sSeetee Rese sean: a = Say me =e Seo oc a ro reeeens 120 Smee PN: thane oe - ot re sree Drriooni it rstiste laters teeriiiiiiy] etorptiperngas se se peer dinegeeags garetts ‘ - a EaDean seg peaaczigs yee “ae ene er ere . Legislative Document No. 59 STATE OF NEW YORK Thirty-first Annual Report of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University and of the Agricultural Expermment Station Established under the Direction of Cornell University Ithaca, New York 1918 VOLUME | ALBANY J. B. LYON COMPANY, PRINTERS SLOTS Laer) te ore beso We te aS | Soe elt sco hit Taal eee a . (erayial Lier) Fe ; ie Aeoe». ; , § cys, 7.) agnhi ae aay ae bast tt Ee gy Dt oe tril’ Ak Wh -weelle bon bal Sin eae 4 ‘- - : a 3 2 fe hates peed ed ‘ are tiien OT sy i " Rap! 1 va a ba. ; PEG dite (tart Loi ah care het, deelt 4 Ke, arii ‘ phe: se : eal " ‘ ty e , i vi, : 7 # a ~ coal y Oe NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE . STAFF OF INSTRUCTION AND EXTENSION WORK Jacob Gould Schurman, A.M., D.Sc., LL.D., President of the University. Albert Russell Mann, B. S.A. ae M., Dean of the College of Agriculture, Director of the Experiment Station, and Director of Extension. Isaac Phillips Roberts, M.Agr., Professor of Agriculture, Emeritus. John Henry Comstock, B.S., Professor of Entomology and General Invertebrate Zoology, Emeritus. Henry Hiram Wing, M.S. in Agr., Professor of Animal Husbandry. Thomas Lyttleton Lyon, Ph.D., Professor of Soil Technology. John Lemuel Stone, B.Agr., Professor of Farm Practice. James Edward Rice, B.S.A., Professor of Poultry Husbandry. - George Walter Cavanaugh, B.S., Professor of Chemistry in its Relations to Agriculture. George Nieman Lauman, B.S.A., Professor of Rural Economy. Herbert Hice Whetzel, M.A., Professor of Plant Pathology. Elmer O. Fippin, B.S.A., Extension Professor of Soil Technology. George Frederick Warren, Ph.D., Professor of Farm Management. William Alonzo Stocking, jr., M.S.A., Professor of Dairy Industry. Wilford Murry Wilson, M.D., Professor of Meteorology. Ralph Sheldon Hosmer, B.A.S., M.F., Professor of Forestry. James George Needham, Ph.D., Professor of Entomology and Limnology. Rollins Adams Emerson, D.Sc., Professor of Plant Breeding. Harry Houser Love, Ph.D., Professor of Plant Breeding Investigations. Donald Reddick, Ph.D., Professor of Plant Pathology. Edward Gerrard Montgomery, M. ie Professor of Farm Crops. George Alan Works, B.Ph., M.S. in Agr., Professor of Rural Education. Flora Rose, B.S. M. A., Professor of Home Economics. Martha Van Rensselaer, A.B., Professor of Home Economics. William Albert Riley, Ph.D., Professor of Insect Morphology and Parasitology. James Adrian Bizzell, Ph. oe Professor of Soil Technology. Glenn Washington Herrick, B.S.A., Professor of Economic Entomology, and Ento- mologist of the Experiment Station. Howard Wait Riley, M.E., Professor of Rural Engineering. Harold Ellis Ross, M.S.A., Professor of Dairy Industry. Hugh Charles Troy, B.S.A., Professor of Dairy Industry. Samuel Newton Spring, B.A., M.F., Professor of Silviculture. Karl McKay Wiegand, B.S., Ph.D., Professor of Botany. William Henry Chandler, M.S. in Agr., Ph.D., Professor of Pomology. oe Bernhard Recknagel, B.A., M. BS Professor of Forest Management and Uti- ization. Merritt Wesley Harper, M.S., Professor of Animal Husbandry. Cyrus Richard Crosby, A.B., "Extension Professor of Entomology. Elmer Seth Savage, M.S.A., Ph. D., Professor of Animal Husbandry. Kenneth Carter Livermore, M.S. in Agr., Professor of Farm Management. Edward Albert White, B. Se., Professor of Floriculture. Alvin Casey Beal, Ph.D., Professor of Floriculture. Herbert Andrew Hopper, B.S.A., M.S., Extension Professor of Animal Husbandry. Edward Sewall Guthrie, M.S. in "Agr., Ph. D., Professor of Dairy Industry. Maurice Chase Burritt, M.S. in Agr., Professor, and Vice Director of Extension. William Charles Baker, B.S.A., Professor of Drawing. Mortier Franklin Barrus, Ph. Ds Extension Professor of Plant Pathology. Lewis Josephus Cross, B.A., Ph. D., Professor of Chemistry in its Relations to Agriculture. Oskar Augustus Johannsen, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of General Biology. [v] vi New YorkK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Clyde Hadley Myers, Ph.D., Professor of Plant Breeding. Bristow Adams, B.A., Professor, Editor and Chief of Publications. Dick J. Crosby, M.S., Professor in Extension Service. Asa Carlton King, B.S.A., Professor of Farm Practice. Cornelius Betten, Ph.D., Professor, Secretary, and Registrar. George Abram Everett, A.B., LL.B., Professor of Extension Teaching. Frederick Llewellyn Griffin, B.S., M.S., Professor of Rural Education. Lewis Knudson, B.S.A., Ph.D., Professor of Botany. E. Gorton Davis, B.S., Professor of Landscape Art. Ralph Wright Curtis, M.S.A., Professor of Landscape Art. Claude Burton Hutchison, M.S. in Agr., Professor of Plant Breeding. Ralph Waldo Rees, B.S., Extension Professor of Pomology. Jacob Richard Schramm, A.B., Ph.D., Professor of Botany. Harry Oliver Buckman, M.S.A., Ph.D., Professor of Soil Technology. Ralph Hicks Wheeler, B.S., Professor in Extension Service. William Foster Lusk, B.Ph., M.S.A., Professor of Rural Education. Ralph Clement Bryant, F.E., Manufacturers’ Association Professor of Lumbering, Yale University. Third term, 1917. James Chester Bradley, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Systematic Entomology, Exchange Professor at University of California, 1917-18. John Bentley, jr., B.S., M.F., Assistant Professor of Forest Engineering. George Charles Embody, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Aquiculture. Mrs. Helen Binkerd Young, B.Arch., Assistant Professor of Home Economics. Mrs. Anna Botsford Comstock, B.S., Assistant Professor of Nature Study. Harry Morton Fitzpatrick, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology. Byron Burnett Robb, B.S. in Agr., M.S. in Agr., Assistant Professor of Rural Engineering. Walter Warner Fisk, M.S. in Agr., Assistant Professor of Dairy Industry. Vern Bonham Stewart, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology. Annette J. Warner, Assistant Professor of Home Economics. Arthur Lee Thompson, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Farm Management. Royal Gilkey, B.S.A., Assistant Professor in Extension Service, and Supervisor of Reading Course for the Farm. Charles Truman Gregory, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology. Lex Ray Hesler, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology. William Howard Rankin, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology. Earl Whitney Benjamin, B.S. in Agr., M.S., in Agr., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Poultry Husbandry. Arthur Johnson Eames, A.B., A.M., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Botany. James Kenneth Wilson, B.S., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Soil Technology. Elmer Eugene Barker, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Plant Breeding. Edward Mowbray Tuttle, B.S. in Agr., A.B., Assistant Extension Professor of Rural Education. ; Robert Matheson, M.S. in Agr., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Economic Entomology and Assistant Entomologist of the Experiment Station. Blanche Evans Hazard, A.B., M.A., Assistant Professor of Home Economics. David Lumsden, Assistant Professor of Floriculture. John Hall Barron, B.S.A., Assistant Extension Professor of Farm Crops. Gad Parker Scoville, B.S. in Agr., Assistant Extension Professor of Farm Management. Arthur Augustus Allen, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Ornithology. Leonard Amby Maynard, A.B., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry. Forest Milo Blodgett, Ph.D., Assistant Extension Professor of Plant Pathology. Miriam Birdseye, B.A., Assistant Extension Professor of Home Economics. Howard Edward Babcock, Ph.B., Assistant Professor, and State Leader of County Agents. F Edward Riley King, B.S., Assistant Professor of Entomology. Frank Elmore Rice, A.B., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Chemistry in its Relations to Agriculture. Lester Whyland Sharp, B.S., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Botany. John Clarence McCurdy, B.S., C.E., Assistant Professor of Rural Engineering. Clarence A. Boutelle, Assistant Extension Professor of Animal Husbandry. Charles Howard Royce, M.S.A., Assistant Extension Professor of Animal Husbandry. George Harris Collingwood, B.S., A.M., Assistant Extension Professor of Forestry. New YorkK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE vil Montgomery Robinson, Litt.B., B.S., Assistant Professor in Extension Service. Wesley Worth Warsaw, B.S. in A.E., Assistant Extension Professor of Soil Technology. Paul Work, A.B., M.S. in Agr., Acting Professor of Vegetable Gardening. Edwin Cooper VanDyke, B.S., M.D., Assistant Professor of Entomology, University of California. Exchange Professor, 1917-18. Bertha E. Titsworth, B.S., Assistant Extension Professor of Home Economics. Otis Freeman Curtis, A.B., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Botany. Thomas Joseph McInerney, M.S. in Agr., Assistant Professor of Dairy Industry. Eugene Davis Montillon, B.Arch., Assistant Professor of Landscape Art. Juan Estevan Reyna, E.E., Assistant Professor of Drawing. Leslie Eugene Hazen, B.S. in Agr., M.E., Assistant Professor of Farm Mechanics. Earl Long Overholser, M.A., Assistant Professor of Pomology. Arthur John Heinicke, B.S.A., M.A., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Pomology. Olney Brown Kent, B.S., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Poultry Husbandry. Henry William Schneck, B.S., M.S.A., Assistant Professor of Vegetable Gardening. Karl John Seulke, M.S.A., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry. Louis Melville Massey, A.B., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology. Ellis Lore Kirkpatrick, B.S.A., Assistant Professor of Vegetable Gardening. Beulah Blackmore, Assistant Professor of Home Economics. Paul J. Kruse, A.B., Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Rural Education. Bernard Albert Chandler, B.S., M.F., ‘Assistant Professor of Forest Utilization. First and second terms, 1917-18. Layton S. Hawkins, B.A., Specialist in Agricultural Education, Lecturer in Rural Education. George Walter Tailby, jr., B.S.A., Instructor, and Stockman in Animal Husbandry. Cecil Calvert Thomas, A.B., M.A., Instructor in Botany. Earle Volcart Hardenburg, B.S., M.S. in Agr., Instructor in Farm Crops. Richard Alan Mordoff, B.S. in Agr., Instructor in Meteorology. Oliver Wesley Dynes, M.S. in Agr., Instructor in Farm Crops. Albert Edmund Wilkinson, B.S., M.S., Extension Instructor in Vegetable Gardening. James Lewis Strahan, B.S. in Agr., M.S. in Agr., Instructor in Farm Structures. Cass Ward Whitney, B.S., Instructor in Extension Service. Royal Josylin Haskell, B.S., Ph.D., Extension Instructor in Plant Pathology. Laurence Howland MacDaniels, A.B., Ph.D., Instructor in Botany. Allan Cameron Fraser, B.S., Instructor in Plant Breeding. Lua Alice Minns, B.S., Instructor in Floriculture. George Corneil Supplee, M.S.A., Instructor in Dairy Industry. Anna Elizabeth Hunn, B.S., Instructor in Home Economics. William Thomas Craig, Instructor in Plant Breeding. Harold Deane Phillips, A.B., B.S. in Agr., Instructor in Rural Economy. DeVoe Meade, B.S., Instructor in Animal Husbandry. Edward Gardner Misner, B.S., Instructor in Farm Management. Arthur Merle Besemer, B.S., Instructor in Dairy Industry. Archie Byron Dann, B.S., Instructor in Poultry Husbandry. - Edwin Sleight Ham, B.S., Instructor in Animal Husbandry. Thomas Alexander Baker, B.S., Instructor in Animal Husbandry. Winfred Enos Ayres, Extension Instructor in Dairy Industry. Albert Scott Kenerson, B.S., M.S. in Agr., Instructor in Vegetable Gardening. Clark Leonard Thayer, B.Sc., Instructor in Floriculture. Ralph Sylvanus Moseley, Extension Instructor in Poultry Husbandry. Lewis Merwin Hurd, Extension Instructor in Poultry Husbandry. William Irving Myers, B.S., Instructor in Farm Management. Lew Ellsworth Harvey, B.S., Extension Instructor in Farm Management. Cedric Hay Guise, B.S., M.F., Extension Instructor in Forestry. Emil Volz, B.Sc., Instructor in Floriculture. Gilbert Warren Peck, B.S., Extension Instructor in Pomology. Frances E. Vinton, B.A., Instructor in Home Economics. Albert Reiff Bechtel, B.S., A.M., Instructor in Botany. James Marshall Brannon, B.A., M.A., Instructor in Botany. Frank Burkett Wann, A.B., Instructor in Botany. Wallace Larkin Chandler, B.S., M.S., Instructor in Parasitology. Mary Frances Henry, A.B., Instructor in Home Economics. Clara Louise Garrett, B.S., Instructor in Drawing. Vill NEw York STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Clarence Vernon Noble, B.S., Instructor in Farm Management. Sarah Lucile Brewer, B.S., Instructor in Home Economics. Charles Parsons Clark, B.S., Extension Instructor in Farm Management. Anson Wright Gibson, B.S., Assistant Farm Superintendent. Anna Jane Hancy, A.B., M.A., Instructor in Botany. Edwin Fraser Hopkins, B.S., Instructor in Plant Pathology. Louis Arthur Zimm, B.S., Instructor in Plant Pathology. Fleming Bates Sherwood, B.S., M.S., Analyst in Soil Technology. Frederick Gardner Behrends, B.S., Instructor in Farm Mechanics. Walter Gernet Krum, Extension Instructor in Poultry Husbandry. Ralph Waldo Emerson Cowan, B.S., Instructor in Dairy Industry. Howard Campbell Jackson, B.S., Instructor in Dairy Industry. Julia Gleason, Instructor in Home Economics. Harry Hazelton Knight, Pg.B., B.S., Instructor in Entomclogy. Elmo Hamilton Lott, B.S., B.S.A., Instructor in Extension Service. Walter Norton Hess, A.B., Instructor in Entomology. Claribel Nye, B.S., Extension Instructor in Home Economics. Mortimer Demarest Leonard, B.S., Extension Instructor in Entomology. Walton I. Fisher, Instructor in Plant Breeding. Winifred Moses, B.S., Instructor in Home Economics. Helen Canon, B.A., B.S., Extension Instructor in Home Economics. Harry E. Knowlton, B.S., Instructor in Botany. George Robinson Phipps, B.S., Instructor in Extension Service. Gustave Frederick Heuser, B.S., Instructor in Poultry Husbandry. Clarence Hamilton Kennedy, A.B., M.A., Instructor in Limnology. Edwina Maria Smiley, A.B., Instructor in Plant Pathology. Edward Henry Dusham, A.B., M.S., Instructor in Biology. Mrs. Edith Fleming Bradford, B.S., Instructor in Home Economics. Sara Buchanan Huff, Instructor in Home Economics. Adele Koch, B.S., Instructor in Home Economics. George Clayton Dutton, Extension Instructor in Dairy Industry. Benjamin P. Young, B.S., Instructor in Entomology. Peter Walter Claassen, M.A., Instructor in Natural History. Roy Glen Wiggans, M.A., Instructor in Farm Crops. Marshall Evarts Farnham, B.S., Instructor in Floriculture. Frank P. Bussell, B.A., Extension Instructor in Plant Breeding. Roy Lewis Gillett, B.S., Instructor in Farm Management. Mrs. Jessie A. Boys, B.S., Instructor in Home Economics. Howard Jerome Ludington, B.S., Instructor in Extension Sc-vice. Laurence Joseph Norton, B.S., Instructor in Farm Managerc-'. Ralph Waldo Green, B.S., Instructor, Assistant Chief of Publications. Olin Whitney Smith, B.S., Assistant Registrar. Ada Eljiva Georgia, Assistant in Natural History. Emmons William Leland, B.S.A., Superintendent of Field Experiments in Soil Technology. Ward Benjamin White, A.B., Assistant in Dairy Industry. Stuart Ward Frost, B.S., Assistant in Entomology. Charles Edward Hunn, Assistant in Plant Propagation. Mary Ellen Hill, B.S., Assistant in Biology. Lawrance Erickson, A.B., Assistant in Botany. Howard Campbell Jackson, B.S., Assistant in Dairy Industry. Ernest Gustaf Anderson, B.Sc., Assistant in Plant Breeding. Charles Loring Allen, B.A., Assistant in Animal Husbandry. Thomas Bregger, B.S., Assistant in Plant Breeding. John Phineus Benson, B.S., Assistant in Botany. Walter Conrad Muenscher, A.B., M.A., Assistant in Botany. Chester Columbus Demaree, A.B., Assistant in Botany. Lawrence Glenn Brown, B.S., Assistant in Biology. Clyde C. Hamilton, B.S., M.S., Assistant in Natural History. George Hirst Bradley, B.S., Assistant in Biology. Vernon R. Haber, B.S., M.A., Assistant in Biology. Ralph Simpson Nanz, B.S., Assistant in Botany. Victor Ferdinand Tapke, B.S., Assistant in Plant Pathology New York STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Kenneth Clark Fox, B.S., Assistant in Poultry Husbandry. Walter Sprague Frost, B.S., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry. Harry Earl Bremer, B.S., Assistant in Dairy Industry. Ernest Dorsey, B.S., Assistant in Plant Breeding. Laura Florence, B.Sc., M.A., Assistant in Entomology. Benjamin Harrison Smith, A.B., Assistant in Plant Pathology. Henry Vroom DeMott, B.S. in Agr., M.S. in Agr., Assistant in Pomology. William H. Wood Komp, B.Sc., M.Sc., Assistant in Biology. Walter Ohlendorf, B.S., Assistant in Entomology. Walter W. Wellhouse, M.A., Assistant in Entomology. Claude Willard Leister, B.S., Assistant in Ornithology. Carl Petty Blackwell, M.A., Assistant in Farm Crops. Harold H. Clum, A.B., Assistant in Botany. Raymond Stratton Smith, B.S., B.S. in Agr., M.S., Assistant in Soil Technology. R. J. Morgan, Assistant in Soil Technology. Clarke Bernard Loudenslager, B.S., Assistant in Extension Service. Frank Patrick Cullinan, B.S., Assistant in Pomology. Thomas Lysons Martin, B.A., Assistant in Soil Technology. Elbert Ernest Conklin, jr., B.S., Assistant in Vegetable Gardening. Asa E. McKinney, A.B., A.M., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry. Eleanor Hillhouse, B.S., Assistant in Home Economics. Gladys Smith, B.S., Assistant in Home Economics. ix CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION EXPERIMENTING STAFF ALBERT R. MANN, B.S.A., A. M., Director. HENRY H. WING, M.S. in Agr., Animal Husbandry. T. LYTTLETON LYON, Ph.D., Soil Technology. JOHN L. STONE, B.Agr., Farm Practice. JAMES E. RICE, B.S.A., Poultry Husbandry. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, B.S., Agricultural Chemistry. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, M.A., Plant Pathology. ELMER O. FIPPIN, B.S.A., Soil Technology. G. F. WARREN, Ph.D., Farm Management. WILLIAM A. STOCKING, M.5.A., Dairy Industry. WILFORD M. WILSON, M.D., Meteorology. RALPH S. HOSMER, B.A.S., M.F., Forestry. JAMES G. NEEDHAM, Ph.D., Entomology and Limnology. ROLLINS A. EMERSON, D.Sc., Plant Breeding. HARRY H. LOVE, Ph.D., Plant Breeding. DONALD REDDICK, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. EDWARD G. MONTGOMERY, M.A., Farm Crops. WILLIAM A. RILEY, Ph.D., Entomology. MERRITT W. HARPER, M.S., Animal Husbandry. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Ph.D., Soil Technology. GLENN W. HERRICK, B.S.A., Economic Entomology. HOWARD W. RILEY, M.E., Farm Mechanics. CYRUS R. CROSBY, A.B., Entomology. HAROLD E. ROSS, M.S.A., Dairy Industry. KARL McK. WIEGAND, Ph.D., Botany. EDWARD A. WHITE, B.S., Floriculture. WILLIAM H. CHANDLER, Ph.D., Pomology. ELMER S. SAVAGE, M.S.A., Ph.D., Animal Husbandry. LEWIS KNUDSON, Ph.D., Plant Physiology. KENNETH C. LIVERMORE, Ph.D., Farm Management. ALVIN C. BEAL, Ph.D., Floriculture. MORTIER F. BARRUS, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. CLYDE H. MYERS, M.S., Ph.D., Plant Breeding. GEORGE W. TAILBY, Jr., B.S.A., Superintendent of Livestock. EDWARD S. GUTHRIE, M.S. in Agr., Ph.D., Dairy Industry. JAMES C. BRADLEY, Ph.D., Entomology. PAUL WORK, B.S., A.B., Vegetable Gardening. JOHN BENTLEY, Jr., B.S., M.F., Forestry. VERN B. STEWART, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. EARL W. BENJAMIN, Ph.D., Poultry Husbandry. JAMES K. WILSON, Ph.D., Soil Technology. EMMONS W. LELAND, B.S.A., Soil Technology. CHARLES T. GREGORY, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. WALTER W. FISK, M.S. in Agr., Dairy Industry. ROBERT MATHESON, Ph.D., Entomology. HARRY H. KNIGHT, Pg.B., B.S., Entomology. MORTIMER D. LEONARD, B.S., Entomology. FRANK E. RICE, Ph.D., Agricultural Chemistry. IVAN C. JAGGER, M.S. in Agr., Plant Fathology (In cooperation with Rochester University). WILLIAM I. MYERS, B.S., Farm Management. LEW E. HARVEY, B.S., Farm Management. LEONARD A. MAYNARD, A.B., Ph.D., Animal Husbandry. LOUIS M. MASSEY, A.B., Ph.D., Plant Pathology. BRISTOW ADAMS, B.A., Editor. LELA G. GROSS, Assistant Editor. [x] PRESIDENT’S LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL June 30, 1918 The Governor of the State of New York, Albany, New York. The Secretary of the Treasury, Washington, D. C. The Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany, New York. The Act of Congress, approved March 2, 1887, establishing Agricultural College Experiment Stations in connection with the Land Grant Colleges, contains the following provision: ‘It shall be the duty of each of said stations, annually, on or before the first day of February, to make to the Governor of the State or Territory in which it is located, a full and detailed report of its operations, including a statement of receipts and expenditures, a copy of which report shall be sent to each of said stations, to the said Commissioner of Agriculture, and to the Secretary of the Treasury of the United States.” And the Act of the Legislature of the State of New York, approved April 12, 1906, providing for the administration of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, contains the following provision: ‘‘ The said University shall expend such moneys and use such property of the State in administering said College of Agriculture as above provided, and shall report to the Commissioner of Agriculture in each year on or before the first day of December, a detailed statement of such expenditures and of the general operations of the said College of Agriculture for the year ending the thirtieth day of September then next preceding.’”’ This was amended by the act of April 3, 1916, which changed the fiscal year to end June 30. In conformity with these mandates I have the honor to submit on behalf of Cornell University the report of the New York State College of Agriculture for the year 1917-18. [xi] Xii PRESIDENT’S LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL I commend this report to the careful consideration of the Governor and the Legislature. The State makes liberal (if not always quite adequate) appropriations for the maintenance of its College of Agriculture, and it is the duty of the authorities of the State to satisfy themselves that the appropriations have been wisely and economically administered. This is a standing reason for careful scrutiny of the annual report of the State College of Agriculture. I merely desire to repeat what I said last year, namely, that there is now an additional, special, and momentous reason due to the existence of war and the imperative demand for an increased production of foodstuffs, on which, indeed, the issues of the war may finally depend. And there is no other agency in the State of New York which can do so much, or which, in my opinion, is doing so much, to stimulate and enlarge agricultural production as the State College of Agriculture, including the young men and women who have studied in the institution in the past, the present student body, and, | above all, the members of the faculty of the College, whose ability, zeal, and devotion to the cause, whether before students in classrooms and laboratories, or in conferences and meetings of farmers throughout the State, are beyond all praise. Respectfully submitted, JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of Cornell University. REPORT OF THE DEAN OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE June 30, 1918 To the President of the. University: Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith a report of the work of the New York State College of Agriculture for the year 1917-18. The enrollment The registration of students in the College of Agriculture for the year 1917-18, shown in comparison with the preceding year, is as follows: Regular undergraduate students: IQI7-18 1916-17 Peon same Mee Tee ks «et. Hee 319 SOPMOIMMOrcs mt. va seeetlay ly. aka ee 264. fmitornsem reer We litre row She, 246 SEIT GIES olga mes ea i le ER ie ae ae 203 T ,032 1,747 Cie SUL CHIESayrtias bie can! Piet ONS ects fysheo terns o ae 44 86 Winter-course students: mormentvures General) soso.) ea at cd 108 Dicdiinyel aust rye nw: La V is fuk Peas 23 roman conomes: the200.F. tov. Leatertneceal, 23 BOUlcnvelUspaAncdry: paidtels .iv- grok mas I5 GU EONS)! 7, ACs Mtaeltcretesstara tee ssarl > kets 8 Blower Guowing}:.ys). Seen. wieacteaks aes 7 Weperapble:Gardenitg@aytrr.. 124 mmpasy. a 2 sis 6 ——__—— 190 2 EUmAMel-sCHOOMSTUCEMES® « yasgreie se wrohe-ayeyaeint =: arch + -eneese 2 A05 382 abel tk Nace! ea RTH a ky 5. L,071.. 2,407 The decline in the winter-course enrollment, which has been constant now for some years, is due only partially to the war. There seems to be a lessening need for such courses with the widespread introduction of agriculture into the high schools of the State. The time has not yet come, however, when they can be discontinued. It is to be noted that there was an increase in the number attending the Summer School in Agriculture. This seems to be due primarily to [xiii] xiv REPORT OF THE DEAN the fact that the College offered courses in physical training in order to prepare supervisors of physical training for the rural schools in accordance with the recently enacted physical training law. Approximately 125 persons registered for these courses. Legislative appropriations The generous appropriations made by the Legislature in 1917, while inadequate to meet many greatly needed developments in the College, were nevertheless sufficient to maintain the College during this year. of exces- sive costs, and we shall be able to close the year within our available funds. (See the financial report in this volume.) The 1918 Legislature, whose sessions were recently brought to an end, has also made substantial provision for the maintenance of the College. We recognize that the large funds appropriated impose a very responsible trust on the adnunistration of the College and of the University to see that all expenditures are wisely and efficiently made. The burden of responsibility grows each year with the expansion of the work, both resident and in extension, to meet new needs as they arise. In this connection attention is called to the transfer of the farmers’ institute work, hitherto conducted by the State Department of Agriculture, to the State College of Agriculture as part of its extension service. It has long been recognized that this transfer should be made, as the institutes are a form of educational extension —a function which has been vested in the College. The State Department of Agriculture, or the Department of Farms and Markets as it has now been named, is more strictly a regula- tory department, charged with the administration of the agricultural law. Among the more important additions made by the 'ro18 Legislature are provisions for the following: a new full professor in vegetable garden- ing; a full professor and an assistant professor in rural engineering; three assistant professors in home economics; two professors in rural education to meet the obligations of the Smith-Hughes work; two assist- ant state leaders in the home demonstration work. An appropriation of $7500 was made for the erection of an insectary, or laboratory, for eco- nomic investigations of insects, and one of $2000 for the underdrainage of the plant-breeding and floricultural experimental grounds. Two financial problems of first importance to the welfare of the College still confront us, however. One of these is the urgent necessity for addi- tional buildings to house some of the departments; the other is the insistent need for salary increases for members of the staff. The college buildings have been very greatly overcrowded for a number of years and the congestion grows constantly worse. The Departments - - REPORT OF THE DEAN XV of Plant Pathology, Botany, Pomology, Floriculture, Entomology, Rural Engineering, and Rural Economy are crowded into only a fraction of the space needed for their present work, and the conditions are dispiriting to the men. Certain other departments are but little better off. The excessive costs of building during the war period and the need of skilled labor for war work have dictated that we should not seek appropriations from the State for these purposes at the present time. It is part of our public obligation to get along as best we can with present facilities until the war ends. Thereafter we shall need as soon as possible to seek funds for the erection of additional buildings. The situation in respect to salaries is even more acute. Because of the serious financial situation confronting the State it seemed best to the trustees this year not to request increases in salaries for members of the teaching staff. We find, however, that under the impetus of the nation- wide movement for increased food production, very large appropriations have been made for agricultural purposes in most if not all of the States; and the United States Department of Agriculture has received vast war funds from Congress. On every hand new lines of war work are being developed and old lines extended. The inevitable result: is an overwhelm- ing demand for trained men. Many very valuable young teachers have already gone from us, and a number of our full professors have received financially alluring invitations to go elsewhere. It would be opposed to the interests of the State to allow our staff to be depleted of its most able teachers. Since its creation as a state institution, the College of Agriculture, by reason of its being charged with the field of extension teaching, has been looked upon as the chief agency in the State to give immediate assistance to farmers in their practical problems of crop production. This obliga- tion has grown with the years, and it has been multiplied under the stress of war. Unless we can retain against the bidding of other States and the United States Department of Agriculture the men needed for the war-time extension activities of the College, we shall fail of what the State has a right to expect of us just at the period when the severest test is being made of our ability to serve farmers. Activities of the College in relation to the war At the time of the entrance of the United States into the war, the University adopted the policy of giving to students who were leaving to enter the land or the naval forces of the country, or to engage in industrial or other enterprises contributing to the success of such forces, full credit for such courses as they were then carrying. The university faculty ruled that agricultural work was within the scope of this resolution. - Under Xvi REPORT OF THE DEAN this legislation a total of 794 students left the College in April and May, 1917. Of these 567 went into agriculture, 184 into army, navy, or ambu- lance corps, and 43 into munition factories and other industries. While there was practically no evidence of abuse of the privileges offered by this legislation, it was generally agreed that no such liberal arrangement need again be made. In March, 1918, it was determined that credit should be given only to seniors directly entering the army or navy not more than six weeks before their graduation. Only six students have needed to make use of the privilege. In a few cases the faculty of the College has relieved seniors from further residence if all scholastic requirements had previously been wholly met. It was regarded as both unnecessary and inadvisable to release students from any part of their regular work after the spring of 1917, but at the same time it was thought that some advantage could be gained by con- solidating the work of the year. Accordingly, in the first term of 1917-18, it was decided to shorten the Christmas holidays by two days and to omit all other vacations, bringing Commencement forward to May 22. This program has worked satisfactorily. The efforts of trustees and faculty to put the University on a war basis have met with whole-hearted support from the student body. No objec- -tion has been made to the abolishment of vacation periods or to the decrease of athletic and social privileges. The several courses preparatory for war service given in the engineering schools have been well attended. The record of the number of present and former students entering the army and navy is necessarily very incomplete, as doubtless there were many of both groups who enlisted or were drafted and sent no notice of the fact. At the close of the college year 1917-18, we have record of 506 present and former students in the land forces, while 130 have enlisted in the navy. Of the latter, 13 were in the naval reserve and were allowed to complete the year. In addition to the various organized emergency plans of the College, many members of the staff have engaged in personal work as opportunity and time presented. Some of this work has been done at Ithaca in addi- tion to college duties, although the greater part has been performed during vacations and official leaves of absence granted for the purpose. When Governor Whitman appointed the New York State Food Supply Commission for patriotic agricultural service on April 13, 1917, he named the Dean of the College and Professor Maurice C. Burritt, the Vice-Director of Extension, as members. The Dean was made secretary of the Commis- sion and Commissioner in Charge of Food Conservation including insect and plant-disease control work. Professor Burritt had charge of the Division of County Organization and relations with the Farm Bureaus. REPORT OF THE DEAN XVii When the Commission was discontinued and its work was taken over by the newly created New York State Food Commission, the membership of the Dean and Professor Burritt ceased, although the University is still represented by President Schurman, one of the three commissioners who is charged with the field of food conservation, and Professor H. E. Babcock, formerly State Leader of County Agents, whom the College released to assist President Schurman. Professor Babcock was made director of the Division of Food Conservation. Professor Bristow Adams devoted his vacation in 1917 to the Office of Information, United States Department of Agriculture, where he worked out a number of publicity campaigns for agricultural production including that on seed corn. A number of other campaigns were devoted especially to aiding the efforts of the Bureau of Markets and the States Relations Service. At the same time Professor Adams was giving volunteer service to the Federal Food Administration in connection with its publicity work. He has contributed poster designs to the National Garden Commission and to the Boys’ Labor League of the Federal Department of Labor, and has furnished material which has been used in the Liberty Loan campaigns. Dr. Elmer E. Barker has been making abstracts of the literature of little-known plant products for the Raw Products Committee of the National Research Council. Professor George W. Cavanaugh is cooperating with the Federal Gov- ernment in maintaining the purity of the milk supply for army camp hospitals, and is also making chemical tests for the detection of possible poisonous materials in supplies for the Red Cross. During the summer vacation of 1917, Professor Lewis J. Cross was employed by the Federal Bureau of Chemistry as an investigator in the drying of vegetables. He canvassed the growing sections of western New York, and was located at Albion for some time. Professor Cross expects to be engaged in the same work this summer. The Dairy Division of the United States Department of Agriculture has been waging a campaign for the better use of cottage cheese as a means of utilizing surplus skimmilk. Professor Walter W. Fisk spent the sum- mer vacation of 1917 in the capacity of general organizer for this work, his time being divided between a number of eastern States. Professors Harold E. Ross and Hugh C. Troy spent the summer in the same campaign. Seven other members of the Dairy: Department inspected the making and packing of the butter supply for the Department of the Navy last summer. This work was largely done in New York, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. Professor Ralph S. Hosmer has been giving considerable time to the work of the New York State Wood Fuel Advisory Board, to which he was appointed on December 26, 1917. This board works in cooperation XViil REPORT OF THE DEAN with the New York State Conservation Commissioner and the State Fuel Administrator. On December 26, 1917, Professor G. Harris Colling- wood was likewise appointed as district agent under the Wood Fuel Advisory Board, to promote the use of wood fuel. This duty occu- pied a considerable portion of his time during the months of January, February, and March. During March Professor B. A. Chandler was engaged in similar duty, in cooperation with Professor Collingwood. Professor Arthur B. Recknagel was granted leave of absence from the University from July 1, 1917, to June 30, 1918, to permit him to serve as Secretary to the Empire State Forest Products Association. He is also a member of the war committee of the Society of American For- esters, whose duty it is to assist the Government, particularly as regards the utilization of forests for war purposes. Professor Paul J. Kruse left the College on May 1 to do vocational testing for the Government. Examinations will be arranged to deter- mine the degree of proficiency of mten who claim exemption on account of being skilled workmen. Professor Ralph W. Rees spent his vacation with Mr. E. H. nde agriculturist for the New York Central Railroad with headquarters at Buffalo. His work is in the perishable freight department, where there has been an abnormal loss of food products during the last few months which the company thinks is partly due to the tendency to overload cars in attempting to carry out the full-car program. Professor William A. Riley was a member of the sub-committee on Medical Zoology of the Division of Medicine of the National Research Council. Professor Martha Van Rensselaer was given a six-months leave of absence on March 1, to take the position of Director of the Home Con- servation Division of the United States Food Administration. This appointment insures close cooperation between the College and. the Fed- eral Commission. Miss Claribel Nye was given leave of absence to act as assistant to Miss Van Rensselaer. As Chairman of the War Emergency Board of American Plant. Pa- thologists, Professor H. H. Whetzel has devoted considerable time and energy since the first of the year to assisting in the organization and devel- opment of cooperative coordination of plant-disease control work of an emergency character among pathologists throughout the United States. New York State is making a determined effort to increase production by stimulating home gardening by boys and girls. Professor F. L. Griffin is state leader of this movement. Professor Edward A. White is super- visor for western New York and has visited thirty-seven cities and towns, conferring with superintendents of schools, chambers of commerce, and REPORT OF THE DEAN X1xX other organizations. Miss Alice L. Peck, Miss Nancy McNeal, and Mrs. Alice V. Crandall are giving full time to this organization and to super- vision of this undertaking among the boys and girls of the State by means of junior home projects. Last summer the Farm Cadet Bureau of the Military Training Com- mission established several boys’ camps in agricultural districts throughout the State. City boys from sixteen to twenty years of age were hired out to the farmers in the locality, and formed a very valuable asset to the labor supply of the region. Professor George A. Works spent considerable time between June 1 and September 30 in inaugurating and supervising these camp communities. The chief emergency work of Professor George F. Warren and the staff of the Department of Farm Management has been the tabulation of the state agricultural census. Much of Professor Warren’s time has been spent in giving information to various food authorities and investi- gators. The war work of the Department of Home Economics is described in the report of that department. Teachers in the military forces of the country The following members of the teaching staff of the College have left to join the military forces of the country either by enlistment or under the draft: Lewis Knudson, Professor of Botany. Y.M.C. A. service in France. Paul Work, Acting Professor and Superintendent of the Department of Vegetable Gardening. Second Lieutenant, 304th Engineers, Camp Meade, Maryland. Leonard Amby Maynard, Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry. First Lieutenant, Gas Defense Service of the Sanitary Corps, in France. Edward Riley King, Assistant Professor of Entomology. Aviation Service. Edwin Sleight Ham, Instructor in Animal Husbandry. Ammunition Train, Quartermaster’s Corps. Harry E. Knowlton, Instructor in Botany. Artillery Officers’ Training Camp, Camp Upton, South Carolina. Harry Hazelton Knight, Instructor in Entomology. Instructor in Aviation Photography, Ithaca, New York. Louis Arthur Zimm, Instructor in Plant Pathology. Coast Artillery, Fort Strong, Massachusetts. Edwin Fraser Hopkins, Instructor in Plant Pathology. Research Work, -- Ordnance Department, Washington, D.C. xx REPORT OF THE DEAN Lawrence Joseph Norton, Instructor in Farm Management. Camp Meade, Maryland. George Robinson Phipps, Instructor in Extension Service. Captain, Personnel Division, Office of Chief Signal Officer, Washington, D. C. Howard Jerome Ludington, Instructor in Extension Service. Ambu- lance Service. : Cedric Hay Guise, Extension Instructor in Forestry. Instructor in Ground School of Aviation, Ithaca, New York. Harold Deane Phillips, Instructor in Rural Economy. First Students’ Battery, Officers’ Training Camp, Camp Dix, Wrightstown, New Jersey. E. W. Lindstrom, Investigator of Bean Production. Aviation Service, Ellington Field, Houston, Texas. Progress in research The members of the research staff of the College and Experiment Station have continued their investigations with undiminished zeal. Many of these researches are of long duration, and the more important of these ~ have been mentioned in earlier reports. An adequate report of the prog- ress in research during the year would necessitate reviewing many of the long-established research projects, and limits of space forbid this. Suffice it to say that the conditions created by the war only confirm our convic- tion as to the high importance to the State and the Nation of the kind of investigations now under way; and that in the interest of the Nation they must be safeguarded to the fullest possible extent from the encroach- ments of war. The food situation created by the war has revealed more clearly than ever to our state and national leaders the fundamental dependence of the people on the results of agricultural research. The future should see larger public support given to such work. _ Further statements regarding the progress of research are made in the departmental reports included later in this volume; and the bulletins report- ing the results of investigations are bound as part of this report. The investigation of bean production Pursuant to legislative enactment, chapter 306, Laws of 1917, the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University has undertaken the commission of making an investigation “‘ of the bean production in the State, including the ravages of diseases and of insect pests, the breeding of disease-resistant or improved varieties, and of such other matters in relation thereto as such college of agriculture may determine.’’ For the purposes of this investigation, experts in entomology, plant breeding, and plant pathology have been employed and all necessary facilities and accu- REPORT OF THE DEAN XX1 mulated information at the College placed at their disposal. During the summer months the investigation has been conducted at a temporary field laboratory located in a bean field at Perry, New York. Records and observations have been made in all the important bean-producing sections of western New York. Considering the very unfavorable season for bean production, the experts have made notable progress in their work. There has been the closest possible cooperation in all the work, and the whole project has been pushed forward with the idea of finding methods of improving the conditions for producing beans. During the past few years snails have been one of the most serious pests of beans and have evidently caused considerable loss. These were therefore among the first pests to which attention was given. The first step in this work was to learn something of the habits and mode of life of snails, since nothing was known regarding them. Mr. I. M. Hawley has succeeded in finding the eggs and in determining where they are deposited, how long it takes them to hatch, and the number of generations produced in a season. He has obtained many other valuable data con- cerning the life history, habits, and distribution of snails throughout the bean districts. He has also been able to determine something regarding the losses caused by these mollusks. Many different substances were tested in attempts to control the snails and prevent their ravages. Spray- ing experiments with arsenate of lead alone, with arsenate of lead sweet- ened with molasses and sugar, with Black-leaf-4o tobacco extract, and with sweetened sodium arsenate, and dusting experiments with tobacco, tobacco and lime, and powdered arsenate of lead, were made with a view of repelling or killing the snails. Fortunately this work can be carried on in the greenhouse during the winter, and some promising mixtures for the control of snails are now being tested. Many valuable, data have been accumulated on the distribution, injuries, habits, and life history of the seed-corn maggot, which proved the most serious pest on beans in New York State during the season of 1917. At Brockport a grower planted half of his 1r2-acre field three times when beans were worth $10 a bushel, and then failed to get a stand. Other similar, instances occurred here and there throughout the bean-growing districts. Extensive experiments in control were tested during the season. Seed beans were treated with over a dozen different materials with the idea of repelling the maggots and preventing their attacks on the beans in the soil. The most promising method of control is shallow planting of the seed. This fact was learned accidentally, but is none the less valuable and needs careful investigation and trial for two or three seasons. Other pests that have been investigated to some extent are millipedes, leaf-hoppers, and June bugs. XXil REPORT OF THE DEAN The bean-disease expert employed in the investigation had had a previous experience of two years in studying bean diseases. He had already estab- lished the fact that dry root rot is caused by a parasitic fungus and that it is one of the very important diseases of the bean, and had determined’ from extensive experimentation that none of the common methods of soil disinfection or sanitation are of value in its control. It seemed that the method of control of this and of some other bean diseases lay in the pos- sibility of finding plants resistant to disease, and in the improvement of such strains either by selection or by hybridization. The disease expert and the breeder, therefore, have joined forces in work of this nature. A few bean plants of a non-commercial variety have been discovered which are resistant to the dry root rot. These have been crossed with the commercial white marrow bean, and the second generation was grown in disease-infested soil this season. One hundred and thirty varieties of beans and nearly five hundred plant selections, made the preceding year, were tested in disease-infested soil to determine their relative value and their susceptibility to the dry root rot disease. Records were made on all, and some were found which apparently resisted the disease. . Numerous crosses of different bean varieties were made with the idea ‘of isolating a good commercial type resistant to root rot. Seed from these crosses is being grown in the greenhouse so that the results can be tested in the field in 1918. About one thousand plants of a cross between the anthracnose-resistant red kidney bean and the white marrow bean were grown this season, in order to secure a white marrow which would not be susceptible to anthracnose. Connected with the above lines of experimentation is a great amount of technical detail that need not be mentioned here. In addition to the above work, the disease expert has studied two other root diseases of the bean, black root rot and Rhizoctonia root rot, and has found that they are of less economic importance than the dry root rot. He has also obtained records for a study of the relation of weather conditions to the prevalence of root rot, and is now engaged in a study of the relation of soil moisture and soil temperature to infection of the bean plant by the fungus causing dry root rot. The plant breeder has taken records on over five hundred rows (ten feet each) of beans selected for increased yield. Extensive selections in various bean sections have been made. A great number of exceptional plants have been found which give promise for improvement in yield and in uniformity. Additional selections were made also for disease- resistant plants. REPORT OF THE DEAN XXi11 Bean mosaic is a disease which has been prevalent in the State for only two years. It is already very generally distributed, especially on pea beans, and infection in many fields is as high as 100 per cent. Some bean fields have been abandoned in midsummer because of the disease. Badly affected plants bear few pods or none at all. The disease is infectious but its cause has not been determined. It cannot be prevented by hill selection, for seeds from plants selected for their healthy and vigorous appearance have developed too per cent of diseased plants. A strain of pea bean has been found which apparently is resistant to the disease. Tests of this should be made just as soon as possible. The work thus far done only serves to emphasize the great necessity for further investigation. Bean growers are discouraged with the low yields they have been getting, and many of them have stated that they cannot continue in the business unless relief comes soon. It has been found that the important problems are not of easy or quick solution. The apparent methods of attack of these problems require long and per- sistent effort, and this is being consistently applied. In the case of remedial treatments, the results of a single season cannot be used as a basis for reliable recommendations; and in the case of breeding, several genera- tions of plants must be secured before it can be determined that tvpes have been fixed. The work certainly should be continued on the same basis as for the current year. Staff appointments and changes On October 1, 1917, Bernard A. Chandler was appointed Acting Assistant Professor of Forest Utilization for the period of the college year. During the year Professor Chandler has been engaged in forest investigation work, mainly in the Adirondacks. From July 1, 1917, to June 30, 1918, Professor A. B. Recknagel, of the Department of Forestry, was on leave of absence, granted by the Uni- versity to permit him to act as Secretary to the Empire State Forest Products Association. During this period Professor Recknagel has done much to advance the cause of forestry among the lumbermen of the State. Extension activities in the Department of Animal Husbandry have been materially strengthened by the appointment of Mark J. Smith, a sheep specialist, as an Assistant Extension Professor. For the first time definite provision has been made in the Department of Rural Economy for the much-needed development of its extension work, by the appointment as Extension Professor of Rural Economy of James E. Boyle, at present of the staff of the Bureau of Markets of the United States Department of Agriculture, and earlier of the North Dakota Agricultural College and the University of North Dakota. He will take up his work at the beginning of the next college year. XXiv REPORT OF THE DEAN During the year Professor E. C. Van Dyke, of the University of Cali- fornia, held appointment in the Department of Entomology as an Exchange Professor. Professor J. C. Bradley, of our own Department of Entomology, was granted leave of absence to accept appointment to take Professor Van Dyke’s work in the University of California. The work in vegetable gardening, both teaching and extension, suffered a severe blow with the drafting for military service of Acting Professor Work, Superintendent of the Department. It seemed best, in order to take care of the work in vegetable gardening, to unite for the period of the war the Departments of Vegetable Gardening and Farm Crops under E. G. Montgomery, Professor of Farm Crops. This consolidation was accomplished last fall, and it gives every promise of being a happy arrangement. The enlargement of our facilities for the training of teachers, involving several appointments to the staff, is separately treated in the following paragraphs. The training of teachers of vocational agriculture a home economics On February 23, 1917, President Wilson signed the Smith-Hughes Act. Among the features of this law is a provision for granting to the States, under certain stipulations, federal funds to be used in the preparation of vocational teachers of agriculture, home economics, and trades and industries. The allotment to New York State for the year beginning July 1, 1917, was $49,714. Provision is made by which in four years time this amount will be doubled. The State must provide an equal amount, so that for the year 1920-21 there will be available from state and national sources a minimum of approximately $200,000 for these purposes in New York State. Within the State this act is administered by the State Department of Education, and this authority has designated the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University for the training of teachers of agriculture and as one of the two institutions to prepare teachers of home economics under the provisions of this legislation. Partly under the impetus provided by this act, four new members have been added to the staff of our Department of Rural Education. Professor William F. Lusk, Ph.B., M.S., came to the Department after several years of experience in the University of Minnesota. Assistant Professor Paul J. Kruse completed the requirements for his doctorate at Columbia University just before coming to the Department, but he had been for some time previously a member of the staff of the College of Education in the State University of Washington. Professor Rolland M. REPORT OF THE DEAN XXV Stewart, previous to coming to Cornell, was an assistant professor in the University of Iowa for six years; he had eompleted the requirements for the doctor’s degree at Iowa. Professor William S. Taylor came from the University of Texas, where for five years he was Associate Professor of Agricultural Education. He had been in our Department for only a few weeks when Pennsylvania State College offered him a position as head of the Department of Rural Education. This position Professor Taylor accepted, and he left on April 1 to take up his duties in Pennsylvania. It has been necessary to provide a course in farm shop work in the Department of Rural Engineering, for the conduct of which Mr. L. M. Roehl was appointed; and similarly a shop course in Home Economics, with Miss M. G. Ingersoll in charge. In cooperation with the local school authorities a demonstration depart- ment of vocational agriculture has been established at Trumansburg. Plans are under way to extend this feature to cover home economics next year. Summer school Previous to the opening of the summer school in 1917 the requirements for admission were raised. Provision was made by which those persons engaged in educational work were admitted regardless of previous academic preparation; others were required to have completed at least two years of work in Cornell University or some other institution of equal standing. These changes were made in order that this session of the College might serve in a larger measure the needs of teachers, supervisors, and super- intendents. In spite of the increased requirements and the effect of the war, the attendance increased from 382 in 1916 to 405 in 1917. The State Game Farm By act of the New York State Legislature, chapter 747, Laws of ro17, there was established a New York State Game Farm as part of the State College of Agriculture, to be administered by the trustees of Cornell University. Under authority of this act a tract of 176 acres, adjacent to the college farm on the east, has been purchased. Recognizing that we are at the beginning of knowledge of our plant and animal resources, this new educational enterprise takes for its scope the wild life of New York State and the conservation of all that is valuable on it. Beginning with the rearing of game birds and waterfowl, to replace in some measure these rapidly vanishing wild groups, it is expected that this work will be extended to the conservation and care of fur-bearing animals, of valuable song birds, of wild flowers and useful native shrubbery, XXvi REPORT OF THE DEAN and of every wild thing that gives promise of being used for the material or educational betterment of the people. All life was once wild life. Agriculture has grown by selection and care of the best that nature offers. This work is initiated in the firm belief that the sources of our benefits in nature are by no means exhausted. The object of the game farm is to afford opportunity for instruction in game breeding and the conservation of wild life. Breeding of ring- necked pheasants and mallard ducks will be conducted during the first season of its operation, and in succeeding years the work will be enlarged to include other species of useful game birds, fishes, and other animals. Emphasis will be given to the correlation of game breeding and different types of farming in New York State. Progress is being made already in stocking and equipping the farm for teaching and research. Instruction in wild life conservation and in game breeding is offered in the following courses: (1) the regular four-years course in agriculture, in which students may include among their elections the subjects that are fundamental to wild life conservation and game breeding; (2) a short course of twelve weeks (tobe followed by one or more seasons of work on a game farm) to give practical training in the technique of game breeding; (3) a series of public lectures given by experts in the various lines of wild life conservation. During the second term of the current year a series of thirty-one lectures on various phases of wild life has been given by nineteen lecturers, men eminent as authorities in the field. This series was made possible by the generous cooperation and assistance of the lecturers who gave their services, and of Mr. Frederick C. Wolcott, who provided money for the payment of traveling expenses. The Extension Service The administration of extension work was in a measure reorganized on July 1, 1917. The former Department of Extension Teaching, the - Office of Publications, the Central Office of County Farm Bureaus, and the newly created Central Office of County Home Demonstration Agents, were combined to form the Extension Service under the immediate head- ship of Professor M. C. Burritt, who was made Vice-Director of Extension, the Dean of the College being the Director of Extension. This organi- zation is administrative and functions as a branch of the Dean’s Office. It was thought expedient to reduce the number of five-day extension schools in the past winter. Twenty-nine were held in twenty counties, with a total enrolled membership of 993, an average of 34.2. These figures do not include visitors and high school students who attended irregularly. There were also held at the College, under the supervision of the Depart- ment of Rural Engineering, two special tractor schools, each of three REPORT OF THE DEAN XXV1i weeks duration, for the training of operators.. The first of these had an enrollment of 40, the second 37. In addition twenty tractor schools were held in nineteen counties in cooperation with the State Food Com- mission. These had a total enrollment of 1176, or an average of 58.8 per school. A partial summary of single-day meetings arranged by the Extension Service during the first half of the year show an aggregate attendance of more than 14,000 persons at about 450 meetings. Exhibits were sent to the State Fair, to the Rochester Industrial Exposition, to six county fairs, to the meeting of the New York State Fruit Growers’ Association, and to the meeting of the Westerr: New York Horticultural Society. The eleventh annual Farmers’ Week had a registered attendance of 3095 for the week. Special prominence was given on the program to subjects relating to food production and conservation. A demonstration car for instruction in the grading and storage of potatoes was run over the lines of the Lehigh Valley Railroad in seven counties, making 28 stops with an attendance of about 4oo. The available reading-course lessons have been classified, and bound sets have been prepared for the use of county farm bureau offices, granges, and other institutions and individuals. An effort has been made to increase the use of the reading course through closer cooperation with the county agents. Since July 1, 1917, 10,000 new names have been added to the mailing list. At the close of the year the total number of readers exceeds 31,000. Shortly after the United States entered the war and renewed emphasis began to be placed on increased food production, there came a great demand from school authorities for assistance in the development of school and home gardening. Fortunately, Congress made funds available through an emergency appropriation, which has made possible a marked development of the junior extension activities under Professor F. L. Griffin, State Leader of Junior Extension Work. Office of Publication The issuing of publications has been better systematized in the past year. ‘The war has made new and unprecedented demands for emergency publications bearing on the problems of focd production and food con- servation. A great number of these, mainly of the ‘‘ how-to-do-it ”’ type, have been published on short notice. The information service connected with the Office of Publication has kept the people of the State informed, through the cooperation of the press, of helpful and timely facts connected with the problems of food XXViil REPORT OF THE DEAN production and food saving. This service is growing more effective year by year, because it is absolutely removed from any idea of publicity but aims to popularize the results obtained where they are of benefit to the army of farm and home readers. During the past year this information service has conducted campaigns on wheat-saving menus, for greater milk consumption, for larger use of potatoes, and for home gardening and food preservation. A record of actual printings of its items as seen by the College shows that these reach the amazing total of 43,000,000 printings. Items seen by the College undoubtedly represent only a comparatively small proportion of the total. Office of the State Leader of County Agents _ War emergency conditions brought upon the farm bureau organization new obligations and a vast amount of detail, much of it government work, requiring immediate and careful attention. The bureau provided the machinery through which the various federal, state, and other public agencies chiefly made contact with farmers. They provided at once county clearing houses for governmental projects such as the census, seed exchange, supply of labor, and organs for cewpoehls expression of their needs by farmers. Fifty-five counties have active farm bureau organizations. “The new bureaus have come in with large memberships, and the percentage of total farmers belonging to the farm bureau associations has steadily increased from 11 in 1917 to 20 in 1918. Locally the bureaus have reorganized to the extent of changing from a township to a community unit organization. In each community at least one man is designated as a farm bureau committeeman. In the fifty-five counties there are approximately 2046 designated agricultural communities, with a total of 6101 appointed community committeemen. Of particular interest is the appointment of a special agent, a Jew, to work among the non-English-speaking Jewish farmers, of whom there are large numbers in the State. This is the first definite provision to meet the needs of foreign-language farmers in this State. Office of the State Leader of Home Demonstration Agents By July 1, 1917, five counties had been organized with home demon- stration agents. During the spring and summer of 1917, through co- operation with the New: York State Food Supply Commission and the Federal Department of Agriculture, temporary agents were placed in thirty-six counties. On December 1 the work was reorganized, the State Food Commission taking supervision of the city work and the College DEPARTMENT OF FARM CROPS XXiX taking the county work. Steps were at once taken to put the latter on a more permanent basis. An adequate expression of desire for a continuation of the work on the part of county women was first obtained, after which a representative, responsible, executive committee was elected, and community committees were appointed through which the agent could perfect and prosecute plans. The officers of the community com- mittees form an advisory council which meets at least once a year to report and devise plans for the coming year. Detailed reports of departments A more detailed report of the activities of the departments of the College, as presented by the heads of those departments, follows. FARM MANAGEMENT G. F. Warren, Professor of Farm Management The Department of Farm Management tabulated the state census of agriculture taken by the New York State Food Commission in 1917 and again in 1918. Many other States are this year taking a more or less complete census of agriculture by similar methods. Much time has been devoted in the past year to work for the United States Food Administration, in collecting and tabulating data on the cost of producing milk. The various agricultural and food authorities of the State and the Nation have called for much information on costs of production and other agricultural statistics. Investigation.— The demands for preliminary data from the investigation work of the Department have been so numerous that the work has been seriously interfered with. Studies are being made of successful farms, and types of farming, costs of production, and farm layout are among the problems being investigated. FARM CROPS E. G. Montgomery, Professor of Farm Crops In the fall of 1917 the Department of Vegetable Gardening was united with the Department of Farm Crops. It was deemed advisable, how- ever, to continue work until the end of the fiscal year under separate budgets. Due to the overcrowded condition of the Agronomy Building, the Department has been compelled to seek quarters elsewhere. Offices and laboratories are being prepared in the Poultry Building for the combined Departments of Farm Crops and Vegetable Gardening. XXX DEPARTMENT OF FARM CROPS Changes iu staff— Acting Professor Paul Work, Superintendent cf the Department of Vegetable Gardening, was drafted into the military service in September, 1917, and is now on leave of absence. R. G. Wiggans has returned to the Department of Farm Crops as instructor in charge of the field work, after a year spent on the teaching staff of Ohio State University. Robert Bier was appointed extension instructor in the: Department of Vegetable Gardening on July 10, 1917. Albert E. Wilkinson, extension instructor, and A. E. Kenerson, instructor, in the Department of Vegetable Gardening, resigned on April 1, 1918, to enter commercial work. Assistant Professor E. L. Kirkpatrick, of the Depart- ment of Vegetable Gardening, resigned at the end of June, 1918, to take up demonstrative vegetable-drying work for the State of Colorado. No new appointments have been made to fill these vacancies, due to the present scarcity of men properly trained for such positions. Extension in farm crops.— During the year the Department furnished a man for demonstration schools, giving work principally on pastures, forage crops, and culture of legumes. Approximately 3000 demonstra- tions have been carried on by the Department in cooperation with county agents. For a number of years some attention has been given to the problem of providing better sources of seed. Four years ago local seed-potato- growing associations were started in a number of sections. Last year the Department started a seed-corn-growing association on Long Island. Due to the war emergency, certain other steps were taken last year. About sixty fields of wheat were inspected by Professor J. H. Barron, of this Department, as a source of seed. When the county agents gathered at the College in November for their annual meeting, this Department proposed that a ‘‘Better Seed Committee’ be organized in each county, the function of these committees being not only to stimulate the production of home- grown seeds but also to supervise the selling and buying of seeds in co- operation with the farm bureaus. A seed survey was made by the Department in December as a part of the work of the Seed Stocks Committee. Relation to organizations— The Department has close relations with four state organizations — the New York State Potato Growers’ Asso- ciation, the Long Island Corn Growers’ Association, the New York State Vegetable Growers’ Association, and the Bean Growers’ Association. The New York State Potato Growers’ Association resulted from the work of the potato survey begun by the Department in 1913. At present there are eight local affiliated associations, in the following counties: Franklin, Oswego, Cayuga, Onondaga, Suffolk, and Oneida. Last year approximately 75,000 bushels of certified seed was produced, most of DEPARTMENT OF FARM CROPS XXXi which found a market at about fifty cents a bushel higher than the market price of commercial potatoes. The Long Island Corn Growers’ Association is located in Suffolk County. There were about sixty members in 1917. Professor Barron, of this Department, inspected their fields last fall and assisted in making the germination tests in December. The Association grew about 20,000 bushels of corn, about 12,000 bushels of which was considered as satis- factory seed. For a number of years Acting Professor Paul Work has been Secretary of the New York State Vegetable Growers’ Association. Since his departure for military service, it has been arranged that hereafter the secretary will be some one outside of the College, as most of the problems of the Association appear to be commercial problems of a type which the College cannot handle. There are, however, a number of educational problems, and the Department should keep in cooperation with the Association along educational lines. It has now been arranged to take up the work with local vegetable associations in cooperation with the farm bureaus in the State. It is probable that a large part of the extension work of the Department will be in cooperation with these local associations. The Bean Growers’ Association is an outgrowth of a meeting called by the Department in Farmers’ Week in February, 1917... Another meeting was held in Farmers’ Week in 1918, and steps were taken to form an organization. The final organization has recently been established. The lines of work to be carried out are not definitely decided upon, but the Association plans at least to keep in close touch with the bean laboratory of the College at Perry, New York. The first meeting of the Association was held at Perry on June 25, 1918. Extension in vegetable crops.— During the past year A. E. Wilkinson has given his time largely to extension schools and public meetings in the interest of commercial and home gardening work. He also carried on considerable detail work with county agents in the use of fertilizer on cabbage and on muck land. Robert Bier has given practically all of his time to home gardening activities since the first of January, working only with organizations since there was not time to give attention to special groups or individuals. The Department of Floriculture contributed the services of Professor White in this work. To reach the organizations in the most economical way a series of timely leaflets have been prepared, and these have been sent out every two or three weeks to a list of 600 persons. In the cities and towns, Mr. Bier has given most of his time to following up the work and holding conferences with the leaders. The following XXX DEPARTMENT OF FARM Crops brief statement of results covers the cities and villages with a population of over 5000 having leaders or supervisors; the larger cities may have two or more: Number offetiesess ...'...\\ Sane 2.0. 25 cee 73 Number-visiredehavine leadersemem sc...) fo. e eee 57 Horme*eardenmcaders: . .'.) Seaeeeeeee es. te ee 38 Schooltsandemfeaders.. 14 eeemreenee sec... Soe ee 42 Leaders seceiving federal aid?2 Son se os eee. ie) Veadensmecervinge state aid= eerie ee eee ee ? eaders receiving no recompense. (ee... ..e ee eee oe ? As an illustration of how well the cities are taking to the home garden movement, surveys have been made in a few of the cities to determine the acreage planted. White Plains has 223.37 acres, Rome approximately 400 acres, Yonkers between 500 and 600 acres, and Scarsdale 71.83 acres, with other cities doing equally well. Planting has been doubled over last year in practically every case. Surveys.— During the past year a bean survey of the State has been made by W. C. Jensen, who spent a part of the winter of 1917, and May and June of 1918, in the field. He has, however, been called to the army, and therefore will not be able to finish the work at the present time. A pasture survey was started two years ago in cooperation with the United States Bureau of Plant Industry. M. F. Abell, who had charge of the details, expected to finish the survey this summer and make a report. But he also was called to the army, and has placed the data on file in this office. It is probable that a report will not be made for some time. Investigation W. C. Etheridge has completed his study of oats, and R. G. Wiggans is now in the third year of his study with the barleys. It is expected that as these collections are made and classified the Department will establish a permanent economic garden. The beginning will be made on such a garden this coming summer. Owing to the lack of uniformity in the Department’s fields, it has been found impossible to make careful tests. It has now been decided to develop a series of small plats eight feet square inclosed by rims. Artificial soil will be placed in these rims, which will be used for making careful and accurate tests. The plan is to start developing the work this year. The last Legislature appropriated $1000 for the purchase of land to be used for outlying experimental fields, and it is expected that these fields will be located during the summer. Little work has been done with vegetable experiments, but at present there seems to be a demand for investigations on the development of muck lands, the packing of products for shipping, and the development of local seed growing. DEPARTMENT OF FARM PRACTICE XXX1il FARM PRACTICE J. L. Stone, Professor of Farm Practice There were sixty-five students registered in the farm-practice course, thirty-eight of whom completed the work. This is about the same pro- portion as in the two preceding years. The records of the Department indicate that those who drop this course are very likely either not to return to the University or to change to some other college. The work with the general winter-course students followed similar lines to those of previous seasons. An effort was made to adapt the teach- ings to the emergency conditions brought about by the war. The more important effect was to emphasize the teaching regarding the growing of the cereal grains for human food, and of the legumes, especially clover, for stock food. The farming on the college domain does not vary greatly from that of last year. The present food emergency and the high price of stock feeds has led to added effort to utilize all available land, so far as possible, to increase the output of bread grains, and to grow as much as possible of leguminous forage, especially clover and alfalfa. The general rotation, followed with some variations, is corn, oats, wheat, hay. The effort is to have clover constitute as much as possible of the hay grown in these rotations. Another attempt to increase production of wheat or rye and clover is to utilize as far as practicable the land not in our regular rotations in growing alternately winter grain and clover, thus making a two-years rotation with both crops emergency crops. The practicability of this has not yet been fully demonstrated. The present season’s crop areas, not including the experimental areas of the various departments, are as follows: (ADE Taal ce sins yen ata ks pent el del dei at hen hig ann a 59 acres Ot Oe ee ee tee 50 AN LVS Sn Matinee Rete Coons en esti Re ues Lid). tae 67 ESM ee aT ee re ee eet. 7 GRIST ey iN eR IIa dil abreast a ithe ade a a5 pRimiouknya awe Tdixed. cc. Re ees ee. es 73 ANIA Ms oF outrages. ill’ iat mare le aa 30 PALES ee eer. Se ee ee ene 24 LEGO Sin demituabe hcreenae-aanleh we cate ae seston dea Mae near a aba ae 2 GuictanGypease seam oo ee a ee ees 8 XXXiV DEPARTMENT OF PLANT BREEDING PLANT BREEDING R. A. Emerson, Professor of Plant Breeding Teaching.— The addition of Professor C. B. Hutchison to the staff of the Department in charge of teaching, and the consequent reorganization of courses, has materially strengthened the undergraduate instruction not- withstanding the decreased enrollment. Investigation.— The investigations of the Department of Plant Breeding have been carried on without serious interruption, notwithstanding the loss of several graduate assistants. This has been possible in part because the lessened enrollment of students has allowed members of the teaching staff more time for research. It is the policy of the Department to maintain its more fundamental investigations with as little interruption as possible during the period of the war. In no other way, it is believed, can the Department contribute more to the readjustments that are likely to follow this critical period. In addition to the genetic studies and practical breeding work already under way with corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, and timothy, studies of the inheritance of various characters in flax and barley have been begun during the year. In cooperation with Professor M. F. Barrus, of the Department of Plant Pathology, an investigation of the mode of inheritance of resistance to anthracnose in beans has been inaugurated. The production of disease-resistant strains of field beans carried on during the past year by means of a special appropriation gives promise of early results. Extension.— With the addition of F. P. Bussell to the departmental staff in charge of extension work, the extension activities of the Depart- ment have been materially increased. While considerable instruction in plant breeding has been given in extension schools, the principal lines of work have been: (1) the distribution to farmers of the State of improved strains of crops produced in connection with the experimental work of the Department; and (2) the helping of farmers to start breeding work on their own farms. In connection with the latter, numerous field meetings and demonstrations have been held. Instead of attempting to get a large number of farmers in any community to undertake breeding work on a small scale with several crops — work which could not well be followed up by the extension specialists — it is rather the policy of the Department to help one or two men of the community to carry out thoroughgoing work with one or two crops of importance in a particular region, with the idea that these men will be able ultimately to furnish select seed to their neighbors. Work of this sort with associations growing seed for other parts of the State is of particular importance. DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY XXXV BOTANY K. M. Wiegand, Professor of Botany Teaching.— The Department of Botany has for some years devoted special attention to the acquirement of teaching materials. During the current year the departmental herbarium has made substantial growth. The accessions include, among numerous smaller collections, a set of Newfoundland plants collected by Messrs. Fernald and Wiegand in tg1o-11r and donated by the Gray Herbarium (2400 sheets); a set of northern New York State plants collected by Mrs. Orra P. Phelps, received from the Gray Herbarium in exchange (1450 sheets); a set of plants from Wellesley, Massachusetts, collected by Professor Wiegand and donated by Wellesley College (400 sheets); a set of rare plants sent out by the Gray Herbarium (200 sheets); plants collected in 1917 in New Jersey, on Staten Island, and on Long Island, by a member of the depart- mental staff, A. Gershoy (1o0oo sheets); and local specimens collected about Ithaca by members of the staff in 1917 (1800 sheets) — making a total of more than 7000 sheets added to the herbarium during the year. Heretofore the introductory course in botany, course 1, has been an alternate requirement with Zoology 1, in the sophomore year. By action of the faculty it was this year made a requirement for all students and placed in the freshman year. Staff.— The following promotions have been made in the staff of the Department: J. R. Schramm, promoted to Professor; O. F. Curtis, promoted to Assistant Professor. The staff as now organized consists of three professors, three assistant professors, eight instructors, and eight assistants. Investigation.— All members of the teaching staff, as well as all major graduate students, are engaged in some research. This work is pro- gressing satisfactorily. Some of it will be ready for publication during the coming year. Thirteen titles are reported from the Laboratory of Plant Physiology, and twenty-one titles from other laboratories of the Department. Extension.— The extension work of the Department has been confined, as in the past, to three lines of work as follows: 1. Correspondence with farmers and others in regard to weed identifi- cation, weed eradication, legume inoculation, and other matters. There were 193 letters sent out relating to weeds, and 2500 relating to inoculation. 2. Distribution of cultures containing the organisms for inoculating soil in preparation for legume crops. The number of these sent out was 7500. 3. Lectures and demonstrations. A lecture on legume inoculation was given, and an exhibit and demonstration was held, during Farmers’ Week. XXXVI DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY Publications.— Publications of the Department aside from those issued by the University, which are listed elsewhere, are as follows: Some species and varieties of Elymus in eastern North America. By K. M. Wiegand. Rhodora, vol. 20, p. 81. A new variety of Triosteum aurantiacum. By K. M. Wiegand. Rhodora, vol. 20, TOs Weir The development of some exogenous species of agarics. By Miss G. E. Douglas. American Journal of Botany, vol. 5, p. 36. Recommendations.