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NY N72

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

48TH ANNUAL REPORT

REGENTS
1894

Volume II

TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE MARCH 1, 1895

ALBANY
UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
1895 |

COME NTs.

PAGE
es bs sce BSS GRR SR gn PP isk 1
eee LEATINIMISSION. .. idee ce sess cen tmen sce denen ened ees 3
EERE sn fol a a) is 5 oH ins Sy nol elgle Sis eras vavals DeWeese aids 5
Me tcteemerstate Geologist ........cc.ccc.cccoscs cececceeceedevecnceues 7
Geoheopoemer ihe State Geologist -...).6 0.6.50 50 wees cece else ed aeedecs 9
6. Preliminary Description of the Faulted Region of Herkimer, Fulton,
Montgomery and Saratoga counties; by N. H. DaRTON BO Jae aatatha ays 30
7. Report on the Structural and Economic Geology of Seneca County; by
D. F. LINCOLN, M. [ys 4g he, 9 Ce re 57
8. The Principles of Palaeontology; by FELIX BERNARD ............ we hee
9. Development and Mode of Growthjof Diplograptus; by R. RUEDEMANN,
2), Doh SOS ae tia. ccd itgceaitere barric iat a gy b/s he eRe cr 217
10. A Revision of the Sponges and Coslenterates of the Lower Helderberg
Group of New York; by GmorGe H, GIRTY.. ..2. -..-..0-ceceeces 279
11. New Species of Brachiopoda described in Paleontology of New York,
Wotume VII, Parts and 2... .6..$s606. 05 Natata asic waves wicisncts Brae 323
12. A Handbook of the Genera of North American Palaeozoic Bryozoa; by

REE SEMEN coer 5 10M ehics sonia 'e aleve & PERS che wie bral dele -sncs vada dele Giese 403

ie
i

te 5 Se

STAFF OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

State Geologist and Palaecontologist,

JAMES: HALL.

Assistant State Geologist and Palacontologist,

JoHnN M. CrarKeE.

Draughtsman, Lithographer,

GrorGE B. Simpson. Puiurp Ast.
Confidential Clerk, General Assistant,
Jacop Van Des too. Martin SHEEHY.

Special Assistant in Economic Geology,

D. Dana LUTHER

Ree PO RF

OF THE

mers tTeE GEOLOGIST.

er ad
es sr he A eA ES, 3 = 6g
ans “4!

REP ORT:

Room 32, Statm Hatt,
Axpany, N. Y., March 5, 1895.

To His Excellency Levi P. Morton, Governor of the State of
New York: 3

Sir.—I have the honor to submit the annual report of the
State Geologist, embracing an account of the work done by him-
self and assistants both in the field and office, including the
- work upon the geologic map and the Palzontology of New York.

In the absence of any appropriation from the Legislature very
little work has been accomplished during the past year toward
the completion of the geologic map. A small area in Oswego
and Lewis counties has been surveyed and the results incorporated
with the general geology upon the map of the State.

OFFICE oF THE SraTE GEOLOGIST, |

Preliminary Geologic Map of the State of New York.

Through the generosity of Major Powell in the outset, and the
continuation of the same disposition on the part of his successor,
Mr. Walcott, present Director of the U.S. Geological Survey,
copies of the geologic map will be distributed to all the
colleges and normal schools and to schools of higher education in
the State, without cost-to the State of New York. Although the
map is incomplete in the representation of the geologic forma-
tions in some portions of the State, it is yet sufficiently perfect to
serve the purpose of a student’s map for general reference as to
the limits and distributions of the geologic formations within its
area. The map is designated asa ‘ Preliminary Geologic Map of
the State of New York,” and it will require the labor of many:
years in the field, before the word “Pprutiminary,” now standing
at the head of the title, can with propriety be erased and the
map appear as a completed geologic map of the State of New
York. I would most earnestly recommend that some law be ‘

2

10 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

passed authorizing the completion of this map and appropriating
a small sum annually for defraying the field expenses of a com-
petent assistant or assistants for determining the limits of certain
formations which are now imperfectly delimited. Moreover, such
a work may well be done as field exercises by a professor and his
students during the college vacations, the whole being carried on
under competent direction with a definite purpose for a final con-
summation of the work. The description of the geologic forma-
tions of the State as represented upon the map will form a part
of a future report, and it is intended that separate copies of this
description shall be sent to all the institutions and individuals
who shall receive copies of the map.

I would, moreover, earnestly recommend that in the continua-
tion of the work upon the geologic map especial attention be
given to the economic aspect of the science. For many years the
Legislature has liberally supported the publication of the Palzeon-
tology as a part of the Natural History publications of the State,
according to the original plan of that work. There has been no
organized plan for developing a knowledge of the mineral
resources of the State, as might have been done through annual
reports and local geologic maps of the counties, had there been
some small appropriation for field work. Among intelligent
people there is, at the present time, an urgent demand for practi-
cal geologic work, and I believe it should be most seriously con-,
sidered in connection with the completion of the geoloyic map.

During the past twenty years: the State of Pennsylvania has
expended an amount of more than $1,500,000 in her second geo-
logic survey, which has been chiefly carried on with a view to
economic results. The State Atlas contains colored geologic
maps of every county in that State, each county map being
accompanied by a special report given to the geology and eco-
nomic resources. 3

I have endeavored to introduze a similar plan in my work upon
the geologic map of New York, and the report of last year
contains a description of the geology and an account of the eco-
nomic resources of Albany and Ulster counties.

We have now on hand, waiting for publication, certain colored

maps of portions of the State, especially the maps of Albany and

ReEportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. at!

Ulster counties, together with the Helderberg escarpment, which
it is very desirable to publish for the full illustration of the geol-
ogy and economic resources of these portions of State.

Faulted Region of the Mohawk Valley.

A paper* entitled “A Preliminary Description of the Faulted
Region of Herkimer, Fulton, Montgomery, Saratoga and
Adjacent Counties,” communicated by Mr. N. H. Darton with
this report, will give information in detail of this region of
country, which was originally described by Mr. Vanuxem in his
report on the Ge logy of the Third District. The paper by Mr.
Darton is the result of work done in the field during the season
of 1893, as a part of the work: preparatory for the geologic map
of the State. The results of this work, and of all his other
field work up to i184, have already been transferred to the
geologic map which is being prepared for publication by the
U. 8. Geological survey in Washington. |

This paper gives an account of the general relations of the
faults, and describes in detail those at Little Falls, on the East
Canada Creek, St. Johnsville, the Noses, Fonda, Tribes Hill,
Broadalbin, Hoffman’s Ferry, Saratoga and Lake George. Some
of these had been previously described by Vanuxem in his
Report on the Third Geological District, but are here discussed
at much greater length. This region of country was explored
by the writer and Prof. W. J. McGee, of the U S. Geo-
logical Survey, in the autumn of 1834, and the field notes of
these investigations, combined with farther observations by Mr.
C. E. Beecher and Mr. C. E. Hall, were incorporated iv the Report
of the State Geologist for 1885 in a paper of three pages, accom-
panied by a map of the Mohawk Valley. This paper is here
inserted as a note tu show the state of our knowledge previous
to the work of 1893.+

The region is a general monocline, with sediments of slightly
varying dip, and the faults traversing this monocline, accom-
panied by certain features of local disturbance, have considerably
modified its regularity. As a rule these displacements do not
make conspicuous features in the topography, but one of them,
" «Being accompanied by a colored map which could not be published at that time, this paper was

deferred till the present report.
+ See note at end of this paper.

LD REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

at Little Falls, gives rise to one of the most striking features
in the scenery of the Mohawk Valley.

Two faults of small throw and not great extent on the East
Canada Creek, recorded by Vanuxem, are re-described. The
writer finds, that of two previously described dislocations at St.
Johnsville, one branches and curves in a remarkable manner. |
The great uplift at the “ Noses,” just east of Canajoharie, gives
rise to a great ridge of calciferous sandrock rising abruptly from
the moderately elevated Uticaslate region on the east. The faults
at Fonda and Tribes Hill bring up the limestones of the Trenton
group, but appear to be neither very profound nor of great
extent. The Broadalbin fault is not very clearly pronounced ;
that at Hoffman’s Ferry is the easternmost in the region and
brings up the Calciferous, Birdseye and Trenton limestones over a
wide area, extending up the river as far as Amsterdam.

The faults at Saratoga are of much interest, as it was long
ago recognized that the mineral springs at this place issue along
a line of dislocation which brings up the Calciferous sandrock to
a moderate altitude above the plains to the eastward. One of
these faults extends to the Lake George region.

These descriptions recount all attendant phenomena and are
illustrated with twelve figures, two plates and a map.

Geology of Seneca County.

In continuation of the plan of county surveys I communicate
the accompanying report on the structural and economic geology
of Seneca county by Dr. D. F. Lincoln. The subject is covered
under three general divisions: 1. Surface Geology; 2. Strati-
graphic Geology; 3. Economic Geology. Under the first head
are given detailed accounts of the topography and also of super-_
ficial accumulations, their nature and distribution. Under the’
latter are notices of the general character of the plateau, hills,
ravines; of the alluvial belt, drumlin belt, sand ridges, kame
district, delta deposits, old channels, glacial deposits and striation,
springs, etc. | :

The stratigraphic geology considers each formation in succes-
sion, from the Salina beds to the Portage group of rocks,
the highest in the county. The local development and vari-
ation of each is given with fulness and precision. Faunal char-

Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. -13,

acters are touched upon to some extent, no wide difference in
these respects from adjoining regions being noted. The writer,
however, describes a calcareous layer at the very base of the
Portage shales, not elsewhere observed, but of especial interest
from the fact that it contains species of the typical Portage
fauna commingled with those of the Ithaca group. The dip of
the rocks is considered at some length and shown to be quite
variable from local or general disturbances.

Under the head of economic geology are considered all the
rock products of the county, their mode of exploitation, treat-
ment and economic value. These are clay, brick, tile, limestone,
sandstone, plaster, road metal, natural gas and water power.

The paper is abundantly illustrated with photographic views,
sections and maps.

General Palaeontology.

It has been considered desirable to incorporate in this report a
translation of the work of Felix Bernard, the nature of which i 1s
indicated by the following brief synopsis.

THE PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY.

By Ferrx Bernarp.
[Extracted from Bernard’s Eléments de Paléontologie, Paris, 1895.]

This lucid and full presentation of the principles and objects
which inspire palaeontologic investigations of the present day
has been translated by C. E. Brooks, and is incorporated in this
report for the benefit of American students to whom Bernard’s
entire work may not be accessible. No other writer has suc-
ceeded in setting forth so clearly the actual condition of the
science, its relations to other departments of knowledge and the
inherent importance of the problems with which it is wholly
concerned. The subject is treated in five chapters, each with its
subordinate divisions, and the following statement of contents
will convey an idea of the scope and importance of the work:

Chapter 1. The Object of Palaeontology. Historical Sketch.

Sec. 1. The Relations of Palaeontology to the other sciences.

Definition; Palaeontology and Biology; Palaeontology and
Geology.

Sec. 2. History of Palaeontology.

14. Report oF THE State GEoLoaist.

Chapter 2 Palaeontology and the Doctrine of Evolution.

Sec. 1. The Species; its Variations.

Definition of Species; Natural Selection ; Passage Forms ;
Transitions between Genera and between the Grand Divisions ;
Saltation.

Sec. 2. Causes of Variations.

Insufficiency of the Theory of Selection ; Influence of the Me-
dium ; American Neo-Lamarkism. .

ahs, 3. Effects of External Causes.

Adaptation ; Correlation; Rudimentary Organs; Parallelism
and Convergence ; Aberrant Types and Synthetic Types.

Sec. 4. General Tendency of Evolution. }

Hypothesis of the Vital Force ‘ep Various Groups; Law of
Improvement.

Chapter 3. Phylogeny.

Sec. 1. Natural Classification and Phylogeny. |

Definition ; Principles of Classification.

Sec. 2. The Method of Comparative Anatomy.

Evolution of Organs.

Sec. 3. Embryogenic Method.

Law of Parallelism of Ontogeny and Phylogeny; Embryogeny
of Fossil Forms ; Instances of Regression ; Embryogenic Accele-
ration ; Acceleration of Regression ; Geratology.

Sec. 4. Method of Geologic Continuity.

Application of the Principle of Continuty ; Order of Appear-
ance of New Forms; First Fauna; Origin of Life, — Precam-
brian Deposits.

Chapter 4. Distribution of Organisms in Geologic Time, with
reference to the conditions of the Medium.

Sec. 1. Definition of Facies.

Sec. 2. Influence of the Depth of the Sea.

Littoral Facies; Pelagic Facies ; Abyssal Facies.

Sec. 3. Influence of the Nature of the Aquatic Medium.

Freshwater Facies; Brackish-water Facies; Muddy water
Facies ; Coral Facies.

Sec. 4. Influence of Climate.

Liffect of Temperature ; Climate of the Silurian and Devonian ;
Climate of the Carboniferous ; Climate of the Jurassic ; Climate

_ Report ofr THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 15

of the Cretaceous ; Climate of the Tertiary ; Climate of the Plio-
cene and (Quaternary.
Chapter 5. Process of Fossilization.

Conditions necessary for Fossilization ; Fossilization of Ani-
mals; Fossilization of Plants.

Graptolitide.

Mr. R. Ruedemann, of Dolgeville, has communicated a very
interesting and important paper on the Development and Mode
of Growth of the Genus Diplograptus, McCoy.

This paper covers the author’s detailed investigation of the
structure and mode of development of species Diplograptus pris-
tis, Hall. The observations are based upon material in a remark-
ably perfect condition of preservation, obtained from the Utica
slate of Dolgeville, N. Y. It is shown that these graptolites,
generally occurring as isolated stipes, were actually colonies com-
posed of a large number of such individual stipes, growing radi-
ally from a center. The structure of the central part of the
colony is shown to consist in, (1), a central floating sack or pneu-
matocyst, demonstrating that the colony was unattached; (2), a
verticil of spherical gonangia, within which are found masses of
young graptolites or sicule attached to a central axis; beneath the
zonangia are, (3), the radiately-arranged graptolite stipes attached
by long, bare extensions of the axial rod or virgula of each stipe.
The mode of yrowth of the stipe is such that the thece or indi-
vidual cells are, in their normal position, directed inward. This
is due to the fact that the first theca forms at the distal extrem-
ity of the young stipe or sicula, and in all later growth the
increase in cells is at the proximal extremity of the stipe. The
sicule may either become wholly free of the present stock and
commence the growth of independent colonies or may remain
attached to the original stock. Some of them seem to always fol-
low the latter course, and hence successive generations of gonan-
gia give rise to the successive generations of stipes apparent in
every well-preserved colony. Individual sicule departing from
the parent, as soon as their independence is attained, are shown
to be provided with minute floating disks which eventually
become the pneumatocysts of adult colonies. The paper is illus-
trated with three plates of highly instructive drawings.

16 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Revision of the Sponges and Ccelenterates of the Lower Hel-
derberg Fauna.

Mr. George H. Girty, of Washington, has communicated an
interesting and important paper under the title, A Revision of
the Sponges and Ccelenterates of the Lower Helderberg Fauna
- of New York.

In this paper the known species of the groups ented are
redescribed and some important additions are made of heretofore
undescribed forms. Opportunity is taken to elaborate certain
structures, as the genera Hindia and Receptaculites, some new
features of: significance with reference to the latter being brought
out. The following list of species considered will convey a con-
ception of the contents of the paper.

SPONGLAL. . _S. microporum, sp. Nov.
HInpIa. S. Barretti, sp. nov.
Hindia spheroidalis, Duncan. S. consimile, sp. nov.
LYsACTINELLA, gen. nov. Clathrodictya Jewetti, sp. nov.
Lysactinella Gebhardi, sp. Duncanella rudis, sp. nov.
nov, Streptelasma strictum, Hall.
es pereleguns: Sp. nov. _ Laphrentis Roemeri, Edwards
IscHADITES. and Haime.
Ischadites squamifer, Hall. Favosites Helderbergice, Hall.
RECEPTACULITES. | Ff. Conradi, sp. nov.
Receptaculites infundibulifor- Alveolites explanatus, Hall.
mis, Eaton. Pleurodictyum lentaculare,
CCELENTERATA. Hall.
Dictyonema crassum, sp. nov.| . Striatopora Issa, Hall.
Monograptus Beecheri, sp. Cladopora Clarkei, sp. nov.
nov. ; C. Halli, sp. nov.
Syringostroma centrotum, sp. _Aulopora subtenuis, Hall.
nov. A, Schoharie, Hall.
S. foveolatum, sp. nov. A. tubula, Hall.

The paper is accompanied by seven plates of drawings, giving
figures of all new species and illustrations of structural details
in the genus RecepracvLires.

Brachiopoda of Vol. VIII, Palaeontology of New York.

The new species of Brachiopoda described in Palaeontology of
New York, Volume VIII, Parts 1 and 2, 1892-1894.

During the progress of the work upon Volume VIII of the
Palaeontology of New York, it became necessary to describe or

Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. LT

incidentally refer to a considerable number of new species of
Brachiopoda. The volumes of the Palaeontology are not acces-
sible to a large portion of students in Palaeontology, and Volume
VII, Part 2, has been published only in 100 copies. In order
to make the descriptions and figures more accessible, it has been
thought advisable to republish them in this report.

These species to the number of 106 are here brought together,
with descriptions and illustrations. They are as follows:

Lingula compta.

LL scutella,

LT. flabellula.

LL. paracletus.

LL. teeniola.

L. linguata,
Lingulops Granti.

- Monomerella Greenei.
M, Kingi.

M. Ortoni.

M. Egani.
Rhinobolus Davidsoni.

Siphonotreta (?) Minnesotensis.

Orbiculoidea ovalis.

O. numulus.

O. Herzeri.
Lindstroenella aspidium.
Schizocrania Schucherti.
S. (2) Helderbergia.
Crania agaricin4.

C. pulchella.

C. granosa.

C. favincola.

Craniella Ulrichi.
Pholidops calceola.

P. patina.

Orthis Panderiana.

O.? glypta.

O. flabellites, var. spania.
O.? Holstoni.

O. loricula.

O.? Saffordi.

O. arcuaria.

O. superstes.

O. Oweni.

O. senecta.

Orthostrophia dolomitica.
Strophomena Conrad.

S. Wenchelli.

Orthothetes desideratus.
Derbya ruginosa.

D? costatula.

D. Broadheadi.

D. Bennetti.

D. cymbula.

Dp: affinis.

D. (2) biloba.
Streptorhynchus Ulrichi.
Triplecia Neugarensis.
Christiania subquadrata.
Leptaenisca adnascens.

LL. tangens.
Chonostrophia Helderbergia.
Strophalosia Rockfordensis.
S. cymbula.

Strophonella costatula.
Plectambonites producta.
Spirifer crispatus. ;
S. Canandaigue.

S. mucronatus, var. posterus.
S. disjunctus, var. sulcifer.
S. Walliams.

S. Newberry?.

Cyrtia radians.

Cyrtina umbona.a, var. Alpenensis.

C. lachrymosa.

18 Report oF THE StatE GEOLOGIST.

Syringothyris Missouri
Athyris densa.

Seminula Rogers.

S. Dawsoni.

Turynifer criticus.
Rhynchospira scansa. |
Trematospira Tennesseensis.
Meristella Walcotti.
Merista Tennesseensis.
Clintonella vagabunda.
Zygospira putilla.
Atrypina Clintoni.
Glassia Romingeri.

Camarophoria rhomboidalis.

Parastrophia divergens.
P. Greenei.

P. multplicata.

P. latiplicata.
Liorhynchus robustus.
LL. Lesleyt.

Conchidium exponens.

C. scoparium.

C. obsoletum.

O. Greenei. * :

C. crassiplica.

C. Georgie. ;

Pentamerus oblongus, var. Maquo-
keta. 1

P. oblongus, var. subrectus.

Capellinia mira.

Barrandella Areyt.

Gypidula Komingeri.

Sieberella Roemeri.

Rensselaeria Cayuga.

av. ovatum.

Oriskania navicella.

Selenella gractlis.

Cryptonella sub Uliptica.

Beecheria Davidsoni.

Dielasma obovatum.

Bryozoa.

Mr. George B. Simpson has communicated a memoir contain-
ing descriptions of the genera of the North American Palaeozoic
Bryozoa, with an introduction upon the structure of living spe-
cles, intended as a hand-book for the use of students, illustrated
by 26 plates and numerous text illustrations.

The first portion of this work is devoted to the recent Bryozoa
and contains the history of observations upon these organisms
from 1599 to the present time, followed by a bibliography in
which 135 titles are cited, and an illustrated detailed account
of the anatomy under the headings, 1, the Cell; 2, Opercula;
8, Avicularia and Vibracula; 4, the Animal; 5, Alimentary
Canal; 6, Lophophore and Tentacles; 7, Perigastric space; 8,
Muscular system ; 9, Nervous system; 10, Reproductive organs;
11, Embryology; 12, Statoblasts.

The second part is devoted to the fossil forms from the Palaeo-
zoic rocks, and contains a scheme of classification, the bibliogra-
phy of the Palaeozoic species of America, a list of all the genera
and species described, with references to authorship and the geo-

Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 19

logic formations in which they occur. The genera described
number 156 and the species enumerated are about 1,100. The
main portion of this second part is devoted to diagnoses of the
genera, illustrated by about 200 figures in the text and by 25
plates.

This paper was originally commenced by the writer, at the
request of the Secretary of the Board of Regents, to fill the
place of Bulletin No. 1 of the State Museum publications by the
Regents of the University. The plan of the work, at that
time proposed, was mainly a description and illustration of
the Palaeozoic genera of Bryozoa which had been illustrated in
volume 6 of the Paleontology of New York. This work was
carried on at my personal cost nearly to completion; 22 of the pro-
posed 24 plates having been prepared for the lithographer, with the
manuscript essentially complete, but when offered to the Secre-
tary for publication it was declined, and the matter left on my
hands. The work has since been turned over to Mr. Simpson to
be completed in his own way, while the generic descriptions and
the explanation of plates of the original paper still remain in the
writer’s possession.

In completing this memoir Mr. Simpson has elaborated the
work, adding thereto the discussions upon the recent Bryozoa,
with full illustrations, and the entire work in its present form is
communicated as a part of the report of the State Geologist.

The Palaeozoic Reticulate Sponges of the Family
Dictyospongide.

A Family of Palaeozoic Hexactinellid Sponges, with Descrip- -
tions of the Genera and Species. _

This work is a monograph of a single family of thin-walled
reticulate silicious sponges whose life was restricted to Palaeozoic
time. These fossils were early described as remains of marine
algz and afew species from the latter Devonian rocks became
pretty well known to the collectors of New York State fossils-
Their true sponge nature was recognized about fourteen years ago
by Prof. R. P. Whitfield, from the study of specimens found in
the soft calcareous shales of Crawfordsville, Indiana, which
retained the pyritized spicular skeleton of the sponge.

20 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

In several preliminary papers published in the Annual Reports
of the State Museum or of the State Geologist, beginning in
1863,* the writer has described a number of species from the
Devonian and Carboniferous rocks; many of these descriptions,
however, being brief and incomplete. and without illustration.

In this memoir all known species of this family from American
rocks are brought together; the previously described species,
forty-six in number, are re-described, and a large number of new
forms are added, sufficient to.make the total number of known
species of this single family something more than one hundred.
The work opens with a chapter on the general and spicular
structure of these organisms, their relation to other sponges,
their mode of growth, distribution and preservation. Following
this is an extended bibliography of these fossils and the detailed
descriptions of the genera and species, those of each principal
geologic formation being considered by themselves. .

The 108 species now known are divided among 27 genera, 16
of which are new. The paper is illustrated with many text
figures showing spicular structure, and with 64 lithographic
plates.

* 1863. Sixteenth Annual Report of the State Cabinet of Natural History. Ten species were
described and illustrated.

1884. Thirty-fifth Annual Report on the State Museum of Natural History. A brief description of
the genera Cyathophycus, Walcott, and Dictyophyton, Ectinodictya, Lyriodictya, Thamnodictya, -
Phragmodictya, Cleiodictya and Physospongia, Hall, and Uphantznia, Vanuxem, were given,
together with a revision of the species described in ‘the Sixteenth Annual Report, and including
those described by Professors C. D. Walcott and R. P. Whitfield, T. A. Conrad and L. Vanuxem.

1890. In the Ninth Annual Report of the State Geologist two new genera of this family, viz.:
Actinodictya and Cryptcdictya, together with 10 new species of this family of fossils, were described ;
thus making the entire number of species recognized up to that date, 46.

PALAEONTOLOGY OF NEW YORK.

VOLUME Vill) PAR DT.1?,

Of the titles of works communicated in my report of last year
as being then in progress, the following has been completed :

Volume VIII, Part 2, being an Introduction to the Study of
the Genera of Palaeozoic Brachiopoda, has been completed and
published. This volume contains 420 pages with 65 plates, and
the text is illustrated by 232 wood-cuts, showing the interior
_structure and other characteristics of the several genera described.

Since this volume brings to a close the publication of work in
this Department as a part of the series of Natural History publi-
cations of the State, I take the liberty of communicating, with
this report, the preface as already published.

PREFACE.

The present volume brings to a close the publication of the
“Palaeontology of New York,” as a part of the “ Natural His-
tory of the State of New York,” according to the plan proposed
and inaugurated by Governor William H. Seward during his
administration, 1839-1842.

At the time of the organization of the survey the question of -
publication had not been seriously considered ; the annual reports.
made to the Governor and communicated to the Legislature were
necessarily published in the ordinary octavo document form.

