it should be a silent example of orderliness and thrift; woodlot, meadow, orchard, and field should be likewise living examples of good farming. Pleasant home surroundings are important both for the welfare of the individual home and for the future of country life. Is it reasonable to expect that wide-awake young people of the country will hesitate to leave a place that does not afford pleasant and attractive working and living conditions? » 2056 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Therefore the farmstead needs to be considered as a whole. It is not a question of roses or daisies, porches or fresh paint, broad lawns or tidy dooryards, but one of having living places that, in their whole effect, are pleasant and elevating to older folk and children alike. HOW A COUNTRY HOUSE SHOULD LOOK Showy ornament has no place about afarmhouse. The most unassuming building should have broad, spreading lines. It should be wider than it is high, because such proportion is in harmony with the amplitude of the country. The city house may be tall and narrow as the result of high property values, which make for narrow lots. An example of the city type of house may be seen in figure 209. A comparison with the building shown in figure 210 indicates that the latter is the more satisfactory for a country setting. While this colonial type, character- istic of the older farmhouses in this country, may have been too low to permit sufficient circulation of air in the bedrooms, this fault may be remedied without departing from its general lines. However, every foot of height added to ceil- ings adds two steps to the stairways, and may make necessary another ton or cord to the supply of winter fuel. If one thinks he can afford to ornament his farmhouse, he might Fic. 211, reels NECESSARY “etter ‘first apply his’ ameans to Molise-simple; strong woodwork about them as to. substantial. constriction — to: athe eee ere noe use of first-class materials, to having ample fireplaces, and to good workmanship. His means might well be shown in broader eaves and in heavier posts on the porches. Doorways, stairways, and windows are necessary features; to use simple strong woodwork about them is to most fittingly apply dec- oration to the house. The eaves mark the “meeting of roof and walls, and should appear to be a substantial tie between the two. While a comparatively slender post will actually support a porch roof, a THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE FarM Home 2057 heavier one will look more solid and dignified, and essentially more ornamental. The indispensable parts, therefore, rather than the trivial details, should be selected for generous expenditure in material. THE YARD it is difficult to think of yard and house separately, so closely is each related to the other. A well-planned and well-kept yard will greatly improve an ugly house; a pleasing house makes it far easier to lay out an attractive yard. On the other hand, a house with a poor yard, or none, is inhospitable and forlorn, and a yard without a house is meaningless. In planning either house or yard both must be kept in mind. In planning new houses the place of the yard, as well as of roadways and barns, should be early decided on. At this time, too, one should arrange for easy going and coming between house and yard, keeping the house low to the ground and having doorways convenient to the lawn. One should plan to have the most attractive places in the borders opposite the most-used doorways and windows of the house. If house and yard cannot be planned at the same time, as is the case where the house is already built, the yard will have to be made to suit it. SEVEN KEYS TO ATTRACTIVENESS If a person endeavors to think of places that have impressed him as being attractive, it may be difficult to recall just how these places were laid out. It is most likely that the impression was of an entirety rather than of component parts, such as an elm tree, some rose bushes, a garden seat, and a bed of petunias. In other words, such a scene was a picture, not merely a collection of objects. For this reason, in planning a yard, all that is done should give a positive answer to the question, “Will it make the home grounds look better as a whole scene?” To make such a picture, seven points should be emphasized: 1. The place must be well clothed, or furnished, with trees and shrubbery. 2. The house should be prominent and should have a good setting. 3. There must be an open space of lawn or sward. 4. The trees and the smaller plants. should be massed or grouped at the sides or at the rear rather than scattered all over the place. 5. There must be no unnecessary fences, walks, or drives. 6. There must be no curiosities conspicuously placed in the yard, such as piles of stones, odd rocks, shells, pieces of statuary. 7. The place must be neat and well-kept so that it may look as if the residents gave it loving care. 2058 THE CORNELL READING COURSES PLANNING THE YARD IN DETAIL Before being able to know definitely where and how to place trees and shrubs, it is necessary to analyze conditions in somewhat the following manner: First, it is necessary to think of the house and the yard as they appear from points exterior to them. The view in from the highway should. be kept in mind. Is the house the center of a picture, and does the planting in the yard give it an attractive background? If the trees overtop it somewhat from the rear in order to break up a too severe roof-line, if tree and shrub borders flank it on each side, and if the front is not wholly FIG. 212. THE APPROACH TO THE HOUSE The planting not only furnishes a background to the house but also frames the view of it open but broken with some groups — then the planting not only furnishes a background to the house but also frames the view of it. Second, the appearances of the yard must be studied from all the windows of the house and from doors and porches, for the outlook has an inspir- ing or depressing effect on those who dwell within, according to its beauty or ugliness. ; OUTLOOKS What objects should be borne in mind in studying the outlook? All that is seen may be divided into two groups: first, that which is beyond one’s own yard or field and meadow, and belongs to another; second, that which one owns and can control. If the more distant views afford pleasing pictures, especially from convenient points, such as windows and porches THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE FARM HOME 2059 such outlooks should be left open in planting and not hidden by trees or shrubs. One may determine just what space in the border must not be planted by going to the window or the porch favored by the view, and may from there direct the placing of stakes to mark the extent of what is inter- esting in the distant view. The space up to the stakes may be planted, and the stakes removed. On the other hand, there are likely to be unsightly objects in the dis- > tant outlook, which should be care- fully screened by plantings. One’s own barnyard may be made pleasant, so that it will not need to be hidden. Pre: 213. THE OUTLOOK SHOULD BE STUDIED If distant views afford pleasing pictures such out- In the immediate view of the looks should be left open yard the objects that should first receive attention are the necessary features, such as driveways, walks, barns, large trees, and lawn space. While these should be studied separately and individually, the relation of each part to the whole must not be lost sight of. _ DRIVEWAYS AND WALKS Of all the objects in the immediate outlook walks and driveways are most noticeable. Therefore, these should be as few as possible, and should be short and direct. Naturally a driveway should be so crowned and graded that it will not become muddy in wet weather, and the walks should be so paved that they will give dry footing. No matter how well a walk or a road is planned or constructed if its use is not plainly apparent, it is ridiculous. Certain fixed points in the lines of roads and walks will determine the courses they must follow. These points are: the entrances from the highway, the doors of the house, and the location of barns and out- buildings. The routes that may be taken between such points are, how- ever, somewhat subject to choice. The contour of the ground must be studied and also the positions of large fine trees that may seem to be in the way of road lines. Roads, especially, must have easy grades, and all these ways must be reasonably direct. Even so, roads and walks may have graceful lines and curves. When distances are short, straight lines are best; but where the terminal objects should be hidden, practicable curved lines may be contrived. While the route naturally taken from one place to another is usually a good basis on which to begin laying out walks and drives, modifications can be devised, which will smooth out inequalities of grade. Since the bare surfaces of roadways are always 2060 THE CORNELL READING COURSES in evidence in contrast with green grass, they should be laid out carefully and attractively. Roads and walks are very conspicuous; therefore one must think of how they are to affect the lawn space over which or about which they pass. A lawn cut in two by a road appears scarcely larger than the greater portion. For this reason a drive is best kept to one side of the yard. To keep walks inconspicuous they may be made of large smooth stepping-stones placed at ordinary pacing intervals and level with the turf so that the lawn mower may pass over them. From a little distance the effect is that of an unbroken turf. The grades of walks and drives must be easy, not only for progress along them, but also to prevent their washing. They should be provided for first; therefore the grading of lawns is usually done