— Provision should be made for the appointment of at least one more assistant professor of plant physiology. A large pro- portion of the problems in the applied sciences are primarily physiological problems. The field for research is therefore very large, and there is great need that many of these problems should be investigated. There is also considerable demand for additional courses in plant physiology. The staff is so heavily burdened with teaching and extension work that it has not been possible to give the additional courses needed, nor have the members had time to conduct research which they are so anxious and well qualified to perform. Even if no additional courses were given, the demand for research and the large number of graduate students registered would indicate the need of an increase in the number of professors. PLANT PATHOLOGY H. H. Whetzel, Professor of Plant Pathology Investigation.— Research by members of the staff of the Department of Plant Pathology has been curtailed to some extent because of pressing work in connection with food conservation. As much work as possible has been continued, however, since the solution of problems in plant pathology usually contributes to a better understanding of disease control and for that reason contributes to the general conservation movement. Beans are subject to a number of diseases which are very seriously reducing the yield of this important crop. A hybrid bean having all the qualities of white marrow and possessing resistance to the anthracnose disease has been developed. A study of disease inheritance in beans is being made in cooperation with the Department of Plant Breeding. Bean root rot is being studied intensively under a special legislative grant made for the purpose. The. development of resistant strains seems to offer the most promising method of controlling this disease, and the work has been directed along these lines. This work is also done in cooperation with the Department of Plant Breeding. Bean mosaic, a baffling disease, has been studied, but as yet little is known of the nature of the disease and nothing of its cause. The first phase of the investigation of potato leaf roll, a study of the normal histology of the potato plant, has been completed and is ready DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY XXXVIt for publication. Work on the morbid anatomy and histology is nearing completion. Aside from the work on bean mosaic, much energy has been devoted to a solution of the problem of the etiology of mosaic diseases generally, of which there are a large number. No important discoveries have been made. Included here are peach yellows, cucumber mosaic, potato mosaic, and the mosaic diseases of a large number of other plants. Various vegetable diseases have been studied in cooperation with Rochester University and with the vegetable growers of Williamson. The former work has been discontinued temporarily by the withdrawal of Professor Jagger to engage in special work for the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. Work on the crown canker of roses has been continued. Experiments for the control of rose mildew and black spot have been very successful. A number of little-known diseases of cereals and forage grasses are receiving attention. Excellent progress has been made on two of these. Experiments looking to better methods of control of some of the important diseases of cereals are under way. Experiments are under way to determine the relation of the health of plants to their susceptibility to disease. Other experiments are in progress, under controlled conditions, to determine under what circum- stances fungous parasites gain entrance to their host. The effects of various sets of conditions on the development and progress of diseases is also being studied. A number of mycological problems are being studied. The most notable of these is a taxonomic study of the genus Botrytis and of the - family Coryneliaceae. The life history of a parasitic Eocronartium has been completed. Extension.— The extension work of the Department can be classified into two groups as regards source of funds — the regular extension work conducted under the Smith-Lever project, and the emergency work conducted for the New York State Food Supply Commission during the period from May 1 to September 30, 1917. Aside from correspondence regarding various diseases and their control, work under one or the other or both classes has been directed toward carrying out the following projects: control of potato diseases; control of fruit diseases; control of cereal smuts; control of diseases of other crops; plant-disease survey; exhibits; extension schools and farmers’ institutes. The work on these disease control projects has been conducted largely by demonstrations on the farm or in demonstration cars; by lectures at various meetings of farmers; by farm visits; by the employment of field assistants in disease and insect- pest control, who were located in the county for the special purpose XXXVili DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY of giving accurate and timely iataamne dion regarding control measures; and by propaganda to convince farmers of the desirability of adopting such measures. Demonstrations in the control of potato diseases, on potato cars or at farm bureau meetings, were held in seventy-eight localities, representing thirteen counties. Under the New York State Food Supply Commission, inspection of potato fields in order to secure good seed for 1918 was made by two inspectors in thirteen counties, and as a result 923 acres of potatoes good enough to pass two inspections were located and listed. Seven county field assistants were placed in eight counties, with the result that over 5100 acres of potatoes were sprayed more properly than could have been done without this service. Fourteen demonstrations in the control of fruit diseases were held in seven counties. Nine counties had field assistants receiving supervision from this Department. Five of these assistants were hired on funds of the State Food Supply Commission, and the others from various other funds. Eleven of the important fruit counties received some assistance from this Department. Twenty-nine demonstrations in the control of oat smut were held in five counties. In addition, two counties had the services of two federal demonstrators working in cooperation with the College of Agriculture, by whom twenty-five demonstrations for the control of wheat smut were given. Fourteen lectures, inspections, or demonstrations in the control of diseases of other crops were held in twelve counties. Fifty-two persons, from forty-five counties of the State, reported plant- disease conditions in their counties or communities to this Department, where the results were tabulated and the information was made available. By means of this survey the Department was able to determine the earliest appearance, distribution, and severity of the various plant diseases, and to direct control work accordingly. This work was done in cooperation with the Plant Disease Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture. | Six exhibits at state and county fairs, at state fruit meetings, and at the Rochester Exposition, were made during 1917. In addition to these a potato-disease exhibit was carried on the potato car. Work was given at thirteen extension schools, representing eleven counties. In addition to four persons regularly employed in extension activities, eight members of the staff assisted in some regular work. The State Food Supply Commission employed thirteen field assistants, two potato inspectors, and one stenographer from the Department, for plant-disease DEPARTMENT OF SOIL TECHNOLOGY XXX1X and insect-pest control work. The United States Department of Agri- culture employed two persons for the plant-disease survey and two for wheat-smut demonstrations. Various other institutions, departments, corporations, and individuals cooperated by participating in the expense of the work. Needs of the Department.— The Department is not satisfactorily housed. This has never been more apparent than during the past cold, dark winter. The light, needed for microscopic work, is very weak, practically necessitating the use of artificial light most of the time. The low tem- perature was unavoidable, but low temperature in a basement is not conducive to good health. There has been a steady demand for investigation of the low-temperature conditions of cold-storage warehouses in relation to the decay of fruits and vegetables. Fundamental work should be done first, but there are no facilities in the Department for such work. The initial expense of proper equipment would be moderately large, but the number of important investigations awaiting such facilities justifies the installation of such equip- ment. Much of the apparatus could be used to advantage in a study of the relation of conditions in packing houses and refrigerator cars to the decay of fruits and vegetables in transit and on the market. The value of plant-disease experts to assist county agents during the growing season has been fully established, and definite funds to finarce this work should be made available for next year. SOIL TECHNOLOGY T. Lyttleton Lyon, Professor of Soil Technology Teaching.— In the Department of Soil Technology a course in soil bacteriology was given this year for the first time. It is a two-hours course consisting chiefly of laboratory work, and requires as prerequisites general bacteriology and certain courses in soil technology. The instruc- tion was given by Dr. J. K. Wilson. Investigation under the Adams fund.— Work under the Adams fund is embraced in one project —a study of the availability and utilization of plant nutrients in soils under different methods of treatment. Data covering the experiments of the first five years with twelve lysimeter tanks have been compiled and interpreted. These tanks were filled with Dunkirk clay loam soil, each tank holding about 33 tons. The soil in certain of the tanks received an application of lime at the beginning of the experiment, and an annual application of sulfate of potash was administered to the soil in two tanks. As there was no pro- tection from the weather the natural rainfall was allowed to fall upon xl DEPARTMENT OF SOIL TECHNOLOGY and percolate through the soil, and the percolate was collected, measured, and analyzed. Crops were grown each year in some of the tanks, and others were kept bare of vegetation all the time. The average annual rainfall for the five years was 31.14 inches, of which 24.40 inches, or 78.35 per cent, percolated through the unplanted soil | and 16.96 inches, or 54.46 per cent, through the cropped soil. Thus about one-fourth of the rainfall was utilized by the plants. The average evapo- transpiration ratio for the cropped soil was 1: 580, the crops being maize, oats, timothy, clover, and mixed grasses. The average minimum transpiration ratio for the same crops was 1:290. The minimum tran- spiration ratio was least for maize and greatest for the grasses, while oats were intermediate. Although the crops were large, amounting in the case of maize to over one hundred bushels of grain to the acre, there was never a deficiency of moisture in the soil, which illustrates the great water-holding capacity of a well-drained soil. The data on the nitrogen removed in crops and by drainage water appear to support the idea that certain kinds of higher plants have a depressing influence on the production of nitrates in soil. Cropping the soil resulted in a conservation of calcium as compared with leaving the soil bare, as shown by the fact that the drainage water from the unplanted soil contained 180 pounds more calcium per acre than did the crops and drainage water combined from the planted soil. The greater removal of calcium from the unplanted soil was due in part to the larger quantity of nitric acid in the drainage of this soil, and in part to a greater removal as bicarbonate. Concerning the question as to the effect of applications of calcium on the liberation of soil potassium, the data indicate that in this soil there was no such substitution. On the other hand, applications of potassium sulfate markedly increased the removal of calcium and to a less extent that of magnesium. The removal of sulfur in the drainage water was from three to six times as great as in the crops. There was as much carried off by the drainage water from the unplanted soil as by both drainage water and crops from the planted soil. The application of lime was accompanied by an increase in the quantity of sulfur in the drainage water. Of,the sulfur added annually to the soil in the form of potassium sulfate, more than one-half was removed in the drainage. Investigation under the Hatch fund.— There is one project under the Hatch fund, the designation of which is ‘‘ The composition and properties of certain soil types and the effect of some plants when grown on them.” An experiment in fertilizing a six-years rotation of crops has reached DEPARTMENT OF SoIL TECHNOLOGY xli the end of its first rotation. The essential feature of this is a comparison of the practices of supplying farm manure or commercial fertilizers to the hay crops in a rotation, as compared with the practice of applying these substances to the grain crops. The rotation consisted of timothy three years, followed by corn, oats, and wheat. The soil on which the experiment was conducted is particularly well adapted to the production of timothy, somewhat less so to the growth of small grains, and poorly suited to corn. The experiment, therefore, is of concern to farmers on natural grass land where timothy is the leading crop, and is not necessarily applicable to other soils and types of farming. As between the practices named, that of applying farm manure or com- mercial fertilizer to the hay crops proved to be decidedly preferable. Not only did the crops respond to this plan of fertilization in the year in which the fertilizer was applied, but also the treatment resulted in an increased yield of one or two of the following cereal crops, due apparently to plowing under more organic matter in the form of sod. Response to fertilization applied directly to the grain crops was not sufficient to justify the use of more than very small applications of fertilizer. On the type of soil used in the experiment it appears to be unprofitable to use fertilizer on the cereal crops. Soil surveys— Two areas, Saratoga County and Oswego County, were surveyed in the field season of 1917. These have an aggregate area of 1799 square miles. These counties constitute the twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth areas surveyed. The total area now covered by surveys is 17,113 Square miles. The reports on the above-mentioned counties will be the eighth and ninth published by this College, the earlier reports having been published only by the United States Department of Agriculture, with which this College cooperates in the conduct of soilsurveys. Asa result of these surveys, coupled with supplementary investigations, the Depart- ment now has a fairly thorough knowledge of soil conditions in all sections of the State. Extenston.— The extension work in soils is each year becoming more crystallized along definite lines of effort. Methods of procedure are being standardized. All work in soils is grouped under Smith-Lever Extension Project No. rr. For purposes of brevity, the several activities are tabulated in the following form: Number during Topic the year Field demonstrations IDieniaeayee —= [fehanns Wats ite lene GAG clo on ao OOO See como Crem core aot 146 Rowen cditchinges machimeSar, aes + Ss 85 ciskoe ose sierra ae 4 Rodsrot trench dug byamachinesa, sas. 4 ori ie-uacenetners 125333 ime Is OVC OMIA TIES PTO N72. Mheea cede choy ctoescor tye <¥5 eye wih lapeh ay od edstenensiicks 235 eG EliZety—— Tee ORC OLMEESS pO Jearaive'.)2.5 alehey see ats wc: cucligeye sonic ei oherenaren ate 47 Wamtenancerotworsanicumatter. .cciete oem ts fc ane the ae ott ae eeeetae 9 xlii DEPARTMENT OF SOIL TECHNOLOGY Number . during Topic : the year Demonstration schools Number attend 6d... biAeiaiie ss epee REI iets reise «Soe ie lore ae 2 eee eae 22 Halt days instruction/given.. + 2.5. eee toe creck Seki ee cneeieanaeee 138 Number of schools receiving full week instruction................... 7 special Jectures)\—— Niawmbet songs rc .iaciclt © ORee IPR tats hin Cine =u eRe a ee 44 ‘Attendance: 2%. 0. Mee eee ota e en: eae 2,850 Special visits tovfarms tr.) eaae Se 14 Lesiyek Peeps ee ee oes oe eclenrie einer eee 51 arm i bureatlCOUNGIESHVASIDEC fyi .cucns ie euch Eee toe sie nee cic eine 17 (Correspondence — ‘Letters ‘written t?2. 00k .eeetee boe eit. oo See 4,006 Hormiletterse...nhe\ saa One eete Ector es 13 Circnlatione) Mia cccus ... 7S MS 12,124 Acamine class pupils (two numbers op esse. eee 1,442 Training school and normal school pupils (two numbers).. 2,812 Pirpils in rural/echoels (one numbers. v2. -.. eee 155,889 Permanent lists three muambers) i. 20.2. eee aes cee. eee 3,318 Junior Home Project workers (one number)............. 5,000 TRotalivee sis: ha cede wt. ea ee eee 204,401 There are enrolled at present approximately 24,000 Junior Home Project workers, distributed throughout the various home projects as follows: corn, 560; potato, 1716; home garden, 15,159; canning, 562; food, 1104; poultry, 768; pork, 1213; calf, 487; cow testing, 29; sewing or garment making, 1069; bean, 496; sheep, 178; rabbit, 7. Investigation.— The Department has cooperated with the local school authorities in Livingston County, and with the State Department of Education, in a rural school survey for that county. Professor Kruse has been in charge of this work for the Department. HOME ECONOMICS Martha Van Rensselaer, Flora Rose, Professors of Home Economics The work of the Department of Home Economics during the past year has been greatly increased owing to the added activities imposed on it by war conditions. In addition to the regular teaching and depart- mental work, each member of the staff has assumed responsibility for some service connected with the state or the national program for food conservation. The extension work has necessarily been — strongly emphasized, this being the readiest way of carrying a knowledge of food conservation from the College to remote parts of the State. In order to insure a more complete unison between federal and state programs, Miss Van Rensselaer went to Washington on March 1, 1918, on a six- months leave of absence, to act as Director of the Home Conservation Division of the United States Food Administration. Teaching.— No increase has been made in the number of courses in foods and nutrition, but emphasis has been laid on the wise selection, substitution, and utilization of foods with a view of conserving food, money, time, and health. The problem of the cost of living has been restudied on the basis of new conditions. Laboratory practice has been - DEPARTMENT OF HoME Economics lxi adapted to include the cookery of the substitutes made necessary by the rulings of the Food Administration. : In the clothing division, a considerable part of the work done was for the Red Cross or for Belgian relief. In two of the courses the students contributed practically all the material used. In one course old garments were collected, renovated, and remodeled, for sending to Belgium. A course in vocational work, made possible by the passage of the Smith-Hughes bill and intended for students who desire to become teachers in vocational high schools, was added in the second term. The laboratory is conducted as nearly like a dressmaking shop as is possible with the limited equipment of the Department. The work is done largely for persons outside the class, each student making at least one garment for outside custom. The aim is to acquire skill as far as possible. An extra problem requiring outside time was introduced in the millinery course for the purpose of making soft wool hats for refugees. The course on women in industry has been adapted to present-day conditions and problems of women engaged in industrial work, stress being laid on conservation of the strength and vitality of women and children in war time. The course in house planning has emphasized conservation as applied to planning the home kitchen in such a way as to conserve the vitality and the time of the worker. The course in design has been adapted to the present situation by emphasizing in house-furnishing the skillful use of old materials or inexpensive new ones, in order to make an attractive interior with meager resources. The study of costume design has focused on sensible everyday garments, and has included becoming combinations of old materials for war-time clothing. The extension course has had as its aim the special training of seniors to take up food conservation work in the State. Emphasis has been laid on food preservation and on the use of conservation substitutes, through demonstrations and public speaking. Lectures on publicity and the preparation of material for the press have been given, to open up other avenues for reaching the public in county-agent work. Cafeterta.— To serve only such food as was consistent with the rulings of the Food Administration has required much experimental work in large-quantity cooking. By observing wheatless and meatless days, and by reducing the amount of sugar and fat used, the cafeteria has been. able to save each month about 1800 pounds of wheat flour, 1000 pounds of meat, 900 pounds of sugar, and 500 pounds of fat. Extension.— The extension staff has been used in organizing and carrying on the campaign for food conservation. The number of extension’ meetings held was 251, and about 40,853 persons were reached. These meetings have included demonstrations; meetings with study clubs, 1xii DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS Red Cross, women’s clubs, teachers’ associations, granges; community singing; community center work; county organization; campaign meetings. Several members of the extension staff have given assistance in the projects of farm bureaus and the New York State Food Commission. Five extension schools in foods have been held in counties where there -was no local agent, to create if possible a desire on the part of the county ‘to finance an agent. The extension school has been urged less than usual because of the immediate pressure of other extension activities of wider range. Two instructors, working in cooperation with the Department of Rural Education, have carried out projects in foods and clothing during the year. Twenty-four new circulars for carrying the subject matter have been written, and certain old ones have been revised to fit the present war work. In the clothing project the children were given regents credit - for making garments to be distributed by the Red Cross and the Franco- American Committee for the Protection of the Children of the Frontier. The food work has been adapted to follow conservation regulations. From September 15, 1917, to June 30, 1918, 221 field meetings were held, with an attendance of 35,980. Ten fairs were visited and the project work at the fairs was judged and prizes were awarded. The total regis- tration in Junior Home Projects in foods and clothing on June 30, 1918, was 3920. The organization and follow-up phases of the junior extension work have been transferred to the Department of Home Economics from the Department of Rural Education. This has necessitated a larger office and more office help. Reading Course for the Farm Home.— Since July 1, 1917, the regular publication’ of lessons in the Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home has been somewhat interrupted by the issuing of emergency publications which could be quickly printed in the form of mailing cards published in cooperation with the New York State Food Supply Commission, and war-time conservation bulletins published in cooperation with the New York State Food Commission and the Federal Food Board. Besides the reading-course lessons and the mailing cards, which are listed elsewhere, the following State Food Commission bulletins have been issued by the Department: Wheat-saving breads Milk as meat and drink Potatoes for patriotism For the meatless day Sugarless sweets How to use wheat substitutes Seven commandments for buying the daily food Without wheat DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS lxiii Revision of the mailing list was begun in October, 1917, by sending out franked postal cards with a return card attached. This work is now practically completed. The old list, including club members, contained 82,605 names; the new list at present contains 63,461 names. In addition to this number of readers regularly receiving publications, 25,922 indi- vidual requests for lessons have been filled, 3179 of which were from outside the State. During the present emergency, more out-of-State persons have been enrolled than is ordinarily the policy; since July. 1, 1680 non-residents have been added to the list. Besides the requests for reading-course publications, the Department received and filled during February and March 600 requests for Food Commission bulletins. The largest number of individual requests for Department ti aca oa was 4995, in October. Cornell study clubs— Twenty-one new study clubs have been added to the list during the year, making a total of 258 with an average member- ship of 25. The clubs have been of particular service in the food con- servation work in their communities, because they were a ready-made nucleus for community interest with which the county food conservation agents might work. Twenty-seven programs on food conservation, with references for study, have been prepared by the Department and sent to the clubs as guides for their meetings. These programs have included such subjects as canning, drying, and salting of various fruits and vege- tables in season; the making of jellies; the continuous and intermittent methods of canning; bacteria as related to canning; the construction and use of fireless cookers; the wider utilization of fruit juices; planning meals, including meals for harvest hands; the making of meat-substitute dishes; the use of milk; the conservation of fats; the conservation of wheat and the use of wheat substitutes; the food needs of the family; the spring garden; and the preservation of eggs and butter. Special food conservation work.— During the year the Devartihent carried out, in cooperation with the New York State Food Supply Com- mission and its successor, the New York State Food Commission, a state program on food conservation. From July 1 to November 1, 1917, thirty-six counties and seven cities, with a food conservation agent in each, were organized by the Department, in addition to the five counties that had already been permanently organized. In November the organi- zation was taken over by the Farm Bureau and the Food Commission, and the program was left with this Department. The Department has planned, outlined, and directed through the county home demonstration agents, a state-wide campaign for the in- creased use of milk, in an attempt to counteract the diminished con- sumption due to the rise in price. A campaign for the use of other dairy lxiv DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS products has also been developed. A campaign for the increased use of potatoes was undertaken for the purpose of utilizing the surplus and saving wheat. During the summer of 1917 three emergency schools of from six to ten days each were held at the College, for the purpose of giving to candidates for positions as county food conservation agents some under- standing of the problems and organization of extension work, as well as recent information in subject matter. These schools lasted through the entire day and the evening, and were conducted by staff members who contributed the time from their rest, recreation, or study periods. The time of various members of the foods staff has been required for experimental cookery as related to food conservation. A special study of wheat substitutes for breads, cakes, cookies, pastry, and other dishes has been made. Uses for dairy products have been developed. The use of sugar substitutes, such as sirups, molasses, and honey, has been studied. Experiments have been made in canning vegetables with acid, preserving vegetables with salt and with salt and acid, canning fruits and vegetables, and drying fruits and vegetables, and with pastes made from fruits and vegetables. To encourage the drying of fruits and vege- tables, experimental work has been done on the cooking of dried products including the time of soaking. Special work was done on the preservation of fourteen varieties of New York peaches and twenty-four varieties of New York apples. During the preserving season the foods staff contributed daily two or three recipes for canning, drying, or salting foods, which were sent to the newspapers of the State through the publicity bureau maintained by the Department and the New York State Food Supply Commission. Since December it has contributed conservation menus for each day of the week, which have likewise been sent to the newspapers of the State. The number of questions on foods that come in daily from all parts of the State has increased greatly since the emergency began. These have often required investigation on the part of the staff. As a result, a food question box has been conducted in the State newspapers through the publicity bureau for the benefit of readers interested in food problems. As part of the work on conservation of fats, an exhibit showing ways of utilizing excess fat from meats was prepared and sent to the food conservation agents. During the summer of 1917 Dr. Harold L. Lang, a bacteriologist, and Mr. Newbill, a canner, both from the United States Department of Agri- culture, together with Miss Elizabeth Genung, of Simmons College, carried on canning experiments in cooperation with the College. They were assisted by Misses Bertha Yerke and Alice C. Van Scoy, of this DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS lxv Department. The purpose of the experiments was to test the merits of the continuous and intermittent methods of canning. About forty cans of vegetables were prepared. Miss Genung opened some of the cans in September, and the cultures were sent to Dr. Lang; the final test was made in March, 1918, when twenty-two jars were opened by Dr. Lang and Miss Genung. The results showed that the bacteriological contents were about the same in both methods. As to flavor, texture, and general - characteristics, there was not a perfect sample. This investigation was merely a preliminary step in an attempt to throw light on this many-sided problem. Community kitchens which have been operated throughout the State since war was declared were investigated by two members of the staff, for the purpose of gathering data which would help in the organization of new kitchens for preserving foods as well as those serving as cooked- food centers. Housing, equipment, labor and schedules, supplies, methods of financing, and disposal of products, were among the phases studied. In connection with this work, a community kitchen was equipped in the basement of the Home Economics Building for the canning of fruits and vegetables during the summer of 1918, by women living near the campus. For four weeks during July and August, 1917, two demonstration cars were run over the New York Central lines in cooperation with the New York Central Railroad and the New York State Food Supply Commission. Two members of the staff demonstrated the preservation of foods in season, exhibited equipment, and distributed printed matter. Twenty towns were visited, and in spite of the hot weather the average daily attendance was between 150 and 200. A demonstration train organized to help housewives in adapting their home programs to the war emergency began its schedule on May 9g, on the New York Central lines along both sides of the Hudson River. This work was carried on through the cooperation of the College of Agriculture, the Federal Food Board, and the New York Central Railroad. Demon- strations on wheatless breads and other uses of wheat substitutes, and on milk dishes, meat savers, and sugar savers, were given. Exhibits of wheatless breads, canned and dried foods, eggs preserved in water glass, an iceless refrigerator, a homemade fireless cooker, and equipment for canning and drying, were displayed. State and federal printed matter was distributed. During May and June thirty-four demonstrations were given, with a total attendance of about 3420. At the National Milk and Dairy Farm Exposition, which was held in May, 1918, at the Grand Central Palace in New York City, three members of the Department directed the section on the uses of milk as a food, plan- ning the general color scheme, furnishing, and signs for the exhibit. Sample Ixvi DEPARTMENT OF HOME EcoNomiIcs milk dishes were served, to encourage consumers to use milk more freely. Three demonstrations a day in each of four booths were given to teach the making of milk dishes. Squads of school children were served with model suppers of dairy products during one hour each day. The work was done in cooperation with the State Food Commission. At the National Food Show held at the Grand Central Palace in New York City from June 14 to June 22, 1918, a member of the staff gave demonstrations every afternoon and evening on wheatless breads, pastry cakes, and the like. Another member of the staff directed the exhibit of dairy products. This work was done in cooperation with the State Food Commission. It was estimated that 700 persons were reached daily. The bake shop of the cafeteria has given the results of much of its experimental work to the United States Food Administration, and it has been used as a laboratory to try out recipes for the Food Administration. Recipes for both large and small quantities have been worked out. The head baker has demonstrated the making of war breads in Syracuse three times at the State Fair where over 3000 small loaves of war bread were baked and distributed, at a hotel where approximately 2500 persons were reached, and again before about 4o institution managers. In Troy he baked and exhibited bread for three days, reaching about 3000 persons. He has demonstrated the making of war breads for bakers in Washington at the request of the Food Administration. Over 5000 small loaves of war bread have been sent out to the home demonstration agents for demonstration purposes. A course of twelve lessons was prepared for nurses of New York State to place before them the war food situation, the measures advised and adopted by the United States Food Administration, and some of the most recent printed matter on food and dietetics. The course was prepared originally for the nurses of the New York State Organization for Public Health Nursing, numbering about 250. Since the lessons were first sent out, however, the list has grown to 1316. The lessons were followed by a questionnaire to be returned to the Department. Cooperating with the New York State Food Supply Commission, special publicity work was inaugurated the middle of July, 1917, to place before the people of the State, through the press and through every other possible channel of publicity, facts and subject matter bearing upon the emergency food situation. Part of the work of this bureau was a course of lectures in journalism to students of the extension class of the summer school. A similar course of six lectures was given to the extension class during the first term of the regular course. With the discontinuance of the State Food Supply Commission the bureau of publicity was taken over as a part of the extension work of the Department, working in close cooperation with the later New York State Food Commission. DEPARTMENT OF METEOROLOGY ixvii This bureau has issued newspaper articles bearing upon various phases of the emergency food problems. It has issued also magazine articles and special Sunday feature articles, urging or explaining some phase of conservation. It has directed the regular publicity of the county and city agents, helping with special campaigns in such ways as planning exhibits and preparing press material and slogans for motion picture theatres. In cooperation with the conservation bureau of the New York State Food Commission, the publicity bureau has taken over the work of issuing to the press of New York State outside of New York City the news material sent from the United States Food Administration for redistribution. The material has been issued in weekly or biweekly bulletins to home demonstration agents, federal food deputies, and county agents. The keynote of demonstrations, lectures, and exhibits during Farmers’ Week was conservation. Special attention was given to substitutes for wheat, sugar, and meat, to the remodeling of old clothing, and to the fireless cooker, and a conservation kitchen was illustrated by a full-sized model with all necessary equipment. Outside speakers discussed health conservation, the welfare of children, and the food supply in relation to world politics. The Department arranged an extensive exhibit for the New York State Food Supply Commission at the State Fair at Syracuse. Recommendations.— It is recommended that continued provision be made for increasing the number of extension workers in the Department. It is believed that a staff of from thirty to forty trained women should be constantly in the field representing the various subject-matter divisions. METEOROLOGY Wilford M. Wilson, Professor of Meteorology Teaching.— In view of the increased interest, throughout the country, in meteorology in its relations to agriculture, the Department of Meteor- ology plans to offer several new courses. Graduate work toward advanced degrees, acceptable to the Graduate School, has been given in the Depart- ment this year for the first: time. Investigation.— The Department is now working on the climate of New York State and its relation to the agricultural industries of the State. Also, work is being done on evaporation, and on the effect of low temper- atures on fruit buds. It is hoped that when this work is completed definite information will be available regarding the various climates in different parts of the State and the climatic limitations of some of the staple crops, and also detailed information on evaporation and its influence on vegeta- tion. The results of these investigations should be of value to the farmers of the State. ixvin EXTENSION DEPARTMENT EXTENSION M. C. Burritt, Professor in Extension Service and Vice Director of Extension Administrative changes.— The administration of the extension work of the College was reorganized on July 1, 1917. The former Department of Extension Teaching, the Office of Publications, the Office of the State Leader of Farm Bureaus, and the newly created Office of the State Leader of Home Demonstration Agents, were combined to form the Extension Department under the leadership of M. C. Burritt, who was made Vice Director of Extension. This organization is administrative and functions as a branch of the Dean’s office. Together with the extension specialists of the subject-matter departments, it constitutes the Extension Service of the College. The Extension Department now has the following four main divisions: 1. General administration, including (a) finances, (b) extension schools and meetings, (c) reading courses, and (d) miscellaneous activities. The work of the specialists in large measure clears through this division. 2. Office of publication, including the editing of experiment station and extension publications and the general dissemination of information. 3. Office of county agricultural agent leader. 4. Office of home demonstration agent leader. Changes in personnel. Dean Mann and Professor Burritt continued to serve as commissioners of the New York State Food Supply Commis- sion until October 18, 1917. Several other members of the staff also devoted several months to the work of the Commission. On November 1 H. E. Babcock was given leave of absence to assist President Schurman in the work of the new State Food Commission. E. R. Eastman was appointed Assistant County Agent Leader on August 1, 1917, and on March 1, 1918, was given leave of absence for organization work with the Dairymen’s League. On July 1, 1917, F. E. Robertson and L. A. Toan were appointed part-time assistants in the Central Farm Bureau Office, and both were regularly appointed Assistant County Agent Leaders beginning January 1, 1918. E. P. Lott, instructor, resigned on December 1, 1917. G.R. Phipps, instructor, resigned on January 1, 1918, to accept a commission as captain in the United States Army, and C. W. Whitney, instructor, resigned on June 1 to enter military service. R. W. Pease was appointed assistant in the Central Farm Bureau Office on November 1, 1917. G. Hammond was appointed assistant in the same office on Feb- ruary 1, 1918. In the Office of Publication, Raiph W. Green resigned on January 1, and M. V. Atwood was appointed on February 1 to fill the vacancy. EXTENSION DEPARTMENT lxix Office of Administration Extension schools—%In view of the general shortage of farm labor, making it difficult for farmers to leave their routine work, it was thought advisable to reduce the number of five-day schools in favor of one-day com- munity meetings. A summarized statement of the schools held follows: INGmbeR OMSENOGIs MEM L.”.. . seca eee ae vis fe ss ec. 20 Opies FOACICM Era ta ya... i.e eee ae eee ees ee 20 TGebE]! WGA TRG des Bis ah hile aa ales i San ea 993 “Ais Bitd 84 S02) 00110 001812 pera crus pppmmrennaetnpiens ei yess v1 non 4 otek inca 34.2 iienest curuliment(aieAvon). |. .... 0200 a Dowest enrollmentsG@t Preehold).....0.-. 0.82) .2.020. 15 Highest percentage of attendance (at Phelps)......... 74 Mverape abpenGance per SessOnee. Sonn. dle ee! 17.4 Average number of instructors per school............. 2.9 Meavutivet schooliseason, (weeks)').. 2.000... 5. ove nee 12 Instruction was given as follows: eee FY RIGU eral CHETITSELY €. of. nc Anche fo betert e 4 we se 2 a 4 PMalitiiee BISA WOE 9. fe. Ae oe de dak. . FAs 2 oe 924 PMLOMMOlERys,..Ao. lok a. ames ote ag oe oes Ne o.- yea 2 | ANE Tales) TS ee et Ae, ian BOA oe Es ae Me eee 19 ere MMCCUARICS oo ote, . meee OE GO he es da Pee II RammMimanACemetier mt... 2 cee Foe ot Set oe oo. es oe 215 LESTER OM Seale Fy ASRS coir Ag adPasiog 9 at eam penemige 183 2 PUI SYRES GV, CoA AM cs ae DU UA ete gee alain Mint ali Ren go ne II AEE OTS ES GES. 5 aay ae RNa Relate a cn tain Het eee nail 28 RUS GME eee RA RO a as ot Oe od Mee ae Ae 153 SOE Ma oie BAe g Ae PE Oi apm peel egg iat le A Dye a ae 683 ‘Wh SRPEI-E | Saas Hi G21 Tent nte eaeeae OEE Sere ns nae nae 11g The accompanying map (page Ixx) shows the location of schools during the season 1917-18. In addition to the foregoing, attention should be called to the tractor schools conducted by cooperation between the College and the New York State Food Commission, a record of which is included with the report of the Department of Rural Engineering. With the larger growth of the farm bureau organization and the greater number of informal community meetings, opportunity is at hand for the further anticipated development of the extension schools to make them more advanced, so that they may continue to appeal primarily to the more forward-looking and intelligent farmers. To this end instruction in a given school will hereafter generally be confined to one subject instead of from two to three, presenting such relatively restricted phases Ixx EXTENSION DEPARTMENT of agricultural science as drainage, management of special crops such as fruits, beans, and potatoes, and the like. Some of these schools will be presented in courses of less than five days. The schools have always appealed to the younger men — farm boys who are unable to leave work on the farm for a full course at the College. Many of these have been called for military service. For the duration of the war, therefore, it is to be expected that the extension-school work will need to be more or less restricted, both in the number of schools ea ae 2 Eas i al bb 8 Eas eee DISTRIBUTION OF FARM DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS, 1917-18 held and possibly in the attendance per school also. The quality of the work, however, will be raised rather than lowered. Community meetings.— During the year extension specialists represent- ing eighteen subject-matter departments spent 2789 days in the field. This does not include time spent in traveling. Meetings held are classified as follows: 799 demonstrations, at which 28,028 persons attended; 999 lectures, attended by 93,504 persons; 1409 inspection trips and farm visits; 44 conferences, with 2491 persons in attendance. In addition, 248 days were spent at exhibits and conventions. A total of 125,432 persons were reached by the extension specialists during the year, and every county received extension service. Fairs and exhibits — The College of Agriculture was called upon to send exhibits to the State Fair, to the Rochester Industrial Exposition, EXTENSION DEPARTMENT xxi to six county fairs, to the meeting of the New York State Fruit Growers’ Association, to the meeting of the Western New York Horticultural Society, and to the National Milk and Dairy Farm Exposition. Because the building usually available for the state institutions at the State Fair was occupied by federal troops, it was necessary to depart from the usual type of exhibits, and the College cooperated with the New York State Food Supply Commission and arranged its exhibits under the direction of the latter. Departmental exhibits as such were eliminated, and a few main subjects of greatest importance in the work of food production and conservation were emphasized. Twelve departments supplied material for these exhibits. This grouping of departments under main subjects, such as milk production, potato production, and drainage, seemed to have many advantages and should be considered in the preparation of future exhibits. Exhibits sent to the Rochester Industrial Exposition related to fruit growing, as did the exhibits to the fruit meetings. The call from county fair organizations for exhibits was not urgent, as heretofore, probably due to the unsettled conditions caused by the war. The part taken by the College in the National Milk and Dairy Farm Exposition was in accordance with an act of the Legislature appropriating $30,000 to be spent by the Department of Farms and Markets in coopera- tion with the State College of Agriculture for the making of an exhibit at this exposition. The exposition was held during the week of May 20 at the Grand Central Palace in New York City. In this enterprise the College, through its Departments of Animal Husbandry, Dairy Industry, Farm Crops, Farm Management, and Home Economics, cooperated with the State Department of Farms and Markets in staging three distinct units: (1) a graphic representation, by means of charts, pictures, animals, feeds, model structures, and utensils, of the factors involved in the pro- duction of milk, including the raising of the calf, the maintenance of the cow, and the milk produced; (2) the actual manufacture on the spot of butter, ice cream, and several kinds of cheese, and demonstrations of milk testing and examinations for purity; and (3) demonstrations on the food value of milk, and the making of milk and its products into many articles of diet, which were sold to visitors at the exposition at a nominal charge. The attendance for the six days of the exposition was reported AS72190: Farmers’ Week.—The eleventh annual Farmers’ Week was held at the College February tr to 16. Although the registration was about five hundred less than last year, the interest was excellent and this Farmers’ Week was one of the best ever held at the College. The program was arranged to give prominence to the subjects pertaining to food production and conservation. Several lectures on subjects relating directly to the war were given by persons prominent in national and state affairs. Among Ixxii EXTENSION DEPARTMENT the new features on the program this year were two forums, one on the township system of schools and the other on the economics of milk pro- duction. Both these forums were largely attended and developed free and spirited discussion. In addition to the regular staff of the College of Agriculture, sixty-three outside speakers took some part in the pro- gram, which may be summarized as follows: ILECtURESEOIVEN sfx 5, i: det. yee eee oe hah re 293 IDemO Mei OUS ns. cerca sete, ccting nal nee a 17 Woundetable periods... Mice... watete < es aeene a 16 Congemmons and conierences, cus ace iene eee 12 Praerice WCTIOUS .2 ia. se 2 -pe acho ae nas cane Le ee 32 MORES. 3... > 4,017 487 12 705 17 50 Cattaraugus...... 6,107 1,063 18 E252 2I 95 Waigas es atts =< 4,785 564 I2 T152 24 32 Chautauqua...... PRASOOR |) tats eeto ttle eioes = I,000 13 38 @hemung. .-.-.-- 2,193 307 14 609 28 24 Ghenanyow. 35.4 22. 4,258 846 20 1,025 24 50 Glintone ses seus sis 3,608 143 4 253 7 28 Columbia . aS Leen aeate 1,050.28 Homenkicomm@amcs.....-c1. 0 PAN ee ae oe 62,760.66 Rural hconmomayee cs «22 ore hed te > 1,272.62 Rial PiGticati omen aye. 31 eee 4,826.34 Reiral Socials Organization: }:%° 0.0.) ht oe 21.75 Asriculitiral(Cneniste ye om. s\ 8s a 4c lakes 1,240.11 ID Sven y ahah ae Git Sh LO 4 EO CNA ee mi 123.46 IMMER OLOLOR Ys. Smee re Race tee te sce 525.30 eral Pmoinecrine 6.) a taetee tal tuto tse oe 1,831.56 Soil Technology...... Ege PeR MU ne Ueki ies 3,654.72 Bxtension Department (ones ences ke 12,779.73 Suiimer GOmOOl >. LUeAA ht. irene sk take 10,803. 74 ACcibional iishmietiOn.. Je: 5 oe ee 35,400.00 FINANCIAL REPORT Ixxxili Departmental expenses (continued): Investigation of bean production...... $6,526.92 Purchase and maintenance of game farm.. 13,893.40 ‘Si stl oP AG bed ests (1G), Pee en Hie tas 6 Sa SOE So 20 Administration and general expense: PAG@tISErALIVe SAlATICS 1 nes. os ee es 3 os $62 638.24 General administrative expense.......... 9,099 .38 Desi (C Col i are 2,520.65 SSTRE Ba ciSe OAL Ce eae eS 2,198.61 [Sy ISELESS LONE ECE ARCS ia Ae a a eee 3,076.80 Pablications Omeees. weheryeiis. Sec88 8,242.48 LLBEAN age A eo ea ee 1,446.37 erMeraeein GPO LC Gmc ip Pleas hie wits 6s ARO 9,484.15 ERO Seer yates fe ahaha st S2 bs 5,808.71 Fuel, light, power, and water..........: * 40,064.50 MOcKer ACCOU tb srt: Sis Itt .celk 22s Yoke: 66.00 E15 BURSA 13,977.74 Se ES 023.03 Matter pie een ees Adie Oe ee 2 ee Ree $960,043 .92 Smith-Hughes Fund, 1917-18 Receipts from the New York State Department of Educa- HIGMELCOILEUK tO TANS FUNG cco kn fee secre SRN I $4,900.00 PX MeAOIRUTES OP) UNE FOTOTS . 6 2..2. 6 2he ee wy He en, oes 7 5O0ns3 @yerdrartaliner 30, FOTS:..2 2:0 2325 28scee wee. ERS $2,690.33 This overdraft represents an advance by the University for the ex- penditures from April 1 to June 30, for which reimbursement will be made by the New York State Department of Education. State Deficiency Appropriation, 1917-18 Appropriation for fuel, light, power, and water......... +... $19,000.00 ECU CE LOR MMERON TOLD, j-. pra! aces ela sang e pe ores 3 Me Os 12,189.23 ipalancecumexpended: June 30, TOES? 225 34 oHa. Alea: $6,810.77 This balance is covered by liabilities incurred prior to June 30, 1918. State Appropriation for the Investigation of Bean Production, 1917 ES r ERRNO IROMs sar meee ph cfs oie AN PMO R hele oa Pesos eer! WEAR $8 , 500.00 Pependitures previously TepOrted 2. M2 causue et ne vn ee 888 .64 Blantcen ltl lOu yen. oo nee noe aes + ok ss eae $7,611.36 Expenditures from July 1, 1917, to June 30, 1918.......... 6,526.92 Balance dime= pended. Ne 40) TOTS: 2... es eds $1,084.44 This balance is available until May 2, 1919. lxxxiv FINANCIAL REPORT State Appropriation for Game Farm, 1917 Appropriation $2 cea cant.’ sx.) '. 5 SEAS at ee $15,000.00 Expended: Ber the: Tatiiweeweeta...'.). . <2 cae ew ah os $11,150.00 ior Penerali@xGenses. .. ..s beeen ee 2,743.40 13,893.40 Balance unexpended June 30, 1918................... $1,106.60 This balance is covered by liabilities incurred prior to June 30, 1918. State Deficiency Appropriation, 1916 Applepmamenr ees) .k .olarsacudus ce cs Se COU RE eee $55,910.00 Expenditunes previoushy reported. o.oo. ck eee nee 42,564.30 Balance unexpended. july.1, 19275. 34a ae ee $13,345.70 Expenditures subsequent to July 1, 1917, on liabilities in- curred prior to that date: Administration: General eye i peek een eee eee $585.91 Den S‘OMmee ss owes we re ee oe \ 83 .65 SectetaryesyOmce hed. estes, Meenas 4.50 Publications Offteetrt..2ets seagate 242.98 Businessi@iace: Jasretiunt seine a Rota5 Bneineerey@iice {o:. . 52 peeks boc es 205 .37 GHOUMES Ne Lo! oti Phe eee ee 1,089 .32 TCLs) Petes ORS gle A Ne Pug Rn Me 2,804.64 Aearii SAIAEY.. 20522 aon ne hs Aitieae oe 54.02 Desi SII! ise ao Woe ci eB ee eaheew eee 65.35 Poultay Husbandry... sft: “cl foci i... oe 671.25 nermomeyearmanxteies olka. 2 var, Bee ’ 6i.55 Marmv(Crops...3.¢- afi teaiees ie sneer ©.474 Beri TACHICE Ah) Aid da Seco e Sto Miatare Ae eee 1,244.22 Botany seme 23 r seme ee ee ee re 41.88 PioniGaltagend 25.5. 72.245 eee ee, 171.50 Dahideeape ATE) 2 72008: fee 40ane ee oes (125 78 iawn yea ology g...o 2's saree ae sac 73-61 Pom@locwe oe tien ssseis eit daen ee em 125.09 Wepetaietcardening 2.2 sui. «Olsen 198.92 Farm (Management '.c .2eurs. 22 pirltee 208 .69 Part IRE AM as cic t OK Ae oR ws tek oes Met aoe Hometicenonmes: = Ses. 2) STACEY aes 54.58 IRtralae conomnpiiesinass 2 cs Sahel ees Kees 37-41 Ipral education ee.tiin0 23002 4 oe ee 12.35 Aencuitaral Chemisery o. 2.034055. oles 17.25 Riutalinginecrmne -y.0 io > 4208s oe ese ts 86.64 Soll Technology): .>472505 «Pho te | Sores PE stensiongWOepartment.. 6s 24 Srnec os .n = > 542.51 9,177.41 Balance of appropriation lapsed................. $4,168.29 FINANCIAL REPORT Ixxxv _ State Maintenance Appropriation, 1916-17 PEAOprianiOms OT. PS. oo do ek. Sear eee. A Ln $018,326 66 Ppendituresspreviously reported + a4. os ded «os oe eee 497,952.82 Baanceunexpended July 1, 1917, oi. os And ogee $20,372.84 Expenditures subsequent to July 1, 1917, on liabilities in- curred prior to that date: Administration: SC ES Why Be tar Sch ch cay Se ei icp 0) cha ar arag $143.79 ICO Ry SIMIC hoy ge hand ohn ke 127.00 BUIStMeSSIOHICEs oc sclnisstelacetl et ae 197 .83 Publica tionstOmees 20 ..3.-0.4 62 occa. 16.68 HPAL St MICE ans int kad a ee ee oes 770.55 Lhe Seas okt Weis te ea een eae 179.64 mic SHAME Y = loo oy) ecpess de ohne 32.68 rn lielushey. et ates ns oe RS es TL /S6Cn 95 Oty. FIASWANG IY. meee. 5086 eco er ein ahead 254.10 HET ptrana Me Tet GCE SS Say. arsed we vais es: oe ape ots wt or eh ene. s 275.42 LBS CUTANEY £3 SR) S20 9 Mie as, ee a ea ee 452.105 JA oy Gr bilhel Sh ge ee, eae a ee MAb sy omar aleNS 18.43 OLCGEC Vere a Meas octane EAE ter teeren acnttes I44.29 [DANG Sica ye ests is Mine ne i ee Perea nee 200.20 leit ES GEO tte: Br io, ccuice iat Sear aedes tates ahs 24.86 AINE EP ARMOO RY, 2 2.20 db ahegersndhcren-s argtanenvber=\s 68 .46 eyo) OR ht Meh oles Manet gh Ay sehon lowe 289 .32 Vegetable Gardening. ». 25. 2.62.60. 98: 237.22 cite NEAR AREIMENIL <2.) ob... 's'bncp es hekee ds Bee 33-40 Devonti) BUSee 32h v8 2 Anas ee ese Pee meee ees Se 27505 EMO NIS EICOMOMDICS =. 5 sch a02 1.) 0.) oeheh es okay atens 38.48 1 St a2) BY 00500 9 315 aR eee ae ee 68.20 LS abnes lgl 2G ible 9.0) 0g Rhee ee a ee L7OL75 orc tural (HendisStry -s.22.l.c) eee ae 102.04 Pe emt OOO 6h Ueto g bend wAg ED ye: 9.83 INIGTHESOT 6D) ice sae 5 ee a 147.50 Retital Bre ineerii eet... .ir).t.\.%.).)xnere dare wia 151.70 rots RG CHIMING ON Olas arorcvas-ysndes) sed disscicbonevsasle 46.42 Pxtension Department. 2.2 0.0.4 ok. 525.79 Hees (elit Secs eerie Pavan Rede oot eo aac ea, 6,882.10 MNES 8s cin Figs thks srie Se Ste SR 44.44 Ga Te oe Balance of appropriation lapsediy saci) cf. 5 65-44: $6,624.58 State Maintenance Appropriation, 1917-18 dU) Cis ETICI eat re PRES ORS RIE: Bit) 6h Aes Fe ALE RSE a $709,651.00 Administration: Seles colhek Bh Ode AC ee et aie ene ea $1,005.13 OSS t Oe pe NES Heo Seuss Shs 845.98 Decretaty snes 7s) fete eee cH 1,692.55 IDUsineSSMOmICe Gs Ae arte GG 4 a [778.70 Ixxxvi FINANCIAL REPORT Administration (continued) : Publicationsi@itice............; ee $4,542.20 library aie so... ta ee 806.70 Engineer Si@mice), . 2... fad cb oadolesn 5,241.90 Gromndcieeere |...) ee see 2502403 Fuel, light, power, and water ...... 3) 1924),060 277 Animal Eigenamary. .\.. ... .cvee eee 11,869 21 Poultry geesbanary ;.. .. <2 na titgeae eto 2 227/107 Dairy MeSURYEe . oS oe eee eee 4,946.78 Pntomolsere rt <.... 628 As ok Ske pees 1), 250.287 aaerrnma@mims ria: . 3°. :c e LE ORE 794.16 Patina raeuiGe.. 2:4) Haken ese awe! 6,877 84 JEVONLZNCT VANS oie enn rae OMe eee SRE eee Oe T+ 8r@n7 5 rain IRE Wee 07 Cadden Me, kgs eat oe 2 ARLES PORES YI MY i Obes 2928s hoc MO Ee oe OE DEE 1,513-28 I ANAESCA19 CAM tia." ste as oe Aamo ahs 861.24 [Ed Zn GUM Bh gele\ hina t | Saneeeeaegee OME. aly Uae aimee oer W 803 .50 Pianta biOlogy acc ee! on. state ene 2. 128552 ROMOlOSN i eee ET ok cle een bs 2,606 92 Weeetahle Gardening 2. a Pee x Ty, 217 aA Bari, Management 5. -.0.06 0. ae [207.00 AB eater PS UHOA Urey it gc a8 seek oak te rm 858 .33 Plome HeOnomiess 4.2. bok h ae ce pee ow 3,222 t08 uta COnOmvgies, 2. 2,c1600 6 et aye ke ee oe 1,167.01 IRatal Education. 0: 64s. .2 20s cums 2,013 72 Rural SocialvOrzanization . 22. 7.85.5 e 6 Ot A Apricmituiral GheniShry 2... «fic. oo mek 860.71 Drange ete tan, ee ys as age Pale 113.62 Mieteorolocyaes shiic apis oc ode ede eek be 99.03 Rural Wnoimec#nrnes. 2 che saa ce poe ee 914.19 SOUS ReChnOlasy pean co hr ieco ares 2,203.55 EXtenstomeepariineniti... 6 sft sie cou ee 4,072 50 SUMIMIEHISOMGO) oo. nt. faa eae ey Wee 7,999.48 IREAAITS ca Pee sae aS: sae Bek Le 7,095.64 SSELATIOS, WM pi ge a Ae ty lon aN ead | Ce RAE 482,255.81 AGdifionaAbtnetriyCtion,..\ i. soe oc even ok 35,400.00 £638 ,444 37 Balance unexpended June 30, 1918............--.. -$71, 206.63 Of this balance, about $14,000 is covered by liabilities incurred prior to June 30, 1918. The following items will lapse: SUS soi Lik gs. 3 {DM an hs te ee $32,698.32 Additional instriciand adie. csmacetaleme alate eee 22,475.00 Ponti cent ey: 5. armel s Ins Oc eke e Bie ee ee eee 2,000 .00 $57,173 -32 oes IXxXxXVvii FINANCIAL REPORT ‘SoU JUOPNYS puvL Sooj JUIUIOJEISUTOI OgI‘I¢ BUIPNOUyT x zS"z61 ‘Org Le SOllesy 6S 661 ‘zg zQ’ 16€' cg 90° 600‘z¢ 18°69 ‘91¢ fr Lee‘eeg SPN PST OSE ti | ald RSE IED OA as i eo [e10L Porere cel etieentietts tN |iietnei irl | femerg sz | || esse enlec ile | eter Sai) 1 aera | ke ee ‘++ +*yoI}INy [OOYS JeurUNS FERS CA aE. Al (cee cacl aoe eee cal le ioceoecsocLo Drea 9° Leg't ‘quaizsedeq uctsueyx” fogie 9 o lostyE || cee eee 16'f0g [te ABopouyoay, [log 00°0zS 00°zg Cis OOM elie 9 [lace ss chon = *BULIQIUISUq [eIny OO ia. teen | OOM ly een ee ||e na REPO ee Lg°see * ABOOLOIzaTY eters aatevayen aie Denar Onan 6£°9 Fe eteeeeess 'BurmBIq sees eee eee ee ever ceeeeeeee oo SS ATASTOIOUS) jeinynousy sete eee ele ee coer ese eee es Sxeveceare cece OREO ECO OCHO CIC ICNOICIORUC ONCE gss totes" SspIO SWsTGOIg [eINy $6°9z ee . * K * oo'’rvI 00" g LI . zSI GL evere ou 6 8 evs aie ae uoryeon pA [eIny Dleteretetele 61616) sie a (f) se Ae0el ese 6) 86) 6 By | (ee ele). . . Oo eee Ch Oe Oe) COR OCR © G) 8)\p) 6) 6161167618)'0) © z0'o 2 LNA D COALS Ye 6X0 aC} [einy of 6gs‘s oS Ole oS £or‘z SL°g10'z% Criogvim — Vales: ssh sss soTMIOUOOy BUWIOF] Sz‘ ory 00° Per 00'Tgr Sz‘ re SOG Sele Ne a eer ee “***quoeseURy WIR 06° 002 00° Lz GOAT = ike inane eR ae Lg°oSt verses es s-BuTuepler) 91qejeso 00° SoS 00° gI 00° 11z 00° £Lz 50 ote A 7 ime AOI are AZO[OWIOg L9°9L9 6° ge 6S gbz b6°Lze (TROT ON 4 pre Rase | SEO G ** *AROTOUAe JUL S6°eSt os'€ 00°€ 00° Lg Zep il gees || ai BIC a “suIpselg yur] g 00° ZQI ES oo Le os‘iL YOR Meteo t|(PPBORR OC Le “*** qty odeospue’y oS'1g ee . oS ‘te 00° 62 1v'Sg O Ue OOD CCC CY Ia et a 4 AIysoloy oS’ 61 oS" 6£ oS 111 00°99 LOOT wei he wae ae sore ees amano, TST OO te een ui | Oa eo ee eich ; or r1Le‘t 09° giz‘z LE° 96S ROIS SA aR Pe Auryog S60 0 DOCon GIES WG TUDO OG W Se a cogonGon ll Soadodo Pode. ese ca cos eyereieh | IPeeraten er swen sic see | SgSop 0 [eect c rte eeee “+ -gorj0vIg Wey 00" gge 00° 06 00° 9€1 00° OST ASS OO} eeeeatene, of] ( SRO WOR OL ALO SS ‘sdolg wiry PeagOer cal Mem Lome me ae OE eoryeicie ss) elds OS 221 or Sz°6£g 6g°cbg sreeees * KZ0[OW0JUA 00° 0zz apaci 8 || Gapceoeaude || cG0GcuocouG. ||| Smasoowsdc Tag i||CeanteesPcreeyerete tee OS fir ‘* |) fe (eles aos eo. écraeree if) ?*0——0— OO c—0 0 — 55 OO zz’ LoL‘ ort Sg PSo'eezg z1'regv'org £L°oLS ‘gozg Lo'zSg‘etcg zi Per‘ org €z'Lzg‘161¢ CUETO TL Se Gi wat] a oma Aca [e10L go°1ze cQ°Sz SSO NAS 09° Lt9 69° Sov GUSCO UN Beeke aie ae **ABojouyoay, [IOS Saas = ee |l once Gace a sas sisi Fie tetevegenelel>. llw@gG ey Aik = (Sanaa manned ||(Sie ogDoce -+ + suoreonpy [esny og Sbz'e z6° Lge‘ gs ob: 7ss‘1s zS°€£g'19 11° LV6‘9S LOGO Svan Sen ellis act toes *SOMMUOUODY IUOPT 69° 6g of° 191 PP OO NW Koy? silo} 66° 0SZz zh" giz IS" Si BCE: OSES ae Se neoing wi1Py S1°£g 6L° Loo‘ brI°ogz‘I b6°066'T i Ig°990‘@ BOC Tren tet i |i ar 78 ‘suluopsier) 9[qejasa A 66° g3L9 pS’ 6rr'tL LE* £96 €S* gz1‘z ec LS*199‘I 96° 997 ayarehs) e's 0) 0 Bike 8 ele eee 6 Sue ABojouI0g vo'tr o£° 999 €£$" ges be0g9 see eee oe 19° 968 Lo’ £gz niv pe iaiajelel'y' rv eh eke *suIpooig qurid Lo’ t1 6z gz 6L°SE 96° zr sete ee a 02°96 9L- ov see ee seses "sss ssqayy adevospuey bz ger gi LzL L6°€9£ zbv'Sog ee eee ee eee ee 39° 869 PL 9g a) wileterete ODI EO AOE SI os GSE CON 19° Szv £g° Leo SL°S6g by oft 0 CoOnOLCH Cet ROR Ost) 06'grz‘I ¢S’tir CON & trek celery sree ss 9Ingnowopy Sg°6ee Ov Of€'T eee ae OV AO ota vE°oLg't z6'0 0g O£2‘T zQ Oct ORIEL POY OD I a eed, R01: Lops | 06° LS1I‘I bz Sgi‘gt SEN eerste fie atop t bi fve ‘or 1S* g6g‘z or’ SOS ‘er SEOVGo sees : “901970RIG WIRY Ig’ €1 62° SSE TODO |) Corsets or 69f 69° €z 6z° SE z1°o1 svacisKeheee eee ae 33 SCOT) SUING A, zg bis gS £bto'6 6g Sho‘ l PERSSON rae OS NW Ye CVO Mayon JR OPS VWOE +++ rpuegsnyy Aiyjnog Lg’ 991‘I o£°z£9‘96 09° LS6‘6g L6°g6L‘L6 baie hrs ee ie ch Ss €1S ‘6g zy sgz‘g Ie NO Sr a git *Aljsnpuy Alleq bz'vzo'z POMSOONO Ss litres SEO ON Loe Sfol oat {4 gz°6z6‘o£k 98° 6£9 ‘or ge gzS ‘zr Fo'19L‘L yews AIPUBGSnE, [BUIYy: SL £9 00°99 ads -=+ | 90°99 pace |beeobrox SOOO || carsesae S1°9S Ws sees ses squnoo08 133990] bg ger o£" See aN Cron |POfmsee fz Ly 10° Lbz SE: gzz Titi wae aI ise Nes sae “spunol5y PY ROSS dige= Es 6S 1€V't rere mece al (Oe LEY. 96° Pgg'r 2° ze ‘tr br rt OZ OLOT ea ls ak ‘a04JO S,jooursuq ed Sg SLe ec Sg’ Sle Sg°SLe gb: cst of‘ 11z Lo°zt sss = 99TIQ suOTzBOTIGng a 60° Let ae bee ei te. LOO VEST LS* 661 Z6°ZL QI zr Lv’v sorts sss |0TGC ssouIsng *) Slsusw le euate)e) 6 el6 63° 606L i 63° 66L 68° 66L 00° 00L¢ re er i ic 63°66 seen wees oa ““294JO S,ueaq zz 67g se: sil¢ Sg: LLi¢ oS Les¢g SS ag Se a ete CO Paton Cot 5 gz eseg Ppa ee th Ae SERS CALS) UOT} e1YSIUTUIPy sqyusunsedep sjyuowy1edap mates) g161 ‘of oun Iayyo 07 SuroqI Seo Ioy}O WO Leafs fife L161 ‘I Ajn ‘QouRleg E | suqap reso ese cages SN ee Aen Sp ieoen hati ec? oneen yeu ‘syIqeqd you ‘sqyIpetg eesti EO) ee eS CS anne gI-4161 ‘pung suneinong xc FINANCIAL REPORT Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station in Account with the United States Appropriations, 1917-18 Br: Hatch Fund Adams Fund To balance from appropriations for 1916-17... Receipts from the Treasurer of the United States, as “per appropriations for fiscal year ended June 30, 1918, under acts of Congress approved March 2, 1887 (Hatch Fund), and March 16; 1906 (Adams Fund)..\.0.50.8 (cis So. § os $13,500.00 $13,500.00 Gr. Abstract De ARSEIGIHIOS 6 toy 5 ee eee eye nee ne 1 $7,017.14 $0,708.15 Ta bora seer c,<3./.25.2 sae bhand oie eenee 2 3,208.80 1, 334-96 Publicaitonspac: < -.8 o id ae ae ae ee 3 237.00), 2. Rostageranadsstationery :).' cts: oe ee he Bae 4 166.93 57.01 Freight and express... eRe eee Boe 5 67.92 4.57 Heat, light, water, and power . Oe oe ee 6 23:60. 4 c5eeee Chemicals and laboratory supplies............ 7 128.22 501.73 Seeds, plants, and sundry supplies............ 8 336.85 244.50 LES ELT A ah siete eee Miata Sty Gg 9 62.65 143.75 eedingostulis: }).2 5.8 & ee xeat eae ae Se ee ee TO |... 4b.c0hee eee Library . igs Be CYA eee II 19.07: ~ 45 eee Tools, machinery, and appliances. NeeE ye Se ee 12 669 . 33 228.60 Furniture and fixtures....................... 13 13:49... eer Scientific apparatus and specimens............ 14 29.25 210.61 Lave stock.|:.-: Ae SR Ace ee ne LS. oe ae eee ‘Rraveling expenses:.<-.. 02.90.65. Wik tt Bee. 16 915.04 7.02 Contimigentyexpensess sckhe Make nee eee ae 7). sists. ge gece Buildings and land! ie. PST Ae eee See 18 606.71 59.10 Weta Ay Ge ieee re. ho ten che aint eee $13,500.00 $13,500.00 Expenditures of Smith-Lever Funds by Projects, 1917-18 $ Smith-Lever Funds Projects Total Federal State AGministrationy nOsghow se coe ea bike eee $12,186.95 $5,791. Pr $6,395.53 Printing and distribution of publications, no.1 1,014.38 T O14: 39) [a Be err County ascents inom 3a a Bane 6 oe eee 43,519.05 14,619.07 28,899.98 Ome EGOnOMIes! NG: Aes eye ie 5 one eee 10,934.67 10 034.677), S30 ene eee Extension schools and farmers’ courses, no. 2 7,964.60 6,464.60 1,500.00 Boys’ and girls’ club work, no. I9.......... 2,930.72 2 5930-72; ~ . Joe Rar manarement mor Sue ate ee so ee oe 5,596.64 3,330.00 2,266.64 Rarinvero pss nOsiOre nhs an eer rR ere ee 3,450.06 1,600.06 1,850.00 Bhtomolopy: moze Ste. ase ee eee ee 5,262.02 1,762.02 3,500.00 RPomology.Nowoasnercek: to cs Soe eae 1,449.88 1, 449288) | 222 cme Plant pathology: pmonQrrrs «0.2. ao ne eee 5,978.85 3,840.00 2,138.85 Animal husbandry Oe tO. 2 cca eet ae 8,133.42 1,133.42 7,000.00 SOUS tO! EL 2.5 ak weenie escapee roxotse ict peach ae ee 6,110.00 3,110.00 3,000.00 IHOECSENY? TO. 112g Pee eT eens ik, Se re 142.57 142570) sate Darrye sO: E23 te te eee eis bac ck er acres 1,550.00 350.00 I ,200.00 Vegetable gardening, no. 14............... 3,305.38 1,749.84 1,555-54 Ruraleconomiy, no. Smee cles cick seslocee 180.00 ESO700} ic... ace Ruralengineerne, Now TOs. sek cht «eae ee 2,705.54 1,205.54 1,500.00 Rolin 1010: 5:7.2,4-< ae Se SiR ore 4,636.99 3,037 .00 1,599.99 landscape art, o:'20) paiement eee Ngee 796.66 7905 00b |" 5". creme Blan tipreedinis 5inos 2 Tikarcieryer eevee Ae - 1,998.24 1G OOS 2Hiallb canoe tee GHEnSERY: NO: (22 es Seach or eee 296.25 206425hl how siete eee Home demonstration agents, no. 3a........ 4,670.19 A; 6702TOu|) aon aeene Unexpended’ balance... i... o.5 <2: he 214.78 107.39 107 39 Rete 5 Scien, 7 EE PRR $135,027.84 | $72,513.92 | $62,513.92 FINANCIAL REPORT xcl New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University in account with The United States and State Appropriations under the Smith-Lever Extension Act 1917-18 Smith-Lever Funds Dr. Total Federal State Do inexpended: balance fromel9Q16-17\....(2-| =. sce sede [PF bislje cece | oe cn c= ia Receipts from the United States and from State sources as per appropriations for fiscal year ended June 30, 1918, under act of Congress approved May 8, 1914 (Smith- WEMCIINCE) ten ete eerie hs ee cael oe As ares $135,027.84 | $72,513.92 | $62,513.92 Cr Abstract _BhGrirs 2102 eee a SA ae I |$111,831.62 | $49,425.09 | $62,406.53 ADO a ew cee ete eke steel 2 1,437.56 Ts AZ 7A 5 Oe |\Mdndetiee ets Printing and distribution of PiMeAtlOnSe ss tes sett 3 1,014.38 TOW BOe octets carte Stationery and small printing 4 3,559.62 BAS SORO2™ | iets cw olever este Postage, telegraph, telephone, freight, andvexpress .-. . 5 1,416.06 Tey 4 UGROGU | a ayetens sist eek Heat, light, water, and power Sra | Beto cere: |i eon cREIDRIIOR | MIG GeacaCortC CN SUL PES wee res rior alee os ob: 7 872.93 S727 O Sw lp eestte «exer MARAT Verne estes cote eats ot 8 23.15 CI NA Baca COGS eo C Tools, machinery, and ap- jo) aVeONs Anta apace rate Care 9 150.21 DROS2T Ns wee crs ere Furniture and fixtures....... 10 1,754.61 TA F5AROL ll ss ceeverrtoat Scientific apparatus and speci- 00(S aly Ae ae roe tate Raa II 611.25 GM6AG || savocomdscc Me TVErS LOCKER site aA ciate cr eenehs ct 1 Nile 3 kn ON he 4 Me Be Be ital DeREiNetrAckanS oc atravelins expenseSme 4. «=... «)- 13 12 £3007 T2: F3LAO Z|) 2H. eee tek: Contingent expenses......... 14 10.00 TOIOOT| ae cae Unexpendedtbalances.- 2. cle ae wo. 214.78 107.39 107.39 Mo tall Arete eto A eee ld hae se $135,027.84 | $72,513.92 $62 , 513.92 XCil FINANCIAL REPORT Summary Statement of Expenditures, by Projects, Showing Sources of Funds Used for Extension Wo-k Smith-Lever Project Total Coilege State County* Other Federal State Administration, no. 1| $26,223.85] $5,791.42] $6,395 53] $6,087.84] $7,274.00]........... $675.06 Printing and distribu- tion of publications, TOs ce pee ent te 2303 2:.53) | ti OUA Ol peters orld 537120) |obrdes weds $20,581 (25) ee County agents, no. 3. | 228,323.67] 14,619.07] 28,899.98 945.44 720.00] 1835230 .08]\- 29 se ore Home economics, no. Ve 5 ic eS See LAl,AD2. As7 KO }OSAO7F [ec.terem ie cies T,u50 00) — 25.327 250 leiaitaicie e/a etre aie Extension schools and farmers’ courses, RIDE Dec eye's of e+e I9,076.50| 6,464.60] 3,500.00] 4,304.10] 6,807.S6lo- 060. asa ene Boys’ and girls’ club work, no. 19 . SSS OROS|— M2 FOSON TS Otero icv ee] 2:3 tol cree lees 428'.93\\> 2.0% 2. oo ore sll eee Farm management, WONG acc eae Seles ois eee Farm crops, no. 6... 344150), 06] »*1;,600'-06)) | “Hi, 850-00)... fess '15, Fall oie ores cre ei]ic le ote we nin ono ol Entomology, no. 7.. 5 262),02| tekls 02:02) 31,500.00). + c.cle cs © all's tetoroe aise ell aieteleiarore a. Sul retrenaeeteny Pomology, no. 8.... 2,603.80| 1,440.08]. 5.68 oes 2 104. OL|\)* %5250500]| = :clee.s ic cetera Piant pathology, no. Qe eee Ss 7,340.00| 3,840.00} 2,138.85].......... Tp BOD X5 |e weve oo elton Animal husbandry, TAO SPL O ais feccits;'e.ce es cds 8,301.68] 1,533%.421 ° 7,000.00] © T68e26}icmee . sty allie atets - eee ene NOUS. MO. DL. ss, cece ef retet nena Rural engineering, TOMTOM snes eee ene tee 2TOD ASAI oe Lig BOSSA er Ml OOOO || ore,» era snue'o oll c.ckepohekatelsvensil toholea lato) oil atet=) anaai ts teann Poultry; no. E7 . 5. 6,142.90] 3,037.00 »599.99 BOS OL) | L200 ON croc apsie crane ieee Fairs, no. 18. : ARO WLS s, ce dn cesuar oes [isn cherete reuse Pia (ot i) ee CA Rr eh tS Ae cc Landscape art, ‘no. 20 706.66 AOOOG |e .-3 sto chedo ela leccioietete aod Boasaboacs| tac Ps Os) ch me ec Plant breeding, no. DE Way. h ie devotees byeve. LAOORZ2Al HEAOOBe 2A hs Atact. oye ciflere rem ne BRICKS) ISO oie's 0) (ot acandl o oletcus [so ouprcip iene Chemistry, no. 22... 1,296.25 ZOOE2 SIPs = tc eeckak ole ene : Ti, OOOWOO! cic vt cis oare ee eee = Home demonstration agents, no. 3a.... 5 pk22. 301 «A OVO e LOls acer none “re ahee ae 452.20 Tullieeee ec Total expendi- UES Na? ye ows $386,048 .84|$72, 406. 53}$62, 406. 53)/$15,121.94|$30,718.35|$204,720.43| $675 06 Unexpended bal- ANCE. We © ies eye 214.78 107.39 TO7)-, SOM so. Sone toseteks - SIRS Balhae Rie es [0 un) Fics eaegesie. el acej(0) i isgerelaiasalele ets als ualelice ye: ai MiaiiaiaveVe lai evelall seta ere wiaiaial its ace) etelieds-te .s)llelcuane:aials ie tui |lasavhy.o ral comics lttelete.ene.te Gals “suorzeorqnd jo uoly to oincroey of [Pere -nqiijsip pue suljulig P| ee |e een jane cS PRs 1S Bie 1 Sra Sort fo aba rice la Rava aea ky eek Site ean| (Meee heer ZQTOT frst fe eee eee Joqe’y 00° OSz‘Ig/0O° OOS ‘Igloo OOLg Jott ts: LI 109‘S$loo Sry |PSSof‘zglbS: SSo'lg]o0: og ‘eglee* EEE‘ zgloo‘ og0‘g¢ Slee Eee S| OO sOOO LOG tsi saaeaenan SOLIE[VS sur qae Suli20u -uapie3 AiIpueq ABo[O se AIjst BuIpasiq adeos Sey Aly[nog | Aurouosa -1su9a a1qry Areq AIYSIIOT s[Iog -sny -yyed PeYIsse[o soinzipusdx| -wayd yuri -puey [PINAY [ein -a39A jeunuy qurl[g ocas_cA_..———sssoOoOoeoeoeauanagasaa (panuyuor) syefoig fq sainjipuedxy jo juautE}¥}¢ Areurung FINANCIAL REPORT XCV Summary Statement of Expenditures for Extension Work by Items of Expense and Sources of Funds, 1917-18 Smith-Lever Total College State County Other Federal State Dr. MEE UNE LICE Ley FIU LY 2T1Gl on rey aoa ears reeaiealN easy 2s soaps ee oke [lors a) 0-3) oo eel | eestar neato neete [cattle eis cg caf Qe tetw + ast tase aane Receipts for 10917- io) SS ee $386, 263 .62|$72, 513 .92}$62,513.92/$15, 121 .04/$30, 718. 35|$204, 720.43] $675.06 T. BiyEOAlATICS ie «- 2-5 - $201 , 271 .82|$40, 425 .00|$62,406.53]........-- $3057.78 45958572185] \ ans ccee-e MEATHOR ET ote t cca eeé 22 OOS. OA ls AS 7250| sn aan ae POSTROS |S as ealaies tek ool ese Printing and dis- tribution of pub- NICATION hace oh 01 ii Oa T3203 ts OEACSS ete clcerectac 37S 2O| esa -oh shows severe ATRE STs S| eres : Stationery and Sina priming ees | Ts S5 ie 77) Se 550 OZ 2 2 $35 ,000.00 34,934.45 $65.55 $35,000.00 34,954.52 $45.48 $7 , 500.00 3,000.00 $12,000. 18. $11,981. $200. 200. $1,000. I ,000. $400. 393-28 $6.72 $200.00 193-90 $6.10 $200.00 196.50 $3.50 $5,000.00 4,665.08 $334.92 JUNE, 1918 MEMOIR 12 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS RECORDS FOR TANKS 1 TO 12 DURING THE YEARS 1910 TO 1914 INCLUSIVE T. LYTTLETON LYON AND JAMES A. BIZZELL ITHACA, NEW YORK PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY y fi B01 AOD. ra ae = were veka TRMEGS TC ey ti LOR Z 7 a Geline | a3 fii : ; 3 : | igen 6 | pice a. ak ‘ond mle? 43): O05 ao as ‘ 1 2 ’ tas tern snieiinacn RAG AMAY LT shh ; rn Sse WAU. £65: OPP 2aMAT s0% i, IVIZULIOME Mer OF Ofer ¥ | ae yi é (SRA oh RERREAL OVK HOT) NOTE INE ate Ni ; A ee t ‘ J a" ' , y ’ aol [oe & “a = i i ren - Alere Wat a aeeel g Weis TU) BECY WO OsHeLiews ea Vinwe | hy ieee j rau te ay 5 io : i Rs rae Al rare CONTENTS i PAGE Mem Wsimetersianduthelesreat MeN tis, «ss sree crstehertusrenavere eels tas © < d.s\le.o bve (ow! eieviat spelighavavele abate 9 Construction of the lysimeters.................: Pe seis ain a ae aes lgte ae eee 9 BU MERSOTIEUISE Cl par yearn ener earner nsec cn cere RM rea RIE eos Suv lo god verte ree See 10 MemnUIeran cRenvllLizensnUscclbere eae sce eos tee re me, reer ale sar eilard a bi od satel ete ees 13 SOlsineatmMenh ran dveropPIN@ SYVSLEMIS ss tas Veer enn. od cla. ve, cb suee epeeiaete 13 (COnmespondingetiel dypla tse wart es as Tae ae AMEN lone coc oshcne ushe sO ee ER 15 Pear aro Ete OL PCE COM tGD cates aoe acl celica ke ewes See ele ee ae wee ene 15 Wencenta senpercolavionvotnrainta ll wawciy se Noa cre tennessee too, Sia orera Seen 16 Experiments) by, OLHeLODSCLVCESism, Uacrnciats ee ee poke Vase helene a alec ne sete 17 Relation of flow to precipitation and season......... Bo esis aes Lis Scie ee 25 Biitechomapplications/ohlimeton percolation. «= 4222-22-44 ..s6-64--+ one. 7608 PA POP CSLAMUTizcvolO MED Ve CLODS Hemera te etlerset rene Pall revo en ates rsd snedsio. a diane eters 28 Other experiments on water utilization by plants in lysimeters................... 31 Sufficiency of moisture supply for crop growth................. Fn eee ee See epee 313) Removal of nitrogen from the soil in drainage water and in crops.................... 36 Relation of nitrogen removal in drainage water to total flow of drainage.......... Sy Bittectotenmeroniremovalolmitrogenies: ame 4 Joneses aes ais ores soc sen ae cis 38 Effect of plant growth on nitrogen removal in drainage water................... 40 Relation of different crops to formation of nitrates...............--.-+--++--+-+e2-e: 41 iRermmowell oF Galette s Beas aerate Steer bte re Ete ioe re CHE ic oe icoetrig CANOE case Alree ace NEM meer ae 43 Biecwormpluntierowth om removaliof calcium. -c- 2-2 444s = ocies oe ee 43 Bech otmlimeonsremovall oie ciuirnprsy ese see aeieeee ees eS cieyis ae 46 Hffect of potassium sulfate on removal of caletum:.:.(22:..-2-.-....-...--.+.--- 47 Rencentaretolrcalciumeumnhplanitsen siaciicntec el ae A eee See ee ccm ae A 48 Suiiciencyeorbhe himexappllcatloMerns ais tee cl acureee ec tia oe se = cent) Enso 49 PRE IOV AO LNA PTE SECT yy Pape ales cys Spates es ncaie teensy Sleuth a oe I) Oey Ovo a ashe eeiraveth deen Melis 49 Eftect/of plant growth on removal of magnestum....-......:./..:.......-.-+--- 50 Biecthiollimeoniremovalrofemagnesiume vase sae cic sna a aelae le ees ea 51 Effect of lime and potassium sulfate on removal of magnesium................... 52 RencenvareOlemarnesiima inp plang sca eaci ce a ate ees pee eae dae dee aoe 53 PIC MIR PRESUME TALIO™ sy awh oie) Je ae bey eevee ee es ees ate ts eRe ahah eae 54 ETON EEO DO UASSUULIME My ast steasiee par cae mika atye te ates oie cat ate eyes aces ap Satene rere aa ra yeh 54 Bieevoe plant eTrowthonsreMmovalmor potassium yor eis cte serie setae te ote et leet 55 Biteetoimimeonsremovallofspotassvum, pissce siecle cee ee aoe aeine litera ees 58 Effect of potassium sulfate on removal of potassium...............-.........-.- 60 FVETHTON AEG SOC IU Pre ey Sane ny eae en itinn aye, 5 coe cemine highs tae Pegg OR. cage ES), 61 Effect of plant growth on removal of sodiun ONE EG ae MeN Bee 00 cd ty on Leone caer Gs 61 Miechomumeron removal of sodtumesereae ye ae eae eee cirri cei 2 Bitech on potassium’ sultateion removal of/sodiums =. ..--25..2-545 4-255 -0-545-5¢ 63 Effect of potassium sulfate on total quantity of bases in drainage water............... 64 Oihenexpenlimen ts Onuloss!OlsOASeS es cola ceveieile sim eateries aan Seances Joke ae clare oe 65 Bagestimadramace water trom field soils: . 2. ermee series ee ae eee te ae ee ae oe 69 VEMO ceo Mastin wer panrs ee twee an nh Miers eee AeNcmsmc rea at Ma ete eisai Sisials ssiaie: ane = 72 Efecto mplantierowtihonenemoval at suliumeee esr) ee eras etter tena sie eek =) 72 Hitectoi@limeroneremovaleote suliunts sees siaeetcere coi eine. meters aise we sees esse 3 73 Hitech of potassium! sultate on removal of sulfur]. >.4.4.26-.¢.-+2+:--2+:-+++5-- 74 Other experiments on removal of sulfur in drainage water...................-5-5 ie) emo valeoiephosphorusen, circ snk ren em ote NO ESR ret ads ini ot asin 2a actin cums 78 STEMDDNETIRZ, & 5 cid cicha Gre orto ate ety MERE CON Gr cages oc oe ee Ree ee aE SEC 79 BH SHIC TERT ONS oie phoiore Stat See cr BITS Bota Woe AIO ed 6 hone Bs: Sic cntie aod he eR Pa 1 cre 82 BAD NCTI LUNA: efetares ose, slet'siev clove he aevel'e: oie: © sre eienagetetecnava rma aces etree ars co Ate eee ETE eco. Cian 85 i” si Piles sa ot Ty feo) eee? a { Fs £2 th : Mele t tevin at sa oe 2... hewn pond yherey ah v4 : : , - aveley Lihat wren Dil yw Ae theviay "4 Yu ‘soahere ha 3 orto wativ vel @ Winiaty haw obledigiw ey (+ well tem ltt tabla pag cee tamil, Ws wha Polly ee a Wee ee : va) ney a elgg, phat tees Gator ay’ wt \. ‘ : aA As Wey Carts Vr | oh pa nd 1a it hive Wf eer Pepeedgl lg Tips OF ee : oS BARe aie lence one ; . ter he Bae ne aw osm ievh ti Tietsin op oth Wi eee dy gelato ts peter OP Gas rhe ee / . oO out bar a tos | ere - : < 4 ip mie Tae olor ay iy wiry by ; meer ny Be ae, Gre, * ieee’) lester digs Alpe. qegly: . & vilen tole vitue te heen gia 1ek ty cncton iy devemae aw Senile ; inies ly lavas Matty, ried ary: VS Se : iat oe Peek Yo elt last ae wk rasan 1% er j ett Sa weal nay , ; i is, ca allon Beal peo? juke aul 1, - a gh > Mae to Lav austen wtiolwong dt , 4 ‘ ba Ftiluew id lev ony a . ‘inue ln Lay oes Aa alAVl@s Hie rnin t ' oyacdinh pw taki bo lero ae LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS RECORDS FOR TANKS 1 TO 12 DURING THE YEARS 1910 TO 1914 INCLUSIVE 5 yyw hye WOO ae re i ae We fee " an . if 26 i iw : : i ‘ ¥ i g i y J “« i . 4 ‘ ‘ ‘ a > . ‘ . ‘ a ‘ i 7a - 7 \. a 4 iT. A 5: y 7) f = 4 * a of ‘ Oy art) ‘Sb rd : eit ‘*: : have s b | V 7 * _ w s o oe BA. A ivy .o. eos fy i Ces ole er ee | ai. rer 1 GNAV) NIVU ANY ‘ASAOH AVAH ‘SUMALAWISAT J a1v1g ZI WIONATY LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS RECORDS FOR TANKS 1 TO 12 DURING THE YEARS 1910 TO 1914 INCLUSIVE T. LyTTLETON Lyon AND JAMES A. BizzELuL The experience of farmers in many parts of New York State, and also in other humid areas thruout the country, has indicated a tendency for the soil to become acid with prolonged cultivation. Land that formerly produced satisfactory crops of red clover gradually has become incapable of doing so. Both experiment station results and farm experience have shown that the ability to raise clover may be restored to these soils by applications of lime. The acid condition of the soil has been attributed, in part at least, to the removal of calcium and other bases in crops and in drainage water. The extent of the removal in crops has frequently been measured, but of the removal in drainage water less is known. The present experiment was designed to ascertain the extent to which, and some of the conditions under which, calcium is removed in drainage water and in crops from one or two rather prevalent soil types, and at the same time to study certain of the changes that accompany the loss of caletum. With this in view, the removal of magnesium, potassium, sodium, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and a few less important elements, has been determined, in order to discover the relations between these substances and to ascertain whether substitutions of one for another occur in the soil with release in the drainage water of the replaced constituent. Twelve tanks, the records of which for five years are here published, were used in a study of certain systems of cropping in their effect on the loss of caletum and the accompanying changes, and also of the effect on these changes of the application of burnt lime and of potassium sulfate fertilizer. Incidentally data were accumulated also on the relation of percolation to rainfall and of certain methods of soil treatment to percolation. ACKNOWLEDGMENT.— The authors wish to express their thanks to Mr. E. W. Leland for his services in measuring and sampling the drainage water during the entire period of the experiment, and for super- vising the cultural operations on the tanks and the plats. 7 T. Lytrrueton Lyon anv JAMES A. BIzzELL “a 6k} _—__ +" 264 /7 + — 3 ZL eae 2 ie G “ 6 “7 Fights /3°x/9 (7 ee ee ‘ 9/0" sie ee 1 | | | | 7 : | | I Il 1 Fig. 1. CONSTRUCTION OF LYSIMETERS Upper diagram, vertical section of tanks and tunnel ; Lower diagram, plan of tanks, showing location of outlet pipes 8 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 9 THE LYSIMETERS AND THEIR TREATMENT Construction of the lysimeters The lysimeters are built of concrete. Each tank is 4 feet and 2 inches square, with sides 4 feet and 3 inches deep and with a funnel-shaped bottom. There are twenty-four tanks, arranged in two rows of twelve each. The rows are 6 feet apart. Between the rows is a tunnel 6 feet wide, the bottom of which is 10 feet below the top of the tanks. From the lowest point in the bottom of each tank a drainpipe leads into the tunnel, where receptacles are placed to catch the drainage water. The surface of the soil in the tanks is level with the surrounding soil of the field. The walls of the tanks do not form the inside walls of the Skylight et 30° AM walls, ceilings, partitions, ord Stairs fo be reenforced by stee/ set in center of concrere / / \ \) Pp ( l6treads 10” 5 43 a = /Trisers 75 Ture! tloor to slope /'in = oh Fic. 2. VERTICAL SECTION OF TUNNEL, WITH SIDES AND BOTTOMS OF TANKS INDICATED BY DOTTED LINES tunnel, but there is soil between these walls which is intended to reduce conduction of heat from the tunnel to the soil of the tanks. Before soil was placed in the tanks the walls were covered with water- proofing asphaltum to prevent the soil water from taking up any calcium from the concrete. The tops of the tank walls are covered with sheet iron, which extends down the sides 5 or 6 inches to protect the asphaltum during tillage operations. The drainpipe is made of brass, lined with tin, and is 2 feet long and 2 inches in diameter. It is made large enough to permit of easy cleaning and has no bend. The tube has a removable cap on the lower end, and into the middle of this cap is fixed a steel rod which runs to within 4 inches of, the upper end of the tube, where it supports a perforated 9 10 T. LytTrLeton Lyon AND JAMES A. BizzELL cone. Between this cone and the sand in the tank, gravel is placed to support the sand and facilitate drainage. The cap, the rod, and the cone may all be removed if the outlet becomes clogged, but it has never been necessary to do this. From the lower side of the drainage tube a smaller tube projects, and over this is drawn a rubber tube to conduct the water to the receptacles in the tunnel. The drainage. water is caught in galvanized iron cylinders, of which there are two for each tank. One cylinder has a side tube near the top which fits into a hole in the one next it, so that when the first cylinder becomes full the water may flow into the rp other. The cylinders are of such a diameter that sf af each centimeter in depth represents 800 cubic centi- : $ rH a meters of volume, and each cylinder holds about 3 ua 2. 