Hon. John A. Dix, in his report preceding the organization of
the Geological Survey, had stated that “it is supposed that the
entire account of the survey may be contained in three octavo
volumes of 700 pages each,” together with an atlas, which should
contain the maps, “with the necessary drawings of fossil
remains.” This was the only suggestion regarding the final pub-
lication of the results of the survey. In November, 1839, the
Board of Geologists made a special communication to the Gover-
nor, calling his attention to several matters of interest to. the

22 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

Geological Survey, and concluding as follows: “The Board
would also suggest to the Governor, as matters which will soon
require attention, the mode and manner in which the final reports
are to be published, and the number and style of maps, geological
sections and diagrams.’’*

Ata later period it was decided that the entire work should
be published in quarto form.

The order of the several departments, as set forth in the first
published volume of the Natural History, was as follows: Gen-
eral Introduction, by William H. Seward; Part I, Zodlogy, by
James E. De Kay; Fart II, Botany, by John Torrey; Part III,
Mineralogy, by Lewis C. Beck; Parts IV and Vt, Geology and
Palaeontology, by Wiliam W. Mather, Ebenezer Emmons, Lard-
ner Vanuxem and James Hall.

Agriculture was not prominent in the original plan of the sur-
vey, and representations coming from the State Agricultural
Society, in 1842, led Governor Seward to recognize its import-
ance in this relation. He decided that Agriculture and Palaeon-
tology should be considered as departments to be continued and
completed as a part of the Natural History of the State of New
York.

The Department of Agriculture was placed in charge of Dr.
Ebenezer Emmons, who retained his position as State Geologist,
and was also the custodian of the entire collections of the
Geological Survey, which constituted the State Cabinet of Natu-
ral History; to the latter position he had been appointed by
Governor Seward.

Mr. Timothy A. Conrad, who occupied the position of Palaeon-
tologist to the Geological Survey from 1837 to 1842, had pub-
lished only such preliminary annual reports as were required of
each department. At the latter date (1842) so little progress
had been made in the work that only a small portion of the
characteristic fossils had been named or described The geolo-
gists, therefore, found it necessary to give names to most of the
fossils used in illustrating their reports, these species being the
more common and characteristic forms of each group of the New
York geological series.

* Assembly Document 50, January, 1840.
+ After 1842 the Department of Geology was designated as Part IV, Agriculture as Part V, and
Palaeontology as Part VI.

Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 93

In the spring of 1843 the writer was placed in charge of the
Palaeontology of the State, while still retaining his position as
State Geologist.* At that time there were practically no collec-
tions of fossils available for use in the work, nor appropriations
of money for making such collections. There were no artists,
either for original drawings or for lithography, and there was
very little in the way of books on Geology and Palaeontology.

Mr. Conrad had estimated that a volume of 1 0 quarto
plates would be required to properly illustrate the fossils of all
the formations in the State of New York. After the first year
of exploration by myself and personal assistants, covering the
entire series, from the Potsdam sandstones to the Chemung
group inclusive, it was found that no satisfactory account of the
fossils of the whole series could be given in a single volume, and
that it would be necessary to confine attention to those coming
~ from the lower rocks.+ From that time forward efforts were
directed to the prepazation of descriptions and illustrations of
fossils characterizing the lower division of the ‘‘ New York sys-
tem,” which appeared in the first volume, published in 1847, con-
taining 362 pages and 99 plates of illustration.

In that volume due recognition was made of the sources from
which material had been obtained for illustrating the work.
Since that time acknowledgments have been duly expressed, not -
only to amateur collectors of fossils, but also to professors in
colleges and scientific gentlemen generally, both within the State
and beyond its borders, for their willing aid in the progress of
the work. Without such aid some portions could not have been
properly illustrated (as I was compelled to depend solely on my
own purse for collections made in the field during the prepara-
tion of the earlier volumes). These volumes (I, II, III), there-
fore, present a less complete illustration of the faunas of the
geological formations to which they refer, than do the later vol-
umes, which were published after the State had furnished means
for making field collections.

Volumes [ and II should be revised and republished with all
the added knowledge of these faunas obtained during the past
third of a century.

* See preface to Volume I, Palaeontology of New York. ;

+ At the end of the first year (in 1844) the question of continuing the Departments of Agriculture
and Palaeontology was brought before the Legislature, and an extension of time allowed for the
completion of the work, but no appropriation beyond the salaries of the officials was granted.

Q4 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

This work, from its commencement in 1843, has been prose-
cyted amid many difficulties, and often under conditions which
would have justified its final abandonment. These hindrances
have been overcome, and a series of volumes has been published
and accepted as a contribution to the scientific literature of the
world. (

The work in the agricultural and palaeontological departments
was carried on in the old State Hall (State Cabinet of Natural
History) on State street, until 1845, when the authors were com-
pelled to remove themselves and their work from the building.
This requirement proved seriously burdensome to the Palaeon-
tologist, necessitating at once the erection of a building of mod-
erate size with ordinary working rooms; and afterward (when
the Legislature began to make appropriations for collections of
fossils), two extensive buildings were found necessary; these
were erected at my own cost and fitted up with about 4,000
drawers, for the proper disposition of the immense collections
brought in from the field, together with rooms and conveniences
_for the preparation, study and arrangement of fossils, and offices
for draughtsman and lithographer; and they were occupied as a
museum and laboratory till the end of 1886. Prior to 1871 the
Legislature made no provision for the expenses of these or any
other working rooms, nor for clerk‘hire and incidental outlay.

From 1850 onward for several years no appropriations were
made for carrying on the work, and even the author’s small
salary was discontinued. From 1850 to 1§55 the work, except
the printing and lithography, was carried on entirely at the
author’s personal expense, and it was abandoned early in the lat-
ter year.* Afterward, in the same year, Hon. E. W. Leaven-

* The following extract from the preface of Volume III will give a more clear idea of the then exist-
ing conditions: :

“‘This department of the Geological Survey of the State was committed to my charge in 1843; Vol-
ume Iwas completed and published in 1847; and Volume II, so far as regarded my own labors, was -
completed in 1850, and the work of the third volume was at that time in progress. In the*spring of
that year legislative enactment removed the direction of this work from the Governor of the State,
and placed it in the hands of the Secretary of State, who was ‘authorized and directed to take charge
of all matters appertaining to the prosecution and publication of the Geological Survey of the State ; ’
and in the third section of the same law it was*made ‘the duty of the Secretary of State and the Sec-
retary of the Regents of the University to report to the next Legislature a plan for the final comple-
tion of the said survey, and to submit the estimate of the cost of such completion.’

“Tn the report from this Commission to the Legislature ajproposition was made to pay the Palaeon-
tologist ‘two thousand five hundred dollars’ on the ‘ presentation of each successive volume, com-
mencing with the third, to the Secretary of State ;’ which volume was to ‘contain the manuscript
letter-press ready for printing, and be accompanied with the very fossils described.’

“This ‘ proposition’ was ‘deemed a just and liberal one,’ and it seems to have been anticipated that
the work would go on under such conditions. The sum of money here proposed to be paid to defray

REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 25

worth, Secretary of State, undertook to re-establish the work
upon a proper basis, and the author was induced, by an appeal to
his patriotism, to take it again in charge. To do this he declined
a position which would have insured him security of place and a
life of quiet investigation in geological science. Under the new
arrangement, for the first time in the history of the work, means
were provided for the collection of fossils to illustrate the volumes
still to be published. Because of these collections the work was
necessarily much extended, and Volume V, originally planned as
a single volume, including text and plates, has been expanded to
four volumes. Volumes VI and VII and all subsequent work
have profited by the collection of fossils made from 1856 to 1865
inclusive, when appropriations for such collections ceased.

This final volume (VIII, Part II, Brachiopoda), after being held
back for one year through want of an appropriation, was printed
to page 317 in the autumn of 1893. At that point the printing was
again suspended. In order to have a record of the date of the
completed work there was issued, in July, 1893, a fascicle con-
taining the text, from page 1 to 176; embracing descriptions of
the spire-bearing genera; and a second fascicle in December,
1893, carrying the text to page 317, including descriptions of the
rhynchonelloids, pentameroids and terebratuloids. At that time
the concluding chapter or summary was in type, but the appro-
priation having been exhausted the printer was compelled to sus-

the entire expense of collecting the fossils and the study and description of the same, together with
the labor of superintending the drawings and engraving, was in fact entirely inadequate to pay
for the collection of the fossils necessary for a single volume, and left, besides this, more than four
years of labor to be performed by the Palaeontologist without any remuneration whatever. Under
these circumstances the work could not go on, and it became by this act virtually suspended in the
early part of 1850.

“ From the commencement of the work the expenses of making the collections had been borne by
myself. These collections, made up to that time, not only embraced most of those of the first and
second volumes, but the greater part of the third volume, as well as extensive collections in the
higher rocks of the New York series for the succeeding volume. Besides these I had made large col-
lections of fossils in the same series of strata in the West, for the,purpose of comparison with the
New York species. In this way, as well as in examinations of the rock formations in situ over a large
part of the Western States, for the purpose of determining the parallelism of the formations, I had
already made great pecuniary sacrifices in carrying on the work. Under these circumstances, there-
fore, and with the new aspect presented by the law of 1850, and the action of the Commission relative:
thereto, I could no longer devote myself to its prosecution, and consequently made other arrange-
ments for the occupation of my time, which, however, left me still some opportunity to continue
my investigations in this work, As the contracts between the State and the engravers continued in
force, the engraving, after 1851, was carried on somewhat slowly; my frequent and protracted
absence rendering it impossible for me to give that personal attention to it which a work of this kind
so fully demands. In order to prevent its entire cessation I employed a person as an assistant (who:
afterward became my draughtsman) ; the lithographer volunteering to contribute to pay a portion
of the expense of such assistant, that his own work might not cease entirely. In this way the work
was continued till 1855, no compensation whatever being paid to the author during this period.”

4

96 | Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

pend all work upon the volume; so that this chapter, bringing
the text up to 350 pages, together with accompanying and con-
cluding matter, was laid over to the present year.

In the original scheme of the work on the Brachiopoda the
generic descriptions were to be accompanied with illustrations of
the microscopic structure of the shell, but it was found incon-
venient to accomplish this plan during its progress; though a
large number of sections were prepared for microscopic study.,
This part of the work is postponed for the present, and probably
will not be taken up again by the writer.

The great length of time since these studies were resumed in
1888 has enabled those assistants. who were with me in the earlier
preparation of the work to advance their investigations in the
same line of concept, and to anticipate some of the results which
have been reached in these volumes. While the final result in’
this direction is still distant, it is encouraging to see the work
advancing in what the writer believes to be the only true method
of studying every class of organisms. _

In the preface to Part I of Volume VIII the author made
acknowledgments to many personal friends, to collectors of fos-
sils, to museums and geological surveys; he wishes to repeat
these acknowledgments in the preface to Part LI, since this will
probably be his last opportunity of connecting their names with
the progress of the “ Palaeontology of New. York.”

During the 51 years which have elapsed since the com-
mencement of this work, I have had many assistants who directly .
or indirectly have aided in, or have contributed to, its progress.
Among the earliest of these was Mr. Fielding B. Meek (after-
ward Palaeontologist to the United States Geological Survey: of
the Territories), whose services were largely given to the draw-
ings for the plates of Volume III, which were lithographed by
Mr. Frederick J. Swinton, the latter continuing his connection
with the work till 1872, enriching the volumes by his excellent
artistic work. During the early part of the same period Mr.
Ferdinand V. Hayden, who subsequently became Director of the
U. S. Geological Survey, was my assistant, and, together with
Mr. Meek, made a survey of the Mauvaises Terres of Nebraska,
at my personal expense. Dr. Charles A. White, now of the
National Museum at Washington, who had been my assistant in

Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. Oi.

the Iowa Survey, was, for one year, engaged in the service of the *
Palaeontology of New York, in making field collections and
obtaining geological data. Mr. Robert P. Whitfield, now Curator
of Geology in the American Museum of Natural History, was
associated with me as preparateur, draughtsman and general
assistant in the work for 20 years (1856 to 1876). After this
date Mr. Charles D. Walcott, now Director of the U.S. Geological
‘Survey, became my assistant for two years. In the final revision
and publication of the four volumes, which constitute Volume V,
I had the assistance of Mr. Charles E. Beecher, now professor in
Yale University, from the commencement of the Cephalopoda to
the completion of the Lamellibranchiata, from 1878 to L885.
Mr. George B. Simpson, who has served the work for many years
as draughtsman, has made himself very familiar with the Bryozoa
and Corals of our geological formations, and has given very
essential aid in the preparation and publication of Volume VI,
as well as in other work connected with the Palaeontology. In
the capacity of my private assistant, the services of Mr. Charles
Schuchert, now of the U. S. National Museum, were given to the
forwarding of Volume VIII, as already stated in the Preface to
Part I. Professor J. M. Clarke, who came into the work in
1886, has given essential aid in the preparation of Volumes VII.
and VIII, as already related in the former volume, and also in
Part I of the present volume, and has remained with me to its
conclusion.

From the beginning of the work it has been the ambition of
the author to secure accurate and artistic illustrations of the sub-
jects under discussion. In the earlier part of the work these
conditions could not be obtained, but in later years the style and
accuracy of the representations has left little to be desired. In
the preface to Part I of this volume, I made acknowledgments
to the draughtsmen and lithographers who have been engaged
upon this work. The original drawings have been continued by
Mr. Ebenezer Emmons and Mr. George B. Simpson, and the
lithography by Mr. Philip Ast, who have attained a degree of
perfection in their work of which it is my duty as well as my
pleasure to speak in praise. My thanks are due to the printers,
Messrs. Charles Van Benthuysen & Sons, now the veteran print-
ing house of the country, with an uninterrupted intercourse to

28 Report oF THE Stare GeroLoGist.

' the fourth generation; covering a period of more than 50
years.

To the many successive Legislatures of the State of New York,
as well as to the Chief Executives, the scientific public is
indebted for the volumes which have been published under the
title of Palaeontology of New York. In every. Legislature the
author has found gentlemen who were interested ‘in science, and
who were in sympathy with this work. Not only among mem-
bers of the Legislature but among those who had previously held
legislative and executive offices, as well as other prominent citi-
zens of the State, the work has found encouragement and
support. The people of the State may have the satisfaction of
knowing that no other State Legislature has sustained, through
so many years, a scientific investigation carried on for the sake
of science itself, and without anticipating direct economic
results. For all this good will and liberality to science, the
writer desires to express, for himself and_his scientific eels
the most.profound acknowledgments.

JAMES HALL,
State Geologist and Palaeontologist.

Axpany, N. Y., December 5, 1894.

It is a great satisfaction to the author to report this work exe-
cuted according to the plan originally conceived, but which is
nevertheless incomplete owing to the large amount of material
which time and experience has accumulated, and which, at the
outset, could not have been anticipated or included in any plan.
The completion of this volume will still leave a large amount of
material in other departments than those already discussed and
published, and it is proposed to publish the results of the investi-
gation in the annual reports, or as memoirs, in such manner as
may be considered most desirable. As an earnest of such work
to be continued in the future a memoir upon the reticulate fos-
sil sponges, as already stated, is in a forward state of prepa-
ration, and more than 20 imperial quarto plates have been
lithographed, still leaving more than 30 plates to be done.
The manuscript is in an advanced condition and can be put
to press during the present year. After the Dictyospongide
the most important subject for consideration and publication is

Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. 29

_ that of the fossil Corals from the several geologic formations,
and especially of the Devonian, of which New York affords a
remarkable development and an abundance of species in the
great limestone formations extending from the Hudson to the
Niagara rivers. “Although work upon these fossils has been sus-
pended from 1881 to the present time, it is still the hope of the
writer that some plan may be adopted by which these interest-
ing and important fossils may be published for the benefit of
science, for the scientific prestige of the State of New York, and
as a contribution toward the completion of the publications of
the natural history of the State, which now number 30 quarto
volumes.

| Very respectfully,
Your obedient servant,
JAMES HALL,
| State Geologist and Palaeontologist.
March 5th, 1896.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK.

(GEOLOGIC MAP.)

A PRELIMINARY DESCRIPTION

OF THE

Faulted Region of Herkimer, Fulton, Montgomery and
Saratoga Counties.

JAMES HALL, ~— N. H. DARTON,
STATE GEOLOGIST. ASSISTANT,

1896.

er

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.

REPORT ON
FULTON, MONTGOMERY, HERKIMER & SARATOGA cties
PLATE No |

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PRELIMINARY GEOLOGIC MAP

OF PORTIONS OF
HERKIMER, FULTON,MONTGOMERY, SARATOGA
AND ADJACENT COUNTIES,
Showing the distiibution of

Laurentian, Cambrian and Lower Silurian Formations
and the Faults of the Mohawk Valley .

Prepared nnde the direction of

JAMES HALL, State Geologist .
by N.H.DARTON, Assistant .

Trenton to Birdseye St

Limestones

“Calciferous”

Potsdam Sandstone

Laurentian

Faults
Uncertain Boundaries -

SCALE OF MILES

Hof)

CHC B. Colton & Co. New-York.

*GMW.8 C.B.COLTON & CO.N.Y.

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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK.

(GEOLOGIC MAP.)

\ Preliminary Deseription of the Faulted Region of Herkimer,
Fulton, Montgomery and Saratoga, Counties.

By N. H. DARTON.

ConTENTS: INTRODUCTORY. GENERAL RELATIONS. Fautts. -- Little Falls
fault, Faults on East Canada Creek, St. Johnsville faults, The ‘‘ Noses”
fault, Fonda fault, Tribes Hill fault, Broadalbin fault, Hoffman's Ferry
fault, Saratoga faults, Lake George faults.

Introductory.

This report is an account of studies made during the summer of
1893 of the relations of the faulted Lower Silurian and Cambrian
members in eastern Central New York. The primary purpose
of the work was to determine the distribution of the forma-
tions for the recently published geologic map of the State, but
data were also obtained bearing on the relations of the faults,
and the stratigraphy.

The principal faults cross the Mohawk river between Schenec-
tady and Little Falls. These faults appear first in the Utica
slate at no great distance south of the river and extend north-
ward with a gradually increasing throw, bringing up the Trenton,
Calciferous and crystalline rocks. Several of them continue into
the Adirondacks.

Vanuxem* described the principal features of the faults in the
immediate vicinity of the Mohawk river, but gave little informa-
tion regarding their northern extension. On the New York >
geologic map of 1842, some of the more general effects of these
faults are represented, but their nature was not indicated Some
further light was thrown on the relations along the Mohawk

ee aes a
* Geology of New York, Part III, comprising the Survey of the Third Geological District, 1842.
5

34 Report oF THE Strate Geroxoaist.

river in a brief report and map by Mr. C. E. Hall, published in
1886.* |

Besides the faults which extend to the Mohawk, there are a
number of others northward, of which several are important, and
there is a series of prominent dislocations in Saratoga county.
It has been known for many years that the springs at Saratoga
rise along a fault plane, and some features at this locality were
described by Mathert and Emmons.t

General Relations.

The sedimentary formations of the region are a succession of |
sandstones, limestones and shales lying,§ on a floor of crystalline
rocks. They dip to the southward and southwestward at a very
moderate rate, constituting a general monocline. The amount
and direction of the dip is not uniform, but the variations do not
materially affect the general relations. The faults traverse this
general monocline and give rise to wide offsets in its regularity,
and local tilting of greater or less amount. Adjacent to the
fault planes there are also certain features of local disturbance,
such as upturning of the beds on the down-thrown sides. The
distribution and relations of these faults are indicated in the map
and in plates 2‘and 3. In plate 2 I have attempted to represent
the relative positions of the fault blocks restored or bared at the
ideal surface of the Trenton limestone. In A and B, plate 3,
cross-sections are given, indicating the principal features along
the Mohawk Valley and along a zone about eight miles north,
_ respectively.. From these illustrations it will be seen that the
faulting seems to have taken place along vertical planes, and to
have been accompanied by a sharp drag of the strata on the
- down-thrown side of the blocks. In the following pages the
evidence on this point will be given in detail, with a description
of the features of the several faults.

The occurrence of crystalline rock at Middleville has given
rise to a supposition that there is a fault at this locality. Owing
to the existence of this view I have made a careful examination

Ry SP I ee ee See

* Field notes on the Geology of the Mohawk Valley, Fifth Report of the State Geologist for 1885,
pp. 8-10. (See note at end of this paper.)

+ Geology of New York, Part I. Comprising the Geology of the First Geological District, 1843.

+ Agriculture of New York, by Ebenezer Emmons, 1846.

§ A description of these formations was published in the Report of the State Geologist for
the year 1893, pp 409-429, plates 1-14. Albany, 1894.

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FAuLtep REGIon oF THE MoHAawk. 35

of the relations, and find that no fault exists. The overlying
formations are continuous around the valley, and they are
exposed in many outcrops. The supposition that there is a fault
at this point may be due to the fact that in the bank along the
east side of the stream there are clays containing a very large
amount of Utica slate débris which might be mistaken, on casual
observation, for Utica formation in place. At a short distance
east, however, there are continuous vertical outcrops from the
Calciferous to Utica beds, matching those on the west side of the
valley. The presence of the small inclosed area of crystalline
rocks is due to a slight anticlinal in this vicinity, which has
brought the crystalline rocks within reach of the creek for a few
hundred yards. Down stream the southwesterly dips carry
the formations beneath the surface in regular succession. To
the northwestward there is first a slight downward slope in the
strata and in the underlyiny surface of the crystalline rocks,
beyond which the stream runs along the strike, so that in
ascending the valley we finally rise high into the Trenton
formation at Trenton Falls.

Faults.

The Little Falls Faults—The nature of the uplift at Little
Falls is shown in the following figure.

“7274 far

Te
ace ARE RT INE vac
Ave, ered

FIGURE 1.— Cross section of faults at Little Falls, N. Y., north side of the Mohawk, looking north.
U. Utica slate. 7. Trenton and Birdseye limestones. C. Calciferous sandrock. A. Archean. Verti-
cal scale somewhat exaggerated.

This uplift gives rise to the most conspicuous topographic
feature of the Mohawk Valley. Approaching Little Falls from
the east the long gentle slopes of the hills of Utica slate are
abruptly terminated by a high ridge crossing the valley from
south to north. The river cuts through this ridge in a deep,
relatively narrow gorge, lined with high cliffs of Calciferous
sandrock and crystalline rocks. In the eastern end of the gorge
the crystalline rocks rise in cliffs 100 feet high, to a high terrace
surmounted a short distance back by cliffs of Calciferous sand-

BO! es Report or THE State Groxocist.

rock 200 feet high. This formation constitutes another terrace
surmounted in turn by a low terrace of Trenton and Birdseye
limestones and rounded slopes of Utica slate. These terraces all
slope southwestward with the dip of the formations and
merge in succession: into the bottom of the valley above Little
Falls. The terrace on the surface of the crystalline rocks is
wider on the north side than on the south side of the gorge, and
it is on this wider terrace that the village of Little Falls is built;
about midway through the gorge. The following section is
through the central portion of the village, and illustrates the
relations of the terraces, although they are here somewhat
diminished in altitude above the river. In figure 3 they are
shown in their maximum altitude.

ae; ee ee? ee
Cer See emo S270 shy

——
eee a a ote ; i
Svat naira elke DE BION a mh ict MON , BC lays Re ReS Tel SO . am Cc
‘es Bl ra ee Bites Cea aBS rarecrnR ec icp oe, YO Co
aiiae ; ee peut Msi sicace i . MMM 5 eso se
Alp airinh ice ects a0 1G) aly nD pss OO SSE “TLAVETT IV SEATS >A
o/s oe PE NS TN . F ENN EF NED Te AYO EN bee NA ES AS LES.
= Po, > SR, FEA ET TOAD EA OgvaALIea dy pia tg >
PSSA SS vee 7 Ved Bars Sey EMS “SL GL WES GLY TNE Leg TS APS AY, ge Ze S
eT REN GT EN AUT SAS OS BLN TEMG TARA LET INS LENG A EV AER EN CRUE SWLSSS
PES nL VRS Le PS ISN AMA 7 SAE TL ANG AMAT AV AVET LA VILS OW IE WG AADC CVS

FIGURE 2.— Sections across the gorge of the Mohawk at Little Falls, N. Y., looking westward. U.
Utica slate. JT. Trenton and Birdseye limetones. CO. Calciferous. A. Archean. Vertical scale some-
what exaggerated. j

About two miles above Little Falls the Calciferous terrace and
cliff gradually disappear beneath the river, the valley widens
and the slopes of Utica slate extend to its bottom.- The

relations along the fault plane are shown in figure 3.

Sector .
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Devgan

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FIGURE 3.— Sections along the fault plane from southeast of Little Falls to north of Salisbury
Centre. U. Uticaslate. 7. Trenton and Birdseye limestones. C. Calciferous. A. Archean. S. Salis-
bury Centre. J. Eastern face of uplifted block. JI. Western face of downthrown block from the
east. Vertical scales somewhat exaggerated. :

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REPORT ON
FULTON, MONTGOMERY, HERKIMER & SARATOGA C Ties

PLATE RO 3

SECTION B

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CROSS SECTION A

CROSS SECTIONS OF FAULTS OF HERKIMER,FULTON, MONTGOMERY ann SARATOGA COUNTIES
Looking North , A.along the Mohawk River: B.along a zone from 8 to10 miles north of A.

Horizontal Scale about tive mites to an inc, Vertical Scale greatly exaggerated

Laurentian

Trenton to Birdseye Limestones| St Calciferous fo Potsdam Sandstone |

Utica Slate

FAULTED REGIon oF THE MoHAwkK. 37

At the eastern entrance of the Little Falls gorge the crystalline -
rocks and overlying Calciferous sandrock present a precipitous
front to the eastward. Ina short distance to the south and to
the north this front becomes flanked by slopes of Utica slate
which rapidly rise to above the level of the upper surface of the
crystalline rocks. A short distance south of the river the Cal-
ciferous and Trenton dip beneath the Utica slate and the fault
is lost in the high hills of the Hudson river formation to the
southward.