after the walks and drives are made. GRADING THE YARD A few rules may be generally accepted for the grading of lawns. The ground about the house should be apparently level, though a slight slope away from the house is always allowed for drainage. The grades at the entrance to the yard should not be abrupt; if there must be some steepness, it had best be arranged somewhere between the FIG. 214. A WALK OF STEPPING STONES entrance and the house. Most im- To keep walks inconspicuous they may be made of large smooth stepping stones placed at pacing portant of all are easy grades about the house, so that passage ‘to and from house and yard may be almost as easy as from one room to another within the house. If there seem to be insurmountable difficulties in this regard, porches, covered or uncovered, or terraces may be built to serve as connections. A roundabout way, a high or steep flight of stairs, will deter the housewife from carrying work out under the trees, and will really prevent her going out as often as she should. If the natural contour of the yard is comparatively flat, it is only neces- sary to smooth the surface. The usual method of cultivating will accom- THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE FARM HoME 2061 plish this, although some handwork may be necessary about the edges. . The surface as it recedes from the house need not be smooth and perfect. A gently undulating surface may be desirable and by many persons is thought to be more interesting and country-like. A good test is whether the grassed surface may be readily cut with a hand mower. Perhaps the yard may be too large for its entire area to be hand-mowed; if this is the case, that part nearest the house, and which may be used as an out- door sitting-room, should at least be kept trim. No matter how the turf is cut, the grades of the lawn will always be apparent, and the smoother the surface the more easy will be its care. If slopes are needed on either side of walks or driveways, a strip of Fic. 215. EASY GRADES ARE IMPORTANT Passage to and from house and yard should be level surface two or three feet wide almost as easy as from one room to another within the house at least should parallel them, and from these levels the slopes should tend up or down by broad and easy curves. Further, the curve at the base of these — or, in fact, of any slope — should always be broader than at the top, so that the bank will be stable and will not appear top-heavy. | After all, a main consideration comes in the remarkably greater ease in caring for a yard that is well graded, and of which all rough banks have been changed to smooth turf and easily mowed slopes. MAKING THE LAWN The lawn is of foremost importance, and a good lawn is more beautiful than any other single feature. Neither shrubs, flowers, nor house will look well unless set off by lawn space. The ground for a lawn should be prepared by the usual method of deep plowing and harrowing, or, on small areas spading and raking. Even on larger places it is necessary to use the spade and the rake about the edges and in corners. Where the soil is poor, it should be improved. To plow under a heavy turf, to grow and plow under one or more cover crops, or to work in barnyard manure at any time, will improve the soil to a good depth. The cover crops and the cultivation will also eliminate the weeds. If tile drains are necessary, they should be nearer together and closer to the surface than for field drainage. The grass will be as good as the preparation of the soil has been thorough, and there is no better way to combat weeds than by establishing a healthy and dense turf. Any soil will be better for the addition of humus, which may come from 2062 THE CORNELL READING COURSES . old turf, from barnyard manure, from green cover-crops, or from all three. No soil can be too well prepared; whereas some persons have attempted . lawns on soil so poor and ill-prepared that it was not worthy of the grass seed needed to cover it. Lime will hasten the decay of organic matter and will correct a soil deficient in lime. The surface should be as smooth before the seed is sown as it is expected to be when the lawn is finished. Therefore the raking should be sup- plemented by a thorough rolling before the final raking previous to seeding. KINDS OF GRASS TO USE If the soil is well prepared and is not sour, that is, deficient in lime, the same mixture of grass seed may be used at any season and in all places. It is best to buy “ extra cleaned ’’ seed and also to buy the various kinds separately and mix them at home. Equal quantities, by weight, of Kentucky bluegrass and redtop or Rhode Island bent should be used, estimating about sixteen pounds of the mixture to the bushel, and five bushels of seed to the acre. If the new lawns are to:be soon used, it is advisable to add a peck of English or Italian rye. This is a coarse, quick- growing grass, but one that will die out gradually and not produce a harsh stubble or leave holes in the lawn in which weeds may start. If the seed must be sown late in the season, it is well to add to each bushel of the bluegrass and redtop mixture a quart of white clover. This starts quickly, is good for the soil, and, while acting as a nurse crop in protecting the new grass, it will later die out, probably leaving the Kentucky bluegrass and redtop to take possession. Since soils differ and various grasses have their preferences, sometimes one kind and sometimes another will take final possession. It is best at the first seeding to sow only four of the five bushels of mixture allowed to the acre. This should be raked in carefully by hand in order to cover all seed to the depth of from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch. Commercial fertilizers may be raked in just before seeding, but they should be thoroughly mixed with the soil. Sheep manure is not so cheap as the chemical fertilizers but has additional value as a surface mulch, especially on clay soils. Moreover, it contains no weed seeds. After the seed has been sown, only a hand roller should be used. If this is not available, the rolling should be dispensed with, because a horse- drawn one gives a broken surface and holes are made by the horse’s hoofs. When the new grass is just long enough to cut, a sharp lawn-mower should be run over it; then over its entire surface should be scattered evenly the remaining bushel of seed of the five allowed to the acre, mixed with sufficient fine soil to make a layer one-eighth of an inch in depth. The lawn may be rolled again with a hand roller, The purpose of this THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE Farm HOME 2063 second seeding with accompaniment of soil is to deepen the roots of the first sowing and also to develop a denser turf. A larger proportion of seed and soil should be used on spots that have failed, or where, for any reason there is a poor stand. In fact, seed should be kept in a dry place all summer for sowing in the holes made by weeds, by temporary summer grass, and the like. Constant care is necessary to make a good lawn, though when the lawn is fully established care may be given at odd moments. Neglect at the outset, however, will prove disastrous. A thrifty lawn is the best preparation against weeds. PLANTINGS PLANTINGS IN THE YARD Shrubbery plantings serve various purposes. They may help correct unfortunate or unavoidable mis- takes in plans and grades, or may serve as a frame for the whole grounds, or as screens for those por- tions that need to be hidden. Just as slopes when in turf do not appear to be so steep as the same grade in a roadway, so a well-planted bank of shrubbery does not look so high or so abrupt as the same slope would in grass. Houses that appear to be too high from the ground may have this awkwardness somewhat relieved by a judicious use of shrubs or vines about the foundations. Slopes that are too steep to be easily maintained Hic aia) Garson ToAninGs in grass should be planted with Borders arranged to frame the lawn should be “ planted in rather solid masses some growth that will completely cover them, and prevent their washing, and that will require no care as soon as the plants are established. The customary use of shrubs and vines to cover up unsightly places may be a misuse of them. The first aim should be to so improve the grounds that there is nothing to hide. Ofttimes there is an effort to hide features that are in- trinsically good to look at. For example, a kitchen dooryard with its showy array of polished jars, pans, and implements of the kitchen 2064 THE CORNELL READING COURSES and dairy, is a significant mark of a country home, and should, by the thrift displayed, adorn that home. This yard may be paved with smooth stones, or with bricks, or both, but preferably with material that is on the farm. The paved space in the dooryards should be no larger than the space that is actually used, for weeds grow only in unused pavements. This outdoor kitchen should be furnished in accord- ance with its needs by means of racks, pegs on which to hang things, and benches of sturdy workmanship, made on the farm, rather than with cast-off furniture from the house or cheap benches from the store. There is nothing about such a dooryard that should be hidden by planting. A bracket or trellis over the door of the kitchen to support a canopy of flowering vines will, in fact, make a garden out of it. Fie: 217. .THE USE OF TREES Three trees, more or less, so disposed about the house as to afford shade and to give the house its back- ground and frame are all that are necessary PLANTING ABOUT THE HOUSE ~ In arranging the planting about the house, in general, the less that is used to obtain an effect the better. Before any start is made, everything should be planned. Stakes with tops