60 liters. The drainage is measured by running a . g e = meter stick into the cylinder and measuring the ts ett rn height of the water. The volume is then easily ren =|] \§ u computed by multiplying the number of centimeters >| | AA of depth by 800, to get the number of cubic centi- ; yz aN meters. An aliquot sample is then removed and 2 | the remainder of the water is allowed to run off thru a faucet in the bottom of the cylinder. The waste water is conducted by gutters in the tunnel to drains Pi) . . . N it which carry it away. The samples for analysis are 89 = f : : ; . A 3 placed in milk cans lined with paraffin. An anti- 38 3 . - . a . septic is always kept in these sample cans. a | oc The soil used Tanks 1 to 12, which were the ones used in this experiment, were filled during the summer of 1909 with soil from Caldwell Field on the university farm, the soil being excavated to a depth of 4 feet in layers of 1 foot. These layers were placed in the tanks in the order in which they were present in the field, the funnel-shaped bottom having previously been filled with sand. In each tank 33 tons of soil was placed, being tamped Fic. 3. VERTICAL SEC- TION OF DRAINPIPE 170) oowds Sty} UL OPBMNUIMII osTMAOYYO FYATUL yrY} 10}BM UIRI OY] OAOUIOL OF DATOS Soft] UTBIP OY, “SyUWB} oYy Jo osoy} PUB [oUUN] oY} Jo ST[BM ayy WooMJoq [IOS JoJ ooNdS oY, SMOYS UOTRIYSNTT OY, NOTLONULSNOD YUAAND SUALANISAT IJ @uvig Gl wlowayy LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 11 down during the process. It was unnecessary to dispose of stones as there were none in the soil. After the bottom 2 feet of soil had been placed in the tanks, 60 gallons of water was run into each to settle the contents. When the tanks were filled, the soil came to within 3 inches of the tops. There has been very little settling in the cropped tanks, but those that were kept free of vegetation have sunk 2 or 3 inches. As the average weight of soil in a tank was 7133 pounds and the volume occupied was about 74 cubic feet, the weight per cubic foot of the moist soil was about 96.4 pounds. The average weight of each foot of soi! placed in the tanks, and the moisture content, are given in table 1: TABLE 1. Averace Weteut oF Eacu Twetve-Incu Layer oF Soin In Tanks, AND ITS MoisturE CoNTENT First Second Third Fourth foot foot foot foot Weight of moist soil (in pounds)...... 1,700 1,768 1,883 1,792 Moisture in soil (in per cent of dry soil) 16.6 15 17.9 20H: Weight of dry soil (in pounds) ........ 1,458 Poo 1597 1,492 Weight of dry soil per acre foot (in POUT S) eae Besice od oRURPY Yl db agva ge 3,645,000 |3,827,500 |3,992,500 |3,710,000 The soil has been classified by the United States Soil Survey as Dunkirk clay loam. A statement of the mechanical analysis of the soil placed in the tanks is contained in table 2. It is a heavy, compact soil, and requires careful management in the field to keep it from puddling. How- TABLE 2. Mecuanicat Composition oF Sort In Frevp From WuicH Tanks 1 To 12 WERE FILLED ie : First Second Third Fourth Kind of soil foot foot foot foot (per cent) | (per cent) | (per cent) | (per cent) Binegeravelirebe 20) scar seen AMET cite ni ste 0.40 0.13 0.07 0.08 @oarsersande taste daes tit eres here ae Pah 0.63 0.37 0.27 0.18 MecliTsSANG eyes «2285, eee 8 es, Wa rede cieSS: 0.83 0.52 0.33 0.28 BING SATIC te Hepa eee ew . ce eee Leena bs ASE 1.85 1.05 1.05 1.10 WMerlvalinieshanGkary our .yser-- cea tere oo tae . 12.90 Ih Pay 1.25 5.18 Selliti 5 Cds pth ARO ee me eer eine & 60.83 53.95 52.42 56.50 Oley Ars Sa oie: ek. tee tes SED they 2 22.63 O22 38 .62 36.67 II 12 T. LyTTLeton Lyon AND JAMES A. BIZZELL ever, during the five-years period embraced by these experiments there has been no stoppage of the outlets nor failure of the soil to drain properly. The drainage water has usually come thru entirely free from sediment. Only in the springtime, when the soil is thawing, has there been any tend- ency for the soil particles to come thru the pipes. The chemical composition of the soil piaced in tanks 1 to 12, as determined by averaging the results of the analysis of six samples, is given in table 3. These were bulk analyses. The methods of making them are stated in the appendix, pages 85 to 87. TABLE 3. CuemicaL ANALYSIS OF SoiL PLACED IN TANKs 1 To 12 First Second Third Fourth Constituents determined ree foot foot ae INTino wenn (peLiCeNt) a. seeis eee ee eee 0.134 0.062 0.064 0.054 Organic carbon (per. cent)-~..--.-...2---2--- 1.190 0.300 0.150 0.140 @alciumyroxide (per cent)/'. 3.) a= a-ee y eeee 0.340 0.280 0.490 1.530 Magnesium oxide (per cent)................ 0.350 0.450 0.530 0.590 Potassium oxide (per cent)................. 1.830 2.360 2.610 2.480 Sodium oxide (per cent)........ UR 0.860 0.860 0.760 0.820 Phosphoric anhydride (per cent)............. 0.084 0.079 0.110 0.131 Sulturstrioxide (per’cent);... see e es eee 0.084 0.053 0.055 0.054 Carbon dioxide (per cent)................... 0.030 0.020 0.050 2.680 Lime requirement (CaO in parts per million). .|1 , 222 1,285 516 0 Lime requirement (CaO in pounds peracre foot*)|4, 454 4,918 2,060 0 * Calculated from weights of soil given in table 1. The soil consists of glacial material reworked by streams and redeposited from glacial lakes. Owing to its sedimentary origin it is comparatively free from stones; the mass of soil used for this experiment contained no stones. In the production of crops the soil responds well to applications of manure and to commercial fertilizers. It is also benefited by lime. Its degree of responsiveness to lime is expressed by the fact that it will raise a fair crop of red clover without the addition of lime, but alfalfa is a practical failure when no lime has been applied. The crops to which this soil is best suited are the small grains, particularly wheat, and such grasses as timothy and bluegrass. Timothy responds remarkably well to fertilizers on this soil. Maize and potatoes are not very successfully produced as the soil is too heavy for crops of that kind. 12 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS “B Manure and fertilizers used Farm manure was applied twice to the soil in each of the twelve tanks, the unplanted soil receiving the same treatment as the cropped. Each application was at the rate of ten tons to the acre. The first application was made in the spring of 1910, before the first crop was planted, and the second in the spring of 1914. The analyses of the manure are given in table 4: TABLE 4. Composition oF Farm Manure APPLIED TO THE SOIL IN Tanks 1 To 12 Manure applied in 1910 Manure applied in 1914 Constituents SNe Percentage Pounds Percentage Pounds composition per acre composition per acre rsvarnaiternr: ster. e25o6 tsk nv 5)3 aes 76.72 15,344 77.44 15,488 INRTRORD Swe o.oo eran BOe oR RSI 0.61 122 0.42 84 Phosphoric anhydride.........:... 0.41 82 0.24 48 SECULAR OE 2 Ree S caecesese Ghetto teen cee] | aren ateee eee 0.19 38 IRGEASSIMMMMORIGE:, «4-522 = os oes 0.77 154 0.45 90 Calclumoxide: at asco. ek. 5 0.48 96 0.64 128 MViereE SHUT O RIGA ae egsey ere os ys twee ode aoe) [labtato eee ce 0.22 44 The sulfate of potash applied annually to tanks 11 and 12 during the years 1910 to 1912 contained 51.63 per cent of K,O, and that applied in 1913 and 1914 contained 51.42 per cent of K.O. The burnt lime, of which only one application was made, contained 91.95 per cent of CaO and a trace only of MgO. Soil treatment and cropping systems As previously stated, the tanks were all filled with soil in the summer of 1909. This operation occupied most of the summer, and no tanks were planted that year except tank 1, which was filled at a sufficiently early date to permit of its being so used. Tank 2, which was filled at the same time as tank 1, was kept bare and the drainage water from these two tanks was collected. The use of these tanks was started a year in advance of the others in order to test the practicability of the apparatus. It was not known whether such a large mass of very compact soil would allow the rainfall to percolate readily, and it was also desired to take T3 14 T. LytTTueton Lyon Aanp JAMES A. BizzELu some samples of the soil from time to time to see whether nitrate forma- tion proceeded in a normal manner in the surface soil. As the apparatus appeared to work satisfactorily, the remaining ten tanks were filled in the course of the summer, and drainage water was collected during the following winter. In the discussion of results the data from tanks 1 and 2 usually are not included, because they do not cover the same period as do the remainder of the tanks, and they have been used from time to time to test ways of employing the apparatus. A statement of the soil treatment of each tank, and of the crops raised, is given in table 5: TABLE 5. Som Treatment anp Crops RAIseD ON LystmETER TANKS 1 To 12, DURING THE PERIOD FROM 1910 To 1914 Soil treatment Crops raised Tank oe Fertilizer Lime 1910 1911 1912 {1913 and 1914 Pees | lanmimanunes | None asso. Marze...-| Oats... Wheat. ..} Timothy DN neo Ss: Farm manure | None...... None....| None....| None....} None See ae eharmmanures|)Nones seers IMisize =| MOUSE: oe Wheat...} Timothy . 4.......| Farm manure | None...... None....| None....}| None....| None GO) clase Farm manure | None...... Maize....| Oats..... Wheat...| Timothy and clover Oa es. Farm manure | None...... Ositsereer Grasses...} Grasses...| Grasses Os ea eae Farm manure | Burnt lime..| Maize....| Oats..... Wheat. ..| Timothy SUtrnes Farm manure | Burnt lime..| None....}| None....} None....| None 9.......| Farm manure | Burnt lime..| Maize....| Oats..... Wheat...} Timothy and clover 10,......| Farm manure | Burnt lime..} Oats..... Grasses...} Grasses...| Grasses DE ont Soke Farm manure,| None...... Maize....| Oats... Wheat. ..| Timothy potassium sulfate Dee aes Farm manure,| Burnt lime..| Maize....| Oats..... Wheat. ..} Timothy potassium sulfate The applications of farm manure were made in the spring of 1910 and in the spring of 1914. Both applications were at the rate of 10 tons per acre, and were given to the tanks that were never planted as well as to the cropped tanks. The applications of potassium sulfate were made annually to tanks 11 and 12, at the rate of 200 pounds per acre. No lime was applied to tanks 1 to 6 or to tank 11. In the spring of 1910 burnt lime was applied to tanks 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12, at the rate of 3000 pounds per acre. 14 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 1 Tanks 2, 4, and 8 were never planted to any crop, and all vegetation was prevented from growing on them by hoeing. In the year 1910, when maize was growing on most of the other tanks, the unplanted tanks were hoed at the same time and in the same way as were the tanks planted to maize; when other crops were growing on the planted tanks, the unplanted ones were merely scraped with a hoe. In each tank planted to maize there were four hills of maize with three plants in a hill. Seven rows of oats and seven rows of wheat were sown in each tank planted to those crops. On tanks 6 and 10, oats were planted in 1910, and a mixture of grasses, consisting of timothy, Kentucky bluegrass, and redtop, was sown with the oats. These tanks were then kept permanently in these grasses. In 1914 there was a notably smaller proportion of blue- grass and a larger proportion of timothy and redtop on the unlimed soil (tank 6) than on the limed soil (tank 10). Timothy was seeded with the wheat in the fall of 1911 on tanks 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 12, and in the spring of 1912 elever also was seeded on tanks 5 and 9. All crops grew excellently, but much of the wheat was winterkilled and the crop was cut for hay about the time it headed, and _ another crop mixed with timothy was cut later in the summer. Both timothy and clover germinated well and grew vigorously in 1913. The clover, however, failed to make an appearance in 1914 on either tank 5 or tank 9. The yields of crops for each tank are given in table 1 in the appendix (page 92). Corresponding field plats A set of field plats of 1/100 acre each were laid out in the same field as that from which soil was obtained for tanks 1 to 12, and on these the treatments given the tank soil were repeated. The reason for conducting the experiments on the field plats as well as in the lysimeter tanks was to ascertain whether the effect of the lime and fertilizer applications on the lysimeter soil corresponded to the effect on the soil in the field. It was thought also that an opportunity might thus be given to compare _ the changes that take place in the lysimeter soils with those that occur under field conditions. QUANTITY AND RATE OF PERCOLATION The proportion of the rainfall that finds its way thru a soil may be expected to vary with a number of attendant conditions. Not only I5 16 T. LyTTLEToN Lyon anv JAmes A. BizzELL may these conditions be different in widely separated parts of the world, but even in a given locality they change from time to time, or with different soils, so that it is impossible to assign any definite ratio of percolate to rainfall. The percolate is merely that part of the rainfall that is absorbed by the soil and not returned to the atmosphere by evaporation from the surface or by transpiration from plants. All the factors that affect evaporation and transpiration therefore influence percolation, altho in the opposite way. It is of interest, and perhaps may be useful, to know how much of the rainfall passed thru the soil that remained bare for five years and how much passed thru the planted soil, in order to compare these figures with similar data obtained elsewhere. Percentage percolation of rainfall The figures for the flow from each of the lysimeter tanks, expressed in liters for each month from May 1, 1910, to April 30, 1915, are given in table 2 of the appendix (pages 93-94). The flow calculated to acre inches annually for the same period is given in table 3 of the appendix (page 95). These tables furnish the data from which may be found the average annual percolation in inches from the unplanted soil and also from the soil on which crops grew. This, together with the percentage percolation, is stated in table 6. The rainfall during the five-years period averaged 31.14 inches annually. TABLE 6. AvrErRAGE ANNUAL PERCOLATION OF RAINFALL FROM UNPLANTED AND FROM PLANTED SoIL DURING FrvE-YEARS PERIOD Average annual percolation Tanks Crop treatment Per cent Inches of rainfall Lolth peat A Gis Oke ae edo OE aT Ee hor No plants allowed to grow 24.40 78.35 SOMO GO LOND here. 2c Se Plants raised every year. . 16.96 54.46 Difference in percolation.. 7.44 23.89 On the basis of these figures, about three-fourths of the rainfall percolated thru the bare soil and one-half thru the cropped soil. As the proportion of percolate depends on the character of the soil and on the 16 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 17 weather conditions, these data should accompany a statement of the percolation. The physical properties of the soil under experiment have already been described. The air temperatures at Ithaca, the hours of sunshine, the average hourly velocity of the wind, and the humidity of the air, are stated in table 4 of the appendix (pages 96-98). No records of evaporation for a free water surface have been kept at Ithaca, but such data have been collected by the City Department of Engineering at Rochester, New York, and these arranged by monthly averages are given in table 5 of the appendix (page 98). In order to judge how closely these data collected at Rochester are applicable to Ithaca, the rainfall, the air temperature, and the air humidity at Rochester and at Ithaca’ are given in table 6 of the appendix (page 99). It is seen from table 5 of the appendix that the evaporation from the floating tub was 32.29 inches annually and that from the exposed tub was 45.65 inches; while the rainfall for the same period was 27.89 inches at the place where the evaporation records were taken, altho the Weather Bureau readings at Rochester totaled 32.47 inches annually for the same period. In either case the evaporation from the free water surface was as great as or greater than the rainfall. The effect of the soil, therefore, is to conserve moisture. A region that has no underground drainage must have a very large rate of evaporation as compared with the rainfall. July is the month of greatest rate of evaporation and, except when the ground is frozen, the month of least percolation, and August falls very little behind in either respect. It is worthy of note, however, that there is almost always some percolation from the unplanted soil thruout the summer, altho the evaporation during that time is more than double the rainfall (tables 2 and 5 of the appendix, pages 93-94 and 98). Experiments by other observers.— It may be of some interest to compare the percentage percolation as found by the writers with that obtained by some other observers. The percentage of the annual precipitation that passes thru the soil, both when the soil is planted and when it is bare of vegetation, has been determined at a number of localities. The most complete data on this subject have been obtained at the Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, England. The lysimeters at that station were built around columns of soil and a perforated iron sheet 1 The authors are indebted to Mr. John F. Skinner for the compiled data on evaporation and weather at Rochester, and to Professor W. M. Wilson for the weather records at Ithaca. 2 17 18 T. LytrLeton Lyon AND JAMES A. BIZzELL was driven under each one to form a bottom. The soil therefore has not been greatly disturbed. It is a rather heavy loam and is kept free of vegetation. There are three lysimeters, representing depths of 20, 40, and 60 inches, and for the twenty-four years from September, 1877, to August, 1901, the percolation according to Muller (1903)? was, respectively, 50, 53.2, and 50.1 per cent of the rainfall. The maximum and the minimum drainage occur, respectively, in November and in June. Four years later Miller (1906) again reported on the flow from these lysimeters, and included the records from 1870, when the gauges were installed, up to 1905, a period of thirty-five years. The average rainfall for the period was 28.97 inches, of which 47.8 per cent passed thru the 20-inch gauge, 50.4 per cent thru the 40-inch gauge, and 47.1 per cent thru the 60-inch gauge. The fall and winter months show the greatest percolation, and the summer months the least. This is true of the per- centage percolation as well as the absolute. ; An early report on the drainage from the Rothamsted lysimeters was made by Gilbert (1876), whose figures indicate that from September, 1870, to August, 1875, inclusive, the average annual rainfall was 27.93 inches, of which 36.8 per cent passed thru the 20-inch gauge, 36 per cent thru the 40-inch gauge, and 28.6 per cent thru the 60-inch gauge. A com- parison of the observations made by Gilbert with those of Miller lead to the conclusion that the percentage percolation, as well as the absolute, increased very materially after the first five years. It is a common observation that tile drains in heavy soil run more freely after they have been in operation for a few years. The more recent European experiments dealing with the proportion of rainfall that percolates thru the soil, may be considered to have begun with those of Wollny (1888) at Munich, Germany. He reviews the previous work on this subject, which is here summarized in table 7. By means of metal lysimeters Woilny studied the effect of certain physical conditions of the soil on percolation. He used cylinders of two sizes. The smaller cylinders had an area of 400 square centimeters and were 30 centimeters deep; the larger ones were 1000 square centi- meters in area and had a depth of 50 centimeters. In some of his experi- ments he used soil, and in others he used quartz sand of different degrees 2 Dates in parenthesis refer to bibliography, pages 82-84. 18 “We i ils ee LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 19 of fineness. He concluded that: (1) the finer the particles, the less is the percentage percolation; (2) there is more percolation thru a crumbly soil than thru one with a separate grain structure; (3) there is more per- colation thru a loose soil than thru a compact soil; (4) the presence of stones increases percolation; (5) percolation is greatest thru sand, next thru peat, and least thru loam. TABLE 7. Resutts oF EXPERIMENTS IN THE PERCOLATION OF RAINFALL THRU SOIL, AS SUMMARIZED BY WOLLNY ° Depth , : Rainfall Drainage Observer Place Kind of soil Crop of soil (milli- | (per cent of (centi- meters) rainfall) meters) Walton.....,. Manchester, England...) Not known..... Grass.... 91.4 827 25.1 Dickinson Abbotshill, England....| Sandy loam..... Grasss >... 91.4 659 42.3 Charnock. ..} Holmfield, England....| Dolomite soil. ..| Grass.... 91.4 625 19.6 Greaves..... Lee Bridge, England...| Sand........... None 91.4 653 83.2 Greaves..... Lee Bridge, England...| Loamy sand. ...| Grass 91.4 653 26.6 Gilbert..... Rothamsted, England..| Heavy loam and lays et None 101.6 788 43.4 Maurice Geneva, Switzerland. ..| Not known..... ? 660 39.0 Rasien..,.,.%. Caléves, Switzerland. ..| Clay........... With 120.0 1,050 28.0 Mollendorf..| Gérlitz, Germany...... Clay steht a None 125.0 652 PASI MGllendorf..| Gérlitz, Germany...... hoses eh None 125.0 652 41.0 Mollendorf..| Gérlitz, Germany...... Sandy loam..... None 125.0 652 40.5 Mollendorf..| Tharand, Germany....| Clay........... Waths® so 125.0 739 40.8 Mollendorf..| Tharand, Germany....}| Loam.......... With 125.0 739 58.7 Litige § ans Erlangen, Germany....| Sand........... None 6340h lise 43.0 Woldrich....| Salzburg, Germany....| Sandy loam and i clea os tase Wittins 3-5 63.0 768 33.9 Woldrich....| Salzburg, Germany....} Sandy loam and clay ta e ;...| None 63.0 768 64.2 Woldrich....}| Oberdébling, Germany.}| Loam.......... None 126.4 654 3228)" Ebermayer..}| Munich, Germany..... Not known..... None 116.7 865 53.0 Ebermayer (1890) conducted experiments at Munich in concrete tanks, each of which had an area of 4 square meters and a depth of 120 centi- meters. There were five tanks, each of which was filled with a different soil and none of which were cropped. The soils used were (1) a whitish gray gravelly quartz sand, (2) a red fine-grained quartz sand, (3) a friabie loam, (4) a limestone sand with nearly half its particles over 2 millimeters in diameter, and (5) dark muck. Observations were made on the rainfall and on the volume of drainage water for the four years from 1881 to 1884. The average yearly rainfall for the period was 131.6 millimeters, or 51.8 inches. The percentage percolation was as follows: Lysimeter no. 1, 85 per cent; no. 2, 107 per cent; no. 3, 94 per cent; no. 4, 43 per cent; no. 5, 39 per cent. The excess of percolate over rainfall in lysimeter no. 2, Ebermayer accounts for by presuming a condensation of atmospheric 19 20 T. LytrLteton Lyon AND JAMES A. BizzELL humidity on the surfaces of the soil particles. The percentage perco- lation was in every case greater in winter than in spring, in summer, or in autumn. Very extensive experiments were conducted by Dehérain (1902) at Grignon, France. His most conclusive experiments were performed in concrete tanks, each of which was 2 meters square and 1 meter deep and contained 5 tons of soil. The results that he considers representative are for the year 1892-93. With a rainfall of 23 inches there was an average of 23.2 per cent in the drainage water thru several soils, on all of which crops were raised. Creydt, Von Seelhorst, and Wilms (1901) measured the water that was conducted thru tile drains from an area of 4.81 hectares of a loam soil overlying a clay loam. The tiles were 1.25 meters deep and 15 meters apart. The land was planted to beans in 1899 and to beets in 1900. For the period from July 28, 1899, to August 10, 1900, the total rainfall amounted to 5739 liters per hectare and the drainage water to 5027 liters per hectare. The percolation was therefore 87.6 per cent of the rainfall. Calculated for the year from July 28, 1899, to July 27, 1900, the rainfall was 213 inches. Large iron cases from which drainage can be collected have been installed at the G6ttingen Experiment Station. These have a surface area 1 meter square, and a depth of 1.25 meters. They may also be weighed. Von Seelhorst (1906 a) reports an experiment in which certain of these cases were filled with a loam and others with a sandy soil. All were kept bare of vegetation. For the calendar year 1905 the rainfall was 30 inches. The percolation thru the loam soil was 51.47 per cent of the rainfall, and thru the sandy soil 57.08 per cent. The mean annual air temperature for the year was 51.2° F., and the mean for the months of June, July, and August was 70.9° F. Drainage as a rule was greater from the sandy soil than from the loam. At the Bromberg Agricultural Institute are large lysimeters each having a diameter of 2 meters and a depth of 1.2 meters. Experiments were reported by Gerlach (1910), in which soils from five fields were used, ~ one portion of each being fertilized and one unfertilized. The experiment began on June 1, 1906, and ended on July 29, 1909. The first year there was no crop, the second year potatoes were raised, the third year oats, and the fourth year rye. During the 1155 days of the experiment the 20 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS oT rainfall was 1689.9 millimeters, or at the rate of 21.15 inches annually. Of this the following percentages passed thru the soils: Percentage of rainfall in drainage Kind of soil so Fertilized | Unfertilized soil soil ACC! Leroy] Go Mic Sk EAE i ey A 6a | Ak 9.7 9.7 MaaTiyesand spooreMynUMUS 7. soe ale cele asa eee ae ters ve en 16.3 21.1 ‘Sea@ hy Vomit Javed sprite anh Tt shone ee gees oe ane ee A a ae eee eee 27.6 27.0 Moriya san de poonin MUMS) see ae As oe oe siya lence 7.6 ell Becllowasan iymlOnmisae ata aki wir A Neterls ce ater es cee eee se se 9.6 11.6 It would appear from these results that the loamy soils permitted of greater percolation than the sandy soils. At the Bromberg Agricultural Institute lysimeter experiments were con- ducted by Kriiger (1911) in 1910. The character of the soil is not stated. Some of the lysimeters were kept bare of vegetation, others were planted to rye. On the fallow soil 55 per cent of the rainfall percolated thru, on the cropped soil from 20 to 25 per cent. The amount of rainfall is not stated. At J6nk6ping, in Sweden, lysimeter experiments were conducted by Von Feilitzen, Lugner, and Hjerstedt (1912). The lysimeters each had a surface area 80 centimeters square, and a depth of 50 centimeters. They were all filled with muck soil containing about 60 per cent of organic matter. During the first year of the experiments the soil in all was kept bare of vegetation. In the following years one set of tanks was planted to a rotation of crops and another set was kept in grass. The fallow soil allowed 63 per cent of the rainfall to percolate, while 35 per cent passed thru the soil that was cropped. The amount of rainfall is not stated. Experiments have been conducted in India with lysimeters similar to those used at Rothamsted, England. Hayman and Burt (1906) report that from June 1, 1904, to May 31, 1905, the rainfall at Cawnpore was 49.2 inches, and the percolation from one 6-foot gauge was 21.78 inches, or 44.3 per cent of the rainfall. The percolation from the two 3-foot gauges showed such a great discrepancy that year that the figures are hardly worth quoting; but Burt and Leather (1909) report that for the 21 22 T. Lytrriteton Lyon anp JAMES A. BizzELL year ending May 31, 1909, the rainfall was 31.53 inches, of which 14.15 inches, or 44.9 per cent, percolated thru one of the 6-foot gauges, and 13.95 inches, or 44.2 per cent, thru the other. The drainage from the two 3-foot gauges amounted to 48.1 and 49.8 per cent of the rainfall, respectively. At the Texas Experiment Station, lysimeter experiments have been conducted by Fraps (1914). The lysimeters consist of galvanized iron cans 12 inches in diameter and 24 inches deep, and are buried in the ground. Eight different soils were used. The total quantity of drainage for the years 1911 and 1912, and for eleven months of 1913, is given, also the rainfall for the same period. There is a very considerable range of per- colation, varying in the untilled and unplanted soil from 10.5 per cent to 41.8 per cent of the rainfall, which for the period mentioned averaged 33.45 inches annually. The percolation from the four clay soils was double that from the four sandy and sandy loam soils. This is not an exhaustive review of experiments on this subject, but it doubtless summarizes most of the investigations dealing with this phase of lysimeter experimentation. The attempt has been made to obtain, so far as possible, the results from lysimeters having a considerable depth and volume of soil, also of those experiments extending over a considerable period of time. It is questionable whether very shallow lysimeters give reliable results so far as the quantity of percolation is concerned, but the 20-inch gauge at Rothamsted shows almost exactly the same percolation during a period of thirty-five years as does the 60-inch gauge. On the other hand, at Cawnpore, India, the 3-foot gauge gave a larger drainage than did the 6-foot gauge, indicating that in a region of great evaporation there is a greater return of moisture to the atmosphere from the deeper soil, due probably to upward capillary move- ment during dry periods. Another factor that is presumably of importance is the duration of the experiment, especially when the lysimeters cannot be weighed and consequently when it cannot be known whether the soil-moisture content is the same at the beginning and at the end of the experiment. Under such circumstances it is safer to continue the experiment for a number of years before calculating the percolation. In order that the results of the experiments conducted since those reviewed by Wollny may be brought together, they are: presented in table 8 arranged in the manner followed by him: ge 23 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS LD Sd ro SH CO 29 CO 6D 19 tt x € WW (TTeyUreI Jo quad 10d) osvUleIC, “SES “SES $92 eye HOE “P8G “TST ‘TET ‘TET ‘TET Tet CODMOOOO MDM HH HHH (s1oq} our =HIU2) Te eer eer ‘IGT ‘T6T “1 alg 0S ‘10 “OSI ‘16 ‘CST ‘CSI 0S 0) ‘O6T ‘OGT ‘03T ‘06T ‘0GT “OGT ‘OGT “GGT 0 Scl 0 GI 0 O0T 0° 061 0 O61 0 OGT 0° 0é1 0061 ooooco°ococo So OOO otondoodad (s19}0UL -1] 99) pheeso yydoq 1019.84.07] *** * 9UON ++ QUON "+" @TlON **" " 9UON -- +: amon "**'* QUON "*** OUON, "+" 9uON -+ ++ guON 0019840 “++ auON U0T}RIOY “TLOTYRY OY, UOT} RIOY, UOTZRYOY “WOTYRY OY "** - QUON, "* + QUON “ UOTPRYOY U0T}RY OY "7 QUON “+ aHON “++: gon “++ guoN “++ gu0N doi See wIBoy AVTD Daonasgs Ose ulBoy ARTO aa) @” 6. face! 5e*1s 6, se. ARID purg ee weo] AID ce ct wIROoT ARTO as ean weoy ARO aba uMOUY JON seg ees UMOUY JON Ga UMOUY JON cas ureo] Apueg “pues AUIGOT ae urvoy, Apueg “pues AUIBO'T oe ages purs outy “pues AT[OA BIN) [LSiASo2 S208. | “SBXOT, “U0T}BIS “sexe, ‘W01}849 ‘Boeyyy] “BoByy] asaT]OD asaT[OD IO MON YAO XK MON ““puvsuy ‘poysureyy0yy ““puvpsuy ‘poysureyz0y puvjsuq ‘poqsurey30y “eipuy ‘eroduMey “erpuy ‘erodumey “erpuy ‘arodumey “-*“ gepemg ‘surdoyuor “taped ‘surdoyuor “** usurdary ‘siequioig “+ AuBuLIer) ‘S1oquioig '-- AuBvulder) ‘srequioig “++ KuBurde+ “> AUBULIAL) + AUBUTIA) "> + KUBUIIAY) “+> AUBUIOY) “> + AueBurdery) “++ AUBULTAS) “S1IQUIOIG ‘S1IIQUIOIg “S.19qUIO1g, ‘SLOG ULOIg ‘uasuT}401) ‘wasuty40r) ‘uaSUt}40%) -gouBd yy ‘WOUSsTIr) Auvuistery ‘yorunyy Auvuidery “yorunyy Auvurstery ‘yorunyy Auvursory ‘yorun yy Auvurdory ‘yorunyy a08lq ae age Soa ][22zIg pue uoAT CPC ate etry OC Cn ONOND- Onc [[9221g pues uoA'T ey eiv eo) vas) OMew imliwiel(e is\\s7 e)isca) vl (elle isla ca sdeiyy Minis) 7e ei'e) s .e)\6)e) eu 6) .6) pie (he) 660) se) us oa 6 sdviy JOT high. See, tepeta tans edinararae teeta onalte TOUT RITES Sinkonts Goran eet enc eC JOT ping Ps Se Sets JoyyRaT puv yang yess Seana aes emer qoy}vey pu yang SS oe eat yng pues uvuAvyy v Veen 6) ella ia ome We jedefelteeueq atic (6 4poysaol Fy ‘uozyTIOT UOA Aa tas hos rach IUM Once cieciic C1 ypoqsiel Fy ‘UseZz4ITI0,J UWOA De Opec On Oe OF SC One Coes) oso oo ISN e616 6. a * IosN.INT trees esses year * ++ youptar) "+" pORpIay “*" oRpary age See act OO REEEES nL st Cys) eee ORS: Aes, A ten 4S10YJoog WO A “SUI[LAA PUB ‘4sIOYJOeG UO, ‘ypABID ECR he SRR ROS ones urera4aC] or aew. .@) Bete Gulu eee We. @ 6.8 78 ante ie JIaAvULINqy Gis o'é onvue one eels neeeeess -JeABUIIEGH =n) eh es) ewe) ln es 6s ole) eae ole ‘TeABUIOGY uN) sue) OSes ee elele b! is 3) @ie.e 6) 6 ‘ ToABULIOGA @lotenele bs 6 exe.e 0 \« roAvULIEqy IOAIBSG( AUVWWAG S,ANTIOM GONIS TIOG NYHL ‘TIVANIVY iO NOILVIOOUGG AHL NI SUINAWIUAdXY AO SLIASAY ‘8 ATAVL 23 24. T. Lytrueton Lyon Anp JAMES A. BizZELL These results show great differences, for which it is difficult to account. The lowest and the highest percentage percolation for bare soil are 10.5 and 107, respectively. The lowest percolation was in a region of good rainfall but great evaporation. The highest was with a light. rainfall and probably what would be a moderate rate of evaporation; this was one of Ebermayer’s experiments, and as the percolation in this case was greater than the rainfall the result is of doubtful accuracy. It is noticeable that one of the experiments giving the highest percentage percolation was conducted with tile drains over a large area. The percolation thru bare soil in the lysimeters at G6ttingen agree very closely with those at Rothamsted, the rainfall being about the same at the two places. The summers are probably a little warmer at Géttingen, the winters a little colder, and the atmospheric humidity somewhat less at all times. These differences, however, are not great as compared with some of the other climates represented by the experiments. At Cawnpore, India, the percentage percolation is less than at the two places just mentioned, and this is to be expected in a hot climate such as that of India, even tho the rainfall is greater. The same is the case to a greater extent at College Station, Texas, where the rainfall is slightly greater than at Cawnpore, but the rate of evaporation is probably greater. At Jénképing, with its shorter summer and consequently decreased annual evaporation, the percolation is greater than at Rothamsted. At Ithaca the percolation is even greater than at Jénk6éping, altho the annual evaporation is probably greater. There are other factors that may contribute to this. At Ithaca there are several months each year when the ground is frozen and when evaporation is nil. In the spring comes a thaw, which begins at the bottom of the frozen soil and gradually approaches the surface, during which time drainage takes place freely. The process of thawing causes the soil to become friable and this still further aids the drainage process. The result is that a very large pro- portion of the drainage occurs between the first of January and the end of April, while at Rothamsted the greatest drainage appears to occur in the autumn due to the fact that there is little freezing of the soil to facilitate the rapid carrying-off of the excess water in the early spring before conditions are favorable for evaporation. -4 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 25 An adequate discussion of the results of these experiments would require an accurate knowledge of the meteorological data for the place and duration of each experiment. This is in most cases difficult to obtain at this late date, but if such data had been published in connection with the reports cited above these might have made possible a more satisfactory imter- pretation of the experimental data. For that reason there are published in the appendix of this paper such meteorological observations as are available for the period included by the investigation (tables 4-6, pages 96-99). Relation of flow to precipitation and season In figures 4 and 5 are shown the monthly drainage flow from tanks 4 and 8, respectively, and the rainfall per month, calculated in liters ee. 25 EE 4 6 ! Drainage I eae ela : LITERS PER TANK NY Ny \ ‘ \ \ \ \ 1 1 \ \ ' ' ‘ ' i] ' 1 ' 1 ' ! 120 \ NV a 80 : Si Brahe \ i] \ \ \ Ca) 1 FO (RS } Nal } vl Yo) \ SYTKAYS CRKEGEHER TURTLES VITGOV TULL SSO 9IO-I/1 Fic. 4. RELATION OF DRAINAGE TO RAINFALL BY MONTHS FOR THE UNPLANTED TANK 4 per tank. As these two tanks have always been kept free of vegetation, they afford a means of studying the relation of flow to precipitation and to season. The graphs for rainfall begin with January, 1910, and record the total precipitation for each month up to and including April, 1915. The drainage begins with May, 1910, and extends to the same date as does the precipitation. The line for precipitation is usually higher than that for drainage. It will be remembered that about three-fourths of the rainfall for the five 25 26 T. Lytruteton Lyon AND JAMES A. BIzzELL years passed thru the unplanted soil. Occasionally the drainage exceeds the precipitation. This occurs, with one exception only (in November, 1913), in the period included in that part of the year beginning with December and ending with April. In 1912 there was a very heavy flow in September, but it did not exceed the rainfall, which was excessive for that month and also was large for the two preceding months. Ordinarily a large flow takes place in December or January accompanying a temporary thawing of the frozen soil. February is likely to see a small amount of drainage, the soil being deeply frozen at that time. This is 220 Fairtal! ————— 260 Drainage =----=- ¥ 240 H } } Xt | = | RK ae i! |! 1! \ O | | mei 1 < My , in ie ! Q J an I. \ /60 1 "| : \ ! | a \ iA AY tu melt \il bh ! -t ! i 720 yyy \ /t iN | DA ‘ a : I ! > ! \ Noa ey iy | iH \ ! ap 80 wnt Le ee ae A a y ; \ it ie ar ed Wot ty na V! ' \ it \ l ] | \ \ fe) ! \ EV pe Win \ A oY) ies \ hh \ eval 1 Ny eke Rae \h VW Na MEP ana Gr cae COV vane |, ! ! V \, Ny Rea ‘uu ? e : \ 4 ‘vy U SME EA W'S ORKSUSTEEAYs UK SUSH EES Vo GENS SSHEE AUD ObK FUSUEEE YS SEROUS Ef HSS CENT RIEEEN SS RT CERR REISER CSSEERCEE CERRO op G S8XG [>> 4 SS tH SS 46 | isio-11— | 917-12 1912-13 «| 9ra-14 NO pons Fig. 5. RELATION OF DRAINAGE TO RAINFALL BY MONTHS FOR THE UNPLANTED AND LIMED TANK 8 : usually followed by the largest flow of the year in March or April, at which time the melted snow comes thru the soil. . Months of large rainfall are not always months of large drainage flow. This may be accounted for in the summer, when the temperatures are high and the humidity is low, by supposing a large evaporation from the surface of the soil. There appears, however, to be an accumulation of moisture in the soil for a considerable period and then a rapid discharge. In winter this is likely to be coincident with a thaw, and is then more pronounced than at other times. The heavy discharges in December, frequently exceeding the rainfall, are not usually due to an accumulation 26 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS BV. of snow but rather to an accumulation of moisture in the soil itself. Whether this occurs under natural field conditions or only in such well- drained soil as that contained in the lysimeters is not apparent from the data of these experiments. Effect of applications of lime on percolation Since in some of the tanks the soil was limed and in others it was not limed, an opportunity is afforded to observe the effect of the applications of lime on the amount of drainage. Tanks 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12 were limed in the spring of 1910 with burnt lime at the rate of 3000 pounds per acre. During the subsequent years this lime has had an opportunity to be worked thru the upper six or seven inches of soil. Probably it has not penetrated much deeper. It is questionable whether any fiocculating action which the lime may have had on this superficial layer of soil would increase the amount of percolation. Comparisons would best be made between limed and unlimed tanks that have otherwise received similar treatments, and this is done in table 9: TABLE 9. Average ANNUAL PERCOLATION OF RAINFALL THRU LIMED AND UNLIMED Soin pURING Fivr-YEARS PERIOD | Soil not limed Soil limed . Crop treatment Fertilization Flow i Flow Tank (acre Tank (aere inches) inches) In rotation without Clowenser | ce eee JA Withee 5 oicond o eee 3: 18.82 7 15.30 No plants allowed to ; (5 RON GPa eceice eT Harn manures yee el: 4} 25.83 8 22.98 In rotation with (COWEPs Sosae ean meel| Leeman rides gee aoe 5 14.17 9 16.71 Oats, mixed grasses..| Farm manure........... 6| 19.73 10 14.87 In rotation without ' Clovenmrrie ts s Farm manure and K2SQ:.| . iti 18.80 12 tie25 Average..| 19,47 | Average.. 17.42 It is evident from table 9 that the application of lime has not caused a greater percolation of water. Neither can it be concluded that the opposite has been the result, for, while most of the unlimed tanks gave - 2] 28 T. LytTruteton Lyon AND JAMES A. BIzZELL a larger flow of drainage, one of them gave less than the corresponding limed tank. Failure of the limed soil to give a larger percolation cannot be due to larger crops, as the yields of dry matter were somewhat larger on the unlimed tanks, besides which tanks 4 and 8 were continually bare of vegetation. WATER UTILIZATION BY CROPS The effect of the growth of plants was to reduce considerably the percolation from the soil on which they grew, as was to be expected. The difference in percolation between the planted and the unplanted tanks in these experiments, which as shown in table 6 (page 16) was nearly 74 inches, probably does not represent the entire transpiration of the plants that grew on the soil, because without doubt there was more evaporation from the bare soil than from the soil on which plants grew, owing to the protection from sun and wind afforded to the soil by the vegetation itself. On the other hand, the transpiration was not less than 1 inches as an annual average for the production of these crops, all of which, with the possible exception of that raised in 1912, were large, as - may be seen in table 1 of the appendix (page 92). While the data at hand do not admit of the calculation of the actual transpiration ratio for the crops and the period concerned, they permit of an estimation of the minimum quantity of water transpired per pound of plant dry matter produced. This is obtained by subtracting the drainage of the planted tanks from the drainage of the unplanted tanks, and amounts to 290 pounds of water to every pound of dry matter in the crop produced, or a ratio of 1:290. This appears in tabular form in table 10: TABLE 10. Mrnimum TRANSPIRATION FOR ALL Crops RAISED DURING FivE-YEARS PERIOD Average annual Average annual Tanks percolation per tank production of dry matter (pounds) (pounds) AM SERE Post. MCR ee ois os 11,048 OM OM ae al OS Mall Eec gee sss 7,676 11.64 Minimum transpiration............ 3,012 Minimum iranspirationsratio-ec4- ..- =... ceeeee 2 seaaee eae 1:290 LyYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 29 The combined transpiration and evaporation from the planted tanks may be estimated by subtracting the average annual percolation for all the planted tanks from the average annual rainfall. This has been termed the evapo-transpiration of the crops, and from this may be ecal- culated the evapo-transpiration ratio, as appears in table 11: TABLE 11. Evaro-TRANSPIRATION FOR ALL Crops RAISED DURING FIvE-YEARS PERIOD Liters per tank Reaiiadielllll. 2.05 & eke aici Saas Desi oe RE Lae 2 Ege os ee CIAL aed ee 1,311.6 REREO aie Tietn Ort ATCO MOAN KS 5 chaser cottatns ie Sega « fuaiers ceils am de -oSysdacls = relayovers 697.8 Transpiration and evaporation from planted tanks.......................... 613.8 HAP RAULAMS PILahiOMeLatlOmPeteer ees a hevve ne Cte. een es Ales fee whee eee Ie oe fs, 3 1:580 The actual transpiration ratio for all the crops raised during the five- years period was therefore somewhere between 1:290 and 1:580. The crops raised were maize, oats, wheat, timothy, clover, and mixed grasses. In table 12 is given a statement of the minimum transpiration ratio and the evapo-transpiration ratio for each crop raised during each year, with the exception of the wheat in 1912, which cannot be used for this TABLE 12. Morsturr RELATIONS OF THE Crops ON TANKS 3 TO 12 DURING THE PERIOD FROM 1910 Tro 1914 Tran- Dry Minimum | Evapo- spuation matter Rainfall tran- tran- an in crops in Year Tanks Crop spiration | spiration /evaporation| (pounds | percolate ratio ratio (acre per (per cent) inches) acre) 1910 | 3, 5; 7, 9, 11, 12 MiaIzG a itante Sie esis lea. 1:318 18.78 13, 393 40.41 ESTOS Ol Ones ocicts sete Osterman sects 1:189 1: 646 17.14 6,008 45.62 TOM | 355, 7; 9} 11, 12 Oats crrccric mes 12211 1: 720 14.33 4,519 52.72 ODT tO ll Oistxcayeyect tees sys Mixed grasses... 1.565 1:1415 16.88 2,701 44.30 HOTZ SAG; MOLES he teaver <2 Mixed grasses. . . 1:664 1:1068 12.10 2,535 64.50 HOUS s|ios fy Gl, Dakar one. Mamobthya eee ae 1.333 1:479 10.71 5,071 63 .02 OS aleve Diora Batsbohevch stetetcs. 2s Timothy and Clover eee 1:363 1:477 13.54 6,393 53.24 OMS ale Oy el Oe tetcricts xtra Mixed grasses... 1: 266 1:428 8.61 4,519 70.27 TUG fre I Sy (ee Ui i [ee Timothy. . 4... 1:398 1:536 13.66 Sst 55.67 TROD | Pai ee OA ee cena = Timothy and Clover:Giie ue 1:397 1: 509 15.98 7,110 48.13 TAs ie Gl Oe. scrarears teu athens, fe Mixed grasses... 1:408 1:539 14.49 6,063 52.97 to Ne) 30 T. LytrLeton Lyon AND JAMES A. BizzELu purpose because of the large proportion of plants that were winterkilled. The table contains also a statement of the quantity of water that passed into the air by transpiration and evaporation (this being the difference between rainfall and percolation expressed in acre inches), a record of the dry matter contained in each crop expressed in pounds per acre, and the percentage of the annual rainfall that percolated thru the soil. The annual rainfall as here given dates from May 1 of each year, which is about the time when crops are planted and growth of perennials begins. The period between harvest and the following May gives an opportunity for the moisture to readjust itself in the soil, ana thus the next crop starts off with about the same moisture content (which is the capillary water capacity of the soil) as did its predecessor. The minimum transpiration ratios shown in table 12 should be narrower than the transpiration ratios obtained by carefully controlled experi- TABLE 13. Unit Water REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS AS DETERMINED BY VARIOUS INVESTIGATORS Lawes : King Briggs Harpen- | Wollny, | Hellriegel,| yiaqison | Leather, and C fi sont _ | Munich, Dahme, Wi i i Pusa, Shantz, Bue ee d = | Germany, | Germany, te India, Akron, 1850* 1876t 1883f 1895)| 1911§ mer IBarleyar ct) carn (Ree eee 258 774 310 464 468 534 IBYE555C).> 6 ca ORE EOP EPE AD reruns ZOD Gate Rees 282 3) bev. chide 2 ae eee 736 TB (OLE) EST ee MS mas FAP oocytes ee es 646 S63 Ihe oaoe nie. |) eee oe 578 CHOWGLPS J ae OL RO ee re ero Ore ZOOM eee «tees 310 576i Soak 797 IVURIZE mie icis the kas os hh sare be Oe Panetta fe Dae as ere eters 271 337 368 RVInT Gp eremerree ee) ao coos. eee | eee ee BAG Mp SORES oo WF ah eae IN| Spee 310 OIC Set ooo eee eet (ines See 665 376 503 469 597 IPSS PEPE fon se eis + veer oe 259 416 273 A477 563 788 I OUATOCS is mea ticacetdls + a.sks.s sagegaioistsl|t ame ane eek. | erento lo bievahioteone GEO Ree nigins tots 636 UAC NN ei ke se, ote) nse s s/s wustoleall) epee Obl Ecc sce ceststow lr ostane ize nue | Pckseaeetees 44] UY CREEN AT artic atiars oes oleic ic fopfacstnl|! Bh Sear as || pehacoeaneree SOD || cate ete Shee eee 685 NV ARES hes 5 ai hl G Oe eae roe Bere Pb Gal ae OR Sree eee 2 SOON els esse a 544 513 * Pots holding 42 pounds of field soil were used. Evaporation from the soil was reduced to a very low degree by perforated glass covers cemented on the pots. The figures quoted are from unfertilized soil. ft Wollny grew plants in humous sand in quantities ranging from 5 to 12 kilograms. Evaporation was Se ae to a very low degree by perforated covers. Actual evaporation from uncropped cans was observed. { Hellriegel grew plants in 4 kilograms of clean quartz sand and supplied them with nutrient solutions. The loss by evaporation from uncropped pots was used in determining losses by transpiration. In later experiments covers were used in order to cut down evaporation. || King used cans holding about 400 pounds of soil. Some of these cans were set down into the earth, while others were not. Part of the work was carried on in the field; the remainder was run in vegetative houses. Normal soils were used. Evaporation from soil was very low, water being added from beneath. The data quoted are the average of a large number of tests. § Jars containing from 12 to 48 kilograms of soil were used. Loss by evaporation was determined on bare pots. The plants were grown in culture houses or in screened inclosures. 4 Plants were grown in cans holding 250 pounds of soil. Evaporation from the soil was prevented by means of a paraffin covering. Work was conducted in screened inclosures. The data are the average for several years. 30 nn Mo LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 3l ments, and the evapo-transpiration ratios should be wider. In order to institute a comparison between the figures obtained in the present experiments and those obtained under controlled conditions, the unit water requirements found by a number of investigators are given in table 13. Comparison of the figures in tables 12 and 13 shows that both maize and oats had wider ratios in all the experiments quoted than in the mini- mum requirements as found by the writers, and that clover also had a _ wider ratio than was found to be the case here. Other experiments on water utilization by plants in lysimeters Not many data are available on water utilization by plants raised in lysimeters. Gerlach (1912) reports that in experiments with ten lysimeters, each containing 4 cubic meters of soil and in which there were five soil types, the utilization of water, including evaporation, for six crops averaged from 500 to 700 grams for one gram of dry matter produced. The crops raised were potatoes, oats, rye, oats. This agrees fairly with the average figure of 1:580 found in these experiments for the same factor. The average annual rainfall at Bromberg was 538 millimeters, as compared with 791 millimeters at Ithaca. _As the result of a previous experiment Gerlach (1911) reports the utiliza- tion of from 416 to 1149 parts of water to one part of dry matter in a rotation of potatoes, oats, rye, oats, on unfertilized soil, and from 359 to 632 parts of water to one part of dry matter in the same rotation on the same kind of soil to which a complete fertilizer had been applied. In reporting further experiments at Bromberg, Kriiger (1911) states that in the growth of rye 488 parts of water was required to produce one part of dry matter from October to June, while from April to June only 348 parts of water was required. On the lysimeters at Jonk6ping it was found by Von Feilitzen, Lugner, and Hjerstedt (1912) that an unfertilized soil produced oats, potatoes, turnips, and grass with an average evapo-transpiration of 511 parts of water to one part of dry matter. On the same muck soil with complete fertilizer only 311 parts of water was required. For each crop the water ‘requirement per part of dry matter produced was as follows: On un- fertilized soil: oats, 410 parts; potatoes, 401 parts; turnips, 715 parts; grass, 518 parts. On well-fertilized soil: oats 244 parts; potatoes, 149 31 32 T. Lytrteton Lyon AnD JAMES A. BizzELu parts; turnips, 473 parts; grass, 379 parts. All these figures are some- what lower than those of the present writers. In the weighable tanks at Géttingen, rye, barley, wheat, and potatoes were raised, and the water utilization was computed by Von Seelhorst (1906 b) from the rainfall after deductions had been made for evaporation and drainage. The evaporation from the soil was estimated, since it was evident that the evaporation from a bare soil surface would not be the same as from a soil surface shaded by plants. Calculated in this way, wheat on loam soil required 333 parts of water, and rye 375 parts, for one part of dry matter in the grain, and potatoes required 278 grams of water for one part of dry matter in the tubers; on sandy soil, rye required 482 parts of water for one part of dry matter in the grain. These results are not comparable with any of the others cited, because of the method of calculation, and data for the other method of calculation are not available. A summary of these results and of the results from the present experi- ments is given in table 14: TABLE 14. Water UTILIzATION BY PLANTS IN LYSIMETERS Parts of water to one part of dry matter ae Ferti- | __ Observer Place lation Rotation Oats Grass Maize Gorltelterscicis ents 0c 2 Ae Bromberg, Germany...| None.... 500=700).|). 3.35 I aces clo (Gives 953 Sper eueeta cere Bromberg, Germany...| None.... 416-1149 |. c06.9)|| hom Seog eee Gerlich picts: sacs 8 Bromberg, Germany...| Complete. 3D9=6382.|| oi. 5 ec |) ce stele onl eee Von Feilitzen, Lugner, and Hjerstedt.......| Jénképing, Sweden....| None.... 511 410 518" | See en Von Feilitzen, Lugner, and Hjerstedt.......| Jénképing, Sweden. ...} Complete. 311 244 379! || oc rereroeare Lyon and Bizzell....... Ithaca, New York..... Farm manure 580 683 681 318 As in the case of transpiration, there is a tendency for water utilization also to run higher in America than in Europe. This seems inconsistent with the fact that the percentage percolation thru a bare soil was greater in the writers’ experiments than in most of the European ones. The rotations in Europe did not utilize a materially larger quantity of water than did the rotation in these experiments, but the European rotations included potatoes and root crops, both of which require much water, and the writers’ rotation included maize, which is economical of moisture. 32 7 LYSIMETER [°XPERIMENTS Se It seems very likely that the conditions were less favorable for evaporation in the European experiments than in the writers’, and that the reason for the greater percentage percolation in these experiments is due to the large winter percolation, as has already been explained. SUFFICIENCY OF MOISTURE SUPPLY FOR CROP GROWTH The thoro drainage to which soils in the lysimeter tanks are subjected, suggested the possibility that there might be a deficiency of moisture for crop growth at some time during the growing season and that a limiting factor might thus be introduced. Provision was made at the time the tanks were constructed by which the water could be held in the tanks in the spring at any desired depth, and thus a reservoir of water be held for use of the plants during the active growing season. This was not used the first year because it was desired to ascertain whether it was needed. There was no evidence that it was, nor have subsequent crops appeared to need more moisture than was available. It is usual for water in the cropped tanks to cease percolating in mid- summer, but this does not necessarily mean that the soil is too dry te furnish all the moisture that the crops need. The yield of maize was exceptionally heavy the first year the tanks were planted. The large yield was probably due in a measure to the thoro aeration which TABLE 15. Average YIELD oF Crops BY YEARS ON TANKS | To 12, EXPRESSED IN Dry Marrer PER ACRE r Grain “| Stover Straw Hay ed Bre (bushels) (tons) (tons) (tons) AOIO. ses. seyret MMe. teems sbyce phone by ta esac ces sles AeA) eerie ce OLE eet a ONO Meee es). | OR e Cee ree, Beenenee (a¥2 Ol [See Nee 1 L078 Fpl te eter CH gears 5 Se be Ossian j PAs gy... Tile GG. DUNE Oe AIR. 27ers ee NOx, § Sayre 4. > ee: (GRASSCSHL TH: seth oe rel hes | eae ER ee ban 3 Saad Sis) OND ey ae 2 ee Whe talvaypetha sie Scenery |e or. Oy le ee ee oc ae 1.03 NON Z rere ae) Mae GASSES eee eg AP |r: eos. = etn Ee ok eee 1.28 QU SRE kates -.5rk Abin Ob gpea sede eee: arte S| ees hy eee MN, coke, i lUareets toe ZED OMG RES Fee, ee: Mimo thiyAAndaCloverses ls Alb svctys teil wbsieys sis cansell) SB yso age: 3.20 AOU sey Aah. ce ee GRASSES eens, cheer kon geal cat eenine teen (Rtas, seke ak ce bo| od os Tenaeen. Fn PA IG) es aie cae dicots o ee AIAG O57, Be ce Ree ie Baer cvene Chelate Uill ELA eaea nen am RECUAUMN Ree ie 2.94 I) ew ee ee Ghia ayy Enel Goer veder|| dere: ceo. (Mae eee ews | ht, see aee 3.54 OTe Ue RT! Grasses cre. tee ee. POLE Sek | PAR nM ES | ERSTE es ya 3.05 34 T. Lyrrueton Lyon anp JAmes A. BizzELL the soil received in being transferred to the lysimeters, altho it was not allowed to become air-dry, which always greatly increases the quantity of soluble plant nutrients in a soil. The average yields of crops on these tanks for each of the years of the experiment are given in table 15. The yield for each tank is given in table 1 of the appendix (page 92). If moisture were a limiting factor in the production of these crops, it may be assumed that the fact would be indicated by a diminished flow of drainage water from the tanks producing the largest crops. This 72 VF 20 Db (eo 70. Yields of dry rnater----- 60 580 FAL 6 26 540 2.5 520 24 500 a3 2.2 2A 4 tad YIELOS OF DRYSIATTER (MN HILOGRAMS PER TANK /9/0 DRAINAGE (/(N LITERS PER TANA /9/0 x S Jarth 3 Jank 5 Tarth 7 Tarth 9 Tantk ll Tartk 2 Fig. 6. TOTAL FLOW OF DRAINAGE WATER FROM CERTAIN TANKS FOR THE YEAR BEGINNING May 1, 1910, AND YIELD OF MAIZE ON THE SAME TANKS IN 1910 The percolation bears no direct relation to the crop yield could be shown by a line plotting the yields and one plotting the flow of drainage water, in which the greatest yields should correspond to the least drainage. In figure 6 are shown the yields of dry matter in the maize crops on tanks 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 12 in 1910, and also the quantities of drainage water in liters from the same tanks for the period beginning May 1, 1910, and ending April 30, 1911, when the moisture content of each tank would have returned to its capillary capacity. In figure 7 are shown the total yields of dry matter in the five crops raised on each of tanks 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 12, and also the quantities of drainage 34 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 35 water from each of these tanks for the five-years period beginning May 1, 1910, and ending April 30, 1915. Neither of these diagrams indicates that there is a definite relation between the yield of crop and the quantity of drainage water from any tank. Apparently the moisture supply was adequate to produce as large crops as the other factors would allow. This shows strikingly the possibilities of storing moisture in a well-drained clay loam soil, and raises the question whether, with a normal rainfall in this climate and Drainage —_—___—— Yields of dry rnatter——- -- X O DLNWADBDANDAOOND YIELOS OF DRY MATTER /N HILOGRAMS PEP TANA /9/0-/8 AAAAHAAAAHG § Toarth3 TartkS Tarrk7 Torth 9 = Torhl/ Tarth /2 Fie. 7. TOTAL FLOW OF DRAINAGE WATER FROM CERTAIN TANKS FOR FIVE YEARS, AND YIELDS OF CROPS ON THE SAME TANKS FOR THOSE YEARS The percolation bears no direct relation to the crop yield where drainage may be obtained, moisture need ever be a limiting factor in loam soils. A comparison of the yields of crops on the tanks in 1910, and for the same year on the corresponding field plats — which latter had no artificial drainage but received the same fertilization and produced the same kind of crops as the tanks — shows a much larger yield from the tanks. To what extent this is due to the thoro aeration to which the tank soils are subject, and how much is due to the moisture supply, it is impossible to say. The comparison is recorded in table 16: a 36 T. LytrLteton Lyon AND JAMES A. BizzELL TABLE 16. Yrevps or Crops 1n 1910 on TANKS AND ON SIMILARLY TREATED BUT UNDRAINED FIELD PLATS Yield Yield Crop and treatment Tank per acre | Field plat | per acre (bushels) (bushels) Vise) Sto ee eke. S.A ee 3 114 7002 37 Mia Zee ee EPR oS: 3,5, 33 DI ees 5 132 7005 48 CO EEE Be ecto) on aA ne re 6 59 7006 3f Miaizenlimed Merrett cod 3) a caoee Shee oe a 109 7008 44 Marze@limedmemmena. 2... oo Sere 9 124 7011 51 Weipa y acme emer eee re oe ee ee eee 10 70 7012 50 IMiaizenshGS Ore te ois bs oso phe eee 11 96 7014 57 Menzemlimed KGS Ors). occ... eae mee et 12 109 7015 55 REMOVAL OF NITROGEN FROM THE SOIL IN DRAINAGE WATER AND IN CROPS It is shown by table 8 of the appendix (pages 105-106) that usually, tho not always, a larger quantity of nitrates is removed in the drainage water collected between October 1 and April 30 than in that collected during the summer period. . It appears to be the large flow of drainage water during the winter and early spring that causes the greater removal of nitrates at that time. TABLE 17. NirroGen In DRAINAGE WATER, CALCULATED TO PoUNDS PER ACRE BY YEARLY Pertiops (May 1 To Apri 30) Nitrogen in drainage water Burnt (pounds per acre) Tank Crops Fertilizer lime (pounds) 10 1911 1912 1913 1914 Total 3 pee without} Farm manure None | 11.62 7.64 | 14.96 2.24 0.20 36.66 clover 4 No vegetation Farm manure None |126.29 | 80.89 |153.30 | 83.03 | 70.06 | 513.57 5 Hotpizen with| Farm manure None 9.79 5.29 7.28 POY 0.93 25.66 clover 6 Oats, grass four} Farm manure None | 12.41 0.70 0.41 1.45 1.22 16.19 years 7 Heatations without| Farm manure 3,000 9.18 4.68 5.97 0.88 2.17 22.88 clover 8 No vegetation Farm manure 3,000 | 91.42 | 55.84 {119.08 | 74.33 | 35.37 | 376.04 9 noe with} Farm manure 3,000 | 12.36 4.52 4. 5.65 0.79 27.86 clover 10 Oats, grass four! Farm manure 3,000 | 12.81 1.06 0.23 1.06 0.18 15.34 years 11 Rotation without} Farm manure} None | 12.36 9.09 2.60 1.51 0.93 26.49 clover and KeSO, 12 Rotation without} Farm manure} 3,000 | 16.61 | 12.09 Seo 0.43 1.13 34.01 clover and K2SOx LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS on The nitrogen in the drainage water was all in the form of nitrates, there being almost no organic matter and only traces of ammonia. The quantity of nitrogen in pounds per acre, calculated from nitrates for each of the tanks and for each year of the experiment, is given in table 17. Relation of nitrogen removal in drainage water to total flow of drainage In the five-years period thru which the experiments extend, great variation is shown from year to year in the quantity of nitrogen that is present in the drainage water. The range of nitrogen is greater for the tanks ly $ & W . Xv 1300 Qrarrrage -—-----— x & 12505 Nitroger: ——__—— 150 \\ Q Q 20 140 & 50 1308 & 4/00 1720S x 1050 1/0 N g /000 /00 N Wy g 90 < 9 80 a S 35; 70 N v4 3 S q 1911 19/2 1913 19/4 2 Fie. 8. RELATION OF YEARLY FLOW OF DRAINAGE WATER TO YEARLY REMOVAL OF NITROGEN IN DRAINAGE WATER, TANK 4 that had no vegetation than for those that were planted. The variations are probably controlled largely by the quantity of drainage water, rather than by weather conditions favoring a large formation of nitrates. In years of large percolation the nitrates are usually high, and in years of small percolation usually low, because a large volume of water is required in order to remove all the nitrates from the soil. The relation of the nitrogen in the drainage water to the total flow is shown in figures 8 and 9 for tanks 4 and 8, respectively. In 1910 the nitrogen content was high as compared with the flow of drain- age water from both tanks, which may have been due either to a favorable season for nitrification or to the thoro aeration to which the soil was sub- 37 38 T. Lytrueton Lyon anp JAMES A. BizzELL jected when it was placed in the tanks in 1909. In 1914 the nitrogen showed a tendency to fall below its usual ratio to the flow of drainage water. It is difficult to trace this to any weather conditions obtaining that year, as neither the rainfall nor the temperature was abnormal during the months when nitrate formation might be expected to be active. It is possible that with the settling of the soil in the tanks and the diminished aeration, there is . tendency for the process of nitrate formation to be less active. This can be confirmed or refuted only as the experi- ments are continued. /200 Draimmage Nc ee y esq 4{Wirogen , 208 W//00 10 & EZOFe yoo & X 7000 90 Q © X 900 7o > 850 60 - Soo 50 © 750 40% % S 700 30 8 q S Q 19/0 19// 1/2 /GIP 191 2 Fie. 9 RELATION OF YEARLY FLOW OF DRAINAGE WATER TO YEARLY REMOVAL OF NITROGEN IN DRAINAGE WATER, TANK 8 The most noticeable factor in determining the quantity of nitrogen in the drainage water is the presence or absence of plants on the soil. The unplanted tanks average seventeen times as much nitrogen in the yearly flow as do the planted tanks. Absorption of nitrogen by the growing plants may be assumed to account in large measure for the difference. Effect of tme on removal of nitrogen The application of lime apparently has not increased the amount of nitrogen in the drainage water. Comparing tanks 4 and 8, of which neither was cropped but the latter was limed, it is seen that there was more nitrogen removed from the unlimed soil during the five years than 38 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 39 from the limed soil. A similar comparison of the planted and unlimed tanks 3, 5, 6, and 11 with the planted and limed tanks 7, 9, 10, and 12, shows that the former lost an average of 26.25 pounds of nitrogen per: acre during the five years, while the latter lost 25.02 pounds. These figures for each tank and each crop are given in table 17 (page 36). In order to ascertain whether the lime applications had any effect on the process of nitrate formation on the planted tanks, the yields and the nitrogen content of the crops on the limed tanks may be compared with those of the crops on the unlimed tanks. The yields of dry matter on the unlimed tanks 3, 5, 6, and 11 amounted to 47.34 pounds for the five-years period, while for the same period the yields of dry matter on the limed tanks 7, 9, 10, and 12 totaled 45.78 pounds. Therefore, if there is any increased nitrate formation caused by the lime applications, it is not reflected in the crop yields. On the other hand, the limed field plats duplicating the tank treatments produced a total of 928 pounds of crops during the five-years period, as compared with 851 pounds from the unlimed plats for the same period. If the total quantity of nitrogen removed in the crops is taken as a measure of nitrate formation, there also appears to be no effect from the lime. Calculated to pounds of nitrogen per acre in crops, the limed tanks produced 1337 pounds for the five-years period and the unlimed tanks 1345 pounds. These figures are given for each tank and each crop in table 18: TABLE 18. NuirroGen in Crops, CALCULATED To PoUNDS PER ACRE BY YEARLY PERIODS Nitrogen in crops Burnt (pounds per acre) Tank Crops Fertilizer lime (pounds) 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 Total 3 Horton without] Farm manure None |144.10 | 54.67 | 38.45 | 58.96 | 72.44 | 368.62 clover 5 Rotation with| Farm manure None |148.01 | 46.42 } 38.61 | 81.62 | 63.69 | 378.35 clover 6 Oats, gracs four| Farm manure None | 88.83 | 29.15 | 23.82 | 54.23 | 86.08 | 282.11 years i Rotation without] Farm manure 3,000 {151.80 | 54.95 | 41.36 | 40.81 | 53.13 | 342.05 clover 9 Horation with| Farm manure 3,000 152.08 | 52.53 | 31.13 | 82.01 | 67.27 | 385.02 clover 10 Oats, grass four| Farm manure 3,000 | 97.19 | 31.19 | 21.07 | 47.41 | 78.16 | 275.02 years 11 Rotation without} Farm manure| None |139.98 | 51.04 | 27.56 | 38.23 | 59.24 | 316.05 clover and KeSO4 12 Rotation without} Farm manure| 3,000 |156.64 | 39.44 | 35.53 | 40.48 | 62.87 | 334.96 clover and K2SO« 39 40 T. Lytrueton Lyon AnD JAMES A. BIZZELL On the whole there appears to be no evidence that the application of lime has increased the formation of nitrates in this soil in the tanks, altho it may have done so in the corresponding plats in the field. Effect of plant growth on nitrogen removal in drainage water The total removal of nitrogen from the tanks used in these experiments is rather large. It is seen by tables 17 and 18 that from planted soil much more nitrogen is removed in the crops than in the drainage water. There seems to be a close margin between the quantity of nitrates pro- duced and the quantity absorbed by the crop. When soil is cropped the loss of nitrogen in the drainage water is usually not great. On the other hand, when land is continually kept free of vegetation there is a very heavy loss of nitrogen in the drainage water, amounting usually to more than the nitrogen removed in the crop and in the drainage water combined on cropped land. This is seen by table 19, which shows that TABLE 19. NirroGen IN Crops PLUS DRAINAGE WATER OF PLANTED TANKS, AND IN DRAINAGE WATER ALONE OF UNPLANTED TANKS Nitrogen in crops and in drainage water Burnt (pounds per acre) Tank Crops Fertilizer lime (pounds) | 1910 | 1911 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | Total 1 Rotation without clover| Farm manure None 127 69 56 50 68 370 2 No vegetation Farm manure None 141 55 101 115 79 491 3 Rotation without clover) Farm manure None 156 62 53 61 73 405 4 No vegetation Farm manure None 126 81 153 83 70 513 5 Rotation with clover Farm manure None 158 52 46 84 65 405 6 Oats, grass four years Farm manure None 101 30 24 56 87 298 7 Rotation without clover| Farm manure 3,000 161 60 47 42 55 365 8 No vegetation Farm manure 3,000 91 56 119 74 35 375 9 Rotation with clover Farm manure 3,000 164 57 36 88 68 413 10 Oats, grass four years Farm manure 3,000 110 32 21 48 78 289 11 Rotation without clover) Farm manure| None 152 60 30 40 60 342 and Ke SOs 12 Rotation without clover) Farm manure| 3,000 173 52 39 41 64 369 and Ke SOg the average loss of nitrogen in the drainage water from the unplanted tanks 2, 4, and 8 averaged 460 pounds per acre for the five-years period, while the removal of nitrogen in both drainage and crops from the planted tanks 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, and 12 averaged 362 pounds per acre. 40 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 41 RELATION OF DIFFERENT CROPS TO FORMATION OF NITRATES The total nitrogen removal appears to vary with different crops, and it is possible that the growth of some crops would result in a larger removal of nitrogen than does the maintaining of a bare soil surface. It is obvious that the maintenance of clean cultivation, as is often practiced in orchards, is likely to lead to excessive loss of nitrogen, while the growth of a cover crop returns most of the nitrogen to the soil when the crop is plowed under. A study of the nitrates in the drainage water and their relation to the crops produced shows the characteristic relationships that have pre- viously been discussed by the writers (Lyon and Bizzeil, 1913). This may be seen by reference to table 20, in which -are stated the average quantity of nitrogen contained in each kind of crop raised — the actual quantities found being given for the tops, or aboveground parts of the plants, and an estimate of one-third that amount being assumed for the quantity contained in the roots—and also the quantity of nitrogen contained in the drainage water flowing from the tanks during the year in which the crop grew. As the nitrogen for the cropped and the un- cropped soil represents the flow of drainage water for the same year, the experiment is not open to the same objection as when the flow of two or more different years is compared. While, therefore, the com- parison instituted in table 20 is open to some objections — one of which is the moisture content, which is always less during the growing season TABLE 20. AvatLtaBLe NITROGEN IN Sort PropucinG DirFERENT Crops, AS MEASURED BY THE NITROGEN OF THE CROP AND OF THE DRAINAGE WATER (In pounds per acre) Nitrogen in planted tanks Nitrogen in| Excess drainage (+) or Crops water deficiency In drain- Tm ae in corre- (—) in age x | Total | sponding | planted water wags MORES bare tanks tanks iat Zee cote. die ones 12 144 48 204 119 + 85 (OR ISLE NS ceaad 8 eae ae RA 9 73 24 106 92 + 14 Mixed erassesian ein sss soe 1 46 15 62 85 — 23 pitt thiy-sarne sy ees ss eee oe 3 49 16 68 92 — 24 Timothy and clover......... | 2 73 24 99 76 + 23 *Estimated at one-third the quantity in tops. 4l 42 T. Lytruteton Lyon anp James A. BizzELL in the planted tanks than in the unplanted ones and has been discussed in the publication referred to above — the fact still remains that the comparison between different crops is all based on the same unplanted soil as a standard and such comparison is confined to the same season. There seems to be every reason, therefore, why the results of such com- parison, if not quantitatively exact, should at least be qualitatively significant. It is apparent from table 20 that there is considerable difference in the quantities of nitrogen taken up by these crops, ranging in the above- ground parts from 144 pounds per acre in maize to 46 pounds in the mixed grasses. It is to be noted also that there is more nitrogen in the drainage water from the soil on which the crops which absorbed much nitrogen grew, than in the drainage from the soil producing crops containing little nitrogen. Certain plants use a greater quantity of soil nitrogen than do others, without decreasing the quantity of nitrates in the drainage water. In this respect maize exceeds oats, and oats exceed the grasses. In the paper cited above it is suggested that some plants have the property of depressing the formation of nitrates, and that some plants possess this property to a greater degree than do others. The data here presented are in line with such an hypothesis. The last column of table 20 shows that the tanks producing maize, oats, and clover have more nitrogen in the crop plus drainage water than is contained in the drainage water from the corresponding unplanted tanks, while the tanks in which timothy and mixed grasses were raised have less nitrogen in the crop plus drainage water than is contained in the drainage water of the corresponding unplanted tanks. If it is assumed that these plants obtained all their nitrogen from nitrates and that nitrate formation proceeded at the same rate in the planted and the unplanted soils, there would appear to be more nitrates produced in the soil of the maize, oats, and clover tanks than in the unplanted soil, indicating a stimulation of nitrate formation under these crops. To oppose this theory there is, of course, the possibility that these plants obtained part of their nitrogen in some form other than nitrates. It is known that clover takes nitrogen from the air, and it is known also that maize and oats can utilize organic nitrogen in certain forms. On the other hand, the smaller quantity of nitrogen in the crop and in the drainage water of the soil producing timothy and mixed grasses as compared with the drainage 42 Memoir 12 Puate IIT TUNNEL BETWEEN TANKS, WITH CANS FOR COLLECTING DRAINAGE WATER AND SMALLER CANS FOR HOLDING ALIQUOT SAMPLES oe a te ee ca lm LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 43 water of the unplanted soil, indicates a disappearance of available nitrogen that may be accounted for by a depression of the process of nitrate - formation. There is certainly a striking difference in the quantity of available nitrogen in the soil on which these different crops have grown, and apparently this is connected with the growth of the particular kind of plant, since the other conditions were similar. While the data at hand do’ not supply positive evidence on the subject, they tend to confirm the hypothesis that different kinds of plants have certain characteristic relations to the process of nitrate formation. REMOVAL OF CALCIUM Calcium was removed in the drainage water to a greater extent than any other of the bases determined, but in the ash of the crops raised calcium was not the constituent removed in largest quantity from the soil. In table 21 is shown the average amount of calcium removed annually from the soil by drainage water and by crops during the five-years period: TABLE 21. Catcrum In DRAINAGE WATER AND IN CROPS (Pounds per acre, annual average) _ Calcium Calcium Total Tank in drainage in crops calcium water ENE Py cS Pes es a eg anh eas + 200.7 13.0 213.7 ce eee ie OMIAME - GRY. RAT LAR, . MELAS SHORSHS.! Dene d. 370.8 BPS its Serra e 2 ae DS SS RIT ae 104.6 16.9 121.5 CS ee EE ee Re oe 226.0 9.8 235.8 ieee: lias 4. SSR APL TE. Nak. 167.8 12.4 180.2 ici a ONE Bie Be Oe REE, Sot EE et cane SAO ls She Aye ce 364.0 Ud cle ANS oe he RR folic ar ase eA ae 186.6 17.6 204.2 110 hs se SEINE NOR oo ee 154.3 9.6 163.9 LL hehe GES PP ASAE a eons Sot ee eae 213.1 10.2 223.3 Raa eS ce OR oars cc cect ee aon 199.7 11.5 211.2 Effect of plant growth on removal of calcium ‘the large removal of calcium in the drainage water of the unplanted soil is very noticeable in table 21. Not only is the quantity of calcium in the drainage water of the unplanted soil greater than that in the planted 43 44 T. LytTLeETon Lyon AND JAmMzES A. BizzELL soil, but it is greater than the quantity contained in the drainage water and the crops combined. The average amount of calcium removed in crops and drainage water from the planted tanks, and the average amount in the drainage water of the unplanted tanks, are given in table 22: TABLE 22. Average ANNUAL REMOVAL OF CALCIUM FROM PLANTED AND FROM UNPLANTED TANKS (In pounds per acre) Calcium removed in Soil Total Drainage C removed Tops water SHORE Oo ALO See Ae ee ee Oe Planted. . Wi3rS 13e2 186.5 EAS 9 Le RE Ce Rie ARLE oats Pe ee Bareseere 307545\\ ke eee 367.4 @alcium/sconserved byicropping-. be wee. eee eee eee eee 180.9 The process of cropping conserves the calcium in the soil even when the entire crop is removed. The reason for the greater removal of calcium from the uncropped soil may be found, in part at least, in the large for- mation and leaching of nitrates when plants are not present. In table 23 is shown the average amount of nitrates found annually in the drainage water of the planted and the unplanted tanks: TABLE 23. AveraGE ANNUAL REMOVAL OF NITRATES FROM DRAINAGE WATER IN PLANTED AND IN UNPLANTED TANKS Nitrates Tank Soil removed end treatment (pounds per acre) Se Rid) IO, Go ed omac Seen rstesL OG aims altmts q aan aC oe Planted.... 21.3 TON Ae A Sea ey OIC, hk aoe RL Eee ROSA ack oI G Bare: 2. c%. 393.6 The nitrates in the drainage water from the cropped soil would account for only about 8 pounds of calcium, while the nitrates from the unplanted soil correspond to about 127 pounds of calcium which might be removed 44 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 45 in the form of nitrate. This would still leave about 178 pounds of calcium that had been removed from the planted soil in some form other than nitrate, and about 240 pounds from the unplanted soil. However, as the analyses show that there were more sulfuric acid and more silica and bicarbonates removed in the leachings of the unplanted soil than in those of the planted soil, this difference can thus be accounted for. The large removal of nitrates in the unplanted soil is undoubtedly associated with a large loss of calcium. Any management of the soil that permits the nitrates to form freely and to leach out of the soil results in a large loss of calcium, while maintaining a crop of some kind on the soil con- serves the calcium. Catch crops conserve not only nitrogen but also calcium. The concentration of calcium in the drainage water from the planted and the unplanted soil was in the same order as its total removal. This may be seen in table 24, in which is stated in parts per million the average calcium content for the five-years period: TABLE 24. Averace Cautcrum ContTENT OF DRAINAGE WATER FROM PLANTED AND FROM UNPLANTED TANKS ac Calcium Soil aust treatment (par ts pes million) BB, Be Cy UD 5 ee ae sce PL CIEE RAP a ete ae Planted oil Lh AS ss 0: ge oe Ba EAI Gt Bie CPOE PER eee OR arm arg era Bares e450 69.3 The greater loss of calcium from the unplanted soil was not due entirely to the greater percolation of water thru that soil, as in that case the concentration would not be greater. Evidently the percolate from the unplanted soil has a greater solvent power for calcium. The fact must not be lost sight of, however, that the bicarbonates were present in the drainage water of the unplanted soil, not only in larger quantity per tank, but also in slightly greater concentration than in the water from the cropped tanks. Carbonic acid also is doubtless a factor in the greater removal of calcium from the unplanted soil, but to a less extent than nitric acid. The average concentration, in parts per million, 45 46 T. Lytrueton Lyon anp JAMES A. BizzELu of nitrates, bicarbonates, sulfates, and silica in dra nage water from the bare and the. cropped tanks for the five-years period, is shown in table 25: TABLE 25. CoNCENTRATION OF SOME Acip RADICALS IN DRAINAGE WATER FROM PLANTED AND FROM UNPLANTED TANKS (In parts per million) Soil : Bicarbon- er Tanks De cmnenit Nitrates nae) Sulfates Silica ONDE Gl Fe OM OReReree: Berke ceed 3 Planted 8.1 229.9 28.1 We ye 1 apie aoe Ald at ah LE, oa ene Bares 68.5 237.3 26.5 8.5 Effect of lime on removal of calcium Treating this soil with burnt lime at the rate of 3000 pounds per acre did not result in increasing the quantity of calcium in the drainage water or in the ash of the crops produced. A statement of the calcium removed in crops and in drainage water from the limed andl the unlimed tanks is contained in table 26: TABLE 26. Avrracke ANNUAL REMOVAL OF CALCIUM FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED TANKS (In pounds per acre) Calcium removed from Calcium planted tanks leached from Soil treatment Tanks ie Tan corresponds drainage | In crops Total unplanted water tanks Not limed....... STOMOas = a Migs 13.2 190.3 4 370.8 Icimed asa AS eo LOLE ...: 169.6 13.2 182.8 8 364.0 The application of lime was not sufficient to meet the lime requirement of the whole body of soil. If, therefore, any more calcium was dissolved from the upper soil in the limed tanks than in the unlimed, it was evidently absorbed by the still unsatisfied soil below, and the final result was about the same in both cases. 