The actual fault plane is obscurely exposed at several points
on the north side of the river and if not vertical it is very nearly
so. The shales in thé adjoining slopes are bent up against the
fault at angles from 40°—70°, averaging 60° in greater part. This
steep eastward dip rapidly decreases to the east, and in exposures
a half mile below the mouth of the gorge a gentle southwest dip
is observed at several points near the river.

Northward from the river valley the presence of the fault is
marked by a cliff of Calciferous, rising to greater or less height
above the rounded hills of the Utica slate region eastward.

Three miles north of the Mohawk the fault is crossed by a
small depression which cuts through the Calciferous and a short
distance into the crystalline rocks on the west side of the
fault, and through Utica, Trenton and Birdseye beds to the top
_ of the Calciferous on the east side. The relations at this point
are shown in longitudinal section in figure 3. The upturn of the
beds here is very moderate as the dips are not over 6°. The
actual fault plane is not exposed but there are outcrops
within a yard or two of it. At Little Falls there are no means
for estimating the amount of the uplift for we do not know the
thickness of strata lying against the thrown side of the fault.
At this locality the presence of the Trenton on both sides, and
the moderate dips, afford all necessary data. An estimate made
from fairly accordant aneroid readings with the estimated allow-
ance for dip, gave an average of 310 feet.

On the north side of this depression the Utica slate lies against
the fault, with the usual cliff of Calciferous on the west side of
the uplift. A short distance west of the crest of the cliff are the
low terraces of Trenton limestone surmounted by rounded hills
of Utica slate. A mile and a half farther north the fault has

38 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

‘ Increased considerably in amount and the crystalline rocks are
brought up. Thence northward they constitute the cliff along
the fault scarp and the Calciferous and Trenton extend to the north-
westward by Salisbury Village and Diamond hill as terraces
surmounted by high hills of Utica slate.

A typical section of the relations near the point at which the
scarp of crystalline rocks begins is shown in figure B, plate 3.
Farther northward the crystalline terrace widens greatly and
increases in height. The fault plane was not observed in this
region, but its presence is everywhere characterized by cliffs and
steep slopes of crystalline rocks over which, at Salisbury Center,
a branch of Kast Canada creek falls in a series of cascades aggre-
gating nearly a hundred feet in descent. The adjoining Utica
shales are seen at several points west of Dolgeville within fifty
yards of the fault, dipping to the eastward from 10° to 380°.
Just north of Salisbury Center the northward pitch of the
monogline east of the fault brings up the crystalline rocks as
shown in II in figure 3, and northward the fault is entirely in
crystalline rocks. I followed it to a short distance above
Devereux where its presence is marked by a continuous line of
cliffs and steeper slopes.

Faults on Hast Canada Creek.— There are two faults on and
near East Canada creek, and although their throws are not great
nor the effects particularly conspicuous, their features are so -
clearly exposed that they are of special interest. They were
both described in considerable detail by Vanuxem in his report on
the Third Geological District.

The southernmost fault crosses the Mohawk river at the
mouth of East Canada creek as shown in plate 2. On the north
side of the river there are, on the east bank of the East Canada
creek, nearly horizontal beds of Utica slate, and the west bank is
a cliff of Calciferous. On the south side of the river the Utica -
slate on the thrown side of the fault abuts against Birdseye
limestone. A short distance south, the Birdseye and Trenton
limestones pass beneath the Utica slate and the fault is lost in
the hills near Minden. The fault extends up East Canada creek
for about a mile when its trend changes to a course slightly more
eastward and it passes into the eastern bank of the creek. Here
the fault plane is superbly exposed at the foot of a long series of

FAULTED REGION oF THE MoHAWE. 39

rapids and falls over the Calciferous which the fault has brought
up. In plate 4 the character of the exposure and some of the
relations are shown. In the following figure an explanatory
diagram is given.

mS SERRE
SS SSS SSN

‘ > < SS te Di

=A SSSsx ;

SN
SS

Se SS

RES RRS
Se
RSS LSS ~ ey

~ aS

~

FiGuRE 4.— Diagram of fault phenomena and dike shown in plate 4. East Canada creek, N. Y.,
looking north-northeast. U. Uticaslate. 7. Trentonlimestone. D. Dike. B. Birdseye limestone.
C. Breccia. CA. Calciferous.

In these illustrations there should be noted the vertical fault
plane, the presence of the dike along the fault plane, the typical
unbending of the Utica slates and Trenton beds against the fault,
and the breccia which includes a large fragment of Birdseye
limestone. :

The Calciferous wall on the west side of the dike is consider-
ably fractured and the general southerly dip of the formation, in
the fine series of exposures up the creek, gives place to gentle
undulations shown in part in plate 4. The breccia comprises
angular fragments of Calciferous sandrock (some but slightly
out of place) and of Birdseye limestone, in a matrix of sand
from the Calciferous beds. The thickness of this breccia varies
from three to eight inches. The relations of the large fragment
of Birdseye limestone are not clearly exposed, but it appears to

be in the breccia and not in regular sequence with the Trenton
beds cut off by the dike.

40 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The dike was recently described by C.H.Smyth,* who incidentally
refers to some of its relations. Its thickness in this exposure is
from eight to ten inches, and it is accompanied by a thin adjoin.
ing vein of calcite, carrymg pyrite and galena. An adit was run
in on the vein some years ago in the hope that it might be found
metalliferous, and, according to Smyth, it was found that the
dike ends at about sixty feet. Its extension along the surface
southward was not found owing to drift and débris. The rock
is described by Smyth, and in a supplemental papert is stated to
be alnoite, containing the rare mineral melilite in considerable
amount. : : , yet

The amount of displacement of the fault is about sixty feet,
not counting the upturn of the beds on the downthrown side.
This upturn extends for about 100 yards from the fault and
gradually gives place to gentle southwest dips. The Trenton
limestone exposed is nine feet in thickness, in layers three to eight
inches thick. It is abruptly terminated by Utica slate beds with
a six-inch layer at their base. In its extension northward, the
fault diverges from the creek at a small angle and appears to be >
lost in Utica slates in the hills west of Crumb creek, but owing
to heavy drift cover, it could not be followed any great distance.

Ascending the creek above the fault, there is the fine series of
exposures of Calciferous shown in plate 8, with others extending
to Ingham’s Mills, all dipping gently southwestward. Above
the mills the Birdseye, Trenton and Utica formations extend
across the creek in succession. “Half way between Ingham’s
Mills and Dolgeville, the dips suddenly change to northeast, and
increasing rapidly in amount, bring up the Trenton, Birdseye
and Calciferous beds in succession on the east bank of the creek ;
a fault also developing which increases rapidly northward. This
fault is shown on plate 2.

In the following figure the four sections illustrate the develop-
ment and relations of this uplift. It will be noted that this fault
differs from the two others described, in having the uplift on the
eastern side. The upturned Utica slates are finely exposed along
the high eastern bank of the creek to the high falls below Dolge-
ville. North of the falls there is a low cliff of Calciferous which

* Am, Journ. Sci., 3d Series, vol. 43, pp. 322-327.
+ Am. Journ. Sci., 3d Series, vol. 46, p. 104.

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‘y GALV Id

FAvuLTED Region oF THE Monawk. 41

may be traced for a short distance, but the relations east and.
north from Dolgeville are hidden under a wide area of heavy

drift cover.

FIGURE 5.— Cross sections along East Canada creek, below Dolgeville. U. Utica slate. 7. Trenton
and Birdseye limestones. C. Calciferous.

St. Johnsville Faults — Vanuxem described some features of
the St. Johnsville region and recognized two, if not more, series
of uplifts, but stated that there was considerable obscurity in
their relations which he had not had time to unravel. Itappears
that there is one fault which branches and curves in an unique
manner for a dislocation that is apparently not due to overthrust.
The relations are fairly well exposed, and I believe the true nature
of the dislocation is shown in plate 2.

6

42 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The relations of the fault which branches to the southward,
are plainly exhibited particularly along the road and in quarries
three miles east of St. Johnsville, and also in the slopes and in ©
an old quarry south of the river. This dislocation brings the
middle beds of the Calciferous up to a horizon about 100 feet
above the base of the Utica slate.

The Utica slate east of the fault dips cana at angles
averaging about 20°, but this upturn dies out rapidly in a few
rods. The river valley is cut across the eroded block into the
Calciferous with Trenton and Birdseye beds lying on the higher
terraces, and the Utica slate above. Along a portion of the
north side of the block the latter has been removed and the
Trenton and Birdseye beds abut against the Calciferous along
the main fault. The following section illustrates the relation of
this inclosed block:

FIGURE 6.— Section across the Mohawk river, two miles below St. Johnsville, looking west. U. Utica
slate. J. Trenton and Birdseye limetones. C. Calciferous. Vertical scale slightly exaggerated.
The beds in the inclosed block dip westerly, and at St. Johns-
ville the Utica slates come in and underlie the upper portion of
the village. These slates are penetrated by a well at the con-
densed milk factory on Zimmerman’s creek, and according to
Vanuxem they were once exposed, together with upturned edges’
of Trenton and Birdseye limestones, in the creek, near the side
of this factory. The Calciferous rises abruptly in cliffs just
beyond and curves around to the west and south on the upthrown
side of the fault. Vanuxem states that “the slate was also |
exposed at the little bridge near by, in the bottom of the creek,
inclining away from the Calciferous, which rises 100 feet above
it. The slate dips to the south at an angle of about 45°. It
shows much white carbonate of lime and some pyrites. The
Calciferous at its junction with the slate is in one part fractured,
the parts cemented forming a breccia.”* Below this are heavy

a eater ie AN eee es eee
* Geology of New York, Part III, comprising the survey of the Third Geological District, 1842, p. 206.

PLATE 5.

Fault and dike at old adit in east bank of East Canada Creek near
Manheim, New York; near View.

FAULTED REGION oF THE MoHAwk. zie

beds of clay and boulders. This exposure is now covered and is
no longer accessible. The course of this main fault is very clear
nearly to the point at which it bends to the southeast to cross the
Mohawk, where it is covered by drift. The relations in this
Vicinity, so far as known, are shown in the following section
which crosses the loop in the main fault.

FIGURE 7.— Section across the Mohawk just above St. Johnsville, N. Y., looking west. U. Utica
slate. TZ. Trenton and Birdseye limestones. C. Calciferous.

The relations of the recurved portion of the fault on the south
side of the river are clearly exhibited in every detail. The fault
plane is not exposed, but the Utica slate and Calciferous are
seen within a few feet of each other in the west bank of a small
brook, and the course of the fault is seen to be due north-northeast
down to the mouth of this brooklet. The slate is tilted back to
the eastward in the usual manner, for several rods from the
fault. The Trenton and Birdseye limestones on the uplifted side
dip to the southwest, which carries them from an altitude of 150
feet above the river near the fault to below the river a short
distance east of the East Canada creek fault. Both the main and
branch faults are lost in the high region of Utica slate a short
distance south of the crest of the southern bank of the Mohawk

To the northward, the principal fault increases in amount and
brings up the crystalline rocks in an area which widens and rises
rapidly in the next few miles. Along by Garoga the scarp of
crystalline rocks is very high and precipitous. The Utica slate
east of the fault underlies the depression eastward. North of
Rockwood the crystalline rocks come up on the east side of the
fault. North of this vicinity the fault was not traced, but it
probably extends far into the Adirondacks.

The “Noses” Fault.— This great uplift crosses the Mohawk
river five miles below Canajoharie. It is very similar to that of
Little Falls, giving rise to a great ridge of Calciferous, rising ab-
ruptly from the moderately elevated Utica slate region eastward.

44 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Through this ridge the river has cut a narrow gorge with high
walls of Calciferous, which are seen to be underlain for a short
distance by crystalline rocks. The river winds slightly in the
eastern portion of this gorge, and the short, sharp spurs of the
‘high cliffs have given rise to the appellation of the “ Noses,”
which is well known to travelers along the Mohawk as a particu-
larly wild and picturesque part of the valley. This dislocation
is shown in plate 2. The fault is not so great in amount as that
of Little Falls, and the crystalline rocks are not so extensively
exposed, but owing to oscillations in dip, the walls of Calciferous
extend much farther up the river. The Trenton and Utica
formations extend continuously along the south side of the
gorge, beginning in an upper terrace lying a short distance back
from the crest of the Calciferous cliff. On the nort side of the
river these formations extend to nearly opposite Spraker’s Basin,
below which the Calciferous extends widely to the north, and
eastward to the fault, where it ends in a prominent scarp. This
scarp is elevated high above the rolling surface of the Utica slate
region eastward. The crystalline rocks at the ‘“‘ Noses” on the
Moha-vk do not extend quite to the fault, but, as shown in sec-
tion A, plate 2, rise in a low anticline just west, to an extent of
about forty feet above the river on the south side, and seventy-
five feet on the north side. Possibly in the river trough, where
the Calciferous is deeply eroded, the crystalline rocks may extend
to the fault.

South from the river the relations of the fault are well exposed
on the road to Currytown, which crosses it three times. The
Calciferous rises as a wall or steep slope, with the Utica
slates abutting against it and dipping away at angles, for the most
part averaging 50°. This dip rapidly decreases eastward and
finally gives place to the gentler general southwesterly inclina-

tion. The essentially vertical position of the fault plane is clearly

exhibited between Currytown and the river, not only in many
small exposures of a perpendicular fault scarp but in its straight

course up the long slope, aggregating over 200 feet in ascent..

Half a mile north of Currytown the Trenton and Birdseye lime-
stones are seen overlying the Calciferous and, in a short distance
‘up the slope, the Trenton limestone passes beneath the Utica
slates. The Calciferous along the fault is often considerably

FAULTED Rercion oF THE MonHaAwk. 45

broken and crushed. Its usual dip at and near the Mohawk is
gently to the east; near Currytown it is west, for the most part
gently, but at one point 40°. The amount of dislocation along
the fault is about 300 feet at the Mohawk river.

North from the river the great scarp to which this fault gives
rise extends for many miles as a high wall along the west side of
the great Utica slate area of Johnstown and Gloversville. For
the first six miles this wall consists of the Calciferous sandrock
with underlying crystalline rocks occasionally exposed where
brooklets cut into the Utica slates. With. the general upward
pitch to the north and some increase in the throw of the fault,
the surface of the crystalline rocks gradually increases in alti-
tude, and southwest of Johnstown it extends to the crest of the
fault scarp. The Calciferous then trends off to the west as a ter-
‘race and the crystalline rock area expands into a wide high
plateau capped by afew small outliers of Potsdam sandstone.
The Utica slates lying to the east of the”fault are exposed at
many points with the usual sharp dip to the eastward in the
immediate proximity of the fault plane. On the turnpike, at a
point about three miles west of Johnstown, the average dip of the
shales is 40°, and in several exposures south of here dips of 60°
were noticed. This disturbance was found to extend from 5 0
to 8v0 yards from the fault, the eastward dip gradually dying out
and giving place to the general monoclinal inclination to the
southwest. Although the fault plane was not observed in this
region, there are several exposures in which it is clearly seen to
be vertical or very nearly so. One is in the banks of a creek
which falls over the fault scarp of crystalline rocks in a long
succession of cascades. Near the bottom there is a bank in which
a sheer wall of crystalline rocks is seen along the fault plane.
There is much debris banked against it but the Utica slate out-
crops at several points near by in the gorge and within a few
inches of the contact in the road above. :

In the region west of Johnstown, I found a branch fault ex-
tending southwestward from the main dislocation to a point
south of Ephratah. Its relations are shown in section B, plate 3,
just under the B and also on plate 2. The downthrow is on its
western side and it gives rise to a conspicuous scarp of crystalline
rocks and Calciferous, facing northwest. Its maximum throw is

46 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

near the centre of its course, at a point about due east of Ephra-
tah, where the amount is 250 feet, and the Utica slate is seen
abutting against the crystalline rocks South of this point the —
crystalline rocks dip beneath the Potsdam sandstone and Calcifer- ©
ous, the throw decreases gradually and the fault dies out in the
overlying Trenton limestones, a mile north of Stone Arabia. To
the northward the Trenton and Birdseye limestones, the Cal-
ciferous, the Potsdam, and the crystalline rocks are clearly ex-
posed, coming up in succession along the dip on the west side of
the fault. The continuation of the fault through the crystalline
area to the main fault is not clearly exposed and the amount of
throw appears to diminish in the interval.

West of Gloversville the course of the “ Noses” fault gradually
curves around to northeast and near Mayfield its trend is nearly
due east. Then it turns to the northnortheast again and extends
up the Sacandaga valley. Along the fault scarp in this region a
high cliff and steep slopes of crystalline rocks are presented to
the eastward and southeastward rising high above the plain on
which Gloversville and Mayfield are located.

a {
peg. ‘DB
it Dan F Et (a
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FIGURE 8.— Sketch map of region north of Mayfield, and sections illustrating the relations of the
faults. Horizontal scale two miles to oneinch. U. Uticaslate. JZ. Trenton limestone. OC. Calcifer-
ous. P. Potsdam sandstone. A. Crystalline rocks. Ff. Faults.

‘44 SII OT} 0F ,, SOSON,, 0} “A 'N ‘WISVE StoxVIdg vou WOT JOATI YMBYOW! OY} WMOP SUIyoo'yT

‘9 HLV Id

FAvuLtep Rzecion oF THE Monawk. 47

North of Mayfield the Trenton, Birdseye, Calciferous, Potsdam
and crystalline rocks are brought up in succession by the south-
erly dip, east of the fault and the wide Utica slate area ends.
In this vicinity it- was found that there is ‘a branch fault to the
southward from the main dislocation, and a parallel fault which
‘is intersected by this branch fault. Some.of the relations are
shown in plate 2. The amount of these minor faults is not
great and they appear to affect a relatively smallarea. The out-
crops upon which my knowledge of their relations is based are
not as numerous as could be desired, for there is considerable
drift over the region. The outcrops observed and the structural
deductions are represented in the map and sections on page 46.

There are some indications in the topography that the minor
parallel fault extends across the Sacandaga and up the depression
in which Hope Falls are located. North of Northfield both faults
are entirely in crystalline rocks and their courses were not
specially studied. Two miles west of Northfield there is a small
area of Calciferous apparently completely surrounded by crystal-
line rocks and abutting against the “Noses” fault on its west
side. |

Fifteen miles north of Northfield, at Wells village, in the
Sacandaga valley, an area of Paleozoic rocks was found lying
against a fault scarp on its western side, and possibly faulted on
the east side also. Its relations are shown in the following
figure.

P_awe
4

FIGURE 9.— Cross section of Sacandaga valley at Wells, Hamilton county, N. Y., looking north.
U. Uticaslate. JT. Trenton limestone. C.Calciferous. P. Potsdam. A. Crystalline rocks. D. Drift.

The Utica and Trenton formations are characterized by an
abundant fauna. The Calciferous and Potsdam formations have
their usual characteristics. The Utica slate and Trenton lime-
stone are exposed very near the crystalline rocks on the west
side, and they dip gently westward.

48 REport oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Fonda Fauwt—The small uplift east of Fonda brings up a
small area of Trenton limestone in the Mohawk valley, mainly
in the north bank, where the formation rises thirty or forty feet
above the river. The fault plane was not precisely located nor
were any attendant phenomena observed. Its relations were
shown in section A, plate 3, and on plate 2. The upthrow is on
the western side, and the displacement amounts to about 125.
feet. Heavy drift hides its northern extension. It may pass
through the Utica slate area northward, and possibly be con-
tinuous with the fault at Mayfield, but I have no positive
evidence on this point.

Tribes Hill Fault.— This fault is not of great prominence, but
the limestone beds which it brings up have been extensively
quarried, so that it is of considerable economic importance. The
relations of the fault are shown in section A, plate 3, and in
plate 2. The exposures are quite clear in the vicinity of the
river and for some distance northward. To the south it is soon
lost in the drift of the Schoharie valley or the adjacent hills of
Utica slate and Hudson river. The Utica slate is exposed in the
immediate vicinity of the fault at several points along its course,
with the usual narrow zone of upturned beds varying in dip from
40° to 60°, which die out gradually to the eastward. The amount
of the displacement on the Mohawk river is about 200 feet. In
the high hills about Perth the fault is heavily covered by drift,
_and its northern extension could not be traced. It appears to die
out in this region.

Broadalbin Fault.— This fault is similar to the uplifts east of ~
Ephratah and near Dolgeville, in having the downthrow on the
northwestern side. Its location is shown in plates 1 and 2. It
is somewhat north of section B, plate 3. It trends east-north-
‘east and west-northwest, passing half a mile north of Fonda’s
Bush, and apparently it soon dies out to the east and west.
Owing to heavy drift along its scarp its relations are for
the most part concealed. In the creek, a half mile north of.
Fonda’s Bush, the slate is seen tilted northeastward or obliquely
away from the fault at an angle of 40°. The amount of disloca-
tion at Fonda’s Bush is about 200 feet. The Calciferous is
exposed on the hill a few rods to the southwest of the village,

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. P ‘4 GLV Id

FavuLtep REGion oF THE MonAawk. ) 49

over an area of about half an acre, and the fault scarp is dis-
tinctly traceable in the topography for a short distance to the
northeast. The Calciferous appears again at Steven’s mill, and
. the overlying Birdseye and Trenton limestones are exposed in a
quarry a few rods east, and again at the next bridge above.
Hoffman’s Ferry Fault.— This is the easternmost of the faults
on the Mohawk. It brings up the Calciferous, Birdseye and
Trenton formations over a wide area which extends up the river
to two milesabove Amsterdam. The prolongation of the uplifted
beds so far up the river is due to exceptionally low dips and a
number of undulations, as in the case of the “ Noses” fault in the
Canajoharie region. Neither the eastern front of the uplifted
block nor the cliffs of Calciferous -along the river gorge are so
_ prominent as at the “ Noses,” or about Little Falls, but they are
conspicuous features. A series of gentle arches in the Calcifer-
ous is finely exposed along the railroad and canal on the south
side of the river, a mile below Cranesville. The Calciferous does
not extend far south of the river, but is capped a short distance
back by a low terrace of Trenton limestone, with high hills of
Utica and Hudson river slate just behind. On the north side of
the valley the Calciferous extends up the dip to a somewhat
greater altitude than on the south side, and occupies a wider
area. Behind Amsterdam, and for some distance east, it is capped
by Trenton limestone in a relatively narrow tongue, which slopes
southward. Near the fault there is an outlier of Trenton lime-
stone bearing a low mound of Utica slate of small extent. To
the north of these areas the Calciferous is bare over many square
miles in a wide plateau which extends to the Sacandaga. The
fault plane was not observed, but its course is clearly marked.
It crosses the river just above the mouth of the little creek which
empties from the north, a few hundred yards west of Hoffman’s
Ferry. This creek flows over Utica slates which here dip
steeply away from the fault. A mile and a half from the river
the fault scarp is exhibited by thick-bedded Trenton limestone,
with a small showing of Calciferous below. In a short distance
farther the Trenton area ends, and the Calciferous gradually
rises into a cliff which is sharply elevated above the Utica slate
country eastward. The Calciferous continues for the next ten

7

50 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

miles in a line of cliffs and steep-slopes of considerable promi-
nence. At a point about eight miles from the river, the mono
clinal dip, aided possibly by the increased amount of the fault,
brings up Potsdam sandstone. This formation emerges to a.
thickness of 100 feet near Galway, but the fault then decreases
somewhat in amount and extends into the crystalline area east
of Galway, where it becomes obscure. It is largely marked by a
heavy drift cover in this vicinity, and its relations are not well
known. A short distance south of Galway the fault sends off
three successive branches to the northeast. They are of the
same type as the main fault, with uplift on the western side, and
are clearly exhibited in the relations of two wedges of Trenton
limestone, the easternmost of which rises above the Utica slate
to the east along the scarp of the first fault. These relations
are shown near the left-hand end of section B, plate 3, and also
on plate 2, in both cases on a considerably exaggerated scale in
order to render them distinct. These faults appear to finally die
out to the northward. but there is much obscurity in this country
due to heavy drift cover. Just south of East Galway there is a
small inclosed area of crystalline rocks with cliffs of Potsdam
sandstone just north, which is probably cut off by a continuation
of one of these faults. 3

Saratoga Faults.—The fact was long ago recognized that the
springs at Saratoga issue along a line of dislocation which brings
up the Calciferous to a moderate altitude above the plain east-
ward. The Calciferous occupies a considerable area about Saratoga
and dips beneath the Trenton limestones to the southward. To
the northwest the dip brings up the Potsdam sandstone and
crystalline rocks in succession, but to the northeast these are cut
off by another fault along which the Calciferous abuts against
the crystalline rocks. Farther west there is another fault of
smaller.amount which somewhat offsets the belts of the several
formations. :

I am informed by Mr. Walcott who is familiar with this region
that there is another fault in the western part of the village of
Saratoga which breaks the continuity of certain Calciferous
members for some distance, and Mr. McGee, who made a visit to
the region some years ago, states that, at that time, there was evi-
dence of a small branch fault extending from the Spring fault at

‘YOOIPMVBS SNOTOJIO[VO JO PIO PUBSTIVA “A ‘N ‘WIoyUVT 1v08U 4[NVJ oY} EADGB HoorHN VpeuBH sua dn 3uryoo'y

"8 ALV'Id

Fauttep Recion oF THE MonAwkE. 51

an angle of 60°, along the base of the cliff of Calciferous just
north of the point at which the railroad crosses Broadway.