of various colors may represent the several shrubs and trees that have been determined on as suitable, and in this way the whole plan may be marked on the ground before a plant is ordered. While only a small part needs to be planted at a time, the whole effect should be borne in mind until it is secured. In studying this effect, plantings must be considered not as they look when first set out, but as they will look when mature. For example, since lilac bushes grow to large size, each one should have plenty of space THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE Farm Home 2065 to develop in, instead of the bushes being crowded in order to obtain a quicker effect. One bush will grow into better form if it is unhampered, though it may have one or more low-growing shrubs about its base. It is best to use individual bushes at the corners of the house (Figs. 210, 211, 217) or in groups about the porches rather than to plant an unbroken mass of shrubs all about the base of the house. A continuous fringe of plants is quite as monotonous as none at all. Three trees, more or less, so disposed about the house as to afford shade and to give the house its background and frame, are all that are necessary. Elm, sugar maple, oak, or similar tall, strong trees are best; they afford shade ; . Ry a. — without keeping air currents and light 2) A Z Gr Ly Ly LQ — SS from the house. Poplar and _ silver maple give a quick effect because of their rapid growth, but they are brittle and short-lived, and should not be used. PLANTING THE BORDERS Between the plantings right next to the house and those on the borders of the yard there should be nothing but open unbroken lawn space. The lawn is needed to set off the planting, and a | bordered lawn not only looks better but even larger than one not so enclosed. The borders of trees and_ shrubs, arranged to frame the lawn. and to | encircle the outdoor sitting-rooms, should be planted in rather solid masses, much as nature fills in fence rows or Fic, 218. A PLAN FOR BORDER hedgerows. Individual plants should The line of the cae es as a series of he spaced so as to allow them to Init.” beve™ caval ieee Concate Wie together as they mature. Slow-growing plants and large trees may be underplanted with temporary quick-growing material, which can be taken out later. The line of the border looks best as a series of bays or curved recesses. Opposite the important outlooks from the house these bays should be deepest in order to give the greatest length of view. Borders may there- fore be drawn farther away at such points, and brought nearer at others. These bays may enclose little areas of flower-bordered lawn or garden. Since too-marked curves may look unreasonable, the definite line of the border may be lost in scattered groups of large shrubs, or even trees, and such breaks will be the border’s greatest charm. 130 i a G ENS. \ «\\ R a TIS Kn Z 2066 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Trees that have their branches low to the ground, such as beeches, hemlocks, field ase (Crateegus), and lindens are suitable for border planting, and care should be taken to see that the low branches have not been trimmed off before the trees are set out. Such trees do not need any shrubs in front of them, and, in fact, nothing can be more beautiful than their own foliage spreading out on the ground. Fic. 219. INDIVIDUAL SPECIMENS SHOULD BE USED SPARINGLY Shrubs of striking floral effect should be at only a few widely sepa-. Many trees may be ted places 5, Gateigh evi used in the borders of a large place, and they not only add informal charm and beauty but lessen the expense. Most trees and shrubs suited to border planting should be selected for their moderate-sized leaves, dark green foliage, and rounded or irregular habit of growth. Leaves persist longer than flowers; therefore foliage should be the deciding feature in the selection of plants. Shrubs of striking floral effect and trees or shrubs with accented points or spirelike growth should be at only a few widely separated places in the border, and also where they will be seen to advantage. Many of the common shrubs may be gathered from hedgerow and brush lot and are the same as may be bought from the nurseries; they will not grow so fast the first year transplanted, but they have the advantage usually of being larger at the start, and they are assuredly hardy in their locality. HOW TO MOVE TREES Native trees that are not too subject to insects and diseases, for example, the locust and its borer, the chestnut and its canker, may be transplanted to the yard. ‘This may be done by cutting the roots in the spring or early summer before the trees are to be moved, or, in other words, by root- pruning them. A tree from four to six inches in diameter should be root-pruned by means of a trench in which the roots are cut in a circle from eighteen inches to two feet from the base of the tree. This trench need not be more than eighteen inches deep and may be refilled immediately with the soil that came out of it. When the tree is to be moved, during the dormant period, or after growth has ceased in the fall, or before it has started in the spring, a larger circle is allowed to include the new THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE Farm Home 2067 roots that have been formed. Care should be taken not to bruise the roots; but if any are badly bruised or marred, they should be cut off cleanly lest disease start in the injured portion. In replanting, the roots must be carefully spread out to their full length, and soil must be packed into every cavity and between all roots. This is handwork and the most important part of the operation of transplanting. While a carclessly planted tree may live, a well-planted tree is not only far more sure to live but to live thriftily and to flourish. Large shrubs are usually very hardy and will stand a lot of rough usage, but if transplanted carefully, they will grow faster and more symmetrically than if handled carelessly. It is best to stake trees until it is quite evident that they are firmly estab- lished. In all planting operations the ground should be well prepared, and generous holes made beforehand to fully accommodate the plants. After the soil has thoroughly settled and has been tamped in firmly, it should be covered with a mulch of straw, leaves, or other litter. The cultivation of such plantations is quite as important as the cultivation of the vegetable garden, for by such means the evaporation of moisture is prevented and healthy growth fos- tered. Only during the first two or three years, however, is this culti- vation necessary; after that most trees and shrubs will grow unaided, except for such spraying or pruning as may occasionally be necessary. THE USE OF VINES There are three ways in which vines may be used to great advan- tage; first, to cover walls, fences, or arbors; second, to cover, and thus to prevent the wash of steep banks; third, and most important, to drape and to adorn doorways. No matter what vines are used about a yard, the best should be reserved to mark the entrances to the house and to festoon the porches. Bittersweet, Virginia Fic. 220. ONE OF THE GOOD VINES creeper, trumpet creeper, and such The evergreen climbing evonymus should be more widely used old-fashioned vines are all good for walls and arbors. There are several others, however, such as the ever- green Evonymus radicans, or climbing evonymus, and Actinidea arguta, that should be more widely used, 2008 Tue CORNELL READING COURSES To cover steep banks with vines is not only to save labor but to furnish very effective planting. Common honeysuckle (Lonicera halliana) accom- plishes this very satisfactorily ; mat- rimony vine (Lycium chinense) or bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) are equally satisfactory but give the effect of low shrubbery. Clematis and wistaria are familiar enough, but there are, in addition, many varieties of climbing roses of un- questioned hardiness and with sum- mer flowers followed by showy fruit in fall and winter. Flowering vines should be used nearest the house, and the less conspicuous for walls and fences, so that the house will keep its prominence in the setting. A restricted use of vines on houses is always interesting, and in this use as well as on arbors grapevines not only furnish fruit, but are of Fic. 221. DRAPING THE DOORWAY ; Z The most important use of vines is to adorn door- peculiar beauty with their large ways wes and showy leaves, especially when the wind turns up the white undersurfaces. The tendency to use masonry rather than wood for house construction invites a greater use of vines. No plants more quickly take away the appearances of crudity and newness, more generously cover unattractive parts of awkward houses, or more effectively add grace and charm than vines. The stumps of dead trees should not be covered with vines but should be dug out with their roots. GARDENS, OR PLACES FOR FAVORITE PLANTS A garden is a private place. Therefore, the garden should be secluded, and thus may be free from the restraining considerations that are neces- sary to make the grounds look well as a whole. In the first place, gardens may occupy that portion of the outlook not taken up by a vista, or distant view; one does not seek to enjoy a garden and a view at the same time, for the one is close, and intimate, and personal, while the other is far away and shared by many. In the second place, gardens enclosed by shrub plantings or hedges are nearly hidden, and thus are more interesting to one who is within, and more alluring to one who sees them from without. A garden is usually supposed to be a place for flowers, but it may also THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE FARM HOME 2069 be a place