46 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 47 The concentration of calcium was appreciably greater in the drainage water from the limed than in that from the unlimed soil, both when planted and when kept free of vegetation, as is shown in table 27: TABLE 27. Catcrtum IN DRAINAGE WATER FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED TANKS Calcium Tanks Soil treatment (parts per million) 3, Os eas A ES OR eee Pik a Not limed, cropped.......... 43.8 75 Gh. QD once chan 2 Al RERECE RE: RO eS RIN oe a itined scroppedte =. a ae. 4 50.4 ah. SR aS Ee ears Be) 1S Sees eee eee Notilimed bares 3! igs 44. 63.8 She Sle settee GEA LS MES Pee AACS eR sii A eee | MLimed bares A202) ns tae 74.9 As somewhat less water percolated thru the limed soil than thru the unlimed, it seems likely that the greater concentration of calcium in the drainage water from the limed soil was due to that cause rather than to any other. | Effect of potassium sulfate on removal of calcium Tanks 11 and 12 were both treated with an application of 200 pounds of sulfate of potash annually, but tank 11 was not limed while tank 12 received 3000 pounds of burnt lime in the spring of 1910 and again in 1914. Since the conditions were somewhat different from those previously considered, the removal of calcium in crops and in drainage water is here tabulated (table 28): TABLE 28. AverAGE ANNUAL REMOVAL oF CaLcruM FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED Tanks TREATED WITH SULFATE OF PoTasH (In pounds per acre) Calcium removed in Total Tank Soil treatment Drai calcium rainage 3 Crops removed water Vil 2° a ee a ae Not limed, K»SO,......... alee 10.2 SVB) 3 WY a aeteors Sete Isimted’ KoSOg: S35. arn 199.7 eS PA bs From these tanks also there was no greater removal of calcium from the limed soil than from the unlimed. 47 48 T. LyttTLeton Lyon anp JAMES A. BizzELL The removal of calcium is influenced by the application of sulfate of potash fertilizer, as may be seen from table 29: TABLE 29. Averack ANNUAL REMOVAL OF CALCIUM FROM SOIL TREATED AND FROM SOIL Not TREATED WITH SULFATE OF PoTASH (In pounds per acre) Calcium removed in gin Total Tanks Soil treatment saan a Ris water pe Batty (OPER eat ain clay se eee No lime, no K:SQ;......... Wie BL 190.3 Lilies Speer ree he ., 2 NovlimewKeS Oi =es).cn oe Dilser 1OR2 223.8 MO LO Man een nes 'o a 8G 3 Limes novkeS Omens. 169.6 Siz 182.8 LAG ee a a Lime KeS Ol eae sete 199.7 15 . ies It is apparent that the application of sulfate of potash resulted in an increase in the calcium, altho it did not increase the amount of potassium in the drainage water. There was an absorption of potassium by the soil and a liberation of calcium. The use of a potash fertilizer, in this form at least, should not be greater than is necessary, because not only is it an unnecessary expense, but also it causes a loss of calcium from the soil. Percentage of calcium in plants Altho the total removal of calcium in either the drainage water or the crops was not greater from the limed soil than from the unlimed, the percentage of calcium was, in the main, somewhat higher in the crops raised on the limed soil. This is brought out by table 30. There appears TABLE 30. PrERcENTAGE OF CALCIUM IN Crops RAISED ON LIMED AND ON UNLIMED SOL Unlimed soil Limed soil Average of tanks 3, 5, 6 Average of tanks 7, 9, 10 Year Grain ee Grain ire on: AGT O peeks, :-s02 6: SEER ais os 0.011 0.420 0.011 0.443 1) pe Res RS, ae. 43 A 0.103 0.340 0.114 0.352 112) EN rr ean eee er rae O80 n|pecemwenies 0.250 RON tee oe cep | eee mee OF 489) | Ae eetetee 0.448 ee We eeiats Rg ee sis). ocr5 od SAA ee OS204e eS 8 0.186. LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 49 to be a tendency for this peculiarity to disappear as the period after liming lengthens. Sufficiency of the lime application The four feet of soil in these tanks contains calcium at the rate of about 83,631 pounds per acre. The annual loss from the planted tanks, when calculated for both crops and leachings, is 194.2 pounds per acre, and from the unplanted tanks it is 367.4 pounds At this rate the annual loss amounts to 0.23 per cent of the total in the planted soil and 0.44 per cent in the unplanted soil. At the present actual loss per acre the planted soil would become exhausted of its calcium in 430 years and the unplanted in 228 years. Such a statement, however, signifies nothing, as the actual annual loss would decrease with the quantity of calcium present in the soil and thus the date of exhaustion would be delayed ereatly. On the other hand, the soil would probably become unfit for ordinary farming long before the shorter of these periods had been passed. The data obtained doubtless have some practical bearing on the quantity of lime that it will be necessary to add to such a soil in order to keep it up to its present content of calcium. This for the planted soil would amount to 271 pounds per acre annually, and for the unplanted soil 514 pounds. It appears from the results obtained that the quantity of lime applied in 1910 was not sufficient to greatly benefit the soil. No increased yields of non-leguminous plants were obtained as the result of liming, but clover responded to the application. This indicates some benefit, altho not all that might have been expected from an adequate application. The failure of the limed soil to form more nitrates than the unlimed soil is another indication of the insufficiency of the application. REMOVAL OF MAGNESIUM Magnesium was found in much smaller quantity than was calcium, both in the drainage water and in the ash of the crops raised. The average amount of magnesium removed annually from the soil by drainage water and by crops during the five-years period is shown in table 31: 4 49 50 T. LytTrueton Lyon AND JAmes A, BizzELL TABLE 31. Maanesrtum In DraInaGe WATER AND IN Crops (Pounds per acre, annual average) Magnesium Tank : : Magnesium| Total 5 ” arene in crops |magnesium Se ae catia PEC eM eric: «t. ee E ole eer ils 30.2 8.3 38.5 A RCE ee ci Sk eee oe GOO aiinee ae eee 60.0 ON EU eter eon, MES a RAT VER 28.0 8.9 36.9 Oe 3 RESTO aS Bao SORTER CT eae nae chs Seat oo ssp 43.1 5.1 48.2 LB i cp Shi Sd RAP Oe oe he eee 40.5 8.0 48.5 see etd aid Sie hasd RA aA CM Tio AEE ae Me Ream HORA Ua 70.4 hes Biel S BPE DORR Ce RR A TL an ere a AE Oat Fa 42.9 7.8 50.7 Li(D) a5 rach Pe a rm ce oe del Nanas LS eR te ace 37.2 4.6 41.8 TS sg blocs ERR CERNE Oke BEA BIS ORL ES) SILER ae Ala 49.2 5.8 55.0 TB 38s 0 Bi Re ER NRE NL ees ew oats 47.1 6.4 53.5 Effect of plant growth on removal of magnesium As in the case with calcium, the quantity of magnesium removed in the crop is small as compared with that lost in the drainage water, but this difference is not so marked as in the case of calcium. Another respect in which magnesium is similar to calcium is that the quantity of magnesium in the drainage water of the unplanted soil is greater than that removed from the planted soil by the drainage water and the crops combined. This is brought out by table 32: TABLE 32. Average ANNUAL REMOVAL OF MAGNESIUM FROM PLANTED AND FROM ‘ UNPLANTED TANKS (In pounds per acre) | Magnesium removed Soil ae Total Tanks magnesium ae EAC Drainage C ’ removed Tops water Serpe EM ND sks tocre eS Se eRe aR Planted.... 37.0 ffeil 44.1 1a to ape Death ts ac 38 ong a Re EP IBaRGr pater: 6oe20 ieee eee 65.2 Mapnesium COUseEMEGIDYCLOPPIN Pcie ci) amie crn ierens eteiene tere ante) stot teter ener tetas 21.1 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 51 The great loss of magnesium in the drainage water is apparently due in large measure to the solvent action of the nitric acid formed in and leached from that soil in large quantities. Not only is the total removal of magnesium by the drainage water of the unplanted soil greater than that from the planted soil, but its concentration is greater in the water from the unplanted tanks, as may be seen from table 33: TABLE 33. AverAGeE MaGnestum ConTENT OF DRAINAGE WATER FROM PLANTED AND FROM UNPLANTED TANKS Soil Magnesium Tanks treatment (par ts per million) Bh, Fey OTe Oe Is 2 ae ao eS eo yes epee | Planted. ... 10.5 AN AME ad theca hte ELAR Ce PCL at cor ec ea Ngee, ne ene Ge Bares 2" 12.7 Effect of lime on removal of magnesium While the application of burnt lime to this soil did not result in an increase in the quantity of calcium contained in the drainage water, it did increase the magnesium, as is shown in table 34: TABLE 34. Averace ANNUAL REMOVAL OF MAGNESIUM FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED TANKS (In pounds per acre) Magnesium removed Magnesium : from planted tanks leached from Soil . Tanks ‘ Tank |corresponding treatment I : n drainage In Total unplanted water crops tanks Not limed®: ee OHO, Oboe 33.8 7.4 41.2 4 60.0 imed tise ere: (he, We DW eet aye 40.2 6.8 47.0 8 70.4 | There would appear to be a basic exchange resulting from the appli- cation of lime, by which magnesium was liberated and dissolved by the soil water. The crop on the limed soil, being somewhat smaller than that on the unlimed soil, utilized less of the magnesium. 51 52 T. LyTTLETON LYON AND JAMES A. BiIzZzELL The concentration of magnesium also was greater in the drainage water from the limed soil than in that from the unlimed soil, as is to be expected from the foregoing results. The data are given in table 35: TABLE 35. Macnestum In DraInaAGE WATER FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED TANKS Magnesium Tanks Soil treatment (parts per million) SIO 30) 2 322 Say ie ea Been ie ce os es et oe Not limed, cropped.......... 9.0 Dee LO) cee tae etn he Ao terececala st ado eee kimedsicroppedterar essen 12.0 A Sd eR eet Le bes) ae Ree eas Cay Notilimed™bare=-e)5-) eee 10.9 SS ON oe Seven rage se ae aes Limed@ bares te. st ee ee 14.6 Effect of lime and potassium sulfate on removal of magnesium The application of lime to the soil treated also with sulfate of potash did not increase the quantity of magnesium in the drainage water, but in the crops there was a slight increase, as shown in table 36: TABLE 36. AveraceE ANNUAL REMOVAL OF MAGNESIUM FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED TANKS TREATED WITH SULFATE OF PoTAsH (In pounds per acre) Magnesium removed in Total Tank Soil treatment | mapnesium Drainage removed water Crops UR Bacio aco Gene Not limed, K2SQ,........ 49.2 5.8 55.0 LZ ae tare SBR EOD. Iimed "KGS Ofeaae eee 47.1 6.4 53.5 The removal of magnesium in the drainage water of these tanks was very considerably greater than for those not treated with potassium sulfate, and this fact may account for the failure of the lime to still further increase the liberation of magnesium. The effect of the sulfate of potash applications was to increase the removal of magnesium, as was the case with calcium. This is shown by table 37: 52 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 53 TABLE 37. AveraGe ANNUAL REMOVAL OF MAGNESIUM FROM SoIL TREATED AND FROM Sort Not TREATED WITH SULFATE OF PoTASH (In pounds per acre) Magnesium removed in Total Tanks Soil treatment magnesium Drainage Crops removed water . 2, Gy, Oso ee ea eee eee No lime, no K2SO,... 33.8 7.4 41.2 Ore teas it im Ree ate eh Poe No lime, K2SO,. 49.2 5.8 55.0 O OO ees cad Seen ei time; nos KeS@.. 7.445. 40.2 6.8 47.0 RN Aare ears SNS poate Ihime WKS OhF as ates . 47.1 6.4 53.5 There is a substitution of potassium for magnesium when the soil is treated with this fertilizer, altho quantitatively it is not so great as the substitution of potassium for calcium. Both these substitutions serve to emphasize the strong retentiveness of the soil for potassium. Percentage of magnesium in plants The effect of the lime application on the percentage of magnesium in the crops was not, on the whole, similar to its effect on the calcium. The effect on magnesium is shown in table 38: TABLE 38. PrrcentTaGE OF MAGNESIUM IN Crops RaIsED ON LIMED AND ON UNLIMED Soin Unlimed soil Limed soil Average of tanks 3, 5,6 | Average of tanks 7, 9, 10 Year : Straw or eae 0 Straw or Grain ine Grain ie NON OR ee Reet cats oti alge tse 0.087 0.204 0.096 0.205 OTT cot nape Netpcees RMS oo Pat REE mcrae ee 0.147 0.145 0.150 0.144 OU2 RE Bae ak. oy Pere etree, | eh Te OF OSES A 0.111 OTS Cae Steg cee ee Rice ee are) ene ee (Q) 20 1539 |e, eee Ae ed 0.095 LOAM ere eee Sea en ere tarts nr oe OROSS ee ee 0.095 There is not so much uniformity in the percentage of magnesium in these crops as is shown in the percentage of calcium, and there can hardly be said to be any relation between the application of lime and the per- centage of magnesium in the crops. 53 5A T. LyTrLeton Lyon anp JAMES A. B1izzELL CALCIUM-MAGNESIUM RATIO In the soil that was placed in the lysimeter tanks the calcium-magnesium ratio was approximately as given in table 39: TABLE 39. Cauctum-Macnesium Ratio 1n Soin First Second Third Fourth foot foot foot foot Calcium-magnesium ratio................. ica 0.6:1 0.9:1 2.5: 1 The ratio of calcium to magnesium that obtains in the drainage water is very different from that in the soil. Thus, in the water that percolated thru the soil which received no fertilizer and no lme, the calcium- magnesium ratio was 5.4 to 1. This is a much wider ratio than that found in the soil itself, and in this solution the magnesium is not in sufficiently large proportion to exert any toxic action on plant growth, while in the upper three feet of soil the ratio is sufficiently narrow to menace vegetation were these ingredients equally soluble. The effect of the lime application to this soil was to narrow the ratio in the drainage water, reducing it to 4.4:1. This is the average for the drainage from the four tanks treated similarly to the four mentioned above except for the application of lime. Instead of increasing the proportion of calcium in the drainage water, the effect of liming is to decrease it. How far this would go with greater applications of lime could not be ascertained from these experiments. The greater solubility of calcium as compared with magnesium in soil water makes it possible to farm soil with a narrower calcium-magnesium content than would be tolerated by plants if the salts were in solution. Applications of moderate quantities of lime apparently have little effect on this ratio in ordinary soil, but if the soil contained a large excess of magnesium over calcium it is conceivable that the application of lime might, by liberating magnesium, be detrimental to crop growth. REMOVAL OF POTASSIUM Of the bases studied, potassium was removed in greatest quantity by the crops and, with the exception of magnesium, !n least amount by 54 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 55 the drainage water. The average amounts of potassium removed annually from the soil by drainage water during the five-years period, and by crops during the first four years of the period, are given in table 40: TABLE 40. Potassium 1In DrarInaGE WATER AND IN CROPS (Pounds per acre, annual average) Potassium, | Potassium Total Tank in drainage in crops potassium water Sie 2 os ei es Eke ee 52.7 90.9 143.6 RPM db 5 clave 3 np Sue dminpinsvnin yeh wR AAS ech egbe tact ao) || aso 73.3 SME 58h cy Sih oe VU AEENA Saye e a5- » so : 39.7 90.5 130.2 LT ina ich Siete 9) nee AUR EDe eg Santee aa 46.5 58.7 105.2 OO a RE er One oa a ee 43.7 83.5 127.2 So the, 5.8 Ne oe co RN Os ee a ad a a AST Se cent he 48.8 J). 5 Cte ee nee Rie eo cls PL A PR ORE eae 45.9 91.1 137.0 RRR rsa Biocenter eT an ee ae ES 46.8 57.8 104.6 MUIR Pits sclera Fr SR jes ne Ropes OS 43.7 1i<0 121.2 ge ai) ao hin, Rays x ohevne AAS) 40.3 84.0 124.3 The striking feature of these figures, as compared with those shown in the corresponding table for calcium, is the relatively small quantity of potassium in the drainage water and the large quantity in the crops. Effect of plant growth on removal of potassium It will be remembered that the quantity of calcium in the drainage water of the unplanted soil was greater than that in the drainage water of the planted soil plus the calcium contained in the crops. So far as potassium is concerned, the case is quite different, its total removal from the planted soil being much larger than from the unplanted soil, as is shown in table 41. Potassium differs in this respect not only from calcium but also from all the other bases, altho to a less degree. This probably explains why potassium is needed as a fertilizer for providing plant nutri- ment, while the other bases are not required for the same purpose. Evidently native potassium is not sufficiently soluble in the soil water to supply the needs of the crops produced, as an average of only 61 pounds of potassium was leached annually from an acre of unplanted soil to offset the 79.2 pounds removed by the average crop from the same area, 55 56 T. Lytrueton Lyon anp James A. B1izzELL while there was an average of 367.4 pounds of calcium leached from each acre of unplanted soil and only 12.6 pounds removed in the average crop. The other bases resemble calcium in having a greater removal in the drainage water from unplanted soil than in the crops raised on the planted tanks. TABLE 41. Average ANNUAL REMOVAL OF POTASSIUM FROM PLANTED AND FROM UNPLANTED TANKS (In pounds per acre) Potassium removed in Total Tanks Soil treatment : potassium Drainage Cass removed water P SHO: Owed, OF EO. ae ei seal Melanteds 4: Deen wee edo 45.9 78.8 124.7 DAS cee aa Cee See nee. Bare Wee Ce ee GL308) eee 61.0 Potassium) conserved by not icropping}-) po. -se eek Lees seee ee eee ee 63.7 Plant growth on this soil appeared to have a depressing influence on the removal of calcium, if one is to Judge from the fact that less caletum was removed from the planted soil in drainage and crop combined than from the unplanted soil in which drainage was the only means of removal. On the other hand, plant growth exerted a stimulating effect on the removal of potassium when judged by the corresponding data on that base, appearing in table 41 above. It is seen by that table that there was about twice as much potassium removed from the planted soil as from the unplanted soil, and hence it may be inferred that the removal of potassium by the crop has little or no effect on the quantity leached out by the drainage water. This apparently greater solubility of potassium in the planted soil is probably not due to the greater solvent action of the carbon dioxide excreted by plant roots, as analyses of the soil air of these tanks show that there is enough carbon dioxide in the unplanted soil as well as in the planted soil to keep the soil water saturated during the growing season. It made little difference in the quantity of potassium removed by the drainage water whether the crops removed more or less potassium. For 56 LYSIMETER [*XPERIMENTS 57 example, the quantity of potassium in the crops raised on tanks 6 and 10 was considerably smaller than that contained in the crops on tanks 3, 5, 7, and 9, and yet the quantity in the drainage water was not materially different, as is shown by table 42, compiled from the figures in table 40 (page 55). This is in line with the results given in the preceding table, which showed that the potassium leached from the planted soil amounted to about three-fourths of that removed from the bare soil. TABLE 42. Averace Removal or Potassium IN DRAINAGE WATER FROM TANKS WITH LARGER AND WITH SMALLER QUANTITIES OF POTASSIUM IN THE CROPS (In pounds per acre) ; Potassium Tanks Potassium in drainage : in crops ater 3 By We Os Gath eae Bes Berea ees Cie eee Cate een Ceo Bat eal 89.0 45.5 (By WD sis ce Bice oN OER OE UL eee Cae ie Lean cone ke hee ieee is 58.2 46.6 The effect of plant growth on the concentration of potassium in the drainage water is shown in table 43: TABLE 43. Averace Porasstum ConTENT OF DRAINAGE WATER FROM PLANTED AND FROM UNPLANTED TANKS Potassium water (parts per Tanks Soil treatment : million) It will be remembered that the volume of percolate from the bare soil was considerably greater than from the planted soil, which is probably, in part at least, the explanation for the more dilute condition of the water from the bare soil. As between the drainage water from tanks containing smaller quantities of potassium in the crops and those containing larger quantities, there is no material difference in concentration, as is shown in table 44: aA 58 T. LytrLteron Lyon AND JAMES A. BizzELL TABLE 44. Porasstum In DratinaGE WATER FROM TANKS WITH LARGER AND WITH SMALLER QUANTITIES OF POTASSIUM IN THE CROPS ; Potassium Potassium | jn drainage Tanks in crops water (pounds) (parts per million) SS diy, Choy Cana ck eS Rte Se Ged A ny ese el Se 89.0 12.5 (Ge TQ) coc) 6. Sa AO a ERE dR hPa ned ala Mela oe BO 58.2 12.4 It would seem that the amount of potassium in the drainage water is more or less independent of the quantity used by the crops. To what the greater solubility of potassium in the planted soil is due does not appear from these results. If the soil solution were concentrated with respect to potassium, it might be conceived that removal of potassium from solution by crop growth was soon made good by further solution of potassium from the soil, and that the soil solution would thus be kept at a uniform concentration; but the difference in the concentration of the drainage water from the planted and from the bare soil would not admit of this hypothesis. Effect of lime on removal of potassium The application of lime to this soil did not result in any increase in the quantity of potassium contained in the drainage water or in the amount removed by the crops. This is shown by table 45. It has been so often TABLE 45. AveraceE ANNUAL REMOVAL OF POTASSIUM FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED TANKS (In pounds per acre) Potassium removed from Potassium planted tanks leached Soil treatment Tanks of aS A EN) a : responding In drainage| In Total unplanted water crops tanks Not limed %,.>. . 238 Oar oxi a4. 8 126.3 4 73.3 Limed... 7, 9, 10 123.0 8 48.8 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 59 stated that potassium is liberated by the application of lime, that it is of interest to note any indication of such action that may be derived from the composition of the drainage water. If the application of lime to this soil liberated any potassium, it must have been absorbed by the lower layers of soil and thus did not appear in the drainage water. While there is no indication that potassium was set free by the lime treatment, it is quite probable that if this had been the case the potassium would have ‘been absorbed by the lower soil, for the application of a potassium salt did not result in increasing the quantity of potassium in the drainage water. The effect of the lime treatment on the concentration of potassium ‘n solution in the drainage water, with respect both to the percolate from the planted soil and to that from the unplanted soil, is shown in table 46. It cannot be concluded from these figures that the application of lime results in increasing the concentration of potassium in the drain- age water. TABLE 46. Porasstum IN DRAINAGE WATER FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED TANKS Potassium Tanks Soil treatment (parts per million) UO BOM ee ace St sa es ban oe: REE Not limed, cropped.......... 1270 TESTO 21) SNES SENS tna Perea Weare a et eee aera Cae Iiimed: cropped) sa... 040 .0.5- 12.9 A RM deem ihe Rr ON ire SU te Aue tat 8 leh oe Notilimedbareanaas sae ee 12.2 Siete tet Set AT OM ae whey Gimed bares a5: fee ea oe 9.1 Altho the drainage water showed no evidence of liberation of potassium by lime, the possibility still remained that a greater removal of potassium from the limed soil by plants would prevent the appearance in the drainage water of that set free. As the potassium content of the crops raised on these tanks for four years had been determined, a comparison was made between the quantity of potassium removed by the plants that grew on the limed sols and the amount removed by the plants on the unlimed soils, and also of the percentages of potassium in the crops. The results are given in table 47: a 60 T. LyTrLeton LYon AND JAMES A. BizzELuL TABLE 47. Porasstum In Crops oN LIMED AND ON UNLIMED SoIL (Annual average of four years) Percentage of Pounds of | potassium in crop Tanks Soil treatment potassium per acre Grain Straw Boh OLA 2 aA Be eee: INotplimedey . ote eee 80.0 0.56 2.04 iCall na da Tarpeation: all ‘sth See | 77.5 0.56 2.08 The indications, on the whole, are opposed to the conclusion that potassium is liberated by the application of lime to this soil, when the quantity used corresponds roughly to the lime requirement of the surface eight inches as determined by the Veitch method. Effect of potassium sulfate on removal of potassium Potassium was unlike calcium and magnesium in that there was no liberation of the former produced by the application of sulfate of potash, as is evident from table 48: TABLE 48. Averace ANNUAL REMOVAL OF POTASSIUM FROM SorL TREATED AND FROM Sort Not TREATED WITH SULFATE OF POTASH (In pounds per acre) Potassium removed in Total Tanks Soil treatment potassium Drainage removed water Crops 3 Feild ll Nias ick bt ecag alemeiates No lime, no K2SOs....... 4 80.0 126.3 ID CS Reishee hie coeeeren No lime, K2SOu.......... 43.7 Mie) 12102 ee RS ae see acess: 4 ime snows O eee ee 45.5 ths 123.0 rg iin RAS Rote oe ime KeSOcneee - ee 40.3 84.0 124.3 There are no significant differences in the figures for the removal of potassium, either in the drainage water or in the crops, from these tanks. It may be concluded that, while the applications of sulfate of potash 60 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 61 eaused a liberation of calctum and of magnesium, the potash of this fertilizer was practically all absorbed by the soil. The rapid leaching of a potash fertilizer from a clay loam soil is not a danger. REMOVAL OF SODIUM Of the four bases studied, sodium was, with the exception of magnesium, removed in the least quantity in the crops produced, and, with the exception of calcium, in the greatest quantity in the drainage water. The average amounts of sodium (Na) removed annually from the soil by drainage water during the five-years period, and by crops during the first four years of the period, are given in table 49: TABLE 49. Soprum 1n DRAINAGE WATER AND IN CROPS (Pounds per acre, annual average) _ Sodium» Sudium Total Tank in drainage | in crops sodium water Sete Sate AGERE SU okey Ses eR yao 99:9 9.9 109.8 Deere ee . tries ® = ee tae. tar eas Was GAYE Die Ay Wieecs i arsety 6 122.4 RE ge 9 Fea sels oes, ays SRS RET 68.0 8.3 76.3 PRR ae Sed cores octal cect ea ste G MIS cat: 82.5 10.4 92.9 Te So a Se Re ee Er eae Oe tear: Baer 70.2 7.5 CE Soin oan Gee eR ean SI are Oe cee pier 82: Onl a Se 82.9 iD dnl eh any ah CORRIDOR ORE, SEP EEE 78.8 7.5 86.3 TC) dis ne a oO ara ene Spree een: Pie 71.3 10.8 82.1 1 U1 5 gua ch ance! ey RGR rae gear Een eee Seize oe eee oer 84.1 6.5 90.6 ey ere a ts ANS See A Once sk aco’ ne 2 as 79.8 6.3 86.1 Very little sodium is removed in the crops as compared with that leached out by the drainage water. There was not a great difference between | the planted and the unplanted soils so far as the total removal is concerned. Effect of plant growth on removal of sodium Sodium is like calcium and magnesium, and differs from potassium, in that it is removed in greater quantity from the unplanted soil than from the planted soil. Since it is not essential to plant growth its loss is not so serious as is that of the other three bases; but the lack of it tends to 61 62 T. Lyrruteton Lyon anp JAmES A. BizzELL bring about an acid condition of the soil. The amounts removed from planted and from unplanted soil are given in table 50: TABLE 50. Average ANNUAL REMOVAL OF SODIUM FROM PLANTED AND FROM UNPLANTED TANKS (In pounds per acre) Sodium removed in Total Tanks Soil treatment | SOCn Drainage removed water Crops DO OMe Oe OL a ta ceicests Pinnted en oe el 78.4 9.1 87.5 A Sie Re Oe hr ne EE de Baresyt¢ Wate gas ists LOZ Gah HEE ee 102.6 Sodiumiconserved byrcroppiny ohne ane nee oes 15.1 Effect of lime on removal of sodium The application of lime to this soil depressed the loss of sodium, as is seen in table 51: TABLE 51. Averace ANNUAL REMOVAL OF SODIUM FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED TANKS (In pounds per acre) Sodium removed from Sodium planted tanks leached Soil treetment Tanks Tank Bete In drain- In unplanted age water | crops Total tanks Notilimeds 2A. ce 3G), Ore sae ee 83.5 9.5 93.0 4 122.4 = Thame tint Sacco We Or LOE, shoe Be ones 8.6 82.0 8 82.9 Not only in the drainage water was there a smaller removal of sodium from the limed soil than from the unlimed, but also in the crops. Sodium resembles potassium in this respect, but its conservation was even more marked in spite of the fact that it is more soluble in the soil water than is potassium. 62 LYSIMETER [°XPERIMENTS 63 The concentration of sodium in the drainage water also was somewhat less for the limed soil than for the unlimed, as is shown in table 52: TABLE 52. Soprum 1n DraInaGE WATER FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED TANKS © , Sodium Tanks Soil treatment (parts per million) = 2 Oo S@uLe Bile ati a ean Ae eee eee Not limed, cropped............ “P2018 nea AGEN PROS TERS). Desa ELS wares igimed: croppedis sens ee 19.5 Be oe banc loctold Le He IG eee nee Notjlimed barcee ae se eeeeeiar 22.0 RIPE So SA iis c08 cere Husted os crs She sae ids timed bare: .0.ee ae eee Soi The difference in concentration of the drainage water from the limed and the unlimed planted soil was slight, but in the drainage water from the unplanted soil there was a notably more ails solution in the limed soil, as was also the case with potassium. Effect of potassium sulfate on removal of sodium The effect of the application of sulfate of potash fertilizer on the removal of sodium, as shown in table 53, was not exactly the same as that on the removal of any of the other bases: TABLE 53. Average ANNUAL ReMovaAL or Soprum FROM Soi, TREATED AND FROM Sort Not TREATED WITH SULFATE OF PoTASH (In pounds per acre) Sodium removed in Total Tanks Soil treatment ee SOCUITH Drainage | @ions removed water oP PP ele teropsite:kcheusyan cise ec No lime, no K2SQ...... 83.5 9.5 93.0 1 lee ecient te Renita a ane at No lime, K2SQ;....... 84.1 6.5 90.6 PEO Orie Attensa a Saas oa Lime, no K2SQ4....... 73.4 8.6 82.0 38 a oiiee 6 Lh BO Ie ee ILingaes WeGSLOVE Ls A Saeeoe © 79.8 6.3 86.1 The table shows that there was a slight liberation of sodium in the drain- age water as the result of the fertilizer applications, but this was less than the liberation of calcium or of magnesium (tables 29 and 37). Where 63 64 T. Lytrueton Lyon AnD JAMES A. BizzELL lime was applied, the increase of sodium in the drainage water as the result of the fertilizer treatment was not materially greater than in the case of the unlimed soil. The crops on the potash-fertilized soil contained considerably less sodium than those on the unfertilized soil. EFFECT OF POTASSIUM SULFATE ON TOTAL QUANTITY OF BASES IN DRAINAGE WATER The total quantity of the four bases — calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium — in the drainage water from the tanks fertilized with sulfate of potash and in that from tanks not so treated, is shown in table 54: TABLE 54. Average ANNUAL REMOVAL OF Bases IN DRAINAGE WATER AS AFFECTED BY APPLICATIONS OF SULFATE OF POTASH (In pounds per acre) | Tanks Soil treatment Calcium Mag- Potas- Sodium Total | nesium sium a a ——— —— | | _—™ a, Odea No lime, no K2SO.... WF el 33.8 46.3 83.5 340.7 | Ue. ««4|) No lime, TGsO.8 on 213.1 49.2 43.7 84.1 390.1 io, 10... 2| Lime, no KSsO”. . 169.6 40.2 45.5 73.4 328.7 17 Lime, KeSOu/.5 22... BEF 47.1 40.3 to58 366.9 The application of potassium sulfate increased in each case the quantities of calcium and magnesium, and in less degree the quantity of sodium, in the drainage water. It is doubtful whether the increase in sodium is not within the limits of experimental error. The relative increase in these constituents is shown in table 55: TABLE 55. Increase or DecrEASE oF Bases IN DratnaGe Water, TAKING as 100 THAT FROM SOIL RECEIVING NO SULFATE OF PoTASH Tanks Soil treatment Calcium Mag- Potas- Sodium | Average nesium sium 3,15, Ga).ae No lime, no K:SO,... 100 100 100 100 100 UVC, ctetesay No lime, K:SOu..... 120 146 94 101 114 7,9, 10....| Lime, no K:SQu..... 100 100 100 100 100 A Sime KsSO). 2 255208 118 117 89 109 112 | Magnesium appears to be freely liberated from this soil both by lime and by the potassium salt, but especially by the latter. These substitutions 64 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 65 of bases are doubtless a factor in the effects produced on the soil by fertilizers and other inorganic salts. One marked difference between the effect of lime and that of potassium sulfate applied to this soil, is that an application of the former resulted in a decrease in the total quantity of the bases calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium in the drainage water, while the applications of potassium sulfate increased the total quantity of these bases. The fact that the application of potassium was combined with a strong acid (sulfuric), whereas the lime was in the form of an oxide, would probably account at least in part for this, as the quantity of sulfate was larger in the drainage water from the soil that received potassium sulfate. OTHER EXPERIMENTS ON LOSS OF BASES Experiments were conducted at the Jonképing Experiment Station in Sweden by Von Feilitzen, Lugner, and Hjerstedt (1912), with lysimeters having an area of 80 by 80 centimeters and a depth of 50 centimeters. All the lysimeters were filled with muck soil containing about 60 per cent of organic matter. The crops raised were oats, potatoes, and rutabagas. The average loss per year of calcium and potassium in the drainage water for four years, calculated to pounds per acre, was as follows: In rotation In grass Soil treatment CaO KO CaO KO PERI ZeMe ys ak eh tt ters karen. Ma) TOG TE 252 62 162 66 Acid"phosphatevand kainite:. 2242 6). kobe ete 142 67 88 60 The percentage of the total quantity of calcium and potassium con- tained in the soil that was lost in the drainage water was as follows: In rotation In grass Soil treatment CaO K:0 CaO K:0 xe rurltzcctetre meee ee aN Lear ee eck tiara ata Se ae 0.019 | 0.005 | 0.010 0.005 OMIPLECEHLEROIULZED the clit etre ee oe eta cic eeminietardis Selo 0.011 0.006 | 0.006 0.005 66 T. LytTrLeton Lyon AND JAMES A. BIzzELL Von Seelhorst and Fresenius (1904) conducted experiments in the . weighable lysimeters at Gottingen, Germany, which have already been described. Four tanks were used. Tanks 1, 2, and 3 were planted to oats, and tank 3 was also seeded to clover. A crop of clover was harvested in October. Tank 4 was planted to beets. All the tanks were planted in April and the drainage records were run for nearly a year from that time, so that they compare fairly well in that respect with the results recorded here. The soil was a loam. The loss of recorded bases in the drainage water for the eleven-months period, calculated to pounds per acre, was as follows: Tank CaO MgO K:O ARI 3 ont ts Rear OO At mai ge MOL kept A nck oy HUM on Se ry aM 391 62 4.6 Dey. treet, «be arndui esis oleh mc tebe tah Sh seek ee Be 407 65 Dao TIO ORS ech CAEN RD PCR OCH a Ee ean eee AE 170 25 0.0 Bet pcttcars ah Wea e A AOE aia erate eb SER R UD. Et 411 61 10.0 Hanamann (1898) reports experiments with lysimeters holding 50 kilograms of soil, of which some were planted and some were bare. The period during which drainage water was collected was only from April 1 to October 30 of one year. Obviously the annual removal of bases cannot be ascertained from this. Maize, barley, and red clover were raised in different lysimeters on the same type of soil, which was used also in a lysimeter that was kept bare. All the bases were leached in greater quantities from the bare soil than from the planted tanks. One of the few lysimeter experiments in which lime was aooled to the soil was conducted by Tacke, Immendorff, and Minssen (1898), who used small quantities of muck soil. They found that only after repeated applications of lime was the solubility of the potassium of the soil increased, but application of potassium salts increased to a marked degree the solubility of the soil calcium. Increased amounts of calcium were not found in the drainage water following the application of lime. A considerable proportion of the potassium applied in fertilizers passed thru in the drainage water. At the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Experiment Station, experiments with lysimeters holding 250 pounds of soil were conducted by Eckart (1905). To different tanks lime was applied in the form of (1) burnt lime, at 66 LYSIMETER [EXPERIMENTS 67 the rate of 3.92 tons per acre, (2) ground coral, at the rate of 8.87 tons per acre, and (3) gypsum, at the rate of 11.08 tons per acre. The effect of gypsum was to increase the quantity of potash (KO) in the drainage water at the rate of 198 pounds per acre, but burnt lime and coral caused a loss of only 9 pounds per acre. Lysimeters have been in use at the Bromberg Agricultural Institute since 1906. They are cylindrical in shape, and are 2 meters in diameter and 1.2 meters deep. Experiments reported by Gerlach (1910a) cover a period from June 1, 1906, to July 29, 1909. Five soils were used in ten lysimeters, one tank of each soil being fertilized and one left unfertilized. The first year of the experiment no crops were raised; the second season all the tanks were planted to potatoes, the third season to oats, and the _ fourth season to rye. The average yearly loss of calcium oxide (CaQ) for the period of experi- mentation, including the year of fallow, varied with the different soils from 103 pounds per acre to 1803 pounds on the unfertilized soils. It may .be remarked that there was less removal of both calcium and potassium in the drainage water of the fertilized soil than in the water from the unfertilized soil. The annual removal of potassium ranged from 9 pounds to 206 pounds per acre. Another experiment with the weighable lysimeters at Gdéttingen is reported by Von Seelhorst and others (1913). Two tanks were used, one of which was filled with a loam soil and the other with a sandy soil. Both were kept bare of vegetation thruout one of the experiments, which continued from 1908 to 1912. The average annual removal of calcium oxide (CaO) amounted to 239 pounds per acre from the loam and 216 pounds from the sand, and of magnesium oxide (MgO) 42.5 pounds per acre from the loam and 19.2 pounds from the sand. Experiments with lysimeters at the Florida Experiment Station are reported by Collison and Walker (1916). The tanks were 4 feet deep and had a surface area of approximately 1/2000 acre. The soil was a coarse sand, poor in plant-food materials, especially in potash. In four of the tanks peach trees were planted. Each tank was fertilized twice a year with two pounds of a mixture containing eight per cent of potash. The other fertilizer ingredients also were applied on this liberal basis. In tanks 1 and 2 the nitrogen was in the form of ammonium sulfate, in tank 3 nitrate of soda, and in tank 4 dried blood. Of the bases, definite figures are available for potash only. For the four years from 1912 to 67 68 T. LytTrLeton Lyon AND James A. BizzELL 1915 the annual loss of potash (K:O) in drainage water was as follows: 238 pounds per acre from tank 1; 281 pounds from tank 2; 218 pounds from tank 3; and 141 pounds from tank 4. Apparently the sulfate of ammonia favored a larger removal of potash than did the nitrate of soda, and the latter in turn favored a larger removal than did dried blood. The removal of potash in the drainage water increased rapidly each year of the experiment, indicating that the soil used had very little retentivity for potassium. Lysimeter experiments at the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Experiment Station were conducted by Peck (1911), who used small vessels 8 inches in diameter and 2 feet in depth. Two soils were used, both of which were sandy loams. One, an upland soil, was acid to litmus; the other, from lowland, was alkaline to litmus. To one set of vessels lime was applied in the forms of oxide, carbonate, and sulfate, a sufficient quantity of each being used to supply calcium oxide (CaO) at the rate of one ton to the acre foot. The soils were kept free of vegetation. The tanks were irrigated with distilled water at intervals of two weeks, and ten irrigations were given, amounting in all to about 23 acre inches. The drainage water from these vessels contained the following quantities of lime (CaO) and potash (K,O): Pounds per acre in drainage water Soil treatment Lime Potash 94.2 26.0 13550 30.0 130.5 29.3 344.5 44.7 The effect of all the lime applications was to increase the quantity of calcium and of potassium in the drainage water. Gypsum was very active in this respect. Ammonium sulfate was applied to some vessels and this also increased the quantities of both calcium and potassium in the drainage water. Fraps (1914) conducted experiments at the Texas Experiment Station in which he used lysimeters 12 inches in diameter and 24 inches deep. These were divided into eight sets of six vessels each, and the vessels 68 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 69 in each set were filled with soil of a different type from those in the other sets. The soil was kept free of vegetation. The annual removal of potash (K.O) in the drainage water varied with the type of soil, rising from a minimum of 8 pounds per acre to a maximum of 67 pounds. The lime (CaO) varied from 70 pounds to 582 pounds, and the magnesia (MgO) from 13 pounds to 53 pounds. These losses were from soils to which no fertilizer had been applied. The experiments included the application of sulfate of potash, which was used at the average rate of about 308 pounds per acre annually. In the case of two soils this application did not increase the quantity of potassium in the drainage water, but, on the other hand, materially decreased it. There was an increase in the potassium in the drainage water of the other six soils, but the quantities varied greatly, showing, as the author remarks, large differences in the fixing power of these soils. The potash applications increased the removal of calcium in most of the soils to a rather slight degree, but in a sandy soil potassium sulfate caused the calcium to more than double in the drainage water. In one soil the removal of calcium was depressed by the potash. Magnesia followed closely the course of lime in respect to its response to applications of potassium: sulfate, but in the main the effect was less marked than with lime, and in the case of two soils the removal was decreased. Bases in drainage water from field soils Goessmann, Haskins, and Smith (1899) report analyses of drainage water from eleven 0.1-acre plats of land which were drained by tiles running down the middle of each plat at a depth of from 33 to 4 feet and terminating in an open well from which the water could be drawn for analysis. No attempt was made to keep a record of the flow. On certain plats potas- sium was applied as muriate, and on others as potassium magnesium sulfate, together with other chemicals. The application of potassium salts was found to increase the quantity of calcium in the drainage water, and in most cases, but not in all, the muriate occasioned a greater loss of lime than did the sulfate. Magnesium also was leached in larger quantity from the plats receiving the potash salts. Drainage water was collected from tile drains under a plat of 4.81 hectares of land, and analyses were reported, by Creydt, Von Seelhorst, and Wilms (1901). The tiles were 15 meters apart and 1.25 meters deep. The soil was a loam overlying a clay loam. Drainage was col- 69 70 T. Lytrueton Lyon Aanp JAmes A. BizzELL lected daily from July 28, 1899, to August 10, 1900. Analyses were made every eighth day. Beans were raised on the land in 1899 and beets in 1900. From these data the authors estimate the calcium oxide (CaO), the magnesium oxide (MgQ), and the potassium oxide (K2Q) removed from one acre in the drainage water during one year to be as follows: calcium oxide (CaO), 554 pounds; magnesium oxide (Mg0Q), 123 pounds; potassium oxide (K:O), 7.4 pounds. Norton (1908) made a study of the drainage basin of Richland Creek, Arkansas, covering an area of 84,954 acres of farm land that had never received fertilizers. The streams were measured every two weeks from January 6 to December 23, and samples of water for analysis were taken at the same time. From the data obtained Norton concluded that the loss from one acre of soil during the year amounted to 81 pounds of lime (CaO), 10 pounds of magnesia (MgO), 4.8 pounds of potash (K2O), and 3 pounds of soda (Na2Q). Gerlach (1910b) reports experiments on eleven plats of land in Posen, where the annual rainfall was 20 inches and the percolation 20 per cent. The annual loss of lime (CaO) per acre was 190 pounds and of potash (K2O) 5.5 pounds. On glancing over these experiments with many different soils it is seen that the quantities of the bases vary greatly with the soils used, par- ticularly when the soils are kept free of vegetation. With some soils the application of lime increased the removal of calcium in the drainage water, but generally it did not do so in the quantities used. Magnesium generally responded to lime applications, but there were few soils that gave any indication of a liberation of potassium by lime, except possibly in the form of gypsum. The application of potassium salts resulted, in general, in a liberation of calcium and of magnesium. The experiments bring out strikingly the retentiveness of the soil for potassium, and the comparatively easy solubility of calcium, at least in soils heavier than sand. The Florida soil lost great quantities of potash, but it was a coarse sand and heavily manured with potash salts. In some soils the application of potassium salts did not increase the removal of potassium, while in other soils the opposite was the case. The quantities of the bases removed in the drainage water from the soils used in these experiments are given in table 56: 7O a eer SSC LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 71 TABLE 56. Removat or Bases IN DRAINAGE WATER (In pounds per acre) 2 J Cropped soils Investigators Kind of soil CaO MgO K20 Na2O (Lysimeters) Von Feilitzen, Lugner, and Hjerstedt...... Muck, unfertilized, in rotation.......... D457 tl | es 625 eee Von Feilitzen, Lugner, and Hjerstedt...... Muck, unfertilized, in grass............. INGRAM | Seat teie GGil i aercretoee Von Feilitzen, Lugner, and Hjerstedt...... Muck, acid phosphate and kainite, in TOCALION So voraiete hove ed er tetera verona acessrenats 1425 Wess GTriliWarerertetes Von Feilitzen, Lugner, and Hjerstedt...... Muck, acid phosphate and kainite, in grass yal) eters 60 ‘ Von Seelhorst and Hresenius': os)... a2 2 WSIS ICORES. oc, oc cierd crete wuevecavsle eye eto erate 399 63 5! lh sbsteetere Von Seelhorst and Fresenius.........- Loam, in oats followed by clover........ 170 25 Ouillatirxceree Von Seelhorst and Nresenius...3. 22% = oam in DeetSaiie tele oan aiekta Sa eewslare one 411 61 WON sees Collison and Walker..| Coarse sand, with much potash and acid phosphate; one orange tree in each lysimeter: AMmMMOnNT WM SUMATC). 1c cisietss seevceeteya sch || ered date If arenes 2S) | Maks ceuencke Ammonium Suliatenteryoe acts sia sceuceiehs [Moree sta: li varderee DS1s | favecter INTirALeLOlBOU Ay tas co otters cesler seein cal iecrsral= cre. licceaebscsee AS Wi acters 1D ja (1s i155 VoYsye [Ree errs eeu ae Ce ERR anc] | cicreet a cam | InIoe ere TAD, ||) ic eteese Lyon and Bizzell..... Dunkirk clay loam, farm manure........ 247 56 56 113 Lyon and Bizzell..... Dunkirk clay loam, farm manure, lime... 236 66 55 99 Lyon and Bizzell..... Dunkirk clay loam, farm manure, potas- GIUMMES MACE einer ctenace siokers keer eee tae 298 80 52 114 Lyon and Bizzell..... Dunkirk clay loam, farm manure, lime, PIO UASSUUTIIS ULE A CO srer-fa)tare fatal -) a enateloneyoieraye 277 ve 48 108 (Field soils) Creydt, Von Seelhorst, eng. Walinses ase. 2 Loam, complete fertilizer, in beans and IDES TS EER renter ite eres hot aie sraterapeeaeda 554 123 al erara rete IMGNEORERI) scan 2 eae No fertilizer, 84,954 acres............... 81 10 5 3 (Garlsichterycnr = cers Eleven different fields... ....:...-.-...- 190F | eee a 5) | eee at Bare soil Investigators Kind of soil CaO MgO K:0 Na2O ‘ (Lysimeters) Von Seelhorst and OLHers aor oe nite Loam, unfertilized...... ADUCDDUODeCUOeS 239 DR IMR OR Gr ES || berate Von Seelhorst and OUNETS ee is aaisk ft a2 ae Sandemunfentrlized ac mierieteletelereie siete cleteievere 216 LOU Sota roelhee eee INTADS. Reon welein toe pore INorfolksscm dies acierettelstosieersiemicierorersietsiete 70 13 103 eee lbw eos oO OmS eee Orangeburg fine sandy loam............ 181 27 S21 eeree reer IRVADS i oo ays cs avers cies oustonwloaran sae eset eciclerctieice tie cites 258 47 ASS eee eee: HTADS eos Sees Houston! black ‘clays cic os 00 ce ose csine 442 40 fog] |F e Wraps teia tere ecto ethos Wazooyclay, cervcc a atisistere areas s Oars eee Oerere 582 51 CY (alll eSiree araae EADS ie fale ete aee ss cuels. 2 Millerifine; sandy loam. 252 S. LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 73 benefit to crops to be derived from applications of sulfur. It should be noted, however, that while sulfate of potash was the only commercial fertilizer applied to any of the lysimeters, all received an application of 10 tons of farm manure at the beginning of the experiment and again e TABLE 58. Averace ANNUAL REMOVAL OF SULFUR FROM PLANTED AND FROM UNPLANTED TANKS (In pounds per dcre) Sulfur removed in Total Tanks Soil treatment oo ||| sulfur Drainage C removed TOps water SOON 7 Os LO ie Ne sek Riuraebeacen ¢ Biantedian <455 sere 38.2 10.1 48.3 ik [ll UR AOD Ane CREA OR Saad ares Barein sikeeaeee ASE OM) aah sac 8 5 Sulfite CONSER VEG sD ym CLO IN ler wae va eestor eget ements ee OR2 in 1914. Sulfur was determined only in the manure applied in 1914.! Assuming the two applications to be equal, they would contain about 62 pounds of sulfur per acre. It is quite evident that, at the rate at which sulfur is carried off by the drainage water from these tanks, there is likely to be a deficiency in the soil in a measureable length of time. Effect of lime on removal of sulfur The application of lime was accompanied by an increase in the quantity of sulfur in the drainage water, as may be seen from table 59: TABLE 59. AveraceE ANNUAL REMOVAL OF SULFUR FROM LIMED AND FROM UNLIMED TANKS (In pounds per acre) Sulfur removed from Sulfur k planted tanks leached Soil "Takes Tank | from cor- treatment _ in responding drainage | In crops Total unplanted water tanks Not limed....... ioe Gueeeee 30.9 10.4 45.9 4 44.0 Tbimmedin Aes TeOMAO aes. 40.9 9.8 50.7 8 Saul a3 74 T. LyTrLeton LYON AND JAMES A. BIZzELL The larger quantity of sulfur in the drainage water of the limed soil appears to be sufficiently well marked and constant to indicate a con- nection between the treatment and the result, especially as the sulfur in the drainage water from tanks 11 and 12 has the same relation to the lime treatment. It seems likely that the biological process by which sulfur is oxidized in the soil is favored by the presence.of a sufficient quantity of lime, just as is the process of nitrate formation. Effect of potassium sulfate on removal of sulfur The fate of the sulfate applied to the soil is in part indicated by these experiments. Tanks 11 and 12, each of which received an annual appli- cation of 200 pounds per acre of commercial sulfate of potash, equivalent to about 35 pounds of sulfur, lost more sulfur in the drainage water than did the soil not so treated, as is shown in table 60: TABLE 60. AvrerAGE ANNUAL REMOVAL OF SULFUR FROM SoIL TREATED AND FROM SOIL Not TREATED WITH SULFATE OF POTASH (In pounds per acre) Sulfur removed in Total Tanks Soil treatment ee ee ee | su etias Drainage C removed Tops water SOMO Eee ee one cee No lime, no K2SOs......... 35.9 10.4 45.9 ee VS le ee eee INomime KGS Ore ere 56.4 8.8 65.2 TAOMOM MRM tee. Coe himevnowkeS Ofere ere 40.9 9.8 50.7 DAs eee Rie calc bios e Time KGSO.0 sae 62.0 10.0 72.0 The drainage water removed about 20 pounds more sulfur per acre from the soil to which sulfate of potash had been applied than from the soil not so treated, but the crop did not show increased removal. From these figures it may be inferred that over one-half of the total sulfur added in the form of sulfate was removed in the drainage water. As compared with most substances added to the soil as a fertilizer, this is a large loss. It raises the question whether the use of sulfates as a source of sulfur is economical, and whether it is not better to supply this material in the form of organic matter. It is true that sulfate is frequently present in fertilizers as an accidental constituent and adds nothing to the cost of 74 SMN NO SVad GNV SLVO JO WO SLVO JO dOUO UNV TANNOL NI SLHDITAMS DNIMOHS ‘SHNVL JO GNA HLYON WOUd MAA ’ = liens oats ee ee ren” te Nba igs AE ered AJ Savig ZI MIOWATL LYSIMETER {/XPERIMENTS 75 the material. This being the case, the loss of the sulfur is not a matter of much moment, but it must be remembered that it causes also loss o1 lime. Other experiments on removal of sulfur in drainage water Not many data have been published indicating the loss of sulfur in drainage water. Hanamann (1898) reports the results of experiments with lysimeters in which several soils were placed and the drainage was collected from soil cropped and from soil uncropped. The period during which the drainage was collected was from April 1 to Octeber 30 of one year. The quantity of sulfur in the drainage water for this period was 44 pounds per acre from a basalt soil and 37 pounds from an alluvial soil, both of which remained bare of vegetation during the entire period. In other lysimeters crops were raised on the alluvial soil. From the tank on which maize was raised there were 29 pounds of sulfur in the drainage water, and from that on which red clover grew there were 15 pounds. In the lysimeter experiments by Von Seelhorst and Fresenius (1904), already referred to, sulfur was determined among the ingredients in the drainage water. Four lysimeter tanks were used in this experiment. Tanks 1, 2, and 3 were planted to oats; tank 3 was seeded also to clover and a crop of clover was harvested the same year. Tank 4 was planted to beets. The soil was a loam. The drainage water was collected thru a period beginning on April 1 and ending the last of the following February. The average removal of sulfur in the drainage water was as follows: 248 pounds per acre from tanks 1 and 2; 94 pounds from tank 3; 258 pounds from tank 4. The striking feature of the experiment is the small quantity of sulfur leached from the soil on which clover grew. Gerlach (1912) reports experiments with the lysimeters at Bromberg in which a record was kept of the removal of sulfur in the drainage water. Soils from five fields were used, and one tank of each soil was fertilized and one was left unfertilized. The experiment here reported covers the thirteen months beginning on August 1, 1909, and ending on August 31, 1910. Previous to this time all the tanks had been cropped each year. For the period of this experiment the soils were all unplanted from August 1 until the next spring, when one-half the number were planted to oats and one-half were fallowed. The cropped tanks were fertilized with 75 76 T. LytTueton LYon AND JAMES A. BizzELL dipotassium phosphate and nitrate of soda. The quantities of sulfur removed in the drainage water during the thirteen months, in pounds per acre, were as follows: Muckisoilferoppedy.c: + .5.\c MER eee eto cee ane ae 145 Muck sou Stallowed co occ: 0% Seah ree eee a ee ee eee 225 Sandyalosmupoor an iumus) cropped= ee ere eee. fee reer 84 Sandy loam poor in humus, fallowed........................... 108 SG LTntelajreat Lato EON) ) YONG AAS igh assoodddodeaygenlcaededeur 58 Sandrichtinwhumus, tallowed/ he. ese teen ee eee 106 Sandy, loam poor in) humus, cropped.........-.0.. J0500.505-24s- 24 Sandygloam: poor in) humus; sallowediec os. 9242 -r. eee eee 96 Yellow sandy loam poor in humus, cropped..................... 79 Yellow sandy loam poor in humus, fallowed..................... 157 There is a considerable range in the sulfur removal from the soils used in Gerlach’s experiments, and in some cases the quantities removed are very large while in others they are much below the average obtained in the other experiments cited. The differences in the quantities of sulfur in the drainage water from the cropped as compared with the fallow soils cannot be accounted for by the sulfur removed by the crops. It will be noticed that the fertilizer used contained no sulfur. Experiments by Von Seelhorst and others (1913) with the weighable lysimeter tanks at G6ttingen, in which a sandy soil and a loam soil were kept bare of vegetation and the drainage was collected thru a period of five years, gave a total of 40 pounds of sulfur per acre from the sandy soil and 41 pounds from the loam. In the experiments by Creydt, Von Seelhorst, and Wilms (1901), during which drainage water was collected from an area of 4.81 hectares of land by means of tile drains 15 meters apart and iaid at a depth of 1.25 meters, one of the constituents determined in the leachings was sulfur. The soil was a loam. The crops consisted of beans in 1899 and of beets in 1900. The period during which drainage was collected was from July 28, 1899, to August 10, 1900. The total quantity of sulfur leached from the soil during that time was 164 pounds per acre. Norton (1908) likewise determined sulfur in the analyses of the drainage water from the basin of Richland Creek, Arkansas. The soil of this water- shed had never received commercial fertilizers. For the period from January 6 to December 23 the quantity of sulfur carried in the drainage water was 7.1 pounds per acre. 76 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS ‘OL6L ‘Te ISNBNY 0} ‘GO6T ‘T ISNSNW wos ‘syzuOU use4411Y} Jo polled B porBAOD YORpory Aq SsjusuTtIedxe oy, x 6¢ 96@ es fe sete Ae leKetio® elivl« .s} sivaAh OAL SF GES 5, O29 J Leer) Exe) oo an sivod OAL ge 261 eee eL ane 6 s%es) sels sivod OAL &% 8 Tey) Jequisdaqy 0} g Arenuer OO6T ‘OT 8c POT ysnsny 0} “G68T '8z ATnE 8 If eStore ce, Wier ented: yey siBoth OAL] 8 OF Bm: culayibhe ete. es pig¥) el a sivodk OAL CPI LST ‘TE ynsny 0} T ysnsny eL 62 : I¢ ysnsny oy iL qsnsny 68 96 TE ynsny 0} | ysnsny GG ZG “TE ysnsny 0} [ ysnsny 86 » 901 “TE ysnsny 0} | Ysnsny a9 8g ‘TE ysnsny 07 [ ysnsny OOT SOT “TE ysnsny 04 [ ysnsny 82 8 ‘TE ysnsny of [ ysnsny 802 CZ ‘TE ysnsny 0} T ysnsny F&I CFI «Tg ysnsny 07 7 4ysnsny 18Z SoZ "9g Areniqay 07 7 [ludy ZOL 6 ‘gz Areniqa,y 04 [ Judy 02z SZ "9g Areniqa,y 0} | [Udy 9% CT "QE 40qG079K 0} [ JUdy 0g 6G "OE 19q0}90O 0} | [Udy €9 1g ' OF 19qQ0790H 0} | [Udy GL tF OE 10q0990 0} | [dy aioe iad (e108 rod soured) spunod) potred anjjns jo dutmp ported [GAOUIST || paaoural PE seaming TIZYI}I9F “UOHBIOY | OS*M ‘WoT AVIO TZ OON@)|("= ae ureo] ARTO SULOM GT OVS || euen meo] ABO pox, [oo poxtyyy $}90q puesuvag [oo weo'T “+ -guont [oocctoct weory oUON | purg euoNy | °° ureo, Apusg gee th $7209 | °° wBO, ApuRs OUONI |) oo ureo, Apueg Chie 8180 obese “UIBOT Apueg euoy [oi purg Was ow syeo [°° pueg auon | ** urevo, Apueg Syiniranetts 8180 eee “WIBOT Aputs auoy [to yonyN eek syeg fcc yonyy gyoog [ooo WRO] INA O[9 pue syeq [oc mevOT eee F syeo foc urBOT wag [070 [euAnTTy ame [oc [RIAnTy auony |i [eLAnTTY auoy [oo ayeseg doip [!os Jo pury “ YIOX MON "**"¥IOX MON "**YIOX MON pie sesuvyiy io AUBUIIOY) Sas AUBUIIOY) os AUBUIIOY) Stk AUBUIIOY) hd ss AuBuld1de+) oe a AUBUIIOS) Teas AUBULIOY) Y ee Auwvurder) Pwo AuBULIO‘) P Yang's AuBUIIOr) of age AuBUIIOY) oo Aueurda) ie Aueul.or) i ae AU®BULIOY) tg es AUBUIIAY) tage? AUWBULIOL) PACE BIdSNy 12252 eragsniy: oo graasny We ties elaysny aR Fee dat oreo:0 yjozz1q pur uoAT FERPA Pen Posen 119221g pus uoATT syivawTeluaitelceiteuce, euaite 119221g, pue uoA'T u0}JON SPETEAN puv ‘ysroyjoog uo, “4pAaID "+" -g7ayyO puB ySIOYIeG UOA rece S19Y}O PUB 4SIOY]I0G UOA AE MI koe Une Gane oa g yorprar) “-sniuesely puv YSIOY[IeG MOA, ““SnIuesaty PUB JS1OY[IBG UA, ““snrussaty pu ySLOYJIeG UOA Ae PRS cree OH nies P UUBUIRUR ET Reems citer Cree oer E UUeUIvUR PY een cat Ceo UUBUIeURET Saies Oo oro c WUBUIBUeET 1OYESI}SOAUT SUOLVDILSHANT LNGUGIGIG] AX GNNOWG SV UALVAA ADVNIVUC] NI UNaIAg 40 TVAOWAY T9 ATAVL 78 T. LytTrLeron Lyon AND JAMES A. BizzELL Hart and Peterson (1911) estimate from figures given by Hall that the annual loss of sulfur in drainage water from the Rothamsted soil is from 20 to 80 pounds per acre, depending on the fertilizer treatment. The quantities of sulfur removed in drainage water for different periods of time, as found by a number of investigators, are given in table 61. The range of removal in these experiments is large, varying from about 8 pounds a year to about 280 pounds a year. The German experiments show the greatest losses. In most cases, cropping the soils resulted in a very considerable conservation of sulfur, amounting to more than one might expect the crops to absorb. In the writers’ experiments, however, the crops used just about as much as the difference between the drainage removal from the planted and the unplanted soil. The growth of clover materially decreased the removal of sulfur in the drainage water, presumably because of the large utilization of sulfur by that crop. REMOVAL OF PHOSPHORUS There has never been more than a trace of phosphorus in the drainage water from any of these tanks. There are therefore no data to report on phosphorus, except as to its removal in crops. The average amount of phosphorus (P) removed annually from the soil by the crops produced is shown in table 62: TABLE 62. PuHospHoRus IN Crops (Pounds per acre, annual average) Phosphorus Tank in crops GREE, cet MES Mil AEN EEN Ae Seta ney arte ot SR Bel AR Ae OR ee Bae 20.6 Dn wk Seigecereeh etre 2 5 CA NCR a MRC ae NRT ETON RN AUR RSI PI coe PANY) ORR aed = APR ie er RS CM RE OT I OE Be SRR Oe le. Ee 12.8 CIS BSR Oe ey hs a OO en M,C Ly SMP, So at +).22000 Ds a Cae re dad cyte tatttn ire, ss se Ren A aie mani Ua Sits UE SAN. A, eis be atts 20.8 Le Beets 2) ata} AES’ diig Soon RS et ee OAL SRP, Bgl Re am Ae 12.9 iS SS FE aes pee 2): ot, aa en ee LER § Se aAuee nie eanieraNIe Hire SPOS 1720 PSR Mae siete be A ted An. 5 ch ee ar Ble Hoe eine. MRA te. eee tes Bik) ued = 19.2 The table shows that the tanks kept in grass most of the time (tanks 6 and 10) lost a much less amount of phosphorus in the crops than did 78 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 79 the tanks on which more cereal crops were raised. The tanks on which clover was produced (tanks 5 and 9) lost more phosphorus than did the tanks otherwise similarly cropped (tanks 3, 7, 11, and 12). There appears to have been no relation between the lime applications and the quantities of phosphorus removed in the crops. SUMMARY The lysimeters used in these experiments consist of concrete tanks slightly over 4 feet square and of about the same depth. The bottoms are funnel-shaped, with drainpipes leading to a tunnel where the drainage water is collected. The tanks are lined with water-proofing asphaltum. Each tank was filled with 34 tons of clay loam soil, taken from the field in layers one foot in depth and placed in the tank in the order in which the layers occurred in the field. The soil of some of the tanks was cropped and that of others was left bare during the five years covered in this experiment. Certain of the tanks received an application of lime at the beginning of the experiment, and some received annual applications of sulfate of potash. All tanks received the natural rainfall but no other water. The drainage water that percolated thru the soil was collected, measured, and analyzed. The average annual rainfall for the five years was 31.14 inches. Of the annual rainfall, 24.4 inches, or 78.35 per cent, percolated thru the unplanted soil, and 16.96 inches, or 54.46 per cent, percolated thru the cropped soil. About one-half of the rainfall passed into the air from the surface of the soil and thru the plants growing on it. In general the largest flow of drainage water was during March and April. Applications of lime had no appreciable effect on the proportion of rainfall that percolated thru the soil. The average evapo-transpiration ratio for the cropped soils was 1:580, the crops being maize, oats, wheat, timothy, clover, and mixed grasses. The average minimum transpiration ratio for the same crops was 1:290. The minimum transpiration ratio was least for maize and greatest for the grasses, while oats were intermediate. With crops of large yield, amounting in the case of maize to over 100 bushels of grain, there was never a deficiency of moisture in the soil, which illustrates the great water-holding capacity of a well-drained soil. 79 80 T. Lytrueton Lyon anp JAmess A. BizzELu The quantity of nitrogen in the drainage water from the unplanted soil was much greater than in the water from the cropped soil, there being seventeen times as much in the former as in the latter. The application of lime had no effect on the amount of nitrogen contained in the drainage water, neither did it affect the quantity in the non-leguminous crops. There was more nitrogen in the drainage water of the unplanted tanks than in both the drainage water and the crops of the planted tanks. Some plants used a greater quantity of soil nitrogen than did others, without causing the nitrates in the drainage water to become less. The data appear to support the idea that certain kinds of plants have a depressing influence on the production of nitrates in soil. The quantity of calcium in the drainage water of the unplanted soil was greater than that in the crops and the drainage water combined on the planted tanks. Because of this, a conservation of 181 pounds of calcium per acre was effected by cropping the soil instead of leaving it bare. The larger removal of calcium in the drainage water from unplanted soil than from cropped soil was apparently due in large measure to the much greater quantity of nitric acid leached from the unplanted soil. Carbonic acid also is a factor in the greater removal of calcium from the bare soil. Not only was the total quantity of bicarbonates greater in the drainage from the bare soil, but also the concentration of bicarbonates was greater. The large amount of carbonic acid excreted by the roots of plants was apparently of no effect in increasing the solvent action of the soil water on calcium, probably because the soil water was already saturated with carbon dioxide. The application of lime at the rate of 3000 pounds per acre did not increase the quantity of calcium in the drainage water or in the ash of the crops produced. Altho the total removal of calcium in either the drainage water or the crops was not greater from the limed than from the unlimed soil, the percentage of calctum was, in the main, somewhat higher in the crops raised on the limed soil. Annual applications of potassium sulfate at the rate of 200 pounds per acre materially increased the quantity of calcium in the drainage water. To keep the soil supply of calcium up to its present amount would require an annual application of 514 pounds per acre if the soil were kept bare of vegetation, or 271 pounds per acre if it were cropped. So LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 81 Magnesium was found in much smaller quantity in the drainage water than was calcium. Its removal was decreased by cropping. Application of lime resulted in a liberation of magnesium, as indicated by its greater removal in the drainage water. Applications of sulfate of potash also increased the removal of magnesium in the drainage water. The calcium-magnesium ratio was much wider in the drainage water than in the soil, owing to the greater solubility of the calcium over that of the magnesium. The application of lime, by making the magnesium more soluble, narrowed the calcitum-magnesium ratio in the drainage water. Potassium was removed in smaller quantity by the drainage water than by the crops, in which respect it differed from calcium, magnesium, and sodium. The application of lime did not result in increase in the quan- tity of potassium contained in the drainage water, nor in any increase in the amount of potassium removed by the crops. Applications of sulfate of potash did not cause increase in the removal of potassium in the drain- age water. . Sodium was taken up in small amounts by crops, but was removed in larger quantity in the drainage water than was either magnesium or potassium. Application of lime decreased the removal of sodium both by crops and in the drainage water. The removal of sulfur in the drainage water was from three to six times as great as in the crops. There was about as much carried off by the drainage water from the unplanted soil as by both drainage water and crops from the planted soil. The application of lime was accompanied by an increase in the quantity of sulfur in the drainage water. Of the sulfur added to the soil in the form of sulfate of potash, more than half was removed in the drainage. There has never been more than a trace of phosphorus in the drainage water from any of these tanks. There appears to have been no relation between the lime applications and the quantities of phosphorus removed in the crops. 6 81 82 T. LytTTLeton Lyon anv JAmMeEs A. BizzELu BIBLIOGRAPHY Briaes, LyMAn J., AND SHANTz, H. L. The water requirement of plants. U.S. Bur. Plant Ind. Bul. 284:1—-49. 1913. Relative water requirement of plants. U.S. Dept. Agr. Journ. agr. research 3:1-63. 1914. Burt, B. C., AND LEATHER, J. W. Amount and composition of drainage water at Cawnpore Agricultural Experiment Station. Cawnpore Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1909:23-29. 1909. CoLuison, StanutEY E., anp WALKER, SetH 8. Loss of fertilizers by leaching. Florida Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 132:1-20. 1916. CREYDT, —, VON SEELHORST, —, AND Wiis, —. Untersuchungen iiber Drainage-Wasser. Journ. Landw. 49:251—275. 1901. DEHERAIN, P.-P. Drainage des terres nues.. In Traité de chimie agricole, p. 586-587. 1902. EBERMAYER, E. Untersuchungen iiber die Sickerwassermengen in verschiedenen Bodenarten. Forsch. Geb. Agr.-Phys. 13:1-15. 1890. Ecxart, C. F. Lysimeter experiments. Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Assn., Exp. Sta., Div. Agr. and Chem. Bul. 19:1-31. 1906. FEILITZEN, H. von, Lucner, J., AND Hsmrstept, H. Einige Unter- suchungen tuber die mit den Sickerwiéssern aus unbebautem und mit verschiedenen Kulturpflanzen bebautem Moorboden entstandenen Verluste an Pflanzennihrstoffen. Kulturtechniker 1:210-220. 1912. Fraps, G. 8. Losses of moisture and plant food by percolation. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 171:1-51. 1914. Gertacu, M. Uber die durch Sickerwasser dem Boden entzogenen Mengen Wasser und Nahrstoffe. Illus. landw. Ztg. 30 3:871-881. 1910 a. Untersuchungen iiber die Menge und Zusammensetzung der Sickerwisser. Zentbl. Agr.-Chem. 39:647-653. 1910 b. Uber die durch Sickerwasser dem Boden entzogenen Mengen Wasser und Nahrstoffe. Illus. landw. Ztg. 31:755-756. 1911. ‘Untersuchungen iiber die Menge und Zusammensetzung der Sickerwisser. Kaiser Wilhelms Inst. Landw. Bromberg. Mitt. 3:351- aol. 1912. 82 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 83 GILBERT, J. H. On rainfall; evaporation and percolation. Rothamsted Memoirs 5°:1-13. 1876. GOESSMANN, CHARLES A., Haskins, H. D., anp Smitu, R.H. Analysis of drainage waters obtained from Field A of the Hatch Experiment Station. In Report on general work in the chemical laboratory. Massachusetts Agr. Coll., Hatch Exp. Sta. Ann. rept. 11 (1898):134-141. 1899. HanaMANN, J. Lysimeter-Versuche. Ztschr. landw. Versuchsw. Oester- reich 1:399-410. 1898. Hart, E. B., AnD Peterson, W. H. Sulphur requirements of farm crops in relation to the soil and air supply. Univ. Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Sta. Research bul. 14:1-21. 1911. Hayman, J. M., anp Burt, B. C. Amount and composition of drainage water at Cawnpore Agricultural Experiment Station. Cawnpore Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1906:23-29. 1906. HELLRIEGEL, HERMANN. Beitraige zu den naturwissenschaftlichen Grundlagen des Ackerbaus, p. 1-796. (Reference on p. 663.) 1883. Kine, F. H. The number of inches of water required for a ton of dry matter in Wisconsin. Univ. Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. rept. 11 (1894) : 240-248. 1895. The importance of the right amount and the right distribution of water in crop production. Uniy. Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. rept. 14:217-—231. 1897. The amount of water required by crops. Jn A text book of the physics of agriculture, p. 139-140. 1910. Krucer, KE. Lysimeter investigations, 1910. Kaiser Wilhelms Inst. Landw. Bromberg. Mitt. 3:163-174. (Abstract in Exp. sta. ree. 25:21. 1911.) 1911. Lawes, J. B. Experimental investigation into the amount of water given off by plants during their growth; especially in relation to the fixation and source of their various constituents. Hort. Soc. London. Journ. 5:38-63. 1850. Leatuer, J. Watrer. Water requirements of crops in India. India Dept. Agr. Memoirs, chem. ser. 15:133-184. 1910. ——— Water requirements of crops in India—TII. India Dept. Agr. Memoirs, chem. ser. 1'°:205-281. 1911. 83 84 T. LytTTLeton Lyon AND JAMES A. BizzELu Lyon, T. LyTTLeTon, AND BizzELL, JAMES A. Some relations of certain higher plants to the formation of nitrates in soils. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Memoir 1:1-111. 1913. Mitier, N. H. J. The amounts of nitrogen, as nitrates, and chlorine in the drainage through uncropped and unmanured land. Chem. Soc. (London). Proc. 18 (1902):89-90. 1903. The amount and composition of the drainage through unmanured and uneropped land, Barnfield, Rothamsted. Journ. agr. sci. 1:377-399. 1906. Norton, J. H. Quantity and composition of drainage water and a com- parison of temperature, evaporation, and rainfall. Amer. Chem. Soe. Journ. 30:1186—-1190. 1908. Precx, 8. 8. Lysimeter experiments. Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Assn., Exp. Sta. Agr. and chem. ser., Bul. 37:1-38. 1911. SEELHORST, C. von. Wasserverdunstung und Wasserabfluss eines gebrachten Lehm- und Sandbodens. Journ. Landw. 54:313-315. 1906 a. Uber den Wasserverbrauch von Roggen, Gerste, Weizen, und Kartoffeln. Journ. Landw. 54:316-342. 1906 b. SEELHORST, C. VON, AND FRESENIUS, —. Beitrage zur Lésung der Frage nach dem Wasserhaushalt im Boden und nach dem Wasserverbrauch der Pflanzen. Journ. Landw. 52:355-393. 1904. SEELHORST, C. VON, AND OTHERS. Die Wasserbilanz und die Ndhrstoff- verluste eines gebrachten Lehm- und Sandbodens in den Jahren 1905- 1912. Journ. Landw. 61:189-215. 1913. Tacks, Br., ImMenporFr, H., Aanp MINsseN, H. Untersuchungen tiber die Zusammensetzung der Sickerwisser aus nichtgediingtem und aus gediingtem Moorboden mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Stick- stoffverbindungen. Landw. Jahrb. 27, Ergzbd. 1v:349-391. 1898. Wouuny, E. Der Einfluss der Pflanzendecke und Beschattung auf die physikalischen Eigenschaften und die Fruchtbarkeit des Bodens, p. 1-197. (Reference on p. 125.) 1877. Untersuchungen iiber die Sickerwassermengen in verschiedenen Bodenarten. Forsch. Geb. Agr.-Phys. 11:1-68. 1888. 84 LYSIMETER |)XPERIMENTS 85 APPENDIX METHODS OF ANALYSIS METHODS FOR THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS Preparation of sample-— The soil sample was prepared according to the method described in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, page 14. Moisture.— The moisture content was determined by the official method described in the same publication, page 14. Total organic carbon.— The total organic carbon in the soil was de- termined by the optional official method described in the same bulletin, page 234. Carbon dioxide The carbon dioxide was determined by the official method described on page 19 of the same bulletin. Total phosphorus— The total phosphorus was determined by the provisional method described on page 234 of the publication cited. Sulfur.— In determining the sulfur content, 10 grams of the air-dried soil sample was placed in a nickel crucible and thoroly mixed with 25 grams of sodium peroxide. The mixture was heated carefully until it was completely fused, and then heated strongly for one hour. The fused mass was transferred from the crucible to a beaker by means of hot water, and the solution was slightly acidified with hydrochloric acid. The beaker was then allowed to stand on the steam bath for about five hours. The contents of the beaker were transferred to a 500-cubic- centimeter graduated flask, cooled, and made up to the mark. After thoro shaking the solution was filtered and an aliquot part of 250 cubic centimeters was treated with ammonium hydroxide to precipitate iron and aluminum. The precipitate of iron and aluminum hydroxide was filtered and thoroly washed, and the filtrate and washings were concentrated to about 200 cubic centimeters. After being slightly acidified with hydro- chloric acid, this solution was heated to boiling, 10 cubic centimeters of barium chloride solution was added slowly, and the mixture was allowed to stand for twenty-four hours. The barium sulfate was filtered, washed, ignited, treated with a drop of concentrated sulfuric acid and about 1 cubic centimeter of hydrofluoric acid, and finally ignited over the blast lamp. 85 86 T. LyttTLteton Lyon Aanp JAMES A. BizzELu Calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium.—To determine the calclum, magnesium, potassium, and sodium content, about 10 grams of the air-dried sample was ground in an agate mortar to a practically impalpable powder. A 4-gram portion of this powder was placed in a platinum dish and saturated with dilute sulfuric acid (1:1). The excess of sulfuric acid was expelled by gentle heat over a free flame, and the mass was allowed to cool. About 5 cubic centimeters of hydrofluoric acid was added to the dish and then evaporated to apparent dryness on the water bath. The treatment with hydrofluoric acid and evaporation on the water bath was repeated three times, 1 cubic centimeter of dilute sulfuric acid being added at the final treatment. The mass was then heated gently until the excess of sulfuric acid was removed, and it was then cooled, moistened with concentrated hydrochloric acid, and allowed to stand for one hour. Water was then added and the whole was gently heated. In case an insoluble residue resulted after this treatment, the mixture was heated for some time on a water bath, and was then allowed to settle and the clear liquid was decanted. The residue was washed two or three times by decantation, and the treatment with hydrofluoric, sulfuric, and hydrochloric acids was repeated until the silica was entirely removed. The hydrochloric acid solution was then evaporated to dry- ness on the water bath, and the residue was saturated with dilute sulfuric acid and heated to a low red heat to remove the excess of sulfuric acid and to convert the sulfates of iron and aluminum to oxides. The resi- due was extracted with dilute hydrochloric acid and thoroly washed. In the filtrate were usually found small quantities of iron and aluminum. These were precipitated by the addition of ammonium hydroxide and filtered, and the precipitate was thoroly washed. The filtrate and washings were concentrated to about 75 cubic centimeters and used for the deter- mination of calcium according to the official method described in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, page 15. The filtrate and washings from the calcium precipitate were made up to 200 cubic centimeters, one-half of which was used for the determination of magnesium according to the official method described on page 16 of the bulletin cited above, and one-half for the determination of potassium and of sodium by the official method described on page 17 of the same publication. 86 LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 87 Total nitrogen.— For the total nitrogen determination, usually 7 grams of the soil was placed in a Kjeldahl digestion flask, with approximately 35 cubic centimeters of concentrated sulfuric acid, 10 grams of potassium sulfate, and about 1 gram of copper sulfate. The mixture was boiled for several hours until the organic matter was completely oxidized. The distillation of the ammonia was then carried out in the usual manner as described in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, page 6. Lime requirement.— The Veitch method was used for the determination of lime requirement, the following procedure being adopted. To three portions of soil, each consisting of as many grams as the standard limewater contained milligrams of lime (CaO) per cubic centimeter, was added from 50 to 60 cubic centimeters of distilled water and different amounts of standard limewater as follows: to the first portion 10 cubic centimeters of limewater was added, to the second portion 20 cubic centimeters, and to the third portion 30 cubic centimeters. The evaporator containing the mixture was placed at once on the steam bath. When dry the residue was transferred to a stoppered Jena flask with 100 cubic centimeters of distilled water and allowed to stand overnight, with occasional shaking. In the morning 50 cubic centimeters was drawn off and placed in a Jena beaker, a few drops of phenolphthalein were added, and the mixture was boiled until the pink color appeared, or, in case no color developed, to a volume of about 5 cubic centimeters. Then with two portions of treated soil, of which one had been rendered alkaline by the limewater, and the other, still acid, was used as a guide, three fresh portions of 10 grams each were prepared and limewater was added as before, except that the amount added to a dish differed from that added to the others by 1 or 2 cubic centimeters. The remainder of the procedure was carried out exactly as before. The smallest quantity of limewater which gave the characteristic pink color was taken as the lime require- ment of the soil. METHOD FOR THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS The centrifugal method, described in Bulletin 84 of the United States Bureau of Soils, page 9, was used for the mechanical analysis of soils. 87 88 T. LytTrLeton Lyon AND JAMES A. BizzELL METHODS FOR THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF CROPS Preparation of sample-—— The air-dry sample was ground to a fineness sufficient for passing thru a sieve having circu’ar perforations 1 millimeter in diameter, and then thoroly mixed. Moisture— A convenient quantity of the sample (from 2 to 5 grams) was dried at the temperature of boiling water for five hours. The loss in weight was considered as moisture content Nitrogen.— Nitrogen was determined by the official Gunning method deseribed in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, page 7, with the following slight modification. Approximately 1 gram of copper sulfate was added to the Kjeldahl flask at the beginning of the digestion. Phosphorus.— The method of making the solution for determining the phosphorus content of the crops was as follows. Two grams of the sample ‘was placed in a platinum dish and mixed with 5 cubic centimeters of magnesium nitrate solution The mixture was then dried, ignited, and dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The determination of phosphorus was made by the optional volumetric method described in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, page 4. Sulfur— The provisional peroxide method, described on page 23 of the bulletin cited above, was used for determining the sulfur content. Ash.