The following three sections show the principal peed in the
Saratoga region.

nO Sevan cea ive 0viaus os bTEIETS OYTO

FIGURE 10.— Cross sections through the Saratoga region, looking north. U. Uticaslate. JT. Trenton
limestone. C.Calciferous. P. Potsdam. A. Crystallinerock. fF. Faults.

The fault planes are not exposed so far as L could find, but in
outcrops in their immediate vicinity no evidence of upturning of
limestone or sandstone was observed.. East of the Spring fault
the country is covered by drift, and there are no outcrops of
Utica slate until in the vicinity of Saratoga lake.

The faults of the Saratoga region trend approximately north-
east and are essentially parallel. Their northern extension has
not been fully determined, but the one which passes west and
north of the village appears to follow the base of the steep front
of crystalline rocks which crosses the Hudson river five miles
west of Glens Falls and extends to Lake George. There are sev-
eral exposures in this belt in which the Calciferous is exposed
abutting against the crystalline rocks, although the precise con-
tact was not found. It may be an overlap along a steep shore

52 Report oF THe State GEOoLoGIstT.

line, but its relations and the known presence of the fault south-
ward strongly suggest a long dislocation. To the southward it
gradually dies out a short distance southwest of Saratoga. The
easternmost, or Spring fault, appears to extend southward to
Ballston, if the continuation of the line of springs is an.evidence —
of its existence, which is probable. It is entirely in Utica slate
south of the Kissingen spring of Saratoga, for at that point the
Trenton limestone on the west side of the fault dips beneath the
Utica. slate. The westernmost fault in the Saratoga region is
prominent for about three miles, as shown in the sections in
figure 10. It extends into the crystalline rocks northward and
into the Utica slate area southward, but these extensions were
not followed. Bs,

Lake George Fault.— The middle fault of the Saratoga region,
as stated above, appears to extend to Lake George and along its
eastern shore. For many miles its prominent scarp of crystalline
rocks rises abruptly from the great sand plain eastward. For
some distance south of Lake George the dislocation is entirely in
crystalline rocks, but at the south end of the lake a small area of
Calciferous is seen, and farther up the lake at Hill View and Bol-
ton there are other small outliers of sedimentary rocks. The
lower part of the lake basin appears to be excavated in the Cal-
ciferous, for several outliers along its sides and others constitut-
ing the southern islands indicate an extensive area of this forma-
tion. There is a long strip of Calciferous on the east side of
French mountain, probably cut off on the east by a fault which
continues along the east shore of Lake George from Kattskill
bay. Ata point two miles south of the East bay a small area
of Trenton limestcne also abuts against this fault. The follow-
ing section is intended to show the relations in this region.

L-
4
Y
ALIS HVGTS

FIGURE 11.— Section from the south end of Lake George, eastward through French Mountain, looking
north. 7. Trenton limestone. C. Calciferous. A. Crystalline rocks. #. French Mountain.

Holland Patent.— There is a small fault exposed east of Hol.
land Patent, which extends to a short distance west of Trenton.
The amount of displacement is not over sixty feet at greatest,

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JO sytjo {e8103 Jo w10430q UT sHOOI ouTTTVysAIO “A ‘N ‘SI[VA OTF JO JAvd Uslsysve oY} WIZ JOATA YMVYOY oy} dn suryooT

6 ALVId

FAuLtED REGIon oF THE MoHawk. | 53

and the fault brings the middle beds of the Trenton limestone
against the Utica slates, probably not far from their base. The
relations are shown in the following figure:

FIGURE 12.— Cross section, one mile north of HollandjPatent. U. Uticaslate. T. Trenton limestone.
Looking north. Horizontalscale, one mile to one inch. Vertical scale exaggerated.
2 .

54 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

NOTE
field Notes on the Geology of the Mohawk Valley, with a Map.

(From the Annual Report of the State Geologist for 1885, pp. 8-10.)

At Little Falls there are two parallel faults extending 45°
east of north. One of these intersects the village and crosses
the New York Central railroad at the high stone wall built |
up from the river at the lower end of the village. The same
fault: crosses the West Shore railroad just above the deep cut
through the Labradorite, and this point is also occupied by an
extensive filling and stone wall built up from the river level.*

The second fault forms the eastern termination of the escarp-
ment of gneiss and Calciferous below the village and is a mono-
clinal. .

Another monoclinal fault crosses the valley of the Mohawk
river above the mouth of East Canada creek and brings up the
Trenton limestone dipping to the west. }

An anticlinal fault occurs just above Fort Plain. The Calcif-
erous dips to the west, and across the line at Fort Plain the Birds-
eye limestone is found dipping to the southeast. Just below the
bridge at the last-mentioned locality is an exposure of Birdseye
limestone, which preserves the remains of former pot-holes at a
level of ten feet above the river, showing that at one time there
was a natural dam and fall at this point.

From Fort Plain to the “Little Nose” the strata lie in a broad
synclinal with Canajoharie situated nearly in the center.

Sections of the strata at Canajoharie and Spraker’s Basin are
presented and make an interesting comparison.

Section along creek entering the Mohawk river at Canajo-
farce, N.Y.

At Canajoharie the Calciferous is comparatively thin, bringing
up underlying beds of limestone as shown in this section. Upon
the undulating and worn surface of the Calciferous there is a
very thin bed (1-3) of Trenton limestone without any intervening

*The significance of the artificial structure mentioned may not be apparent at first sight. A line-
of fault isa line of weakness. The rocks along such lines are usually much broken and eroded ; and
the place of many faults in New York is indicated by lines of swamps, lake beds and river valleys.
At Little Falls the strata are nearly everywhere exposed, and only along the line of this fault has it
been necessary to fill in extensively and build secure foundations for the roadbeds. =

FauLtep Rrcion oF THE MoHAwk. 55

formations. The limestone is followed by the Utica slate, which
is well developed. 3

At Spraker’s Basin the Calciferous is quite extensive, forming
the major part of the section, and is followed. by a thin bed of
limestone, which represents the Chazy limestone. Following this
is the Trenton limestone, reaching a thickness of from ten to fif-
teen feet. 3

Section along creek entering the Mohawk river at Spraker’s
Basin, N. Y.

i ma as
Between Spraker’s Basin and Randall there is a very marked
anticlinal fault, bringing up the gneiss in the bed of the river and
giving origin to the “‘ Noses.” On the east side of the fault the.
gneiss is found more than 150 feet above the river, rising as high
as the Calciferous does on the opposite side of the fault line.

Near the eastern line of this fault there is a cutting on the
West Shore railroad, at a point known as the “Little Nose,”
through the gneiss and Calciferous, showing the line of junction
between these formations. This absolute line of junction is very
interesting, geologically, on account of the great rarity of such
exposures.

The interval from the gneiss to the Calciferous represents the
Huronian, Primordial and Potsdam, and is, comparatively speak-
ing, one of great duration. These formations, represented else-
where by many thousand feet of sediments, are here represented
by from a few inches to several feet of breccia and loose chloritic
and ferruginous material

The material occupying this interval is derived from the
decompusition of the gneiss and from some slight sedimentation,
and contains a small per cent. of gold and silver, and is the first
authenticated discovery of these minerals in the Mohawk valley.
The amount of the metals is much too small to be of any particu-
= importance, but their cccurrence is an interesting geological

act.

Following this loose material is a bed of breccia of variable
thickness carrying fragments of crystalline limestone and Pots-
dam sandstone.

56 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The details of the junction of the gneiss and Calciferous are
given in the following section:

Section in cut of West Shore railroad, at the “ Little Nose,”

Randall, Montgomery county, N. Y.

The Calciferous sandstone at the “ Little Nose” has a consider-
able thickness and carries some small beds of hornstone, and
contains many cavities, lined with quartz crystals similar to those
of Little Falls, but not in such abundance or perfection. Some
of the crevices in the rock have been filled with lime, by infiltra-
tion, forming a calcareous tufa, and contain many bones of small
animals and the shells of recent species of Helix.

From the “Noses” to the escarpment crossing the Mohawk
above Hoffman’s Ferry the rocks he in a broad synclinal, with
some minor folds. This synclinal includes, al ng the river, the
Calciferous sandstone, Trenton limestone and Utica slate It is
terminated at Hoffman’s Ferry by a line of fault parallel to the
other faults here described.

Further details of the occurrence and distribution of the rock
formations are given in the map accompanying this report, which
records the observations made during the past season, no attempt
having been made to incorporate it with the published geological
maps of this region.

Geological Survey of the State of New York— Geological Map

“Ee OR T

ON THE

STRUCTURAL AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY OF. -

SENECA COUNTY

JAMES HALL, he EENCOUN. NM De.

StatE GEOLOGIST ASSISTANT

REPORT.

James Hatt, State Geologist :

Srr.— In accordance with the request which you addressed to
me last July, I have prepared an account of the Geology of
Seneca county, from both a scientific and economic point of view.
This I now have the honor to present. |
In treating of geological matters proper, I have given much
attention to topography and drift phenomena. In studying the
palaeozoic rocks, the determination of boundaries of formations
has been the principal object. Economic resources are spoken
of under the heads of Quarries, Clay industries, Gas wells,
Water-power, etc.

A geological map is added, and original photographs, sketches

and sections are employed in illustration.
I desire to tender thanks to the Hon. A. M. Patterson, Hon.
D. H. Evans, Hon. Diedrich Willers, Messrs. King and Robinson,
Harrison, Chamberlain and others, who have rendered essential
service to my work.

I remain, very respectfully,
Your obedient servant,

D. F. LINCOLN.
Guneva, N. Y., Movember 12, 1895.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK.

(GEOLOGICAL Jl

Report on the Structural and Economic Geology
of Seneca County.

By D. F. LINCOLN, M. D.

CoNTENTs :

INTRODUCTORY. SURFACE GEOLOGY.— Topography of plateau, hills, ravines,

- alluvial belt, drumlin belt, sand ridges, kame district, delta terraces, drift-
filled channels, till, glacial striation, springs, Seneca lake. STRATIGRAPHIC
GEOLOGY.— Salina group. Lower Helderberg group. Oriskany sandstone.
Marcellus shales. Hamilton shales. Tully limestone. Genesee shales.
Portage group. Thickness and dip. Economic GEOLOGY.— Clay, brick, tile,
limestone, sandstone, plaster rock, road metal, gas wells, water power.

The county of Seneca, selected for the present report, is fairly
representative of central New York in point of geological devel-
opment and in respect to its economic resources.

Geologically, it presents the upper number of the Silurian
formations, with the lower, middle and part of the upper Devo-

nian. The formations exposed are the following:

Devonian, upper: Portage sandstone and shale; Genesee |
shale.
‘. Devonian, middle: Tully limestone; Hamilton shale and
limestone; Marcellus shale.

Devonian, lower: Upper Helderberg limestone.

Silurian: Water lime; Salina.

Map of the County.

The map here given is reproduced from a wall map of Seneca
and Cayuga counties, published in 1859 by A. R. Z. Dawson,
Philadelphia. ;

In the copy, roads are denoted by single lines. Except in the
northern part of the county, they are introduced sparingly, for
the purpose of marking geological points. Hamlets are marked

GroLoay or Seneca County. 61.

with a doubled cross. Dotted lines are used to outline two of
the swampy districts,and the kame district. The direction of the
meridian is given by the western boundary of Junius. Quarries,
with slight exceptions, belong either to the Upper Helderberg or
the Portage; they are marked with across. Special marks are
used for other outcrops of the Lower Helderberg, Marcellus, base
of Hamilton (H), Tully, Genesee, and Portage; those for the
Marcellus and Genesee shales being parallel lines, those for flag-
' stones being oblong figures. Dotted lines mark supposed bound-
aries of formations. The outlines of the Upper Helderberg,
in western Waterloo, are hypothetical, being drawn straight
in the direction of the marsh exposures in Phelps. Many streams
are omitted; cataracts are not marked.

The Portage, Lower Helderberg and Salina groups do not dis-
play their whole thickness in Seneca county. The fauna of the
former is intermediate between that of Ithaca and that of the
Genesee region, but is essentially a part of the former.

Glacial geology is well represented by drumlins, sheet till,
striations, eskers, kames, delta-terraces, and large deposits of clay
and sand. : ) .

The economic resources comprise building stone (limestone,
flags), cement-rock, rock for the lime-kiln, gypsum, gravel and
sand, road material, clay for making brick and tile, gas wells,
water-power, mineral springs, swamp deposits.

The section of Seneca county (fig. 30) illustrates (1) the
changes in angle of dip; (2) position of Seneca lake, beginning
at the outlet; (3) the inferential position of strata at a distance
below the ee bottom, assuming that the Hamilton formation
remains of uniform eee

Topography of the Plateau.

The land surface of Seneca county comprises somewhat over
300 square miles; the length from north to south is 32 miles, the
breadth from 7 to 14. On the north and south the boundaries
are artificial; on the east and west they are formed by Cayuga
and Seneca lakes with their northward extensions.

Seneca county does not compose a geographical unit, but
embraces parts of the New York plateau and of the low plain
which stretches to Lake Ontario. The passage from one to the
other of these two geographical features is at this point exceed-

LEG? REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

ingly gradual. Farther eastward they are sharply demarcated by
the Helderberg escarpment, of which the western extremity may
be conceived as reaching to Union Springs, Cayuga county. In
Seneca county the change occurs by a slow and equal rise of
about 400 feet along 14 miles of nearly plain country between
Seneca Falls and Ovid. The first great rise occurs at Ovid vil-
lage, where the Portage rock forms an escarpment of 150 feet,
without cliffs, but sloping steeply to the north and west.

The country may also be considered as a section of the Pinger-
lake region (fig. 1). This name is applied to that portion of the
plateau which extends from Lake Conesus on the west to Lake
Otisco on the east, and is bounded southward by the divide
between the St. Lawrence and the Susquehanna watersheds.
The divide is marked more or less continuously by masses of
moraine material, filling the valleys in places to the depth of
many hundreds of feet, but becoming inconspicuous on higher
ground. The moraine, as a whole, has been considered by some
as corresponding to a “second glacial period.”

The region thus indicated is deeply cut by a series of ancient
(pre-glacial) river-valleys, roughly parallel and converging to
some northern point. Seneca county lies between the deepest of
these, Seneca and Cayuga lakes..-It occupies the middle or
axial part of the Finger-lake region, which is also the lowest.
Its outlines appear to indicate great erosion during the Ice Age,
with general flattening, which has probably removed all distine-
_ tions of relief and depression north of the outcrop of the Cor- _
niferous limestone, though a few hills remain, greatly flattened, _
on the south.

The mean depth of Seneca lake valley, measured from the
Lodi plateau, is 1,000 feet, of which one-half is below the water
of the lake.

The distinction between plateau and valley is striking when
one stands on high ground. From the surface of the lakes the
valley alone is visible; this is especially true of Seneca lake. —

Hills.

The trough-like appearance of the lake-valleys of this region
has often been remarked. They appear destitute of side-hills;
or rather this feature does not come in sight except by close
study.

ee ee on)

eg
SS ?e
SSS “

: XK
a)
Figure 1. Map of the Finger-lake Region, the d

otted line showing the
water-shed.

Grotogy or Seneca County. } 63

Such hills as exist scarcely rise more than 100 feet above the
level country anywhere in this county, and their forms are so.
flattened that they make little impression on the eye. There is
an exception to this at the southern border of the county, where
the topography changes; great flat hills rise several hundred feet
above the table land, with fine valleys, leading south to a series of
_ interlacing valleys, which characterize the country back of Burdett,
and are repeated east and west beyond the lakes, adding greatly
to the picturesque beauty of Schuyler and Tompkins counties.

FIGURE 2.

The sketch (fig. 2) represents the east side of Seneca lake,
_ southern half. It was taken from a high point above Watkins
village. The apparent point of land on the left is formed by the
descent of Lodi and Ovid townships to the lake. Three or four
long hills, from 400 to 600 feet high, are seen occupying the
plateau ; their valleys are high above Seneca lake, and do not
communicate with it as valleys, but send their streams down the
steep lakeside in thread-like gorges, too small to be drawn here.
The hill farthest to the left projects (as just stated) into Seneca
county under the name of Prospect, formerly Butcher’s, Hill.

Collectively, these large hills indicate a second lift in the level
of the plateau. The formation continues to be Portage. The
flatness of their summits is characteristic. Prospect Hill com:
prises about one-third of a mile of ascent on each side (E-W),
with half a mile of almost dead level on top, the outlines being
essentially formed of rock. The hill is a type of the southern
half of the county, which is like a house-roof, flat over the topand
pitching rapidly toward the eaves. The lakeward slopes each
way occupy two miles or less of the breadth of the county.
They are in many places subdivided into several terraces or steps,
each with a nearly perfect level surmounting a short rise.

64 ReEportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The smaller hills, lying south of the “Outlet” (Seneca river),
- deserve attention, as representing an extreme degree of glacial
action. As a rule, they are not of drift, but of the country rock;
those of the Canoga region being probably an exception. A
_ number are composed of Marcellus shale, e. g., the one on which
the Swan farm stands, near the outlet of Seneca lake, which is
_ rather steep northward, with a thin coating of till, while southward
it has but a slight descent, emerging into a tract with heavier drift.
There are several hills of Marcellus shale to the eastward, with
a tendency to the ridge form, bluff northward, and merging into
levels southward; they are hardly continuous enough to be called
an escarpment, though occupying an alignment along the north-
ern limit of theformation. They project much more prominently
than the Corniferous limestone exposures, which lie to the
northward. |
_ Marcellus shale, capped with basal Hamilton limestone, forms
the elevated mass (200 feet above the lake) two miles south of
the Swan hill. It is steep northward, with a long fall of 100
feet to the south. Both of these hills form on the west broad,
low slopes of rock running to Seneca lake, where they are cut
off in cliffs.

A large hill of Hamilton,shale lies southeast of the latter hill,
near MacDougal’s. Its base is about 170 feet above the lake.

East of these three hills the flat valley of Kendig’s creek is an
obvious feature, bounded on the east. by continuous table land,
chiefly rock. The table rises into several hills, peculiarly
grouped, on the west of Bearytown (Fayette) village, composed
in part of moraine (2).

The very large and striking hill of Hamilton shale which rises
‘at the side of Cayuga lake, northeast of Hayt’s Corners, belongs
in the present category ; there are also a few slight ridges in the
central table land, but nothing more of special note north of the
outcrop of Tully limestone.

As before hinted, these hills, with Kendig’s valley, appear to
form the remains of a topography which may have existed in a
much bolder form previous to the Ice-Age. Their distribution is
not inconsistent with a drainage topography.

The forms are all so flattened and the breadth so great as to
make photographic representation difficult. Seen as a whole,

GroLocy or Smnreca County. 65

from high points in Geneva, the county presents a continuous
horizontal sky-line as far to the south as Ovid.

' ~) ’
' NV :
! &3 2
: SE !
! cee
° : =e ‘ W
en ae ist
: ce ; ———
; LO Reet 1°
’ Lak z
: WW)
. Weds it AZ,
‘ P = F] = =
r) au : a
, NQ
' Ni}
4! S
t a
alli , sf
a | im
‘ ee ol |
‘ Hj ~ ie ape
‘ 38 i
‘ 2 a4 ANP QU,
} = Ss
: 4,B=
a Se ie
ro fy luff \
v i MY
= es
Sie ae ty a=
wh ELIA

f¢

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whee Wis,

* FIGURE 3.

66 REPORT. OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Let figure 3 represent the neighborhood of the northern end
of Seneca lake. G — Geneva village. On the west the lake is
filled with drift, found by borings to be 212 feet deep; but on
the east the floor of the lake is here mostly rock. Opposite A
and B, on a still day, one may see the flat surfaces of shale, with
geometric joints, under the water, at 350 feet from shore, the
water being there three and five feet deep in the present low con-
dition of the lake (October, 1895). The rock bluffs are 20 and 30
feet high, respectively, indicating a slope of 1:15 and 1:10 prior to
the modern lake erosion which gave rise to the cliffs.

The summits of A and B are elongated north and south:
Their lower bulks of rock run down into the lake, with axes
more E-W, which is a normal attitude of side hills toward the.
main valley, i.e. the lake bed. The supposed ancient valleys of
side streams tributary to the river occupying the lake bed are
indicated by “ Drift,” between A-B and B-C. One still carries
a stream; the other does not. The drift is of moderate thick
ness, reaae a couple of feet, on the lifts of rock, and exceed-
ing 80 feet in places in the sags. |

This case is not isolated, but presents the key to the excessively
flattened lakeside topography. All along the lake the rock alter-
nately forms low lifts and depressions of a mile or two in length,
rising from 5 to 60 feet and more, and sinking correspondingly
beneath the lake. The dip eee may equal the rise above the
lake, northerly ; but from Willard, south, the only important aap
is at Lamoreaux, the rest being a wall of cliff.

There are no bends, synclinal or anticlinal, of sufficient import-
ance to account for these hills. Farther to the south there is a
slight anticlinal of 15 feet in the heavy green shale of the “hog
back” in the eastern part of the Willard Hospital property, west
of Ovid. This ridge runs E-W, and is divided by a 30-fvot cut .
through which the Lehigh Valley road passes. .

Other E-W hills occur west of Bearytown. In this curious
group the eastern half consists mainly of shale. There is a
very good exposure of the basal Hamilton limestones in the
creek which bisects the group; and roadside exposure of shale
(with glacial strie) farther west, on the N-S ridge. The
three-branched cluster has the aspect of being composed of drift;
and its S-E prolongation to and across the brook strongly —

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RM IR

oe mre

E
.$.

‘T “LV Id

Soe ee

GroLocy or Smnrca County. Gr?

reminds one of a moraine ridge: the material where exposed
being till.

At Ovid village there are several drift hills, taking more or less
the form of ridges (not N-S). Some six or seven miles 8S. E. of
the village there are a number of till ridges running approxi-
mately N. W.—S. E.; with a general excess of drift material
along the eastward slope of the country. i

Ravines.

The most striking and beautiful natural features of this region
are the ravines, formed by the rapid descent of a great number
of short streams to the lakes on each side. They are, of course,
of post-glacial origin, and the comparative shortness of their
existence is seen in the retention of vertical sides, in the shales
equally with the sandstones. The joints traverse all the forma- —
tions alike, from the Corniferous limestone upward; being, for
the two main directions, N. 20°-30° W., and N. 75°-85° E., and
nearly vertical; these joint planes often delimit the entire wall

_ of aglen, aided by minor and less constant ones. Their effect

upon the rock scenery is shown in the views of Taughannock and
Lodi glens, and King’s Ferry cliff. (igs. 4, 5, 6.)

The height of the unbroken fall of water at Taughannock is
given at 215 feet. Until recently it fell over a straight edge of
rock, but this has been broken in the manner shown in the view.
There is a considerable and picturesque fall just above the main
one, but concealed from sight. ‘ihis, being the highest fall of
water in the State (Niagara — 165 feet), should not pass unmen-
tioned, although it lies a mile or two outside of the boundaries of
Seneca county.

A still more remarkable effect is produced where the stream
falls over the Tully limestone, with a good thickness of Hamilton
shale beneath. In such cases the stream is often hardly more
than a sloping ditch in the field above, and would attract no
attention ; it has been unable to excavate the limestone. Its fall
is most unexpected; the limestone is broken into a square face,
jutting corniee-like overa deep jug-like chasm hollowed inthe shale
beneath. This is repeated in many streams on the Cayuga lake
side of the county. The type for the Portage formation is a high
vertical wall, as at Taughannock, with a small ravine above

68 ReEport oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The basal limestone of the=Hamilton is marked by a high fall —
40 feet) at Big Hollow creek and several smaller ones elsewhere.

The photographs were taken during the dry season of 1895,
and for that reason fail to give a just impression of the beauty
which many of the glens display at other times.

The view of the rock-wall (Portage shale and sandstone) at
Lodi (fig. 5) was taken from the top of the‘opposite wall, looking
south. It includes a great part of the height or near 150 feet.
The fissures of the joints may be seen traversing equally the
upper (Portage) and the lower (Genesee) rock. The front of the
waterfall, which is not given here, is so divided into blocks and
steps that when dry it can be ascended_to the top. The change
in tint from light to dark at a certain distance from the top indi-
cates the occurrence of shales resembling the Genesee in the
lower Portage.

The cliff at King’s Ferry (fig. 6), though outside of the county,
represents more perfectly than any other view known to me the
vertical cleavage of the Hamilton shale. The surfaces are not
weathered, but are fresh exposures made by widening the road-
bed of the railway. With these should be compared the view of
the Portage shales near North Hector ae 7), which show long
weathering.

Alluvial Belt.

The preceding descriptions apply only to the southern half of
the county, including the township of Varick. The Cornif-
_erous tract presents no ravine scenery; the Salina only in
the lower part of Seneca river and a little of Black Brook. |
In the north these districts are covered with drumlins, while
Waterloo, Seneca Falls and Fayette are chiefly an alluvial plain,
covered with clay, sandand swanp. _

The clay belt is two miles wide at East Geneva at the foot
of the lake, increasing to twice that width as it goes eastward.
Seneca river runs obliquely through it. Where exposed by sec-
tions the clay does not seem to exceed 10 or 12 feet in depth, and
is often much less.

Sand is found interstratified between upper and lower beds of
clay at Waterloo and near Geneva. It bounds the clay on the
north, covering a great part of Waterloo, except such tracts as
are swampy. Near its southern limit it may often be observed

‘Ipo'yT ‘ues resivyl {speq esey1og puw seseuey JO youJuUOH ‘G oINnSIT

‘6 ALVId

GroLocy or SENECA County. 69

to overlie the clay-sheet. It is disposed in irregular ridges and
low hills, which are conspicuous as one travels by rail from
Waterloo to Geneva, and, in fact, over most of Waterloo; but
southward, near the Seneca river, its contours are chiefly due to
local drainage (swales and ridges). These sands are continuous
with kame deposits on the north.