for plants in which one may be especially interested. The old-fashioned garden was a jumble of hardy shrubs, perennial garden flowers, and annuals. Those persons who are fond of the novelties of the nurseryman’s catalog or of indi- vidual specimens for their peculiar char- acteristics, such as the color of their leaves, their distinctive habits of growth, their beauty, or their odd- ity, should have gar- Fic. 222. AN ALLURING GARDEN GLIMPSE : : Usuall h tici ality, which gi an inviti - dens into which all sually a garden as an Bech EGE Rach Af Bie gives an inviting pros such plants may be gathered. If a garden looks well as an entirety, it may be placed next to the house from which it will be enjoyed. If it is not attractive to many persons but merely interesting to its owner, it might better be tucked away into a secluded corner of the border. Usually the glimpse of a garden, distant across the lawn from the doorway, has an enticing or alluring quality, which gives an inviting prospect for hours of rest. Successful flower gardens require more time than may be given ordinarily to farm yards, but the borders may be made to partly enclose corners of the lawn, which thus become outdoor rooms or, in fact, gardens, without adding to the cost or the care. SUMMARY No matter what the individual taste as to the home grounds, the total effect should always be kept in mind. It should be remembered also that the house is the center of the picture and the one object, if any, to be decorated. The lawns serve merely as a carpeted floor, or groundwork, on which are arranged tt g — the house and the trees and shrubs, Fic. 223. “A GARDEN Is A private piace Which set it off. Borders furnish The garden should be secluded; one does not seek to the frame to the lawn and to the enjoy a garden and a view at the same time hole pic ture: they ahouldetneres fore be simple and dignified, and will look best if composed mostly of green foliage. This surrounding curtain of green, when it opens to a « 2070 THE CORNELL READING COURSES pleasant outlook over the fields, is also the best frame to the distant picture, and likewise serves as a background to increase the beauty of clumps of flowering shrubs along the edge of the border itself. The outlooks from the house should be planned to avoid any confusion of interests; in one direction one should see only unbroken lawn and distant border; in another, some shrubs, showy with flowers or berries; in another direction, an open view over the meadows; and perhaps, in still another, the suggestion of a garden or, fully as beautiful, a vista down the rows of an orchard. Through these pictures the yard may be made more livable and home- like, and the country, of which the yard is a part, may be more enjoyed and appreciated as the ideal setting for a home. A LIST OF TREES, SHRUBS, AND VINES FOR THE HOME GROUNDS SHADE TREES SUITABLE FOR PLANTING ABOUT THE HOUSE American elm (Ulmus americana) Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) Red oak (Quercus rubra) White oak (Quercus alba) SHADE TREES SUITABLE FOR BORDER PLANTATIONS American beech (Fagus ferruginea) European linden (Tilia europea) Hemlock (Tsuga canadensts) Pin oak (Quercus palustris) White oak (Quercus alba) Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea) White pine (Pinus strobus) SMALL TREES AND TALL SHRUBS FOR BORDERS Field thorns (Crategus coccinea and other species) Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) Common privet (Ligustrum vulgare) Fringe tree (Chionanthus virginica) Sheepberry (Viburnum lentago) Witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) GOOD FOLIAGE SHRUBS FOR BORDERS WITH FLOWERS NOT CONSPICUOUS Arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum), white flowers, blue berries THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE FARM HOME 2071 Hazel (Corylus americana) Siberian dogwood (Cornus alba var. sibtrica) Regel’s privet (Ligustrum ibota var. regelianum) SHRUBS FOR BORDERS WITH CONSPICUOUS FLOWERS OR FRUIT Althzea, rose of Sharon (Hibiscus syriacus) Common barberry (Berberis vulgaris) Japanese barberry (Berberts thunbergit) Tartarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica) Fragrant honeysuckle (Lontcera fragrantissima), semievergreen Syringa (Philadelphus latifolius), tall Syringa (Philadelphus coronarius), sweet scented Syringa (Pluladelphus lemoinet), dwarf Van Houtte’s spiraea (Spirea vanhouttei) Snowball (Viburnum tomentosum) SHRUBS SUITABLE FOR USE AS INDIVIDUALS AT HOUSE CORNERS AND PORCHES Lilac (Syringa). Various types have been developed in shades of blue, reddish, and white. A selection of these will give a prolonged flower- ing season. Tartarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica) Common privet (Ligustrum vulgare), semievergreen Regel’s privet (Ligustrum ibota var. regelianum), low Van Houtte’s spireea (Spirea vanhoutter) Japanese barberry (Berberts thunbergi1) Arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum) VINES FOR DOORWAYS AND ARBORS Rose Dorothy Perkins Tausendsch6n Alberic Barbier Hiawatha Japanese clematis (Clematis paniculata), white Jackman’s clematis (Clematis jackmannit), blue, large-flowered Wistaria, blue or white Evonymus (Evonymus radicans var. vegeta), evergreen VINES FOR WALLS Boston ivy, Japanese ivy (Ampelopsis vettchit) Virginia creeper (Ampelopsts quinquefolia) Chinese matrimony vine (Lycium chinense) 2072 THE CORNELL READING COURSES Trumpet creeper (Tecoma radicans) Climbing bittersweet (Celastrus scandens). This does well also on shady sides of houses. VINES FOR STEEP BANKS Hall’s honeysuckle (Lonicera halliana) Matrimony vine (Lycium chinense) CORNELL STUDY CLUBS At the close of the harvest season neighbors and friends find it natural and convenient to visit together during the lengthening evenings and talk over the common experiences of the passing, season. The Cornell study club begins to feel that the time is at hand to arrange plans for the year’s study and for community advancement — educationally, socially, and financially. It is often helpful during the fall to hold a special meeting, invite every one in the community to attend, and see that each one has an enjoyable and profitable time. A successful meeting, largely attended, provides an opportunity to increase the membership and secure greater interest in the work of the club. Although material for the programs for Cornell study clubs is generally supplied by local speakers and _ by reading course lessons, it may be advisable to get an outside speaker if possible for the special meeting. The Supervisor of the Reading Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York, will be glad to cooperate with clubs as far as possible in arranging the programs for special fall meetings. The fall of the year is also the most favorable time for forming new clubs. For the information of readers who are not members of clubs, the aims and advantages of Cornell study clubs are given as follows: Cornell study clubs aim to promote the study of reading course lessons, and also to advance the welfare of the local community. A study club furnishes an opportunity and incentive for study. Often a helpful lesson will reach a farm home at a time when it cannot be given attention, and it is set aside, soon to be forgotten. If, however, a special time is reserved for the study of reading course lessons at a club, it is likely that much more reading will be accomplished. The club serves the community socially through the better understanding and good feeling among neigh- bors that result from an association in a common work. By promoting exchanges and sales of farm products, implements, stock, and the like, between the members of the club, and by collective buying and selling, it may be found possible for the club to be of financial benefit to the members. THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE Farm HoME 2073 Information on the steps to be taken in organizing a Cornell study club will be sent on request. Also, it may be possible for the Supervisor of the Reading Course for the Farm to arrange a visit to a community that desires to organize a new club. AVAILABLE READING COURSE LESSONS FOR THE FARM, ARRANGED BY SERIES Residents of New York State may register for one or more of the series mentioned below by addressing The Cornell Reading Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. SERIES LESSONS mine Sil. oak ae 74 Introduction to the principles of soil fertility 42 ‘Tilth and tillage of the soil so Nature, effects, and maintenance of humus in the soil 70 Soil moisture and crop production 78 Land drainage and soil efficiency Pomliny ss. ssKose hss 80 Incubation 88 Feeding young chickens Bari LOrestry 224.4 3.2 12 The improvement of the woodlot 28 Recent New York State Laws giving relief from taxation on lands used for forestry purposes 40 County, town, and village forests 62 Methods of determining the value of timber in the farm woodlot Pe yN@TSCs)..2 51 se mace 46 Feeding and care of the horse 56 Practical horse-breeding WAITVING ... oe asesas2% 16 Practical dairy problems. 32 Composition of milk and some of its products 54 The dairy herd 60 Farm butter-making 82 Cream separation 86 The production of clean milk Fruit growing........ 22 The culture of the currant and the goose- berry 36 Culture of red and black raspberries and of purple-cane varieties 48 Culture of the cherry 52 Culture of the blackberry 72 Culture of the grape 2074 THE CORNELL READING COURSES arm crops: es.- 2ht ts Vegetable gardening... Plant breeding....... ISeChe see es sete Country Wies . <).