— To determine the ash content, 10 grams of the sample was placed in a platinum dish, and the whole was placed in a graphite muffle and heated gently until the volatile matter was expelled. The heat was then raised to just below redness and this temperature was maintained for several hours. The contents of the dish were then extracted with distilled water and the insoluble residue was dried and incinerated until it was white. The aqueous extract was then evaporated and added to the ash. Calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodiwm.— To determine the calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium content, the ash, prepared as described above, was transferred to a beaker or an evaporating dish and dissolved in hydrochloric acid. This was evaporated to complete dryness, to render the silica insoluble. The residue was moistened with from 5 to 10 cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid, 50 cubic centimeters of water being added, allowed to stand on the water bath for a few minutes, 88 LYSIMETER [XPERIMENTS 89 and filtered. The filtrate was neutralized with ammonium hydroxide and then acidified with hydrochloric acid. Neutral ferric chloride was then added in excess and the resulting precipitate was removed by filtration. The excess of iron in the filtrate was then removed by precipitation with ammonium hydroxide solution. This procedure for the removal of phosphorus was found to be much shorter than the official method, in which sodium acetate is recommended. The filtrate and washings from the ferric hydroxide precipitate were concentrated to about 75 cubic centimeters and used for the determination of calcium, according to the official method described in Bulletin 107 . (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, page 15. The filtrate and washings from the calcium precipitate were made up to 200 cubic centimeters, one-half of which was used for the determination of mag- nesium according to the official method described on page 16 of the bulletin cited above, and the other half for the determination of potassium and sodium by the official method described on page 17 of the same publication. METHODS FOR THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF DRAINAGE WATER AND RAIN WATER Total solids.— To determine the total solids in the drainage water and the rain. water, 100 cubic centimeters was evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish on the water bath and the residue was dried to constant weight at the temperature of boiling water. Ammonia.— Ammonia was determined by distilling 250 cubic centi- meters of the water after it had been rendered alkaline with a saturated solution of sodium carbonate. The distillate was examined by the well- known Nessler method, described in Bulletin 31 of the United States Bureau of Soils, page 30. Nitrates— The nitrates were determined by the method described in Bulletin 31 of the United States Bureau of Soils, page 39. Sulfates.— The sulfates were determined by the method described on page 49 of the bulletin cited above. Bicarbonates.— The bicarbonates were determined by the method described on page 58 of the same publication. Silica.— For the determination of silica, two liters of the water was acidified with nitric acid and evaporated to dryness. To the residue 89 90 T. LytTtTLeton Lyon AND JAMES A. BizzELL dilute hydrochloric acid was added and the mixture was evaporated to complete dryness. The resulting residue was taken up with hot water, and a small quantity of hydrochloric acid was filtered, washed thoroly with hot water, dried, ignited, and weighed as silica. Phosphorus.— To determine the phosphorus content, the filtrate and washings from the silica were made up to 200 cubic centimeters, and one- half was taken for the determination of phosphorus gravimetrically according to the official method described in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, page 3. Calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium.— The remaining 100 cubic centimeters not used for the phosphorus determination was treated with ammonium hydroxide to remove iron and aluminum and the precipitate was filtered and washed thoroly. The filtrate and washings were concentrated to about 75 cubic centimeters and calcium was deter- mined by the official method described in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, page 15. The filtrate and washings from the calcium precipitate were made up to 200 cubic centimeters, one-half of which was used for the determination of magnesium according to the official method described on page 16 of the bulletin cited, and the other half for the determination of potassium and sodium according to the official method described on page 17 of the same publication. METHODS FOR THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF MANURE The preparation of the sample, and the determinations of moisture, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, for the chemical analysis of manure, were made according to the methods already described for the analysis of the crop. Potassium.— The potassium content in manure was determined by the- official method for determining potassium in organic compounds, described in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, page 11. Calcium and magnesium.— A 5-gram sample was incinerated and dis- solved in a small quantity of hydrochloric acid. The resulting solution was cooled and made up to 500 cubic centimeters, and an aliquot part corresponding to 0.5 gram of the original sample was taken for the determination of calcium and magnesium according to the official methods go LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 91 described in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, pages 15 and 16. METHODS FOR THE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF QUICKLIME AND LIMESTONE Calcium and magnesium.— A 5-gram sample was dissolved in hydro- chloric acid and made up to 500 cubic centimeters, and a 25-cubic- centimeter aliquot part was taken for the determination of calcium and magnesium according to the official method described in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, pages 15 and 16. METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF POTASSIUM SULFATE Potassium.— Determination of potassium was by the official method for the determination of potassium in potash salts, described in Bulletin 107 (revised) of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, page 11. gI 92 TABLE 1. Year LOU eee OT ee T. LytTTLteEton LYon anp JAmEs A. BizzELu Crop YIELDS FROM LysiMETER Tanks 1 To 12 DURING THE PERIOD FROM 1910 ro 1914, Expressep as Dry Marrer »Per tank Per acre Tank | Crop as | Hay, hs Hay, Grain | Cob straw, or Grain Cob straw, or (grams) | (grams) stover (bushels) (tons) stover (grams) | + (tons) 1 | Maize 957.74 | 192.60 | 1,072.57 93.8 OFas 2.95 3 | Maize..|| 1,168.74 | 248.00 | 1,151.71 114.4 0.67 si ly 5 | Maize..| 1,352.07 | 313.20 | 1,001.48 132.4 0.86 215 6 | Oats BUD aN oe a: 717.49 58.7 | aware 1.97 7 | Maize. .| 1,116:62 | 248.00 | 1,103.40 109.3 0.67 3.03 9 | Maize. .| 1,262.80 | 279.00 958. 80 123.6 OsTe 2.64 HOS Oatsens AQ asODn lt. ee 716.50 6926 ibe 1.97 11 | Maize... 984.16 | 229.50 | 1,012.50 96.4 0.63 2.78 12 | Maize. .|| 1,116.22 | 211.40 860.48 109.3 0.58 Pasi 1 | Oats... AGO Yl, yeh 573.3 CO Oise feted 1.58 ori Oats oa. AND 10 weer 459.9 OP OS ee ae Vez S| One. - BY 3a) leeks ok 390.3 SS) Il Seen - 1.07 On|, "Grasset |e Sees eee ee AGA | tae e. 2a) ee 1.30 da| tOats.cr: SOOO Vimenee 451.6 G50 ltteer 2A 9) Oats... AQ 2 fall con oe 458.4 GOL Se aeeee 1.26 TOM MN Girage hs MG Se ee oe ae UN ee BE 2 ON ceseats eal. eee 1.41 it (Oats. SIS FOU te 403 .9 64,00 eee teil 12 } Oats... .j BGLSD a eae oe 486.1 G25 ONl eee 1.34 Ma OWihGa bell, cee ess ieee te oe SOSH Gu es seat © | eee 1.40 ial SWE eh- eh icorereversveetee lt ke Rhee SAS OP erect. cee ee eieeere 0.94 Dy Wiheabesll seeks tence SSO Fall we ee ee 1.05 GalbiGrass Aa: sole lee oe OS EL nie bs teuete Ul! seeveeenee 1.40 CAV eAD lll MsiAesrccstaullaste es SOOM ll ogc creee sth hee era 1.07 OHS Wiheat all ve... eee: aa nee S48 sel Aes ae Sl eee 0.96 TOV Grass*.-\|easee eres ADDO Nisei Alene 1.16 EW heat silins ete alee ee Soae On Pee ee eee 0.92 LIDAR PNA iYetrt hel |W See | Pe eee a BD alleen ae lee eee 0.89 UD WBE Ta yer’ cue caveats a | Nesusyeteere OAS Oia by see: Ae a 2.62 Oe levy, erally aytevere Ghote. Al etree NEG 2: a ee ree S| nee 3.20 Eyl Lay eal wectichenver sera mae ieee DU OAC pote os atc etal keer 3.24 6 | Hayes aclpedeeiceie | eee S50. Sil wees een ees 2.34 ‘Teg pal ayivss Alltc-tsciraiar eves; Jl)! 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Sl GL F8 1G PS LT €L°8T 8 Lb; is 9 G 4 € G yun, tet ee rere ss eTer ‘og Tady 0} ‘FI6l ‘T ABI Srececantie rhe ete e te t tere red ‘og [udy 07 ‘OT6I ‘T ABI poured (soyout 0108 UT) SI6I ‘Of Tudy On ‘OT6T ‘IT AVIN WOUd ZI OL [ SUNV], UALAWISAT WOUd UALVAA AODVNIVUC JO MOTY “E WTAVL 25 96 T. LytTrLeton Lyon AND JAMES A. BiIzzELL TABLE 4. Mereoroxtocicat Recorps at IrHaca, May 1, 1910, To Aprit 30, 1915 Data by months Temperature | (degrees Fahrenheit) H piles os Rainfall |— ens) | holy ae Year and month Gaunes) of sun- | velocity umidity Mean | Mean shine | of wind | Of air at maxi- | mini- | Mean (miles) 8 a. m. mum mum (per cent) 1910——“Maye:.:.... 4.20 65.0 43.4 54.2 231.0 9.6 82 UNG Sse. ro |e: io. 2 52.4 6358) |2o9. 1 Uae 68 ANGI 5 Aes oe 1.62 83.8 59.1 (ila) atlas 8.3 73 August...... 2.39 80.2 55.3 GiESu|ziose 9.6 69 September... 4.64 22 52.2 62.3 172.3 8.0 80 October... .. 2E29 61.8 41.7 51.8 152.6 ial 74 November... 2.85 89.9 30.0 35.0 30.2 eS 85 December... 2.18 28.4 13.9 Pah 7% 2.3 10.8 92 1911—January..... 1.96 36.4 20.5 28.4 84.9 13.2 84 February.... 4.34 34.4 19.8 2t.1 75.5 9.0 86 March...... 1.86 38.7 20.2 29.4 | 146.4 14.8 79 April 2.05 5o.2 30.7 44.4] 189.5 9.4 66 May 2.24 77.6 51.4 64.5 291.9 Chale) 68 June. 3.59 76.7 54.4 65.6 | 196.4 8.2 74 July ae 25s 86.5 60.4 13-4 || 29188 7.4 68 August 4.15 79.4 58.3 68.8 | 165.3 8.6 76 September... 2.78 WAe.3 49.4 60.4 | 188.5 8.9 83 October... .. 3.30 58.4 40.3 49.4 | 157.5 9.6 82 November... 1.28 43.3 28.8 36.0 83.8 eG 74 December. . . 1.83 40.9 28.9 34.9 65.5 11.4 78 1912—January..... 1.63 24.8 8.5 16.6 129.4 12.8 82 February.... 1.28 31.4 PFET 21.4 178.4 10.0 82 March...... BAS: 38.8 18.9 28.8 | 182.0 10.7 82 April 2.97 54.3 34.7 AAND | 176.2 12.6 81 JN a 3.58 69.6 46.4 58.0 279.6 ‘AL 75 Utine. \acenee 1.37 75.0 51.3 63.2 358.6 8.4 69 alyeers see Z.64 82.5 59.3 70.9 | 337.1 W5 73 August...... 3.54 74.2 55.2 | 64.7 | 260.6 8.1 81 September... 7.46 UPA OZAt 62.4 | 210.2 9.0 88 October... .. 1.86 62.3 42.5 5H2PAD) ala 9.8 80 November... 2.41 48.8 34.7 41.8 80.9 wee 79 December. . . 1.48 40.1 26.8 33.4 ia 12.6 78 1913—January..... Bilis: 42.8 26.5 34.7 69.4 13.8 80 February.... 1.38 31.2 15.2 2312) Ells se 10.0 81 March...... 3.73 47.1 26.4 36.8 |) 12756 13:3 82 Aprile te-.. 5: 1.49 58.4 37.8 48.1 | 222.8 12.4 74 May 3.15 66.2 44.5 55.4 | 286.9 9.8 73 June wee ee 2.00 78.6 51.4 65.0 | 332.2 (et) 68 JUly., 3 sete 1.59 82.5 68.2 70.4 | 304.7 8.4 69 August..... 1.92 82.0 Gig 69.6 304.2 8.2 71 September... 3.28 73.0 49.2 Gl Sl 21 Oe 8.1 76 October..... 3.63 61.3 45.4 53.4 152.5 9.4 86 November... 2.21 51.5 35.8 43.6 101.5 11.9 81 December. . . 1.94 39.8 PAP 32.6 84.9 10.0 83 Xe) @)\ LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 97 TABLE 4 (continued) Data by months (concluded) Temperature (degrees Fahrenheit) EGaies ae oa Year and month es of sun- | velocity | humidity Mean | Mean shine of wind | of air at maxi- mini- | Mean (miles) 8 a.m. mum mum (per cent) 1914—January..... il .3¥7/ 33.7 19.3 26.5 56.7 13.8 85 February.... 1.62 27.0 8.5 LE Se Toles 11.6 82 Marche ss). - 1.90 39.1 24.3 SM azul h yp Lele 10.3 82 Aon Ss ein Be 4.35 pial 33.1 42.1 144.8 11.6 78 WE Bias Se 3.63 lial! 47.5 09:3-| 2970 8.1 71 AINE BS Greed 4.75 76.5 54.5 GHA || stl 8.5 74 Ail Aner 1.89 81.2 59.2 HO25\5 23058 a0 78 August i 6.10 80.2 58.2 69.2 | 208.4 7.0 80 September... 1.96 TANI 48.2 HIG || ZY 7.6 82 October..... 1.38 63.6 43.9 Heist) || AUS 8.7 86 November... 0.68 46.4 Sl oi 38.8 | 111.9 12-5 78 December. . . 2.70 32.9 19.1 26.0 73.3 10.4 82 1915—January..... 5.02 33.4 IQ) 7i 26.6 96.0 10.4 85 February.... 1.83 37.8 2257 30.2 94.1 11.9 86 March...... 0.32 BM ods 21.9 PAY ET | Ale 33355) 10.9 83 Nyala a de ole 0.55 62.7 39.6 SS || PEP 9.0 70 Average of each month Temperature M (degrees Fahrenheit) H Aver sees M ete) ee oe SE BS Ea ee ars deal Na EE onth Geckos) of sun- | velocity laity Mean | Mean shine of wind | Of air at maxi- | mini- | Mean (miles) 8 a. m. mum. mum (per cent) Wisi acer ne ot fiom. 3.36 69.9 46.6 58.3 | 277.4 9.2 73.8 JUMERS oh o8 kedaes oe PV 76.4 52.8 64.6 | 289.5 8.0 70.6 ASIA See Bs nee 2.05 83.3 61.2 71.3 | 298.1 Coll 2a August 4 epee 3.62 79.2 56.8 68.0 | 242.9 8.3 75.4 September......... 4.02 71.9 50.3 G12) |) 20922 8.3 81.8 Ocgtobennnns xo > a: 2.49 61.5 42.8 52.2") 165.4 One 81.6 November......... 1.89 46.0 32.1 39.0 81.7 12.3 79.5 December......... 2.03 36.4 22.8 29.6 60.6 11.0 82.6 VANUAT Yoox sins en: 2.63 34.2 18.9 26.6 87.3 12.8 83.2 Hepruarys.. 40.5 2.09 32.4 15.8 23.9 123.5 10.5 83.5 Vier chee smn 2reliil 40.2 228 BIS} |) WE 12.0 81.6 INS le ee eee Ay eine 2.28 56.3 35.8 46.1 187.1 11.0 73.8 7 98 T. LytTTLeton Lyon AND JAMES A. BIzZELL TABLE 4 (concluded) Data by years Temperature : Average Mean Total (degrees: Falrenhett) Total.| hourly | rama Year rainfall hours velocity of air at (inches) | Mean | Mean of sun- | of wind 8 a.m. TAS mini- | Mean shine (miles) | (per cent) mum mum May 1910, to April LNs Pepe rotete 31.52 55.9 36.9 46.4 | 1,921.3 10.2 78.2 May 1911, to April OPES 6 one eate 30.31 57.0 37.2 47.0 | 2,106.7 10.2 77.5 May 1912, to April OMS sr eerar teres «i: 34.09 58.7 39.6 49.1 | 2,293.8 10.6 78.3 May 1913, to April ; Oe tess cio eae 28.96 57.2 38.5 47.4 | 2,281.2 10.1 77.8 May 1914, to April GID eee oc 30.81 57.9 38.8 48.3 | 2,266.8 9.3 79.6 TABLE 5. Evaporation Recorps aT Mount Horr Reservoir, Rocnuester, NEw YorK Average of results obtained since the beginning of experiments in 1891 Depth of Mean temperature Pee Bienes (degrees Fahrenheit) Velocity 5 over Precip- “— Years Month ae = ee canes ' ater ater surface inches aoe ed Hale in in Nee Air in | (miles per tub tub exposet Honing reservoir shade hour) 1896-1916 | January....| ...... OFS2 i ce cane 33.0 32.8 25.8 w26 1.992 1896-1916 | February...| ...... O-89i|\ tacks 32.4 32.2 23.3 dad 1.465 1896-1916 | March.....] ...... DSGOM atest eves 36.1 34.7 33.8 qa3 1.987 1894-1916 | April....... 4.85 2.44 48.8 46.7 43.3 46.9 7.2 2.216 1892-1916 | May....... 6.55 3.59 60.5 58.7 54.4 60.0 5.9 2.787 1892-1916 | June....... 7.65 4.45 70.1 67.9 64.0 70.1 5.0 2.764 1891-1916 | July....... 8.41 5.04 74.0 72.6 69.7 74.7 4.6 3.374 1891-1916 | August..... Hoilil 4.66 71.4 71.3 70.2 72.0 4.8 3.068 1891-1916 | September.. 5.36 3.65 64.7 65.6 65.7 65.6 5.0 2.293 1891-1916 | October.... 3.66 2.59 52.6 54.1 56.0 33.3 5.8 2.415 1895-1916 | November. . 2.06 1.41 42.0 42.7 45.4 40.2 6.9 1.853 1895-1916 | December..| ...... 1G GS 24 ee et 34.4 36.3 29 .2 hr 1.680 Motalse. cassettes as] 40).65 BPA 2210 | eens ons ame |e PRE AED IP, Meee ee ||"? oe Se ioe Rese Ch 27.894 ~~ Means. ......-.....] -.-.-- | s+. 60.5 51.3 50.4 49.6 623) || sealer a LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS TABLE 6. Recorps oF THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU At Rochester, New York 99 Temperature of air Precipitation eeerads Humidity of air (aches) (degrees Fahrenheit) Percent) Years Month Mean Monthly Mean Monthly Mean Monthly during mean during mean during mean month since 1872 month since 1872 month since 1872 1896-1916 | January........... 2.99 3.10 25.8 24.8 Mao 79.5 1896-1916 | February.......... 2.69 2.70 22.8 230 77.5 78.5 1896-1916 | March............ 3.08 2.94 33.1 Sled 74.0 (aD 18941916) | Aprils .c.. «ccc cos 2235 2.41 45.6 44.5 68.0 68.0 1892-1916 BY ee ere e ie 2.95 2.99 57.2 56.7 67.5 66.5 TS92— TONG | IUD sin c-fos ciaye ee 2.72 *2.91 66.2 *66 .0 67.5 68.0 TSOT TOTS MP PULYen seis nc ete cece 3.11 *3 05 (thas *71.0 68.5 *68 5 1891-1916 | August............ 2.98 #293 69.0 *68 8 71.0 *70.5 1891-1916 | September......... 2.29 *2.39 63.2 *62.8 74.0 *73.0 1891-1916 | October........... 2.38 PACE 51.7 *50.9 75.0 74.5 1895-1916 | November......... 2.21 2.53 39.8 38.8 75.5 76.0 1895-1916 | December......... PA 2.80 28.9 28.8 7.5 79.0 Ota erates choc ares ee OAT CA ete rare cE Western eee tL wares oor tes 8b parapets vale cue [hover tae ieee IY (SEW ENS tds OG GREG Sta eo | eae pee *2.80 47.9 *47 4 73.0 *73.0 * Data for one year missing. At Ithaca, New York Mean tempera- Mean Precip- ture of eae velocity itation air in fai Y | of wind Years Month during shade Years Month a zs during month eee oni month : mon : (inches) | (degrees (per cent) bana Fahren- heit) 1896-1916 | January....... 2.19 25.28 | 1900-1916 | January..... 81.94 10.88 1896-1916 | February..... 2205 23.00 | 1900-1916 | February.... 81.35 10.58 1896-1916 archiseyae care 2.53 32.76 | 1900-1916 | March...... 83 .82 10.21 1896-1976) Aprile nas. on 2.50 45.09 | 1900-1916 | April........ 74.41 9.77 - 1896-1916 | May......:.. 3.08 56.85 | 1900-1916 | May........ 73.64 8.26 1896-1916 | June......:.. 3.58 64.95 | 1900-1916 | June........ 73.94 7.18 1S9G—19N6) | July... 5scc.. 3.17 70.90 | 1900-1916 | July........ 75.24 6.70 1896-1916 | August....... 3.17 68.23 | 1900-1916 | August...... 77.70 6.95 1896-1916 | September. 3.07 62.00 | 1900-1916 | September... 80.23 7.58 1896-1916 | October....... 3.02 50.90 | 1900-1916 | October..... 79.17 8.67 1896-1916 | November.... 2.07 39.14 | 1900-1916 | November... 79 .35 10.24 1896-1916 | December..... 2.40 28.14 | 1900-1916 | December... 81.29 10.17 RO tales ve rag Mia. te SAO ey at srecrr Mey Lu aishsteteeseteeanal lM ccuchelctaers: Sayelan. 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BIZzzELL is 112 TABLE 9. AsH anp AsH CONSTITUENTS IN Crops BY YEARS (In percentage of dry matter) Mitize. se). 2 IWLGhU 7a). eee Ontsee sore cae Tank 1910 1 1 3 6 7 MiaiZE 2 a3. s Maize-=... 2). 9 (OM Oats. Sack ee Miaize.....¢.. 11 BH rIMA MOM OOCAMOAMSD oooooocoeocoooooococo HON MIND OW eRe Hee ODD NNNNNNNNNNNNNANNN Omr~rtonmooronr MOO HDOMINDONO LD CO 1 “SH SD De OF 2D SO 1D SH OY) OD SH OY) CO Sen coos Bes os en ce ces cen oe cae cen ee ee SF re Ee ete ace rot 4 OD CN SH ry CD CN rH YD ret CY) MO OMN OH OOD NO “HOD OD 09 CD OD OD I ODN mt HN 19 6 SH S19 00 =H DOT ONDr~ ANAND DOMnMAAN mmooeeenreenn OBNOOMNOMUMrYr ANNONA AAN CO OO rj rt OO Pe Pe © 19 1 99 19 Pe SH OD OO DOM oD OND SO =H co 1) 0) D2 O 09 OD POO BOM MO ON MRNOM~MODOON Le HOP ATAM HWOINAOINSIDS SsOnmMDOOMmoOOnamS mo rere bs | 5 | re bide wee dies Oe dee eee 6 ioc eer aa 8 eee Bea aG ba babs bs ba bh hb bm Be HSBeBRB Oe Ree Se Be & SSSSatatSAtaAAS NOn OnNONONHDONHNOnEONOMN DOC ooe . . . . . . . . . DT ea | + * . =| » : : : : a : : : fe ee ee : PT ee ey ee 3 a ae ee ee) ay = : : : : 1 : : : pe peg: eee!) ea : 2 Ede. Soar Sel ia a S 2 Re ae eee ee ee SRSRSaeSasa ee ee a me ee ce emer See Be oa = eee) iGo SO) GOT S SFnenenuenen aN ~ los > on) ¢ o> aX airs fa) Lis) COOr a> Sra x an oO a t Se — lop) for) b oe | re N LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS 113 TABLE 9 (concluded) Crop Part of | Ash Ca Mg Na K Ss P crop Grass sere) Hayera|) wesoou| O2345| Osan Oats, |) lesse) 10.28 0.18 Wheat). 5. &. - Hay...| 11.09} 0.34] 0.14] 0.35] 3.26] 0.38 0.43 Second growth} Hay...| 8.88 | 0.20} 0.10 | 0.22) 1.76] 0.33 0.26 Wiheat!. Gna: Hay... :|@liei13.).0.24:|, 0.18) G07), 3.47,| 0.33 0.41 Second growth} Hay...| 5.80| 0.11] 0.08} 0.19 | 1.64] 0.44 0.38 Timothy..... Hay GeZl aie O2271)0209 "|. (Ol28rip 36 |, 0-21 0.18 Timothy..... Hay 5297 ly Onl 90 |e 007)|" Os0) Pp elezey | Os 0.19 Timothy..... Hay Hayne Os1 95) 0207, |, OFLS Peer 0.14 0.20 Clover....... ay S900) L367). 0-365| 0222 173 || RIG 0.16 GEASS ie 8y oe 3c: Hay €.68 | 0.19 | 0.09 | 0.20)|) 0:98))) 0.22 0.18 Timothy..... Hay Ge224lp OSs|@ Os065| OL18 esa OSI 0.17 Timothy..... Hay G0 7a | Onlse |= O205r)) 10219) || 12600) Osts 0.19 Glower. 22 52:-. Hay Gr205 | Seton te Oe298| 0225) ) E98) Oats 0.18 Grass 2a eeys : Hay. : |e teal te) Oe2on le OL06y) 0219) || 0784)" 0526 0.18 Timothy..... Hay... |\ Grolele O2l6re O205s|" 0220 | 1243) |) 02s 0.18 Timothy..... Hay. 2 | G:ASale OVL7) |) 02057) 0220) |, 1:44.) 0.19 0.18 Timothy..... sys: sie Os LOP ly OFlGr le 0208?) 0209 || 1-37 (Ons 0.18 Timothy..... Haye ono4e ee Oncls |S OL008 Ost |) C41) Onn 0.19 Timothy..... Hay... Season lee Oalda ie Os0va| 0210) |) Te2t. |) (OAS 0.18 Grass 4.5.62: Hay.. 6.42} 0.24} 0.10) 0.14) 1.84) 0.25 0.22 Timothy..... Hay.. Suzie 052225 02072 |) O-sln |) OL435\2 0023 0.19 Timothy..... Hay.. 5.05] 0.17 | 0.06] 0.48 | 0.55] 0.14 0.18 Grassiiee sc: Haye ele eGzsor |) Onlva |e Olds) 102525 |) 02465)" 0829 0.22 fimothyve we. |) Haye ie -9.00)|\= O219)|5 Of07)|)-0370") 0227.) OMS 0.20 Timothy..... Hay.. Devi |e Oreo | On0@| Oxsael “OL99s ls Oal7 0.21 1o/2) = i] Ww: 114 T. Lyrruteton Lyon anp James A. BizzELu TABLE 10. Asu anp AsH CONSTITUENTS IN Crops BY YEARS (In pounds per acre) Tank Crop Partof| Ash | Ca | Mg | Na K S P crop 1910 1 | Maize........ Grain..| 84.3|° 0.4] 4.4) -253) 17.5 |) °Sh i) eee Straw. .| 351.6 |. 23.1] 14.1 | 3.3] 81:9) 1109 | ae Total. .| 435.9| 23.5] 18.5| 5.6| 99.4| 20.0] 49.8 3 | Maize........ Grain..| 99.0] 0.8] 5.8] 2.8 |) 23.1°)°°Ol2 4) aaa Straw..| 430.1] 26.2] 13.4] 6.4| 105.4] 12.2] 14.1 Total. .| 529.1] 27.0] 19.2] 9.2] 128.5] 21.4) 56.1 5 | Maize........ Gran..| 108.6 | 0.9] 69} 3.9| 25.5) 9.1)" 438 Straw..| 372.9| 23.6] 12.6| 5.5| 98.4| 9.1] 12.2 Total..| 481.5 | 24.5| 19.5| 9.4| 123.9] 18.2] 55.4 G5) Oate.: tases Grain..| 83.8 | 0.2] 1.4)) (120 | 93,0] “93'5 1 ee Straw..| 339.3] 16.4] 6.8] 181] 92.0] 9.5 8.5 Total. .| 423.1] 16.6) 8.2 | 19.1] 105.0| 13.0| 25.4 7 | Maize.. Grain..| 93.9 | 0.9.6.0 | © 3:3 |" 21.5 | 10,4)) ace Straw..| 390.2] 26.4] 13.3] 5.9] 102.5| 5.7] 15.3 Total..| 484.1| 27.3| 19.3] 9.2|124.0| 16.1] 53.8 9 | Maize .| Gram ..| ‘102.4 | 0.7')""7.0") 352 | (22 701007 a6 ae Straw..| 370.2 | 24.2] 11.9] 4.2] 95.6] 5.5] 13.6 Total. .| 472.3 |-'24.9 | 18.9) “724 | 118-34 ° U3 19) Bae AO sOlatas.b acety ¢ Giain. | 93.4 | 0.2)" 2.01) 985| 315.4 Straw..| 363.3 | 17.0] 6.8| 19.4| 92.6] 7.7 9.3 Total. .| 456.4 | 17.2| 8.8| 20.9 | 108.0| 12.9] 29.8 11 }| Maize:cce. Grain..| 77.4. |-0.3'|. 4.7)| “2:3 | (17.59/08 eae Straw. .| 388.7 | 23.8||' 12.4|| °3.6'| 107-97/)5:84) eee Total. .| 466.1] 24.1| 17.1| 5.9 | 125.4] 14.6] 46.0 12 | Maize........ Grain. | 186.6 |". 0.3'|'5.9'| 2:7 | 120.0) "S50 Straw..| 355.4] 23.6| 12.4| 3.7] 98.2] 6.9] 15.1 Total. .| 442.0| 24.0] 18.3] 6.4|118.2| 15.7] 51.2 1911 JIE Bs G7 ae ae Grain. ‘| 116.0 |/ 3.1 | 3.8} 5.7.) 13.81 6.0:)|)) ie Straw..| 327.3 | 13.7| 5.7| 13.5 | 106.6] 9.0] 10.6 Total. .| 443-3 | 16:8] 9.5.| 19:2)| 120.4) 1510) sage Ba NGlatas ase oe Grain.| 108.6: 24) 3.3] 1:5) 147) 249 8.7 Sitaw..| 248.41 | 9:7 | .3:5| °7.9)|: 82.4.) as 8.3 Total..| 351.7) 12.1 | °6.81 9.45) (9721) (10ers Be) Oat. ose: Grain: 88-5)| 8s] -276y| 1.20 meee 7.3 Straw: .| 201.1| .8.5| 3.7) ) 6.6] 67.9) > 6.0)" em Tétal..| 289.6 | 10.3} 6.3| | 7.8 794°) A044 ete 6 | Grass........ Hay...| 192.3] 6.2] 3.3 | 99.3) 24336))- @Sueeeme 7 Oate cena. 2 Grain. :|103/5.| 2.4} 03.2)) © 1.37) ab a ae 8.6 Straw.-|.222.3| 10.8| 4.4.) 7.1) 74.0) (6.7) ee Total. | 325.8 | 13:2)| 7:3 | . 8.4)| (87160) ceca) eee Q:| (Oats: .. heer Grain. 110)! 255)" 3.81] 1.56] obey eee 8.8 Siraw..| 242.8]° 9.2| 3.4] 5.7] S4°8!) [5.4)fae Total...| 353.8} 11.7) (6.7!) 772:) 00020)) 10.87) eet LOD KGrass. eee Hay... | 19527 Sali 10.6 | 44.0 7.6 15.2 il er aes - ow LYSIMETER EXPERIMENTS ELS TABLE 10 (concluded) Tank Crop Part of | Ash Ca Mg Na K S P crop 1911 PO Bts® 324652: Grain. .| 105.5 2.0 Pat 0.6] 13.6 4.4 8.4 Straw..| 238.6 es Sol G0 | C29 5.9 10.9 Total. .| 344.1 9.8 5.8 oll |) ho. 10.3 19.3 1a Oats: oe... Grain. .| 106.0 Dall De OOF elseS 4.6 8.1 Straw..| 271.6 | 10.6 4.4 TAOS SOES 7.8 13.1 otal odds Om |pal2et 6.9 8.0 | 100.1 12.4 Pall 1912 fe |paWihest. ./2. 6. lay loose 3.5 1.6 [Poy ie oled 5.5 4.6 Second growth| Hay...| 150.5 3.3 1.8 2.3 | 28.4 4.8 4.2 SalVWheat ame. se Hay...| 143.8 2.6 ie2 1.4} 48.0 4.6 5.1 Second growth} Hay...} 55.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 9.9 2.0 2.5 OM WANE tse ss. Hay...| 161.4 2) 1.0 2.8 | 45.0 4.9 6.2 Second growth} Hay...| 32.7 0.7 0.4 OFSe | 1025 2.0 2.4 GHIBGrass nee. © Hay. . |) 195-4 1.8 2.9 3.9 | 40.2 6.7 5.0 Go| Wihleatiec. 5. - Hay. 4.|) 122.8 Se 0.8 PX || Btssa72 3.7 4.9 Second growth} Hay...| 99.1 1.3 0.9 1S G7 2a 3.5 Oo Wiheats = .5.... Elayaee |e 0.8 0.4 0.7 10.1 HO 1.4 Second growth} Hay...| 156.9 4.3 2.0 He |) AIO) 4.2 4.5 LOR Grasses ee: IEA coll I) 7.8 2.8 3.5 | 42.5 6.5 4.2 S| Wiheat. 2)... - Hay. .|) 30)-4 0.9 0.4 0.9 9.0 1.0 12 Second growth} Hay...| 138.8 one 15 3.5 20-6 5.2 4.1 P20 Wihestiamis. =... Hay...| 143.3 3. Il 1.4 0.9 | 44.7 4.2 5.3 Second growth| Hay...| 28.2 0.5 0.4 0.9 8.0 Papell 1.9 1913 1S emo thiysss ee Hay S202 oO) 1A: Ard |) eS le |) Ot) 9.6 3 | Timothy..... Hay 381.6 | 12.2 ASE eel eae cORS 9.6 12.3 5 | Timothy..... Pay 271.6 9.1 3.4 8.6 | 74.2 6.8 9.6 Clovers4-o-.. Liay 148.2} 27.9 6.0 3.7 | 28.9 2.0 2th GaleGrassh ce Hay 359.4 9.1 4.0 9.3 | 45.9 10.4 8.5 @ehimothy .- Hay 312.9 9.1 2.9 Ori 67.4 | 10.7 8.6 OR Rimothys.e oe Hay 211.9 5.9 2.3 Sod || Cea) 6.0 8.8 @lover:.s3. 42: Hay LG2205 | 30N6 Hdl 4.4] 34.9 3.2 3.2 IQ) || Gren eo kob ee Hay.:.| 3438.5 | 10.1 2.6 8.4] 36.9 11.6 8.0 1S eimothys ese: Haye. ..|| 274.7 Goll 2.0 S26) | Glas 7.8 7.9 12) | Dimothy.. .:: Haye |e 2o805 GQ 2-1 8.9 | 64.9 9.0 8.2 1914 i |} Rimothy:. =... Hay. ..| 257.9 8.0 4.1 4.7} 69.3 9.1 9.3 Se |pbimothys. 22. lel. 5 o|| 2ePnI| 10.6 4.6 Cell || Wea) 8.9 9.8 Du |pelimothy eee Hay. ..| 300.3 9.5 4.1 a | 67.6 (Gao 10.2 GalpGrasseeeee ase ays. |) 26152 9.6 4.0 5.9 | 54.4] 10.3 9.1 of || Amieawlinys oo Jabmy ol) 22 ee 9.2 Sola 34.1 18.1 9.8 8.1 9 | Timothy..... Hay...| 301.4 9.9 3.6 | 28.9 | 32.4 8.2 LOR LOD EGrassseeaee ee Hayne 2Odre 5.7 4.9| 17.2] 14.8 9.4 Wok 1S eRimo thy Hays. .| L9e3 6.1 Py || Beye! 8.8 4.9 6.5 25 |imothy. 2. - Hay...| 218.3 9.3 2.9 | 12.4) 37.4 6.4 8.0 Memoir 11, Biology of the Membracidae of the Cayuga Lake Basin, the preceding number in this series of publications, was mailed December 14, 1917. I15 ee ws = we is rh i bijin i rt Ase Gty (ie a j ; Kale SAO hi swhevanatt Halioriy 3 — = — ir i. ll - y = : 2 = : 7 éa te area er = SAS 2 ee aa 4~ ~~ mobi el ie Be Bra 45 ce Sot € take = Sess e else ced 53. | = ~ os Sa b aaa = = , ote fe : a we - ak - . = me tind hm Pap teari-é <)> + +t =~ 4G & mat Gow Pe > CA Em ee FS — 7 - : Tos a ae - Perna a — sd =_ — tenn tien AAI arcane = ' > old Myth fs +a (DeFoulicrpiaf OER DET, in Cvgrs { f ya { . } | 4 | } i ' ic: 4 “\y STeFt teas Seatp a aec - - “ i te A Le =e : i> j =~ a eens <- a se Leg ee ae 5 Vv . = _ a — = 7 ~~ ca Bs 5 ~ ie Bm, — a s : - > 7 = pep rch a eee SS eS ee or ete Rte = ~ > ea ae ee ee ee on ee ee ee Perr prweds bien ol i ew ne 5 OL : io + wir it ci Poly Ay & ; * t Te | ie oe ig) % ¢ a by i é ty i» v 7 cane Casi“. SESS SFSSSlE BLE eReee or olntr= -cle> wep res eer . | . | | | . . . pun Foe 0 Bat 55 os a aes ag SiS wit Ges innekads — eo > CMmea-- Swe ocuss fe oe ee ee * i ae aaa - ” -* i — i: |} 1 es = »e= —— OT eS ae aS ee Se ec dd oe ty Se SS ae — Sars twee Soto Se Cer 11> Ss a JULY, 1917 BULLETIN 392 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY (IPOMOEA PURPUREA |L.| ROTH) ELMER EUGENE BARKER ITHACA, NEW YORK PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 117 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION EXPERIMENTING STAFF ALBERT R. MANN, B:S.A., A.M., Acting Director. HENRY H. WING, M.S. in Agr., Animal Husbandry. T. LYTTLETON LYON, Ph.D., Soil Technology. JOHN L. STONE, B.Agr., Farm Practice. JAMES E. RICE, B.S.A., Poultry Husbandry. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, B.S., Agricultural Chemistry. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, M.A., Plant Pathology. ELMER O. FIPPIN, B.S.A., Soil Technology. G. F. WARREN, Ph.D., Farm Management. WILLIAM A. STOCKING, Jr., M.S.A., Dairy Industry. WILFORD M. WILSON, M.D., Meteorology. RALPH S. HOSMER, B.A.S., M.F., Forestry. JAMES G. NEEDHAM, Ph.D., Entomology and Limnology. ROLLINS A. EMERSON, D.Sc., Plant Breeding. HARRY H. LOVE, Ph.D., Plant Breeding. DONALD REDDICK, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. EDWARD G. MONTGOMERY, M.A., Farm Crops. WILLIAM A. RILEY, Ph.D., Entomology. MERRITT W. HARPER, M.S., Animal Husbandry. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Ph.D., Soil Technology. GLENN W. HERRICK, B.S.A., Economic Entomology. HOWARD W. RILEY, M.E., Farm Mechanics. CYRUS R. CROSBY, A.B., Entomology. HAROLD E. ROSS, M.S.A., Dairy Industry. KARL McK. WIEGAND, Ph.D., Botany. EDWARD A. WHITE, B.S., Floriculture. WILLIAM H. CHANDLER, Ph.D., Pomology. ELMER S. SAVAGE, M.S.A., Ph.D., Animal Husbandry. LEWIS KNUDSON, Ph.D., Plant Physiology. KENNETH C. LIVERMORE, Ph.D., Farm Management. ALVIN C. BEAL, Ph.D., Floriculture. MORTIER F. BARRUS, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. CLYDE H. MYERS, M.S., Ph.D., Plant Breeding. GEORGE W. TAILBY, Jr., B.S.A., Superintendent of Livestock. EDWARD S. GUTHRIE, M.S. in Agr., Ph.D., Dairy Industry. JAMES C. BRADLEY, Ph.D., Entomology. PAUL WORK, B.S., A.B., vegetable Gardening. JOHN BENTLEY, Jr., B.S., M.F., Forestry. VERN B. STEWART, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. EARL W. BENJAMIN, Ph.D., Poultry Husbandry. JAMES K. WILSON, Ph.D., Soil Technology. EMMONS W. LELAND, B:S.A., Soil Technology. CHARLES T. GREGORY, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. WALTER W. FISK, M.S. in Agr., Dairy Industry. ARTHUR L. THOMPSON, Ph.D., Farm Management. ROBERT MATHESON, Ph.D., Entomology. HARRY H. KNIGHT, B.Pd., B.S., Entomology. MORTIMER D. LEONARD, B.S., Entomology. FRANK E. RICE, Ph.D., Agricultural Chemistry. IVAN C. JAGGER, M.S. in Agr., Plant Pathology (In cooperation with Rochester University). WILLIAM I. MYERS, B.S., Farm Management. LEW E. HARVEY, B.S., Farm Management. LEONARD A. MAYNARD, A.B., Ph.D., Animal Husbandry. LOUIS M. MASSEY, A.B., Ph.D., Plant Pathology. BRISTOW ADAMS, B.A., Editor. LELA G. GROSS, Assistant Editor. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free on request to residents of New York State. 118 CONTENTS Pee HnGeSHtISCOe TF SGUIGhY 5 PN al. les PH een. ied so LIBERO 2. Penemiceralccolon ok Seediegat. co. Mt: isha eek Rawle ye Pea sda e ce. bs Mnereenciies Of tne feathered corolla). a). o's das bbs a newness de « Rerirotite theo s TIN MATES Oe ala rn 8 oye) Fas tS Sad wel a Beg Pes Sg St SMNewe rCHIeS Ch COlOL LY. PES ost sn sae a. se ae ba owe yee oo baa BER viok ot eGlor types when sel-fertilized: 4.22.5 2)5 2.2 22s) es RAMTEC Re eee eee etek es es ee We eR Se ae TBs le 2 AN eas Ont rel he CMe OIE e MCT ty Feat men ye 8 [36 LB Bas a ae We a ie te NE a ae oar ean dR MERCI Set cree ese vs te oe eee INE Oca a ath ale Pen ee By rela ne Pet aS once a ie nas 4 ak haa. ees ee tS Pe ls ce Pehigounple swan ace ses es Seek Soe oe: Bt ee Pe ae a Se ae BY via am (OCG eet ene OER ee a eh a a op Ped rs ot aah ona ys, uP nk 5G eM AVIODION GOlOE-LVDES 11) CLOSSES..4 acme a sof Bas oo was Me aes wos (UTD So etl eee ree Bi eile Ce eae ie Pim a tie esrnarm act cot: ESret eee ae Ree, ne. Son ie 5: Ree Dar KOS oer fala ate. VERGE a aN GON Bee AO? Aan Be Eaten Enea Ee ae ee eae Lilie IM Gy De SRE are ee ei he ara ee nrnere i Drscle of Spee eyaponre uals «Se ieee He yn iain see aia ie es ee cP er east eee, Ee Nee ee 3.3 LAN Os te Mets Be oe hols Description of ‘the character 2:5 2.... 42.7 SN cae Dee Ir ee RR ge Semhcone mia temic rey or Se oy: . Wz, Anas hated pees 's ss ete ns AVS ir eis CER ETT SUSUR OMG eh rae ke Genetics of color types involved in dakias Be EO Se ee RIAN es a ES = oy Me Sete See hss co 8 te Ree JP Gives mG ESTE As Mar se lee ¢ dole nce eR OE OIE re a ee F<: r. t He ay / 5 “ ¢ ce 7 ba et ee, 7 ee t en ih FEN « as ms a ie i ‘ 7 J ee ' veal ¥ ; ele ea 7 : ® a : \ iy +, n ary in ae ' rel aie ’ : : 5 } " ’ “ga: ' OS nes: aN ‘yo xi i Lie Fy. Fea RRS ny. my te =s i ef AT tal om baa , 5 es 4 he Acitny feaeced é i. AA “ine * Uebedelsy ’ : 4 } ‘ Pr ‘ wart mee * AOVIETVOD aude" ea ashen " ion Se mir rie ' Te eee audi) eee tvlewes i... Bhede af heen de dek tel. UPC Ee: Ee ‘i 12. bege to seion teed | uk Sl MARE aut lo a ALGIED? OARGH Ene alk ie ea + 0.46 CECA leas > We edad einalq ol plod ia ; ave. +CF00): TREE FF Lamypiolos Wo ' area ua bibk Alo a se trative emyyt tole le an Dn ba ds 8 eet th ae ete ade bukhbeb -, wre ny yw edgy wate ti rs ' Tt Thee ee Sine J ," 44° ETAT UR D Ais MELTED, CDEC Re etic ce ee ee .. sotd pete ae FESS A ROTA ON Nir ; (sry Ondo t ? + PEM | me . Nye] ria : r: heh edd Ane teen? Gn eae, 4 ofr raty, AECL EBS ry oe CARO? 0 ean oleae ie Lae ae CL DUT OL 4ANAGE MEA) Pole Jina J1ROw aL). Dek Lae ee Ds NOV UIE MLD, Make Oh tints ae Ae i Ci ys Peer re: . Ph wean ac’ pi ie ** Svat ; ; ‘ OOF ONO RL ELEN Ah. COME MOU A .. , « ~ Oe 7 Tees: $e, Fs NFER Sea Bee so pti 2 Gren Ot Wer aoe it dig: ry ri mah suid mae : te F eT OT “ii: « iver’ Ge odes aka i hee REOUO PRE rey, in. Biv, . five, Where att lo forarea A ig Ch ARS Be Aaah oe lal bee tea 2 ie Shas ae Shee a9 a 1 fen ky ev baad [nottsn 9 Re aT Jak toh birabarcer mxied wali th auS CPewmerr cere ces, ows bop Pheer Rinker ek 7teevive va ea Rita *e* ee e¢e@e wean bade } ,j ae O41. Nt) Re ; } bi é : ae e - : Wc th 4 Fy, et eh ne ? . - + " Ne * ce ete lel tiv iho: ee eee ee pee yt reuinaty 9° aw Pp HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY (IPOMOEA PURPUREA [L.] ROTH)! ELMER EUGENE BARKER It is attempted in this paper to give the results obtained in researches on the genetics of certain characters in the common morning-glory (Ipomoea purpurea [L.] Roth), and to demonstrate the mendelian behavior of certain genes postulated to explain them. The characters here studied are color of the seed coat, and feathering, color, and flaking of the corolla. The morning-glory is a plant well suited for work in experimental genetics. Its flowers present a large series of color types; it 1s vigorous, and very resistant to adverse conditions of all sorts; it is self-fertile and bears many seeds on every plant; it is very resistant to most insect attacks and fungous diseases; it can be grown in the greenhouse as well as out of doors if the temperature is warm enough. METHODS USED IN STUDY The stock used was the common variety of morning-glory. At the beginning of the investigation some Japanese morning-glories were grown, but they proved to be tender under the very cool conditions that prevailed in the house where they were planted, and no crosses were obtained, either between the two kinds or between the Japanese varieties themselves. If the house is cool or the light is insufficient (as during winter months at Ithaca), the plants will not vine and will bloom as soon as one or two pairs of true leaves have unfolded. If the temperature is warm and humid, or under optimum garden conditions, the vines become very large and do not bloom until late. In these experiments a convenient medium was struck by growing the plants in small pots, whereby they could: be kept at small size but still large enough to produce plenty of flowers. At first the seeds were sown in the small pots, one to a pot, and the pots were plunged ‘into the soil or ashes of the greenhouse bench or of the garden. It was found better to germinate the seeds between damp blotters in a germinator and then to plant the young seedlings. In the spring of 1915 an attempt to germinate the seeds in damp cotton proved disastrous, because they smothered and more than half of the cultures were thus lost. Some of the seeds have integuments so impervious to moisture that germi- nation is very slow under natural conditicns. It can be hastened by 1 Paper No. 60, Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. 20 6 BULLETIN 392 cutting a small hole thru the seed coat to allow the water to enter. In 1916 seeds were successfully germinated in petri. dishes on damp filter paper, and the seedlings were then put directly into the soil of the garden. Early frosts at the end of two seasons killed the cultures before com- plete notes had been taken, so that only very meager data were obtained on most of the pedigrees and in many instances no seeds were produced for carrying certain pedigrees further. In the summers of 1915 and 1916 the plants in the garden were so late that no crossing was attempted. Some of these plants were cut back severely and removed to the green- house, where crosses were later made with them. The stigma is receptive for pollination on the same morning that the flower opens. Pollination must be done early, as the flowers wither very soon, especially on hot days. Emasculation can be performed as late as the afternoon previous to the day of the flower’s opening. The flowers are so readily self-fertile that when selfing was desired in these experiments it was found sufficient to tie the tip of the mature bud with a bit of cotton thread and leave it alone, or else to shake and pinch the corolla a little the next morning in order to insure the pollen’s reaching the stigma. Except in the warmer months, however, when the venti- lators and doors of the houses were open, or when the plants grew in the garden, this precaution was not necessary. No trouble was given by insects interfering with the pollinations. In the garden all pollinations were guarded by bagging. In the winter of 1912-13, 488 cross- and self-pollinations were made in the greenhouse, of which 55 per cent set seed. In the summer of 1912, between August 14 and September 1 over 600 pollinations were made in the garden, of which 51 per cent of the self-pollinations and 35 per cent of the cross-pollinations set seed. The colors of the flowers were at first described and recorded by means of the Répertoire de Couleurs.2 Later it was found more convenient and more nearly accurate to compare each flower with a colored sketch and refer it to a certain type. The light purple type varies from approxi- mately dark blue to dark purple. Dark purples on withering break down into light purple and magenta. Indeed, all the blue series are subject to such a change in withering; the blue pigment breaks down and the flower appears transformed into one of the red series. Thus, in cool, cloudy weather flowers may remain open for two days, blues on the second day appearing as red. On cool mornings in early autumn the pigments do not develop properly, and it was found necessary at such times to give up all attempts to classify the types. Records were always checked at least once when possible, and often many times. 2 See under Société Francaise des Chrysanthemistes et René Oberthir, in References cited, page 38. 122 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY 7 The classification into types is in many cases rather arbitrary. The pinks verge into pale mauve, and dark mauves are about the same as lighter magentas. In the same way, dark blue is very like some of the hybrid light purples, while other hybrids of this type are hardly less intense in color than typical homozygous dark purples. HEREDITY OF COLOR OF SEED COAT The seed coats of the morning-glory plants studied were of two colors— black and a light yellowish brown, or tan. These two colors were found to be inherited in an alternative and exclusive manner as a simple men- delian allelomorphic pair of characters. Black was dominant over tan. Since the integuments of a seed are part of the maternal (P;) somatic tissues, seeds borne on plants that are either duplex or simplex for black will in either case be black-coated. Only a pure recessive plant can bear tan-coated seeds. However, a tan-coated seed can contain a simplex embryo, resulting from the fecundation of the recessive ovule by a dom- inant germ. A black-coated seed can contain a duplex or a simplex domi- nant embryo, or even a double recessive embryo. The embryo always represents, of course, a different generation from the seed coat that contains it. TABLE 1. Data oF CoLor oF SEED CoATs IN HYBRID PEDIGREES: OF PURE RECESSIVES* Color | Color | Color | Color | Number of progeny and color of Pedigree | of seed | of seed | Of seed | of seed their seed coats no. coats of | coats of | Coats of | coats of P; P, female | male parent | parent F, FP, Ps By TOO)... b b b b 4b 18 b 111 b 34b 1 Rea eiie eal Mace aroun Bt b i Io 3 9b MG 2h yl ss b b b b 3b EXO Oy. |! soem ric iy eae eee b b b b (Ghoy9 Al eceeeeee TU} eaieestas b b b b 6b Bre |e. hs on 152 eis skh b b b b 6b Abt y\\:o22 435 |. eee 220 ee a sd.t b b b b 2b SOuOC® | i. avs oe eer ee LOS ars: b b b b 3b | 22b * The dominant character black is symbolized by B, the recessive tan by b. + The seed parent in cross 118 bore black-coated seeds and several of the Fi sibs to no. 5 were black- coated. No. 118-5 itself, however, was a pure extracted recessive. The color of seed coats in hybrid pedigrees of pure recessives is shown in table 1. The following system was used for numbering the plants: ‘Each progenitor of a pedigree was given a number below 100; crosses were designated by numbers in the hundreds, a different set of hundreds being used for each year. Individual offspring from a self-fertilized plant were designated by consecutive numbers separated from the number of 123 8 BULLETIN 392 the parent plant by a dash. The number of dashes in the pedigree num- ber gave, therefore, a clue to the number of generations that the pedigree had been selt-fertilized. Thus, the first plant in a lot of seed was num- bered 15-1, the second 15-2, and so on. When a plant was selfed, its progeny were numbered 15-2-1, 15-2-2, and so on. The F, plants from a cross would be numbered 100-1, 100-2, and so on, or 230-1, 230-2, and so on. It may be assumed from the behavior of such pedigrees as hee shown in table x that a pure recessive plant when self-fertilized will produce only tan-coated seeds thruout any subsequent number of generations in which the progeny also are self-fertilized. No black-coated seeds were ever produced in any of these pedigrees. If black-seeded plants are homozygous, then, when they are self- fertilized, succeeding generations will produce indefinitely black-coated seeds, as is shown in four pedigrees in which the seed coats of the first and second parental and the first filial generations, as well as the plants under consideration, were all black. Here is evidence that the character bred true thru four generations. Black-coated heterozygous seeds, however, will give rise to plants the integuments of whose ovules will all be black but whose eggs contain either the dominant or the recessive gene. When self-fertilized, these plants will produce seeds that are either duplex or simplex dominants or pure recessives. This hypothesis is supported by the data of pedigrees 100 ot 200. In both cases the seed parent of the cross came from recessive stock and the pollen parent from black-coated stock. In both cases all the F, plants bore black-coated seeds. In pedigree too the F,; progeny from one of ‘these black-seeded plants when selfed consisted of 10 blacks and 1 tan. In pedigree 200 the F, progeny from one plant consisted of: 1 tan which when selfed gave rise to 25 tans — pure extracted recessives; 1 black which gave rise to 4 blacks; and 1 black which gave rise to 17 blacks and 6 tans. In cross 102 the seed parent was a recessive and the pollen parent was black-coated, but the latter was evidently simplex for the dominant character because the F; plants were both black-seeded and tan-seeded, there being 2 blacks and 1 tan. THE GENETICS OF THE FEATHERED COROLLA The character here termed feathered is a sort of ragged condition that occurs on the outside of the corolla. Narrow strips and filaments arise about the base of the corolla tube and on its outer surface, fringing it about and giving it a bizarre feathered appearance. : The origin of this character in the writer’s cultures was a single plant out of ten that came from commercial seeds in a packet marked Double HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MoRNING-GLORY 9 Flowering. None of the others were ragged. The flowers were white, and, altho the rays were plain white while the plant was growing in the weak light of the greenhouse during the winter, later in the season a lavender spot developed on each. This spot appeared also in the progeny. This plant, no. 5-2, was used in six crosses, with plants of various colors. The raggedness appeared in the F, colored hybrids. Only 12 plants came to bloom in these six pedigrees. Of these, 7 were ragged and 5 were smooth. The indication is, then, that the plant no. 5-2 was simplex for the gene causing this character, and that the character is a dominant one. The data for F, and F; generations regarding this character are very meager, but the indication again is that the smooth or recessive plants breed true to lack of the character. This character was transferred from the original white plant to various plants of the color types by crossing. PIGMENT COLORS IN PLANTS There are two classes of coloring substances in plants: (1) organized color principles, which are characterized by being an organic part of the plastid body and are always associated with specialized protoplasmic bodies, the chromoplastids; and (2) unorganized color principles, which are not a fundamental or organic part of the plastids, but are pigments dissolved in the cell sap and seated in the vacuoles of the cells. In flowers the latter are almost always confined to the epidermal cells, but when found in leaves, fruits, and other organs they are situated as often as not in deeper-lying tissues. According to the modern theory of the formation of these cell-sap pigments, they are the result of enzymes in the nature of oxidases which act upon certain substances in the cells that are capable of oxidation, thereby producing pigments. The oxidase is supposed to be of a dual nature and to consist of two constituents, a peroxidase and a peroxide. The peroxide functions as an activator to the peroxidase in the sense that it supplies the latter with oxygen which may then be transferred to an oxidizable body. When all three substances are present, the peroxide, the peroxidase, and the oxidizable body, oxidation takes place and pig- ment is formed which gives color to the organ. Tests by various workers on many different species of plants show that the distribution of oxidases coincides with that of the anthocyanic pig- ments, and it has been pointed out by Miss Wheldale (1910, rg11)* and by Clark (1911) that peroxidase is more widely distributed than the organic peroxide that activates it. § Dates in parenthesis refer to References ciled, page 38. 125 10 BULLETIN 392 Experimental tests of both a chemical and a genetical nature have demonstrated that most whites are due to the absence of some part of the mechanical device for the formation of pigment and are recessive to the pigmented forms when crossed with them. Some plants show by their genetical behavior that either of two factors in pigment formation — chromogen or oxidase — may be lacking from a variety. It is possible, for example, in such plants as sweet peas, stock, and lychnis, by mating certain white-flowered individuals, or in the aleu- rone of maize by crossing two white-seeded strains, to bring together the two complementary factors and thus produce a reversionary, colored F, generation. In the case of the so-called ‘‘dominant whites” the lack of color is supposed to be due to an inhibitor which prevents the formation of the pigment altho all the necessary substances for its formation may be present. The action of the inhibitor may be complete, as in the dominant whites, or it may be only partial, resulting in dilute colors — as in stocks, where it is supposed to be responsible for the dilute varieties of rose, flesh, and other pale colors. The factor in these cases is supposed to be of a limiting nature and to prevent entire reaction. In some cases the inhibiting factor appears to be of such a nature that it acts locally, resulting in parti-colored ‘“‘flaked’’ forms, or in various color patterns, or in the dominance of what appears to be a lower grade of pigmentation over a higher grade. In many cases the inhibition is not quite complete, and dominant whites are often distinguishable by the presence of patches or washes of color not found in the recessive whites (Shull, 1912 : 121). In Papavar Rhoeas the presence of a white margin on the petals is dominant over its absence. It is probable, therefore, that the white margin is due to the presence of an inhibitor localized in the margin of the petals (Shull, 1912 : 128). There is also an inhibitor which affects the body of the petals, producing what is essentially a dominant white, tho the inhibition is often very imperfect, in which case the flowers are more or less washed and striated with color but generally whitish (Shull, r912 : 134). Miss Marryat (1909 : 45) reports that in her experiments with Mirabilis jalapa, flaking proved dominant thruout; and Correns (1910: 424) con- firms her results. In the writer’s experiments with morning-glories the same condition has been found to obtain. The distribution and behavior of color in such cases as these would seem to indicate a localization of the color-producing substances rather than the presence of an inhibitor. The chemical substances that react together to form anthocyanic pig- ments can be interpreted in mendelian terms if it is considered that the mendelian factors involved in the various stages of color production are in the nature of enzymes, oxidases, and chromogens. Their activities 126 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MorRNING-GLORY II are in many cases interdependent. Thus, for instance, red anthocyan may be regarded as a highly oxidized and colored product of an oxidase acting upon a colorless chromogen; this oxidase, therefore, is equivalent to the ‘‘reddening factor”’ of the mendelists. Similarly, a second oxidase, the mendelian ‘“bluing factor,’ leads to the formation of purple antho- cyan from the product of the action of the reddening oxidase (red antho- cyan). But the bluing oxidase is unable to form pigment directly without the process of the reddening oxidase. If the power to form the bluing oxidase is lost from the purple type, a red variety is the result; if the reddening factor is lost, an albino results, which may still contain the ferment capacity for the bluing action. In this way can be represented, in terms of mendelian genes and in terms of oxidases, the series of genetically different varieties which actually exist, ranging as they do in such plants as stocks and morning-glories from pink thru mauves, magentas, and reds, or thru the blue series to the purple type. It is evident that the loss of either element, peroxide or peroxidase, will give rise to albinism, even tho the plant may still carry the bluing factor or other modifying genes. Hence in any species having a complex series of color varieties there are a number of possible albinos, both genotypically and physiologically different from one another. The colors of varieties arising from an anthocyanic type may be regarded as components of the original anthocyan of the wild ancestral prototype. Conversely, the type may be supposed to have lost its components in succession, thus giving rise to a series of color variations. This chromogen-oxidase theory of the formation of anthocyanic colors furnishes an explanation for the behavior of the color types of the morning- glories here studied. Their genetical behavior is considered in the next section, where it is shown that these color types form an epistatic series, each step of which is determined by the active presence of a particular gene or complex of genes which are probably in the nature of enzymes. THE GENETICS OF COLOR TYPES In accord with the enzyme-chromogen hypothesis of the formation of floral pigments, the following symbols and formulas are here used as working hypotheses to account for the genetic relationships of the various color types of morning-glories used in the present study: Symbols C= Chromogen R= Oxidase acting on C B= Bluing gene X = Peroxidase or intensifier acting on C and R, and on B I =A further intensifying gene 127 BULLETIN 392 Formulas Magenta Light blue Dark blue Light purple Dark purple CCRRXXII CCRRBB CCRRBBXX CCRRBbXxli CCRRBbXXII CCRrXXII (or CCRrBbXx CCRrBBxXX : CCRRBbxXXIi dark mauve) CCRrBbXX CCRRBbxXxX CCRrXXIi (or CCRRBbXx CCRRBBXx mauve) CCRrBBXx CCRrBBxx White Tinged white Pink Mauve CcRRBB CCRrBb (or pale blue) CCRR CCRRXX CcRrBBXX CCRr CERRXz CCRRbbxXX CCrrxXX CGRRXS CCRRbbXx CEs (CLERIDLOXK CCRRbbXXii (OGinn:e< CCRrxx CCRrxXxli CCrrBBXX CCRrbbXx CCRERT CCrrBbXx CCRRXx and all other CCRRXxbbii plants lacking CCRrxe C or R or with C simplex The evidence in support of these hypothetical formulas is derived in two ways from a germinal analysis — by means of (1) selfing, and (2) hybridization. The evidence is considered separately under these two headings. Te BEHAVIOR OF COLOR TYPES WHEN SELF-FERTILIZED Type 1 White (Plate IT) Description of the type.— The white type is a pure white and a true albino. The star-shaped rays in the corolla may in some cases be slightly yellowish, but so pale as to be hardly different from the ground color. In other cases they may be flushed with pink or may have a definite spot of lavender. The albino type can be accounted for hypothetically by the absence of sufficient chromogen to form any anthocyanic pigments (ce or Cc) or by the lack of sufficient oxidase (R) to react with C and form anthocyan, without which combination the other genes cannot act even tho they may be present. Thus any formula lacking either C or R, or even one having C in a simplex condition, might represent a white. Theoretical consideration of data.— Thirty-three white plants were selfed and yielded an aggregate progeny of 262 whites. No colored types appeared. Chemical tests on some of the white flowers seemed to indi- cate the presence of both peroxide and peroxidase in the tissues of the corolla, but a lack of chromogen. Certain it is that these plants lacked some essential part of the mechanical device for the production of pigment — either C or R, or both. The presence or absence of other genes could be determined only by cross-breeding. Other whites threw colors when selfed as shown in table 2: 128 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY 13 TABLE 2. WHITES SELFED WHICH THREW COLORS Briere Dark iehit ; Teed ae blue ere Mauve Pink 8 White Plants 109-5-10-and 132-2-1 were doubtless tinged whites that were recorded as true whites. They had sibs that were recognized as tinged whites. Plant 1o8—-s—1 could give a dark blue because it was hetero- zygous for both the genes C and R (CcRrBBXX). If more progeny had been obtained from it one would have expected also magentas, mauves, pinks, and whites. Plants 1og-2-7 and rog-s5-10, if of the constitution CCRr, could throw pinks, tinged whites, and whites when selfed. Plants 152-3 and 152-6 were two white sibs among the F; progeny of a cross between a light blue and a white. The other sibs were four light blues. Their pedigree affords an interesting example of the release of hidden factors thru mendelian recombination. It is given in table 3, with the putative formulas of the parents: TABLE 3. PEDIGREE No. 152 F, F, Pi Plant no. Color Actual number 6 dark blue ’ : 12 light blue M—o—E light oles sc ph odo aloe noe a oe erie 1 | Light blue. . } 5 tinged white 4 white CGGRRIB Bi sh oo rasta wha ena eter oe r 2 Light IGIiG isin eee MCR sc > Garg e x : : J| 1 light blue GCRIRUB IB acechcr tas end cpa Sere orcke ol aemeusyeiene Suen 3 Wihitesis .n- f 4 eS (] 2 dark blue : 9 light blue 21-52 White... 0... sees eeeeceseeeee ee eees 4 | Light blue.. 4 | 2 pink 1 tinged white 9g white SiliLaght: blues 2. lor bes ied. Sees I pink 6.) Whites, v2. I tinged white I white 129 So) 14 BULLETIN 392 The intensifying gene X also was probably brought into the cross by one of the parents in simplex condition, thus allowing the dark blues to appear in F,. Type 2 Tinged white Description of the type.-— The tinged white type differs from the true white, or albino, in often showing, when the plant is vigorous and growing in strong light, a very faint flush of pink in the solid ground between the rays of the star, the flush becoming deeper on the rays themselves. When conditions are not favorable it appears as a plain white, and might then be easily mistaken for and recorded as that type. Theoretical consideration of data.— The tinged whites when.selfed threw colors as shown in table 4. Plant too—-1-11-1 was recorded once as mauve but was not checked. Plant 108—1-5 was probably like 1o8—5—1 in constitution. The latter has already been discussed among the whites. Plant 1og—5—10, recorded as white, was probably a tinged white like its sib 9, which ‘“‘faded to pale pink.’’ Plant 132-2-1, recorded as white and already discussed, was probably a tinged white like its sib 11. Plant 159-2, recorded as ‘tinged white or very light blue,’’ was probably a light blue in constitution but phenotypically a tinged white. TABLE 4. TINGED WHITES SELFED [peek a deer Tinged Pedigree no. tie blue Mauve Pink : White In pedigree 109 the F; plants were probably all truly tinged whites and of the constitution CCRr. The parents were a pink and a (doubtful) white. Such F; plants should throw pinks, tinged whites, and whites in the ratio of 1: 2:12 when selfed. Altho the number of F, plants obtained was very meager (only 34), they are very far from showing agreement with this ratio, the colors being as follows: Theoretical Observed Parsi. © i, i PRR AE per eeee = Sek 4 Wineed: whike > .., case reece «se wie ws 17.0 2 oh: a es oe | a cee a ae 8.5 28 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MoRNING-GLORY 15 It is possible that some of the genetically tinged whites were classed as true whites. In pedigree 200, arising from a cross between a light blue and a magenta, the F; plants were light purple. Plants grouped in this type vary greatly in color and are usually heterozygous for several factors. If when selfing a light purple plant the genes B and I were lost in the recombinations, then pinks and mauves would result. If R also were simplex in such a light purple F; plant, there would be a possibility that pinks and tinged whites might appear. Such seems to have been the case in this pedigree, where the second-generation plant 200-2-6, a tinged white, was selfed and gave a progeny consisting of 6 mauves, 2 pinks, ro tinged whites, and 6 whites. The F; parent plant probably carried the genes X, B, and I in simplex condition, and they became lost out of the recombination that gave rise to plant 200-2-6. If this plant had been of the constitu- tion CCRrXx, its behavior as described above could be explained, for then it could have given, when selfed, CCRRXX mauve CCRRXx mauve CCRRxx pink CCRrXX_ tinged white CCRrXx_ tinged white CCRrxx __ tinged white CCrrXX_ white CCrrXx white CCrrxx = white All the phenotypes here given were actually represented in the F, progeny of this individual. The genetic behavior of tinged whites may be explained on the hypothesis of a formula CCRr. When selfed, then, they should throw pinks, tinged whites, and whites. Such was here found to be the case, in general, when the tinged whites were selfed, with the exceptions of the cases discussed above. Type 3 Pink (Plate I) Description of the type-— The type called pirk is a very pale rose and somewhat lighter than the type here called mauve. It may be either paler or slightly more intense, factors such as water supply, vigor of the plant, ’ amount of light, and so on, seeming to affect its intensity. It is paler and less blue than mauve, type 4. . Theoretical consideration of data.— If the chemical theory of color pro- duction as explained on page 9g is adopted, the pink type must be con- sidered as the lowest in the series of color varieties of the morning-glory, hypostatic to all the others, and due to the addition to the white geno- 131 16 BULLETIN 392 type of some one or more genes essential to the formation of anthocyanic pigment. If the full pink is supposed to be due to a double portion of the same gene (that is, a duplex condition) that causes the pink flush of the tinged white type, the pink type may be formulated as CCRR. This type, being homozygous, could then give only pinks when selfed. Fourteen pink plants were selfed and in a progeny of 127 plants only pinks were found. It is a true-breeding type, as the hypothesis stated above demands. Plant 211-1 was recorded as pink and checked as such. When selfed it threw 3 magentas, 3 mauves, 8 pinks, 1 tinged white, and 12 whites. It must have been a mauve (genotypically) with the formula CCRrXxIlI, which could throw all these types when selfed. Mauve could very easily have been mistaken for pink and recorded as such. Type 4 Mauve (Plate I) Description of the type.— The type called mauve is slightly darker and bluer than that called pink. The two are often so nearly alike that it is difficult to be certain to which type a flower belongs. This may, no doubt, have given rise to some experimental errors in recording the type, as in the case of plant 211-1, discussed above. Theoretical consideration of data.~— The data showing the behavior of mauves when selfed is very meager. Five plants were selfed and yielded an aggregate progeny of 80 plants, of which 61 were mauve and 19 were pink. The largest pedigree contained §9 plants, of which 42 were mauve and 17 were pink. Other plants threw only pinks, but the numbers were very small. The significant fact here, however, is that no types other than mauve and pink were thrown. The mauve type may be considered as the pink genotype plus an added gene X which reacts with R to give a deeper and bluer hue. If a mauve plant were of the genotypic constitution CCRRXX, it should breed true; if simplex for X, it should throw three-fourths mauves and one-fourth pinks but no other types. This seems a plausible explanation of the data given above. Some of these plants may have been either simplex or duplex for X, since the numbers of their progeny were too small to demon- strate which was the case. Type 5 Magenta (Plate I) Description of the type-— The type called magenta is very similar to the mauve type, but the color is deeper, richer, and more intense. It is a brilliant color and does not change when the flower withers. It occurs also in a striped or flaked pattern on a white background, as discussed under a later heading (page 27). 132 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY 17 Theoretical consideration of data.—Twenty-three magenta plants were selfed and yielded an aggregate progeny of 108 plants, all of which were magentas. Twenty-one others were selfed and did not breed true. These are discussed separately. Among the first group was one that threw 5 magentas and 1 mauve. This mauve plant was not checked, however, and may have been a minus fluctuation of the magenta type. Another plant that had originally been recorded as magenta threw 4 dark blues only. It may, indeed, have been a dark blue itself, and recorded after it had begun to wither. The magenta color may be supposed to be due to an additional gene I, an intensifier which acts upon the full mauve and produces a deeper saturation of the same hue. Its genotypic formula, then, would be CCRRXXII, and such plants when selfed could throw only mauves — they would breed true, as in the above cases. If a magenta were simplex for one or more of its genes, however, it would throw, when selfed, magentas, mauves, and pinks in the ratio of 9:3:4. The behavior of the other magentas that were selfed can be explained on this hypothesis. There were 21 such plants and they gave a progeny of 93 offspring, of which 60 were magentas, 19 were mauves, and 14 were pinks. No other types were thrown. The theoretical and the observed frequencies are here given: Theoretical Observed DC Glia pe Ret Me ian ee ate. tabled te val he 5203 60 Jip BR SEe 2 US ts nn DeLee De eee 17.4 19 Jes aUECS | caeheea My Haat ett gO ARR SIS eA 2a 14 93-90 93 Type 6 Light blue (Plate I) Description of the type-—— The type considered as light blue is, as its name implies, a pale tint of blue. It turns to pink on withering. This type may be supposed to be due to the presence of a bluing gene, B, in addition to those present in the pink type, but to lack the gene I of the magenta type. The light blue type does not breed true, and all evidence indicates that it is heterozygous in one or more genes and thus comprises different genotypes. It is conceivable that a pure strain might be obtained which would breed true, but as yet no such plant has been found in the writer’s cultures. Such a plant would necessarily be of the constitution CCRRBB. Theoretical consideration of data.— Examination of all the data for all the light blue plants that were selfed shows that one group, comprising 21 plants, threw only dark blues, light blues, tinged whites, and whites. These plants must have been duplex for the gene B, as they threw no 133 18 BULLETIN 392 mauves nor pinks. The summation of data for this group is: dark blues, 45; light blues, 64; whites, 55. Eight of the whites were faintly flushed with color, and so were really tinged whites in the blue series. It is significant to note that in all the four pedigrees in which these tinged whites made their appearance there was a common ancestor, plant 21. The blue factor B was brought in by this strain, as was further shown by the evidence from collateral breeding. Another group of light blue plants threw mauves and pinks as well as blues and whites when they were selfed. These plants, together with their parents and offspring, are given in table 5s: TABLE 5. Licut BLUES SELFED . Col f Dark Ligh ; ; Pedigree no. ae SS bin - Mauve | Pink White 222-10,,. .4...| Light sblue Xx 5 29 Bo wn eos.) 2GnCh Oe white flaked magenta, M3 2—2ees eee 3 On] sree 3 4 13 2—3 ose : : 6 SH RT| eee 5 132-2-1..... Pink x white BEAT PERS I Neo: fel (Rees - 23S gn! Dis P| RR S| eee cree | eer Tis © eleieye » © Tinged white 4 CM On iN eeu ete ae ale, = =o 151-4 eyete ype: \e le x dark blue 3 I MY} Site Gebel Ree 4 5162 FS. 26 00 7 I 4 (1 tinged) 220-2. cies Dark blue x ah 2) Eee ef TO. eee 220-5i bless [ white I Mg ga stont sete Nace otter 2 QAI hn cese Pink x light HOM) ee cade I 1 || ceoes ace blue PRO Qan eae Pink xX light 1 At cae ae Til .snit;, | eee ee blue 39 51 7 10 | 42 90400 re a BEE, | a ae ee eee eee (Pane me Pea ee eS A 33 * 200-24 was recorded as light blue, but when selfed it gave 33 whites and nocolors. It must have been a white itself. If a light blue were simplex for B, then in the recombination of genes, due to selfing, mauves and pinks might appear, as in the cases shown in table 5, due to the dropping-out altogether of the gene B. If the light blue were heterozygous for all three genes, B, R, and X, then there would result a great number of genotypes in the recombination of genes following self-fertilization. The phenotypes resulting would be 134 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY 19 dark blue, light blue, mauve, pink, tinged white, and white. Many of these genotypes would be very slightly different from others, and the suggestion is borne in on one that a small difference in the presence or the potency of a single enzymatic determiner may change the intensity of the color enough to throw the flower into a different phenotype. It is very possible that environmental conditions affecting the physiological condition of the plant may throw plants of the same genotypic constitu- tion into different phenotypes. The behavior of pedigree 132 (table 5) appears to indicate that the light blues considered here were heterozygous as to the genes R, B, and X. The expected types all appeared except mauve and tinged white, and considering the smal]l number of individuals it is not surprising that these two types also were not represented. No other types appeared. Also, in the pedigree from plant 222-10 (a plant recorded as light blue), there occur the types dark blue, light blue, mauve, tinged white, and white, all of which may come from a plant of the constitution CCRrBbXx. The F; plants in this pedigree consisted of this plant and 4 other light ~ blues. When selfed, the others also threw dark blues, light blues, mauves, tinged whites, and whites. Type 7 Dark blue j; ‘(Plate I) Description of the type-— The type called dark blue is a brilliant, almost electric blue. This type is explained as due to the presence of a gene B in either simplex or duplex condition, in addition to all the genes necessary for the mauve type. Theoretical consideration of data.— The dark blue plants that were selfed fell into two classes, those that bred true and those that threw other types. In the first group there were 17 plants, of which 9 were F, hybrids and threw 35 dark blues, and 8 were not hybrids and gave 38 dark blues. Altho the number in any of these pedigrees is small individually and cannot be taken as conclusive that these plants were homozygous in all the genes that go to make the dark blue type, the evidence is strong that such was the case. Such plants, then, may be considered to be duplex for all the genes (CCRRBBXX). Other dark blues when selfed broke up into dark blues, light blues, matuves, and pinks (and in one case a doubtful light purple). The data are from only 8 F, plants, and the total F; progeny numbers only 72. Their behavior, however, shows that these dark blues must have been simplex for the gene B, so that, when selfed, it could drop out from some of the recombinations giving rise to the mauves and the pinks. 135 20 BULLETIN 392 Type 8 Light purple (Plate I) Description of the type.— The type called light purple is not homogeneous, but is so variable as to be difficult of classification. Typically it is between dark purple and magenta. It may appear as a dark purple streaked or washed with magenta, or, when fresh, it may be clear and pure and little darker than a typical dark blue. It seems to be in a very unstable condition, and quickly changes to magenta on a warm day or as the flower begins to wither. Very often this color in a flower seems to indicate a hybrid condition of the plant that bears it. Theoretical consideration of data.— Thirty-seven F; pedigree plants and 4 others from commercial seeds were classified as light purple, and when selfed gave an aggregate’ progeny of 70 dark purples, 37 light purples, 36 dark blues, 17 magentas, 9 mauves, 1 pink, 6 light blues, 14 whites, 9 cream whites, and 3 tinged whites. When the data of light purples selfed are examined in the aggregate it is seen that this is characteristically a heterozygous type. It breaks up into all the other types, including dark purple, which is higher in the color series. It does not breed true. An analysis of the type is_ impossible as a whole, but must be worked out in each individual case by analysis of progeny and by synthesis from other plants of known constitution. Type 9 Dark purple (Plate I) Description of the type.-— The type considered as dark purple is a very rich pansy, or bluish purple, color. The dark purple type may be supposed to contain the intensifying gene I in addition to all the other genes of the other types. Theoretical consideration of data.— The data for the dark purple plants that were selfed may be considered in two classes — those that bred true and produced only dark purples, ana those that broke up and threw other types. In the first group there were 9 plants, which gave an aggregate progeny of 54 plants. These were all dark purples; no other types appeared. It may be assumed, then, that these plants were duplex for all genes that concern the dark purple type (CCRRBBXXII). It is possible, however, that they may have been simplex for either X or I and still bred true. Other dark purples split up in various ways when selfed and threw all the types lower in the scale. Such behavior is to be expected when the purples are heterozygous as to various genes. Three of these plants threw whites. This, too, is to be expected if R is simplex. 4 The data are here considered in the aggregate because the progeny in any single case was too meager to be treated separately. 130 BULLETIN 392 PLATE I Dark ‘Purple Light | Magenta SOLID-COLOR TYPES a tae ek BULLETIN 392 PLATE II a Cream md Flaked Magenta Cream mal Flaked Pink on ae so ee . Cream White [ovo Cream vnc Blue and Purple WHITE TYPES, PLAIN AND FLAKED BULLETIN 392 PLATE III Purple | Flatcect Magenta vite W Flaked Ae TL = FLAKED SOLID TYPES HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MoORNING-GLORY 21 BEHAVIOR OF COLOR TYPES IN CROSSES Under this heading is considered the behavior of each type separately when crossed with the other types. Type 1 White (Plate II) White crossed with pink.— Two crosses are recorded between white and pink. Cross 132 has already been discussed (page 19). In the other cross, 169, the F, consisted of 2 whites and 1 light blue. This might be expected if a pink (CCRR) were crossed with a white that was simplex for both B and X (CCrrBbXx). Plant 169-3, the light blue (hypothetically CCRrBbXx), was selfed and gave r mauve and 1 white. If it had produced more offspring, light blues, mauves, pinks, tinged whites, and whites would all have been expected to make their appearance, due to the recombinations or dropping-out of these various simplex genes. White crossed with mauve.— In cross 121 there were only two F, plants and both were mauves. This result might have been obtained if a mauve containing I (instead of X) were crossed with a white lacking both B and I and with or without X. Such a cross would give only mauves. The F; of cross 1o8 consisted of 5 light blues, which split up into an F, of dark blues, light blues, and whites. Had larger numbers been ob- tained, the rarer genotypes for mauve and pink might have been expected to appear. This cross may be explained on the assumption that the white parent brought in the gene B. The F, plants, then, would be all light blues, and simplex for both R and B but either simplex or duplex for X. The only other cross between a white and a mauve was cross 125. It gave 1 light blue and 1 light purple. The mauve parent, however, was recorded in the greenhouse during the first year of the experiment, when the author was not so familiar with behavior of types as he became later. It was probably a withered dark blue, because when selfed it threw 20 dark blues and no others. For this reason it is more probable that this parent brought in the gene B than that the white parent carried it. White crossed with magenta.— Four crosses were made between white and magenta. In the F, from these crosses there appeared magentas, mauves, and pinks. The significant feature of this fact is that no types higher in the scale than magenta appeared, except in cross 209, in which case the white parent must have contained the gene B. It had light blue sibs out of a white parent selfed. It should be noted also that no tinged whites nor whites appeared, which is to be expected on the sup- position that magenta contains both C and R in duplex condition. In cross 129 the single F, plant obtained gave, when selfed, 3 whites and 1 mauve. This might occur if the white parent lacked only the gene 137 22 BULLETIN 392 R but contained both X and I. The F, magenta, then (or dark mauve), would be of the constitution CCRrX XII or with I simplex. Such a plant could throw magentas, light magentas (or dark mauves), mauves, tinged whites, and whites. White crossed with light blue.-— The F; in cross 133 consisted of 2 light purples, and in cross 158 of 1 light purple. Light purples could result from a cross between white and light blue if the white parent brought in the gene I. If the light blue parent is simplex for R, white as well as light blues will appear in the Fi, as was the case in crosses 116, 152, 154, 155, ana 157: White crossed with dark blue.— In cross 104 the F; consisted of 5 dark blues and the F, of 15 dark blues. Such a result might occur in a cross between white and dark blue if the white parent carried the genes B and X in duplex condition but lacked only R. One-third of the F, plants would be expected to be whites, as in the following schema: F if F, CCRRBBXX dark blue RRBBXX dark blue x CCRrBBXX dark blue CC; RrBBXX dark blue CCrrBBXX white rrBBXX white If the white parent carries the gene I, light purples will constitute the F,, as in cross 221. The light purple plant obtained from this cross gave 8 purples and 1 dark blue. In cross 220 the F; consisted of 5 light blues, which gave an F, progeny of 1 dark blue, 1 light blue, 1 pink, and 2 whites. This might result from a cross in which both parents lacked the gene I. White crossed with dark purple.— Only three crosses are recorded between white and dark purple. The offspring were all either dark purple or light purple. In F, they broke up into all the hypostatic types, as would be expected if many or all of the genes were simplex. In cross 162 four of the dark purple F; plants that were selfed bred true, but the fifth threw purples, light purples, light blues, and whites. Type 2 Tinged white Tinged white crossed with light blue.—In cross 150 a light blue was mated with a tinged white. The F, plants consisted of 2 mauves. To make it possible for these mauves to appear, the blue parent must have been simplex for B, so that it dropped out in these F; combinations. If larger numbers had been obtained, light blues and tinged whites would also have been expected, but no true whites, since R would always be present at least in simplex condition. 138 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MoRNING-GLORY 23 Tinged white crossed with dark blue-——In cross 151 the Fi progeny consisted of 2 dark blues and 4 light blues. In the next generation the two dark blues produced g dark blues and 2 mauves, while the light blues broke up into dark blues, light blues, mauves, tinged whites, and whites, as was to be expected. The tinged white parent must have carried the gene X, otherwise no dark blues could have appeared in the F;. Such a cross may be represented as follows: CCRRBBXX dark blue XX dark blue RRBD { Xx light blue x CC XX light blue RrBb4 Xx light blue CCRrbbXx tinged white In cross 159 the tinged white parent was a sib of the one used in cross 151. The two F; plants were recorded as ‘“‘very pale blue or tinged white,”’ showing that they contained the gene B and belonged to the light blue type rather than to the tinged white of the red series. This is further shown by their behavior when selfed. They gave 3 light blues, 1 tinged white, and 11 whites. None of the red series here made its appearance. Assuming a cross between a tinged white of the same constitution as the one used in cross 151 and a dark blue that is simplex for X, the F; would contain very pale blues of the constitution CCRrBb which would throw light blues, tinged whites, and whites, as in cross 150. Type 3 Pink (Plate I) Pink crossed with purple.— Since purple is due to several genes super- posed upon the pink type, it might be expected to be epistatic to pink. So it was found to be in the two crosses recorded between pink and purple. The purple parents were sibs, as were also the pink parents. Cross 175 gave an F, progeny of 1 dark purple, while cross 176 gave 4 light purples, which were almost dark. The F, progeny from these crosses consisted of purple, dark blue, magenta, mauve, and pink types. Such behavior is to be expected in a cross between a homozygous dark purple and a homozygous pink. The F,; would consist of purples that would split up into all the hypostatic types except tinged white and white, these two types appearing only where R is simplex or nulliplex. Type 4 Mauve (Plate J) Mauve crossed uith magenta.— Crosses 128, 203, 205, 206, and 208 were all made between magentas and pinks, and in every case the F, plants were all magentas. When selfed, these Fi magentas gave an F, progeny comprising magentas, mauves, and pinks. 139 24 : BULLETIN 392 The absence of the gene B in either parent precluded, of course, the appearance of any of the blue series in any generation subsequent to the cross. The fact that the genes C and R were intact in both parental types, according to theory, precluded the appearance of tinged whites or plain whites. Magenta, bearing genes for greater intensification of color than mauve, would be dominant to it, as was found to be the case, and in the recombination of genes when F; plants were selfed, there would be produced such recombinations as would give rise to the three red types and to intervening gradations of color which are difficult to classify as either the one or the other. Mauve crossed with light blue.— Four crosses were recorded between mauve and light blue. The F, offspring were dark blues, light blues, and mauves; the F, plants were dark blues, light blues, mauves, and pinks. According to hypothesis, if a mauve is crossed with a blue the gene B will be brought into the zygotic combination of Fi, and, this being dominant to the genes of the red series, only blue could result. If the light blue parent were simplex for B, some mauves could appear in F; as follows: F, CCRRbbXX mauve Bb XX dark blue Xx light blue x CORE: bb { XX mauve CCRRBbXx light blue Xx mauve Mauve crossed with dark blue.-— Crosses 212 and 213 were made between mauve and dark blue, and in F, gave only dark blues. They split up in F, into dark blues and mauves. The numbers were very small, and, had more plants been produced, it is possible that other types might have made their appearance; but it is unlikely that any other types would have appeared in the F; if both parents were homozygous for all genes, because the blue would have dominated over the red, and the intensifier borne in the dark blue would have been present to give a deeper hue than was found in the mauve. The F; plants would be simplex for B, allowing members of the red series to appear in Fy, but no tinged whites nor whites could make their appearance because both C and R would remain duplex. The cross may be represented as follows: F, F, CCRRbbXX mauve F { BBXX dark blue 4 ae peairace dark CCRR: BbXX dark blue CCRRBBXX dark blue 7 “© | bbX.X mauve 140 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY 25 Mauve crossed with dark purple.— Cross 107 gave 3 dark purples in F,, which gave dark purples, dark blues (a type often intergrading with the lighter purples), and magentas in F;. In cross 153 the F, plant was recorded and checked as “light blue,’ but it did not behave as a light blue should. It acted, when selfed, as a light purple might, and threw dark purples, dark blues, and magentas. It must, then, have borne the intensifying genes X and I at least in simplex condition, as in the following schema: Fy CCRRbbXxii mauve XX1Ii dark purple x CCRRBb CCRRBBXXII dark purple Xxihi light purple Type 5 Magenta (Plate I) Magenta crossed with light blue.— Four crosses are recorded in this class and they all gave light purples in F;. Such crosses should give rise to plants heterozygous for the genes B, X, and I, a condition which would cause the flowers to be light purple. A fifth cross, 197, produced two plants, both of which were recorded as “ dark purple.” The fact that these light purple plants threw tinged whites and whites in F, indicates that the light blue parent was simplex for R also, and, in the case of cross 197, for X as well, as has since been further indicated by other progenies from it grown by J. J. Pollock and the writer. Magenta crossed with dark blue.