Further remarks on the clays are deferred to a later section.

The northern half of Seneca Falls township is neither clay nor
sand in the main, but largely till or “loamy and moderately
a.

| Drumlin Belt.

To complete the account of the sand deposits, it would be
necessary to describe those surrounding the kame and those
fringing the drumlin belt along its southern edge. These will
be mentioned in place.

The two townships of Junius and Tyre are nearly covered with
long ridges of till for the most part, straight and narrow, with
axes nearly N-S. They belong with the series described by
Johnson in 1882, and which is well known as covering a large
part of Monroe and Wayne counties. They extend much farther
west, however, than Monroe, and form an important part of the
geology from Auburn to Syracuse. |

When observed, the material of these ridges consists of till of
a buff-brown color, containing striated subangular stones as is
usual. A thin layer of sand is sometimes seen on the top.
Much of the level ground is also stony, with evidence of till,
though clay is found in many spots and a moderate amount of
vegetable deposit or muck.

The country, irrespective of these ridges, is nearly level, but
has a slight fall to the north and a moderate fall in all directions
from the West Junius kames.

The largest of these ridges is much inferior to those of Wayne
county, but may reach 80 to 100 feet in height. From this they
_ grade downward to little ridge-like elevations of five feet in
height and a furlong in length. Even these are quite distinct to
the eye, rising from the uniformly level plain. The north ends
are often bluff and the south ends tail off to a general equality
with the plain. When they happen to be short this justifies the
name of “tadpole hills.” Some, however, by their length sug-

70 ReEport oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

gest that they belong rather to the esker class. The post-road .
at McGee’s Corners runs north over a low ridge of this sort, just
wide enough at top for a road, and very gradually increasing in
height to about 30 feet, when it descends suddenly. South from
the Corners it runs another mile. This ridge appeared to be of
till, however.

Fig. 8 shows the north end of a ridge, rising directly from -
a clay plain, and displaying correctly the steep angle which the
sides often take. Fig. 9 is not over 15 or 20 feet above the plain.
Fig. 10 gives “ Whisky Hill” (a title now inapplicable), with
ruined tavern and well kept schoolhouse. The ridge is hard to
distinguish from the rest of the landscape, but forms a wall
across the picture; a slope at Ene left (north) and right may be
noticed.

FIGURE 11.— Drumlin or ridge seen from Kame, in north-west corner of Junius. Left hand, north;
line of sight, north-east.

The absence of drumlins south of the southern boundary of
Junius and Tyre requires an explanation, which I have not to
offer. Westward, across Seneca lake, they push into and far to
the south of Geneva. Eastward, they run along Cayuga lake in
- Seneca county, until opposite Cayuga village, where again there
are many east of the lake, on the road to Auburn. The theory _
that the drumlin belt is the remains of a moraine does not seem
to coincide with this geographical distribution, for a moraine
ought to have pushed farther south, along this meridian of low
levels, by probably 20 miles, and should have left plain residua
in Varick and Romulus.

The southernmost drumlins in the county are these: One of
large size two miles N. E. of Seneca Falls village, north of the
canal bridge, and another of less height, south of the bridge,
three-fifths of a mile long and 30 feet or less in mic over
which the road to Bridgeport runs.

The prolonged valley of Cayuga lake runs as marsh land
northward between walls of drumlins on either side.

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‘SO[BYS UOPIUIBA ‘9 OINSTT

GroLoagy or Seneca County. 71

The map of the drumlins here given (fig. 12), is a reproduc-
tion from a map of Seneca county, made in 1852, by William T.
Gibson, surveyor, known by repute as a careful, painstaking and
accurate man. So far as I have been able to compare his work
with observations of my own, it is correct; and asa whole it
certainly gives a clear and faithful idea of the singular topog- |
raphy of the country. The meridian line crosses the ridges at a
small angle. It is not asserted that all these hills are of till.
Of many that have been inspected, one has been found to consist
of sand and gravel along its southern half, as indicated. The
kame hills are omitted; they are very complicated and are not
well given by Mr. Gibson.

Sand Ridges.

The association of sand with these ridges deserves attention.
Light deposits of sand and gravel are frequent on their summits,
as is the case in New England, and would suggest that at some
stage (probably quite late in the disappearance of the ice sheet)
super-glacial streams flowing southwards frequently occupied -
crevasses in the ice coinciding with the tops of the ridges.
Physical reasons might be suggested for the preference of ice-
crevasses for the tops of earth ridges.

At Mr. David H. Evans’s, in the northeast corner of Tyre, is
a ridge, proved by the cutting, to consist of till, at least at that
point. The outline of the ridge is unlike that of a typical drum-
lin, it being carved deeply and irregularly by water to the north;
but southward it develops to a straight ridge, becoming very
sandy and yielding, with a parallel ridge adjoining, of similar
nature, quite humpy and irregular, with axis about N. 5° W.
magnetic.

A couple of miles north of Seneca Falls village, west of Black
Brook, the road partly follows a train of sand deposits which
runs two miles to the State road, east of Magee’s. The direction
taken, on the whole, is N. 5° W. magnetic. It begins southward
in low sand hills, nearly continuous, which diverge from the line
of road and become higher at a point where excavated for sand
and gravel. Here they form a group of hills some 20 fet
above the plain. The continuity is interrupted northward for

72 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

short distances, but at last the line changes from hillocks to a
straight single ridge, which becomes more abundant in stones,
and after crossing the State Road presents a top soil well
filled with typical drumlin material. Smaller sand trains lie
parallel to this, east and west. A mile to the eastward les a
large ridge of similar material and extent (see Gibson’s map), which
near its southern end develops into a veritable little kame-group of
’ sand hills, covered in parts with several feet of gravel dipping at a
high angle from the center. Here is another “sand quarry”, —
used for many years to supply building material for the neigh-
boring country. Farther to the east there are undulations for
‘a mile or two, of the same character. Westward, the plain
toward Waterloo looks unbroken, but other exposures of sand
(probably similar) exist on the westward line north of that
village. .
Kame District.

The above series of ridges of modified drift, forming a fringe
to the drumlin district, must probably be connected with that
much larger group of kame hills which lies at the western bound-
ary of Junius, opposite Mitchell’s station on the Geneva and
Lyons railroad. :

This latter group is about two miles in diameter in either
direction, consisting of gravel and sand hills, 0 to 50 feet
high, embracing deep basins which contain several lakelets.
. The topography is very irregular and is well shown in the view,
Figure 13, which gives only-one of the ponds. Around the region
of hills lies a belt of sand on the east, south and west, which
evidently belong to it. In many places the sand is gullied very
deeply, especially on the steep slope westward to the outlet of
Canandaigua lake, which runs in a rather deep valley for these
parts. The rise from the surface of the stream to the high
gravel hill at the north face of the kame is, by hand-level, 150
feet. Several other high points are of nearly equal elevation.
Figure 14 shows a part of the sand-slope toward the outlet.
To the east the descent is much less, and the swales are of lesser
size. Southward, the sand runs about six miles, stopping a
couple of miles before reaching Seneca lake; it is continuous
S. E. to Waterloo and W. to Oaks Corners. The large sand hills

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GEOLOGY oF SenEcA County. 73

in and immediately around the kame diminish to hillocks farther
south.

The sand is a buff red, of various shades, quite fine, composed

of angular and partly rounded grains of quartz with reddish
clayey matter adhering to them. Its fertility is variable.
Rather numerous stones are found on the surface and in sections,
in the main portion, growing scarce at the border.
_ Mr. Boughton, surveyor, of Waterloo, informed me of a belt
of “ white sand” running E—W in the low ground north of Black
Brook. “The Pines” is a popular name for a part of this dis-
trict; its scenery suggests the southern Atlantic cvast. Thesand
is gray from admixture of vegetable matter; its loss of color is
probably due to the deoxidizing action of the latter upon the iron
of the red sand. It is commonly considered very poor land, but
it has good crops of vegetables if well treated.
_ The scenery of the kame district is very irregular. The gravel
is mostly in the north center, in ridges and humps. The sand
hills on the south are in part high E-W ridges, occasionally two
or three running parallel with narrow valleys between. The
features are morainic ; except where drainage has evidently gov-
erned, as is the case in the westerly sand-slope with its parallel
channeling. |

We may assume that this group of deposits marks the debouche-
ment of some ice river at the edge of the ice-sheet, into an
enlarged and deeper Seneca—Cayuga lake. If so, the signs of the
river must be sought in fluviatile deposits on the north.

Two lines of such deposit are traceable, running nearly N-S,
and ending in or near the kame. Sand and.gravel are found in
each ; the deposits of the two materials being distinct and un-
mingled.

Beginning two miles north, the eastern line begins with rolling
hills of small height, followed by an abrupt hill of gravel, of
morainic shape, much higher. This gravel-bluff pushes south as
a high, flat ridge of very sandy till-material, or sand with many
till-stones; the sides very much incised with channels of drainage;
descending to the plain just before reaching the kame.

The western line comprises one or more drumlins coincident
with trains of sand and gravel. Beginning two miles north and.

tracing it south :
10

74 Report oF THE State Groxocist.

1. A railway cut of afew feet in depth traverses the ridge
at a low point. The narrow ridge rises rapidly to the south;
barely wide enough for a wagon; gravelly. Reaching the
height of 50 (?) feet it becomes very sinuous and humpy, with
steep sides; wanders a short distance about on a table- like hill
(20-300 feet wide), and is lost.

2. The table, some way southward, descends; contin as a
straight, well-rounded ridge 25 feet high, appaliae composed ;
of till, S. 5° E. for a quarter of a mile; ae widens and becomes
knolly for half a mile.

3. A long, straight N-S valley splits the ridge in two. The
west branch becomes much higher and takes on the habit of a
till-ridge, descending when near the kame, and marked on its
well-rounded top with a longitudinal groove 2U0 feet long. The
east branch diverges very slightly, remains low (30 feet ?), has a
sandy soil with a number of stones, and a rolling surface.
Finally it changes at once to a very narrow, tortuous ridge
of heavy gravel, which runs (with a short break in the swamp)
half a mile to the central parts of the kame.

The gravel ridge begins exactly where the sand vided ceases,
with a partial disconnection of continuity, and indications as if
the former emerged from the pond just at that point.

Delta Terraces.

The “ points ” at. Sheldrake and Lodi afford excellent examples
of the formation of modern deltas. They correspond with two
of the largest local streams, and represent the drift and rock
brought down by the streams since the lake has stood at its
present level. Projecting a quarter of a mile into the respective
lakes, with a greater breadth, at points where the descent of the
bottom is steep, they indicate a very large amount of filling.

Along the sides of these and most of the other streams. we find
important accumulations of the same materials that compose the
modern deltas. In part, these masses form low walls or embank-
ments running continuously for long distances on both sides of
the gullies. This may be seen in the region of steep slopes south
of Kidder’s ferry. The streams here run parallel and very near
each other, so that there is but a moderate space between two

‘sniung ‘y410u 07 puso SutAv{dsip esprit prourjmniq ‘g ernst

‘S MLV Id

GroLocy or Seneca County. | 5

neighboring embankments; a space which at first and for a
moment suggests the notion that one has to do with a valley, the
embankments being its walls.

In other places the gravel is accumulated in terraces like
cushions to the right and left of the ravine, having steep slopes
crowned with little plains. In the section of the: main ravine at
Lodi falls this is seen to occur several times, while the upper -
deposits are more irregular and run together. (Fig. 16 )

Lodi
StaTion

34

Saneca lake £4 | d

—_oet 2s ws = = @ ~ © ®& &® 6&6 os © «© & &F & @ eoeoemCUmW@lmlCUC HCO

FIGURE 16.— Levels of raised delta terraces on north side of Lodi glen. (The elevation of Lodi is
785.1’ A. T., or 844/ above lake.)

The photographs (figs. 19, 20), taken at Willard a few years ago,
represent sections of terrace-masses of this description. Those
here given are on the lake front, and rise to the height of 50 feet
above the water. The main bulk is made up of gravel and sand,
with two or three thin strata of clay. - The excavation, made
for obtaining sand, was then recent.

A very large section of one of these delta-terraces has been
recently made along the main line of the Lehigh Valley railway,
at North Hector. The station at that point is 872.7 feet above
mean high tide—432 feet above Seneca lake. The deposit, |

78 Report oF THE Strate Groxocist.

which is in full view and close to the station, rises 100 feet
higher — 973 ft. This is decidedly above the divide at Horse-
heads, near Elmira, and probably nearly corresponds with the
highest point that the lake attained. it should be compared
with the level of the country at Watkins, given by Fairchild as
Joo Baia

The terraces consist mainly of esis, with some sand and
clay. Amorg the pebbles are many which retain the form and
to a slight extent the markings of till- RIDES having been trans-
ported but a short distance. 7

The most acceptable theory of the origin of these delta-
terraces is that which refers them toa former higher level of the
water of the lakes. The highest deposits of this class attained an
elevation which would imply that all of the county north of
Ovid was under water (or ice), so that the two lakes may have
formed one body of water.

The period to which this is referred is the close _ the Ice Age,
while the ice-sheet was melting back from its southern limit, the
moraine. At first the water would be confined to the valleys
south of Ithaca and Watkins; the outflows occupying independ-
ent channels by which they were led to the Susquehanna valley.
With the-recession of the ice, a point would be reached where the
two lakes could communicate with each other; as soon as this
occurred, a rush of water from Cayuga to Seneca lake would
occur, reducing the level of the former by 140 feet, since the out-
let for Seneca lake at Elmira was 900 feet above tide, while that of
Cayuga (Fairchild, Gilbert) is 1,040, at Spencer Summit. At this
stage Seneca lake would be even higher than when it had only
its own drainage to provide for. The mass of water derived
from the melting ice was incomparably greater than that now
known to us; sufficient to have converted the lake into a flowing
stream three miles wide.

A third stage began when the recession of the ice front had
carried it so far north that an outflow became possible to the
eastward into the Mohawk valley. During this stage the lakes
appear to have sunk, sometimes by a continuous slow depression,
at other times with stages of rest. To the continuous sinking
would correspond the lateral ridges of deposit fringing the
streams; to the stages of rest, the terraces with nearly level tops.

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| Aviacsa GroLogy or Seneca County. UT

Each stream has cut through its own terraces successively in
seeking lower levels, carrying away large amounts of drift to
add to the new delta. |

It is probable that, during the latter part of this (third) stage,
- toward its close, there was one rather protracted period of rest
or equilibrium, with the water 100 feet above its present level, or
not much higher. For this view there are several coinciding
bases. 1. The clay at Geneva rises to the level of 100 feet,
scarcely more, and then thins out or disappears.. Traced west-
ward along the Lehigh Valley railroad, it rises to about the same
_ height, giving place to sand hills about half a mile S. E. of Oaks
Corners station. (This station is 564.3 A. T.; that at Geneva is
491.1, making a rise of 7.3 feet; Oaks Corners is 123 feet above
Seneca lake.) 2. The elevation of the kame deposits is very near
100 feet above Seneca lake. These deposits represent the dis-
charge of a glacial river at a late period into the conjoined
Seneca—Cayuga lake. 3. The lowest terrace at Lodi is 110 feet
above the lake.

The delta-terraces are confined to the southern half of the
county. On the west side of Seneca lake they run much farther
north; there is a well-marked one four miles south of Geneva
(mouth of Slate Rock Glen).

Lines of beach connecting the delta terraces have been sought
for by various observers with little or no success. Wave action
is of subordinate effect in narrow waters. Beach ridges fringing
delta-terraces are not found, as far as | know, in Seneca county
but are handsomely shown at Kashong creek, eight miles south
of Geneva. Elevated lines of cliff have not been found as yet.

A study of the terraces, limited to Seneca county, would have
comparatively little value. In their best development they
occupy the upper half of both lakes and extend south up the val-
leys of inlet. Their relations to each other and to the points of
outflow require much study, based on complete and accurate
measurements, which have yet to be made.

The section of the Lodi terraces is based on hand-level measure-
ments, the total error of which was small, the estimate being 347

feet of elevation above the lake, while that of the L. V. R. R. is
344.

78 Report oF THE Strate GEOLOGIST.

Drift-filled Channels.

The most important are the channels of the two lakes, which
are evidently choked with deposits. The Nester well, sunk at
Geneva three years ago, about five feet above the lake, along the
north shore, one-sixth of a mile from the proper border of the lake
valley, struck rock at 212 feet. The mixed deposits comprised
blue and other clay, sand, gravel, till-stone and large bowlders.

The Seneca river, leaving the lake of the same name at its
N. E. part, flows over Corniferous rock for a mile at Waterloo;
and again for two miles over Salina rock at Seneca Falls. There
is some reason to believe that a much deeper ancient channel,

parallel with Seneca river, or crossing it in places, is concealed —

under the drift. |

The evidence consists in the statement of those under whose
care the gas wells at Seneca Falls were drilled; to the effect that
the three wells, Nos. 7, 5 and 6, lying nearly in a straight line in
the north part of the village, struck rock at 70, 60, 75 feet
respectively. This line protracted eastward strikes a part of the
river where the cliffs of plaster rock disappear, reappearing
farther east. To this add, that in well No. 7 it is said that gravel
was encountered at intervals below 70 feet, until a depth of 200
feet was reached. |

Till, in general.

The character of the till varies in correspondence with that of
the underlying rock, as is usual. This is most plainly shown in
the till which covers the Upper Helderberg rocks, where the
amount of limestone is sufficient to give a decided blue tint to
the clayey mass seen in gross. The shales mostly disappear in

the till. The high lands near the southern border of the county
begin to show impoverishment, due to the presence of large quan-

tities of sandstone.

Bowlders do not form a conspicuous part of the scenery; stone
fences are rare. Gullies cut through till display a fair assort-
ment; the large ones either belong to the Archaean formations,
or to the Upper Helderberg limestone. The largest seen were
two, both of the latter class, each 11 feet long, in a ravine south-
east of Bearytown, three miles south of the outcrops.

caer

‘sntunyg TItH AYSIUM ‘OT emn3tq

GEOLOGY or Srnzca County. 79

The distribution of the till is rather irregular. The presence of
drumlins in the northern part does not, however, imply a great
excess of deposit. Their materials, equally distributed, would
not produce a layer more than 10 feet thick over the surface of
Junius and Tyre. This must be added to a considerably greater
amount in the form of a sheet, which may be 20 feet thick on the
average.

The Seneca lake section has a very thin deposit for most of the
distance; thick drift occurs only in the depressions, described
under the head of Topography. On Cayuga lake, in the towns
of Fayette and Varick, the rock is concealed by heavy deposits.
The eastern shore of the lake shows rock exposures much more
freely. The agreement in this respect between the lower part of
- Seneca and Cayuga lakes is quite worth notice; it is necessary
in both cases to go inland a long distance on the west shore to
find exposures, while the east shore is cliff-lined.

The presence of a large amount of drift in the high land south
and south-east of Ovid per has been noted as an obstacle to
quarrying.

The process of the Foran of till is well illustrated in sec-
tions at the side of the Lehigh Valley railroad, south of Willard.
The cut passes through a bed of shale, five feet thick at most and
_ 600 feet long, on which lies a confused mass of blocks of the
same shale, piled up to the thickness of five feet, the blocks measur-
ing up to three or four feet in size, wedged together in all posi-
tions. Over all is a layer of two or three feet of common till.

Glacial Striation.

The following unpublished notes, though few in number, may
properly be recorded here :

Top of hill north of Prospect hill, three miles from county
line ; slab of sandstone 25 feet long covered ; N. 40° W.

Steep lakeward slope, north of Lodi station, 340 feet above
lake, sandstone in roadside, N. 20° E.

Beach opposite Geneva, Marcellus shale freshly stripped of till,
1,000 feet south of the outlet; N. 45° E.

Directly north of: outlet, freshly uncovered Marcellus shale,
N. 40-50° E.

80 _ Report oF THE StatE GEOLOGIST.

f Compare the following: Lehigh Valley R. R., one-half mile

south of Oaks Corners station, Corniferous, N. 5° W. and E-W.

Beyond Oaks Corners, north. Beyond Flint Creek, N. 20°+ E.

for a considerable distance.

Thomas’ quarry near Waterloo, N. E. end, all, N. 12° E. N.

W. end, mostly N. 41° E., very regular; also some N. 12° E.,
deeper cut. West side, N. 5-10° E., smoothly and well cut.
Frank’s quarry, N. 5° E.-
Emmet’s quarry, N. 45° E., coarse, not parallel.
Rorison’s quarry, N. 6° E.
Roadside shale west of Bearytown, N. 10° E.
The readings are magnetic. Allow about 5° westerly deflec-

_ tion.

Swamps and Marshes. |
Three considerable tracts of land are comprised under this
head ; the Montezuma marshes, the Black swamp and the Cran-
berry swamp, besides swampy lands of small extent in various
other places, notably the Canoga shore.
The Montezuma marshes occupy a broad space on the eastern
border of Tyre, and farther down along the Seneca river to the
distance of over 40 miles from the foot of Cayuga lake. Near
the lower end, at Jack’s Reefs, there is a fall of 4.3 feet in the

stream. The money of the State has been used on several occa- -

sions for the procuring of a better outlet, but the result is not
yet attained.

The:town assessors of Junius (which at that time included Tyre)
in 1825 reported the amount of land of this description within
the town limits, as follows: |

i EV rk 5 ri oo Qe 4,449
DWAMILD os co oe | oly co nists eee EREMtsiniels + > s+ ss a were eae . 2,468
Tntermediate. 2 22°02) SU ee In Gs ss 5 cw co te ee oe 1167

8,079

The amount is probably nearly the same at present.
This land was then assessed at 25 cents an acre for marsh
and $1 for swamp. Delafield, in 1853, wrote that “not less than
6,000 acres” were then “useless” in Tyre. This adjective gives
an incorrect impression for the present day. Marsh land is

* es
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‘sniunye 4som ‘Qor4gsIq owvy ‘eT OINST AT

‘8 GALVId

GEoLoGY or SENECA CouNTY. 81

now assessed in Tyre at $2 an acre; swamp land at $3 to $10,
according to the amount of timber upon it.

My correspondent, Hon. D. H. Evans, defines marsh as locali-
ties in which flag and coarse grass grow, but no trees; swamp is
where elm, soft maple and ash trees grow, though seemingly as
low as the marsh. Flag is cut in large quantities along the
streams running through the marsh, and sold at good prices, so
that men make from’$2 to $4 a day at it. The marsh is also
used for pasture. Much of the coarse hay is cut; hundreds
of tons this year. It is pressed and shipped, and used largely
for bedding for stock and for packing earthenware ; much is also
used for feed. The value of the swamp depends on the amount
of timber, large quantities of which are cut every year.

There are a good many bits of ill drained land in the drumlin
region of Tyre and Junius, some of which are named in Gibson’s
map from the trees which abounded in them—cedar, pine,
hemlock, black-ash swamps.

The report of the State Commissioners, in 1825, stated that
the water of Cayuga lake used to rise from July to the time of
frost, owing to the summer’s growth of weeds in the stream
choking the outlet.’ This is not now the case, for the streams
supplying the lake are mostly dry during this time of the year.
It is certain that the introduction of drain tile has caused the
water to flow off from the tilled lands much more rapidly than
was formerly the case after rains and during the spring floods.
Deforesting has contributed to the same result. In great floods
the water sometimes stands three feet deep over the marshes
from Mosquito Point up to Cayuga lake, a distance of 16 miles;
but this continues only a few days at a time.

It appears that the region was formerly subject to malaria.
The Commissioners, in 1825, state that not only was this true of
the immediate borders of the stream, but that for many miles
the air was injuriously affected. Mr. Evans, however, living in
a tract surrounded by these marshes, writes me that at present
the neighborhood of the marshes is not at all subject to fevers.

The “Black Swamp” is drained to a considerable extent.
Much of the soil is a deep layer of pure vegetable mold. A
large part is still covered with trees. Further improvement in

drainage could doubtless be effected.
11

82 ReEportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The “ Cranberry Swamp” is almost entirely a forest, growing
in black muck, into which I easily thrust a stick three feet; it is
said to be much deeper in places. The timber is that character-
istic of such places —elm, soft maple, etc. By consent among
the owners it might doubtless be drained at a reasonable expense.

In connection with this subject it may be added, that beneath
the layers of muck a heavy deposit of marl is often found, com-
posed éntirely of minute fragments of modern shells. In the
Montezuma marshes, it is found along river beds, in places, 10 or
12 feet thick; its thickness diminishes on receding from the
rivers, and at last only the underlying bed of clay remains.
Valuable as this material is for a fertilizer, it has been found that
the expense of seeking it under four feet of muck is sufficient to
prevent its extensive use. |

Springs.

The writer has not found recorded analyses of any spring in
Seneca county, excepting the statement that the gas esc
from the Canoga spring is pure nitrogen.

This spring forms a pool occupying a long oval basin of 30x 90
feet, more or less sunk six feet below the plain. The bottom is
covered with sand, through which the water boils up with occa-
sional bubbles of the gas. The taste is that of other good well water -
of the region, viz.: slightly limy, like Seneca lake water. Withina
stone’s throw a ledge of Upper Helderberg limestone crosses the
road. A considerable flow was noticed at the dryest time of the
severe drought of 1895. The stream has supplied power to two
mills, one of which is disused. Springs.of iron and sulphur are
found inthe low grounds at Canoga.

A spring of sulphurous odor was tasted in a ravine half way
between Willard and Lodi, north of Highland station. Other
than the slight odor there was little ts remark; the taste was
pleasant. This spring is reported to have been formerly used
for medicinal purposes by.visitors resorting to the place.