%i.2% The rotation of farm crops Meadows in New York Alfalfa for New York Home-garden planning Planting the home vegetable garden Summer care of the home vegetable garden Principles and methods of plant-breeding Methods of breeding oats Improving the potato crop by selection Insects injurious to the fruit of the apple The rural school and the community Birds in their relation to agriculture in New York State The farm fishpond The surroundings of the farm home The above list is correct to September 15, 1915. The demand may at any time exhaust the supply of particular numbers. Requests will be filled as long as the supply lasts. SUPPLEMENT TO The Cornell Reading Courses PUBLISHED BY THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY, Dean COURSE FOR THE FARM, ROYAL GILKEY, Supervisor Published and distributed in furtherance of the purposes provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 1914 SEPTEMBER 155, 1915 eg ree SERIES VOL. IV. No. 96 THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE FARM HOME DISCUSSION PAPER A discussion paper is sent with each reading course lesson in order to assist the reader in studying the most important points. The discussion paper also encourages thought, observation, and self-expression. Each discussion paper filled out and returned will be read carefully, and a personal reply will be made if further information or references for advanced reading are desired. Practical suggestions on farm problems will be sent gladly. New readers should enroll in one or more of the following series of reading course lessons: THE SOIL, POULTRY, RURAL ENGINEERING, FARM FORESTRY, THE HORSE, DAIRYING, FRUIT GROWING, FARM CROPS, STOCK FEEDING, VEGETABLE GARDENING, PLANT BREEDING, INSECT, COUNTRY LIFE. The first lesson in each series desired is sent on enrollment, and subsequent lessons are sent, one at a time, on the return of discussion papers. Therefore, in order to receive the other lessons tn this series, readers should sign and return this discussion paper, whether the questions are answered or not. By means of reading course lessons, study clubs may be promoted, which may become important factors in community welfare. Assistance will be given in organizing and conducting clubs. The space below on thts page ts reserved for correspondence concerning reading course work, and also for names and addresses of any residents of New York State likely to become interested in the Cornell Reading Course for the Farm. {2075} Seeks ere 2076 THE CORNELL READING COURSES (In answering questions, attach additional paper 1f needed and number the answers.) 1. How can a yard furnish a good setting for the house from the point of view of the highway? 2. Why is it necessary to take great care in laying out driveways and walks? 3. In what part of the border plantations is it best to have conspicuous shrubs and trees, and in what part is it best to have shrubs and trees that are not in any way conspicuous? THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE FARM HoME to 12) ~I “I 4. What are the most successful shrubs in your locality? s. What shrubs, otherwise desirable, have been found, after trial, not hardy enough for your neighborhood? 6. What are the standard grass seeds for well-prepared lawns, and when is it best to add white clover to the mixture and when perennial rye? 7. Have you had any experience with lawn grasses other than blue- grass, redtop, and white clover? Have other kinds proved permanently useful? 2078 THE CORNELL READING COURSES 8. What trees and shrubs native to your region lend themselves particularly to home planting; and why? 9. Where can individual plants of unusual character be placed so as not to spoil the effect of the yard as a whole? 1o. Where should the most attractive flowering vines be planted? (Address all correspondence to the Reading Course for the Farm, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York.) CIRCULAR No. 5 MARCH, 1915 Farm Bureaus of New York State NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, NEW YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, COOPERATING NIAGARA COUNTY: AN ACCOUNT OF ITS AGRICULTURE AND OF ITS FARM BUREAU By E. H. ANDERSON Manager of Niagara County Farm Bureau The darkened areas show the counties in which farm bureaus had been organized up to March, rors UNDER THE DIRECTION OF M. Cs BUR RIELE STATE DIRECTOR OF FARM BUREAUS ITHACA, NEW YORK PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY [2079] PREFACE At the present time there is very little complete and specific informa- tion concerning the history and status of agriculture in the various counties of New York State, written in popular language and available to the general public. In the belief that such information is wanted both by the residents of the county itself and by persons living outside the county but interested in it, and that the publication of a reconnaissance survey of local agricul- tural facts and: conditions in each county will do much to arouse local pride, to call attention to local problems, and to make known the agri- cultural advantages and opportunities in a county, a series of circulars has been projected. It is expected that each of these circulars, written by the local county farm bureau manager under the general direction of the central office, will present a fairly complete statement of the agricultural conditions and possibilities of a county. Besides a brief history. of agriculture in a county, each circular will include a description of the local climate, soil, and topography, a statement of population, general business con- ditions, market facilities, types of farming practiced, and tables showing total production and unit yields. Desirable systems of farm manage- ment will also be pointed out, suggestions will be made, and attention will be called to many important matters on which success in farming depends locally. The second part of each of these circulars will be an account of the local farm bureau, its organization, and its ability to help in developing local agriculture. Some of the most important functions of a farm bureau association are: the study of local problems with the purpose of finding solutions for them; presenting to the general public in an attractive manner the opportunities for farming in the county; and stimulating local initiative. To increase the net incomes of farmers, thus providing the means of obtaining better schools, churches, and roads, is to promote the welfare of every citizen in the county. Such cooperative effort, properly directed, should also result in a material increase in land values. All these things, the parties cooperating in the farm bureau work in New York State desire to promote. This publication, it is thought, will aid the proposed work. Niagara was the seventh county in-New York State to organize a farm bureau. The work was begun before the general public understood it well enough to be generally in favor of it and to give it good support. Both for this reason and because the greater part of the county is already well developed agriculturally, the work of the farm bureau has been difficult from the start. It has, however, been well worth while. Niagara is one of the richest and best-farmed counties in the State, and the pub- lication in popular form of the facts about its agriculture should be of great interest and value. M. C. Burritt, Director of Farm Bureaus. [2080] NIAGARA COUNTY: AN ACCOUNT OF ITS AGRICULTURE AND OF ITS FARM BUREAU PART I THE AGRICULTURE OF NIAGARA COUNTY! “Niagara”? isa name known around the world, calling to mind one of the greatest of waterfalls. The territory adjacent to the river has its Indian traditions and its history of Indian, French. and British strife. The French visited it first in 1626 and found it to be a valuable center for the fur trade, for at that time the Indians were using the Great Lakes, with a portage at the falls, as their trading route to the French fort at Quebec. Some fifty years later La Salle began the building of forts and trading houses along the Niagara River. In 1718 a French writer spoke of the country thus: “The Niagara Portage is two leagues and a half to three leagues long, but the road over w hich carts roll two or three times a year, is very fine, with very beautiful and open woods through which a person is visible for a distance of six hundred paces. The trees are all oaks and very large. The soil along the whole of that road is not very good. Above the first hill there is a Seneca village of about ten cabins, where Indian corn, beans, peas, and watermelons and pumpkins are raised, all of which are very fine.”’ This region was coveted by the British, and in 1759 they captured it. The British held it until 1 796, when it became the property ‘of the United States. The early history of Niagara is one of warfare and of Indian trading. Even when it was under French control, it was claimed by both Massa- chusetts and New York; and later, although it was under British control, New York claimed it and considered it a part of several different counties. Not until 1821 was Niagara County erected with its present boundaries, about eighteen miles north and south by thirty miles east and west, and in its present rectangular shape. It is bounded on the north by Lake Ontario, on the east by Orleans and Genesee Counties, on the south by Erie County and the Niagara River, and on the west by the Niagara River. It has an area of five hundred and twenty-two square miles. While the territory embraced by the boundaries of Niagara County was among the first in the States bordering on the Great Lakes to be visited by white men, its settlement did not commence in earnest until the begin- ning of the nineteenth century. The greater part of the population, prior to 1800, was connected with the garrisons, and no definite attempt to follow agriculture was made. In 1800, when the first tax roll for land west of the Genesee River was made out, there was not a single taxable person within the boundaries of the present Niagara County. In 1802 the first agricultural settlement was made on the lake shore near Fort Niagara (Fig. 2, page 2085). From 1802 to 1812 many settlements were 1Some of the historical data used in this circular are taken from Soil Survey of Niagara County, New York, published by the United States Bureau of Soils. T31 [2081] 2082 FarRM BuREAU CIRCULAR NO. 5 made in the drier portion of the county; these were on the lake shore, the Ridge Road, and the Mountain Ridge, and along the Niagara River. Some settlements were also made near Tonawanda Creek. Much of the county was said to be open ponds in the early days, and the excessively marshy condition of the lowlands defied subjection. A well-traveled trail of the Iroquois from the Hudson to the Niagara, leading through Canandaigua and Batavia, emerged from the Tonawanda Swamp nearly southeast of the present Royalton Center, followed Chest- nut Ridge to Cold Springs, ran thence to Warren’s Corners, and from there along the Ridge past Hopkins’ Marsh through the Tuscarora village to the Niagara River. About 1800 this trail was improved so that sleighs could traverse it in winter. This was the first road laid out north of the main road from Canandaigua to Buffalo. The completion of the Erie Canal, in 1825, gave a great impetus to settlement in the county (Fig. 1). It provided a ready means of trans- portation, and it stimulated industry. This influence is well shown by the growth of the village of Lockport, which in 1820 had a population of 100, in 1830 had increased to 21do, and in 1840 had increased to 6088. The population of the townships along the canal developed proportion- ately. The crops grown were those that could be easily shipped by canal. Farmers’ organizations. —Three agricultural organizations have done much toward developing the agriculture of the county: the Niagara County Farmers’ Club, the County Agricultural Society, and the local granges. A large number of the most progressive farmers are members of one or all of these organizations. For the past sixty years there has at various times existed in this county what has been called the Niagara County Farmers’ Club, though the present organization dates back only to 1880. By its monthly meetings at different points in the county, this organization has exerted a strong influence in both an agricultural and a political way. At these meetings an address is given by a person of authority on some phase of agriculture, and the discussion always includes timely subjects of importance to the farmers of the county. The club has a dual purpose: it endeavors to better agricultural conditions in the county, and to develop the social side of farm life by furnishing a means whereby the farmers may meet and become acquainted. A county agricultural society was informally organized in 1841. The first fair was held that year at Lockport, subsequent ones being held in most of the towns of the county. The present agricultural society was formed by the reorganization of the old one in 1858. , The grange in Niagara County is of comparatively recent origin, many of the local organizations having charters but a few years old. By the bringing together of farmers of the same section, the grange has been a strong factor in developing local pride and initiative. Many movements for agricultural betterment have originated with or have received encouragement by the grange, among which may be mentioned the purchase of fertilizers and farm supplies and the formation of cooper- ative associations for marketing fruit. While the grange is mindful of the farmers’ financial welfare, it has also been a strong influence toward Nracara County: Its AGRIcuLTURE AND Its FarM BurgEau 2083 improving farm home conditions and toward increasing social opportu- nities in the county. CONDITIONS THAT LIMIT AGRICULTURE Climate, topography, and soil are the three important factors in de- termining crop adaptation. The proper fitting of crops to them opens the way to successful farming. Climate The annual precipitation is a little over thirty-two inches, one-half of which falls in the five months from May to September, inclusive. The average date of the last killing frost in spring is in the last four days in April, and the first killing frost in the fall occurs about the six- teenth of October. This gives a growing season of over one hundred and seventy days. RECS I) Fic. 1.— Niagara County, showing the physical features of the land and the Erie Canal. The Ontario Plain is devoted chiefly to fruit growing, while the Erie Plain is given up to hay and grain raising The mean temperature in Niagara County is about 47.5° F. The maximum temperature recorded is 99° F., and the minimum is —16° F., recorded at Lockport in the winter of 1914. Southwest, west, northwest, north, and northeast winds pass over water before reaching this county, thus modifying the temperature and checking frosts. Topography and soils Niagara County is divided by nature into two plains, the Ontario Plain and the Erie Plain. The Ontario, or lower, Plain is the northern two-thirds of the county. It slopes gradually toward Lake Ontario from the abrupt escarpment that divides the two plains and that passes through Lockport. The elevation of the Ontario Plain at Appleton, two miles from Lake Ontario, is 340 feet above sea level and 80 feet above the level 2084 FarM BuREAU CIRCULAR NO. 5 of Lake Ontario. The Erie, or upper, Plain is the southern third of the county. The elevation of the Erie Plain at Lockport, twelve miles from Lake Ontario, is 620 feet above sea level and 360 feet above the level of Lake Ontario. The Niagara River, flowing north from the Erie Plain to the Ontario Plain over the abrupt escarpment, makes the world-famed Niagara Falls. The division into the two plains rather generally divides the agricul- tural interests and the adaptability of the county. The southern plain, being generally level and poorly drained, is devoted largely to general farming, with hay and grain as the leading crops and with some good orchards on the higher parts. The northern plain is devoted to fruit growing and general farming near the escarpment, while toward Lake Ontario, because of the ameliorating influence of the water, it is given over almost exclusively to-the growing of fruits — peaches, apples, pears, and cherries. The area bordering the lake is devoted largely to peaches; here are found not only some of the largest and most productive peach orchards in the State, but-also probably the oldest, showing the natural adaptation of this part of Niagara County to the production of this popular fruit. The quality of fruit grown in Niagara County has long been known. “The fruit raised on the level reaches of Niagara orchard land is of fine quality; and connoisseurs assert that they can select it from among that of other localities by its peculiar richness,” says a history written forty years ago. Glaciers and glacial lakes have been the principal factors in forming the soils of Niagara County. Consequently the soils bear little resem- blance to the rocks beneath. These rock formations are shales, sand- stones, and limestones, and have a gradual slope toward the south. The soil overlying these rock formations varies in thickness from a few inches along the escarpment, where the edges of the rock strata may frequently be seen, to thirty or forty feet at various points on the plains. Most of the soils of the county, except the Tonawanda loam, belong to the Dunkirk and the Clyde series. Across the southern third of the county, the heavy clay soils prevail; along the escarpment, both to the north and the south, are silt loam, clay loam, and sandy and gravelly loam; north of these, the heavier Clyde loam is the commonest; and along the lake shores are the lighter Dunkirk loams. Draining some parts of the county has been, and is, the great problem. Owing to the comparatively level topography and the heavy soil structure of the southern part of the county, surface water is carried off very slowly, and artificial drainage is necessary for this entire area. This is usually accomplished by a series of parallel ditches, which are opened after the fields have been prepared for crops. When the early settlers came into the southern part of the county, they found almost a sea of water and swamp surrounding Beech and Bear Ridges. From 1860 to 1870 a system of ditches was dug for the purpose of draining the lowlands. These ditches brought into tillage many acres that had been swamp. However, there is a need for still better systems of drainage in order to carry off the floods that occur during the spring. At this time fields that have been seeded to wheat, and those that must be plowed for oats, stand for days under water. NIAGARA County: Its AGRICULTURE AND ITs FARM BUREAU 2085 Marketing advantages Niagara County is favorably located for shipping its products. Fruit may reach the New York market within forty-eight hours, and the Chicago market within about the same time. At shipping points there are a large number of storage buildings of the types used for both common and cold storage. Both the Ontario Division and the Falls Road branch of the New York Central Railroad run the length of the county (Fig. 2). Thirty freight trains go through Niagara County on the tracks of the New York Central Railroad each day. PREERS: Farm Bureau Manager of St. Lawrence County. TOMPKINS COUNTY Farm bureau work was begun in Tompkins County December 1, 10913, under an arrangement that called for two-thirds of the manager’s time to be spent doing county work and one-third assisting the State Director of Farm Bureaus. About March 1, M. C. Wilson was secured as assistant in order that the manager might be free to give more of his time to State work. On November 