— Three crosses in this class, 188, 190, and 192, gave dark purple and light purple F; plants. Two other crosses, 189 and 191, remain to be explained as apparently exceptional cases. If magenta is crossed with dark blue the F; plants will be simplex for I, which, reacting with B from the blue parent, will result in purple, as in the above cases. Cross 189 gave 3 plants recorded as “‘magentas,’”’ besides 2 dark purples, in F,. Further data, however, give indication that these ‘‘magentas”’ were really light purples which had been recorded after their colors had begun to break down prior to the flowers’ withering. Cross 191 gave 1 dark purple and 1 light purple. White appeared in F,, indicating that the F; plant from which it came was simplex for R. Since dark blue and magenta are both duplex for R, according to hypo- thesis, an explanation must be sought for the appearance of the white in F,. The original blue parent was recorded in the greenhouse as light blue, then checked once as dark blue. The behavior of the cross would indicate that it was really a light blue, which, by hypothesis, can be simplex for R. 141 26 BULLETIN 392 Magenta crossed with dark purple.— Four crosses are recorded in this class. They gave all dark purple F, plants, with the exception of cross 174, which gave 4 dark purples and 1 light purple. In this case either of the parents might be supposed to have been simplex for I, thus allowing the light purple to appear in F;. The others need no further explanation than to point out that such a cross could result in only purples, due to the dominance of the blue over the red. Type 6 Light blue (Plate I) Light blue crossed with light blue—In cross 140 the single F, plant was dark blue. This can be understood if one or both of the light blue parents bore X in simplex condition. In recombination there might result a duplex condition of the gene that would cause the dark blue type. No other cross is recorded in this class. Light blue crossed with mauve.— In cross 106 the F; plants were all dark blues, and these split in F, into dark blues, mauves, and pinks. In this case the mauve parent probably brought in the intensifying gene X, which reacted with the gene B from the light blue parent and gave dark blue in the hybrids. If both X and B were simplex in these F, hybrids, the recombinations in F, would cause dark blues, light. blues, mauves, and pinks. Light blue crossed with dark blue.— Cross 216 gave 1 dark blue and 2 light blues in Fi. This is to be expected on the hypothesis that the light blue parent is simplex for R. A hybrid, then, having both R and X simplex would not be a dark blue but a light blue, as shown in the following schema: Fy CCRrBBxx light blue RRBBXx dark blue x CE CCRRBBXX dark blue RrBBXx light blue In cross 115 the F, consisted of 4 purples, showing the light blue parent to have been duplex for R. Light blue crossed with dark purple-—— The two crosses in this class gave dark purples and light purples in Fi, which split into light purples, dark blues, and 1 white in F,. In such crosses the intensifying factors X and I would be expected to be simplex in the F, plants, resulting in purple, but not of the deep, intense hue of the darker type. Type 7 Dark blue (Plate I) Dark blue crossed with dark purple.— Six crosses give data for this class. In F, there were 12 dark purples and 4 light purples; in F. there were 142 HEREDITY STUDi=sS IN THE MORNING-GLORY | 26 dark purples, 1 light purple, and 15 dark blues (some of which may have been light purples). It should be noted that in all cases both parents were duplex for B, because no types of the red series made their appearance in the F, progeny. Since the dark blue type lacks the intensifying gene I, this gene would be expected to be simplex in the F, plants, altho still potent enough, with the other genes all intact, to produce the dark blue pigment. If the dark blue parent is simplex for B or for X, the gene I will not be able to produce its full effect and some light purples will result. FLAKING (Plates IT and ITT) DESCRIPTION OF THE CHARACTER The character designated as flaking is manifested on the corolla in the form of stripes running parallel from the throat and the rays of the star to the edge of the corolla. These stripes are usually narrow, but may in some cases vary to such width that they constitute a segment of color. In such cases the segment may in turn exhibit stripes of a still deeper hue. On a white corolla the flakes may be pink, mauve, magenta, light blue, dark blue, or purple. The deeper and the lighter saturations of the same hue may lie side by side in the same segment. On a colored corolla the flaking is of a deeper saturation of the same hue as the background. The whites referred to in this section have all been extracted from the three original flaked plants and are not the same as the plain whites treated in the other sections of this paper. They are a decided cream white (page 1o, shade 3,in the Répertoire de Couleurs®). This color forms the ground on which the flaking is displayed in the white flaked flowers, and in the unflaked ones it is found pure (Plate IT). The seat of the flakes is in the cell sap of the epidermis of the inner side of the corolla. This character, as studied in the writer’s cultures, is dominant over the unflaked condition. Miss Marryat (1909:45), working with four-o’clocks (Mirabilis jalapa), found that flaking proved to be dominant thruout but could offer no satisfactory explanation for it. Correns (1910:424), working with the same species, reported flaking to be dominant. It is a recessive character in Antirrhinum according to Miss Wheldale (1909 a: 8). Flowers characterized by localization in flakes or spots of such color as they may have, are very common among cultivated plants, for example, 5 See under Sociéte Francaise des Chrysanthémistes et René Oberthiir, in References cited, page 38. 143 28 BULLETIN 392 azaleas, sweet williams, stocks, and carnations (Keeble and Armstrong, 1912:292). According to De Vries (1905:311, 322, 323), they occur also in liverleaf (Hepatica), dame’s violet (Hesperis), larkspur, periwinkle (Vinca minor), tulips, hyacinths, cyclamen, camellia, cockscomb (Celosia cristata), and Clarkia pulchella, and even in such garden plants as the meadow cranesbill (Geranium pratense). He says (page 323 of reference cited): “Tt is always the red or blue color which occurs in stripes, the underlying ground being white or yellow, according to the presence or absence of the yellow in the original color mixture.”’ He states further (page 325 of the same reference): ‘‘ Stripes are by no means limited to flowers. They may affect the whole foliage, or the fruits and the seeds, and even the roots.”’ In Primula sinensis, altho the amount of flaking varies considerably, the races breed well-nigh true to this habit (Keeble and Armstrong, IQ12:292). SOURCE OF MATERIAL The source of this character, in the writer’s cultures, was in three vines from the stock numbered 19, the seed of which was obtained from Dreer’s nursery. The seed packet was labeled Dark Blue, but of the six plants that came to bloom from the seeds, one was plain white, one was solid magenta, and four were cream white with magenta flakes. Three of the last-mentioned were selfed and also used in crosses, and their progeny is discussed later. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA The progeny from the three plants mentioned in the preceding para- graph, when selfed, were too few to demonstrate the zygotic constitution of the parents, but indicated that at least two of them were heterozygous in regard to the character of flaking. Cream white flaked progeny in the second inbred generation from these three plants were used as parents in 20 crosses in which the other parent was solid-colored. The F; offspring were dominated by the character of flaking when the flaked parent was (presumably) homozygous for the character. .When it was (presumably) heterozygous for the character, part of the offspring were flaked and part lacked the flaking. The F, flowers were always colored, and where flaking was manifested it ap- peared as a pattern of deeper hue on the solid color. It appeared on purple, dark blue, light blue, magenta, and tinged white corollas. There were 57 individuals in the F; generation, of which 9 were not flaked. All the remainder showed flaking very strongly except one anomalous indi- T44 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY 20 vidual, which showed inconspicuous white flecks on a solid magenta ground. Taking the progeny of the two heterozygous parents together, 7 were flaked and 5 were not flaked. There were 9 unflaked plants altogether in the F; generation; 5 of these were selfed, and gave a progeny of 133 unflaked plants and 1 that was recorded as flaked. Further data in which flaked plants were used as parents in crosses have since been obtained and are given in tables 6, 7, and 8; the last- named table was made from data of J. J. Pollock’s cultures. It should be noted that in all cases except cross 195 (and no cross into which a flaked plant entered has been omitted) the flaking character appears in the F; progeny. Some unflaked plants also appear among these F, prog- eny, but their presence is easily explained in that one of the parents may have been simplex for the gene. All evidence, then, from the F; progenies of crosses into which the gene for flaking entered, points to the fact that this gene is a dominant one, and that whenever present in one of the parents in duplex condition the character will be manifest in all the F, plants; if it is simplex in one of the parents, unflaked plants also can appear in the F; progeny. TABLE 6. Types RESULTING FROM CROSSES BETWEEN FLAKED WHITES AND SOLID- COLORED PLANTS Py } Fe Pedigree no. Flaked | Unflaked | Flaked | Unflaked | Flaked | Unflaked solids solids solids solids whites whites TZOM etc aes ee 2 Qrhlinceicteats SAE hs ope Bre hs] eS erata 8 [pec hp ERS aed? DAD Ree ere ecnsien ss I A et | een Berton | Ratt Se Shean Weitere S eobe WAG Reo a aes ae oes 3 73a |Meat eerie: fei rad tubeless Weel ekee a ieee AE 3 TA Sieeaetae oe, thebees| let tageers DRS ae A oe rat Sit op sede Se [I oh Sa A Qi terescc rept t5. sce gic arse Tae fata a erat Meee bie aise Ss ates oo} le ci eee Be» bisweeis blo p HSS oor PHA Vi ees herbs Ee eae, went Te | oy cyeeet ere HOY LAP ete ha rh ebece ol bie Sil Cae 3 6 ee 2 OS ye hoe ee archer ore Ie 4 3 5 Ty | cya d acenenek MOO Me har ers err esr 4 I 8 3 I Gefen Rr Cee icantend rr Bie TN Rey Bie eral ge tor tc eS ee MO (aR cg OCICS lites Sone HO SADE Be 4 I 14 8 I 2 HOSE Ch ore NCR agi MiMeaR ie ei Til) Oe ee eke Ae |) 2. Banca Wanecenshetersierets ROGER. sv eeenearee keboee I 2 5 2 2 Weterdiaoneeres oi) ORI Cee ee OM FCM | Se ast eae ee 4 4 5 4 Pits: Brie SEIS ESS Beet Scan DR etait can oe 4 5 I 4 ZA alos Oe epee La TS PER wa as DS x25 Fc 2'|\ 2S A MIE 5 cuetecetercss PIO RO CRROO BIDE 2 2 te 4 Toul teens cpapatece QO RWG Sa ctcnpushepis es 7 CN de te ee 3 3 Tid | ebb OB Doe PTB ie ef CR OEIC Cor Dil yeecs st (Pete See. 3 7) a Ne ca ec One DAG vee deo omuseus Te? lee eee: Bisel ier teiecs, Fee" (fic. beeccce [Paidtis Gaede font coe 43 10 38 54 20 13 10 145 30 BULLETIN 302 TABLE 7. TyprEs RESULTING FROM ALL OTHER CROSSES IN WHICH A FLAKED PARENT Was USED Fi Pedigree Seed Pollen no. parent parent Flaked | Flaked | Unflaked | Unflaked solids | whites solids whites 401 Flaked white...| Flaked solid.... in0) = 8. desl desasice' ae aoe] pee BOs as, Flaked white...| Flaked white... Tee DOH “Elen ee aogeriin's y Flaked white...| Unflaked solid.. Ail ce tate Se ot cee er AOA re Acs a Flaked white...| Unflaked solid.. DF lies srtunc., | Peleg, | HORS es Unflaked solid..| Flaked white... 10 BOGE aire + Flaked white. ..| Unflaked solid.. Ar | 22dp oe esl ee ieee der PAO es sess Unflaked solid..}| Flaked white... 14 oo | ciel: «30 AOQeR foto Flaked white...| Flaked solid.... 3 Me ai 416*. Unflaked white.| Flaked solid... . rhet 2 I I Allg Views < = s,s Unflaked white.| Flaked solid... . 3 2 I I ADU tytn wes Unflaked white.| Unflaked solid.. nia 4a 2)"} sok Nee ae is cee Unflaked solid..}| Flaked white. . . rg Mee aioe || geen ” I ey ees Unflaked white.| Flaked solid.. | 426t. Unflaked white.| Flaked solid.. { 4 7 3 440.. Unflaked white.| Flaked solid... . 8 Le PEE 76 24 II 6 * The pollen parent was an F; flaked plant out of a flaked solid selfed, and so probably simplex for the flaking gene. , + No. 417 had the same (unflaked white) seed parent as no. 416, but the pollen parent was flaked solid (presumably !?] duplex flaked). tNos. 424 and 426 had the same parents. The pollen parent was simplex for flaking. Consideration of all the instances in which a flaked solid plant was selfed (and these comprised 23 of various color types) shows that the progeny comprised four types — 53 unflaked solids, 43 flaked solids, 30 flaked cream whites, and 9 unflaked cream whites. Eighteen flaked cream whites were selfed, and their progeny comprised three types — 3 flaked solids, 117 flaked cream whites, and 25 unflaked cream whites. There were no unflaked solids. The evidence from all selfed. plants also adds support to the theory that the flaking gene is a dominant gene, even when present in simplex condition. In this connection the behavior of plants 222-6 and 222-10, when selfed, is significant. Both were unflaked F, plants, and so pre- sumably nulliplex for the gene. The former threw 64 unflaked plants (and possibly 1 flaked plant),° and the latter threw 60 unflaked plants only. Plant 222-7, a sib from the same cross, was a flaked light purple. When selfed, 4 of its progeny were not flaked and 1 was flaked. The flaked one, 222—7—2, was selfed and gave 8 flaked and 3 unflaked. The flaked parent in this case, and also the flaked grandparent, were heterozygous dominants. ® Plant 222-6-11 was three times recorded as dark blue flaked purple, and once as «unflaked dark blue. 146 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY 31 TABLE 8. PROoGENIES FROM Mr. PoLiock’s Crosses IN WHICH FLAKED PLANTS Hap BEEN USED As PARENTS F; Pedigree Seed Pollen Se ee no. Paeuw panes Flaked | Flaked | Unflaked | Unflaked solids | whites solids whites ORG Ste x, ns Flaked solid. ..| Flaked solid... 7 aaa SN 109.......| Flaked solid. ..| Flaked solid... GU ERLE SPR IS 508 KORO Se Flaked solid. ..} Flaked solid... ENE cose ie ty all (POREE TG Maa ORS Boe a3 LG eae ce Flaked solid. ..} Flaked solid. . . 3 I BIN case) atone BG 2h ifs: Flaked solid. ..| Flaked solid... 7 I 5 7) Flaked solid. ..| Flaked solid. . . Tigh ee ee I I MI 2)e tone egect Flaked solid. ..| Flaked solid... 2 2 Tet erciestie age haats TOD Wo +. Flaked white...| Flaked white...| ...... ce nae are Pa at a i eee Flaked white...} Flaked white...| ...... SMe See lobe eae LO ere sera Flaked white...) Flaked white...| ...... 1,72 4 aA Graaaee BETOKS Ae SO: & Flaked white...} Flaked white...) ...... AVE Sicd PAGE SRE 110 ao ae Flaked white...| Flaked white...| ...... TOY Sw ccaptcasn Se aiseabease tte TAGES at: Flaked white...}| Flaked white...| ...... 3 133-......| Flaked white...| Flaked solid.... 2 2 WN atet | STM aE a east 134.......| Flaked white...| Flaked solid... DE i igs st Reece kh [ad cocaeus s cavcoell) cap oemceeaeon Ti epee Aiaked white. 4: veiciked solide 2) |) 02... i es anges: Ra etd he Flaked white...} Flaked solid... I il ames hee | Mr Ab ie hol a One Flaked white...| Flaked solid... 2 ee PORE Crem Pe ect en ree DG Meet cas Flaked white...]| Flaked solid... 3 6 Te lbosreaet ete TO t os cee Flaked white...| Flaked solid... 2 I Dah cote BAQE gs ec Flaked solid. ..| Flaked white... 2 3 28 Mbps eS FOr 1) eae eae Flaked solid. ..| Flaked white... 3 wi I RRC Tos Fee Flaked solid. ..| Flaked white... 3 Bis ly LE | CORTES TART eas: Flaked solid. ..| Flaked white... ine I I 49 | 64 its I It may be asserted, then, from the evidence afforded by the above data, that the character of flaking is a dominant mendelian character; that when a plant manifests the character, it may be either homozygous for the gene and transmit it to all its progeny, or heterozygous for the gene and transmit it to only a portion (theoretically three-fourths) of its progeny; that when the character is not manifest, the gene for it is lacking and it is incapable of transmitting the character to its offspring. GENETICS OF COLOR TYPES INVOLVED IN FLAKING It remains now to inquire into the nature of the genes that cause this particular character. The pedigree cultures involving this character show that there are white types with colored flakes as well as solid-colored types that are flaked. Indeed, the original material in these studies was of the flaked white type. When crossed with solid-colored types the resultant Fi plants are in most cases solid-colored and flaked. In some cases the 147 Re BULLETIN 392 F, progeny comprise both flaked whites and flaked solids, indicating a heterozygous condition of the determiners in one of the parents. The F, flaked solids when selfed can throw all four types — flaked and unflaked solids, and flaked and unflaked whites. If the explanation of this is based on the enzyme theory, which regards such anthocyanic colors as those here dealt with as being the product of interaction between an oxidase and a chromogen, it is seen that the presence of both the chromogen and the oxidase is necessary in order that any color whatever may be visible in the flower. The oxidase may be symbolized by O and the chromogen by C. The flaking, then, can be explained by supposing the presence of a locally distributed oxidase F, which reacts with the chromogen C in the same way as does O except that the area of its influence is restricted, which results in the so-called flakes. This chromogen is usually present in the colorless tissues of white flowers (Kraemer, 1906, and Wheldale, 1909 b: 53). Moreover, the oxidase itself is composed of at least two substances, the peroxide and the per- oxidase (as explained on pages g to 11), and unless the peroxide is present along with the chromogen and the peroxidase there will be no production of anthocyanic pigment. But for the sake of simplicity in the present discussion the oxidase is considered as a single “ unit- character’’ where homozygous, and will be symbolized by O. In tables 9 to 17 are given the data in support of this hypothesis, classified and arranged to show the genetical behavior of the flake character and the segregation of the various types, together with hypothetical formulas explanatory of this behavior. The various types may be symbolized as follows: C=Chromogen (almost [?] always present) O= Oxidase that reacts with C to give solid color re that is locally distributed and acts with C to give colored akes Possible formulas for the various phenotypes as used in the following tables are as follows: Plain white= CCooff (1a) OOFF e<(7 ts) OOFE “Gc) OOff (x d) OoFF (re) ec ; OoFf (1 f) Ooff (1 g) ooFF = (rh) ooFf (11) ooff (1 j) Ccooff (1k) CcOoff (11) 148 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY 33 Flaked white = CCookrF (32) CCooFf~ ~() CcOOFF (4) CcooFf (5) [core (6) Sil OOFE (7) Flaked solid= CC) Oopp (8) | OoFf (9) Unflaked solid= CCOOff (10) CCOott Gr) No. 1a throws only plain whites. 1 b-1k throw only plain whites. 11 throws plain whites and unflaked solids. 2 throws only flaked whites. 3 throws flaked whites and unflaked whites. 4 throws flaked solids, unflaked whites, and flaked whites. 5 throws flaked whites and unflaked whites. 6 throws only flaked solids. 7 throws only flaked and unflaked solids. 8 throws only flaked solids and flaked whites. 9 throws all four types — flaked solids and flaked whites, and unflaked solids and unflaked whites. to throws only unflaked solids. 11 throws unflaked solids and unflaked whites. TABLE 9. THE THREE GROUPS INTO WHICH THE PROGENIES OF FLAKED WHITES FALL Group I Group 2 Group 3 Flaked | Flaked | Flaked | Plain | Flaked solids whites whites whites whites only I 2 5 2 25 I ii 8 2 15 I 3 8 4 6 9 10 2 7 38 14 6 I 22 I 3 2 @bsenvedh, 16 eh eee 3 12 gI 25 74 rheoreticalls cee 3 s.. scan: Be 7s 11.25 87 29 74 149 34 BULLETIN 392 TABLE 10. CROSSES BETWEEN FLAKED WHITES AND FLAKED SOLIDS | ‘ Types actually obtained * Pedigree no. Seed parent Pollen parent F, genotypes Unflaked| Flaked | Flaked |Unflaked solids solids |} whites | whites FF 00} Ff I9I-2-5_ 380-3 ff to) 3 of ° 401 Flaked white Flaked magenta | CC . CCooFf£ CCOoF£ } FF} — 3, x — oo < Ff ff 379-12 | 304-3. 1) 3 i) oO 409 Flaked white Flaked solid CCOoFF CCooFF CCOOFF — D3 — — * The X's in these tables underneath figures represent expected classes such as would appear in Fy progenies of plants with the postulated formulas. The dashes show where a class should not be represented according to hypothesis. TABLE 11. CROSSES BETWEEN FLAKED WHITES AND UNFLAKED SOLIDS Types actually obtained * Pedigree no. Seed parent Pollen parent F, genotypes |- ; Unflaked| Flaked } Flaked |Unflaked solids solids | whites | whites 330-1, | 379-3 Co) 4 (0) ) 403 Flaked white |Unflaked magenta CCOoFf CCooFF CCOOfft == ox 2 ee 1QI—2-37 379-3 0 9 ° 0 404 Flaked white |Unflaked magenta CCOoFf CCooFF CCOOff — x — a 379-3 343-4 . fo) 10 ie) (9) 405 Unflaked magenta] Flaked white CCOoFf CCOOfft CCooFF Ss 5% _— A 336-2 | = 379-3 co) 4 a ro 406 Flaked white |Unflaked magenta CCOoFf CCooFF CCOOff —— D-< = ae 384-4 340-9 | ) 14 ae 0) 408 Unflaked magenta] Flaked white CCOoFf CCOOft CCooFF — x = mad 41 384-3 IQI-2-5_ Ff I 7 oO ° 423 Unflaked magenta Flaked white CCOo CCOOft CCooFf ff x x oo — *See footnote to table ro. TABLE 12. FLAKED WHITES SELFED 1 | amber : Types actually obtained * Pedigree 110. of plant F, genotypes ——_——_ selfed Selfs Flaked Flaked Unflaked | : solids whites whites 79-12 0 0 23 0 410 CeoFF CCooFF ; aes eg x es 340-15 i) oO 3 ° 4II CCC oRF CCooFF = oe Pi x ce 340-16 0 i) 2 oO 412 CCooFF | CCooFF as ire xX ec: * See footnote to table ro. HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY 35 TABLE 13. Cross BETWEEN FLAKED WHITE AND UNFLAKED WHITE Types actually obtained * Pedigree no. Seed parent Pollen parent F, genotype Unflaked| Flaked | Flaked | Unflaked solids solids whites | whites 382-5 343-1 (0) 16 (6) 402 Flaked white Unflaked white CCooFf£ CCooFF CCooff = a 2k i * See footnote to table ro. TABLE 14. Cross BETWEEN FLAKED SOLID AND UNFLAKED SOLID : Types actually obtained * Pedigree no. Seed parent Pollen parent F, genotype |— Unflaked| Flaked | Flaked | Unflaked solids solids | whites whites 379-4 IQI—2-27 Ff (0) 2 (0) (0) 421 Flaked magenta | Unflaked mauve CCOO CCOOFf CCOOff xX x — — * See footnote to table ro. TABLE 15. CROSSES BETWEEN UNFLAKED SOLIDS AND UNFLAKED SOLIDS Types actually obtained * Pedigree no. Seed parent Pollen parent F, genotypes |- . Unflaked| Flaked | Flaked |Unflaked solids solids whites | whites 362-1 384-4 13 (9) fo) (0) 418 Unflaked pink |Unflaked magenta CCOOff CCOOff CCOOff xX aut = ee 362-1 5 (o) io) fo) 419 Unflaked pink Unflaket apes CCOOff CCOOff CCOOfft x = “ ae 9-3 I1QI—2-27 3 to) 0 i) 420 Unflaked magenta] Unflaked mauve CCOOff CCOOff CCOOff xX = — — IQI—2—-27 302-3 ff i] 2 (0) (9) 422t Unflaked mauve Unflsked pink CCOO CCOOff CCOOFE Ff x x = — * See footnote to table ro. + The pollen parent in this case is an F; pink five times recorded as unflaked. Its pollen parent was flaked, its seed parent was unflaked. One of its Fi sibs was flaked and the other was unflaked like itself. If it bore the gene for flaking, as its behavior in this cross would indicate as well as its parentage, it is strange that its flowers should show no traces of the character. I51 36 BULLETIN 392 TABLE 16. CROSSES BETWEEN WHITES AND WHITES Pedigree no. Seed parent IQI-2-5 413 Cream white — at (same as | some times with 438) a tick of purple CCooFf 314-4 A4I5 Unflaked white CCooff 438 I9I—2= (same as CCooF? 413) Pollen parent F, genotypes Unflaked| Flaked Types actually obtained * Flaked |Unflaked solids solids whites | whites 314-2 White Fi, out cc eee 2 0 I oO of cream white Cc | ooFf x white) { cof XG xX xX ».4 CcOoff as 314-2 Ooff 3 te) to) 5 Unflaked white oe | CcOoff ooff XK — — x OoFf coma ep a ieee | Cc bo c} 00 * See footnote to table ro. TABLE 17. Pedigree no. Seed parent 314-4 416 White CCooff 314-4 417 White CCooff White 424 ite CCooff 426 Same as for 424 440 Same as for 424 Same as for 424 Same as for 424 Pollen parent F, genotypes Unflaked|} Flaked 302-1 f Oo { a Mauve flaked cc mauve FE CCOoFf | 00 { te Ff 379-2 oe { ff Flaked magenta | CC? CCOoFf£ a6 ie en esi ranpe| aie 380-3 oo { ff | Flaked magenta CE | COoFf aa { Tange bi| 1) | Same as for 424 Same as for 424 solids solids whites | whites I to) 2 I xX ax xX x I 3 I I ax XK x xX 4 4 I o x x aK x ry eee ae Gu em a ex xX xX x o 7 2 ty) 534 >,4 aK x 4 14 5 oO Totals for last three crosses. . . CROSSES BETWEEN UNFLAKED WHITES AND FLAKED SOLIDS Types actually obtained * Flaked | Unflaked * See footnote to table ro. SUMMARY In these experiments morning-glory plants were studied in pedigree cultures, and germinal analyses of them were made by means of crossing and subsequent selfing, supplemented by collateral breeding tests from the parents used in the crosses. Several characters were studied which in heredity behaved in an alternative and mendelian manner. These were color of the seed coat, feathering of the corolla, color of the corolla, and flaking of the corolla. 152 HEREDITY STUDIES IN THE MORNING-GLORY 37 The seed coat is either black or yellowish brown (tan). Black is the dominant color. Black, being the dominant color in the maternal somatic tissues, may lend character to the seed coat without giving any indication whatever of the nature of the embryo within it. A black seed coat may contain a homozygous or a heterozygous black embryo, or a homozygous tan embryo. A tan seed coat may contain a heterozygous black embryo, but never a homozygous black embryo. It may contain a homozygous tan embryo. Feathering of the corolla is a mendelian character dominant over its absence. The color of the corolla differed in the several types in the series here studied. The types were progressively epistatic one to another from white thru pink, magenta, and blue to dark purple. Anthocyanic colors are due to the action of. enzymes upon colorless chromogens, producing thereby colored pigments. The color types studied in the morning-glory were in complete accord with the enzyme theory. Each epistatic type is due to the addition of one or more genes probably enzymatic in nature which are not present in the hypostatic type. Flaking is a dominant character in the morning-glory material here studied. It is explained by a hypothesis supposing the character to be due to an enzyme which is locally distributed in the corolla and which reacts with a colorless chromogen to produce the colored flakes. Where it is present without the gene for producing solid color, flaked whites result; when present together with this gene, flaked solids are produced. £53 38 BULLETIN 392 REFERENCES CITED (For an extended bibliography on color the reader is referred to the 1914 edition of Plant-Breeding, by L. H. Bailey and Arthur W. Gilbert) Bipcoop, Joun. Floral colours and pigments. Roy. Hort. Soc. [London]. Journ. 29: 463-480. 1905. Ciark, Ernest D. The nature and function of the plant oxidases. TPormeya IT: 23-31,.55-01,. 04-02, 10l-Li0., AOE. Correns, C. Der Ubergang aus dem homozygotischen in einen heterozy- gotischen Zustand im selben Individuum bei buntblattrigen und gestreiftblithenden Mirabilis-Sippen. Deut. Bot. Gesell. Ber. 28: 418-434. 1910. Jones, W. Nettson. The formation of the anthocyan pigments of plants. Part V.— The chromogens of white flowers. Roy. Soc. London. Proc. 86 B: 318-323. 1913. KEEBLE, FREDERICK, AND ARMSTRONG, E. FRANKLAND. The role of oxydases in the formation of the anthocyan pigments of plants. Neath. Sen. 22277-2171. LOL?) KEEBLE, FREDERICK, ARMSTRONG, E. FRANKLAND, AND JONES, W. N. The formation of the anthocyan pigments of plants. Part IV.— The chromogens. Roy. Soc. London. Proc. 86 B:308-317. 1913. KRAEMER, Henry. The origin and nature of color in plants. Amer. Philosoph. Soc. Proc. 43:257-277. 1904. Studies on color in plants. Bul. Torrey Bot. Club 33:77-92. 1900. MarryaT, DorotHea C. E. Hybridisation experiments with Mirabilis Jalapa. Roy: Soc. London. Reports to Evolution Comm. 5:32-50. 1909. SHULL, GEORGE Harrison. Color inheritance in Lychnis dioica L. Amer. nat. 44:83-91. IgIo. The primary color-factors of Lychnis and color-inhibitors of Papavar Rhoeas. Bot. gaz. 54:120-135. 1912. SociETé FRANCAISE DES CHRYSANTHEMISTES, ET OBERTHUR, RENE. Répertoire de couleurs, p. 1-82, I-11, 1-365. 1905. Vries, Huco pe. Species and varieties, their origin by .mutation, p. I-47. ZQ05. WHELDALE, M. Further observations upon the inheritance of flower- colour in Antirrhinum majus. Roy. Soc. London. Reports to Evo- lution Comm. 5:1-26. 1909 a. The colours and pigments of flowers with special reference to genetics. Roy. Soc. London. Proc. 81 B:44-60. 1909 b. Plant oxydases and the chemical interrelationships of colour-varieties. Prog. rei bot. 3:457-473. 1910. On the formation of anthoevanin. Journ. gen. 1:133-158. 154 1G 01. JULY, 1917 BULLETIN 393 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND PARTIALLY DEVELOPED FRUITS OF THE APPLE (PYRUS MALUS L.) ARTHUR J. HEINICKE ITHACA, NEW YORK PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 155 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION EXPERIMENTING STAFF ALBERT R. MANN, B.S.A., A.M., Director. HENRY H. WING, M.S. in Agr., Animal Husbandry. T. LYTTLETON LYON, Ph.D., Soil Technology. JOHN L. STONE, B.Agr., Farm Practice. JAMES E. RICE, B.S.A., Poultry Husbandry. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, B.S., Agricultural Chemistry HERBERT H. WHETZEL, M.A., Plant Pathology. ELMER O. FIPPIN, B.S.A., Soil Technology. G. F. WARREN, Ph.D., Farm Management. WILLIAM A. STOCKING, Jr., M.S.A., Dairy Industry. WILFORD M. WILSON, M.D., Meteorology. RALPH S. HOSMER, B.A.S., M.F., Forestry. JAMES G. NEEDHAM, Ph.D., Entomology and Limnology. ROLLINS A. EMERSON, D.Sc., Plant Breeding. HARRY H. LOVE, Ph.D., Plant Breeding. DONALD REDDICK, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. EDWARD G. MONTGOMERY, M.A., Farm Crops. WILLIAM A. RILEY, Ph.D., Entomology. MERRITT W. HARPER, M.S., Animal Husbandry. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Ph.D., Soil Technology. GLENN W. HERRICK, B.S.A., Economic Entomology. HOWARD W. RILEY, M.E., Farm Mechanics. CYRUS R. CROSBY, A.B., Entomology. HAROLD E. ROSS, M.S.A., Dairy Industry. KARL McK. WIEGAND, Ph.D., Botany. EDWARD A. WHITE, BS., Floriculture. WILLIAM H. CHANDLER, Ph.D., Pomology. ELMER S. SAVAGE, M.S.A., Ph.D., Animal Husbandry. LEWIS KNUDSON, Ph.D., Plant Physiology. KENNETH C. LIVERMORE, Ph.D., Farm Management. ALVIN C. BEAL, Ph.D., Floriculture. MORTIER F. BARRUS, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. CLYDE H. MYERS, M.S., Ph.D., Plant Breeding. GEORGE W. TAILBY, Jr., B.S.A., Superintendent of Livestock. EDWARD S. GUTHRIE, M.S. in Agr., Ph.D., Dairy Industry. JAMES C. BRADLEY, Ph.D., Entomology. PAUL WORK, B.S., A.B., Vegetable Gardening. JOHN BENTLEY, Jr., B.S., M.F., Forestry. VERN B. STEWART, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. EARL W. BENJAMIN, Ph.D., Poultry Husbandry. JAMES K. WILSON, Ph.D., Soil Technology. EMMONS W. LELAND, B:S.A., Soil Technology. CHARLES T. GREGORY, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. WALTER W. FISK, M.S. in Agr., Dairy Industry. ARTHUR L. THOMPSON, Ph.D., Farm Management. ROBERT MATHESON, Ph.D., Entomology. HARRY H. KNIGHT, B.Pd., B.S., Entomology. MORTIMER D. LEONARD, B.S., Entomology. FRANK E. RICE, Ph.D., Agricultural Chemistry. IVAN C. JAGGER, M.S. in Agr., Plant Pathology (In cooperation with Rochester Universit, WILLIAM I. MYERS, B.S., Farm Management. LEW E. HARVEY, B.S., Farm Management. LEONARD A. MAYNARD, A.B., Ph.D., Animal Husbandry. LOUIS M. MASSEY, A.B., Ph.D., Plant Pathology. BRISTOW ADAMS, B.A., Editor. LELA G. GROSS, Assistant Editor. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free on request to residents of New York State. 156 CONTENTS PAGE Settee OL MECTALULG Aa teed Ota 82 sors 6s ee a we Fate Sao > AE COE AROOEE 46 REGAN TASER 118 tC A CRIT ASTICUE RS or cys, 2 io a bin ade ee aad noes caddies 50 minemitdde of the Grst aud ar-tie Jute drop... 2.5 ede sie ne ene nese ee 50 Flowers developing into fruits after the first drop.............--...--2.4. 51 Spits setiwmig ita alter the Grep GtOps- oe ee ne ane toe 52 Variations in percentage of spurs setting fide after the first drop........ 53 Flowers developing into fruits after the June drop....................-.... 54 WGIsIe OL UOWETS ON MANY UIE i 2S se ke ee made ce mae see 54 Flowers falling at the first drop and at the June drop on fruit-bearing STEEL gine a oe aay ie ei, Se Oo aA ae lls en a Pa eo 55 Peete BELUUIE iriiiy, diter tHe qune GLGP.: oo. alae sk ose ee sce y eee tase 56 Consideration ofspurs fromamany lambs). 2-26 / 2 dbo Aaas. - aete- oe ee se 56 Variations in percentage of spurs setting fruit after the June drop...... 56 Relation between amount of bloom and set of fruit....................-2--405. 58 Set of fruit on limbs with large leaves and on limbs with small leaves............ 58 Set of fruit as influenced by the location of the spur on the twig growth of different ME ee eae FOROS an AN, eo oe et ME co Woke PEs a obs of eala Paley 59 Set of fruit on spurs formed on different parts of a given year’s growth......... 62 Relation between number of flowers to the spur, and ability of the spur tosetfruit.. 63 Average number of flowers on spurs holding fruit for varying lengths of time.. 63 Set of fruit on spurs with varying numbers of flowers...............+...4-- 64 Percentage of flowers developing into fruits on spurs producing varying num- Dem MMOWEIR re. Sear ee ae ats reas dee fo ep eis ste 2a teas Bae we 64 Relation between length of spur growth made during preceding season, and fruit- OTE SIL ESSEC ee EO SE Ce: eee ee: PP eS PET rad ree ere > 65 Relation between weight of the flower-bearing spur and its fruitfulness.......... 67 Weights of setting and of non-setting spurs...........0..2--. 2-22 eeeeee 67 Seton trim on Sours of dificrent Weights... 252 sons He hago 0 pap oles ome den a0 68 Weights of spurs holding fruits for varying lengths of time................. 68 Relation between meet or vigor, of the fruit-bearing spur, and number of MB TARSRAENENAL! AIMEE aa en ly Ae a a Bo Pe NN a ene Be ste ho Be ad 69 Relation between See of the spur, and number of flowers to the spur.......... 70 Relation between weight of the spur and length of the previous season's growth. . 71 Relation between weight of the new spur growth and diameter of the conducting CSU: cate leona bas Si ic GR ARMA Fae bie Ne ee er ee ie Sn a oe gr 72 Relation between diameter of conducting tissue and weight of spurs, from limbs having a light bloom and from those having a full bloom..................... 7B: Relation between water supply, leaf area, and pushing of buds.................. 74 Relation between amount of lateral growth from the flower-bearing spur, and See eNS SETS Gok EINE ket ae AN ho che ee hd US ae aie « ne 325 sage 76 Relation between ‘sap supply and frit setting: ..°. 2.2.00. 2 0. ae eee eee’ 78 Fruit setting as influenced by varying amounts of leaf surface on the flower-bearing SET EE Be epic! ei ee Ein at ee ee ok Pe Oe Oa eo oa a PT 81 igier Ceaualiont on tue setting Of ftiths. 255 e ls a cb ere se See ca oa cden 83 Relation between seed formation and fruit development....................... 84 Number of seeds in fruit that sets and in fruit that drops.................. 85 Relation between number of seeds and size of fruits.................2..4.. 86 Size of fruit constant, number of seeds varying............-..--+++--. 87 Weight of spur constant, number of seeds varying..................... 87 Weight of spur constant, number of seeds constant, size of ce varying. . Tela Be oc: Ca le eee : 7% SO Number of seeds and seed value....................-00--02 See. 2 ATS gI Relation between seed value, weight of spur, and set of fruit ............... g2 Observations concerning some of the physiological effects of seeds............... 95 Withdrawal of water by leaves from fruits with varying numbers of seeds.... 95 Depression of freezing point by sap from fruits with varying numbers of Relation between formation of seeds and symmetrical development of fruit... 98 157 44 BULLETIN 393 PAGE Relations to be considered in choosing fruits borne under similar conditions...... 99 Position of the fruit on the spur, and number of seeds to the fruit........... 100 Seed content and weights of long-stemmed and of short-stemmed fruits pro- duced ‘onthevsame’ spur ::. 2)eceiotithseehs ate Ae ke oo ee eine eee IOI Relation between number of seeds and size of fruits on spurs bearing one and On, Chosespeanne two frustse oy oes ps eine ake ete a ee 102 Relation between aphid work and fruit development...................... 103 Number of seeds in normal apples and in apples stung by aphids....... 103 Water-core as affected by aphid work and water supply................ 103 Experimentsiconcemine Lhe jabsciss-layene.. see se cheesy cee eee ee 104 Effect of removing fruit and leaving varying lengths of stem................ 105 Bitectormeoating dmab wilavaseline ree yo pire cree teense ace eae eee 105 Effect of slow and of rapid drying of leaves on detached spurs with uncoated fruit and on detached spurs with vaseline-coated fruit....... 106 Effect of a saturated and of a dry atmosphere on abscission of fruit on de- Pachedys ours... ung a sate Ee ee Mee Ae ce ne ra Cael EA ee 106 PS L100 0E2) ine and em RRO ONO eccrine ohn N hope maar ae ed lod 106 General GiScussion aa hpansyeshusocrs ce vet iedd Wet ce ete ee ct eT ae ee 109 Bibliography < oscor ste ch tt cok + Pte: See ate em OS ea ee ae ee eee 112 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND PARTIALLY DEVELOPED FRUITS OF THE APPLE (PYRUS MALUS L.)}! ARTHUR J, HEINICKE Observations have shown that normally less than ten per cent of the apple blossoms which open in spring produce fruit. Many of the flowers are lost a few days after the petals fall, and a large number of the par- tially developed fruits are thrown off during the next few weeks. A rather conspicuous drop, commonly called the June drop, occurs in June and July, when the fruits are from one to three centimeters in diameter. This June drop may or may not be beneficial to the fruit grower. If more than five to ten per cent of the flowers on a tree producing a heavy bloom set fruit, a large quantity of apples must be removed by hand so that the remaining specimens can attain a desirable size and color. On the other hand, apple trees frequently produce an abundance of flowers but little or no fruit is harvested from them, practically all the apples being lost during the June drop or before. Diseases, insects, and unfavorable weather are often held acco ntable for the heavy loss of flowers and partially developed fruits. In unsprayed orchards the flowers and fruits that have fallen from the trees often show injury by scab and codling moth. Heavy losses sometimes result from the effects of winter injury, frost, wind, and hail. But in many cases the drop occurs even in the absence of such destructive agents. The failure of a large proportion of apple blossoms to set, and the heavy loss of partially developed fruits during the June drop, are fre- quently associated with poor pollination and lack of fertilization. The fact that a large proportion of the apples that fall generally have fewer seeds to the fruit than those that remain on the tree, indicates that the development of seeds is an important factor in fruit setting. Never- theless, many flowers set fruit even tho they are poorly pollinated, and many fruits remain on the tree even tho they have relatively few seeds. Obviously, then, there are other factors, aside from the destructive agents previously mentioned, and in addition to poor pollination and lack of fertilization, which influence the abscission of flowers and partially developed fruits of the apple. To study such factors was the object of a 1 Also presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University, September, 1916, as a major thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor or philosophy. AuTHOR’S ACKNOWLEDGMENT. The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Professor W. H. Chandler, who proposed the problem and who gave many helpful suggestions during the course of the investigations, : 159 46 BULLETIN 393 series of observations and experiments that have been in progress during the past three seasons. The results obtained during this time are pre- sented in this bulletin. SURVEY OF LITERATURE In early times the success or failure of the fruit crop was attributed largely to weather conditions. This may be inferred from folklore similar to that recorded by Bull (1878). The conditions mentioned in the fol- lowing quotation, for example, involve an early spring and rather dry weather: March dust on an apple leaf, Brings all kinds of fruit to grief. In another quotation, emphasis is placed on the time of blooming, which likewise involves weather conditions: If the apple tree blossoms in March, For barrels of cider you need not sarch, But if the apple tree blossoms in May, You can eat apple dumplings every day. The chances of having cold, windy, cloudy, and rainy weather during blooming time would be greater in March than in May. Besides, the weather conditions immediately after fertilization of the flowers would probably be more favorable for fruit development during a late spring than during an early one. The following extracts from Langley (1729 a) are interesting since he attempts to explain the observed phenomenon on a physiological basis. Referring to the fact that ‘‘there are many excellent Kinds of Fruits which produce great Plenty of Blossoms, and but very little Fruit,” Langley writes: This Sterility is caused by the too great Abundance of Wood, which, when ’tis cover’d over with its beautiful Blossoms, requires a much greater Quantity of Nourish- ment than the Roots are at that Time able to communicate, and thereby, for want of proper Nourishment, the Embryo Fruits are starved, and more especially when the Soil and Spring are both dry, their Perspirations [transpirations] being then greatest; and if Easterly Winds happen to blow at that Time, their very drying exhaling Nature, is a further Help to the Destruction of the Fruit. This author also observed that some peaches in which the blossoms open before the leaves, such as Old Newington, have a tendency to pro- duce smaller crops of fruit than such varieties as Albemarle and Catherine, which produce leaves with their blossoms. He believed that the leaves ‘strongly attract Nourishment from the Roots to the Blossoms.”’ Referring to the June drop, Langley (1729 b) writes: Nowsfitom, May .205:tov Janes 20).kods5 meee ahs ‘tis always seen that great Quantity of Fruit drops, altho’ largely grown. Of this all our late Authors on 2 Dates in parenthesis refer to bibliography, pages 112 to 114. 160 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 47 Several experiments to prevent the drop were attempted during Lang- ley’s time. The most successful method found was “to preserve them [the trees] from the very hot Sun, from ten in the Morning until two or three in the Afternoon” by means of a sail cloth. Langley, having tried this method, recommends it to ‘‘ the Practice of the Diligent and Curious.”’ He adds, “‘ ’Tis very serviceable to give the Trees a gentle Refreshing of Water, at the Time you begin to screen them from the Sun, which they will freely imbibe, and [which] very much strengthens Nature in her Productions.”’ At the present time the weather is still in many cases held account- able for the failure of blossoms to set fruit. Osterwalder (1907 a), for example, cites the causes which the peasants of Switzerland hold account- able for the wholesale dropping of fruit. Among others, he mentions the “dew rain’’ of the early morning, which occurs during blooming time and subsequently; the strong mountain winds which prevail shortly after blooming time; and the presence of ‘‘honeydew’’ on the leaves. This honeydew, now known to be the result of aphid work, was formerly asso- ciated with local climatic conditions. Hedrick (1908) has given renewed emphasis to the importance of weather in fruit setting. He is of the opinion that unfavorable weather during blossoming time is the predominating factor in the loss of fruit crops. Besides mentioning the direct and obvious damage done by frost, hail, wind, and the like, to buds, flowers, and fruits, this author points out that rain, cloudiness, wind, and low temperatures during blossoming time offer unfavorable conditions for pollination and subsequent fertilization. Waite (1894) observed that many varieties of apples and pears are self-sterile. Fruits resulting from cross-pollination were found to be larger and finer specimens than those resulting from self-pollination. The former contained large, plump seeds, and the latter, small and flattened seeds. It was also noted that the ability of a tree to set fruit, either with its own pollen or with that from another tree, was affected by its state of nutrition and its general environment. Since Waite’s work, the need of cross-pollination to insure a set of fruit has received considerable attention. While most of the writers or workers on this question —among whom may be mentioned Hansen (1894), Beach (1895), Budd (1896), Waugh (1896, 1901), Munson (1899), it 161 48 BULLETIN 393 Fletcher. (1900), Goff (1901), Green (1902), Close (1903), Lewis and Vincent (1909), Bellair (1910), and Gardner (1913) — recognize, as does Waite, that there are other factors, aside from self-sterility, which cause the falling of blossoms and immature fruits, all of them seem inclined to attach special importance to the necessity of cross-pollination for many varieties of fruits. It is pointed out that the structure of the flowers in many cases is such as to inhibit self-pollination, whereas many flowers have special modifications that seem to favor cross-pollination. The in- fluence of such factors as weather, and the like, which favor or prevent cross-pollination, are emphasized. Other workers, the chief among these being Miuller-Thurgau (1808, 1908) and Ewert (1906, 1907, 1910), while not ignoring the question of pollination, have directed special attention to the importance of nutrition as a factor in fruit setting. Miuller-Thurgau has done most of his work with the grape. He finds (1898) that certain varieties can develop fruits without having the flowers fertilized. If, however, the blossoms of such varieties are emasculated and cross-pollination is prevented by inclosing the flowers in sacks, fruits do not develop. This author holds that the entrance of the pollen tube into the pistil may exert sufficient stimulus to initiate fruit development, even tho fertilization does not occur. The stimulus is believed to be one of a chemical nature which exerts an influence similar to that exerted by fertilization, tho less far-reaching. This influence is not confined to the single berry that has been pollinated or fertilized, but other berries on the same bunch are affected in such a way that they may develop even without the entrance of a pollen tube. Girdling the cane eight days before the flowers opened prevented the shedding of berries, while similar canes not treated lost their immature fruit. The berries produced were seedless, hence fertilization had not occurred. Mitller-Thurgau believes that the ringing afforded better con- ditions of nourishment for the flowers, so that the pollen tube could germinate and enter the stigma and style. In a subsequent paper (1908) this author records cases in which he obtained a set of seedless grapes even without the stimulus of pollination. Miuller-Thurgau noticed also that the berries on that part of the vine above the girdle were heavier than those borne below the girdle. The latter usually contained some seeds while the former were often seedless. Berries on vigorous shoots were larger than those on relatively weak growth even tho the weak canes were girdled. Ona given cane, the berries with seeds were larger than those without seeds, and, furthermore, the size of the fruit was found to be proportional to the number of seeds con- tained in it, 162 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 49 Vines growing in the open but protected from cold rains lost their fruit, as did plants exposed to the rain. Muller-Thurgau states that rain during warm weather at blooming time does not necessarily have a detrimental effect on subsequent fruiting. He is of the opinion that the falling of blossoms and immature berries of the grape is due to an inadequate sup- ply of easily respirable food. Pollination may overcome a temporary shortage by affording a stimulating influence; fertilization is even more effective in causing the set on weak vines or during unfavorable condi- tions for assimilation and translocation of food. The conditions that obtain for the grape are said to hold for the apple and the pear as well. Ewert (1906, 1907, 1909) has given considerable attention to the development of seedless fruits. He believes that the development of such parthenocarpic fruits is possible if an abundance of food is avail- able — such a supply, for example, as would accumulate if the downward movement of sap were inhibited. Ewert assumes that fruit formation on a tree occurs under competition for organic food. Such food, he thinks, has a greater tendency to flow to those fruits that contain seeds, which in turn are the result of cross-pollination. Consequently, seedless fruits developing on the same tree with fruits containing seeds are handicapped, and if the food supply proves inadequate such fruits will eventually fall off. Inclosing the flower spurs in sacks is said by Ewert to bring about uniavorable conditions for nutrition. Fruits developed on such inclosed spurs, which must be self-pollinated if pollinated at all and which conse- quently produce very poor seeds, are therefore handicapped in their development. If the ability of a tree to set fruit without pollination is to be determined, it therefore becomes necessary to prevent pollination on all flowers and not merely on a few. When this precaution was observed Ewert obtained seedless fruits which were as large as normal specimens. He found, however, that the same variety was less likely to set parthenocarpically when some of the flowers on the tree were exposed to cross-pollination. Ewert found also that the dicogamy of the flowers is not always asso- ciated with self-sterility, nor is the absence of this condition, which would favor self-pollination, strictly associated with self-fertility. He believes that the question of the need for cross-pollination in fruit setting has been overemphasized. He is of the opinion that cold, rainy weather at bloom- ing time is unfavorable to the setting of fruit, not so much because it hinders fertilization as because such conditions are generally harmful to the development of the young fruit. Osterwalder (1907 a, 1909) has also given the question of premature drop considerable attention. His studies of the seeds of fruits that remain 163 Xe) BULLETIN 393 on the tree, and of those that are shed several weeks after blooming time, have shown that fertilized as well as unfertilized fruits drop. Osterwalder studied also the transpiration by the petals of the flowers. The amount of water lost in this way was found to be much less than that given off by a similar area of leaf surface. He believes that wilting of the floral parts is more likely to result from the loss of water thru the leaves than thru the petals. He holds that fruitfulness depends on nutrient con- ditions, on the number of fertilized fruits, and on the tendency of the variety to develop fruits parthenocarpically. Insects and diseases, chiefly codling moth and scab, are often mentioned in literature as causing heavy drops of blossoms and immature fruit (Bailey 1895, Reddick 1912, Wallace 1913). Too rapid vegetative growth, especially of young trees, is sometimes cited as unfavorable to fruit setting” (Waite, 1894). A number of other general causes, such as poor soil, plowing during blooming time (Gould, 1915), drought, and the like, are occasionally held accountable for crop failure after blossoms have been produced. MATERIAL USED IN THESE EXPERIMENTS The observations and experiments recorded in these pages were made during the course of three summers, 1914 to 1916 inclusive. For the most part the work was done at the experiment station orchard at Ithaca, New York, but observations on a few outlying orchards in western New York were also made. Unless otherwise mentioned, the trees under observation were between forty and fifty years old. About seven years ago these trees were pruned severely, and since that time they have received ordinary care — that is, cultivation, pruning, and thoro spraying. In this paper the natural drop only is considered, not the drop caused by such external agents as frost, insects, and diseases. In a well-sprayed orchard the drop resulting from scab and from codling moth is practically negligible. Examination of several hundred flowers and small fruits collected from sheets suspended under the trees in the station orchard at Ithaca in the spring of 1916, showed that only about one per cent were affected by scab. In western New York, however, the unfavorable weather did not permit the growers to spray effectively that spring, and, as a result, scab infection on the stems of flowers and young fruits caused a heavy drop. Cases of a similar nature have been reported previously (Bailey 1895, Reddick 1912, Wallace 1913). MAGNITUDE OF THE FIRST AND OF THE JUNE DROP Before any experimental work was undertaken, a detailed survey was made of the extent and distribution of the first drop and of the June 164 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE Shae drop. By first drop is meant the loss of flowers and of very slightly developed fruits that occurs within from one to three or four weeks after the petals fall. In the majority of these drops, the ovary and sur- rounding tissue has not developed beyond the flower stage. Ina relatively few cases, the young fruits have attained a diameter of from one-half to one centimeter before they fall. Flowers developing into fruits after the first drop The extent of the first drop is indicated by the data given in table 1. The figures are based on a consideration of all flower-bearing spurs found FIG. I. VIGOROUS SPUR, PRODUCING FRUIT AND LATERAL GROWTH Lateral shoots are shown at Aand B. The spur growth made since spring is shown at C. The leaves on this growth are the bud leaves. The large scar at E is from the stem of an apple that fell at the June drop; the small scars at D are flower-stem scars. A part of the preceding year’s growth is shown at F. G natural size) 165 52 BULLETIN 393 on a number of different branches from one or more trees of each variety. Normal branches from five to ten years old were chosen. They varied in length between one meter and one and a half meters. The total number of flowers was determined by counting the number of flower-stem scars on the ends of the spurs and the number of fruits remaining on the spurs (fig. 1). TABLE 1. PERCENTAGE OF FLOWERS DEVELOPING INTO FRUITS AFTER THE First Drop Total Number Per- Per- Variety number of set centage centage flowers set lost Maiden Bitish!. <2 i542 en cen eer ee 270 166 Glee 38.8 Wyiestitel die tie mo hee pre nee 478 270 56.5 Aa 5 MAW ACEI c wet. atte tin Oak ee ne 268 47 17.5 82.5 AGW SRA cx oisie Ct ee eae ee te 656 IIO 16.8 83.2 Monmpkinsikinow ive ei oe et es es 1,563 335 21a 78.6 Rhodetcland 0 s-.6. neck ete eae 840 183 PHT ate! Fone From two-fifths to four-fifths of the flowers are lost during the early drop. The varieties given in the table fall into two groups, depending on the number of flowers lost. One group, represented by Maiden Blush and Westfield, lost only half as many as did the other group. All varie- ties were growing in the same orchard and they bloomed during the same time; consequently they had equal chances of being cross-pollinated. Can the variations noted be due to a tendency toward self-fertility in the first group? Subsequent data may throw some light on this question. Spurs setting fruit after the first drop From a practical standpoint, it is interesting to note the percentage of flower-bearing spurs that set fruit. Such data are presented in table 2: TABLE 2. PERCENTAGE OF FLOWER-BEARING SPURS RETAINING FRUIT AFTER THE First Drop Number | Number Per- Per- Variety of spurs with centage centage with fruit with without flowers fruit fruit MiaidengBlushit etic. sane sit. bievss < 157 154 98.1 1.9 WWESELIGIAS (2s 3. stearate eet 89 84 94.4 5.6 AAW Water: 2 aioli mee Re seas as 116 79 68.1 31.9 ALGNVAN 6s ec ce is kee ie i ee ees 302 183 60.6 39.4 a Ona pkaris MUcirig Yes nee eee etree ey. 478 307 64.2 35.8 iaote Tslands osc. vinw teen Saas Bees 534 296 55.4 44.6 166 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 53 The figures are based on counts of all flower-bearing spurs found on a number of different branches taken from one or more trees of each variety. The branches used were similar to those already described. It is seen from the table that in some varieties practically all spurs set fruit, while in others almost half of the flower-bearing spurs fail to set fruit. Variations in percentage of spurs setting fruit after the first drop.— The variations found in different branches, in the percentage of spurs that set fruit after the first drop, are shown in table 3. Most of the branches were about one and one-half to two centimeters in diameter at the base, and the wood was from one to at least five years old. Only healthy and apparently normal branches were considered. TABLE 3. VARIATIONS IN THE PERCENTAGE OF FLOWER-BEARING SPURS THAT SET FRUIT AFTER THE First Drop Total Number Per- Variety and tree Branch | number of| setting centage spurs fruit setting fruit Hallawater 18 2:0. senses tele ae ce I 26 19 73.1 2 36 22 61.1 2 Ay 18 66.7 4 27 20 74.1 SEMEL WHIT ESO) Ste youc; « ole Sieve sie 2--.-~- 6 215 82 38.1 7 345 55 15-9 8 145 30 20.7 9 281 69 24.5 10 385 175 45-4 Sale watte ey) LV. r.:c-syere) sfonea'sa\s.s\suee'a6. 5 I 25 14 56.0 2 6 4 66.7 3 9 6 66.7 4 14 6 42.9 3 ot 13 54-2 6 23 7 30.4 7 20 9 45.0 8 16 9 SONS 9 25 8 32.0 10 18 10 55-5 II 18 9 50.0 12 16 4 25.0 Mmomiprans henge soc rs o.oo tS I 146 21 14.4 Moempkins Hing, Cities... 6 fn 2... I 42 7 ‘16.7 2 31 2 6.5 3 25 3 12.0 Mamuskitis ang, Cos ies... ted donc. =< I 35 10 28.6 2 28 9 22m 3 18 4 2222 4 33 9 27 3 5 10 3 30.0 Rhocerl(siandy BSistivesce se. sees cae I 27 I Ba) 2 23 I Ane 3 18 2 iat + 17 I 5:9 5 35 I 2.9 Rihodedslan desi as..0/.)- us ieeretimaet I 88 30 34.1 2 12 21 16.5 3 6 I 16.7 + 34 5 14.7 5 53 10 18.9 | at which the branches grow and their location on different parts of the tree cannot be held accountable, in themselves, for the variations found. For example, in Baldwin B 8, branches 1 and 3 were growing in an upright position, and branches 2 and 4, found on the same side of the tree, were drooping; in Baldwin E 7, branches 1 to 4 were obtained from the top cf the tree, and branches 5 to 10 from limbs close to the ground. 171 58 BULLETIN 393 RELATION BETWEEN AMOUNT OF BLOOM AND SET OF FRUIT In the spring of 1916 most of the mature trees in the station orchard at Ithaca produced a heavy bloom. Individual limbs on many of the trees, however, bore relatively few flowers. A number of such limbs, with a light bloom, were labeled. Corresponding limbs with a heavy bloom, but otherwise like the former — having a similar exposure, and arising from the same parent limb — were also labeled. After the June drop, the total number of flower-bearing spurs on each limb was obtained, together with the number of spurs that had set fruit. The data from some _of the branches are recorded in table 8: TABLE 8. PERCENTAGE OF SPURS SETTING FRUIT ON LIMBS WITH HEAVY BLOOM AND ON THOSE WITH LIGHT BLOOM Limbs with light bloom Limbs with heavy bloom Variety Num- Num- Per- Num- Num- Per- ber of ber centage | ber of ber centage spurs set set spurs set set Baldwin; tree: Tec ace 406: 52 40 76.9 116 18 15.5 Baldwins tree 2h. ee ane 47 38 80.8 76 39 51.3 Fallawater....... Pat i Nd Se 21 10 47.6 255 21 on2 Wrestiveld. 2 tee cei. nee 25 19 76.0 250 20 8.0 otal ae ve as: aie bre 145 107 73.8 697 98 14.1 A larger percentage of spurs set fruit in the limbs with the relatively light bloom. This fact is easily apparent on inspection, even without accurate counts. Hence, only a relatively few limbs were removed from the trees to obtain records, the remainder being used for other purposes. An explanation for the results obtained is afforded by subsequent observations. SET OF FRUIT ON LIMBS WITH LARGE LEAVES AND ON LIMBS WITH SMALL LEAVES It is not uncommon to find individual limbs with leaves noticeably smaller than those on the remaining limbs of the same tree. In the spring of 1916, such small-leaved limbs which had produced a heavy bloom were labeled. Limbs with normal leaves, but otherwise similar, were likewise labeled. The percentage of flower-bearing spurs that set fruit was deter- mined for each group of branches. Data of several of the many limbs labeled are contained in table 9: 172 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 59 TABLE 9. PERCENTAGE OF SPURS SETTING FRUIT ON WEAK AND ON VIGOROUS LIMBS Vigorous Weak limbs with large leaves limbs with small leaves Variety Num- | Num- Per- Num- | Num- | Per- ber of ber | centage | ber of ber centage spurs set set spurs set set Winknowiie ys. we ears SS 4 164 94 57-3 219 33 Get Mompkins: Kang’). 2.06.5... 223 67 30.0 207 34 16.4 “TOYS hess hen ies Oe setae 387 161 41.6 426 67 15.7 The percentage of flower-bearing spurs that set fruit was greater on the branches with large leaves than on those with small leaves. The same condition prevailed on the other limbs that had been labeled, as was determined by careful inspection. These results can probably be explained on the basis of data presented later in these pages. SET OF FRUIT AS INFLUENCED BY THE LOCATION OF THE SPUR ON THE TWIG GROWTH OF DIFFERENT YEARS Observations were made to determine whether flower-bearing spurs arising from wood of different ages would be more likely to set fruit in some cases than in others. Data regarding this point are given in tables 10, r1, 12, and 13. These figures were obtained during the summer TABLE 10. PERCENTAGE OF FLOWERS DEVELOPING INTO FRUITS AFTER THE FIRST } Drop, ON SpuRS ARISING FROM Woop OF DIFFERENT AGES Tompkins King, tree 1 Tompkins King, tree 2 Year’s wood a a Num- | Num- Per- Num- Num- Per- ber of ber centage | ber of ber | centage flowers set set flowers set set MO Ary pad Ltr etatisn cds ohh 65 II 16.9 25 3 12.0 OMA ereteer wacko bers cuerekyuae @siien a 379 97 25.6 IOI 34 33.7. MOM An homed oe wee. 129 44 34.1 85 12 14.1 of 1915, hence the spurs on 1914 twig growth came from lateral buds. Ordinarily, few lateral buds form blossoms in New York State, and such formation may be ascribed to the unusually favorable conditions for fruit-bud formation which prevailed during 1914 —a wet spring followed 173 60 BULLETIN 393 by a dry, sunny season.’ Comparatively few of the flowers arising from such buds set fruit, as may be seen from the figures. Other observations indicate that the length of the 1914 wood influenced the setting ability of the flowers arising from the lateral buds. In a number of cases in which the growth was twenty-five centimeters and the terminal bud pro- duced a flower, few, if any, lateral buds set. When the growth was less vigorous, it was not uncommon to find fruits produced on the lateral buds. TABLE 11. SET ON SpuRS ARISING FROM WOOD OF DIFFERENT AGES Tompkins King, tree 1 | Tompkins King, tree 2 Baldwin Rhode Island Year's | F wood | Num-| Num- Per- |Num-| Num- Per- | Num- | Num- Per- | Num-| Num- Per- ber of || ber centage | ber of | ber | centage|ber of| ber | centage |ber of] ber | centage spurs set set spurs set set spurs set set spurs set set 1914 5 3 60.0 15 7 46.7 12 5 4L.7 16 4 25.0 1913 36 25 69.4 79 54 68.4 86 63 1333 10 5 50.0 1912 16 7 43.8 25 20 80.0 34 24. kot 7.0126, -<.. cee | Pils oe pee IQII II 4 30.4 sake oe ae Se, 32 14 4328 |" ode. |e oe 1910 31 16 ST Oo wats eee eh seek eys 14 5 35 s'T ||. io tuys S| pes cree] TABLE 12. PERCENTAGE OF FLOWERS DEVELOPING INTO FRUITS AFTER THE JUNE Drop, ON SpuRS ARISING FROM Woop OF DIFFERENT AGES Tompkins King, tree I Tompkins King, tree 2 Year’s wood Num- Num- Per- Num- Num- Per- ber of ber centage | ber of ber centage flowers set set flowers set set LOLG HS oe APRA TRANS 65 3 4.6 25 3 1270 1G) tz Pree anaes en ee ee 379 46 Waa 19I 34 NG) 3s: MQ 2a reese testinal, Soden te ore 129 29 22015 85 12 14.1 TROT ena Es Gah ol beet ace eae Em Re ieecee. mam let came 20 ||) /egeed > aime 65 4 6.2 TOU OR te Be eee ea tess c, > a snag Ael| g eheat at bene wf] cece atl Rees oe 169 27 16.0 OQ OO er at een ee rs bo oo ics, ABER TNE Ae Ml ck atte al Meee ee 96 12 12.5 Such observations can be interpreted on the basis of nutrition, that is, an adequate supply of stored food which is readily available in spring, as well as a sufficient supply of water. So long as active growth continues, the assimilate is probably translocated to the growing parts; little is left for storage and fruit-bud formation in the lateral buds. After growth finally ceases on long twigs, the time remaining for active assimilation is inadequate for abundant storage. On the other hand, short twigs stop elongating much sooner; consequently, the lateral buds on short twigs can store the food which is utilized for continued length growth 174 61 ABSCISSION OF FLCOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE go tg he 0° Sz £ ZI qos yes sinds 23PyU20 Jaq jo Jaq -lag -uIn NI -uIn NT zZ 907} ‘uIMpleg b'6z or ve aly LI gf g°zs LV 63 oo 8 Oz qos yes sinds a3ejuU90 Jaq jo Jaq -legq “UMN ; -wnN I 991} ‘UIMpleg SAY INDXadsIC] JO GOOM WO ONISTAY SANdS NO LAS S°ge Si €1 g eV L 91 6'9OV £z 6V Le £ II yas yes sinds a3e4U90 toq jo 1aq -lag -uInN “Un NY £ 901} ‘Bury suryduoy z 904} ‘Bury surydwoy, I 903} ‘Bury suryduoy, “Cl FIGVL o'Sz v gl 0°39 LI Sz v'61 Ii, gf v' ov 6¢ 6L 0°02 I S 0°02 £ SI yas yeas sinds yas yas sinds a3e4U99 Jaq jo Jaq | a8eqyue0 Jaq jo Jaq -13g -uInN -uInN -lag -uInN -uInN poom s,1e9K 62 BULLETIN 393 on long twigs. No analyses are available to show that such a condition actually exists. In several cases, the spurs arising from 1913 twig growth set more fruit than did spurs arising from older wood. In other cases, however, spurs on older twigs were more fruitful than those on younger growth. This fact suggests that the ability of a bud to develop into a fruit-setting spur is determined to some extent during the year when it is formed in the axil of a leaf. It should be mentioned, in this connection, that many limbs have no flower-bearing spurs on a given year’s growth, whereas such spurs are borne on younger and on older wood of the same limb. Then, too, the proportion of buds that develop into fruiting spurs varies with the different year’s growth on the same branch. Apparently the age of the spur alone, at least from the second to the fourth or the fifth year, has little influence on its fruitfulness. Spurs arising from wood several meters from the periphery of the tree would generally be in a less desirable position so far as exposure to light and free circulation of air are concerned. This condition would probably have an unfavorable influence on the nutrition of the fruit bud. SET OF FRUIT ON SPURS FORMED ON DIFFERENT PARTS OF A GIVEN YEAR’S GROWTH The vigor of the individual buds found on the twig growth of a given year varies considerably. This can be determined by observing the fate of the buds the year after they have been formed. In most of the varieties, buds near the beginning, and in many cases those just before the end, of a year’s growth remain dormant (Koopmann, 1896). Ifa year’s growth happens to be from thirty to forty centimeters, a third zone of weak buds may be found near the center of that particular year’s growth. The transition from dormant buds to those that produce strong spurs, or even short twigs, is usually, but not always, a gradual one. The strongest spurs are generally found just before the terminal zone of dormant buds, and before the middle zone if there is one. The leaves in the zones bearing weak buds will usually be the first to turn yellow and fall off if the twigs are removed from the tree and placed in beakers containing water. Such leaves likewise are the first to be shed in the autumn. Just what causes these variations in bud vigor is not definitely known. They are found even in upright twigs growing at the top of the tree, where light conditions for the different buds are approximately the same. The nutrient supply available at the time of formation of the individual bud may determine its vigor. It is probable that the water supply from 176 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 63 the soil, the temperature, the humidity, cloudiness, and other environ- mental conditions, have marked influence on the nutrition. In the summer of 1914, the fruit borne on spurs arising from 1912 or 1913 wood was found near the end of the season’s growth in most cases. The percentage of flower-bearing spurs that set fruit in the terminal parts of a given year’s growth, as compared to the set on the spurs in the lower halves of the same twigs, is shown in table 14. It is seen TABLE 14. SET oF FRUIT ON SpuRS FORMED ON DIFFERENT PARTS OF A GIVEN YEAR'S GROWTH Spurs in upper half of year’s Spurs in lower half of year’s growth ‘ growth Variety Per- Per- Per- Per- Number | centage centage | Number | centage centage of set after | set after of set after | set after spurs first June spurs first June drop drop drop drop Baldwin....... 136 64.3 50.0 go 53 -2 40.0 Tompkins King. 47 63.8 34.0 in 45.8 12.5 that there are fewer flower-bearing spurs in the basal half of the year’s growth, and a smaller percentage of these basal spurs set fruit. The results would probably have been more striking if only the relatively short twigs had been considered. The long twigs, as has been mentioned, usually show a middle zone of weak or dormant buds, which are generally preceded by fruit-setting spurs. In such twigs, fruit-setting spurs would be found in the basal half of the year’s growth. RELATION BETWEEN NUMBER OF FLOWERS TO THE SPUR, AND ABILITY OF THE SPUR TO SET FRUIT The number of flowers on an apple spur varies from two to seven. Casual observations seemed to indicate that there is a relation between the number of flowers produced by the spur and its ability to bear fruit. Consequently, a more careful study of this question was undertaken. Average number of flowers on spurs holding fruit for varying lengths of time Records were made of the number of flowers borne on spurs that lost all fruit at the first drop, on those that held fruit until the June drop but not longer, and on those that finally set fruit. The data are recorded in table 15: 12 7, 64 BULLETIN 393 TABLE 15. AVERAGE NUMBER OF FLOWERS ON SPURS HOLDING FRUIT FOR VARYING LENGTHS OF TIME Spurs losing all fruit at Spurs holding fruit until Spurs finally setting first drop the June drop fruit Variety eee ma Avera A f f ? ge reel verage Num-| Num- | number of Num-| Num number of Num-| Num- number of ber of | ber of Aowers ber of | ber of aes ber of |_ ber of flowere spurs | flowers |t, the spur| SPUrs flowers |t5 the spur| SPUTS flowers |+, the spur Tompkins King. . 39 144 3.69 23 II4 4.96 64 354 5-53 Tompkins King... 52 257 4.94 37 216 5.84 35 204 5.83 Rhode Island.... 60 Bz het 4.52 116 569 AOL NW oes J] cast ll oo eee Westihield. assy. 2:tn iol Ue ae Wig ete eee 47 221 4.70 35 211 6.03 All varieties..} 151 672 4.45 223 I,120 5.02 134 769 5.74 There seems to be a correlation between the number of flowers on a spur and the ability of the spur to hold fruit. Spurs that lose all flowers and fruits during the first drop have the smallest average number of flowers, and those that finally set have the largest average number of flowers. Set of fruit on spurs with varying numbers of flowers The spurs from several branches were grouped in lots based on the number of flowers borne. The percentage of spurs bearing fruit in each case is recorded in table 16: TABLE 16. SET OF FRUIT ON SPURS WITH VARYING NUMBERS OF FLOWERS Spurs with Spurs with Spurs with 4 flowers 5 flowers 6 flowers riet ranch ; pare. 2 Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- ber of | centage | ber of | centage| ber of | centage spurs set spurs set spurs set Baldwitls ms... -% I 7 42.9 32 56.2 63 *65.1 ' 2 7 42.9 39 41.0 70 748.1 Tompkins King.... I 18 ic gee 33 51.5 62 *70.9 2 18 in 33 21.2 62 133-9 Rhodedslandte-- =| =. acne 30 50.0 103 70.9 26 One * After the first drop. + After the June drop. These data likewise show that the fruit-bearing ability of a spur is closely related to the number of flowers produced by the spur. The spurs having the greatest numbers of flowers show the highest percentage set. Percentage of flowers developing into fruits on spurs producing varying numbers of flowers In many cases the spurs bear more than one fruit. Do individual flowers on spurs producing six blossoms have to compete more for their 178 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 65 portion of food and water, than flowers on spurs producing a smaller number of blossoms? The data in table 17 contain an answer to this TABLE 17. PERCENTAGE OF FLOWERS DEVELOPING INTO FRUITS ON SPURS WITH VARYING NUMBERS OF FLOWERS Spurs with Spurs with Spurs with 4 flowers 5 flowers 6 flowers Variety Pranch ry car Lok ote. aa l Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- ber of | centage| ber of | centage| ber of | centage flowers set flowers set flowers set WWESEHEIA Sos csc. al Seas 28 28.9 150 54.0 228 157.0 Baldwink. 4.2%. - I 28 10.4 195 82.0 420 *90.0 2 60 56.7 80 60.0 102 e725 Maiden Blush..... I 24 45.1 110 60.0 138 *7 716 I 24 20.9 IIO 20.0 138 [232 *After the first drop. tAfter the June drop. question. The figures indicate that a higher percentage of flowers develop into fruits on spurs producing six flowers than on spurs producing four or five flowers. RELATION BETWEEN LENGTH OF SPUR GROWTH MADE DURING PRECEDING SEASON, AND FRUITFULNESS OF THE SPUR In 1915 it was observed that many of the fruits were borne on spurs which had elongated more than two centimeters during the previous season. This fact was first noted in studying the set on Mr. F. W. Cornwall’s Baldwin orchard at Pultneyville, New York. All flower-bearing spurs found on large branches from several trees were placed in tivo groups. The first group contained spurs that had made a growth of two centimeters TABLE 18. SET OF FRUIT IN 1915 ON SPURS MAKING DIFFERENT GROWTH LENGTHS DURING THE PRECEDING YEAR Spurs making 2 centimeters Spurs making less than 2 centi- growth or more during 1914 meters growth during 1914 Branch ; Number | Number | Percent- | Number | Number | Percent- of spurs set age set of spurs set age set Dita fees Pies, sey 17 13 76.5 34 9 26.5 De, See tee 24 13 54.2 57 18 2126 lars aaa ee ae 27 21 56.8 58 16 27.6 A iecapmoreta clei s Saclic 36 25 69.4 67 17 25.4 Rotalteaer 114 72 63.2 216 60 27.8 179 66 BULLETIN 393 or more during 1914 — the year preceding that in which fruit was borne; the second group contained spurs that had made less than two centimeters growth in the same period. The percentage of spurs setting fruit in each group is given in table 18. In 1916 similar data were obtained at the station orchard at Ithaca. All spurs that had elongated one centimeter or more in 1915 were placed in one class, and those that had grown less than one centimeter were placed in another. The percentages of spurs that produced fruit are recorded in table 19. It is seen from the table that spurs which have elongated more than one centimeter during any one year are more likely to set fruit in the following year than are spurs that have made a weaker growth.? TABLE 19. SET OF FRUIT IN 1916 ON SPURS MAKING DIFFERENT GROWTH LENGTHS DURING THE PRECEDING YEAR Spurs making I centimeter} Spurs making less than growth or more during 1 centimeter growth 1915 during I915 Variety Branch Num- Per- Num- Per- ber of ie centage | ber of a vee centage spurs set spurs set Strawbetry....-..- I 434 138 AI se 721 118 16.4 2 405 122 30.1 659 113 U7 3 237 88 |), 378 445 51 11.5 4 5607 182 2A 878 162 18.4 HNOtals erat ae wake ars 1,643 530 G3) || Dako 444 16.4 Baldwin \cob/seree I 67 57 85.1 52 25 48.1 2 75 36 48.0 59 14 23.7 3 50 aI 62.0 117 30 25.6 4 44 DP) 50.0 68 14 20.6 5 84 69 82.1 61 8 Ue Mata tore ores), Heer 320 215 67:2 357 QI 25.5 Tompkins King.... I 80 40 50.0 63 18 28.6 2 23 6 26.1 48- 8 16.7 Potalete ee ord 103 46 44.7 III 26 23.54 Grand total so... 2,066 791 a8. 31 eel 561 17.4 Casual observations during 191s seemed to indicate that flowers pro- - duced in the terminal bud of twigs making more than approximately twenty centimeters length growth in 1914 did not set as well as did flowers on shorter twigs. In 1916, however, the same varieties were setting at the ends of long twigs. 3 Yeager (1916), in a bulletin which was received here while this paper was being prepared for publica- tion, likewise reports a correlation between the amount of growth that a spur makes in one year and its production in the following year. T80 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 67 RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT OF THE FLOWER-BEARING SPUR AND ITS FRUITFULNESS Most writers on topics relating to fruit setting agree that the vigor of the tree is a factor to be considered. It is generally assumed that excessive vegetative growth is opposed to fruit production. No definite figures, however, are available regarding the influence of the vigor of the indi- vidual spur on fruit bearing. When the fruit bud opens in spring, a short spur is produced varying in length from 0.3 to 2 centimeters. This new growth bears leaves later- _ ally and a cluster of flowers terminally. It seems safe to assume that this spur growth is made at the expense of stored food. The stored food is the result of photosynthetic activity ‘during the previous year. The amount of this early spur growth with its leaves and flowers can there- fore be taken as an index to vigor. Weights of setting and of non-setting spurs The relation of vigor to the fruit- setting ability of the tree was studied by ascertaining the weights of a large number of flower-bearing spurs. The spur growth of the current year was cut from the parent spur just at the Fic. 2. PREPARATION OF SPUR PREVIOUS base of the ring of bud scales pro- BO) BAGS 5 4 The point C just below the ring of bud-scaie tecting the bud from which the cur- scars, B, indicates the point at which the present rent year’s growth came (fig. 2) Sos Hie Siete epee Been ae The spurs were weighed in a turgid “P”” Seater eter condition. The weights were taken early in the season, and any growth arising from a lateral bud on the current season ’S spur was removed before weighing. All flower-bearing spurs found on a given limb were considered; the setting and the non-setting spurs were therefore produced on the same parent branch. The data given in table 20 are representative of the weights of setting and of non-setting spurs. According to the table, the setting spurs on a given branch are heavier than the non-setting spurs on the same branch in all cases. It should be noted that the average weight of spurs may be greater on one branch than on others. More specific observations coe this point are discussed later (page 73). 181 68 BULLETIN 393 TABLE 20. WEIGHTS OF SETTING AND OF NON-SETTING FLOWER-BEARING SPURS Setting spurs Non-setting spurs ariet rf i i Bran Num- | Total | Average} Num- | Total | Average ber of | weight | weight | ber of | weight | weight spurs | (grams) | (grams) | spurs | (grams) | (grams) Baldvwitiers ce 2.1: I 97 | 174.46 1.80 DLS.) 170256 1.56 2 66 | 210.50 3.19 47 91.87 1.95 3 46 | 128.64 2.80 24 58.42 2 AR 4 139 | 383.60 270 LI25|) L624 1.45 5 46 | 109.94 2.39 42 | 55.02 1.31 6 42 | 105.00 2.50 16 24.96 1.56 Tompkins King I 37 2| 107475 2.91 S14] ayes 1.70 2 34 | 59-50 1.75 175 | 134-75 0.77 Ballawatera eas. |ponee a: 10 8.12 0.81 42 23.24 0.55 Rhodesislandeerse|| see on 30 | 128.24 Aer 58 | 180.35 yi Wiestheld socciG alice oie 48 | 102.74 2.14 A8\| *Oxre 92 I .g2 Mota is cc.ce tall Mae oes: 595 |1,518.49 2.55 760 |1,140.42 1.50 Set of fruit on spurs of different weights The flower-bearing spurs from a Fallawater branch were classified, according to their weights, as heavy, medium, and light. The average weight of each lot is given in table 21, together with the percentage of spurs that produced fruit: TABLE 21. SET OF FRUIT ON SPURS OF DIFFERENT WEIGHTS Average Percentage Number of spurs weight with (grams) fruit 13) es Cures Shia o,0) Geo CRO RON Se ECR ica ee EEE Scie RE tn. fie 4.53 61.1 TOL AY ORO ae eee oe aa Rc eke 8 cree 2.37) 2555 oa ERR aie es a a RCD UCNes of OL PRE: Ree mee HORE ona dogs Oleh eakaien ie20 16.6 The heaviest spurs produced the most fruit, and the lightest produced the least. These data alone are insufficient to establish the relation between set of fruit and vigor of spur, but they lend additional support to the facts presented in tables 20 and 22. Weights of spurs holding fruits for varying lengths of time The weights of spurs that lost all fruit at the first drop, of those that held fruit until the June drop, and of those that held fruit after the 182 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 69 June drop, were obtained in the case of a large limb taken from a Baldwin tree in July, 1915. The scars on the spurs that had lost fruits during the June drop were easily distinguishable from the smaller scars of the flowers and fruits that had been lost earlier. The data are recorded in table 22: TABLE 22. WEIGHTs OF SPURS HOLDING FRUITS FOR VARYING LENGTHS OF TIME Number Total Average Time spur held fruit of weight weight spurs (grams) (grams) Uisaeill THeAsts Cline} oe owt ae tho tte aoe Oem to Goel oe oe ne meee 30 88.12 2.94 ‘(Ufraneaill Tien Ghigo yoke So ergs eee Cine aie ena On 28 92.23 2.29 ENGLetm UT e CLO pie Se A aes meu REN oe Geer 30 128.23 ley The spurs that finally set fruit are heavier than the others. Those that hold fruit until the June drop weigh more than those that lose all fruit during the first few weeks. Relation between weight, or vigor, of the fruit-bearing spur, and number of fruits borne by tt In several cases the fruit-bearing spurs from a given limb were divided into two lots. One lot consisted of spurs that produced one fruit, the other of spurs that produced two fruits. The average weight of each lot was obtained. The figures are recorded in table 23, and show that spurs bearing but one fruit are not so heavy as those bearing two fruits: TABLE 23. RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT OF THE SPUR AND NUMBER OF FRUITS BorNeE By It | Spurs with one fruit | Spurs with two fruits Variety Branea Number | Average | Number | Average of weight of weight spurs (grams) spurs (grams) Bal clvwiriete seis stores ced fi I 25 I .60 25 1.84 IBaldwity yas. 2 eta es elt as 2 60 3.08 39 3.62 The relation between the vigor, or weight, of a spur and its tendency to produce more than one fruit is further emphasized by the data in table 24. The spurs included in the strong lot had much larger leaves, and more leaves to the spur, than those in the weak lot. All spurs were taken from the same branch. The table shows that the strong lot con- tained more spurs with two fruits than did the weak lot. 183 70 BULLETIN 393 TABLE 24. Sert oF FRUIT ON STRONG AND ON WEAK SPURS Strong spurs Weak spurs Variety Number | Percentage} Number | Percentage of with two of with two spurs fruits spurs fruits raat teet ee etic ARC eee Se ee 94 34.0 33 15.2 The fact that fruit-setting spurs are heavier on the average than those that do not set fruit, suggests that the presence of the fruit on the spur may in itself be a stimulant to increase the weight of the spur. It is probable that the food which is translocated to the developing fruit accu- mulates just beneath the fruit stem, and in that way increases the weight of the fruit-bearing spur. Such an accumulation of food, however, is usually not apparent until after the fruits have attained considerable size. The presence of a fruit on a relatively weak spur does not materi- ally increase its weight early in the season, nor does the absence of a fruit from a vigorous spur put it in the weak class. The weight of the spur is closely correlated with other conditions, as may be seen from the following paragraphs. RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT OF THE SPUR AND NUMBER OF FLOWERS TO THE SPUR As previously shown, spurs with many flowers have a greater tendency to set fruit than those with a small number of flowers. The question whether there is a relation between the number of flowers on the spur and its weight, naturally suggests itself. Representative data regarding this question are contained in table 25. The figures are based on a con- TABLE 25. RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT OF THE SPUR AND NUMBER OF FLOWERS on It Number Total Average Flowers to the spur of weight weight spurs (grams) (grams) i. SG AOR I A LS IS Sic CoA RE ECE LS cc SRNR 6 10.58 1.76 =) Od NEN AR gL ea ies ote eR Re REN op Ce 19 51.77 rye be (5) cs ee Se Sa HAT Ne ST eS A TTAB 18 60.41 3.36 sideration of spurs on a limb from a Maiden Blush tree. It is seen that spurs with many flowers are usually heavier than those with few flowers. 