The taste of iron is noticed in isolated cases in the country
well water. Good water is characteristic especially of the Port-
age and the Upper Helderberg districts. In the northern part of.
the county the water is occasionally brackish.

‘SnIUNE 4SOM “JOITYSIP OWL YAIM poeqoouuoo ‘urvid-puvs ysSeMIeEAQ ‘HT WINS

‘6 HLV Id

GroLocy or Sreneca Country. 83

Several mineral springs have proved to have ‘a commercial
value on the west side of Seneca lake and on the east side of —
Cayuga lake. The possibilities are equally good for Seneca
county.

Seneca Lake.

This body of water as far south as North Hector lies within
the boundary of Seneca county. The greatest depth, 618 feet, -
given by the Cornell University survey, is at the southern part
of the county ; a depth of 400 feet or over is maintained for 28
miles. Its surface is 441 feet above tide; its bottom, therefore,

‘is 177 feet below the surface of the sea. The depth and volume
of the water maintains it at a comparatively equable tempera-
ture. It is usually open all winter and is cold in summer.

The water partakes of the character of its sources, containing
rather large amounts of gypsum, with carbonates of the earthy
bases, giving it a “hard” character and causing the formation
of crusts on the inside of boilers.

Dredging, undertaken for the purpose of recovering the bodies
of drowned persons, was carried on to a slight extent this
summer at points near.the middle of the lake opposite Willard.
The water there’ is 530 feet deep. It was reported that the
dredge encountered no opposition from unevenness of the surface ;
that there was a foot of very soft ooze, under which was blue clay.
The ooze contains a variety of diatoms, of species known to
inhabit the fresh waters of the neighborhood. |

Superficial currents of very. moderate rapidity and changeable
direction were observed in places near shore. A more important
current is indicated near Geneva, by the muddy streak which it
makes at a distance of from a quarter to half a mile off shore.
The peculiarity of this current is, that it pushes southward in
the face of the violent and continued south winds which are of
frequent occurrence in winter in this part of New York. On
the first day of such a wind the north end of the lake is muddied
by the breaking of the waves on the shore; on the second day
a patt of the muddy water moves slowly southward in a narrow
column or streak on the surface, requiring many hours to accom-
plish the distance of about two miles, beyond which I have not
observed it to extend. Accompanying this southerly movement
is a northward flow of the muddy water from a brook just
south of the village; this streak being rather near the shore.

84 REpPoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Salina Group.

The tract of country north of the valley of the outlet (Seneca
river) is within the outcrops of the Salina or Onondaga salt
group, and embraces about one-half of the width of its exposure.

This group was divided by Prof. James Hall (Report Geology
N. Y., 4th District, 1843) into four sections, viz, 1, and lowest,
‘red shale of Wayne county ; 2, green and ashen marl with small
quantities of gypsum; 3, gray or ash-colored marls and shales,
with thin-bedded shaly limestones, usually of the same color,
containing gypsum and salt beds; 4, silico-argillaceous limestone
or cement-rock. Nos. 1 and 2 are not seen in the county; No. 3
is seen in Black Brook (Tyre) and at Seneca Falls; No. 4 at
Seneca Falls at two points.

The exposures in Black Brook contain only the third variety. —

A short distance south of Tyre Center it forms the bed of the
creek for a considerable distance, with one cliff 15 feet high.
The rock is in rather firm slabs of the usual grayish tint.
- The most important exposures are at Seneca Falls along both
sides of the canal east of the village, where it forms cliffs 20
feet high. In many places the face of .the cliffs displays the
peculiar method of quarrying for gypsum, by gouging into the
rock to secure the lumps of the mineral. Much of the rock has
in late years been taken out to lay on the roads, where it forms
a solid bed in summer, but in wet weather “turns to slush.”
The gypsum is found in the lower part of the cliff, forming
irregular whitish masses; there are also thin seams of satin spar
and minute crystals of selenite. The shale in which it occurs is
of a grayish drab color, weathering into small pieces with a
dusty look. The upper layers are more solid, but they have
become softened by weathering and break readily in irregular
bits. They contain small narrow cavities arranged horizontally.
The best exposure is found on the south side of the canal, west
of the cemetery, where an unusual dip of 5°-10° exist. Here 50
feet may be exposed, beginning with the layers already described
and closing with some 15 feet of rock belonging to the upper or
fourth division, the cement-rock. This isin part a slab-shale, but
there are thick courses which fracture irrespective of bedding
and expose fine conchoidal surfaces. The rock is very tough and
rings under the hammer; it is an argillaceous limestone, dark

“PIVITIM “WOTz{Oes BITE “ET omns1

‘OT HLIV Id

GEOLOGY oF SrenrecA County. 85

buff and bluish, with some lamination streaks. When compared
with the exposures at Phelps, Ontario county, it appears to cor-
respond with a series found in the bed of Flint creek at the
dams, where contact with Lower Helderberg limestone is found,
which is wanting at Seneca Falls. |

A very similar rock, in slabs of an inch or two in thickness,
has been newly exposed by the roadside, half. way to Waterloo,
500 feet west.of Kingdom bridge, on the south side. This is the
most southern exposure known to me. It is doubtless very near
the southern limit (see Upper Helderberg). )

A gas well in the southern part of Seneca Falls village is said
to have struck Niagara limestone at 980 feet. If we allow 16
miles for the width of the formation, and a northward fall of
the land of 60 feet, we have an average dip of 574 feet per mile to
the south. (@>" — 574).

This well, known as No. 2, is the southernmost, and is probably
not far from the border of the formation. It may be compared
with that described by Prosser (Amer. Geologist, Oct., 1890),
which is half a mile to the north and considerably east.

No. 2. Prosser’s.

Pee Eee 5, gn iter etree eee 445 — 385 = 60
Seber TOCK... 6... ek ee ek ee ees 980 — 950 = 30

If these data are reliable the dip is here northward.

A comparison of well No. 2 with one three miles north of the
village at nearly the same elevation gives a local dip of 40 feet
per mile southward. The well in question reached Niagara rock
at 860 feet = 120 feet less than well No. 2.

86

Report OF THE STtaTE GEOLOGIST.

The following is Prosser’s statement in full: |

“ Section oF WELL DRILLED ....
IN THE HKasteRN Part OF THE VILLAGE.

IN THE SenrcA RivER VALLEY
ALTITUDE, APPROXI-

MATELY, 385’ A. T.

200’ | Drab colored, impure limestones.
(BOO PN cre cease .
100’ | Blue marls with an’ occasional red and green chip.
a,
= !
Bilt B00" tay kieta |
&N , 400' | Greenish-gray marls and drab-colored limestones.
cS
q |!
me) MOON te ceeaen
w : 250' | Mostly bright red shale, but some mottled red and
green shale.
CRCHOR eke
400’ | Dark blue limestone in the upper part, with green-
ish shales at the base. Niagara and Clinton
groups. |
TAO A eget
150’ |. Red shales and sandstones of the Medina group.
1500 Theat

Bottom of well.”

SECTION OF WELL DRILLED at JrHaoa, ‘Tompxins County, N. Y.
LocaTION IN THE VALLEY, ONE-FOURTH OF A MILE SOUTH OF
Irgaca. AntitopE 396’ A. T.

Se

Depth. | Thickness.
| 340’ | Portage shales and sandstones.
S24 een ea ate as ;
100’ | Genesee black shale.
HEE () fa) hulle ss z
30’ | Tully limestone.
BOS wier. 2 ois
1142’ | Hamilton shales and sandstones.
Gwe | oo ;
82’ | Marcellus black shale.
MGA Wexeusaes anes :
, 78’ | Corniferous limestone.
NET Ne ete
13’ | Oriskany sandstone. |
7 EER ie ge '
115’ | Lower Helderberg limestones. Approximate top of
the Salina group. ;
MI AA's sees ais. 6
1285’ | Salina group, a part.
BUGS Gal ack v's Bottom of well according to the contractor, Mr.

Rust

‘PIBTILM ‘WOTZOOS BITE ‘OS oanSrgz

‘Tl HLVTd

GroLtocy or Seneca County. 87

It should be noted that the gas wells struck salt water in the
Salina group, and that one well, three miles north of the bank
struck a 15-foot layer of salt at 565 feet.

Contact with the succeeding formation is nowhere seen. The
width of the interval between the respective exposures is a
quarter of a mile N-S. The line of contact lies in the valley 4
the outlet of Seneca lake, covered with till and sediment.

Lower Helderberg Group.

This important series of rocks, prominent among the forma-
tions of the eastern part of the State, mostly disappears before
' reaching the longitude of Seneca county. For an enumeration
of the components of the series, reference is made to the Report
on the Geology of New York, Fourth District. The only mem-
ber of the series of which mention need be made is the Water-
lime group. This is found, as stated in the report, in the bed of .
Flint creek, at Phelps, about four miles west of the border of
Seneca county. It there consists of a black, shaly, hard lime-
stune, about three feet in thickness. No fossils were observed.
_ In Seneca county reference should be made to the description
of strata underlying the Onondaga limestone at McQuane’s
quarry. The waterlime is to be found here, if at any place in
the county. The rock is a very argillaceous limestone, in parts
very finely laminated and splitting readily in thin sheets; it was .
not observed to contain fossils.

Oriskany San dstone.

This formation is well marked at Flint creek, Ontario dgtatioe
and in several localities in Cayuga county. In Seneca county its
absence at the base of the Upper Helderberg limestones is to be
noted at the only point where the base is exposed, viz., McQuane’s
quarry.

Upper Helderberg Group.

This term, as here applied, includes as subdivisions the lime-
stones known as Onondaga, Corniferous and Seneca, this being
the order of superposition, with the Onondaga at the base.

The Onondaga limestone is found at one spot, a few feet in
area, in Seneca county, with characteristic appearance.

88 Report oF THE SrarE GEOLOGIST.

The Corniferous limestone is of a darker color, less abundant in
fossils, and contains much hornstone in courses, from which
it derives its name. It is sufficiently distinct in appearance to be
separated from the-Onondaga, though the latter also often
contains hornstone. |

Seneca limestone is a term given to those courses which overlie
the Corniferous layers in Onondaga and Cayuga counties
(Vanuxem) and Seneca county (Hall). It is nearly free from
hornstone, though certain layers contain it,.and the upper tier
abounds in it. The presence of certain brachiopods (Chonetes
lineata) in large numbers is the mark originally proposed as
diagnostic. The term is now scarcely used.

Since all these parts of the Upper Helderberg formation occa-
sionally contain hornstone, the word “ Corniferous ” may properly
be applied to the whole. But as hornstone occurs in other
geological periods, the preference is given to a geographical
MAINE: shy?

The Onondaga limestone is described in the Report for the
Fourth District as of a light gray color, often approaching white,
more or less crystalline in structure’: and containing numerous
fossils; in many instances it seems almost entirely composed of
broken and comminuted fragments of crinoidea and corals.

The only exposure in the county is a piece, now reduced to the
length of five feet, forming the top layer at McQuane’s quarry,
two miles S. W. by W. of the centre of Seneca Falls village. It
' is two feet thick, covered with a few inches of dirt. . It corre-
sponds in every réspect with exposures at Phelps; is very tough

(more so than the Seneca limestone); its surface is weathered to ~

a deep rusty brown, and is roughened by the projection of great
numbers of fragments of crinoids, etc. It contains many entire
cyathophylloids, and is destitute of flint nodules.

The exposure is apparently an isolated one, scarcely rising above

the level of the clay plain, at an approximate elevation of 465 feet
A.T. The quarry has been worked in the subjacent rock a length
of 150 feet, and a depth of 20 feet, giving favorable exposures.
Beginning at the lowest exposed layer there are (A) two feet of
a strong limestone, described as of a good quality for building,
in one course, which has a tendency to split horizontally ; next
(B), six and one-half feet, containing considerable impurity, not

eS

‘IIlg pus suohvy Aquig z9ddn Sutmoys ‘ Arrenb

SBULOY YL ‘euoJsowT]T sno1ejyIu10H

‘IS enstg

GEOLOGY OF SENECA CoUNTY. 89

separable in layers, breaking transversely and finally crumbling
into small blocks, like the Tully limestone, when exposed to the
air. C is two feet of tough, fine-grained limestone, somewhat
earthy in its upper part. A and B abound in large coral forms,
plainly showing in outline on the surface of blocks, but hard to
identify and ill-preserved. They are most abundant in the upper
two thirds of B, and hardly occur in C, which, however, presents
a few forms of small size. This gives 103 feet of blue limestone
in three courses.

Above this is seven feet three inches of a highly argillaceous
‘limestone (D), not found to contain fossils; readily separating
into flat pieces an inch and upwards in thickness, especially in
the upper parts. When fresh much of it is clear dark blue, some-
times ringing when struck. Weathering givesa buff tint, softens
the surface at joints to an earthy consistency, showing the
laminz in earth, and has reduced the top layers (one to five
inches) to a sort of yellow ochre. The owner says that C and D
are good for making cement.

The junction of D and E was carefully searched, but not a
fragment of material resembling the Oriskany sandstone was
found. Its absence from this county was noted by Prof. Hall
(Rept. 4th Dist., p. 456). The upper layers of D are in thin
slabs, weathered to ochreous dirt to different depths, and in places
displaying their form up to the level of contact with E. The
under side of E is also badly weathered, crumbled into small
pieces of an ounce or two. It seems important to have some-
thing positive or negative as to the relation of these blue
limestones to the Lower Helderberg. They have in part the
lithological aspect of that rock as found by S. G. Williams, at
Union Springs, but the total difference of fauna is noteworthy.

The Onondaga limestone (E) is unquestionably in situ, and
quantities lie about among the other rock. evidently recently
removed.

The strata dip moderately S. W.

The Oriskany sandstone, an abundant and prominent compo-
nent of the drift south of Auburn, derived from well-known
exposures, is certainly not at all common in the drift of Seneca
county, though easily recognized on account of its peculiar
aspect.

12

90 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Corniferous and Seneca Limestones. The outcrop of this
rock is near the southern part of the alluvial plain of the
outlet, and consists chiefly of a line of quarries, running
nearly straight 8. E. by E. for seven miles. The rock forms
a level sheet near the surface for a considerable space in
two or three places. Northward it mostly descends in a slight
escarpment to the clay levels. The exposures represent the same
strata, or nearly so, in all the quarries. The easternmost, near
Canoga (but on higher ground), may be estimated as standing
470+ feet above tide; the westernmost, the same, at the top
layer. This is consistent with the supposition of a general dip
S. W. by S., the rock being cut off level on the line of strike.

Little can be inferred from the local dips in the quarries ; some
are to the north, others southerly, while small synclinals of four
feet with N-S axis occur in Frank’s quarry, and a dip to N., 8S.
W., and S. E., diverges from a common center in Thomas’
quarry. ?

Contact with the Marcellus shale on the south is not observed ;
exposures approach each other within moderate distances. Onthe
north the only determining point is at McQuane’s quarry, which
gives a probable width of two and one-half miles on the meridian,
or two miles southwest to the nearest Marcellus exposure.

The layers of truly Corniferous rock, rough and ugly with
protruding masses of hornstone, which appear near the base of
this division in the well-known section along Flint creek, in
Phelps, Ontario.county, and which may be seen in bowlders
abundantly to the westward, are not visible at any section or
exposure in Seneca county. The quarries here represent a section
of 32 feet, apparently at or near the top, all showing the same
horizon ; they are practically free from flint in the lower two-
thirds of the section. <A strip of one and one-half miles of ter-
ritory lies north of them, unrepresented, except by one exposure
at the Waterloo falls.

The Waterloo rock has been largely uncovered during the late
drought, in the bed of thestream. The upper two or three feet are
tolerably firm, in thick courses with some hornstone, and cavities
showing weathering out of fossils. The five feet next below are
mostly a disintegrating mass of worthless shaly material; with

‘SulIyIOM Tenyoy ‘Arrenb svum0yy, ‘euoJSOTAIT SNOIEJIUIND “se OINSTT

“Sl ALWId

GEOLOGY oF SENECA CounrTY. 91

thin layers of flint in the upper part, near which was found Sty-
liola fissurella and a small variety of Ambocalia wmbonata in
abundance. The lower part of the five feet was comparatively
firm, in part pyritiferous and with vermicular cavities.

The geographical site of this exposure would refer it to the
lower layers of this formation.

It seems desirable, in connection with this exposure, to place
on record those which lie in a direct line north of Geneva village,
comprising three quarries, as seenon the map. The northernmost
contains a fine exposure of the Onondaga limestone crowded

‘with many species of coral. The middle one isa close counterpart

of that at Waterloo falls, being a very black shale, varying from
heavy to fine, with Styliola and Ambocelia umbonata, small
variety, in near association. Other fossils hardly recognizable.
The lower layers become tough, retaining a tendency to split, and
at about five feet below the level of the above fossils it contains
various forms of Orthoceras and Cyrtoceras, including C. trivolve
(or wndulatum, Conrad); not found elsewhere in Seneca county,
and lying below the Waterloo stream exposure. The southern
quarry presents nothing unusual.

The system of quarry joints was nearly N. 25° W. and N. 75°
E., with slight variations, and nearly vertical. The courses differ
in er ices, but maintain their individuality remarkably from
one quarry to another.

The position of the courses is conveniently referred to an 1 eight-
inch layer of light greenish gray material, called “marl” by
the workmen, which is constant; it is found also at the Union
Springs quarry. It has somewhat the look but not the feel of
soapstone; breaks in‘small flat, thick bits, and cuts easily. It is
not plastic. It is a nonhydrated aluminum silicate; a clay, con-
taining small quantities of lime and magnesia.

Besides the marl, there are one or two thin shaly bands; and
a number of layers of hornstone, in part forming sheets of one to
six inches in thickness, in part separate. nodules.

Thin beds of avery small Zaphrentis.and other small cup-
corals are found at different levels, well displayed by weathering
and forming good horizons for observation. Lozonema laxum of
an amber tinge is characteristic of certain levels. Chonetes
lineata ranges through most of the beds, in varying amount.

92 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The correspondence of the beds in five principal quarries along
line of five miles is shown in figure 23.

&

=

eet
&)
“eb

Emmett Frank Uae

| !
' ')
' ]
} j

i]
|
6 '

)

~
y
+f
%
§

—_—_ pe @& S| =D = «ss

mn
Lit ELE

FIGURE 238.

Marcellus Shale.
The nearest approach to a contact of these shales with the
limestone is found in a brook running north, one and one-half

GroLocy or SenEcA County. 93

miles south of Waterloo. Following the stream downward
toward the limestone we find (in descending order),

1. The usual black shale (? 20 feet).

2. Crossing the road, eastward, a foot of hard limestone.

3. Blue-black shale, finely jointed, with immense numbers of
Liorhynchus limitaris, and some Styliola fissurella, a few trilobites
and orthocerata. Large concretions.

4, Very black shale, sooty in look, with whitish deposit (sul-
phate of iron); delicate fossil impressions, in part gilded with
pyrite. A very fine-grained, tough, nonfossiliferous limestone,
_ two and one-half inches thick, divides this shale in two.

After losing the exposure for some distance, limestone appears
in the bed of the brook, in three tiers; the upper two 11 and 4
inches; the lower can not be measured. Upper surface marked
with slender curving light streaks, probably of concretionary
origin, an inch or two in length; lower tier with hornstone.

This section is typical of the base of the Marcellus in this
region. The divisions 3 and 4 could not be measured, but repre-
sent only a few feet each.

The thickness of this formation is suggested in several ways.
At the northeast corner of Seneca lake it forms the whole base
of the hill and rises probably 70 feet along the hill side. The
large hill farther south rises 200 feet above the lake; its west-
ward foot in the lake displays cliffs of this rock 30 feet high; its
eastward slope of 5v feet is of the same rock.

Two stretches of cliff, previously mentioned, are found along
the lower part of Seneca lake, which, with Kendig’s creek, form
the chief exposures of the Marcellus shales. The belt of country
covered is from three to six and eight miles wide — the latter
being the distances between extreme exposures on the lake fronts,
where for geometric reasons the exposures are prolonged,

Hamilton Shales.

This division comprises two thin beds of limestone and four
shales, as follows, beginning at the lowest.

1. Transitional shale.
2. Basal limestone.
3. Olive shale.

94. Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

4, Ludlowville shale.
5. Encrinal limestone.
6. Moscow shale.

This follows the original division of the reports as regards
numbering, with a change of name for the first two, upon which
a few remarks are offered.

(a) The Marcellus shale retains its character as a dark blue, fis-
sile, handsomely-jointed rock with Liorhynchus limitaris, to the
top of its beds. The physical character of the shale changes
rather quickly to a lighter-colored and more calcareous shale,
with a substitution of the Hamilton series of fossils, which
becomes so decided as to leave no difficulty in the way of classify-
ing the stratum at six or eight feet above the Liorhynchus beds.

(0) “ A compact, calcareous blue shale, often passing into an
impure limestone.” (Report of 4th Dist.) The designation
“basal limestone,” proposed by J. M. Clarke for the strata as
observed by him in Ontario county (directly west for 25 miles) is
also of practical value for Seneca county. It forms a horizon not
easily overlooked by even the inexperienced, on account of its
physical contrast with the weak shales among which it occurs.
The rock thus designated is physically the same as the transition _
shale, with increased power of cohesion, and a tendency to form
massive blocks, cleavable in clumsy chunks rather than lamine.

As described in Ontario county it is largely a coral reef. To
some extent it retains this character in Seneca county, displaying
scattered specimens of Heliophyllum, Favosites, and other large
corals, which do not belong elsewhere near its horizon. Its quali-
ties as a material for road-making have been mentioned to me by
farmers. As a geographical factor it is of importance as causing
the first series of limitary cataracts, practically mie the com-
mencement of a geological series.

Two such falls have been examined by the writer in the south
part of Geneva, in State Rock creek (25 feet fall) and Benton’s
run (about 10 feet), thus connecting Olarke’s observations with
the present set.

In Seneca county seven exposures are noted, viz.

1. For half a mile along the shore of aunene ie north of
Dey’s Landing. One or two feet exposed. Impure, easily broken

4

PLATE 14.

Ag sya!
Bat ae es

Fed a

oy

a

a

>:
%,
i
4

‘:

Figure 22a. Corniferous limestone, Avery quarry.

GEOLOGY OF SENECA CoUNTY. 95

limestone, containing various Zaphrentis, Heliophylla, etc.; above
it, shales with typical Hamilton fauna.

2. Reeder’s creek, about 1,000 feet from the latter lake, similar,
8-10 feet thick, with 5-10 feet of transitional shale beneath, and
Marcellus at base of bank. Heliophyllum Halla frequent. Large
favosite. A furlong or so up the stream a fall of four or five
feet occurs over this rock.

8. Large hill, N. W. of West Haretts station (MacDougal’s
P. O.). Here it forms a flat surface on the summit (200 feet above
the lake), and an escarpment to the north; numerous corals are
_ to be found in the field, but there is no direct exposure of the
ledge. | |

4. Gully of Kendig’s creek, one-quarter mile east of MacDou-
gal’s. The underlying Marcellus well displayed in bed. Steep
fall of nearly 15 feet with mill (now run by steam). Large favo-

site; heavy blocks.

5. Creek, a mile west of Bearytown (Fayette P. O.), Hamilton

fauna; heavy rock, rapids descending 10 feet.

6. Creeka mile S. E. of Bearytown; an old mill site.. Directly
above Marcellus exposures are 12 feet of limy rock breaking in
irregular conchoidal masses, large and small, with horizontal
tendency. Sparse Hamilton fauna. Heliophyllum Halli and
another coral. Fall about 10 feet.

7. Big Hollow creek, eastern Romulus. Fall of some 30 feet
vertically over heavy limestone ledge. Marcellus below down to
lake. Hamilton fauna.

The northern boundary of the Hamilton shales is drawn upon
these data. Exposure 3 may be insular; it is covered with drift
to the southward. The Tully done lies seven miles to the
southward, which is the width of the Hamilton exposure along
the plateau. Along Seneca lake, on and quite near the shore,
the Hamilton runs 124 miles—from Reeder’s creek to the land-
ing next south of Lodi Point.

Tully Limestone.

This highly developed limestone formation, lying between the
shales of the Hamilton and Genesee divisions, acquires great
importance as a geological horizon. Its outcrops have, therefore,
been studied with care. (See fig. 26.)

96 REPORT OF THE STaTE GEOLOGIST.

The first one to be mentioned, being the northernmost, is
rather more than a mile west of Hayt’s Corners, on a rise of
ground facing north, and forming a low escarpment. It is rep-
resented in figure 24, which is taken looking westward. The
impression is correctly conveyed of the level prairie country in
which the hill occurs.

‘Lhe elevation of Hayt’s Corners above mean high tide, fur-
nished by the kindness of Mr. Esser, Sup’t of Division, Lehigh
Valley R. R., is 791.3 feet. The road ascends westward for
a half mile, descends slightly and reascends to the same height.
With a hand-level the elevation of the top of the rock was esti-
mated at 50 feet above the station, or 840 A. T. There isa .
chance of an error of a few feet (perhaps five) in this statement.
Thickness less than 11 feet, resting on Hamilton shale. The
upper part may have suffered loss from erosion. The rock has
been quarried to furnish road material.