1 the full services of V. B. Blatchley were engaged, and the former manager became Assistant State Director. At its inception practically all the local support, both moral and financial, that the bureau received, came from the Tompkins County Breeders’ Association. It was but natural, therefore, that a good deal of work should be done to assist this organization to carry out its aims. This work has consisted during the past year of editing and publishing the Tompkins County Breeders’ Journal, each month, the development of the sales and purchasing department of the association from a total annual business of about $100 to nearly $8000, and a general stimulation of the movement to improve live stock in Tompkins County, which has re- sulted in increased membership in the breeders’ association and in a con- siderable increase in the number of pure-bred animals kept in the county. Orcharding has been profitable in Tompkins County for those men who have gone at it in the right way. Drawing a lesson from their expe- rience, 75 acres of apple trees on 30 farms were pruned and sprayed under the direction of the manager of the bureau. The apples from these orchards brought fancy prices in the market in Ithaca when offered for sale. An apple day held in cooperation with the Ithaca Business Men’s As- sociation was voted a success by both consumer and producer. Probably more far-reaching in its ultimate effect on the agriculture of the county than either of the two lines of work mentioned was the campaign for cheaper lime. Briefly this resulted in the establishment of three new and lower freight rates, practically direct sale to farmers, and the proposed establishment of a new source of supply at Union Springs. The devel- opment of the last proposition has, however, been delayed by existing financial conditions. The three major lines of work have been outlined. Of less importance as regards time spent on them, at least, were (1) the holding of a boys’ potato-growing contest in Dryden and three stock-judging contests at the local fairs; (2) a series of mustard-spraying demonstrations; (3) a number of demonstrations on the control of oat smut and stinking smut in wheat; (4) the laying out of drainage systems on ten farms; (5) the control of the army worm; (6) the making of several plans for farm buildings; (7) in- Farm BureEAU WorK IN NEW YORK STATE FOR I914 2177 troductory work looking toward the reorganization of the Ithaca Poultry Producers’ Association; (8) participation in placing and conducting farm- ers’ institutes and farm demonstration schools; (9) the introduction of hardy strains of alfalfa; (10) the conducting of a pure-bred live stock survey. The work of the past year was introductory in character. It was not as well planned as it might have been, and, due to the arrangements under which it was done, it was naturally broken up more or less. The fact that at the close of the year it received the hearty approval of those agricul- tural organizations in the county that had at the beginning refused to endorse it, is its best justification. V. B. BLAtTcHLeEY, Farm Bureau Manager of Tompkins County. ULSTER COUNTY (Work begun April 15, 1914.) The first year of the farm bureau was spent to a large degree in picking out and conferring with the men who could be depended on to assist in the work and in becoming acquainted with the topography of the county, with the farmers and the location of their farms, with the resources and the possibilities of the county, and also with its fundamental agricultural problems and the best available means of their solution. The following report to January 1, 1915, shows the work accomplished in the eight and one-half months that the farm bureau has been established. Three hundred and twenty farmers have been visited on their farms. Fifty-five persons, seeking information and advice, have called at the office. Six hundred and fifty-four individual letters have been written in reply to inquiries received and in transacting the business of the bureau. Five circular letters, totaling 1500 copies, have been sent out to the members giving information, suggestions, and inspiration. Twenty-five newspaper articles, giving agricultural information and deal- ing with farm bureau affairs, have been written and published in all of the local papers. In this way authoritative information was made available to all fruit growers about a cheap and sure method of controlling the red spider, the pest of raspberries. Up to the time this article was published, some ‘growers were spraying with bordeaux mixture, some with arsenate of lead, which was a waste of time and money. Other articles were prepared in connection with the campaigns against fire blight and wild carrot, a weed that disgracefully infests a large part of the county. ik Ee Sk Ree ELE ee Sw Se RSE Auks © SRE Gt 2.0 soar Tele 1359 INDEX PAGE Cattaraugus County, report of farm bureau...............c.cccccccecccscces 2127 Carle” beet type and dairy types sc? .4 45 ie oA eek nse das bl aes eteneek Bae 1219 ar ile samminationcitiy 7s se cele Wakes dle bee Paws wb-esla hae ves anode Pnene ee cues 1206 Cattle. See also Cows. Cayuga County, report of-farm buréatt: i... 055 026i sik edaeccceh bab doves 2129 SSerinimm ALCL aa amelie cee tha te eset eg aihs pao knoe paid der weal ay Re ee 1356 Chautauqua Cotinty, report. of farm buread. 2.0: 62 528 Sexe ees ee wea alee dhe. 2130 Ciemuns County contest works 22.2 ..05 28 salad tues onblens so tee eco Cowtom en 1409 Ghemune County, report of farm bureaw.... so.) 26.0 elas sed daa be odes 2132 CLES 5 5 OS aa a Se Ope eo ne a 1364 Gisteiag acts hedse: 1: ea ee Sarge eee a eA A ree Sn 1268 Chevaliers return (outdoor play) ) c.c20/5u sto ha an sGae tc bdo ond teaws staese 1705 GRACO es ec ore ae EUS A aaa PASS he eae £28 eee eee I1I9 Chickens, brooding and care-of, with a hen... 2.0.05... .0.c ccc ece sees vas ccveas 1159 Sirckenc, young (Geding wu Ats cise sab eG sNid isos enigsadetae ss wees 1162, 1943 RS Farrah ere ee ee tee ot id ene Sh aid decane yuduaa ed hahaa ateade Cee eee 1249 Searle GHattOw ce sacar. oer ee aR Ok al oR A eee eS PRS eee 1125 RSet aS ORUNG TAT ets delmes oA cae Oe TES aaeeee bak aoe 4S heat a a ee 1026 POET AC Vie AS pecan 2 OA ee oie Soa Vise eR waned eok SS aaa ee 452034, 215 ROO er hoa tas ic Cady he oo oes homes CE ee ee ee 1493 ROA oie, Ale ac Aine cng 4 OP ete be CORE Rees Ok Ce ee 1322 Clinton County, report of farina bireatl: ooo .oc nage then cee soa ete ne sha ot eaten 2134 PURO ore, ashes tana cash avndoshaalunnragene aaa tes Fikke Bad BR orgree aaa Mere x ete 1310 BETO eT PWC Cire ins: Cia cts iaict ts cccta = cp tyes Sas ceca SG OO Nie eae ee ee ee 1324 ROME RS SCU OOM ters oy mics thtysne gis alns, o edeaie Gutta) oe ce ouidae & Ee ea ee ere 1404 BE etd TOU i greecrer scythe: -nascisae, ac) rune) Ses and decd Sharan Stand sea teams ata ee cee oe Skuse 1895 Colorad ospotato beetles aii sen coa mais cadedahstuars G00 ah nd ese ane ee eed 1257, 1281 Comstock, Acna Bis..c22 2.5. <'5. IIIQ, 1258, 1262, 1275, 1276, 1278, 1284, 1287, 1290 OB rrr repeat 11 TAG roo: tears a a eee inns n/a aoe eae arana Bo a abe ee eee, te 1483 MP ampecto mA eriCtltutal sis et ec oe ey ale pio te Ms veo mens ote eae es 1400, 1404, 1409 Be ere mENNV IC Serres cos eet os nd eee A ee ary OE LR eee 1132, 1784 OR ee ey tie iss bE oe TRS Le he Cie SOE AA eh eE ES 1005, 1378 (0) AT (GUIS) 2ST Sa Pere Sr ef 1569 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 74................. 1755 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 76................. 1775 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 78...........0..... 1819 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 80................. 1839 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 82................. 1871 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 84................. 1895 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 86................. 192 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 88................. 1943 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 90................. 1967 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 92................. 1987 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 94..............46.. 2007 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm, Vol. IV, No. 96................. 2051 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 73........... 1439 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 75........... 1461 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 77........... 1487 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 79........... 1517 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 81........... 1541 [3] INDEX PAGE Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 83........ Ae HERS Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 85........... 1587 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 87........... 1603 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 89........... 1629 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 91........... 1653 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 93........... 1709 Cornell Reading-Course Lesson for the Farm Home, Vol. IV, No. 95........... 1729 Cornell Rural School Veaflet, ‘Children, Vol. 8, No.2. 2. <5 ls 68 so ovine uslale 997 Cornell Rural School Leaflet; \Childrens wWioll3,) No.3. .aaa ete ee eee tee 1029 Cormell Rural School. Leaflet, ‘Children, Vol..S, No. 4... ..