184 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE fe RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT OF THE SPUR AND LENGTH OF THE PREVIOUS SEASON'S GROWTH Data are presented in tables 18 and 19 (pages 65 and 66) indicating that spurs making a relatively short growth during the season previous to the one in which they bear flowers are less likely to set fruit than spurs making a longer growth. Is there any relation between such length growth and the weight of the new spur growth arising from the terminal bud? In a study of this question the flower-bearing spurs from several Bald- win limbs were divided into two lots. One lot consisted of spurs from buds terminating more than one centimeter of 1915 growth; in the other lot, the spurs were from buds terminating less than one centimeter of 1915 growth. The total weight of each lot and the average weight of the spurs are given in table 26: TABLE 26. RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT OF THE SPUR AND LENGTH OF THE PREVIOUS SEASON’S GROWTH Spurs making more than 1| Spurs making less than I centimeter growth during centimeter growth during previous season previous season Variety Branch? pana, Sra Num- | Total | Average} Num- Total | Average ber of | weight | weight | ber of | weight | weight spurs | (grams) | (grams)| spurs | (grams) | (grams) Baldiwata ser. 2 I 75 199.6 2.66 59 83.1 TaevAcr Balciwittyess tet... 2 15 33.5 223 53 94.0 Le 77 IBaldiwanlanerae 5. ser 3 10 16.8 1.68 27 29.8 1.10 BAG hehe ecco che 4 129 402.0 Boe 122 143.0 ety AT oct aes Sete. || 5 sieceks ween 229 | 651.9 2.85 261 349.9 1.34 The figures indicate that spurs making a relatively long growth during the preceding year will produce heavier and more vigorous buds in the following year than those making a short growth. That the spurs arising from buds terminating several centimeters of a given season’s growth are more vigorous than spurs arising from buds on short spur-growth, may be observed even before the individual flower buds open (fig. 3). It should not be assumed, however, that vigorous buds are produced only on relatively long growth and that spurs making a short growth are always weak. Cases in which the reverse conditions obtain are occa- sionally found. Nevertheless, the length of spur growth produced during the previous season forms a very convenient and satisfactory guide to the vigor of a spur, and the best criterion for a probable set is found in this character. 185 72 BULLETIN 393 The advantages of having a basis for estimating the probable set are numerous. FIG. 3. SPURS OF DIFFERENT VIGOR Lower figure, a typical vigorous spur of the variety Tompkins King; upper figure, a spur below medium in vigor, of the same variety. The spurs were obtained just before the flower buds opened. The num- ber of flowers (A, A’), the number and size of the leaves, and the length of the preceding year’s spur growth (B, B’), may be compared. (4 natural size) LEAVES AND FLOWERS ON limb on a Tompkins King tree. spurs on the limb were considered. The weights of the spurs show a relation to the For example, plant breeders working on the apple might save considerable time and secure a higher percentage of set if they confined their work of cross-pollination to the vigorous, many-flowered spurs that have made sev- eral centimeters growth during the preced- ing season. RELATION BETWEEN WEIGHT OF THE NEW SPUR GROWTH AND DIAMETER OF THE CONDUCTING TISSUE In cutting off the spur growth just pre- vious to weighing, it was observed that the diameter of the cylinder of conducting tissue varied between 1 and 2.5 millimeters (fig. 4). Closer inspection showed that the spurs with conducting tissue of large di- ameter had a greater leaf surface than spurs with conducting tissue of smaller di- ameter. The weights of new spur growth, together with the di- ameters of the con- ducting tissue of the spurs, are given in table 27. The material used was from a large All flower-bearing diameters of the cylinders of conducting tissue. The smaller the conducting tissue is in diameter, the lighter is the new spur growth. It should be noted that spurs with conducting tissue of large diameter are sometimes produced from buds that were terminal to less than one cen- timeter of spur growth. In all such cases, however, the spurs are large, in accordance with the preced- ing data. FIG. 4. CONDUCTING CYLINDERS IN SPURS OF DIFFERENT VIGOR Cross section of a vigor- ous spur, below, and of a moderately vigorous spur above. A, pith; B, xylem (conducting tissue); C, cor- tex. The section was ob- tained just above the ring of scars. Outline from ca- mera lucida drawing. X 6 Likewise, when spurs show relatively small conducting-tissue cylinders, they are usually light in weight even tho they arise from buds terminal to several centimeters growth. 186 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 43 TABLE 27. RELATION BETWEEN DIAMETER OF CONDUCTING TISSUE AND WEIGHT OF SPUR Number Total Average Relative diameter of conducting tissue of weight weight spurs (grams) (grams) Sa aGh tS triin at paresis keeps ~ 4 ts Ressterg. est = 74 TIOW7 1.50 IMigclignan (TCO santa Ne Soe de Ono cy Gece moa Solel 112 276.4 2.47 1 BUSUE: ((2aei geese ceo 2) aks AN RE See ea area 39 127.45 BeOF RELATION BETWEEN DIAMETER OF CONDUCTING TISSUE AND WEIGHT OF SPURS, FROM LIMBS HAVING A LIGHT BLOOM AND FROM THOSE HAVING A FULL BLOOM As previously shown, the percentage of fruit set on limbs with rela- tively few flower-bearing spurs is greater than on limbs with an abundant bloom. It has been seen that heavy spurs have a greater tendency to set fruit than weak spurs, and that there is a relation between the weight of the spur and the diameter of the conducting cylinder in the spur. Are the spurs on limbs with a light bloom, heavier and more vigorous than the spurs on limbs with a full-bloom? If so, is the conducting tissue of greater diameter in the former spurs than in the latter? These questions are answered by the data in table 28. Lot 1 consisted of all flower-bearing spurs from a limb on a Baldwin tree, and lot 2 of spurs from limbs on an Autumn Strawberry tree. Only twenty-five spurs from the limbs with a full bloom, and twenty-five from the ones with a light bloom, were considered in the latter case.’ TABLE 28. RELATION BETWEEN DIAMETER OF CONDUCTING TISSUE AND WEIGHT oF Spurs, FROM Limss HAvING A LIGHT BLOOM AND FROM THOSE HAVING A HEAVY BLOOM Spurs from limbs ech Spurs from limbs with a light bloom a heavy bloom Lot Relative diameter ee ee of conducting tissue Number | Average | Number | Average of weight of weight spurs (grams) spurs (grams) Syaaeilll (an S i0niane)ie os howc cen se 7. 2.06 49 1.50 I Medium (1.6-2 mm.).......... 34 3.09 56 Dany Avarge: (C512) 5, WU.) cc 2c) ues 2 5 14 4.01 20 3.10 Mo tales. se Riepeie, oy Series 55 3.20 125 ee ian Sano ae 5 1.84 7 Ws 2 | Met BEt Grace aS ROLES 16 2.53 II es WAT Crags as kae tie te cv stones ioe te sic, cit 4, 3.38 7 2.63 Motallys tee), £onevahee aiken: 25 2.53 25 2.19 74 BULLETIN 393 The figures show that limbs with a light bloom have heavier spurs than limbs with a heavy bloom, and that spurs with conducting tissue of a given diameter taken from the former limbs weigh more than spurs with conducting tissue of the same diameter taken from the latter limbs. The leaves produced on spurs from limbs with a light bloom have a notice- ably greater area than those produced on spurs which have conducting tissue of equal diameter but which were taken from limbs with a heavy bloom. The average leaf surface of several equally vigorous spurs ob- tained from these two sources was 125.34 and 86.51 square centimeters, respectively. The leaf area was measured by a planimeter. RELATION BETWEEN WATER SUPPLY, LEAF AREA, AND PUSHING OF BUDS It is generally understood that an abundant supply of water is a factor in producing large leaves. This was demonstrated by the following simple experiment. A number of dormant apple twigs were divided into two similar lots. The cut ends of the twigs were placed in beakers containing water. In one lot the cuts were renewed every few days and in the other lot they were renewed only seldom. The leaves of the former twigs were noticeably larger than those of the latter. .This difference in size may be ascribed to the more abundant water supply obtained by the leaves on the twigs that had their cut ends frequently renewed. A more elaborate experiment, which involved the forcing of water into the cut ends of the twigs, likewise indicated that there was a relation between the leaf surface and the water supply. The details of the appa- ratus used for this demonstration are shown in fig. 5. Tompkins King branches from three to four years old and approximately one meter long were used. The leaves on the twigs that had water forced into their bases were distinctly larger than those on untreated twigs. This experiment, which was carried on in duplicate and which was repeated several times, yielded other results that may be of interest at this point. The buds on the check twigs, which were standing in a jar of water, opened about a week before the buds on the twigs that received their water supply under pressure. The first buds to open on the latter twigs were the small ones on relatively weak spurs. The first vigorous buds to push were those nearest the tops of the twigs. Droplets of sticky material oozed from all of the larger buds, which were found at the end of several centimeters of the previous season’s growth. Similar exuda- tions were observed on less vigorous buds produced on spurs arising near the bases of the twigs. Apparently the delay in the pushing of buds was caused by excessive water pressure. The resistance encountered by the water passing thru 188 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE a meter of conducting tissue of the twig was apparently sufficient to reduce the pressure to a point at which bud- pushing could occur; hence, the first vigor- ous buds to open were those nearest the tops of the twigs. Weak spurs apparently offered greater resist- ance to the passage of water; hence, they pushed first because they were not over- supplied with water. It has been shown previously that vigor- ous, heavy spurs are usually provided with conducting tissue of comparatively large diameter. This experi- ment shows that the large, plump buds which produce the heavy spurs are more abundantly supplied with water than the smaller buds. The difference in leaf area between the vig- orous and the weak spurs is probably due, in part at least, to the difference in water sup- ply, or, more accu- rately, sap supply. The vigorous spurs have larger leaves than the weak spurs 75 FIG. 5. APPARATUS FOR FORCING WATER INTO THE ENDS OF TWIGS The pressure is supplied by a column of water three meters long. This column is maintained at approximately the same level by the water in the funnel, A, which is connected to the tube, C, by the union at B. The tube passes thru the cork, F. This cork is also provided with holes for the twigs, D. The twigs are from three to four years old and about one metér long. After these twigs and the tube have been inserted, the bottle, G, is filled with water. The cork is then flooded with warm paraffin. After this has become firm the pressure is applied. Check twigs are placed in the bottle H 189 70 BULLETIN 393 because they have a greater diameter of conducting tissue and hence can obtain more sap. It has been seen that the leaf area for spurs which have a conducting tissue of a given diameter and which were taken from limbs producing many flowers, is less than that for spurs with the same diameter of con- ducting tissue but taken from limbs producing few flowers. It the size of the leaves is an indication of the supply of sap that reaches the spur, it must be assumed that the former spurs are not so abundantly supplied as the latter even tho they have conducting tissue of the same diameter. It probably requires greater sap pressure to expand mixed buds, which contain both flowers and leaves, than is needed to push leaf buds. More- over, the petals of the flowers will transpire considerable moisture. It seems reasonable, therefore, to assume that limbs producing a heavy bloom will supply less sap to the individual spur than similar limbs which produce a light bloom. The spurs from the former limbs are not so likely to set fruit as those from the latter limbs. Can this be due to an inade- quate supply of sap? RELATION BETWEEN AMOUNT OF LATERAL GROWTH FROM THE FLOWER- BEARING SPUR, AND FRUITFULNESS OF THE SPUR The elongation of a spur that is producing flowers is dependent on the pushing of at least one lateral bud found on the current season’s spur growth (fig.1, page 51). Ina fewspurs the setting ofa fruit inhibits the for- mation of a lateral bud. In some cases lateral buds are formed, but they do not push until the following year; in other cases, as much as twenty- five centimeters lateral growth is produced by the fruiting spur. All gradations between these extremes are found. The lateral growth may begin even before the flowers have opened, and by the time the fruit sets such growth may be several centimeters long. Observations here showed that fruit-setting on spurs that had made from five to ten centi- meters of lateral growth was not uncommon. In fact it appeared that only a relatively small proportion of such spurs lost their fruit. The amount of lateral growth produced by setting and by non-setting spurs derived from the same limb was recorded in several cases. Data for a Baldwin limb are given in table 29. It is seen that fruit is borne on spurs that produce much lateral growth as well as on those that produce little growth. The average weight of the lateral growth is greater in the spurs that bear fruit than in those that lose their fruit. In other cases, the lateral growth produced by spurs taken from limbs that bore many fruits and from similar limbs that bore few fruits, was 190 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE vi TABLE 29. LATERAL SPUR GROWTH PRODUCED BY SETTING AND BY NON-SETTING SPURS FROM A BALDWIN LIMB Amount of lateral growth Produced by Produced by setting spurs non-setting spurs INIG aie abla Hainer ee or Oe cacioker oO Las ah eio setae nee 6 10 2) 1 GENTS acre RRR NERS Cac Ck AROS Ce ee 20 13 2A BE OS ie ae ile 2 pa ee Cte eC 20 14 ct WEERTESE cubits bw oye ROIS che Rao Ie ere ae eae 5 5 & GSM Neda vee. 6 asanlely oo tardred hic orem oe Otic CERNE I O Average weight of lateral growth............... 1.35 grams 0.79 gram Average weight of spurs minus lateral growth.... 2.39 grams 1.31 grams carefully examined. The results obtained with a pair of similar limbs from a Strawberry tree are recorded in table 30. One hundred of the largest spurs from each limb are considered. TABLE 30. LATERAL GROWTH PRODUCED BY LARGE FLOWER-BEARING SPURS, FROM LIMBS SETTING FEW AND FROM THOSE SETTING MANY FRUITS —_ ) Produced by Produced by Amount of lateral growth spurs from spurs from limbs setting limbs setting few fruits many fruits DUCA SPA CL rece et ee 5 ey RON CES Aer tne ate 24 12 AMIE A Srey actapath Mate eeane ae mye hepa euenere oie, bositsyenruds 42 23 OMA STCEMUMMELELS Sat oye Sse htt eed a lsoee a he ne 29 34 Sel TOLCentiumebersie, as Met fat ee! p3els 5 7 ROMIK 2 ONCEMUIMELERS: pte c hiis clicioteaeia ernie (0) 10 Owe? ZO. CAMMNEWS IS 60 doce dogo needa coor fo) 14 Average weight of lateral growth............... I.9I grams 3.70 grams According to the table, the spurs from the fruitful branches have a tendency to produce more lateral growth than those from the less fruitful limbs. The average weight of the lateral growth produced by the former spurs is almost double that produced by the latter. These figures indicate that fruit-setting is not opposed by vegetative activity as manifested by the amount of lateral spur growth. On the contrary, they suggest that the conditions which favor such growth are likewise favorable for the setting of fruit. One of the essential conditions for the forcing of the lateral buds is an abundant supply of sap. It is well known that heavy pruning of an apple tree during the dormant season stimulates the production of vigor- ous shoots from the remaining growing points. Such pruning disturbs the equilibrium between the top and the root systems, and as a result there is an abundant supply of food and water for vigorous top growth. IQI 78 BULLETIN 393 It should also be pointed out that the lateral buds on many flower-bearing spurs can be forced into growth by severe pruning of the branch that produces the spurs. It seems reasonable, therefore, to assume that such lateral spur growth is an indication of an abundant supply of sap. RELATION BETWEEN SAP SUPPLY AND FRUIT SETTING Several of the observations previously recorded have suggested that an adequate supply of sap to the individual spur is an important factor in the setting of fruit. The object of the following experiments was to determine whether the percentage of spurs that set fruit could be increased by increasing the sap supply, or decreased by reducing the sap supply, to the individual spurs. In the spring of 1916, large limbs, which were approximately five centi- meters in diameter at their bases and which had a full bloom, were selected in pairs. The members of such pairs either formed the arms of a Y or arose within a foot of each other from the same parent branch. It was necessary to have the limbs of a given pair as nearly alike as possible in vigor, exposure, bloom, and size, and for this reason the selection of suitable pairs was no easy task. In several cases one limb of a pair was sawed halfway thru near its base, and the second limb was left untreated or was pruned lightly by cutting out entire twigs containing both weak and vigorous buds. In other cases one limb was left unpruned and not sawed at its base, while the second limb had at least half the total number of branches removed. The object of sawing the branches at the base was to diminish the normal sap supply to the spurs on the limbs so treated. The aim of the severe pruning was to increase the flow of sap to the individual buds. The treatments were given just before the flowers opened. The results are recorded in table 31: TABLE 31. PERCENTAGE OF FLOWER-BEARING SPURS SETTING FRUIT ON LIMBS WITH INCREASED AND ON THOSE WITH DIMINISHED SAP SUPPLY Limbs with normal or increased Limbs with normal or diminished sap supply sap supply Lot Variety Pane Torres a CLS ee = = —]- = = = reat- Num- T er- reat- um- y er- ment of | ber of ah oe centage | ment of | ber of ee centage limb* spurs set limb* spurs set 1 | Tompkins King..... 2 qI 14 19.7 4 166 15 9.0 2 | Tompkins King..... Zi 71 22 31.0 I III 25 22.5 S5] Strawberry... Jee 2 350 131 B78 4 682 139 20.4 4 | Strawberry......... 2 767 226 20.5 4 1,445 344 23.8 Bil MAL WAM 3) cis: 4 statee bust, 6 3 II2 36 3207 I 143 31 SER 6s) Baldwin tc): oi. <2 5.2 ar 4 177 61 34.5 I 184 38 20.6 TENA EUCLID oats) shole os bs © 4 46 40 7.0 I 45 19 42.2 Gb SAG WAT 2h lave tere «ye 2 I19 82 68.9 4 145 17 5S08 *Treatments: i, treated limb sawed at base; 2, treated limb severely pruned; 3, treated limb slightly pruned; 4, limbs untreated. 192 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 79 In all cases the limbs that received relatively little sap had a smaller percentage of fruit-setting spurs than those recetving an abundant supply of sap. Ina case not recorded in the table, members of a pair of branches on a Strawberry tree were left untreated. One arm had 1064 flower- bearing spurs, and the other arm had 1155. The percentage of spurs setting fruit was 22 for the former and 22.2 for the latter. The untreated limbs in lots 3 and 4, table 31, produced fruit on 20.4 and 23.8 per cent, respectively, of their spurs. These figures would seem to indicate that the range of variation in the percentage set is only slight when large numbers of spurs are involved. As previously shown, the lateral growth produced by a flower-bearing spur may be taken as an index to the sap supply to that spur. In order to determine whether the treatments given had the desired effect of increasing or decreasing the sap supply, the lateral spur growth was carefully examined in each case. The analyses of the lateral growth produced by fifty of the largest flower-bearing spurs from a pruned branch and an equal number from an unpruned branch of a Strawberry tree are recorded in table 32: TABLE 32. LATERAL GROWTH PRODUCED BY FLOWER-BEARING SPURS FROM A PRUNED BRANCH AND FROM AN UNPRUNED BRANCH Produced by Produced by Amount of lateral growth spurs from spurs from pruned branch* |unpruned brancht PRCA VES A SiR pent oA es Fuh 0. dbvirys should «ago, d 5 17 Soa CANES RES, Ae Ay MR ascetic side atighereg ats sg 6 19 Oss=Si centimeters yee eka See Ae 12 31 10 Rae TOPCEM UIMNCLCES a hateuts blots “yt odin oichs ad ey-Aa ey 4 2 er eRONCeN PUM CLe Ss calistyte ct wn\s ls aicishe a elain sus 4 I Average weight of lateral growth............... 2.68 grams 1.90 grams * 37.4 per cent of the flower-bearing spurs produced fruit. + 20.4 per cent of the flower-bearing spurs produced fruit. The spurs from the pruned branch made a more vigorous lateral growth than those from the unpruned branch. This indicates that the pruning actually increased the amount of sap available for each spur on the treated branch. The observations made in the remaining cases showed that the limbs which set most fruit to the hundred spurs also produced the most vigorous lateral spur growth. The percentages of large and of small spurs setting fruit on the limbs that received relatively little sap to the spur, and on those that received relatively much sap to the spur, are recorded in table 33. The spurs were classed as large if they were produced from buds that were terminal 13 193 80 BULLETIN 393 to one or more centimeters of the previous season’s spur growth; if the spur growth was less than one centimeter, the spurs were classed as small. TABLE 33. PERCENTAGE OF LARGE AND OF SMALL SPURS SETTING FRUIT ON LIMBS WITH DIMINISHED AND ON THOSE WITH INCREASED SAP SUPPLY Large spurs Small spurs Lot Variety Diminished ae pee Diminished Increased Bost 3 i sap supply,} 4 sap supply, 1 oe percent- Supe centage percent- supp ys centag t percent- gain > t percent- gain SPP ee age set eee age set 1 | Tompkins King .. 25.0 26.1 Lea 6.8 16.6 9.8 2 | Tompkins King .. 28.6 50.0 | 21.4 22.1 28.6 6.5 Bi StraWwDeLtys.- oe a 47.1 50.7 BO 18.4 22.0 3.6 4 | Strawberry....... 27a 51.9 14.8 ides Bey 19.6 5) Baldwin? ss. .4! 27S 50.0 a7 7.9 20.6 1287 GnleBaldwinkern. re 38.0 62.0 24.0 9.7 25-7 16.0 ale Baldwin ere eee 48 .3 SHR) 2X0). Bi 84.6 53.4 Si |eBaldwin . 74.27... 82.1 85.1 BLO 10 48.1 35-0 More fruit was produced on the large spurs than on the small spurs, as would be expected from previously recorded observations. The small spurs, as well as the large ones, are benefited by an increased supply of sap, as is indicated by the percentage gain. The term sap, as used in the preceding paragraphs, has reference primarily to the watery solution taken up by the roots. No doubt some of the organic food stored in the roots, and in the trunk and the main limbs of the tree, would find its way into this solution before it reached the spur. It would be difficult to state definitely which was the more beneficial to the set of fruit —the water or the food material that it contained in solution. The fact that the vigorous spurs have a larger number of leaves and flowers than the weaker spurs, in itself suggests that the buds in which they were formed were well supplied with organic food. Muller-Thurgau (1898) has shown that many fruits are borne on limbs that have been girdled, while untreated limbs on the same tree with equally heavy blooms set relatively few fruits. Chandler (1913) has demonstrated that the sap derived from the cortex and the bark of girdled apple twigs is much denser than sap from similar limbs receiving no treatment. Gourley (1915) shows that more food is stored in fruiting than in non-fruiting spurs. There can be little doubt that an abundance of stored food is one of the factors favoring the setting of fruit. On the other hand, it must be borne in mind that heavy spurs usually have a large diameter of conducting tissue, which insures a good sap supply. Furthermore, the observations recorded above indicate that an abundant 194 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 8 =) supply of sap to spurs inadequately provided with storage tissue increases the ability of such spurs to set fruit. FRUIT SETTING AS INFLUENCED BY VARYING AMOUNTS OF LEAF SURFACE ON THE FLOWER-BEARING SPUR As previously shown, limbs with small leaves have a smaller proportion of fruitful spurs than similar limbs with large leaves. The area of the leaf surface seems to be closely correlated with the vigor, or weight, of the spur, which in turn shows a relation to the diameter of the cylinder of conducting tissue thru which the sap reaches the developing spur. The leaves might have several effects: they might assist in drawing water to the spur — the “pulling power of transpiration’’; they might provide increased nourishment for the developing tissue; they might prove - detrimental during conditions favoring incipient drying, by actually withdrawing moisture from the young flower or fruit. (Chandler, rors). In order to gain some information regarding the influence of the bud leaves on the setting of fruit, the following experiments were carried out: In the first experiment, a number of pairs of similarly located and equally vigorous spurs were selected. The vigor of the spurs was determined by the amount of leaf surface, and also by noting the length of the previous season’s growth. The spurs of each pair were taken from the same parent branch and from points within a few inches of each other. Vigorous spurs only were selected because previous obser- vations had shown that such spurs have the greatest tendency to set fruit. The importance of having spurs of similar location and vigor is obvious. One spur of each pair was entirely defoliated, while the other served as a check, receiving no treatment. The leaves on the former were removed just before the blossoms opened in the spring of 1916. The set of fruit on the spurs was determined during the latter part of August. Unfortunately, many pairs had to be discarded because of aphid injury. Only healthy spurs were considered. The data are recorded in table 34. The figures indicate that some of the defoliated spurs bear fruit, but the percentage of these is very much less than in the case of normal spurs. The high percentage of fruitful spurs recorded for the latter class reflects the influence of vigor. uae The object of the next experiment was to determine the effect of partial and of complete defoliation of flower-bearing spurs on the setting of fruit. Several lots, each consisting of three similarly located and equally vigorous spurs, were selected. Asa rule, vigorous spurs have from seven to ten first, or bud, leaves. One spur in each lot served as a check; the 195 82 BULLETIN 393 TABLE 34. PERCENTAGE OF NORMAL AND OF DEFOLIATED SPURS BEARING FRUIT Normal spurs Defoliated spurs Variety and ee Total Number |Percent-] Total Number | Percent- number set age set | number set age set Baldwins. £. 16 14 87.5 16 6 sas Baldwin, 235... II II 100.0 II 6 54-5 Bald winwaee. 5 a. 32 23 71.9 a2 12 3725 Motale ..f5.s oe 59 48 81.4 59 24 40.7 Tompkins King, I.. 42 23 54.8 42 2 4.8 Tompkins King, 2. . 52 19 36.5 52 5 9.6 Tompkins King, 3.. 43 23 53-5 43 10 23.3 Ota ees Pie 137 65 47.4 137 17 12.4 second spur had all but two leaves removed; the third spur was entirely defoliated. The defoliation was done before the flowers: opened in the spring of 1916. The set of fruit was determined during late August. Again many spurs were infested with aphids’and had to be discarded. The data are recorded in table 35: TABLE 35. PERCENTAGE OF NORMAL, OF PARTIALLY DEFOLIATED, AND OF COM- PLETELY DEFOLIATED SPURS SETTING FRUIT Spurs with all but two leaves removed Defoliated spurs Normal spurs Variety 7 Total | Num-| Per- | Total| Num-| Per- | Total | Num-| Per- num-| ber | cent-|num-| ber | cent- | num-| ber | cent- ber set jage set] ber set |age set] ber set jage set Baldwin sot. a..ca hk 32 7 a me) 32 |u* 22. ).6828 32 12h San Tompkins King... .. 51 LO" 37" 3 52 18 | 34.6 52 5 9.6 ANS 2 Mies RIE 83 42 | 50.6| 84 40 | 47.6 84 17 sheeose The figures show that spurs with two leaves set approximately as well as spurs with all leaves. The presence of a small amount of leaf surface apparently offsets the harmful effects of entire defoliation. Many spurs set more than one fruit. The percentage of such spurs in defoliated and in check lots is given in table 36. The normal spurs, as might be expected, are more likely to produce two fruits than are defoli- ated spurs. The percentage of spurs setting more than one fruit is three times as great in the case of the untreated spurs as in the defoliated lot. 196 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 83 -TABLE 36. NUMBER OF FRUITS TO THE SPUR ON NORMAL AND ON DEFOLIATED SPURS Number of spurs with re- spective number of fruits Number of fruits to the spur Normal Defoliated spurs spurs Ea ne) 6 otal aisie tna shoe meted A eatlt aware 35 21 et PR BRS Sl dR I De or EOS s 19 3 2 Rs RE 2 ern gare See ee arta 4 ) Percentage of spurs setting more than one fruit.......... 39-7 12.5 These results are interesting because they show that a small leaf surface in itself, such as is found on spurs on weak limbs or on those with a heavy bloom, is not accountable for a poor set of fruit. The data at hand do not afford an adequate explanation for the results obtained. On the basis of observations and experiments presented later, however, it seems reasonable to assume that the leaves favor fruit-setting on vigorous spurs because they assist in drawing sap to the fruit. INFLUENCE OF SUNLIGHT ON THE SETTING OF FRUIT In order to learn whether or not a variety is self-sterile, cross-pollination is prevented by inclosing the flower spurs in sacks. According to Ewert (1907), such treatment subjects the inclosed spurs to unnatural conditions which may be unfavorable for the setting of fruit. The object of the following experiments was to determine the effect of excluding sunlight on the setting of fruit. Some vigorous spurs were inclosed in brown opaque paper bags, and some in white translucent paper bags. Only the most vigorous spurs were inclosed, and for each spur inclosed in a translucent sack a similar spur arising from the same parent branch was inclosed in an opaque sack. The spurs were sacked in the spring of 1916, before the clusters of flowers had separated. The set of fruit was determined in late summer. Unfor- tunately a large number of the sacked spurs had to be discarded because of aphid work. The data obtained, however, are very suggestive. They are recorded in table 37, in which it is seen that over twice as many spurs set fruit in the translucent sacks as in the opaque sacks. The following notes may be of interest: On May 17, 1916, the flowers in the opaque bags had white petals, and all flowers in the cluster were open; the flowers in the translucent bags had pink petals, and were some- what further advanced than the flowers in exposed clusters. The stigmas 197 84 BULLETIN 393 TABLE 37. Set oF FRuIT ON Spurs INCLOSED IN OPAQUE BAGS AND ON Spurs INCLOSED IN TRANSLUCENT BaGs Spurs inclosed in opaque | Spurs inclosed in translu- . bags cent bags Variety Branch |2—__—_. Total | Num- | Percent-} Total Num- | Percent- number | ber set | age set | number | ber set | age set isis. cts er I 25 7 25 II 44.0 28.0 iBaldiwinler cere -.- - 2 19 3 15.8 19 14 Water) Motaleetc £48 cell spaeesaes 44 10 22.7 44 25 56.8 on all inclosed flowers were green; those on exposed flowers had a reddish tinge, even before the petals unfolded. The leaves on all the inclosed spurs were smaller than those on the exposed spurs. At the time when the fruit-setting spurs were counted, it was observed that there was a tendency for fruit in the translucent sacks to attain the June-drop size before it fell, whereas in the opaque sacks the fruit fell when very small. All the flowers in the experiment were self-pollinated if polli- nated at all. The figures indicate that exposure to sunlight is an added advantage in fruit setting. The results agree with those of Lubimenko (1908), who finds that illumination is essential during the early stages of development of young fruit. Inclosing the spurs in bags inhibits the free circulation of air, and trans- piration is probably reduced as a result. The air temperature in the brown bags would be higher than that in the white bags on sunny days. The diffused light in the translucent sacks would be sufficient for some photosynthetic activity, while practically all light is excluded from the opaque sacks. The leaves in the former, being exposed to light, would probably have greater osmotic properties than those in the dark (Chand- ler, 1913). The advantage of having leaves with the greater osmotic properties would be that more sap would tend to flow in the direction of the spurs which produce such leaves. This sap would be available for the setting of fruit. RELATION BETWEEN SEED FORMATION AND FRUIT DEVELOPMENT It is commonly supposed that the apples which are poorly fertilized and which consequently develop few seeds, tend to fall off during the June drop. That there is a close relation between seed formation and fruit development is shown in the following paragraphs. 198 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 85 Number of seeds in fruit that sets and in fruit that drops The drop apples have fewer seeds on the average than are found in the average fruit that remains on the tree, as shown by the representative data in table 38: TABLE 38. AVERAGE NUMBER OF SEEDS IN Fruit THAT DROPS AND IN FRUIT THAT REMAINS: ON THE TREE Drop fruit Attached fruit Variet Average Average iia od Number | number of | Number | number of of fruits seeds to of fruits seeds to the fruit the fruit Balcones =e oe haem ees Toe 48 3.38 47 4.47 RnocenlGlariGleen asco: ct arose rage en 66 B50 29 6.43 Miaidenpelusht) ti enon atte ac, Jee 65 3.94 66 6.28 The number of seeds found in individual fruits that have fallen and in individual fruits taken from the tree are given in table 39. The column on the left contains the number of seeds to the fruit. The figures in the other columns give the number of fruits showing the respective number of seeds. It is seen that many attached fruits have relatively few seeds and some drops have a highseed content. This suggests that other factors, in addition to fertilization or pollination, are responsible for the set of fruit. TABLE 39. NUMBER OF SEEDS IN Fruit THAT Drops AND IN Fruit THAT REMAINS ON THE TREE Baldwin Rhode Island Maiden Blush Number of seeds to the fruit Attached| Drop |Attached| Drop |Attached| Drop fruit fruit fruit fruit fruit fruit op otc mee Gio n are aro beeen eral ta Bacon DN sro 5a 6 I 3 D3 a 5 Ge OEM: inte ee aCe 5 TG" | Reese 13 4 17 Be epae apenas, toes ace Ree 9 12 4 18 9 17 hi 6S OTE SPOT AS OLED CO he 9 7 I 9 7 8 Sorc GecrenelD OS cae ao paren 14 4 5 15 4 6 Oe bs te Po AER DEES manrytier 6 6 5 2 10 7 5 OS rote Se RE ee Se 3 (0) 5 I 10 3 Sets erciay 2 pra h Aaet eens I I 6 2 II 4 Oye i nyt a Fore iO Diiecde ate cl learners ia hp cho cool et Reveevorone GY lectin tte TIO) ee bas ARO Se 1S cc Radice HSMN luce (ecchcL oa a | ee Bere Bia Sted tl es TCS ESP SS Sater este CER ore el emeencee coy Be Fagsctais Ee a ievatg Oi bigs a? sno aie, Nome ef Recut pl ener, A ec PAM AL | DOE kgs Bol nace onl (eaira etre iy Waseve +, sere i TA ae te Ee Ad OU AU RRR I Ware cre Can eal Meenas ca | dee eluents 86 BULLETIN 393 Osterwalder (1907 a) examined the seeds in fruit that had fallen from the tree. He found that sixty-five per cent of these contained embryos, while about seventy-five per cent of the seeds in the fruit that remained on the tree contained embryos. Relation between number of seeds and size of fruits Miuller-Thurgau (1898) has studied the relation between the number of seeds and the size of berry in the grape. For eighteen varieties of grapes he finds the following averages: Weight of flesh of 100 seedless grapes, 42.8 grams Weight of flesh of 100 1-seeded grapes, 144.0 grams Weight of flesh of 100 2-seeded grapes, 209.3 grams Weight of flesh of 100 3-seeded grapes, 253.9 grams He also presents data indicating that a similar relation exists in the case of apples and pears, and his results are substantiated by Ewert. The general law, that the more are the seeds the larger is the apple, is illus- trated by the figures in table 40. These data were obtained in 1915 from trees in the experiment station orchard at Cornell. TABLE 40. NUMBER OF SEEDS AND SIZE OF FRUITS | Maiden Blush Baldwin Number of seeds to the lide. err fruit Number | diam son Number AY aeee of fruits (milli- of fruits 8 (grams) | meters) 1 Pes BORGES HO Chcuch tons SL OUR CISION EXD eee 2 8.0 2 2.98 Dien wa eotysnaherco,sckelss ca seleasyeueus bates fapelsrcl ates eolks 16 10.5 4 2327 CUE NN ali Ae aie ee eles Sn YT TERT eh 27 I1.9 5 3.60 7 CRRA Ch AES oho ie tO E RCS Sos Sor 10 132 II 4.84 Bee ote « APIO Re dhe. s Seoeiat cs ore Seegeteing Bees Se 5 14.6 5 5.47 (Thauct Sec NANG a NSIGeNt SC CRRRE INEM, cts 6 16.8 9 6.53 TINE ee RAE TE TGS ORE Rate aoe 3 THe) ae he Leia oe SAREE UE yee te: So cre Re ee 2 DOA B i pet. ee Sect al ae eee As CRS RIESE. eg nen ae en 2 TO)Ocb | oosi.c cocks 6 oll eye ee This relation, being based on averages, will naturally not cover all cases. During preliminary observations, few-seeded apples were found which were as large as many-seeded fruits, and not infrequently even larger. Further study showed that in a number of cases the relatively small fruit with many seeds was associated with a small spur. This sug- gested that the vigor of the spur, as determined by its weight, might be 200 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 87 a factor, together with the number of seeds, in determining the size of the fruit. Accordingly, accurate weights of several hundred spurs, together with the weight of the fruit borne on these spurs and the number of seeds contained in each fruit, were recorded. The weighings were made during July of rors and July of 1916. The data obtained in this way are analyzed from several points of view in the following paragraphs. Size of fruit constant, number of seeds varying.— In the cases recorded in table 41, the fruits in each lot are approximately constant in weight but the number of seeds varies. It should be mentioned that the fruits ‘in each Jot were produced on the same branch. The branches were approximately ten years old and measured about one and one-half centi- meters in diameter at their bases. TABLE 41. WEIGHT oF FRUIT CONSTANT, NUMBER OF SEEDS AND WEIGHT OF SPURS VARYING Weight Number Weight Lot Variety of fruit | of seedsto} of spurs (grams) the fruit (grams) | ed Ty eeRom plein s'Keinor ga so aes sens Ses eet 14.95 2 5-54 14.72 4 5-95 14.86 6 Pe 13.30 7 1.98 2 Pe Momap kits KT be sess cette asst 6 Sis A 16.05 2 2aG7 16.96 6 1.45 Shiedompkinsubeinop err wes eee oie ot ee thee ees 30.96 3 6.09 31.68 6 3.75 Aaa erareiketias: Wet, Wace ts 2.5 olor 'ae) a, wiz bie v ots,v 3 95.90 2 5.05 97 .10 4 2.40 node Islander Howes tees Se see eases eae 25.58 3 4.86 25.31 8 2.28 GEieVWestheldt topped ne ous cet eere ce ree ne 21.64 5 22 21 .87 8 aul If the weights of the spurs that bore the few-seeded fruits are compared with the weights of those that bore the many-seeded fruits, it is seen that in all cases the vigor was greater in the spurs bearing the few-seeded fruits. In other words, the smaller the spur, the greater is the number of seeds required to produce a fruit of a given size. Weight of spur constant, number of seeds varying.— The weight of spurs in each group is approximately constant in the cases recorded in table 42. The number of seeds in the fruits borne by these spurs varies. In each lot, as before, the spurs were prodi-ced on the same parent branch. 20L 88 Io II 2 13 NS nn hn AN on QW own Dw Ww un mO COMwW “IW Uw “IQ _ Ny Weight of fruit (grams) BULLETIN 393 TABLE 42. WEIGHT OF SPUR CONSTANT, NUMBER OF SEEDS AND \ EIGHT OF FRUIT VARYING Weight Variety of spur (grams) AROMA PRAMS 2) cs. norte one M PRN rece eke 4.76 4.65 MOMPRANS NING /.- Cece eee Bee wee ae 3.38 3.40 MOMpPKANS Kang. a: Meee eye isesee aS shee 3.51 3-53 Momplens JK aise. 2.) 9. sce Awe oie cis Pinte 1.54 1.60 Tomplans King 4:).)....2oie, eee ee 4.31 4-34 Mompiins Bitip wes en 4. ole un cares cohen peas 4.87 4.90 MOPS SAARE Ao eine tess a etn tate eee oe ee BcA1 3.40 Momiplcins Hime ek Teer. Set eae sek a eee 4.60 4.90 SANA. os oe COE ce Sok olep cia then epee hee vate 247. 2.47 Baldlwitis:. 2-00 cok. ce ct sak eo omtraca coger 3.47 3-55 alway. Siege Bits es shes ithes se encase onl ee 2.48 2.47 Bald win i poh BRC e e cahts cratnctinn tice oes 4.51 4.56 pal wit < cia BERe ER ye eet eisioseccqunsele Giey veniene Bars 3-74 Baldwink Seek. w i. eer oee ee meee ee eke 3.63 3.61 Baldwins rerio hak teh ck eee Bead 2.43 Wiestitel iain anne tout cyst tors bt ee epee ieee 2.28 Dic2A 221 2.26 Dee? Hallawatersis.. (eee. vee ine Rien 64 .65 on ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 89 The data show that when the weight of the spur is constant, the size of the fruit varies with the number of seeds. In other words, the size of the fruit is determined chiefly by the vigor of the spur and the seed content of the fruit. Weight of spur constant, number of seeds constant, size of embryo varying.— Theoretically, according to one interpretation of the above hypothesis, if spurs of approximately equal vigor are chosen which bear fruits con- taining the same number of seeds, the fruits borne on these spurs should be approximately equal in weight. Or, stated in a different way, if the fruits vary in size while the seed number remains the same in each, a difference would be found in the vigor of the spurs producing these fruits, and furthermore one would expect to find the largest apple on the most vigorous spur. That these theoretical results are not always obtained may be seen from the examples in table 43: TABLE 43. WEIGHTs OF Fruits HAVING THE SAME NUMBER OF SEEDS, AND WEIGHTS OF THE SPURS THAT BEAR THE FRUITS Number | Weight Weight Lot Variety of of fruit of spur seeds (grams) (grams) PM Enid a tin Pet he Me A oe 4 6.37 4.28 4 6.24 3.20 DE pealdwintrrr is un Waa he sce N eed ceslereio Sas 4 5.12 3.55 4 5.07 1.90 LOT Picts tO ot! FG eet Sores Ga oe 2 ea ess 6 41.90 2.54 6 29 . 86 2.59 These data seem to disprove the existence of a direct relation between size of fruit, vigor of spur, and number of seeds. The emphasis, however, is to be placed on seed content rather than mere number of seeds. In studying the seeds, one cannot help noticing marked differences in the size of the seeds in given fruits. The embryos in the seeds likewise show considerable variation. The embryo is readily dissected from the seed by placing the seed flatwise between the thumb and the forefinger, with the lateral edge upward, cutting the edge with a sharp scalpel, and pressing the embryo out of the seed coat. In several cases the number of embryos found in the seeds of a given fruit and the length of the individual embryo were recorded, along with the weight of the fruit and the weight of the spur on which the fruit was borne. These data are given in table 44. The figures under the column headed Length of embryo show the number of seeds in each fruit and the length in millimeters of the embryo in each seed; for example, 203 go BULLETIN 393 6-5-5 indicates that the fruit contained three seeds, which in turn con- tained embryos measuring six, five, and five millimeters, respectively. The fruits in the different lots are arranged in order of their weight. The weights of the spurs bearing the fruit are also given. The fruits in each lot were produced on the same branch. TABLE 44. WEIGHT OF FRUIT, WEIGHT OF SPUR, AND LENGTH OF EMBRYO Weight Weight Length of Lot Variety of fruit of spur embryo (grams) (grams) (millimeters) re |PRA Noy aay oy fatal Glave S a og wok cae Oy Lowe 7700 3.60 6-5-5 69 .00 5.68 7-7-5 68.25 62525 (Ss 65.31 6.71 roe 2.20 2.45 7-7-6 Brie Bald win ne iz a Sh chen ew eee OE ree 37.58 4.55 7-7-7 35-2 3-63 7-42 33-95 3-53 lee 33-72 3-16 7 31.97 3-75 imme 30.86 2.93 iat ae 2001 3.85 6-5-3 26.42 2.62 Futian RUPP MG WAT:. fics. Sates als Jalon re eee ee 42.84 3.76 8-7-7-7-6-4-I 41.84 6.06 8-7-6-5-3-I-O AI 7a ais 8-7-6-6-6-4-2 40.28 3-43 y fae bead (aor 38.13 1.97 9-8-]-1 aad 3.48 1-1 ASee | 35-63 The data show that in most cases the size of the fruit can be accounted for by taking into consideration the weight of the spur and the length of the embryos in the seeds. The fruit with the longest embryos will ‘usually be the heaviest if it is borne on the most vigorous spur. A fruit may attain a good size on a relatively small spur if its seeds contain large embryos. Conversely, a:small fruit borne on a large spur is the result of a small embryo. In this connection it should be noticed that a small spur may produce a large fruit, and a large spur a relatively small fruit. These facts afford additional evidence to show that the weight of the spur is not markedly influenced early in the season by the fruit borne on it. That exceptions are found to the general rule is not surprising. One could hardly expect that a single measurement would tell all about the possibilities of the embryos for fruit formation. Some embryos are plumper than others even tho they are of the same length. Some have 204 a + ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE gi different shapes. Furthermore, they vary in color, some being ivory white, others yellowish, others hyaline in appearance. All this suggests a difference in quality, such as might result from cross-pollination, for example. Number .of seeds and seed value.— As shown above, the seed value as expressed by the length of the embryo may vary in the different fruits even tho the number of seeds is the same. It is entirely possible that a many-seeded fruit may have a seed value which is below the normal for that number. It may be equal to, and in some cases even less than, the seed value of a fruit with few seeds. Such an assumption is borne out by the fact that in a Jarge number of three-seeded Baldwin fruits, seventy per cent of the embryos were above medium length — five milli- meters — while in many-seeded fruits of the same variety only about fifty per cent of the embryos were large. If the ratio of the weight of the spur to the weight of the fruit is greater in a few-seeded fruit than in a many-seeded fruit borne on a similarly located spur of equal weight, one would be justified in assuming that the seed value of the latter fruit was below normal]. A specific case may be taken for example as follows: Weight Weight Number of seeds of spurs of fruit (grams) (grams) Lyd & Sig EI a eee I eel sen 2205 49.1 ME Mae on ee ee le ate) cata, de, woe eee os 2.00 44.3 Poe Buca ie Beat, Birr eae an gear aae Are 2.00 62.7 These spurs were borne on the same twig and they produced their fruits under similar external conditions so far as could be seen. Obviously, the five-seeded fruit that weighs only 44.3 grams has a seed value below normal. This seed value is equivalent to that of a few-seeded fruit. There may be found a fruit weighing less than 49 grams which nevertheless has a high seed value. Such a fruit, however, would be on a spur weighing less than two grams; thus, a fruit with four seeds, weighing 35.5 grams, was produced on a spur that weighed one gram. It therefore becomes necessary to modify the general statement that the size of fruit is proportional to the number of seeds. It would be more nearly accurate to say that the vigor of the individual spur and the seed value of the individual fruit determine the size of the fruits derived from the same limb and borne under otherwise similar conditions. This statement includes the prominent part played by the spur, and it also emphasizes seed value rather than number of seeds. It is, of course, very necessary to choose spurs borne under otherwise similar conditions, as is shown later. 205 g2 BULLETIN 393 Relation between seed value, weight of spur, and set of fruit That the vigor, or weight, of the flower-bearing spur is an important factor in determining whether the flowers will set fruit, has been suggested by data previously recorded. Figures have likewise been presented which show that the drop apples contain fewer seeds than the fruit that remains on the tree. This indicates that the number of seeds, which presupposes effective pollination, likewise plays a part in determining the set of fruit. Since, then, the smaller spurs are more likely to lose their fruit than the larger, and since the average number of seeds is less in the drops than in the setting fruit, it is apparent that most of the few-seeded drops were borne on small spurs. ° But, as has been shown, there are many fruits that remain on the tree even tho they have few seeds — less in some cases than are found in the average fruit that has dropped. According to the statements in the preceding paragraph, these few-seeded fruits would have fallen if they had been borne on relatively light spurs. Therefore it must be assumed that they were produced on vigorous spurs. Since relatively few fruits with many seeds are found among the drops, and since there is no basis for assuming that the flowers on less vigorous spurs will necessarily be poorly pollinated and hence develop few seeds, one might expect to find fruit with many seeds on relatively weak as well as on vigorous spurs. To account for the drops with many seeds it must be assumed, in order to be consistent, that these came from very weak spurs. Then, too, they might have a low seed value even tho their seed number is high. Stating this hypothesis in other words, few-seeded fruits, or, more accurately, fruits with a low seed value, are borne only on the heavier spurs, while many-seeded fruits, or those with a high seed value, may be borne on relatively light as well as on vigorous spurs. In order to test this hypothesis, the weights of several hundred spurs, together with the weights of the fruits borne on them and the number of seeds in each fruit, were obtained during late July and early August. The weight of spur includes all of the present season’s growth minus the lateral growth. The spurs were cut from the twig in the manner previously described (page 67). The spurs obtained from each twig or branch were divided into two lots, one containing the fruits with a high seed value and the other including the fruits with a low seed value. The determina-~ tion of the seed value of a fruit was based on the observations regarding the relation between number of seeds, vigor of spur, and size of fruit. These observations also afforded the suggestions for the study of the relation between number of seeds, size of spur, and set of fruit. The results are recorded in table 45: 200 ABSCISSION OF FLOWERS AND FRUITS OF THE APPLE 93 TABLE 45. WEIGHTS OF SPURS BEARING FRUIT WITH A LOW SEED VALUE AND OF THOSE BEARING FRUIT WITH A HIGH SEED VALUE Fruits with a low Fruits with a high seed value seed value Lot Variety Num-| Average | Average | Num-| Average | Average ber | weight of | weight of| ber | weight of |weight of of spurs fruit of spurs fruit spurs } (grams) | (grams) | spurs| (grams) | (grams) Tiga MES ALG WANS eta coceay ieee oes 24 3.46 20.33 17 278 46.39 Bulmpaldiwitte shyc. Nee. ee 14 3.56 30.94 8 2.73 39.08 alls aldwints. 25.0 Ay teste 16 3.91 33.28 Di 2.64 34.25 MTS EV hat Wie ae ee ae ee 25 B12 48.29 19 3.00 56.52 Se mbaldiwanis ts. 42-05 fe ee 12 3.56 20.11 8 2.60 23.81 Guleballawater cs .3) cid. 33 2.58 26.19 16 2.46 35.79 Falenodelsland:=.-+... 25. 15 4.33 23.89 13 4.39 31.16 8 | Tompkins King........ 7 3.95 26.62 3 2.36 31.30 On |p Lompkins Kongs 295. 6 4.49 2872 7 5.02 42.93 10 | Tompkins King........ 10 4.44 49.29 5 2.61 51.41 fae | eoompkine Kings .).0)..%. 10 4.78 65 .06 5 2.61 67.30 12 | Tompkins King........ 18 4.25 55-92 10 4.10 122.50 i Lompkins Kane. . 20... 32 2.92 13.80 19 2.05 16.78 14 | Tompkins King........ 32 BRS 15.15 20 B27 19.58 Tip esciielci as aeons cee 24 2.43 19.19 20 2.25 25.15 All varieties....... 278 <1) Goal [> ha Di 197 DOOM acer Ge It is seen that in practically all cases the spurs bearing fruits with a Jow seed value are heavier than those bearing fruits with a high seed value. In the average of all varieties, the spurs bearing fruits with a low seed value are 17.6 per cent heavier than those bearing fruits with a high seed value. There is no apparent reason why a vigorous spur should not bear fruit with a high seed value, hence it is not surprising that individual lots, such as numbers 7 and g, should show heavier spurs for many-seeded than for few-seeded fruits. When the average weight of spurs for a lot in which the fruit has a low seed value is approximately the same as for the fruit from the same branch with a high seed value, the weight of the fruit in the latter case is considerably greater than in the former; this is shown by lots 4, 6, 7, 12, and 14. In those cases in which the fruits are almost of the same weight for many-seeded and for few-seeded lots, such as lots 3, 10, and 11, the spurs in the latter are the heavier. In table 46 only half of the total number of spurs are considered — that half containing the smaller spurs. In this table the differences before noted are more marked because of the elimination in each class of the half containing the heavy spurs. The smaller spurs bearing fruit with a low seed value are 28 per cent heavier than the smaller spurs bearing fruit with a high seed value. 207 94 BULLETIN 393 TABLE 46. WEIGHTS OF SMALLER SPURS BEARING FRUIT WITH A LOW SEED VALUE AND OF THOSE BEARING FRUIT WITH A HIGH SEED VALUE Fruits with a low Fruits with a high seed value seed value Messe vy Average Average Number weight Number weight of spurs of spurs of spurs | of spurs (grams) (grams) Baldwin aes. BN. Ans os tattoo ees 12 2.45 9 1.80 i 7 2.44 4 2.30 8 3.28 14 2.03 12 2.48 9 2.10 6 3.00 4 Pacsiite: Malla wate... eben <2 ace sate a ePAaee 17 1.89 8 1.24 Rhodeglisland tas oc 2b Bok 7 3.63 6 3.24 fhompkinse: Ww yay) t Metiey ft.¢ ays he iinet : wre | ee ee) wy) ey a7 SERVI As Ty). et ba aati sat ony CATA Dis, i oe, 0? TROL OW DAR RRA soa LRN ‘ittinen Hes : o THE DECOMPOSITION OF SWEET CLOVER (MELILOTUS ALBA DESR.) AS A GREEN MANURE UNDER GREENHOUSE CONDITIONS! L. A. MAYNARD The practice of green-manuring as a method of restoring and main- taining soil fertility has become more and more general as evidence regarding its value has accumulated and methods of procedure have been worked out. The choice of a green manure best suited to given conditions has been a subject of much investigation. The literature of the subject abounds with data regarding alfalfa, crimson clover, and various other plants that gather nitrogen from the air. A plant of this type to which little attention has been given is sweet clover. This has long been regarded as a weed because of its occurrence in waste places, its general rank growth, and its ability to thrive under conditions unfavorable for the development of other plants. The fact seems to have been overlooked that these very characteristics, coupled with nitrogen-gathering power, are the features desired in a soil renovator. Recently several writers have called attention to the possibilities of sweet clover for this purpose, but experimental data are lacking. The present investigation is a study of the ability of the plant to gather nitrogen, and the rate with which this nitrogen becomes available when the plant material is incorporated with the soil. Sweet clover obtains its name from the peculiar sweetish fragrance of its flowers, due to an ethereal oil, coumarin. The plant is known by a variety of other names, such as Melilotus, Bokhara, giant clover, and wild alfalfa. Three species are common in the United States — the white biennial (Melilotus alba Desr.), the large yellow biennial (Melilotus officinalis Lam.), and the small yellow annual (Melilotus indica All.). This investigation concerns itself with the first species, which is commonly referred to as Bokhara, or merely as sweet clover. The name Bokhara is obtained from a district in Asiatic Russia, supposedly the original home of the plant. Sweet clover is an erect, stemmy plant, reaching a height of from eighteen to thirty inches the first year; a single plant growing by itself will tend to branch more than do plants growing together. When young the plant resembles alfalfa, but its leaves are usually more broadly ovate and its foliage is less dense. At bloom it is easily recognized by its 1 The work described in this bulletin was done in the Department of Agricultural Chemistry, under the direction of Professor George W. Cavanaugh. 233 122 BULLETIN 394 perfume, a characteristic not so marked in early growth unless the plants are dried. A long taproot is early developed, which becomes fleshy toward the end of the first season due to the large quantity of reserve material stored in it. During the second season the plant makes a growth of from five to twelve feet in height. In the middle of the summer white flowers, borne on long, slender racemes, are produced. Death occurs when the seed has matured. In common with other legumes sweet clover possesses the power, thru the agency of proper bacteria, of storing up atmospheric nitrogen thru the nodules on its roots, thus enriching the soil in which it is grown. REVIEW OF LITERATURE A survey of the literature of the subject shows that very little definite experimental work has been undertaken regarding sweet clover. Such work as has been done has been limited, for the most part, to the study of the plant as a forage crop and as a honey plant. Data are lacking regarding its value as a green manure. Recently several authors have pointed out its utility as a farm crop, but their writings are based on general observations rather than on experimental results. SWEET CLOVER CULTURE An excellent discussion of sweet clover is given by Westgate and Vinall (1912).2.. This publication contains a survey of the distribution of the crop thruout the United States, together with some data regarding yields and the purposes for which the crop is used. Methods of cultivation are discussed, as well as the value of the plant for hay, for pasture, or for soil improvement. The authors state that sweet clover possesses a wider adaptability to soil types and climate than any of the true clovers and probably than alfalfa. Attention is called to the fact that the plant thrives in the most humid as well as the semi-arid sections of the country, and produces a satisfactory growth on both the acid soils of the East and the alkali soils of the West. It is stated further that a good stand is obtained on soils too low in humus for the favorable growth of most other legumes. Failures in obtaining a good stand are considered to be due largely to faulty culture methods and to poor germination of the seed. The authors conclude that sweet clover, properly handled, is a valuable addition to the farm crops of many sections. Another comprehensive study of sweet clover is contained in a bulletin by Lloyd (1912). rey," ons : ate Wey, a) ‘as r R tnikubuae nf sti hc iawn oie ee ‘La Dent, Ait: _ doatt i j ' they NOVEMBER, 1917 BULLETIN 395 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION THE ANTHRACNOSE DISEASE OF THE RASPBERRY AND RELATED PLANTS WALTER H. BURKHOLDER ITHACA, NEW YORK PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 263 CORNELL UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION EXPERIMENTING STAFF ALBERT R. MANN, B.S.A., A.M., Director. HENRY H. WING, M.S. in Agr., Animal Husbandry. T. LYTTLETON LYON, Ph.D., Soil Technology. JOHN L. STONE, B.Agr., Farm Practice. JAMES E. RICE, B.S.A., Poultry Husbandry. GEORGE W. CAVANAUGH, B.S., Agricultural Chemistry. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, M.A., Plant Pathology. ELMER O. FIPPIN, B.S.A., Soil Technology. G. F. WARREN, Ph.D., Farm Management. WILLIAM A. STOCKING, Jr., M.S.A., Dairy Industry. WILFORD M. WILSON, M.D., Meteorology. RALPH S. HOSMER, B.A.S., M.F., Forestry. JAMES G. NEEDHAM, Ph.D., Entomology and Limnology. ROLLINS A. EMERSON, D.Sc., Plant Breeding. HARRY H. LOVE, Ph.D., Plant Breeding. DONALD REDDICK, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. EDWARD G. MONTGOMERY, M.A., Farm Crops. WILLIAM A. RILEY, Ph.D., Entomology. MERRITT W. HARPER, M.S., Animal Husbandry. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Ph.D., Soil Technology. GLENN W. HERRICK, B.S.A., Economic Entomology. HOWARD W. RILEY, M.E., Farm Mechanics. CYRUS R. CROSBY, A.B., Entomology. HAROLD E. ROSS, M.S.A., Dairy Industry. KARL McK. WIEGAND, Ph.D., Botany. EDWARD A. WHITE, B.S., Floricuiture. WILLIAM H. CHANDLER, Ph.D., Pomclogy. ELMER S. SAVAGE, M.S.A., Ph.D., Animal Husbandry. LEWIS KNUDSON, Ph.D., Plant Physiology. KENNETH C. LIVERMORE, Ph.D., Farm Management. ALVIN C. BEAL, Ph.D., Floriculture. MORTIER F. BARRUS, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. CLYDE H. MYERS, M.S., Ph.D., Piant Breeding. GEORGE W. TAILBY, Jr., B.S.A., Superintendent of Livestock. EDWARD S. GUTHRIE, M.S. in Agr., Ph.D., Dairy Industry. JAMES C. BRADLEY, Ph.D., Entomology. PAUL WORK, B.S., A.B., Vegetable Gardening. JOHN BENTLEY, Jr., B.S., M.F., Forestry. VERN B. STEWART, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. EARL W. BENJAMIN, Ph.D., Poultry Husbandry. JAMES K. WILSON, Ph.D., Soil Technology. EMMONS W. LELAND, B.S.A., Soil Technology. CHARLES T. GREGORY, Ph.D., Plant Pathology. WALTER W. FISK, M.S. in Agr., Dairy Industry. M ARTHUR L. THOMPSON, Ph.D., Farm Management. ROBERT MATHESON, Ph.D., Entomology. HARRY H. KNIGHT, B.Pd., B.S., Entomology. MORTIMER D. LEONARD, B.S., Entomology. FRANK E. RICE, Ph.D., Agricultural Chemistry. IVAN C. JAGGER, M.S. in Agr., Plant Pathology (In cooperation with Rochester University). WILLIAM I. MYERS, B.S., Farm Management. LEW E. HARVEY, B.S., Farm Management. LEONARD A. MAYNARD, A.B. Ph.D., Animal Husbandry. LOUIS M. MASSEY, A.B., Ph.D., Plant Pathology. BRISTOW ADAMS, B.A., Editor. LELA G. GROSS, Assistant Editor. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free on request to residents of New York State. 264 CONTENTS PAGE History and geographical distribution of the disease............... 159 Bcrimonneriih PORLAMEE ti. Ree Bek ee Ske bs BOS A eee Pirby tt te) SSVCIRES) 0 1a 0S) liege a Lo aS he On doce a eee 160 Gham MereAies: seni: PARC ty tis scenes com ponent ie A. toes ana 160 Banponolesdmd«pedicelsa 24 bot hrs aetna te argh des es 163 ie ein ele ees NSE hole teats eis te Vol gatiemer nics tal olen pay eat sea a 163 Het NOG ae p hn ed mse At retort c cio oO els gD Bie « tyr Ar tat aee SNE shah ee «| hes a 164 Ra Galle Cay ale aie: tects, «oe Mans Se mer NEP n and tac erie oes 164 WNiGsott sal PU UHR es ae ime come nem ee eee te Se roe, PR Cee Cee ee 166 HD Fare iS NI Sa re ras En sa f dete Me ah The cee ad cidh eee alee 167 Mies ASCE CEOS SSE ACE Hats au ete Nee ae Ban oa at velour aah 167 SIC pieime MCC Eid Der Cicer Leos x. et a hk chee ee sees 169 ery cL (ohL ON ae BRM ONO ee Se te nea, eh me op ee taf dan crete ahs ala A 170 CHC REN| esn ees CS ag Si a een Pe 172 recline CAPE RUMICMES. 2.44.25 Vet Acoia's wh dO e Cie Ae ae na shaw 174 Inoculations with spores from the Gloeosporium stage...... 174 Inoculations with spores from the ascigerous stage......... ys Blo a Gilet ONG pe Siig Se PCE ke Tne at A, ga eee 177 Me meet Cx Wed Me Ts COMCIEIONS: 0k Hay ist wicialicnnwe 42 Ts yaa, dala Astor oe), Oh o atittianl? enintearsnirers ie ol din ARISTON tay Ler jis 2 Mi aia ere aoUnT HN | at re Saintes lend: se th AT wher mersehy sui! L ) ageTonee ovisias calves “14 sey Mere info re tis a4 es: C oe Ji Vieen ne meee ees S ; > moron MboL nl gol hans IG vir noth shorliort Tite: Qn Wirt eto: pen aaa ie ie gna f Tartare ie) : ashi qe chee 20ers a up TaP) win e) whitey, ra ot eUstts: Per Tw) ti. 7) ios } 7 Jia f ek « 4 oe 4thdzymt f unay edawolA™ | “unreo eh Caer eae Wa) a vi" _ . ; | = ~ WL (te Beto) iw" dest Seep bee : ao pay res Wa. oe PPM, arts IK OF P oa F Ph . jay Ve wit Pa | oie 1G als aN pes (Phares tebnen nomi F oovlarey eae bil, a eS alg ee ay aye eet hereh =: ah AS ii: ‘ pei. ‘ ie i * Diy Bi Ped art is elais ie 7 eo eit Ges wt f oh ewelt i 5 ee mwittonty win “SER ro tanay ua 2 veonn bio wilibe forint fete i ' Pray 3093 vai | shoes i PREVA) aR . b . Moks tartay yas 7 BI Mims walsh at a : Oia His 1a) ee a uh Pongy . ‘ Bis big A i fyetd) angst ls gel THE REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION BY THE APPLICATION OF STATISTICAL METHODS L. A. MAYNARD AND W. I. MYERS The type of feeding experiment considered in this bulletin is that which involves a comparison of different feeds, in different combinations and in varying amounts, when fed to milch cows of different breeds, ages, and conditions. Such ‘ practical’ feeding trials have occupied a large place in the experimental work thus far performed in animal nutrition, and have contributed considerably to the art of feeding. In recent years, however, much criticism has developed regarding this type of study, and there are those who believe such work should be discontinued. The authors believe there is still a place for the practical feeding trial. How- ever, no one is justified in conducting such an experiment without a thoro knowledge of the factors involved, of the limitations of present methods, and of the uncertainty attendant on the interpretation of results, due to individuality. The subject matter of this bulletin comprises the results of a study along the foregoing lines, as preliminary to the beginning of some feeding trials with dairy cows at this station. It seemed that the data obtained should prove of some value to others who are conducting feeding trials. STUDY OF METHODS OF CONDUCTING FEEDING EXPERIMENTS THE PRACTICAL FEEDING TRIAL, ITS LIMITATIONS AND ITS VALUE Feeding trials have been criticized on the ground that as means of solving problems in animal nutrition they have outlived their usefulness. McCollum (1916)! has pointed out that the results have been meager in proportion to the time and money expended. He states that it is the opinion of many animal husbandry men of wide experience that the present method of trying this or that concentrate as compared with another has taught about all it ever will teach. Evidently it is believed that there are better methods which should supersede the feeding trial. However, this view does not seem to be shared by the majority of inves- tigators. Grindley (191s). is of the opinion that properly conducted feeding experiments are the most direct means of attacking many of the problems of the livestock farmer. Waters (1912) points out that feeding trials are the only means by which the application to farm practice of 1 Dates in parenthesis refer to bibliography, page 248. oJ 214 BULLETIN 397 the results of fundamental experiments can be determined. He states that there is no royal road to this knowledge, and no shorter cut than actual trials with the kind of stock the farmer has to feed under the con- ditions prevailing on his farm. That feeding trials with a given ration or condition have a limited appli- cation to other rations and conditions, is recognized. It is recognized also that the cost of properly conducted trials is high in proportion to the results obtained. Therefore, in studying the feeding value of a given feed or ration, it is essential to first study carefully the teachings of pure science and the results of any experimental work having a bearing on the problem, either in human or in animal nutrition. Next, feeding trials with small animals should in many cases be undertaken. Finally, if previous study and work have justified it, the actual trial with the animals in question should be made. Knowledge of the processes taking place in the animal body is at present too fragmentary to enable one to reason infallibly from pure science to feeding practice, or even from experiments with small animals to the feeding and management of the dairy cow. It is granted that there are more refined methods than the feeding trial, and it is believed that the former should precede and in many cases make unnecessary the latter. However, for the final proof of theories and of the validity of reasoning from small-animal experiments, the practical feeding experiment must serve until more is known of the fundamentals of animal nutrition. Feeding trials have been criticized on the ground that they have been poorly conducted. It is charged that work along this line has fallen behind other branches of agricultural science, due to a lack of fundamental knowledge and a disregard of the teachings of pure science. Some critics have advocated the abandonment of feeding tests by the experiment stations for the reason that they can be carried out better by the farmers themselves. That these criticisms are in many instances just must be admitted. Inas- much as there is still a place for the feeding test, it is evident that investi- gators should so improve their methods as not to invalidate their con- clusions by faulty procedures or fallacious interpretation of results. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PLANNING A FEEDING EXPERIMENT In planning a feeding experiment the investigator aims to have equality in all the conditions except one, which is the factor to be studied. Because of the complexity of biological processes this is practically an impossible goal. In discussing experiments with living organisms, Blackman (1905) states that the investigator who tries to evaluate exactly the effect of a single factor on a multi-conditioned metabolic process faces an almost impossible task. 324 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 215 Controllable factors In a feeding experiment certain factors can be definitely controlled — such as the kind and quantity of the ration, the method and time of feed- ing, the general care and management of the animals. Certain other factors cannot be entirely controlled because they are due to the individuality of the animals; however, the effect of these factors may be greatly lessened by so choosing from animals of known history as to obtain a group as nearly alike as possible with respect to records and previous treatment. It is unnecessary to enter here into a discussion of the factors that may be eliminated by a careful selection of animals. A thoro treatment of this subject has been given in the report of the American Society of Animal Nutrition (1909), and by Waters (1912), Morse (1913), Mitchell and Grindley (19:3), and Grindley (1915). Uncontrollable factors When as many factors as possible have been eliminated or equalized by a proper selection of animals, there still remain certain causes of vari- ation which cannot be eliminated. These causes comprise feeding capacity, productive capacity, physiological peculiarities, and other functional characteristics rendering one animal distinct from another. Thus it is seen that the general proposition — equalization of all factors except one — is impossible of realization. There must always be certain vari- ables, due to individuality, which cannot be controlled. However, the probable limits of variation of these factors may be determined by the application of statistical methods. Thus, in planning feeding experi- ments, one should make use of statistical data which have been accu- mulated as to the probable error due to individuality. At the end of the experiment a statistical analysis of the results should be made, before any interpretation is placed on them. VARIABLE FACTORS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MILK PRODUCTION In addition to the factors that have been discussed as causing vari- ation in any feed experiment, there are certain specific variables which become operative when trials with milch cows are concerned, due to the physiological processes involved. These specific factors make the prose- cution of an experiment in milk production more difficult than one in which gain in weight is the object desired, not only as regards the selection of animals and the control of conditions but also in respect to the inter- pretation of results. It seems desirable to enter into some discussion of- these factors. 325 216 BULLETIN 397 In feeding for flesh production an increase in the whole body of the animal is sought, and all feed consumed above that used in maintenance is available for such production. In feeding milch cows, however, the secretion of a single set of glands is the object desired. An increase in body weight in a dairy cow may take place, but it is undesirable, par- ticularly in a feeding experiment. It results in the use of the ingested food for other purposes than milk production, and any considerable fat- tening tends to check the activity of the mammary glands. Thus, improper rations not only may limit the quantity of milk produced, but also may deflect production from milk to flesh. Milk secretion is a less understood process than flesh production and is much more subject to disturbing factors and to wide variation. In this connection Armsby (1917: 500) states: The feeding of a milking animal is in a certain sense a secondary factor in dairying. The possibilities of successful milk production depend primarily upon the capacity of the animals as milk producers and upon the maintenance of such an environment as will give free play to this capacity. Feed . . . cannot greatly stimulate pro- duction, though it may limit it for lack of material. . . . Improper rations, : even if sufficient in quantity, may if deficient in quality deflect production from milk to fattening, or possibly to greater muscular activity, and thus fail to utilize fully the milk-producing capacity of the animals. Milk secretion is a periodic function, having as its object in nature the nourishment of the young. The length of a lactation period varies with different animals, and with the same animal in different years. The | decrease in production during a lactation period is also a variable factor. The rate of decrease may vary widely at different stages in the same animal, and may vary from year to year at a corresponding period of lactation. Marked irregularities are frequently shown which cannot be explained by any observed conditions. Toward the end of the lactation period, whether a cow is with calf becomes an important consideration. Gavin (1913a) has shown that the fall in milk yield due to fetal growth begins from nine to twelve weeks after service. At from seventeen to twenty weeks a decrease of roughly ten per cent was found, and about twenty-five per cent at from twenty-five to twenty-eight weeks. Hills (1896) has found variations in yield due to time of calving. He found that a fall cow maintains her production better than does a spring cow, and produces milk of uniform fat content. On the other hand, a spring cow betters the quality of her milk beginning five months after calving, while this was found to be the case with a summer cow at the end of three months. Hills found that abortion causes a shrinkage of one-third in milk yield, and a gain of one-tenth in quality, as compared with the production of the previous lactation. The plane of nutrition is an important factor in feeding experiments, because an increase in weight usually begins before the maximum capacity 326 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 217 for milk secretion is reached. Thus, on heavy rations both flesh pro- duction and milk production take place, while on light rations the former may not occur. A review of these factors, which specifically cause variation in feeding experiments for milk production, must convince one of the especial need of careful selection of animals and control of experimental conditions in such trials. The necessity of the application of statistical methods to the interpretation of results must also be evident. METHODS OF CONDUCTING FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH MILCH COWS In attempting a study of the probable error attendant on feeding experiments with milch cows, it is necessary first to consider two rather distinct procedures that have been used in such experiments. In carrying out feeding trials, usually either the alternation or the continuous system has been employed. A considerable survey has been made of the litera- ture of the subject, in order to determine the extent of the use of each of these systems and the evidence regarding their relative merits. The alternation system In the alternation system competitive rations are fed to the same group of cows in successive periods — Ration A followed by Ration B, this in turn followed by Ration A, and so on. This system appears to have had the widest use both at the American experiment stations and abroad. Hills has conducted extensive experiments with dairy cows since 1887. The extensive nature of these experiments as regards time, coupled with the large number of animals that have been available, has enabled this investigator to make a thoro study of experimental methods. Detailed accounts of this work are given in the annual reports of the Vermont station from 1887 to 1908. Among other features an exhaustive study has been made of the alternation system and modifications of it. The results of the observations of twenty years are embodied by Hills in a paper published in 1907. Hills has made considerable study relative to the most satisfactory length of the feeding period in the alternation system. He believes that periods of from two to three weeks are too short. He points out, how- ever, that making the periods as long as eight weeks seriously curtails the number of periods. A feeding period of five or six weeks is favored. For the sake of eliminating the influence of seasonal variations, Hills has used two groups of animals — Group I receiving Ration A during the period when Group II received Ration B, and vice versa. 327 218 BULLETIN 397 Hansen (1906, a and b, 1908, 1911, 1914) has used the alternation system in experiments extending over ten years. His method differs somewhat from Hills’ in that no ration was used twice except the basal ration, which was fed during the first and the last period in order to show the decrease in production due to the advancing lactation period. Hansen used feeding periods of fourteen days in most of his work. Morgen and his coworkers (1905, 1906, 1907) have conducted extensive experiments with sheep and goats relative to milk production, using the alternation system. The feeding periods varied from three to four weeks, about half this time being preliminary. These investigators did not use any tation more than once in a given experiment, except the basal ration. In some experiments the latter was fed during the first and the last period, in others it was alternated with the different trial rations. A considerable number of other investigators have used the alternation system rather extensively. The work of the men referred to in the pre- ceding paragraphs is cited as typical of experiments conducted under this system and as illustrating certain common variations in procedure. Further examples appear unnecessary. The continuous system In the continuous system competitive rations are fed to two groups of cows continuously — Ration A to Group I and Ration B to Group II. An essential feature of this system is that the groups shall be so made up as to be of equal productive capacity. Therefore the question of the selection of animals is of prime importance. Feeding periods have varied from two months to an entire lactation period or longer, according to the investigator. Haecker (1914) has used the continuous system in experiments relative to milk production extending over the years 1902 to 1909. He used from eight to ten cows in a group, and the feeding trials extended over two or three months. Among other investigators who have made considerable use of the continuous system may be mentioned Williams (1904), Fraser and Hayden (1912), Caldwell (1913), Davis (1915), and Woll, Humphrey, and Oosterhuis (1914). The combined continuous and alternation system Hills has tested a system which he calls the combined continuous and alternation system. In this scheme three groups of animals, equal as regards probable productive capacity, are made up. To one group the basal ration is fed continuously, to the second group the trial ration is fed continuously, while the third group is alternated on the two rations. 