‘he next exposure westward is at Willard Hospital, where a
cascade falls over Tully limestone near the reservoir. Here the
contacts are perfect above and below; thickness at fall 114 feet. ©
The rock displays a considerable dip, east, west and south, and
has been largely quarried for road building. From data obtained
at the Hospital the top of the reservoir appears to be 599 feet
above tide; top of quarry-rock 45 feet, less, say 554 feet. There
is no indication of rock in the conformation of the country
between these two exposures, nor between this and following
ones, for which we have to depend on cliff and stream exposures.
The thickness, measured at Highland station in creek, was 114
feet; at Lodi, main glen, 184; Deer Lick Run, 124. ;

The rock appears at the Seneca lake front about a mile south
of Willard Landing. When first seen it is emerging from the
lake, reaching the height of 15-20 feet in one quarter of a mile
southward and fully displayed. The dip beneath the lake can -
be but slight, as Hamilton shale is found 200 feet north of the
emergence. In the next creek (Highland station) it is found in
a waterfall 900 feet from the lake and 50 or 60 feet above it. It
caps the cliff for one-half mile, beginning some way south of
Highland; height, 40-50 feet. In-the next deep glen it is 40
feet above the lake at 400 feet from the shore. At Lodi it comes
within a few feet of the lake level.

‘(qurlod 4ysOWULEeY4LIOU) PIAG JO 44A0U ‘ouo4sowT] A[[NY Jo yuowdIvOSy “PFS oins1z

“St HLIVITd

GroLocy oF SENECA CounrTY. 97

A very interesting exposure occurs in the main (southern)
glen at Lodi. Near the mouth of the ravine it begins in
full thickness, with Hamilton shale below. It forms the bed
of the stream for a quarter of a mile, dipping on the average
N. W. The view shows the upper beds eroded by the stream,
with: Genesee shale above. When last visible it presents its
upper surface as the bed of the brook with Genesee upon it,
having risen about 40 feet. |

This anticlinal is seen in the next hollow, its top 55 feet above
the lake at 400 feet from it, and in the hollow, a mile south of Lodi
- landing (at a small wharf), it is again seen at 50 feet at a greater
distance back. The shore is here composed entirely of drift.
This was the last distinct exposure noted. Genesee shale appears
half a mile farther south in the cliff.

Returning to the high point whence we started, we find a low
swell of land running E. by S. from the quarry, for some dis-
tance very full of the pieces of the rock. Toward Hayt’s Corners
it has been opened in places. I was told the drift was not thick.
At the Corners the Ovid branch railway cuts across the lime-
stone and Hamilton shale a few rods south of the station.

Its further course is determined by a quarry a mile S. E. of
the Corners, thence by considerable falls in Grove’s creek, Shel-
drake creek, the stream next north of Kidder’s and the series of
streams for two miles south of Kidder’s. In-two of the latter,
the formation is 134 feet thick. It comes within a few yards of
the lake at Bergen’s Point, where it forms a fall, about 25 feet in
height, in Shepson’s gulley. Thence it slowly descends, reaching
the level of the lake in about three-fifths of a mile, and entirely
disappearing beneath the lake at two and one-half miles, or a mile
south of Little Point. The Genesee shale is visible in one or
more places on the shore.

Genesee Shale.

This is well displayed in most of the gullies of Ovid, Lodi
and Covert. Its base is defined by the Tully limestone. Its
upper limit is fixed by two feet or more of harder material,
forming the base of the Portage system, to be described here-
after.

13

98 ReEpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The thickness of the formation in the well at Ithaca, as given
by Ashburner and Prosser, is 100 feet. Along Seneca lake there
is opportunity to allow a larger figure, but owing to the difficulty
of determining dip in this rock its precise thickness remains a
matter of conjecture. In the creek at Highland Landing, the
entire height of the bank (about 120 feet) is exposed in one spot
by a road descending into the ravine; the entire section here is
within the Genesee. Addition must be made to a moderate but
uncertain extent, corresponding with exposures in the bed of the
brook for a furlong or more, down toa cascade formed by the
Tully limestone.

The exposures in Lodi glen present the same difficulty as
regards dip. The Tully limestone dips between N. and N. W.
for the great part of its exposure, and the Genesee a little
west of (D) the main fall, dips in the same direction for a short
distance, but the reverse may be true in the interval C-D. The
data of elevation were obtained as follows:

A-B, 20 feet, hand-level, somewhat uncertain. .

B-C, 50, the same, more reliable.

C—D, 90, three aneroid observations agreeing closely.

Height of falls, 125, Gibson’s map. Includes 7 feet of Genesee.

Chasm above falls, fon rails on bridge, 60, aneroid repeated.
Total, 338.

Elevation of track at station close by, 785 A. T. Seneca lake,
441; track above lake, 344; error, 6. |

The lake side exposures are poor on Cayuga lake. Those on
Seneca lake (fig. 25) begin one and one-half miles south of Lodi
Point and disappear under the Portage beds at Faucett’s Point,
a short distance north of the county line. They do not define
the thickness.

In the “ Higher Devonian Faunas of Ontario County, New
York,” by J. M. Clarke, a peculiar layer is described as occupy- ©
ing a position near the middle of the Genesee shale from
Canandaigua lake westward. This layer consists of a hard lime-
stone, more or less schistose, a foot in thickness, composed
almost entirely of shells of Styliola jissurella, and hence named
the Styliola limestone. Search was made for this rock along the
Seneca lake exposures, but without success. The exposure of

‘IpoT ‘ojB[s cosoueH puv ouoysourty AT[NY, JO youyu0D ‘eg ounsrz

‘9T HLV Id

GrEoLocy oF Seneca County. 99

120 feet in the bank of Highland creek (‘‘ Sixteen-mile creek” of
Gibson’s map) is an advantageous one, and was attentively
scanned, but with negative results. The possibility remains that
it exists in the lower layers in the stream-bed, but its presence is
not indicated by any falls, in this or other ravines.

Portage Beds.

The transition from Genesee to Portage in Tompkins county is
effected, according to H.S. Williams (Fossil Faunas of the
Upper Devonian, p. 10), by “two thick sandstone layers
separated by a few inches of shale, the whole about four feet
thick ; in these sands and shales there are great numbers of
pyrite nodules from the size of a pea, or smaller, to an inch and
over in length. No fossils were observed in these first beds.
Following the sandstone are the sandy shales, characteristic of
the Portage group,” etc.

The corresponding layers are well shown in the base of the
cliff just south of Faucett’s Point; also in the two Lodi glens,
especially the southern one. At Faucett’s, the layersin question
are covered with water in some stages of the lake, and hence the
rock displays chemical erosion, with cavities marking the disap-
pearance of pyrite. They comprise a mass of heavy gray and
_ green sandy:shale, two feet and more in thickness, which is
sometimes compacted in nearly solid courses, and sometimes is
indistinguishable from the shale above it. The upper part (one
foot or more) was not observed to be fossiliferous. The lower
foot varied from point to point; now consisting of large con-
cretions of very tough limestone with pyrite nodules (above
noted); now embracing considerable masses of small branching
coral (cladochonus), which serves to identify the corresponding
layers in Lodi glen; and again, consisting of only a thick bedded,
irregular sandy shale. The band here described was traced for
1,000 feet north of the Point; still further north its presence
was indicated by large fallen blocks containing the coral.

At Lodi the band runs some six to eight feet above the base of
the falls. It is difficult to trace it along the wall of the ravine; it
varies in apparent thickness and becomes merged in the other
shales. | |

100 Report oF THE State GEOLoGIsT.

For a description of the fauna of this basal rock the reader is
referred to a note kindly furnished by J. M. Clarke.* No distine-
tion was found between the different localities, in respect to
fossils. ,

The “Transition shales,” of wide distribution in Ontario,
Yates and Livingston counties, are faintly indicated in three or
four feet of shale at the foot of the Lodi fall, and a little at the
top of the bank in Highland creek. At Faucett’s they are
absent.

Above this layer there is green sandy shale with a few layers
of thin hard sandstone. This material, however, is replaced
twice within the first hundred feet, as may be seen in the sec-
tions (figs. 26, 27) — first, by 10 feet or more of excessively frail
black shale, stained brown by iron, and second, by a 40-foot
layer of less fragile black shale quite like the Genesee. Sand-

* NorEe.— This irregular concretionary and impure calcareous stratum which Dr. Lincoln describes as
occupying a well-defined position at the top of the Genesee shales carries a fauna of considerable
interest. The preservation of the fossils is execrable, and it would be highly difficult to get any
conception of the faunafrom an examination of the stratum without artificial helps, but a simple
process which I have long used for the elucidation of fossils from just such argillaceous limestone as
this, has served to bring out a pretty full illustration of the fauna so far as represented in the
material which has come into my hands. It may be of use to others if this process be briefly
explained. The given condition is an impure argillaceous or arenaceous limestone with the sub-
stance of the fossils a semicrystalline calcite. To any manual process employing tools, the elucida-
tion of the fossils in such a matrix would be insolvable. Let small fragments exposing fossils in
section be placed in dilute muriatic acid until the calcareous matter is removed to a sufficient depth
from the surface to leave all impressions. of fossils at the surface perfectly clear. The argillaceous or
other impurity of the matrix left after the reaction will be exceedingly soft, but retain the
impression, whether external or. internal, with exceeding delicacy of detail. The fragments may
then be carefully removed from the acid and washed by placing for a moment in pure water. They
should then be thoroughly dried, and afterward hardened by cautiously soaking in a very weak
solution of glue, care being taken that this solution be sufficiently thin to enter all the ornamental
or structural cavities and interstices of the impressions. After again drying, sharp, clean and clear
squeezes are to be taken with soft gutta-percha. To preserve the hardened matrix such squeezes
must be taken rapidly lest the heat of the gutta-percha soften the glue and cause adhesion. If, how-
ever, the destruction of the matrix is not of moment, the gutta-percha may be withdrawn at will
and the adhering dirt soaked and washed off at leisure. In my own experience this process has
given extremely happy results, detail being reproduced with surprising delicacy. In illustration I
may especially quote the calcareous shales of the Hamilton group from which have been obtained
many such replicas of well-known species which portray a surface ornamentation in some instances
barely suggested in the published illustrations. The following species have been recognized by the
use of this method, in this limestone at Lodi Falls. :

(cc=abundant; c=common; r=rare.)

Goniatites Patersoni, Hall, smailform. oor. a2. case neeeecee eee nieeele ceaivieienn sie sieleiele/e) eee ewe
G@. sp.,a small form with sutures Like G.) S27 WOSUS. «.o.c vesicisicivisra« secs cls cele. sclss sles slvley sle(elnienieiercieisalsts r
BOGIES BP... s65. 1% bia w eie\e ie 6:l\ sve w ois BiG arm Bula /eye,wre aha le ww: of Bic Loiale levers abateiarerotere eta imetetsia\e o/siais wis 6) 6'v\e.n/0 eis /sin/ols\enieletstetteteniaians Se cae
Gomplocerads cl Manes, Hall oo. jade ks cues sicucteadedtaes Delleattoet acute ctnelsrains sje eines ole ov u's(s sclera ete ania r
PAULOCROCRUS DVCCCUTSOT:, (CVATIEO: «x. as'orscie-a/sicicie clo cinicjsialalole e/a ahrokome oteleateialtelmiarsielelele wie’e,0/e1s.a(o\s\wloictulefulsicieietl SS tata ciated c

Pleurotomaria capillaria, Hall.

There. are two varieties present of this species, one of which surpasses in size that prevalling in
the Hamilton shales, while the other is considerably smaller. They are quite distinct in aspect
though not separable from the species. Both are abundant......... ceeeeeceeec cee eeseeeeeereceseees cc

LOLONKCIMNA NOE, Clarke. ....-ceescvacincccccsve ee since sivieie occ ee alni sd vieisinisisivisieiss pis elvleju sis ss oslesia\uisinelsni¥iviaiain/eiaiie ce

GEOLOGY oF SENECA CounNTY. 101

stone in considerable quantities occurs after the first 100 feet ;
sparsely below. Rows of concretions occur at frequent intervals
in the cliff.

The lower sections, as seen in Ontario county, exhibit a like
recurrence of material lithologically similar to the Genesee
shale —itself a recurrence of the Marcellus shale. As described
by J. M. Clarke they comprise, 1, green shales and a little
flagstone, 10 to 15 feet; 2, black bituminous shales, the
“lower black band,” about 40 feet; 3, greenish soft or sandy
shales with flags and many concretions, not less than 150 feet;
_ 4, black shales, 5 to 10 feet; 5, flagstones and sandy shales, 150
feet. Above this lie 600 feet of heavy-bedded gray and greenish
sandstones, with some flags near the base.

H. 8. Williams estimates that the Portage fauna in the merid-
jan of Ithaca is distributed through approximately 1,300 feet of
strata. Clarke estimates the Portage rocks for Ontario county
at 600-700 feet.

We may assume 1,200 feet as a large allowance for the thick-
ness of the Portage beds in the western part of Seneca county.

RR ROU TUTE NET Y7 FTLG) CLGIS a cicteiars cla\aele a v'e-ojs.os)o0 els a cio alee sieiuie esos ecie visi sie: oi apiece weleeeeeaie cases (is
I EEE oe Sih chr nad aed ine acs wise ceaoie en's dances ose can wecactmaveb cr betce vsup ete ce
EMEA EAT Uo ES UL TB aac cain on) o'nw os ota a aleinicia sinie nisin sie h einlers os aivia,ore <.0,01a/0.0'e individ usec Weave cieveineus Re a;
ME SE RI ee Ses Soe SIG ai nici sioioaiota'e , ws aiclain. a) sale (cle wid al vte aicleie S slcte.e.elate,e sr aiolnreve viw/ciere(are's wis’e e's ieitrelevs vis Cc
P. sp.
ITER TSUNNT ETC CET UN eoai arc oice vice falate cere Reine a ce acie siete wie cide ani sutiicee acjs cme sen: eciece Sueur koees c
SE TU Reo Gat BIRO P arn Sn COR Oc DEE CGE CUCU: DC Or COBOT OCS TESE BOC CoA DOSS oOCTOUnT OnOL ae ce
ETE LPE A SERTED DESL eo. 2' feo ov cia Pa) eo ajetaiclokeYe. ove eiavels,b n/a araletajaysle™ elpieisinis. oad clecaie/sisiwle so ete | OCR ROMEBOATISOU UC Cc
Spirifer like S. subumbona with minute, erect spinules on the concentric surface lines............ r
TREE TORS ora gie coteiclced doiew (sien 6 rave coe eee eevee eee sleaiaetdecivecs's: Coe sacevead esetieosesies G
TEE PEERS ELLE TELE U LO sino oisicicias de/e stance cs ots cere vlis'e cisiaic Sivigeicin cis peioleisie si0.g 0 enieislen eee a tusleagvseete r
Orthothetes, a small species occurring in the Portage fauna of the Naples section .................. or
ERM TEMSSELEIEL CE OUI 02717, Dene sod ors oie ve olla sic. cies Se a a o)ale Colslvic’s Ua deeisle iioeeleabepe sdueds se lseedecesets 7
ae CREME STOUT eos rm roc os nieejalaycin/uin dee wisie ee aicigre mie dine dle. vio albia\vle alesis ocwa'e Rs) few viajes. (eels veslac'eep'a G
Cladochonus, a species occurring throughout the central New York sections at the base of the
Portage; in the Canandaigua lake section also in the Styliola limestome................0- cee ceeeees ce

After careful examination Dr. Lincoln reports no evidence in Seneca county of the Styliola
limestone which seems to appear first in Yates county and extends thence westward nearly to Lake
Erie; alayer lying in the midst of the Genesee shales and containing many fossils which characterize
and herald the fauna of the Portage group.

The fauna of this Lodi limestone is especially to be noted for the following points:

It shows the incoming ofa true Portage fauna (fauna with Goniatites intuwmescens), as evinced by
Gon. Patersoni, Paleotrochus precursor, Loxonema Noe, Pleurotomaria capillaria, large form.
It also carries certain brachiopods which show the continued influences and presence of the Ithaca
fauna or eastern representative of the Portage group: Atrypa reticularis, Liorhynchus mesacostalis,
Spirifer cf. subumbona, species which do not appear in the true Portagefauna. In view of the
earlier appearance of aconcretionary limestone layer in the Genesee shales (Styliola limestone)
in more westerly meridional sections where the normal Portage fauna is developed, in which a true
intumescens fauna appears, similar to that here noticed except in the absence of the certain
brachiopod elements, as well as the pre-eminent absence of calcareous layers from the arenaceous
Portage beds, I should be disposed to regard this layer as the final stratum of the Genesee division.

J. M. CLARKE.

102 ReEportT oF THE StTatE GEOLOGIST.

The highest points in the county are about Prospect hill, and —
may be estimated (no data being on record) at 1,200 or 1,300 feet
above tide = say 800 feet above Seneca lake. From this it
appears probable that the highlands of the southern part of the
county fall short of the uppermost Portage beds by several hun-
dred (400?) feet. The thick-bedded sandstones of the highest |
beds do not appear on these hills. |

Thickness and Dip of Rocks.

The necessity of revising our estimate of the thickness of the
formations of central New York has been pointed out by Prosser
in the American Geologist for October, 1890.

For the Salina group we have the evidence of several walle
drilled for gas, which give a probable thickness of about 1,000
feet, the southernmost well indicating an actual 980 feet. At
Geneva the Nester well went 1,400 feet to the Niagara; from
which must be subtracted the thickness of the Corniferous and
part of the Marcellus, say 100 feet, leaving a probable 1,100
feet.

The thickness of the Upper Helderberg, as far as exposed, is
32-+8+2=—42 feet, but is doubtless considerably greater. These
figures represent the Avery quarry, the Waterloo river stone and
the Onondaga limestone at McQuane’s.

_ The Corniferous limestone measured at the Ithaca well 78
feet.

The Marcellus can not be closely estimated. Clarke considers
it about 100 feet thick in Ontario county, but farther west its
upper limit becomes very uncertain. Ithaca well, 82 feet. The
Hamilton was estimated by Hall at “ not less than 1,000 feet” in
this region. The Ithaca well gave 1,142 feet. The distance
from a mean point in the Hamilton to Ithaca is 25 miles; that
from a mean point in the Salina to Ithaca is 42 miles; and the
change in the thickness is very great, being perhaps at Ithaca
twice what it is at Seneca Falls. )

The Tully limestone is not far from 12 feet in thickness. In
Ithaca well it was 30 feet, with which compare S. G. Williams’s
statement that the thickest outcrop at Cayuga lake measures 183

(48 F974405)
»FEE Zot
Steer AS 7p°T

; O9/ LP PZUMOD
2bo720/ - ikea

,0L L?PLuez

me 77 ~ AYA

207 LrPPLyeg
Ayyray ~ Hogs Poy

a em oe ew ed ef we ee es <= ee

——i6
a

ca

Figure 27. Section of the larger glen at Lodi.

GroLogy or Seneca County. 7 1038

feet; that it is generally thicker in the Owasco valley, one section
being 23 feet thick. |
For the Genesee shale the Ithaca well gives 100 feet. It
appears to be thicker at Lodi and Highland.
The following is a part of the table given by Prosser for the
Ithaca well, quoted from Ashburner. It is in the valley one-
quarter mile south of the town, 396 feet, A. T.

Depth. Thickness.

‘rigarat ecutam ie - 340 | (lower) Portage shales and sandstones.
oo, ee
ye) SS 100 | Genesee black shale.
er
eae care 30 | Tully limestone.
0). 9
Behe ig as 1,142 | Hamilton shales and sandstones.
a ;
ee ee 82 | Marcellus black shale.
ae
ORE 85 6K 78 | Corniferous limestone.
Ea
7 See 13 ; Oriskany sandstone.
S|
gee se 115 | Lower Helderberg limestones.
neon). .......
Patties v's 1,285 | Salina (not through).
So Bottom of well.

The dip of the strata is also more steep than has been sup-
posed. |

Instances of local disturbance and reversal of dip are frequent.
Examples: Seneca Falls, river, excessive to S.; Corniferous quar-
ries, dip in all directions; Tully, two anticlines on Seneca lake;
quarry at Willard; Genesee, small anticline of 15 feet height in
railroad cut at Willard.

A general inclination to the S. W. is commonly noticed by
quarrymen in the east side of the county, among the sandstones.
The same may be assumed with probability as the cause of the
oblique position of the Upper Helderberg beds across level
country. 8S. G. Williams assumes it as representing the dip of

104 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

the Tully; in which I must concur with him. The leading facts
in the case of the Tully are these:

From the most northern exposure the Tully descends 400 feet
in four miles, into Seneca lake; then runs four and one-half miles
practically on a level; 2. ¢., with two bends of 50 feet, ending at
the lake level again. rom the northern exposure to a point near
Cayuga lake equivalent in altitude to Seneca, brings us to the creeks
just south of Kidder’s Landing, two miles farther south than the
foot of the western dip: It is nearly level for three miles south of
this. A line connecting these points runs about W. 15° N., and
may be taken as the axis of the fold. A line drawn from the
northern exposure vertical to this line would be three miles long,
which would give adip of 42° = 133 feet to the mile, at this
point, succeeded southerly by nearly horizontal strata for a few |
miles The important anticlinal south of Trumansburg does not
affect the county.

Subordinate in magnitude, but scien aroenn is the dip of the
Hamilton in the western part of Fayetteand Varick. The single
exposure of the base of the Hamilton, in the form of a coral bed
or reef on the summit of a hill, 200 feet above Seneca lake, is
rediscovered at the lake level four miles 8. 15° W.; and at two
and one-half miles, perhaps 25 feet above the lake in Reeder’s
creek. The latter corresponds to a dip of 70 feet per mile.

The general average of thickness for the Hamilton group may be
taken between West Fayette station (608 A T.)and Willard quarry,
eight and one-half miles due south (555 A. T). Allowing 53
feet in addition to 1,144 (Ithaca well), we have, in round num-
bers, 129° = 141 feet dip to the mile. Using Hall’s estimate we
have 123° = 123. Measurement along the supposed axis of dip
N. 15° E, does not materially alter the result.

It is evident that the dip of the Marcellus and the Upper Hel-
derberg is at a very different angle from tle above, unless our
estimates of their thickness are altogether wrong. It is uncer-
tain where their upper limit lies. There isa distance of 8 + miles
between known exposures, from Waterloo to bluffs north of
Reeder’s creek, on the same level. Ona N-S line 10 miles is not
improbable, giving 45° = 16 feet of dip per mile.

It is easy to play in figures; but perhaps the fairest average
tate ment is the following, which is based on exposures at the

‘qoouuvysney, ‘e1oys oxvT vsnAveg wo ouoysomiy AINE, ‘gg cans

“Al GLV Id

GroLoagy or Seneca Country. 105

water’s edge, as near as ascertainable, along the western line of
the county:

FORMATION. Thickness. | Distance. | |, ee
ee BO 1,000 | 6 (+10) 62
Upper Helderberg..... Mins shai 2 > x 160 er: 16
oa Ee ae ee ae
EM ae oie WN eee ote ayia sie | 1, LOO 9 122
Per UGVONIEN .. 6 ennai ticle ss. +> 250? 7% 33

eo sa soe aga Mere Peete: gs; 2,510 424 60

Omitting the Salina and measuring obliquely from McQuane’s
(Upper Helderberg) to the S. W. corner of the county, we have
the same result, viz.: 4549 = 60 feet dip per mile.

Clay, Brick, Tile.

Most of the clay in the county is included in the belt previously
described, and is of glacial origin. It was deposited when the
lakes were much higher than at present; a condition generally
referred by geologists to the closing periods of the Ice-Age. In
a wider sense, all the clay of this region, including late deposits
in isolated hollows, is “glacial,” inasmuch as its particles must be
derived from the general covering of till.

A distinction is necessary between the clays of the Hudson
River region and those of central and western New York in
this latitude. Of the former it is noted that the upper layers are
yellow ; from fri to Buffalo the same layers are deep red.

The under ¢lay, in Seneca county, is called “blue” by those
who make brick and tile, but the name is applicable only by a
technical fiction. The color is simply a lighter red, varying in
shade. When burnt, however, it turns a light buff, while the
top, or “red” clay, turns red, increasing in darkness as it is
longer baked. This difference doubtless arises from the presence
of a considerable amount of lime carbonate (and magnesium
carbonate), which has been removed by leaching from the upper
layers.

14

106 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The most interesting section of clay lies a few rods beyond the
county limits, to-wit, in the north part of Geneva near the Lehigh
Valley station. The top of the bankis here 50+ feet above the lake. —
As this is a part of the clay sheet of Seneca county, I take leave

to describe it, using “red” and “ blue” in their ordinary meaning.

SrcTion oF Ciay, Torrey Park, GENEVA.
Feet.
Red clay at top, not showing lamination, not effervescing with
H cl

Red clay, well laminated. Reaction to H Cl, in the lower 14

feet. Some little stones at 34-44 feet ........0- eeu ceeces 4 6
Sand with some folia of red clay, mostly level stratification .. 9 14
Purplish-blue and dark blue clay (running 60 feet), 6 inches

thick. SandyGanehes: ....°.J2). teehee eee. ee te
Purplish blue clay 4 inches, runs 90 feet. Mostly sand,
BDOUL 5S LECH. GK nis jw 0s wins o cid aa me hatehe nage cee atl er 5 20

The blue clays and the sand between them reacted to HCl.
This is the only blue clay in the belt from Geneva to Cayuga
lake, as far as seen, except at Thomas’ quarry. Another typical

section gave the following:
Inches.
Clay of upper part unstratified in appearance.

Lamination broadly seen at............... “eee 00 ey Se 20
Reaction to H Cl, none, down to......... WR oe 24
Lamination quite plain, reacts well ....... w'oie Goin sje ee 26
Concretionary layer (clay dogs) begins..............++ seereee _ 380
Tough quality of clay COmtiImUeS 10. ...o6S6s.e. . gue one ee 34

Change to a lighter, buff clay Soneeuine much sand, reacting at
All POUNtS jess cm eeeerere one tue Dist aaa later ele) Ge alert gd; aaa See 44
Contino 104. ie 2 cus os a scopes ph sini ‘+ aaah 75

-These sections illustrate the effect of oxidation and leaching,
in the following points:

Color, due to formation of hydrated iron peroxyd.