<, See ss een 2S xi tree sect ea Coens atiaanaytay ayst eters 1755, 1819 HinelessECOOK eI ANGELES TISCS.s ars tyees cSt Ae < se Ae coer ee ee ae eee 172 HinclessieOOKer, Tecipes LOL USE Withis civics USNR ht ak oak ase eee ns ee 1743 Eb insraeata eV Uy, seep eee ee nevenc ons accra eee ais. 5 hee ey Seen caeaaue ee esto Gee one aoe 1412 LIDS Seca Teg 6 6 | en ae een SR io en eo ce ... Been Gn ce ee Cee 2146 RROShINGsTOm CAKE tet atcicisiat ae Liter re ete een eee ee 1471 Brosnostana wlings: TeCipes TOM: > % soe eee. wiht. et aoe an eee ee tA 1475 Bsiattee atin IrdS413.. ais a's, on latche'as tees MOE Selo ene oe a ee ae, 1804 iBrurt-breevieat=rollers cy) cccc/2 bcs A oo ee nl ees JR eee IQII Hurnishings: household, arrangementiok: teen i. ac ett ee te a 1587 G Callaway be kesccts ahs aaa a ee ee ee aT i cee et eee ee ey a1! |." 1367 Are TATRA yc eto ER aialone F Daten eect ate EMO cal at nts a Ss LT 1056 SE HEGEIMNO MRICS wih, caine bet Sele a Oot eta es Mata eet ek ak ee ek See 1064 METAR Sb Sistine Pa lavrk: Ae ays ote cick Milos By aeNe ie Seve he weet eae gals eects eee 1066 REceeaIMMALIOM LOSE ais oun a sisa oe alee ae aie ew ela tele aes iol ol Ae ah at Oe 1305 Cop nin dees i ee Oe ee eA ee ee ee ee Soe eae RT Ts: 1079 Crapevines, crowing from CUTHOgS, J aoc o.6. 22g Ad he ote ele cee 1096 (Grasshop peters fray. scrssc setae cote ame ah ole a Sige ie oh Acer cae one a 1275 Coy Ne hn elelai 2 6) | ae eae A bare rr Ae ASAE ALL Me Ooh F, .. 1310 GIRS SLA A tne Ae Re ee PAO rE Bee Aram enue aS kt 1792 eceereiritit-WOLDT nhc... Sk Le oe PITA WAS Sy dt WA ae wth faye ria ee 1914 SSIES pPSCUOOL «gists uians Rate etd oo Pore k et Per hd cibtas aeten iots Pee eed ete) Se 1076 TSMR ye wet Re oe MOS OSPR O LS OT ESSA? a Aamo sae eee 1792 Crithrie ME tos a force Sete oe te cea ttedacie aug Ane eR ae ae eee Sy tts dey ate 1871 gypsy mGthinte ti...) ace UR te vik tee eae aed AoA ee 1256 H igeness iain HAGMessing 8 Ai ttt Sd hos a Rnd oo ee eee 1185 Efaimensm ine Wireter ke at, 6 tee cthe, SOAS Sled 8 extn «lash e 6 Sno O age L175; 1234 inatchineses rs wit hadhene ir wk joe as A ene caer ae Aad a tee A 1155 Hatchincsegos wialm AnyinCcubaAtor,. <2 2252 Fs ce eeaee sat ee obo 8 ce ee, OO 1157 Tawi Sey Ie a) eyecaet aris ia otoy aicksie mites ctu aies Brche ookt Sa UA Ae aa, Se ee 1400 118 (295 daa ee a Op er pes Re eR ae ee oa a oI a sa Ot T13%,:1782, 1790 azard Blanche shy act ts crct acters fo Se che SD A ae AANA TA ee 1653 Herkimer County, report of farm bureatt: 20.) dnaec foc ors of nen hee bee 2149 EVER OTIS Brrere. eter oO etic chen ciars tu cter axel aad dev dicaen es stoic Gta BUNOL RRA tine tees 1789 teri Cia GW es oats cuttend ese uatand. che tee etic and ease 1066, 1097, 1255, 1264, 1281, 1282 E@me SULrOUNGINGS Of sehen. ot eas. soe Ate eee Pewee Se ee ee 2051 Taleyol es AW es 1 eather arn a RAT RE Mia tin ee Eee aos BOM etn eae 4 oot 2179 nopshornbeam American. so. Gre aoc s Soe aya te Atal aaah el aket «71 senate ee 1356 Hornbeam- American hope on shine Tatas woke © me a tee aes ih deta ie ion eee 1356 TAGESCH TOPOL tOUS OF Fos Bono. oe sis, 55 veal he vid aed ot hn eye ata ahs ne DRS E s, 2 os 1175 TOESES ee Pee Se ne eee nee Se Eh Regen EEE Re RPS Seis ed ae 999, TI7I orses: care and management: Of 5.0.) As'oereisth stele are taanele hiss © cic cloicteel eet 1181 Horses SCOre Cara fons tito aes Sours eee: Lee ee Se aot eae ret ae, eh Se 1198 EVOrses wd rian Gt Ee Pte eeerare (oe alate Sts ohare athe ee ae SOL eR tor Get ORES Ree 1190 Horses, harnessing...... Sevotaten ots Se Ss Stas 4s fate Aah ae Me tobe etapa Sie ee) EN a 1185 PAGE [RIGIS ES: fe ect oho: dae Gace EER Aaa eae A Ze IIQI LORS CS MLDS Olea atae re eee tert aceite otteees Gx, OS fica las, htetata sy ohay nde eneeteNe 1178 OUSCE Nees enrarieee dn nM Ie rte | Metals Sn aaa Sava ante ain eile wie 1097, 1282 Household furnishings, arrangement of..........5 0.0000. c cece eee ees 1587 Reltcara ryan Gey entree tecnica tence, et cd od de tas n BAe ee omen eueoet 1064, 1096 i ir Utell OLE ener we ee eerste Ieee Se evita ig es ees ase oes 3 phe era ero eke 1157, 1839 Indiantfestival, program fOr; 2c cme ssc ei se Sabie eb eee wes coeur oases Mee okies 1698 Indian pudding: recipe forsc....2..56-- + stereo sees > pad nene osdaenee thu een 1309 ImaSect-catin CMOInGdS weenemcr Wer Ter etc tac Se pave Olenck tee fete ieee, a Mea eae ce ee 1793 NMSEOUmDESESH INCE CASITIONOL Ee ernase Mern eas oes eee, favs Peasads Ne ras, censors esl eaclem eee 1255 BRIoee reece and SUCMING an eae a in akin A alate Ws tesaee iy eh es Pain ae reir aie 1264 nISEGES ee MOUSE! Giclee cotscct a ae aiey sath cae eee s cadens, s dew sist crate outy iene mt anahie etsedebescn ae eS 1097 UMSECESHIMIUGIOUS TO: SArdeNs 2. vier ans cis e:eie2.csc elas eal Gr ae) a sya ces eels Se ea ene ne ee 1131 HVAT Te Oey AN ara ene es ees Aa eG SAAR SeEPEL , Guten ea Crg ae eee ee 2169 Meanvlandiyellowthnoate ts ctr. nieuwe ernie scorn Near ya eee are eee 1136 NaH ews eB Tan Gens, Stic. sec 5,2 e snare tet taesitos tae we pom) anes Sep oh geen oy eel 1496 Merchant eA coe ie taccs saree arcu muoatnacanhohica eee eae Os RE oe ne oh EL nS ee 2157 INTer ean Sener ses iyecs cover Settee as) eC ne cco > Te OR rie oc eee eee 1792 IM BYGGs Set ee et ie Ae Oe Ne Ree eee er eens eee en aos Bt Sa c 1246 MiliceBapcock test. tor buttertatj1is «4 sr0¢ fara aie Sl fava on een avgak arco S Guaie ne eo nce eer ee 1428 RencermSeChsS 1m] UTMOUS LOnss .. scree cece o pos vtyvat stu) sole sce le ake cease roe eee 1572 GAGeEL ISIN Gs OTs CANIM Oa emat esis eeete) coagec aee,.s ahci2) a. Shag ee Cao os 1570 Bene hecipes, fOr COOMUG. t22 oss c's say pias ws ie acme «hove tee tants ce aaee 1637 RE Wee MV OOG err matter: ie iatanera te eet isa ci eira( seer aah oe eaten tay WeSC sake es k,n 1129, 1800 TAGE or, (Cait ik eect Rec tas Pe on RC edd eo eter, See Et 2176 (©) TC 7225, = Age an ea ne a a rena EE ec Me 1800 TENCSROES, ARE Oe ee ars ee oe ak EC a heat sin yak ee epee Lc 1412 Be ecmeRUM ING Wa) OMe rhea ane wore ane eka meee cede AG Ceauna deminer aa eeones ae 1353 Piiamine Or NOME SUrrOUNGImNes... 25 oe... vay caches aha we sis ae he oe a bia ae 2063 Pa eESMmCUt GLY CLL CA coo sae og See wnelpes oe Cs ons Gree es eee Aron ee yea amen dome 1332 |B I VRE: <5 08 1 Ra RR a a PO Sg Ce ec 1312 LEX) 0) ON eh eRe em PRR: eR RE a ce nie PR eR 1322 Rotator beetle iColorad Otis sc-cciess 5 oe ne 6 on Ao ser era Sieresavohrad sa Dee noes sia 1257, 1281 AOUALOR UP Bae oo acre Seeger te eeoteter Ser eto a eens & Oi ns S avon aero ee 1257, 1281 Homiocs as 4 SubStittite for Hour... hice cis ae; davines ees ocala Seaton ee eee 1551 IROUALOES INGE MerGletany sere: ashe yocie sy eieve coas s susteiciey seers, cia eeu eee sin eee See 1541 ocatoes, LECIpes Tor COOKIN) 25 i ..ueres DE 3 5 854 a Le La ee exe Samoa cue ne eerie 1547 OUUEEy: RCCGST 22 cise apate'. tyne trauee Miaialarag are tie alten ee tym hy ee Rae See eee 1143 Ee ANN, OX AU UG LIU § oS Meee d/o tere es eicasesin vausvinst ¢y-4:sneenaadioray con 8 bebe Oe hace ane Mee eee 1169 OER Vy, PAL BEDI Os 5.5 sethage eee eects wie aie. Wid cand. a Phe. cahea oT oe a ae icra nee eee ee 1164 Poultry, feeding ton winter €ge8:..3 otic datos bee bone ee oe ee unc ee ee 1152 Houlinye mproving the Guality Of. fnc.. 55 5ecricaos ae acco o ea 20.0 Sen eee eee 1147 Ouattey ACSSOMS sic tare, -.nisia cya © sicucsai eee nivics Gur vec aera cuss aga eae a o's ol ay DoieuateLent wetter 1140 oultny raising for boys and girls 7420.55 366 ss 1147, 1154 Ro bertsony Her Biro tet tet cpctose cite ers fcauihos okie a eters ean thre See ace See 2153 NO sersN GW Aur eae see tet sae 6 oe LTR POY ee ER ee: 1150, 1152 LOS CESH EEL SESH te. gatsmt cis titt, erates Saramugty «ghee tebe onc Iouece ima, fo kets, kee ae a 2132 POSE AH LOREAL cited arog bed ose lat dasa ws Matyas A Micaela amen cae cn aio eae 1308 ERSNGSS aE Liey cranes tra neat et etter ns ele BN caret SR) Gea wate hain cth a es le Stone aye deere ee er 1282 Oss Open halons ahi Cea She tard Pass 5-5 3 Blaeege aa a riela wt ihe yank ee See 2148 Peni, CROW ILC MINI GTEUH «tee sets Svecce en sh etale cide eam ors eto cid aaa ee 1122 PMULETI GI OM Th, CALLEN ost. cou ntaeke ee taneiduarere ot lelad idles ete acts G ane oe Mee 1206 Ruralsschool-and ‘the community:..2 ae + 22 i.e Sess cae ateG hasan eke eee 1366 Rural School Leaflets. See Cornell Rural School Leaflet. S Stn lawrence County,.teport of farm bureau. .u. .in.0.)-s eee: Yee ees eee 2174 waladicdnessingmecipes Or. tyes «atc sea Sve eee tee er ere he 1553 ROTM OSES CALE S Rate xatestewe. oth, tetecc, haa meteoae ves he agen a een aele Ae RO A eRe 1271 Sapsuckers yellow. belliedasi us. .>.jsfons4s oe sad 9h thins vb s ea e k L ySTOS DScamnaASutheel an sera c atit goak Gatun oc RE ene e LOW ny titrant ie Ss, : Oe yee 1359 DAV ACCME HOE eran ahr athe Wreck Nal nema ke sey aon 1202,,1200, 1212, 1208 1221s 1228 EAVES CHEDINGS? Grand san rik kes dey anoaclied Aneel nc Sead, BAe aw Ad ee eA ee aR cc 1792 CMO AMEE MOMS aris Mee iia: alk arc vattit gmc uals een Re Se 1399 PChOoWsrOuUnds << casig Myles ka. Wieck Sk NRTA < ata y sibs pad GA LOL ERE Oe Ce 1076 schoolsisending corn to Parmers’ Week... 25... 5. tee 2 cients ete tains 1008 COVE ME MPS natin Boul, Reh Bette aioe a ne MEN Oars Sh PU OAS See ee as ee 2183 Weed COMM LEStING SErMINALION: OL a 5.2% + Fone ws Sh Ae ys sea de dca 1305 eedaeatimor ind Si s-. pers cov: sarsdet eocteretenonces Sencibiloly htears! a aca Ris Ae eee Oe eee 1802 Seedssomchildrenisitgardenss .asiih peach ho ae ee Ee eee eek pate ee eet 1072 PI CCCRS LULL ZM taper versie Sclaceih eile sSceriA treats ene eohorstonyai las Any We aceite Rah RCN at ey a eg 1039, 1082 SEPATAtl OMsCream ces: Hasina IN es OE Ee, Me Ee Ce ere 1871 SAE NG| O]bSI ola eee ae OE in ame nees ne ata te ten en are AM, Sten SE Ba IG E.G Gedo c 1360 Sanp=sMinn eclelia Wikia serene tesla lee arene ccs ioe ete mote dene eos Gus MeN cs, © Se 1132 Shepherd) S=pursetiektme.eswcmente Seats nea ee) Mee, as saya ten 2 2 en at 1331 Slatigl (Sc ely p che Sacremento PCN me: Ska ea en Oe eee Me MIR CSs\s, cgicid 1787 Shrubs'and trees, planting and care Of; s254'.