328 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 219 As a result of six years trial Hills (1907) advances the opinion that this scheme is inferior to the simple alternation system, particularly if only a small number of animals are available. Relative merits of the three systems The advantage of the alternation system lies in the fact that the trial of the two sets of rations with the same animals eliminates many of the factors due to individuality and obviates uncertainties in attempts to make up groups of like production. On the other hand, the use of the alternation system necessitates a short feeding period. Hills (1907) recognizes this disadvantage. In this connection he quotes Babcock as follows (page 117 of reference cited): It seems likely . . . that there are certain reserve forces which enable an animal to adapt itself to adverse conditions and even to overcome the effect of malnutrition for much longer periods than have heretofore been considered sufficient. : Much additional knowledge concerning the physiouogical influence of foods may be gained, and thereby many of the uncertainties which exist to-day regarding feeding problems be eliminated, by greatly extending the experimental periods. Thorne, Hickman, and Falkenbach (1893:82), after two years use of the alternation system, say: “‘ We need to expand the go-day test into a 12-month test . . . We might as well drop the three or four- week test altogether.” Another disadvantage of the alternation system results from the residual effect of a given ration on a succeeding one. Armsby states (1917:525): “Tt is not an unusual experience in dairy feeding experiments to see a change of rations followed by a temporary stimulation of the milk pro- duction which is not sustained.” Woll (1904) states that any change in the system of feeding is generally accompanied by an immediate disturbance of the normal character of the production of the cows, and that several weeks may be required for adjustment. Those who have used the alternation system have endeavored to offset this residual effect by the use of a preliminary period. However, these periods have unquestionably been too short in most cases. Indeed there is a question whether, when a ration has been used which reduces a cow’s production considerably below normal, the cow can be brought back to normal production during the given lactation period. Soule and Fain (190s), speaking of their use of the continuous system, state that, tho they recognize its defects, they consider it preferable to the alternation system because of the time required to get a cow under the influence of a given foodstuff. The continuous system obviates the disadvantages of the short feeding period and the residual effect. On the other hand, in this system ques- tions arise as to the equality of individuals and groups selected on the 329 220 BULLETIN 397 basis of probable productive capacity. From the discussion of the factors causing variation in milk production, the great uncertainty involved in selecting groups of equal production is evident. In this connection Hills (1907) states: ‘‘ He who can, from an often limited number of animals, formulate groups which for a great length of time will prove essentially equivalent in their milk-making powers is gifted with second sight.” This is a very serious disadvantage of the continuous system. However, this difficulty should be minimized by the application of statistical methods. The variable factors due to individuality cannot be eliminated, but the probable limits of variation can be ascertained. CONSIDERATIONS IN GROUPING EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS In selecting two groups of animals for use in an experiment conducted under the continuous system, it is clearly recognized that the two groups should be as nearly alike as possible. Points that must be considered are: previous treatment and history, age, stage of lactation, breed and type, productive capacity. In this connection it is believed that a consideration to which insuffi- cient attention has been given is that of history as regards diseases. A diseased animal is not normal and should not be included in a feeding experiment. It goes without saying that an animal used in experimental work should pass the tuberculin test. The herd records should furnish data as to abortion and breeding troubles, in order that animals abnormal in these respects may be excluded. Finally, it is believed that each indi- vidual selected for experiment should be given an examination by a veterinarian as to general health. Considerable study has been made of the experimental work that has been done in regard to productive capacity, in an attempt to ascertain the points considered in selecting animals on this basis. The majority of investigators, however, have made little mention of the matter, and most frequently one finds merely the statement that “ groups of equal production were chosen.’ Usually milk production is meant. Occa- sionally one finds the statement that groups were made equal as regards both milk and fat production. Just how this would be possible within very close limits with only a moderate number of animals to select from is not clear. Another ambiguous point is, just what is meant by “ equal production.” No statement has been found of the limits that have been allowed in choosing equal groups on the basis of production records. Some investigators have selected groups on the basis of yield during the previous lactation period. That this alone is a poor criterion is shown by the work of Gavin (1913b). He found that the estimation of one 330 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 221 lactation yield from another cannot be made with great accuracy, since the correlation coefficient between successive lactations does not rise above + 0.576 + 0.025. As a result of an extensive statistical study, Gavin (1912) suggests the use of the “ revised maximum ”’ as a figure to describe the milking capacity of a cow. This figure is the maximum daily yield, three times reached or exceeded. The figure bears a close relation to the total yield of a normal lactation and shows rather less variation than the total. Gavin states that the figure is independent of length of lactation and time of service, and is not greatly influenced by general environment. Instead of selecting animals on the basis of production in a previous lactation period, groups may be made up by considering the production in the same period before placing the cows on experiment. Caldwell (1913) fed a certain number of cows for thirty-one days on a basal ration, and then made up groups for a feeding test on the basis of production during ‘that period. It is believed that this scheme is much better than the one based on the yields of a previous lactation. However, some con- sideration of the latter seems desirable in order that abnormal cows may be excluded. Fraser and Hayden (1912) report that they consider both present records and previous production in forming groups. SUMMARY From this study of the methods of conducting feeding experiments, it appears that the practical feeding trial still has its importance. Refined methods are, however, desirable. A more thoro knowledge and appre- ciation of the special variable factors involved in milk production is also essential. The continuous system of carrying out feeding tests would seem to be the more satisfactory method, provided the probable limits of variation over the experimental period can be ascertained. In select- ing animals for an experiment the previous records and history of treat- ment and behavior should be consulted, in order that animals abnormal in these respects may be excluded. This selected group of animals should be fed the basal ration for a preliminary period, and should receive for that period the same care and management as tho on experiment. On the basis of production and behavior during the preliminary period, the selection and grouping of animals for the experiment should be made. The group selected for the preliminary period should contain a some- what larger number of animals than will be required for the experiment, in order to allow a certain range in selection. In choosing animals for both the preliminary period and the experimental period, as many of the variable factors should be eliminated as is possible in consideration of the number of animals at the investigator’s disposal. There will always 331 222 BULLETIN 397 remain a certain number of uneliminated factors, the probable limits of variation of which must be known for the intelligent interpretation of results. Thus statistical data relative to the variation in milk production under various conditions of selection are needed. STATISTICAL STUDY OF VARIATION IN MILK PRODUCTION OBJECT AND METHODS The object of this statistical study, as has already been pointed out, was to obtain the data needed for the intelligent planning of feeding experiments conducted under the continuous system. These data con- sist primarily of information as to the probable limits of variation, over a given experimental period, of individuals and groups selected on the basis of equal productive capacity as determined in a preliminary period. It has been pointed out that variation can be lessened by so selecting the animals as to eliminate certain controllable factors affecting milk production, and that the number of factors which can thus be fixed is determined by the number of available animals from which the selection is made. Therefore data as to the effect of various selective factors on variation are needed, to attain the object of this statistical study. The data for this study were obtained from the records of the university herd. These records are complete over a period of thirty years, and com- prise data for some four hundred individuals. For the purpose of this study it would be desirable in some respects to have all the records from one calendar year, in order that all animals might be under the most uniform conditions of feeding and environment. This was of course impos- sible because of the large number of animals required for the study. How- ever, the care and management of the university herd have been in accord- ance with the same general principles for the period of years represented by the data used. The records have made possible the exclusion from the study of all animals that have been used in any feeding experiment. It may be stated that animals on experiment are accorded more uniform treatment than the general herd, which is used for teaching purposes, and a greater degree of exactness would result if the data were obtained from records of such animals. But it was obviously impossible to make the present study from experimental records. In fact, if the data were thus obtained, they would be applicable only to investigations in which an experimental herd, separate from the general herd, was available. It is therefore believed that the data obtained in the present study have a wider application. The breeds used in making this study were the Holstein-Friesian and the Jersey. The greater proportion of the work was done with the former ee REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 223 breed, because the records of a much larger number of individuals were available. No study was made of groups comprising different breeds, because it is considered undesirable to use animals of different breeds in a feeding experiment under any conditions. It has been stated that data were to be obtained as to the variation in an experimental period of individuals and of groups selected on the basis of their production during a preliminary period. Nearly all the studies included in this bulletin are concerned with milk production. The word production will therefore mean milk production unless other- wise designated. In order to get comparable and reliable results, a period of definite length, during which the records should be studied, was required. A twenty-weeks period was accordingly chosen, consisting of a two- weeks preliminary period and an eighteen-weeks experimental period. It must not be assumed that eighteen weeks is considered the best dura- tion for an experimental period. It is believed that this period should be as long as the uniformity of conditions prescribed at the beginning of a given feeding trial can be maintained. Twenty weeks was found to be the longest period, between the time of freshening and the time when the animals went on pasture, for which any considerable number of records could be obtained. To combine records of animals on winter feeding with those of animals in pasture would introduce a rather serious irregularity. It therefore seemed desirable to limit the study to a twenty- weeks period for a given lactation, and the results obtained must be considered with respect to the period used. In a part of this study the records of cows freshening between August 15 and December 15 were used, and the twenty-weeks period was begun exactly one month after calving. This eliminated the period during which many cows were on test. Under this plan all the records were from cows in the same stage of lactation, thus eliminating any variation due to difference in this respect. It was realized, however, that under experi- mental conditions — even tho, with a sufficient number of animals to choose from, a group freshening at approximately the same time could be made up —the exactness prescribed above could not be obtained. Accordingly, in another part of the study the twenty-weeks period was started on January 1 of a given year, using cows that had freshened in the preceding summer or fall. It is believed that this scheme approximates that of the ordinary feeding experiment. In grouping together cows of equal productive capacity on the basis of the preliminary period, the question arose as to what constitutes ‘* equal production.’”’ Inasmuch as no information on this point was found in the accounts of feeding experiments, arbitrary limits had to be chosen. 333 224 BULLETIN 397 ° A range in milk production not exceeding 50 pounds for the two-weeks period was the basis of selecting classes of individuals of like production in most of the work. The limits, in terms of number of pounds yield for two weeks, were therefore as follows: 200-249, 250-299, and so on. By this system the percentage of range allowed was greater with groups of small production. In order to ascertain whether this variation had any appreciable effect, a percentage system was used in part of the work; a range of 10 per cent was allowed, and the limits became 200-219, 220-241, and so on. In measuring the variation in production, during the eighteen-weeks period, of individuals and of groups selected on the basis of production during a preliminary period, the coefficient of variability? was the constant employed. This constant is the standard deviation of the individual production expressed as a percentage of the arithmetical mean production. The probable error of each coefficient of variability was computed, in order to have a statistical measure of its reliability. The accuracy of a given coefficient of variability as a measure of the variation of the groups or the individuals it represents, depends on the number of groups or of individuals. The probable error of a given coefficient defines the limits above or below the computed coefficient within which the true coefficient has an even chance of falling. If the coefficient of variability of the individuals in a given group is found to be 10 per cent and its probable error is + 1, the chances are exactly even that the true coefficient of variability of this group will fall between nine and eleven per cent. In the preceding paragraphs the general methods used in this work are outlined. Certain other procedures have been followed in special cases, accounts of which are given under the cases in question. STUDIES OF HOLSTEIN RECORDS: COWS IN UNIFORM STAGE OF LACTATION The animals used in this part of the study freshened between August 15 and December rs, and the twenty-weeks period was started one month after calving. The results of this selection furnish records of animals uniformly advanced in their period of lactation and similar as regards the season in which the twenty-weeks period was chosen. The object of the study was to determine the normal range of individual and group variation under these conditions, and to determine the effect of certain other factors of selection on variation. 2In this bulletin no attempt has been made to discuss the theories of the various statistical measure- ments employed. Fora full discussion of the theories of variaticn and probable error, the reader is referred to the following standard works on statistics: Statistical Methods (1914), by C. B. Davenport; An Intro- duction to the Theory of Statistics (1912), by G. U. Yule. 334 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 225 Individual variation The records were first divided into classes of individuals of uniform production for two weeks, all the individuals of similar production being put in the same class. The limits of each class had a range of 50 pounds, these limits being 250-299, 300-349, and so on. The variation of indi- viduals within these classes is shown in table 1: TABLE 1. INDIVIDUAL VARIATION Coefficient of Class production, two-weeks period Number of |variability during (pounds) individuals | eighteen-weeks period BAO=PAO CG Seis bh CoC AS os, ALES Id cc) nee ee nc oA, ee 8 5 e/4es 205 BOO SAO ence se eievs he Gan PR ES. caries satan e Saisete-tutpay niare eve II lO) SS 2 i BS Oe AOE er tet he iheh a tele Geeks ce eee, SRE LAS, 17 13939) 5 POOH) ARERR & Py OREO Cres Ele CrcRe ene tcl Orion mn AONE 13 I2.40 + 1.64 PE re ACO ete ate eee aise iaicey ee Feit Maes cele 'e eho atcr/a ree ele ee 28 Wea L4Ay == O00 FOO SA OM NEEM Ey =. Sep ent tesa a aky «tude tad ott sels oie 31 10.02 + 0.86 Oar OOM Meera et chemin yout Sas euishs Cae ean saatse ere va, Pasaeanas 20 ia 20 p= ae 20 GOO OA OMe eters tierce eTeistoe ne Sac ete) Euahes cl see ete te nes 23 9.53 + 0.95 COR OOO MSE ee cies cit ices sietenceenie chains gush 1b. ane eile, Metenetiepstetts 9 TAR OOn=—=5 232 EDA TE Qs SANG Ln ORE CRT OE ORS eee hee 8 TORSon sles 5 Om OOM ee cere e cra bore Soe cle Sree Oe e tree ors 6 eS So SOO RSAOR erwrs Shar eem tes. Sisetels: MGS: ore 4 WIE AG) Se AI7S) TNGUS iis fil ascot ce An A bon iS ashe arate: erate semen gate 17/3 tlh eG Se ee Rear Ae IENNESEAS a ote cee tero)a AE BCT AG oro Pie: CRULAMO I, Boi) 6c) SAN EA Pere 6.2 11.87 + 0.43 * The average coefficient here given is the weighted average of the coefficients of the different classes of individuals. In spite of the recognized shortcomings of any method of averaging coefficients of vari- ability, it is believed that this procedure gives a fairly trustworthy idea of the variability of the individuals it represents. All average coefficients used in these studies are weighted averages. In order to check the accuracy of the average coefficient as the measure of individual variability of the individuals here included, the coefficient of variability was computed from the weighted average standard deviation and the weighted average mean of the classes in the table. This method gave a coefficient of variability of 11.72 +0.42. The close agreement of this coefficient with the average coefficient indicates the essential accuracy of the method used. The probable error of the average coefficient of variation is the weighted average of the individual prob- able errors. It is computed by weighting each probable error, squaring these products, summing, extract- ing the square root, and dividing by the number of probable errors. The results shown in table 1 indicate the approximate range of vari- ability, during an experimental period of eighteen weeks, of cows of similar productive capacity as indicated by their production for a trial period of two weeks. The coefficients of variability range from 9.53 to 17.53 per cent for individuals in the different classes, the average value for the 178 individuals being 11.87 + 0.43 per cent. It is seen that both the high producers and the low producers show a somewhat greater varia- bility than the middle classes. However, no conclusion can be drawn from this, because none of the differences are significant when their prob- able errors are considered. 30 226 BULLETIN 397 Group variation In the ordinary feeding experiment, groups of cows of equal total pro- duction are made up for the competitive rations. Therefore a study of group variation is important. It is possible, of course, to compute the probable coefficient of variability of a group of given numbers, given the coefficient of variability of the individuals. However, there were reasons why it seemed desirable to make a statistical study of group variation. In the first place, the calculated value on the basis of individual variation could thus be checked up. Further, a study of group variation was found to be the best method of studying the influence of various selective factors considered in forming. groups. In most of the work on group variation the groups were made up of six individuals. This was found to be the most convenient grouping with the records at hand, and it represents the typical-sized lot used in feeding trials. Some comparative studies were made of groups of various sizes. In making up lots of equal production on the basis of the preliminary period, a range of 100 pounds in the total production of the groups was allowed. Some study was made, however, of the effect of varying this range. Variation in groups of unselected individuals— Groups were made up of individuals taken at random, the only consideration being that the total production of each group for the preliminary period should fall between 3200 and 3299 pounds. The results of the study of variation in these groups are shown in table 2: TABLE 2. VARIATION IN GROUPS OF UNSELECTED INDIVIDUALS Group production, two-weeks period Number ae oe Coefficient of (pounds) of groups per group variability RCSA 0, OC NPA 0 10 Jace ase amr raRy CRORE, os cqucieeres Sater a CA aaa 33 6 5.09 + 0.42 From the results shown in table 2, it is evident that the variation of groups of cows selected in this way is much less than for individuals as shown by table 1. The relation of individual variation to group variation is shown by the formula = = C, in which c is the coefficient of vari- ability of individuals, C the coefficient of variability of groups, and 7 the number of individuals in a group. Using the average coefficient of variability of individuals as shown in table 1, and solving this equation for groups of six, it is found that the coefficient of variability of a group 336 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 227 of this size would be 4.84 per cent. This computed coefficient*® checks closely with the coefficient found by actually testing groups of six, as shown by table 2. Variation in groups of individuals of equal production.— In the pre- ceding study no attention was given to the production of individuals except in so far as was necessary to make up groups of like production. It seemed desirable to determine the effect on group variation of selecting animals of equal individual production. The range allowed for indi- vidual production during the two-weeks period was 50 pounds. Groups of six of these equal individuals were so selected as to allow a 1oo-pound range for the group. The results of the study of their variation are shown in table 3: TABLE 3. VARIATION IN GROUPS OF INDIVIDUALS OF EQUAL PRODUCTION oe ; ss 4 ._4|Group production, : Individual production, two-weeks period two-weeks period Number | Coefficient of (pounds) (pounds) of groups variability SOA QO eee Aten Sete) si oss o tenicliss axe eines © or 2 ,800-2 , 899 4 1.90 + 0.45 IS OO—5AG seen tore eke ac eoneueke, beeen 3, 100-3 , 199 5 3.58 + 0.76 GOO=O4 OMe rere esa scitohey sista! ice aye akg stat 3, 700-3 ,799 4 3.38 + 0.81 NO tales Meee een er ec eer eee, LS Rene wera eae | is eM SARA AVICLAG CMMER eine EUS cea See rll mere er Ste Sateen ene ee 3.00 + 0.41 It is seen from the table that the average coefficient of variability of groups of like individuals is 3.00 + 0.41, as compared with 5.09 + 0.42 for groups of unselected individuals. The difference between these two values is 2.09. In order to determine the degree of reliance that can be placed on this difference, its probable error should be computed. The probable error of the difference between two coefficients of variability is the square root ‘of the sum of the squares of the probable errors of the coefficients under consideration. The probable error of the difference just given is + 0.59, and the difference, with its probable error, would be expressed as 2.09 + 0.59. If the probable error were exactly as large as the difference, the chances would be even that a repe- tition of the study would result in lower variation for similar individuals, and likewise even that the opposite result would be obtained. The dif- ference under discussion is 3.5 times its probable error. The odds are 3 The range of 100 pounds allowed in selecting groups of equal production is not proportional to the range of 50 pounds allowed in selecting individuals of equal production. The results of studies described elsewhere in this bulletin, however, indicate that such variations in the range allowed in selecting groups or individuals of equal production do not have any appreciable effect on variation in milk production during the experimental period. 22 337 228 BULLETIN 397 therefore about 54 to 1 that a repetition of the study would give similar results. Wood and Stratton (1910) have suggested that for data obtained from agricultural experiments, odds of 30 to 1 may be considered as conclusive evidence. Odds of 30 to 1 require that the difference must be 3.17 times its probable error. The data given in this case more than satisfy the requirements suggested by Wood and Stratton, and it may therefore be concluded that groups of cows of similar individual produc- tion are less variable than groups of unselected animals. As a further test of the effect of selecting equal individuals, groups were made up whose total production for two weeks was from 3200 to 3299 pounds but which were divided into three classes according to indi- vidual production. The individuals of Class I had productions of from soo to 599 pounds for the trial period; those of Class II had productions of from 400 to 499 pounds or from 600 to 699 pounds; those of Class III had productions under 4oo pounds or over 699 pounds. By means of this method of selection, there were made available groups of six cows of similar total production, divided into three classes according to the similarity of the individuals as shown by their production during the trial period. The results of this selection are shown in table 4: TABLE 4. EFFECT OF SIMILARITY OF INDIVIDUAL PRODUCTION ON VARIABILITY OF GROUPS Individual production, |Group production, Niimber | ‘Costieeaniee Class eS ae BCR nares of groups variability Le Core Moana 500-599 3,, 200-3 , 299 9 2.98 + 0.47 Je ptae Sa So seth Bie. 400-499, 600-699 3, 200-3 ,299 II 4.84 + 0.70 IEE Gagne tee eRe Below 400, above 699 3 , 200-3 , 299 12 52g Ona The difference in variability between the groups ‘of Class I and those of Class II is 1.86 + 0.84. Here the difference is 2.21 times its probable error, and the odds are 6 to 1 that the difference in variability is due to the factor of selection. The difference in variability between the groups of Class I and those of Class III is 2.29 + 0.87. Here the difference is 2.63 times its probable error, and the chances are 12 to 1 that groups of individuals of similar productive capacity are less variable. The con- sistency of the results listed in tables 3 and 4 seems to indicate that sim- ilarity of individuals in productive capacity has an important effect on variability of the group, and that in grouping cows for a feeding test the experimental error can be reduced by using similar individuals. 338 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 229 Age of cows as affecting variability— In selecting animals for experi- mental purposes, it is desirable to know whether groups of cows of the same age are more variable or less variable than groups of cows of dif- ferent ages. Groups of cows of the same age were made up and their variability was compared with that of groups made up without regard to age. The results of this study are shown in table 5: TABLE 5. Errect oF AGE OF Cows ON VARIABILITY OF GROUPS Group production, Number | Coefficient of Number of lactation hier tree ate of groups variability. TENORS ble ie reece SRAM eee PCL ede 2 , 300-2 , 399 8 2.93 + 0.49 SEC OriGh! ins 9 ave ins 2) 2 200 aad aie a 2 a 3, , 200-3 , 299 5 2e77) += 0259 Oita ake eae Aen. 3, 400-3 , 499 4 2.27 +0.54 JFGXORELEL IGS, 5 wee tetca REen DLR eRe Or RES Pee ee 3900-3 ,999 4 3.10 + 0.74 soul pee ya ee EL ee a he in SE ee DAT Vek Ne wating Wa ANUGTIEVE REELS RET eile tee at Seen: Pn caaicees [Rete mea ea er en eal (ieee meme 2.77 + 0.29 The coefficient of variability of groups of cows of different ages is shown in table 2 (page 226) to be 5.09 + 0.42. A comparison of this value with those of groups of individuals of the same age shows that the latter are less variable. The difference between the average coefficient for cows of the same age and that for cows of different ages is 2.32 ++ 0.51. The odds are about 400 to 1 that the difference is significant. It is not shown in table 5 that cows are less variable at any particular age in so far as the ages covered by the table are concerned. Specifically there is no evidence that heifers are more variable than older animals. This should not, however, be considered an argument for using heifers in a feeding trial. The great disadvantage in using immature animals is that, inasmuch as part of their food is used for growth, no quantitative conclusions can be drawn as to the effect of a given ration on milk production. . Allowable range in selecting groups of equal production.— Another important consideration in making up groups for feeding trials is concerned with the interpretation of the term equal production. In this connection the questions arise as to how closely the production of two groups must agree to be considered equal, and as to the effect ‘on variability of changes in the range. In order to get information on these points, the records were first divided into groups of six, the total production of each of which fell within the limits of from 3200 to 3299 pounds. ‘These groups were 339 230 ; BULLETIN 397 then divided into two classes of equal production, their limits being from 3200 to 3249 pounds and from 3250 to 3299 pounds, respectively. The same groups were next divided into four classes of equal production, the limits of which were from 3200 to 3224 pounds, from 3225 to 3249 pounds, from 3250 to 3274 pounds, and from 3275 to 3299 pounds, respectively. Finally the groups were divided so as to have a 1o-pound range, as from 3200 to 3209 pounds, from 3210 to 3219 pounds, oa so on. The results of this study are shown in table 6: TABLE 6. EFFECT ON VARIABILITY OF CHANGES IN RANGE OF GROUPS Range allowed Number Coefficient Group production, two-weeks period by group of of (pounds) limits groups variability (pounds) M2OO=3 COOK: ihe SH. DIRE ee 100 33 5.09 + 0.42 2 2O0- B24 Ee ee eee ee ene eee it B2EO-4 200 s,s or Date et ee a ee if 30 33 5.03 + 0.42 BDO = 5 22 gE ene ee tthe che. OEE Oe BED DB AO OW a acne le Mh 05) Vere Kol eps yeneteeas 25 31 4.88 + 0.43 BeO25O— 8 OTA sss Se ieee Ree bE Ce AE GIS OSH HLO Vey a oe MTN RS RAT Eee SPN ps Be DMO mean 2 Oro poregs See eens ee ec et tee Ne ar ae 10 20 4.60 + 0.52 BAI AO— 39 DAG): VE... Bais Bee yt aed, Agee Bren, The coefficients in table 6 decrease slightly as the group limits are narrowed. The consistency of the results suggests the probability that the narrowing of the limits is responsible for the decrease. However, the difference between the highest and the lowest limits is not so great as its probable error, and therefore no significance can be attached to it. It would appear that if there is any decrease in variability caused by lowering the range allowed by the limit below 100 pounds, it is so slight that there is no object in using the narrower limits. Size of group as affecting variability — It has been stated that group variability decreases according to the square root of the number of indi- viduals in the group. A short study was made of groups of different sizes, merely to compare the observed values with the calculated values and thus check the accuracy of the methods used. The values calcu- lated for groups of different sizes from the figure for individual variation, as found in table 1, were compared with the observed values for groups of three different sizes. The results are shown in table 7: 340 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 231 TABLE 7. EFFECT OF SIZE OF GROUP ON VARIABILITY | | Coefficient of variability Group production, Nahe tea ben ewe ene two-weeks period of groups of cows Observed Calculated (pounds) per group value value AOS AA OO leriaee cutee sein coat «sty: 23 8 AN 3) ==10)-43 4.19 PEZOO RAO are. ai ae lor hc sae eens 33 6 5.09 + 0.42 4.84 TE SOOm TE OOO Meg cate > see ES ee | EID BOOS fet Sc ne Sa ee oa 49 4) | +539) 0°37 5.94 Bea 400 tas. Ae eet Bhis ) : A comparison of the observed and the calculated coefficients of varia- bility for groups of eight, six, and four individuals, given in table 7, shows close agreement between the two values in each case. In two cases the calculated values are within the limits set by the probable errors above or below the observed coefficients. In the third case the variation is not significant. This indicates that the data are trustworthy and that in a similar way the probable coefficients of variability for groups of different sizes may be computed from the coefficients of variability of individuals. Selection of groups on the basis of production during the preceding lactation peritod.— It has been stated that the selection of groups on the basis of yield during the preceding lactation period must be considered a poor method. Inasmuch as several investigators have selected groups on that basis, it seemed desirable to make some study of the method. Accord- ingly, groups of six cows each were formed on the basis of their productive capacity as shown during the preceding lactation period. The results of this study are shown in table 8: TABLE 8. VARIATION OF GROUPS SELECTED ON THE BASIS OF PRECEDING LACTATION RECORDS Group production during preceding lactation period Number Coefficient of (pounds) of groups variability OOMIOO ROME OOO eee arctte erates ne nee tier enae Ss Se ee oot eee 07) OW Se LOS A comparison of the coefficient shown in table 8 with the value 5.09 + 0.42, given in table 2, indicates that when groups of cows are selected on the basis of their yield during the preceding lactation period the coeffi- cient of variability is nearly double that for groups selected on the basis of a two-weeks preliminary period in the same lactation period. It is thus proved that the latter is by far the better method. 341 232 BULLETIN 397 Variation of groups in fat production.— All the preceding studies have been made with regard to milk production only, since that is the factor given the greatest consideration in feeding trials. It seemed desirable tc ascertain whether the variation in fat production is similar to that in milk production. In order to determine the variability of groups of cows in fat production, groups were made up of cows having approximately equal fat production. Since too pounds of milk was the range allowed in the group limits in studying variation in milk production, a correspond- ing range of 3.5 pounds of fat was allowed in the group limits in this study, this being the approximate amount of fat in 100 pounds of average Hol- stein milk. The results are shown in table 9: TABLE 9. VARIATION OF GROUPS IN FAT PRODUCTION Group production, two-weeks period Number Coefficient of (pounds) of groups variability TOPS TOMA’ S08 a sks At ie tome, oes ene a Seema tm 33 5-13 = 014g “It is seen from table g that the coefficient of variability for fat pro- duction is practically identical with the value shown in table 2 for milk production. STUDIES OF HOLSTEIN RECORDS: COWS IN VARIOUS STAGES OF LACTATION As has been pointed out, the beginning of an experiment on a selected date, using cows that have freshened during the preceding six months, represents the procedure usually followed in a feeding experiment. There- fore studies were made of records taken on this basis in order to furnish data as to variability under this method of selection and to obtain infor- mation by comparison with the results of the preceding method of selection as to the effect of stage of lactation on variability. The general methods used in these studies were the same as those employed in the former ones, except that, as previously stated, the time elapsing between fresh- ening and the beginning of the twenty-weeks period was not fixed. Individual variation The individual cows were here, as before, divided into classes of approxi- mately similar individual production. Inasmuch as the cows were in different stages of lactation, the average number of weeks after calving is given for each group. The results of this study are shown in table to: 342 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION. 233 TABLE 10. INDIVIDUAL VARIATION Average Individual production, two-weeks period number of |Number of| Coefficient of (pounds) weeks | individuals variability after calving DOOADi 1) 8 arene Mnsed OPER 6 cL. b iy cicero. b, beanie 14 5 30.08 + 6.42 DEC ZO GO) goes ota ae eS Oe Ore a oor 14 17 TS UO == alee 755 ETOAC) atc Dea eBe oeer is Out eee ae 12 13 Hi O4 = el 57 REO Cope. bbe ED ARF ai BOO Da 0 ote ere 12 27 10.41 + 0.96 NCOP AG) GER ic: WO dee Sie ey OO he Oe: II 24 gi Cyl Se Wale ASO NOM Rena. cas Aer ees Oe Mee a Ae 13 27 10.34 + 0.95 SOO=S he seas Cth Beco Cod ee cre Petes aes 9 30 TP e5 Obs OO BOSE ang Pea Re ea 6b OOO eRe thal ips Oke 8 16 8.00 + 0.95 DODAB] och ye mor PRR eared Gor oles eect | 13 15.60 + 2.06 B50- OOM, aaa eis. MME GIoaeee. 56) eae 6 9 Hit Oy Se 1 57 f6) FOO 7/1) ore es COePORONS. 6 he ECPI eAC, OEORO 5 5 Ii atete) SE Wey KOA FOO OS Salar oS oO eee ee ecu 7 6 10.18 + 1.98 SU OM OMIT SMe nates S20. I SMe acts 4 7 8.19 + 1.48 slic cles eee Taree pare i ee ee fell. tae reat TOQIN| eee! AA eENPAA SELES Se RRA ee TPeoheese ese et: Cetredy | Bey. atlas | oygentsiiiete ages WAST SS Ons? The data in this table are less consistent than those given in table 1 (page 225) for animals in a uniform stage of lactation. A wider range of coefficients is shown in table 10, due to the value found for the first class. The large probable error attached to this and other coefficients indicates that little reliance can be placed onthem. The average coefficient is practically identical with the one found for individuals in the same stage of lactation. It would naturally be expected that cows in various stages of lactation would be more variable than animals uniform in this respect. The reduction in milk yield during the lactation period is one factor that should cause greater variation in the former group. However, if this reduction were represented by a straight line, this factor would not be operative under the conditions of selection used in this study. Woll (1912) has shown that the monthly decrease is practically constant until the eighth month, when a more rapid fall begins. In the present study, practically all the cows were.less than eight months advanced in the stage of lactation at the end of the twenty-weeks period. Therefore this factor of an accelerated rate of decrease with advancing lactation would not be operative under the method of selection used. Another factor that becomes operative with varying stages of lactation is the decrease in milk flow due to the development of a fetus. The results of Gavin’s work have already been cited showing that this decrease is not constant. However, this factor may be as largely operative in 343 234 BULLETIN 397 table 1 as it is in the case of the results here under discussion, for the time of service bears no definite relation to the time of previous calving. In view of the above discussion, it is not very surprising that, under the conditions of selection used, the coefficient of variability of cows in various stages of lactation is not greater than the value for animals uniform in this respect. If the twenty-weeks period included records for the last three or four months of the lactation period, the results would doubtless be quite different. The column Average number of weeks after calving is placed in the table to show that the lowest producers are the ones most advanced in the stage of lactation, and to show the decrease in the number of weeks with increasing production. This is what would be expected, other conditions being equal. Fixed limits versus percentage limits in selecting 1ndividuals on the basis of equal production.— Brief mention has been made of the possible effect of a fixed range in class limits thruout the series, in selecting individuals of similar production. In order to determine the possible effect of this factor, the limits for selecting cows of equal production were fixed on a percentage basis. The range of each group is 10 per cent of the lower limit of the group. The range of limits thus fixed increases as the lower limit increases. Beginning at 200 the class limits are thus: 200-210, 220-241, 242-265, 266-292, and so on. The variation of individuals of similar production selected on this basis is shown in table rr: TABLE tt. INDIVIDUAL VARIATION; PERCENTAGE LIMITS USED FOR CLASSES OF INDIVIDUALS OF EQUAL PRODUCTION Average Individual production, two-weeks period | number of |Number of| Coefficient of (pounds) weeks | individuals| variability after calving PSO PIN, ty oe MONNE eS Gis arose ee a Oo EMT re oe 16 4 30) 075= =e galen DAZ 2 OS tence tee eRe RR Te en eee 12 4 23°37 275057 2665292 PASS Re Bes 5 ee ee ee 14 9 8.22 s= Tegr 2G 32 ilar wow Bind ery i aio eae a II 9 13.5), = 2e05 BIG cat Se NR AS, de Mae li = i 14 10 9.52 £1.44 215 A= 3S Sutra. BRC fey. +. patil a TD Bile 12 22 10.35 41.05 3 SO7 12 Ore eee eet ca cee cae ae 13 13 10.58 + 1.40 ADT AGO re reeron Te rece it oh Es OT 15 23 10:37) S=' 1503 AT O=-SUO As S. MPa at it a 10 29 1223) eho Gilg aig (Shag oe one chic ten Cohan eee ee 10 27 10.83 + 0.99 BOO—O26= era ee eR es eh ee 6 15 8.95 + 1.10 627-689)... .00 5 hs tas SRE PE 5 12 17.25 + 2.38 COORTISS Ag tite co Natit arene ek 4 tc, nag ee 6 II 13.31 == 1-9% 7 5OROSALS cine TEC. aS a eee 5 6 743022 a5 So 5-O1 Sich at. te: Aare yes feed 4 4 0.23 == 2520 Totals fees Se eee te oe ee ee ee 198° |! 20. Lee IAVETACCS:. octal. At Oe. Me atllh, Saas sae ie ae Il.75-+ 0.42 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 235 The coefficients of variability in table 11 show the same general range as those in table 10. The average value is also similar. If there is any difference due to the different systems of determining the limits, the coefficients should be larger where the range is greater in proportion to the group yield. In table 10 the limits are wider below 500 pounds, while above this figure the converse is true. Splitting each table at this point, the average coefficient for the groups below 500 pounds is 12.89 + o.s8 for table ro and 11.91 + 0.54 for table 11; above 500 pounds the average coefficient is 11.08 + 0.58 for table 10 and 11.49 + 0.65 for table 11. Thus it is seen that the coefficients are slightly larger where the limits are wider, but the probable errors indicate that the differences are not significant. It therefore appears that there is no object in using a percentage basis of limits under the conditions of selection used. Allowable range in selecting individuals of equal production.— In the studies previously made in selecting individuals of equal production, the range allowed has been 50 pounds. A study was made to determine the effect of a wider and of a narrower range on variation, in order to ascertain whether other limits would prove more satisfactory. First, TABLE 12. RANGE TO BE ALLOWED IN SELECTING INDIVIDUALS OF EQUAL PRODUCTION Range Individual production, two-weeks period allowed |Number of| Coefficient of (pounds) by limits | individuals variability (pounds) O56 S03) See a ir CORR 100 51 12.65 + 0.84 So ae ee ee Si]. 12:03 0:81 ARAN SARIN Spee A colt Sichle ent ore ae Ae | Bee ee PROTOS He TAN 25 SI] 10.98 0.74 rE ra aro its kee a. Jes: lait os ) PADS Aan Nats Socis ay cast Sagan ge se vie ee os | AIMS RAZAM OG cae Gore seksi ese mc eek weet | STC UN ore ae Ove Re) ATA eo Sea eae ae } 12.5 34 10.68 + 0.89 cE, UE NS ES pel Ree oA ee | pe Caer: Set SMS Seo ee ee ee he ee } all the cows producing from 400 to 499 pounds in the trial period were selected and their coefficient of variability was determined. Thus this measure of variation was based on the assumption that a range of not over roo pounds in two weeks represented equal production. Next, the same animals were divided into two classes, one composed of indi- 345 236 BULLETIN 397 viduals producing between 400 and 449 pounds, the other of individuals producing from 450 to 499 pounds. Thus the measure of variation assuming a 50-pound range as representing equal production was obtained. Similarly, the cows were further divided into four classes, with a range of 25 pounds; and finally into eight classes, to obtain an even smaller range. The results are given in table 12. e A slight decrease in the size of the coefficients as the limits are narrowed is shown in table 12. However, the decrease is not significant when the probable errors are considered. ‘The difference between the values for the widest and the narrowest range is 1.97 + 1.22. The odds are only 2 to 1 that this difference is significant. ‘Thus it appears that there is no object in using narrower limits than 1oo pounds in yields for a two- weeks period in selecting individuals of equal production. Accordingly the 50-pound range used for the studies in this bulletin must be sufficiently narrow to secure the object desired. Group variation The variation of groups of equal production during the trial period is shown in table 13. No selection of individuals was made, the only consideration being to make the production of the groups equal within the roo-pound limits. TABLE 13. VARIATION IN GROUPS Group production, two-weeks period Number ne ees Coefficient of (pounds) of groups per group variability 27 Oa 2 FOO Nees Cae ions es agi aa se Rees 18 6 32.96 + 0743 3, TOO=3 TOO tee Wr ciene sere sie cee teen one 16 6 5-25 2= Ones Totaly reg: seems unre ccd anest chee kee eet ase time 3A |! & avis. pe Seno eee tee Ve AILS EMRE © ia CER AB eee oe Pee gs le at! Pal ee ee 4-51 sous, It is shown in this table that the variation in groups of six cows in different stages of lactation, under the conditions of selection obtaining in this study, is no greater than the variation in a similar group of the same stage of lactation. The probable reasons why the variation in stage of lactation does not result in a larger coefficient under the con- ditions in question, have been discussed in connection with table ro. Effect of including aborting cows.—In the statistical studies reported in this bulletin, the importance of numbers was felt to be so great that not all the records of animals that had aborted were excluded. Inasmuch 346 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 237 as these records constituted only six per cent of the total, even assuming that they were subject to greater variation than the records of normal individuals, the effect of their inclusion would be small. However, it was believed that under the conditions of this selection no greater varia- tion would result. A study was made on this point. Groups of six cows were made up as follows: (1) all aborting cows; (2) all normal cows; (3) half aborting cows and half normal cows. In order to get enough aborting cows to make the results more trustworthy, the number of records of such cows used in these studies was increased by all such records in the herdbooks which satisfied the conditions of selection. The results are shown in table 14: TABLE 14. EFFrect oF INCLUSION OF ABORTING COWS ON THE VARIATION OF GROUPS Composition of group Number Coefficient of of groups variability Pe TEITIEECOW SIE ON ole Sets Pee ee as 5 3.30 + 0.70 ANTI iavorsaavaill’ ie oe ie = aes eeccuptos Ore en etc ree ced Neer ee eee 7 5.61 + 1.01 Etelli@ANOIUIM SMCOWS russe ote erats isin e oioc assoc aia < aaa tacers 7 5.20 + 0.94 It is shown in table 14 that under the conditions of this selection abortihg cows were apparently less variable than normal cows. Altho the number of groups used is too small to make the results. absolutely conclusive, they indicate that aborting cows are not more variable than normal cows. The variability of mixed groups, even, shows no increase above that of groups of all normal cows, when selected on the basis used. Hills (1896) found that abortion causes a decrease of one-third in milk flow from the production of the preceding lactation period. When aborting cows are selected on the basis of their production after abortion, however, their variation is apparently less than the variation of normal cows selected in the same way. This discussion is included to indicate the soundness of the procedure followed. It should not, however, be concluded that animals which have aborted should be included in an experimental group. At all times in experimental work the animals used should be free from disease and from all residual effects of disease. While aborting cows are apparently no more variable when selected on the basis of production after abortion, the residual effects of the disease on the health of the animal and on her production are not known. Such an animal is diseased, is abnormal, and hence should not be included. It is of the greatest importance to use none but healthy cows in experimental work. 347 238 BULLETIN 397 STUDIES OF JERSEY RECORDS: COWS IN UNIFORM STAGE OF LACTATION Enough Jersey records were available to permit of a little corrobo- rative work with this breed. The study was made in a similar way to the study of Holsteins in which the records of production for a twenty- weeks period began one month after calving. Only cows that freshened between August 15 and December 15 were used. Individual variation. The records were first sorted into groups of equal individual pro- duction and the variation of individuals was thus determined. The results of this study are shown in table 15: TABLE 15. INDIVIDUAL VARIATION Individual production, two-weeks period Number of| Coefficient of (pounds) individuals variability T5OnLOO IR in eS ns Ss ols AE adi ert 7 7-02 pale BOOS2AO SM he oe Shere solace ec AG ted a ea ewincn SEN ee 17 12.13 42 EA ZO ZOOM eye tecers of pe tuane teks aie) esas ein Gh exe a Tey ONC S ee ae ie Pare ee 23 I). 33 S=eee BOO 3A OM eaters cree ae te ttene eter ree iO eee 32 11.42 + 0.96 BOGS Os 05 ieee Bae nb ican nk alesscan ay chee S) sto) apehs, Sete ieac eee i 18 9.13 == oF AOOSWAQ Ne [Mee alc ok aya do eae ais ERM, ROSE «cc EON ROR SIE RSENS Oe 9 13. 16226 2210 ASORAQQE cnpAcyae Sacpns cy sues n ae Toe nok ae pieueuens hays bie Meas eres 6 4.70 + 0.92 (Potala AeRe ele See Sr RE OCR SE Vee LI2):| <2 See (AN CTAS CRs ten tae Nigtia h Cees te Mee eet A ate a Ae ee Li. 47 == Ona The coefficient of individual variation for Jerseys, as shown by the average value listed in table 15, is nearly identical with the corresponding figure for Holsteins as shown in table 1. Group variation In the study of group variation the individuals were chosen at random, the only consideration being to have the group production fall within the limits prescribed. The results are shown in table 16: TABLE 16. VARIATION IN GROUPS Group production, two-weeks period Number ye ese Coefficient of (pounds) of groups per group variability T;QOO=TQ00 whan. Ree ae WOR es Ss Runs 18 6 4.25 + 0.48 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 239 The value found for the coefficient of variability for Jerseys in groups of six made up of unselected individuals is similar to the figure found for Holsteins. The calculated value on the basis of the average coefficient for individual variability shown in table 15 was found to be 4.68. This checks closely with the observed figures shown in table 16. EFFECT OF AGE ON THE PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS The herd records used in the foregoing investigations afforded an oppor- tunity for some additional study on the effect of age on the production of dairy cows. In discussing the variability of mature and of immature cows, the question arises as to when a cow is mature. In order to answer this question, and also to trace the increase of production from the first lactation to the lactation of maximum production, the following study was made. All the cows of all breeds were used for which records of production were available for at least four lactations, beginning with the first. Records of the production of seventy-nine individuals were obtained, ranging in length from four to eleven lactations. Production for each lactation was taken, rather than production per year, since a calendar year begin- ning in any month would include parts of two lactations for a large num- ber of cows. Altho the lactations of individuals vary considerably in length, the average lengths of the various lactation periods of numbers of cows agree closely. In getting the average production of cows for each of the first four lactations, the records of all cows were used. This gave the records of seventy-nine cows for four lactations. Likewise, in getting the average production of cows for each of the first five lactations, the records of all cows were used which had completed five lactations. There were sixty of these cows. In a similar way the average production per lactation for six, seven, eight, nine, and ten lactations was obtained. Only four cows had completed ten lactations. The relation of age to milk production is shown graphically in figure 59 (page 241). The maximum milk production of these cows was not reached until the eighth lactation. Only fourteen cows had completed eight lactations, and hence the data are not conclusive. The consistency of the longer curves of fewer cows with the shorter curves of a larger number of cows—as far as the latter go— tends to substantiate the above conclusion. Cows five years of age are ordinarily considered to be mature. The average production of sixty cows for five lactations shows that their maximum production was not reached before the fifth lactation, corresponding to an age of from six to seven years. 349 240 BULLETIN 397 Pearl and Patterson (1917) have shown that the maximum seven-day milk production of Jersey cows is reached between eight and nine years of age. Miner (1915) has shown that the maximum seven-day fat pro- duction of Holstein cows is also reached between eight and nine years of age. Both these studies were made with seven-day records. The larger number of individuals used gives a smoother curve and greater certainty to the results. The curve presented in this bulletin shows that maximum production for a whole lactation was reached during the eighth lactation, which corresponds to an age of from nine to ten years. The close agree- ment of these results of yearly records for a few cows, with seven-day records for larger numbers tends to substantiate the former. Probably maximum production is reached somewhat later in life than is ordinarily supposed. The curves (fig. 60) showing the relation of age to fat production agree very closely with those for milk production. In studying the relation of the production of a cow for her first lactation to the production for her lactation of maximum production, the difficulty has been in finding out which is the lactation of maximum production. The foregoing study indicated that the maximum production of these cows was reached during the eighth lactation. As already stated, only fourteen cows had completed eight lactations and therefore the results are not so trustworthy as is desirable. The averages for the fourteen cows for eight lactations are given in table 17: TABLE 17. RELATION OF AGE TO MILK PRODUCTION (Averages of 14 cows for 8 lactations) Milk Number | Per cent of Lactation production of days | maximum (pounds) milked | production 1 es SPEARS Kime CoS ria Osta itera sha tO Ae OOO 7,511.9 345 68 se AROSE ME MEE tot iees Pam rir st. Gia 15m.) R a SPL ke. 8 7,266.9 289 65 Oa OTR PORE Oe PTS TS AO le OMe. Sn ren 9,179.8 331 83 7 A Ree irl: to tote ape Naeatade note, © alo d ola Bo Stcigis 8,961.2 321 81 ag tee Te, o BME bc ake LAs 2 Eee. eae 9,529.8 308 86 Os pees Bet tte rare, opal Bie Wet ars og Bec ora ee Pe 9,621.1 318 86 7 ee Doe Conic e oboe 10,399.6 327 93 Cra rere, fe BPO ES Ses ete pene hae eee II ,123.9 352 100 For purposes of comparison the averages of sixty cows for five lacta- tions are given in table 18. The data indicate that these cows had not yet reached their maximum. 350 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 241 Pounds of milk produced 12,250 12,000 ES, ee » | Eelaey ams agen Mean production 79 cows 500 “ “ 60 “ Bod 4 i & 40 Nu woomomowowowoo 0 ze - uw ° “I tN un ° 7,000 Lactation 1 2 3 4 5 (0) 7 8 9 BO) Fic. 59. RELATION OF AGE OF COW TO MILK PRODUCTION ", \ / ane NN w 4 ° S 48 “ 28 1eh 290 . . ~ ~ , 260 : . ao 250 H Lactation 1 2 3} 4 5 6 i 8 9 Io FIG. 60. RELATION OF AGE OF COW TO FAT PRODUCTION 351 242 BULLETIN 397 TABLE 18. RELATION OF AGE TO MILK PRODUCTION (Averages of 60 cows for 5 lactations) Per cent Milk Number of pro- Lactation production of days duction (pounds) milked for fifth lactation PTE a) DERE Seen s ORES es ote. Se 7,055.1 333 72 Pca 6- ts toh SS LO Pies Fo APR at te Phu 7,502.4 310 77 Gh A Uh We Bee ened PEA Eat Beh 8,991.1 324 92 eGR SRS oh REAR Bcc OR ROTTS oy Pugs DOORS CERO GING AOI, C 9,282.4 316 95 (yee ot ay aReit RaNeee en ee eae Cath cP bests bills aro. tbe la emer 9,757-8 323 100 It would be expected that the period of maximum seven-day production of a cow would fall in or near the lactation of maximum production. This, however, has not been proved. The chief interest of the practical breeder lies in the relation of age to the annual production of cows. Few herd records contain enough data to give much light on this question. While the limitations of the relatively small number of records are recognized, the data are here included for what they are worth. They represent all the records of cows that up to the present time have com- pleted at least four lactations, recorded in the university herdbook. These records, which have been kept for the past thirty years by Professor H. H. Wing, include the records of some four hundred animals of all breeds. The data from which the curves of milk production were made are given in tables 19 to 25, inclusive: TABLE 19. RELATION OF AGE TO MILK PRODUCTION (Averages of 79 cows for 4 lactations. Age at freshening, 27 months) Per cent Milk Number | Number of pro- Lactation production | of days of days duction (pounds) milked dry for fourth lactation MGs pach NS Mead Sy ME ceers ete oe 7,018.4 335.0 55-7 76 DR EGE PS 5 Gis wh OD REE Te 7553-4 309.0 66.0 82 Bical. chicka nsteaepe oes Rieetioas Pade, rein focus = 8,750.6 322.4 62.2 95 EPR a oe os get 9,200.7 319.2 57-5 100 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR: MILK PRODUCTION 242 TABLE 20. RELATION OF AGE TO MILK PRODUCTION (Averages of 60 cows for 5 lactations) Per cent Milk Number | Number of pro- Lactation production of days of days duction (pounds) milked dry for fifth lactation Meer SN Mans he zelousnisn ach seu stiepenars cvsucke 705551 232 a1 53.6 72 . 5 Seerdaceea ne cne Sapa ane ain Oe ie Bint Ti 024 309.8 67.6 Tol Rare EA ge cca Se Si ish Die eveovsveu tt, & 8,991.1 Beane 6l-2 92 Ri eee RBG oy ohio egebs. NS, tutay nth Yond 3 9,282.4 315.8 62.4 95 tle Mae det ee Se Cee eee OR757-9 222.3) 59.8 100 TABLE 21. RELATION oF AGE TO MILK PRODUCTION (Averages of 40 cows for 6 lactations) Per cent Milk Number | Number of pro- Lactation production | of days of days duction (pounds) milked dry for fifth lactation TOBE Boas SS geome Cone taser To Que 338.2 47-4 77 SM ecg eae See ere ene eta 7,592.8 311.9 68.4 79 .& Sie Be et Soares ee cea ear cae 9,284.9 329.1 55-4 96 eee a Sere tte yo ores eh. os 8,846.8 307.4 56.3 92 2b SO 5 Oe ees Ee eae 9,637.8 326.4 62.3 100 2 3 ac aOR Be MeN me Bas i gear Bae Opt52n7 314.6 62.4 95 TABLE 22. RELATION OF AGE TO MILK PRODUCTION (Averages of 26 cows for 7 lactations) Per cent Milk Number | Number of pro- Lactation production of days of days duction (pounds) milked dry for seventh lactation LOGO CIEE Oe Oe: REO ce cam ct ae 7,376.6 346.0 Car 73 BP, sono See e aioe Ss ET ARI eRe 7,383.6 297.8 55-5 73 ECR Bac ec CR EE Ole eo, ROE Oe 9,367.7 331.0 53.0 92 AREA ne. Sc tei Mere AG cl oct ene oe 9,027.6 314.0 54.3 89 - RTE: Oct Se © STONE Nr cre, EES Ge 9,432.2 316.3 53.0 93 So RTS Hic eee ME wy Cie: A CEE ane 9,034.4 315.0 73.6 89 IRCCS CHO) CRDTEUEO NG Clays RRO ee 0,127.0 32007, 62.0 10e Lal 244 BULLETIN 397 TABLE 23. RELATION oF AGE TO MILK PRODUCTION (Averages of 14 cows for 8 lactations) Milk Number | Number |Per cent of Lactation production of days of days | maximum (pounds) |: milked dry production OMUMMIMP EET Nee fetes. ots. hela, @ ances, 3 fname 7,511.9 345.1 54.6 68 PD aeta-c (ath Bong Wid ONAN ERR 7,266.9 289.1 55.7 65 SU RIE Be loeric ce cone he ys cyanea en ee 9,179.8 33iLE2 50.4 83 Hie 5 ty es gchar REPORTS 8,961.2 321.5 54-4 81 15 cy Gf te auton PRA PEE ERD IB ac 9,529.8 308.4 50.4 86 (Ss do ec ah renege BIA ese sce 9,621.1 318.2 66.9 86 Fis https aco IG AY eR Ee Hence Stole, 10,399.6 22 Tn7, 66.9 93 eS od RLS SG Reet Rabon eae Seer ouch? II ,123.9 352.0 59.6 100 TABLE 24. RELATION OF AGE TO MILK PRODUCTION (Averages of 9 cows for 9 lactations) Milk Number | Number |Per cent of Lactation production of days of days | maximum (pounds) milked dry production Dinpe eth otc Only ay ceo a iisy> Sete 7,706.5 335-4 59.4 63 PO eS RIA ogee ORR MSG, Sent er at gee Be 8,302.0 303.9 iS ilyead 68 re Piteie cs tata a eeere cesrlcs he aa teh dee eens ee 9,163.0 21Gm 48.7 75 Mere oe atte Prem ase oi Poac goes oa tdi ts 9,492.7 22282 52.4 78 Ie er hare RtOR ON Aa & Sint Leese i cre aes: A 10,578.9 aio 48.0 87 Ge se rie Se ees, cen cree Ok ee NOR2 7052 309.6 62.4 85 Fis ARETE Ee A eT ROR 3 ORS CR RRR 11, 433-0 344.8 68.0 94 Ore AS Ot tethers tens sete 2 eee a 12,153.9 345-4 67.2 100 OM nero css eevee oe ee ales EEE Hb, Aylin © 344.4 35.9 g2 TABLE 25. RELATION OF AGE TO MILK PRODUCTION (Averages of 4 cows for 10 lactations) Milk Number | Number |Per cent of Lactation production of days of days | maximum (pounds) milked dry production RT Teer Aa! 4 ot area amen, ae 7 AtisO 307.5 64.2 61 Dieta sca taxes Mune Uae Peas ETE MSIL octets Lat 8,025.8 301.0 46.2 67 BS shor ioralis tee Sue AGERE REIN REMO aoror eeae eie 9,342.4 S275 48.7 78 7 EE RET OR IAS A A IS Gh 6) i NER 8,848.5 312.5 58.5 74 Eta iS coriay.etoy ele See oes Oe ei ease es, 9,899.2 303.0 39.2 82 (O18 See CE NES RED es PPC REDG Pec Nice 5 Oe ene 9,688.0 322.0 ate 81 7 10,619.4 316.0 69.8 88 Ce HORMEL AAEAE oo lori Ne Ia 12,015.2 334.0 64.0 100 OR SACP Ee ALAA Mic nA ot A icuome Be DL, 047-0 339.0 80.8 93 1105 Diner Nepa a Ree hat Secebeas iL civy 6, 3:5 OFC a II ,002.0 293.0 26.5 92 354 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 245 SUMMARY It is shown by the foregoing statistical studies that Holsteins in the same stage of lactation, selected on the basis of approximately equal production during a two-weeks period, are subject to a coefficient of individual variability of 11.87 0.43 in a following period of eighteen weeks. Under the conditions of selection used in which the eighteen- weeks period was completed while the decrease in milk production due to advancing lactation remained approximately uniform, the coefficient of variability was not materially increased by using animals in various stages of lactation. Ina study with Jerseys in the same stage of lactation the coefficient of variability was found to be 11.47 +0.53. Studies as to the variation of groups resulted in coefficients for group production which checked closely with the values calculated from the figures for individual variation. This furnishes evidence as to the accuracy of the values for individuals, and of the methods used. It is shown that groups of unselected individuals are more variable than groups made up of individuals of equal production. Groups of animals of the same age are shown to be less variable than groups including all ages. A study of the first four lactations did not show any differences in variability among them. Groups selected on the basis of yields during the preceding lactation are shown to be more variable than groups selected on the basis of a preliminary period during the lactation in question. A study of variation in fat production as regards Holsteins resulted in a coefficient similar to that found for milk production. Yields varying within a 50-pound range during a two-weeks preliminary period are considered as equal production as regards individuals. It is shown that variation is not decreased appreciably by using a smaller range. Similarly, it is shown that there is no object in using a smaller range than too pounds for the two-weeks period in selecting groups of six of equal total production. It is shown further than when limits as narrow as the ones stated above for individuals are employed, there is no object in using percentage limits — that is, limits in proportion to the yield. Probably the maximum production of cows is reached later in life than is commonly supposed. The cows used in this study did not reach their maximum production until the eighth lactation, corresponding to an age of from nine to ten years. APPLICATION OF RESULTS OF STATISTICAL STUDY In considering the application of the results of the studies described. in the foregoing pages, attention must be given to the conditions under 309 246 BULLETIN 397 which the studies were made. In the first place, the continuous system of conducting feeding experiments was the method under consideration. Secondly, an experimental period of eighteen weeks was arbitrarily chosen, for reasons already mentioned. Finally, use was made of the records of the general college herd, not of animals on experiment. The reasons for using such a group of animals have been given. It is believed that data are presented that will make possible a more intelligent use of the continuous system of feeding experiments. These data should aid the investigator in planning experiments so as to obtain results capable of interpretation. The results given here should aid in determining what variation may be expected under the conditions of selection possible in a given case. It is further believed that these studies should convince workers of the necessity of a statistical analysis of results before conclusions are drawn. Variation of similar individuals and groups, even when selected care- fully and treated uniformly, is a fact to be acknowledged and considered. Hence, in an experiment in which two or more groups of animals of similar productive capacity are used, one group will always produce more than the others. This may be due to the causes considered in the experiment, or it may be in spite of them. In such experiments, conclusions should not be drawn from inconclusive results. Statistical analysis of the results of feeding experiments is an aid in interpreting the results. The greatest advantage of the statistical method is that it eliminates personal bias and preconceived conclusions, and gives the mathematical chances for or against a proposition. Even odds of 30 to r in favor of a conclusion do not give absolute certainty. The statistical method of analysis will not take the place of judgment, but it is a valuable adjunct to judgment in evaluating results and formulatin conclusions. It cannot be determined how closely the figures found for individual variation over a period of eighteen weeks would apply to periods of other durations. It is believed that for periods of approximately the same length the application would be very close, while for periods of much longer duration the value reported should at least serve as a guide. In considering the application of the results as to the influence of certain selective factors on variation, their value is not limited by the fact that a period of definite length was used. Rather, these results should have a general application. In making up groups of animals for feeding experiments the following points should be considered: | 1. Groups should be selected on the basis of production for a trial period just preceding the experimental period. 356 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 247 2. The cows in a group should be of approximately equal individual production. 3. The cows in a group should be as nearly as possible of the same age. There is no indication that cows of any particular age are more variable than those of any other age, but for other reasons it seems desirable to exclude heifers. 4. Cows in a group should be in approximately the same stage of lactation. There is apparently no increase in variability caused by mixing cows in different stages of lactation, so long as the experimental period is completed before the rapid decrease in production begins. According to Woll (1912), this rapid decrease begins at about the eighth month, and hence, if a period of about five months is to be used, the cows should have freshened not more than three months before the beginning of the period. 5. Only healthy, vigorous, normal, mature cows should be included. 6. Groups should be made as large as possible without sacrificing more important factors. In planning a feeding trial the experimenter should generally have some idea as to the difference in production that may be expected with the rations used. In order to get results that may be considered reasonably certain, the percentage difference in total production should be about three times the normal variation due to individuality. Knowing the probable coefficient of individual variation under the conditions of selection used, the experimenter can determine how many animals he must include in a group in order to get significant results. If this number of animals is not available, repetition of the experiment may be necessary. In some cases the experimenter may not have much of an idea as to what differences in production he may expect. Even in this case a con- sideration of the coefficient of normal variation will be useful, if only in - preventing him from conducting an experiment from which significant results could not be obtained. In any case a statistical analysis of the results should be made before any interpretation is placed on them. The relation of the percentage difference in total production obtained by the experiment, to the coefficient of variability to be expected with the groups as selected, gives the best evidence of the trustworthiness of the results. 357 248 - BULLETIN 397 BIBLIOGRAPHY AMERICAN Society oF ANIMAL NutTRITION. Report of Committee on Organization. Amer. Soc. Anim. Nutr. Proc. 1908:1-16. 1g09. ARMSBY, HENRY PRENTISS. The nutrition of farm animals, p. 1-743. LOL7: BLAcKMAN, F. F. Optima and limiting factors. Ann. bot. 19:281-295. 1905. CALDWELL, R. E. The value of soybean and alfalfa hay in milk pro- duction, Ohio Agr. Exp: Sta. Bul.c2G7° re5—ia5. 012: Davis, H. P. The effect of open-shed housing as compared with the closed stable for milch cows. Pennsylvania State Coll. Agr. Exp. Dia, Rept. L913 Id: 163220. 191s. FRASER, WILBER J., AND HAYDEN, Cassius. Balanced vs. unbalanced fations for dairy cows: Univ. Illinois Agr. Exp. Sta.) Bul. Saga: 225-2404) LQI2, Gavin, WitiiamM. The interpretation of milk records. Roy. Agr. Soc. England. Journ. 73:153-174. 1912. Studies in milk records: the influence of foetal growth on yield. Journ. agr. sci. 5:309-319. I913 a. Studies in milk records: on the accuracy of estimating a cow’s milking capability by her first lactation yield. Journ. agr. sci. 5:377- 390. 1913 b. GrinDLEY, H. S. Improvements in the methods of conducting ordinary feeding experiments. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. Proc. 1914:73-78. IQgIs. Haecker, T. L. Investigations in milk-production. Univ. Minnesota Acrokxp. ota. —_sbul, 7465576... HOLA: Hansen, J. Fitterungsversuche mit Milchkthen. Landw. Jahrb. 35: 125-158. i1go06a. Fiutterungsversuche mit Milchkihen. Landw. Jahrb. 35, Ergzbd. IV :327-369. 1906 b. Futterungsversuche mit Milchkihen. Landw. Jahrb. 37, Ergzbd. Hist7I—202. 190s. Futterungsversuche mit Milchkithen. Landw. Jahrb. 40, Ergzbd. 1:120-190" “TOUT: Die Wirkung der Palmkuchen auf die Miulchergiebigkeit des Rindes. Landw. Jahrb. 47:1-70. 1914. Hixis, J. L. Variations in milk. In Dairying. Vermont Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 9 (1895):158-186. 1896. Methods of experimentation in feeding for milk production. In Proceedings of the twentieth annual convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Sta. Bul. 184:115-119. 1907. McCo.ivum, E. V. The present situation in nutrition. Hoard’s dairy- man 51:989, 993. 1916. : 358 REFINEMENT OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS FOR MILK PRODUCTION 249 MINER, JoHN Rice. Fitting logarithmic curves by the method of moments. Journ. agr. res. 3:411-423. I9QI5. MitcHett, H. H., anp GrinpLEY, H. S. The element of uncertainty in the interpretation of feeding experiments. Univ. Illinois Agr. Exp. mia. Bul, 165-450-5705 LOn3. Morcen, A., BecEeR, C., AND FINGERLING, G. Untersuchungen tber den Einfluss des Nahrungsfettes und einiger anderer Futterbestandteile auf die Milchproduktion. Landw. Vers. Stat. 61:1-284. 1905. Weitere Untersuchungen tiber die Wirkung der einzelnen Nahrstoffe auf die Milchproduktion. Landw. Vers. Stat. 64:93-242. 1900. Morcen, A., BEGER, C., AND WESTHAUSSER, F. Untersuchungen uber den Einfluss des Proteins auf die Milchproduktion, sowie tiber die Beziehungen zwischen Starkewert und Milchertrag. Landw. Vers. Stat. 66:63-167. 1907. Morse, E. W. Some suggestions concerning the planning and reporting of feeding trials. Amer. Soc. Anim. Nutr. Proc. 1912:4-18. 1913. PEARL, RAYMOND, AND PatTEerRsON, S. W. The change of milk flow with age, as determined from the seven day records of Jersey cows. Maine nor Exper ota. Bul) 202:145-152 1917. SouLE, ANDREW M., anv Fain, JoHN R. Gluten and cotton-seed meal with silage, hay, and stover for dairy cows. Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul-/156: 1-30. - 1905. THORNE, Cuas. E., HicKMAN, J. FREMONT, AND FALKENBACH, F. J. Experiments in feeding for milk. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 50: RIO. O03. Waters, H. J. The feeding experiment — its improvement and refine- ments Amer. soc, Anim. Nutr. Proc. 1911:21-28. 10912. Wiuiams, C. G. Silage vs. grain for dairy cows. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 155:65—-85. “1904. Wott, F. W. On the relation of food to the production of milk and butter-fat by dairy cows. Thesis, University of Wisconsin. 1904. Studies in dairy production. Univ. Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Sta. Research bul. 26:55-135. 1912. Wott, F. W., Humpurey, G. C., anD OosTERHUIS, A. C. Soiling crops vs. silage for dairy cows in summer. Univ. Wisconsin Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 235:1-16. ‘“ro14. Woop, T. B., anD StraTTON, F. J. M. The interpretation of experimental results. Journ. agr. sci. 3:417-440. IgI0. 359 v« > ‘ye a - a. o > ° = d ¥ re ue ea i wae =) el 6 ai 7s Ga oe a hep ey 03 4 A a rete °F ti ts ee - vs i] is \ ' - « ) ' 4 di . i Go P ~-, , ri . ¥ dg A , : ¢ t ' ‘a =~ Jang Pe . ° a e- * 4 a + 4 : % . D sh j . ' a F , 2 ’ ‘ i 7 ‘ Psd ym a \ ‘ - ; ’ i C 4 : ' : i tow + il %% Te, Gus LPP? ee on ‘ ‘ a . o bv a “ { ,* | ‘T ; i 7 i : . é 7 i Ff - Tc = - UG 7 — S INDEX (The index numbers in arabic refer to the numbers at the bottoms of the pages. The original pagination of the bulletins is retained at the top of each page) Agricultural Chemistry, publications of department...............-..----- Ames hulling and scarifying machine for treatment of hard seed..........-.- Animal Husbandry, Se SmaG WERE HERIOT 0 To ache i ee Oe ats Anthracnose disease, oe of the raspberry and related plants..........-.-.--- DMN yes eee et oe th mn eae Cee ae Se eins len TS EET See eee es. See ea ae fel ne XXX, _ ES RE Re eS Sere Sn eee ae: eee ER ag ne at iva) 43 Bo ov 4) 5 INDEX PAGE Birth Vin Geen Ge chs. oe roe. s beet AAO ae ee XVi, XVii, Xxvi, xviii Burch. Mine MeROrbs. oe. 5. OE eee Pe, eset AON Beene ee Ixviil Basse lle ere ares cae Sco &. ocd. ds covcnallnve, shouts > boars, Oe eee XXX1V Cc (CAV AMAUION Crea Wctake. «6a ers elacare apace eee eee ee Ee ee ae XVii, 233 ChianGlermber Nee csr c oes ois bb ats eo et Oe ee ee eee XVili, xxili, xlvii, xlviii, xlix ROE WN Edis is Sie ois S slkck Lok ayers Rae ye iced Pa ne eee 159 ChandlerwWerkl., TEPOrl. fc. ssc site bce eter enone ee ee eee ee ee xliv Collimewoodst Gale 26/54 Sede dan ee One ae Pn XViii, xlvili Cornell reading-course lessons, farm and farm home, list of................. Ixxv Coriell sural’school leaflets-. <. Vk\As ee eee a Oe ee eee lxxvi Grandall\(Alice'V.. 2 hee ee eae ee ee nt ae ee xix Berns eM sys 8.5, 8 ale w 055 018 63, S aeele SSiene Eee ge ee xvii CORES O58 aan SOR ade haba or A eA Nie hee UN han ene ao = XXXV Gurtis, RW report. 12.0 5 5. Ee ee ae a ee ee ae en lvii D Dawy tadustry, report of department ..— 2. <> 4c. ope ce ee eee li avis, Gres LEDOTb 6 Hace yl ae = bata oeene eee lvii IG Ver asia) 001 cea ae ea ea ee rae ST due ie EAS ane xill Decomposition, the, of sweet clover (Melilotus alba Desr.) as a green manure under preenhouse ConditlONS ..).-..cu0%.chs < oai> + « 2 stele 1h eae Ol = ee eee 229 LO RETE Oru G Pal Ora ats een stn Bein eR Sor oy oe eee REAM en Bh Ye te SW NTA a ia ot a oc li E [Deis iaavekebyhl Oh Sonne, Se ROR een eee ea Se er CNT Lt 5 Ixviii IB ADaYeIReyo a al eels eee Deanne. Cee, aT eI RAN Penh OR rat SA RO REE 8. XXXIV Batamolery, publications of department.;. 27 .\!. 2.) 6.0. 2 cae ee ee 295 Emiomolopy.repott ot department... .o.0. 22. cS none ne ae xlix | Diplareimts exe A ag Ore Weve ei cee eisies APS Ree ee I 2 EER cI es WR Teo cs XXXil Epacniment station bulletins, hist.oft 44.45. Sight ae oe oe eee lxxiv Prepenmimeni eration stam... siti. papifetes fe rece Woks beet eee ee ae Xx Btensionapmlletins Mist Ob.+ "ck ecu eo heed coe cue Sore ne ee lxxv Extension weepartment, regort Of: ).. 0s <8 oa. VP cleo cede ee ee Ixvili IDRC HSTTIS COTA AS SrA ACS, ee 1 MNP eee A ble ty Me OR or Oa os a aw 2 XXVi F Factors influencing the abscission of flowers and partially developed fruits of RUC OIe MD yMlIS MAIS L.)9. otc cis. eel aes coals hee Cee ee 155 Bann Crops, epoch Olmdepartiment ..\0 0.6.0. .ot n.d Ole te ee ee XXiX Par Manasement; report of department: . 22 0.0.52... L.A ae Pee XXIX len eraciice, menor at Gepartment foo ok. . dc. | oe Sols eee ee XXXiil [Selialatehanly, Lula] ys Meas x oe eh ie eRe elise Adsio'o So xlv Feeding experiments for milk production, refinement of, by the application of SfalisticalemebdOdSe eee ee mi cctae cise coer peels ete Oe tis Pee ee 319 Bigumicil ee maek OrAGOUee es = tact) ote <\. 5s spss» » pagers eee eee 1xxxi [2] INDEX ioniculbunes report Of deparviMenbeenee. silscs2s sce os oceans sbtie ce ore nor MOLES UyeEneDORt Ol CePAUIMeMUmrmrtata ales st -cncrso see ned ae eee e ean ace owas iFisnalxingwisace, WiRlDE oo. cobop tw ci.¢o 0 Ol DUG OD OR Ic Cee Car ee Gain iii oo ohn GHA Gs SBA OD CO DR ORO DOO OOD ET EORTC Oo are AerecieicamM ey Zale Glee wey 1 eg eerste ete aisistee o.e-d lave. als's arardiateerd ts eee lxiv, (GrERSINOWS, JANE 3 a 5 co, Sho Gate ono ERED se neo DICER AESIERD GIOIA RERE ecto en Green manure, decomposition of sweet clover aS.......... cece eee ep eee Garza, TR Wc-cie Samine Sco cm pe Cicin OO ODES DE Gee nnn Cnn ats: Meta fectil ae PES ATCO eee Scan ola oiclsvelatetd ane S aaieTe a “elstehelb a, ga es 6's apes XViil, ‘Grates, Ce Teo sis Seca 5ic 0 Oe On CI CaT LUE OR ERE OCR OR TPR EEIC RCE Os rice Oe Seewiale, /s).el (au e.telia) (eis) 6) 0) \e) @i7@) \6ire;/6)1e) 0) «\ 0] (4) (8! \0| '©-\0| ¢) \e, 18i'e) 6 we) ee 6) oka eve) (0, (606 0) «64.0, ae) ahie,j6 PamerLconomics, report.of department. 2.0... 506. 0cdsen dees bececucens IE loyal eich, LOG TRS | ava iece ene Ieacea Ae Beer Nis a ee Pa enee a enon o Mews TRl@smaaip, Ts Siks oA. sce RM ens ee ee eI or es aI eS PT 2 XVil, TRLORiRAVEIE, TR 5 SYS TRE DOLE SS cece cheno eA Ceo ee MERE NR RTE or earieee nte e TRlisvelavOsy JEL, IDS ais GRA Ce ORCICT Naat I BIG 1s AUN SoA PRO PE ERI RN ge oe RU te Healiacsmachine fortreatment of hard seed’... ....3..5-++0-000ecnscescesce Ini meerns (Cy 1B BESS ace los oo Coa Dias oO FIe Ob. DHRC OD COC CHOR REO Cen ae Cor See Weaver Srollll, MGS IMI A Creo atte et le te Ramee pa Oe a hayee crim a NO ee a ge as ot a Pt Investigation, an, of the scarring of fruit caused by apple redbugs.......... PTE parce Tener e My ee he SEN Ms ec ee a ois Se wa ww nee gs Loo eH Ee, [Blac ae RI aia Pe ole Oe ii ce a aA. in a ABR, Leo LAB, TE UB oe ip Aas lie A Md apc hed MO ERC ISte r SS 5. | Aart 5 Seen et res Se ee Hie Seana TEES Coa RUE TIOT GN «0:3 cis) 0: «+ 10° 3:4) oy oka LPR OA Lae te SS ART Leland, E. W Mision atid ?tel ale, s)'evo?.e' ee! 01 e)'0!.6 .0\.e1 vay e,ie) eke! vte shel ulefafeliofelecs, &ie ‘esd’ 0 «|e -é6)/ejie 6 (0) sie 229 Ixvill XXVIL xlvii INDEX PFA SHPO WW rs Selec esis wu na ce wen ov come win J wlate dla a acne Nana a ee LOT HER Das lee oo 0 0 5 0 Re yaanto mae is BEDOTG «5.0/0.5 se v2 =a nya laps evolu mia Stoo We levee tale care eet Redeem Ee ySIMELer GEMETIMENtS « . .:.'-.'. ‘sca le atalete otetereres « mtshel a aiatatels ts eile seen an MicNeal, Nancy's « sv. +2. iescteretotetelome's cetee Oa e Meee ee etal reheat nearer eet ean Mailing catdsy, list: Oly). :.s:coscr.vetasaee tan oforsnchonekekotonon Rotel afk tet hats te hcte terete oe ese Tene ete mene AND ern GAN PRISE i deen cb spars ich ot shsnistien Sah AC ee A US SU RTEL A ae ELA OREN Coe Ie eae XVi, XVii, Mann, A. IRs, FepOrtys2.0524.9 4.045 Ha eae meee at alse eee ten ante at ane iM che Dy a rr ere Moet dr One ei a ay lh etre ee er XIX, 220) IM [(Sicn oyster eee ans Sirs HSU haw iM Oya ams Abid cvdinaistc © 0 ot 0, - IWVETMOITS GIStIOE? ff ts teak teh ahh one rote ce a eT a en eee Meteorology. report of departnaent aie om ecind tie oe ei enter eee Nitittary forces'of* country, teachers im).)~ jks 2. oe gs oe ae ares: Milk production, refinement of feeding experiments for, by the application of Statistical-metnods Un Fo nse eee toe Ate rare a ate atte ae ee Montgomery, 1 Gi ts Se ea oe stercte he ek ales) One «gee er ee Monteomery, BG teports tS Toe tee ih ce gele eens a ota oe Morning-plory, herediby Studies 10. oS sa. 2 ae ose niele cabo oan ees ioe eee ADU aTes COR gl 3 WDA pene geti tds ek eens Deer em aM eumre ey er Meat riha PAAR Ee ec MVIGFETS, Werk iced cle stee cl ccss sacle sions Rectihe ei arace Manca oho emia cane oer ae Pescliinamns, [eerie TEPOEL: ona eioiete icles onesies blades Ueimsni bel afelseloyel ieee ee INIGA SVU Fateh ieee yee tha, ae aoe bee ened i Sener REET AIS Ulc oo ie fei fora b 3] Dan (ERS A Gh SONS a LAT AE ERODE I Oy MTT nS Sony S L Ry em MANTEL ce cca oe ahevers erence 1 Sine white cael ois se seieseven 6 Siete aoalalelee eke eee eee Onmiceto tls wmucrtloneec. ss cpitscsc akole wots apeiane) Sher stetclels ehole SlRstetelch here teme XXVIi, Oniceot State lweaderot County Agents: 5. ae ..2 ace > aces eae XXVIil, Office of State Leader of Home Demonstration Agents............... XXVili, IBY IPL Woon 5 COR aC EO ee ee ieee et A A ORS ons oo Becle-oAliceulinam tees a crehe ats 2 PRIS ES SRE Se ee eee tains Meson EA Lire ec i, pincieiepat overs eels « coho area ee eee ee Teiprib owe we ke | ESE) 2-2 a nse Sosa Jeitihovo Stel roe MOS Se a nn eras Shor gr 44 = ci Xs Plant Breeding, publucations of department.) ..... .