Decalcification, to depth of two to three feet, indicated by
loss of reaction to HCl.

Concretions, a usual phenomenon, at a little way below the
limit of decalcification. They are mostly from one to four inches
in size; soft and impure; of a very light chocolate color; in the
form of disks, oddly grouped, placed horizontally, or of fingers,
placed vertically. |

Loss of lamination, the upper clay becoming a uniform dark
chocolate mass, breaking in cubic forms.

GroLocy or Seneca County. 107

Pebbles of limestone generally disappear from the decalcified
part.

The channel of a rivulet, 15 feet deep, occurs at this place,
bringing the section to an end. The oxidation changes follow
the slope down; the physical changes and the reaction-point
keeping at the same distance as usual from the surface.

The lamination of the lower or “blue” clay is often marked
by delicate fclia of the finest sand; by alternations of chocolate,
brownish and bluish tints; and by a beautiful alternation of
shades from brick red to cream color in the clay when burnt
without kneading. By selecting the proper layers of “blue clay ”
a cream-colored brick of great hardness and good appearance has
been produced at Geneva. It is worth while to ascertain whether

such material can be used for making ornamental pottery.

A peculiar section was shown at Seneca Falls in excavating for
the cellar of the new hotel, about 440 feet A. T., in 1894. Total
thickness, 6-7 feet. |

1. Loose top-soil, moderate depth.

2. A whitish clayey layer.

3. Chocolate-colored clay in places, not laminated.

4, A whiter clay with distinct lamination.

5. For the lower foot or two the material resembled disinte-
grated till, being composed of sand, gravel and stones, many of
,which have the characteristic shape and striations of till-stone.
Too little compact for till, and not considered as “hard-pan” by
the diggers. .

At Thomas’ quarry, south of Waterloo village, two sections of
clay, etc., upon the limestone knoll, 50 feet (7) above the level of
Seneca river and lake. (1) Till, 5 feet; red clay, handsome and
well stratified, 18 inches; tawny fine sand, 6 feet. (2) Till
absent; darkish, purplish clay, interlaminated with blue, 16
inches; red clay, 30 inches.

The clay at Willour and Pontius’ tilery, five miles south of
Waterloo, is classed with the other clays of the red belt. It lies
in the valley of Kendig’s creek ; at 100+ feet above Seneca lake.

Rorison’s quarry, two miles south of Seneca Falls, is covered
with 30 inches of the red upper clay.

108 Report oF THE State Geoxoaist.

The clay at Yerkes’ tilery, in Romulus, is a slate blue, asso-
ciated with vegetable matter and shell deposits. |

The eight-inch layer of gray, fossil clay, described as occurring
in the Upper Helderberg limestone, is in too small amount for
practical uses. It was tried with poor success at the Waterloo
tilery; it burns to a light color.

Much clay exists in local sheets and patches, in the oe aplea of
which I have not been able to take account. In Covert, near the
lake, are stated to be thick deposits of yellow clay. The choco-
late clay of the delta-terraces has been mentioned ; some of that
kind was once used for making brick at Willard, but it is not
found in sufficient quantity, and their present supply of bricks is
made elsewhere. In Tyre there are scattered deposits of clay ;
bricks were formerly made at Tyre City, but the clay is said to
be too sandy, not sufficiently stiff, and not abundant.

Four establishments produce drain tile, two brick (one idle),
and one combines the two manufactures. The tile is of excellent
quality. The brick is serviceable rather than ornamental.

A. Whartenby, of Waterloo, makes Agricultural Tile. —
The first manufacture of this article in New York was com-
menced by Benj. F. Whartenby, at Waterloo, in 1839-40, using
Scotch tiles as models. They were at first made on a wheel, and
with his son’s assistance in mixing and preparing clay, he was
able to make 300 or 400 na day. This manufacture was begun
at the instigation of Messrs. John. Johnston and John Delafield, '
who subsequently (1842-9) imported an English tile machine for
Mr. W.’s use, by which 2,000-3,000 could be made in a day.
The figures are given from memory by the son, A. Whartenby,
who now runs the establishment. ‘This machine was worked by
hand; it was used 10 or 15 years, and is now preserved in the
Agricultural Museum at Albany. Previous to its purchase the.
tiles were made by rolling clay into a sheet and wrapping it
around a wooden pin.

The work is done at present with an Abr. Latourette’s ma-
chine, run by horse power, capable of turning out 2,500-3,000
in a day, according to sizes. The kiln holds 10,000-12,000. The
men are on reduced time, so that 10 days are required to fill
the kiln. Burning takes three days and nights; cooling two

days; removal one day. The average product is 50,000—75,000

| Grotocy or Seneca County. aA 109

in a season. Two patterns are used, the horse shoe (from 2} to
12-inch diameter), and the flat-bottomed (2 to 6-inch). The clay
is got from a field on the north bank of the canal, in the western
part of the village. The beds run a foot below the water level.
'’hey comprise two feet of red clay on top, separated from five feet
of blue by a few inches of alternate sand and clay. The strata
dip toward the canal, the sand becoming very thick. The clay
rests on quicksand. The “blue” is red with a purplish tinge.
A portion of red clay is also found five feet below the surface,
under the blue. The blue is said to be too “strong,” 7. e., tena-
_ cious and adhesive, by itself, and is improved by admixture of
the red.

The clay is a into a bin and used as fast as wanted. It is
mixed by hand in the bin, shoveled into the drum of the machine,

-where it is cut and “tempered” with knives, forced through a
screen to remove stones, and at last pushed through a die upon
revolving rollers.

The fuel is wood, as is usual in these parts.

It is claimed as an advantage for this tile, that it is more
porous than some others.

Wm. M. Culley, successor to Dixon & Whitwell, Geneva Tile
Works, address Geneva. Located in Waterloo, near the Geneva
boundary, in low land at foot of lake. The red clay at top is
three feet thick, the blue is of unknown thickness, and for reasons
connected with drainage has been cut only five feet. It is cut in
the fall and weathers until required in the spring. The season ©
for making tile is from May 1 to the beginning or middle of
September; the moist unbaked tile is spoiled by frost. The two
clays are mixed, wet, in a pugging machine run by one horse.
No sand isadded. Next season it is intended to cut only four feet
of blue clay. Stones have to be removed by hand. The tile is
made in two Dunning hand machines, each run by two men. It
is piled in a Dixon’s kiln, holding 30,000, the process requiring
two or three days. Burning takes four days and three nights;
cooling, three or four days; unloading, two or three days.

There are two kinds made, pipe and horse-shoe;.the latter is
liked for low-lying grounds, and is set on boards in the trench;
is thought not to break. The diameters of the pipes are of five
grades, ranging from two to five inches; of the horse-shoes,

110 Report OF THE STATE eats:

two and one-half, three tad four ee The length of all is the
same, 154 inches before baking, 144 after. The total product of
the current year is 160,000 of all sorts, nearly two-thirds of the
whole being two inch (round) pipe. The average value of all is
two cents a piece. The sale is local.

Mr. Whiteside, Waterloo village, makes brick. The yard is
east of the village on rising ground. The clay is “red” only,
z.é., dark chocolate without lamination, four feet thick, resting on
“ eel ” is said to extend two miles back from stream, where
it is succeeded by what appears to be till. The owner claims
that the clay is superior to that of Geneva, retaining its shape
better; it is very “strong” (tenacious), and one-fourth sand is
added to make it workable; contains a few striated pebbles and
traces of lime concretions. The sand is “red” (buff), and fine,
occurring in scattered knolls on top of the clay; not building
sand, but equivalent to that of West Junius. A pug engine and
crusher are used, which “grinds as fine as coarse meal; a stone
as large as a finger nail causes air-slaking and splits the brick.”

Production this year, 800,000; none for three years previous; .
can make 25,000-27,000 in a day, requiring 18 men.

A brick yard was seen at the western boundary of Waterloo,
adjoining Geneva, not at present in operation.

Frank Seigferd, Seneca Falls, just outside village on north,
ground level, not elevated. Two kinds of clay; upper six feet
red, exclusively for brick, the rest down to 10 feet, blue, for
_ tiles only. They are not mixed. Top layer of 10 inches is dark
from vegetation ; it is included and worked up with the red clay.
Brick shrinks one-half inch in “each dimension;” blue clay
“ shrinks too much for brick making, and is too sticky, adhering
to the mould.” A machine for tile making and one for brick,
horse power; three men. Product not over 225,000 this year.

Willour & Pontius have made tile in Fayette for 25. years.
Their plant is in the valley, west of West Fayette station.
There is one or two feet of red clay on top, and an unknown
depth of blue below it, the drainage allowing only a few feet of
excavation. .They make “15 kinds of agricultural tile.” They
state that the possession of two sorts of clay is an advantage,
the red being tougher and better adapted to making horse-shoe
tile. They employ three hands; were off six weeks this year
for farming reasons, and made five kilns = 150,000 tile.

GEOLOGY OF SENECA Counrty. His bal

John M. Yerkes, Jr., has a tile works a short distance south of
Romulusville, in a very level country. The field was found to
be opened in shallow cuts, not deeper than three feet. The clay
is dark blue, containing vegetable matter and specks of lime from
fresh-water shells; under it is some quicksand and marl. It
reacts to H Cl freely. No information obtainable by conversa-
tion or letter.

Limestone.

- The limestone of this county, quarried in Fayette from the
“ Seneca” (Upper Helderberg), has a good reputation and may be
seen in the walls of many public buildings in the neighborhood.
The dam at Waterloo is of this material. The greater part is
good stone; weathering from ae has more or less affected
some of the upper tiers.

The commercial value of this excellent stone is impaired
by the want of direct railroad connection. At the time of
writing, four quarries were found in actual operation, but with
few men. Several at the east end of the line have been long
since abandoned owing to their distance from railroad The dip
is not sufficient to injure the prospects of the quarries.

The quarried rock is sufficiently handsome for architectural
uses. It gradually weathers from dark blue to a whitish gray
or lead-color, but its effect is not injured by the change. It is |
described as ‘‘a strong, uniform, hard, ringing stone, containing
few fossils; easily trimmed and squared, and adapted to most
uses where strength and durability are desired.” Many of the
layers are free from hornstone, but its presence has not
injuriously affected the walls of public buildings erected during
the present century in the neighboring towns. The shaly layers
described in another place are of bad quality.

The business of lime-burning was once pursued in many places
on a small scale; for example, along the line of outcrop of the
Tully formation. I found one in operation (Seneca Falls), using
the refuse of a quarry in Fayette; there may be others. I
heard of no cement manufacture. The increasing scarcity of
wood fuel has had much to do with this neglect. It is still pos-
sible, doubtless, in some glens to make use of wood cut on the spot
for burning the Tully limestone, if farmers care for the trouble.

ia? REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Sand.

Building sand of good quality is found at the pits north of Seneca
Falls, as previously described. Itissaid that still better is found
at Oaks Corners, Ontario county, where very large excavations
of 20 feet in depth have been made in the alluvial plain, east of
the New York Central station. In connection with the gravel pits
at West Junius there are sand deposits used for this purpose and
for plaster. For the high lands supplies of sand can be found in
the delta-terraces. That near the water’s edge at Willard seems ©
to have been used for building within the Hospital grounds,
but at present it is found advantageous to draw the supplies
from a vast deposit at the lake side, un sand bluffs at Long
Point, which lies opposite Willard.

The very extensive deposits of buff sand' which cover many
miles of land in Waterloo and Junius are not useful for mortar-
making. The sand is altogether too fine, and lacks “sharpness,”
or the quality of setting quickly and strongly. It is used in
brick making for coating the inside of moulds. The sand is
ferruginous; some of it is highly so, and would bake to a deep
cherry red on the surface of the brick. The sand used for mak-
ing moulds by the iron founders at Geneva is brought from a
distance; that of the vicinity does not serve, although similar in

appeamineeien does not hold together well. Lake sand is
- dredged from the shallow water of the north end of the lake for
making cores for castings; this would also make a fair mason’s
sand, though not quite coarse enough.

Sandstone.

The sandstone of the Portage group takes the form of slabs
or flags. Flagstone quarries have been largely developed, chiefly
on the eastern side, and have proved a source of considerable
profit in former time, though at present few are worked.

The lower layers, up to at least 100 feet, are not worth work-
ing. This is obvious on inspecting the exposure at Lodi falls.
A quarry at 140 feet above the base of the formation was men-
tioned to me as giving stone of insufficient strength for bridges.
The disused quarries in Ovid village may be at even a lower
level. At Faucett’s Point, 200 feet above the base of the forma-

‘Sinqsuvumniy, ‘euoyspuvs osvyztog ‘Arrenb uosurqoy pus sury oy, “6g oins17

‘Sl ALWI1d

GroLtocy oF SENECA CouNTY. 113

tion, the product seemed to be what it was claimed to be, very
tough and suited to cover culverts in roads.

A series of 14 or more quarries extend along the east shore
of Covert for nearly six miles, at the distance of half or
three quarters of a mile from the lake, and probably 400 feet
above it, which would be 250 feet above the base, if 150 is
allowed for the Genesee shale. This, with the neighboring
quarries at Trumansburg and Taughannock, forms the district
of typical development of the industry. At. present only one
quarry is worked at this point in Covert, and another is expected
to open next season. Those at Taughannock, with some advan-
tages of position, are working. ©

The quality of the stone varies and much poor material has
formerly been disposed of at cheap rates. Some layers, appar-
ently solid, go to pieces under the hammer. Scaling sidewalks
and splitting wall stones may be seen. But when well chosen
the flags retain their position among the very best materials for
walks. The stone is of a very high degree of tenacity and dura-
bility, and does not become slippery by wear. Sills and cap-
stones are also made of it. It is found of’sufficient thickness
for basement story work with rough face, for which it is now
being used at Willard’s Hospital, and makes a handsome wall.

Quarrying is facilitated in the Covert district by the compara-
tive lightness (1-8 feet) of the drift layer. In the more elevated
and central parts the drift is much heavier and has proved a
barrier to operations. The largest quarry in the district is the
Ogden. There are also some large quarries near Ovid Centre.

Cleaved surfaces are slightly uneven; sawing, for the produc-
tion of smooth surfaces, has not been put in practice to my
knowledge in this county.

The accompanying view gives the quarry of King & ees
who state the following in regard to it: The flags range in thick-
ness from two feet two inches down to “nothing.” Thethick layers
are liable to split; in order to anticipate this they are artificially
separated by wedges into convenient thicknesses for slabs. The
thickest layer that. can be relied on not to separate spontaneously
is eight inches through. Most of the good flags are furnished
by one 20-inch layer; at its greatest thickness this measures 22
inches and runs 40 rods each way (N. and §.), gradually thinning

15

114 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

until it is lost, but reappears at one-quarter of a mile farther and
increasing to 28 inches. This thickness was found at the Ogden
quarry, which was the first opened in the locality. )

Above this layer comes six feet of shale (“shuck”); then 4-16
inches of stone divisible in. two to six layers, and then 20 feet
of shale, flying in fine pieces when blasted, which contains hard
streaks (not of much value) from one inch to two feet in thick-
ness.

The marketable slabs are found of almost any length, and in
widths varying from 1 to 20 feet. The largest quarried here
was, Mr. King thinks, 12 feet 9 inches by 13 feet 9 inches, and
was used in the vault of a bank. The largest ever quarried by
him were three flags 9 feet 6 inches by 13 feet, which received
a premium at Philadelphia in 1876 for strength, texture, natural
surface and edges.

A §. W. dip of one and one-half inches in 100 (three inches to
a rod) is found here and in other quarries for some miles to the
north. | |
The joints are nearly vertical. A main joint runs N. 15° W.
(magnetic), but it récurs at very irregular intervals (6 to 40 feet),
and gives very varying dimensions to the slabs. No reliable
cross seam exists. Subordinate cleavages (“ back seams”) tra-
verse the main joints in places, running about N. 10° W. extend-
ing not over 100 feet each way from the main seam. Back
seams are confined to the lower beds in the quarry. They are
well shown in the view. Much injury to the market worth of
the pruduct is caused by their: presence, but they are fortunately
not common. ;

Another form of objectionable cleavage is found, usually run-
ning parallel with the main joint, and limited to a few inches
(not over 20) in the thickness of beds. Between two main
seams that are, say 30 feet apart, there may be from one to ten
such, at from | to 10 feet apart. A whole block may be so cut
up that the widest piece is not over 20 inches across.

Another source of injury is found in “burl,” a formation of
concretionary origin, whose presence is shown by saucer-shaped
protuberances and depressions and circular discolorations.*
Around the perimeters of burl the stone is of excessive hardness,

*It turns brown against the greenish sandstone when weathered.

“9UOJSPUBS OSBIIOg UI yooZo ATVUOTJOIONOD IO ,,“JING,, “VES WINS

‘6T ALV Id

GEOLOGY oF SrnrecA County. 115

and there is a strong tendency in the stone to crack or break in
a ring at this line. No marked change in composition is appar-
ent in the rock at these points. |

Among the causes for the abandonment of quarrying in this.
region are the following, in order of importance: Competition
of cement pavement and of Ohio flags; increased difficulty of
quarrying as the work progresses landward (it has been carried
in as far as 350 feet); seams and burl; difficulty of drainage ;
distance from railroad. The latter is not of prime importance,
perhaps, but its bearing is seen in the continuance of work at the
Taughannock quarries, which are directly on the line of railroad.
At the latter point, also, the waste is easily dumped into the
chasm. —

The product of the quarries of Seneca county has ee been
consumed locally, 7. ¢., within 5°-100 miles of production. The
qualities of the stone are still appreciated, for sidewalks, but it
appears that for its production on a large scale greater facilities
are offered at Taughannock. I have, however, met several pro-—
prietors who were working small quarries in connection with
some farming. The enterprise of the King’s Ferry proprietors
(Cayuga county) iscommendable. They are sending out picked
flags of large size, accompanied by their own workmen, 108 the
purpose of fitting and laying them.

Plaster Rock.

The report of the fourth district (1843) states that at that time
five or six thousand tons of rock were annually quarried as a
fertilizer at Seneca Falls. The memory of this once thriving
business has passed from the minds of this generation. I found
but one man who knew of its former existence, his father having
been engaged in quarrying 55 years ago. The industry still
exists at Springport (now Union Springs) and Phelps, but the
“phosphates” of commerce have largely superseded plaster.

A word in regard to the uses of plaster may be here in place.
Only the impure article is likely to be obtained from these beds,
if reopened ; its only use, that of a fertilizer. In this capacity it is
at present mainly employed to give bulk to substances which in
themselves are too concentrated for use, as nitrogen compounds,
potash and the phosphoric acid of phosphates, which are the sub-

116 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

stances mentioned in the New York law regarding fertilizers. It
appears that the plaster per se no longer exercises the beneficial —
influence upon the soil that it formerly did ; its function being to
liberate potash from combinations, its application for a number
of times exhausts the capacity of the soil for yielding its pete
and the beneficial effect is no longer observed.

Road Metal.

From a strictly practical point of view Geology offers no
results of more immediate concern than those bearing on the ques-
tion of road building. Attention has been constantly directed to
this point in the course of these investigations. A large part
of the county, even in the elevated tracts, has a clayey soil, on
which the attempt to make good roads has proved a failure.

It must be confessed that the true principles of road-making are
seldom if at all followed. It is well known that deep side ditches,
culverts for prompt discharge of side water, under-drainage and
arching of the roadbed, are at the basis of all success in road
construction; but in practice they are quite neglected. One
seldom sees a properly made dirt road; and good road metal is
commonly wasted by laying it on a poor} basis, and by neglecting
to crush to size.

The best road metal is trap, granite and the like, which are out
of the question for country roads here.

Gravel is rather a rare product in this district. Lake gravel is
usually shale worn round, and is then little better than shale. It
is here suggested that river gravel can be found in considerable
quantities in some of the ravines, some of which may prove suit-
able for roads.

The country north of Seneca river has no rock, not even shale.
That on the south has at least two belts of limestone, much shale -
and at the south sandstone.

The application of the well-known black shale to the roads has
a good effect for a time, but the material eventually becomes
reduced to its original element, mud. I have known a fine
road kept in good order by frequent coats of common Hamilton
shale (Moscow shale) applied until a great thickness was accumu-
lated; this was at Kidder’s Ferry, where no heavy produce teams
pass. In general this material may safely be recommended for

GEOLOGY oF SENECA CouUNTY. a iy

avenues. No deliberate and well-conducted experiments upon
the value of this very common material seem to have been made ;
if successful they would confer a great benefit ; but the probabil-
ity seems to be against success.

Shale, the refuse of quarries of Portage sandstone, has been
applied to roads near Trumansburg by Mr. King, but, as he
informs me, with no great success. It grinds up to sand and
mud. 3

The sandstone of that region is expensive to quarry; nor is
sandstone recommended as a, road material.

Certain parts of the Hamilton formation consist of a heavy
rock intermediate between shale and limestone. Such rock is
found at one or two points along the northern border of the
formation ; it is what has been termed the “ basal Hamilton lime-
stone.” . At or near Bearytown, I am informed, this material has
been employed successfully in mending roads. The experiment
deserves-to be repeated. Failure at one locality need not dis-
courage a trial at another, as the amount of lime in the rock
doubtless varies from point to point. The material is much
firmer than the common black shale or “slate.” Exposures are
marked: H on the map. ,

The belt of quarries in “Seneca” stone would furnish excel-
lent material. The “stone road” between Geneva and Ovid is
roughly macadamized with this stone, and is certainly a fair
road. In the quarries which have been discontinued, owing to
distance from transportation, a limitless supply of serviceable
material is ready to the hand, which at present is practically
worthless. For road metal, blasting answers as good a purpose
as the slow and expensive use of bars and wedges. A plant for
stone crushing would be absolutely necessary.

The Willard Hospital has constructed on its own premises, at
practically no expense, a mile and a half of Telford road, using
as sole material the Tully limestone quarried in the ravine, a few
hundred feet from the lake. This bit of road is of importance
-in several ways. It illustrates the value of hitherto unused and
wasted forces — the work, both of quarrying, transportation and
road-building, having been performed by the patients, with the |
aid and direction of the hospital assistants. it forms, a perma-

118 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

nent addition to the property of the State. And it is hoped that
it may prove an object lesson, productive of direct benefit to
the neighboring population, by calling attention to their own
resources.

Two points are of capital importance here. rst, the road is
a perfect success. Five years of constant use, in the main ave-
nue of a population of 2,500, has not injured it; the work is
sound, and the material is perfectly adapted to its purpose. It
forms an unbroken, probably water-tight arch. It is not slip-
pery. It produces a moderate amount of dust, which is the case
with all limestone. The impurities of the rock appear to be of a
similar nature to those found in hydraulic limestone, and proba-
bly aid in establishing compactness by consolidation of stone
with stone.

- Second, the material can be had in almost unlimited quantity,
with but a light covering of dirt, on high ground, centrally situ-
ated, and with a railroad running over a mile of it. It is of
small value as a building stone. The rock forms an outcrop at
the Thompson Johnson farm, where, as we have seen, it is nearly
11 feet thick. Thence to Hayt’s Corners it forms a shoulder of
land, known to neighbors as concealing limestone ; in places it
has so little covering of earth that its crumbling has completely
filled the soil with bits of stone. No close estimates have been
made of the amount of soil to be removed; it doubtless varies.
There is enough material just in this spot to pave the roads of
the county.

Something may properly be said in this place in regard to the
manner of using road material. The Telford is a perfect road;
but its cost may deter others from imitating the details of its
construction. Before entering upon that matter be it permitted
to say that exceedingly good results may be had from very simple >
methods. The rock must be broken to a nearly uniform size.
The bed must be properly leveled. A sufficient thickness of
material must be used, and as of absolute importance, good drain-
age must be insisted upon.

No reasonable man can claim or predict anything in favor of
roads in which these points are neglected.

A rock crusher will be required. It is now needed, irrespective
of theory of road building; for who can have seen the heaps of

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Grotocy or SrenECA County. 119

angular quarry refuse of all shapes and all sizes up to 20 pounds
that I have seen on a road in this country this summer, and not
have wondered whether such road-cobblers knew the value of a
horse’s feet and legs?

In places where the roadbed has a good natural drainage to
both sides, the simplest possible use of proper-sized material in
liberal amounts will produce a good road in two or three years
by repeated application of small stones in a thin top layer.

Where drainage is impossible, the only resource left is to build
a bridge. Where a road lies in a swamp (¢. g., Cranberry
swamp), a deep ditch on each side will hold the surplus water in
summer; but drainage of the swamp solves the question for the
year round.

A clay road, if allowed to remain wet, is plastic, and lets road-
metal sink into it; if drained dry it is as firm a foundation as
can be needed. The solidity of dry clay is shown by adobé
houses; or, to take an illustration near at hand, by the new
embankments supporting the Lehigh Valley railroad tracks
across the low grounds east of Geneva.
The Telford road, at Willard, was built in the following man-

ner: A flat bed was first dug 15 inches deep, 214 feet wide; on
this were laid, in shallow trenches, lines of drain tile, placed
lengthwise, four feet from each side; these were connected by
cross-drains every 25 feet, and outlets were made of tile every 75
feet each side to the edge of the road wnder the gutter and away
to some point of discharge. The first layer of stone is of largish
pieces, fitted together-and made 12 inches high in the crown, three
inches high at the sides. Thesecond layer is of stones of the size
of an egg, roughly ; four inches everywhere. Thethird, four inches
of much smaller stones. The second and third courses were
of crushed stone. The road was, therefore, 20 inches thick in
the middle, 11 inches at each side. It consists entirely of the
Tully limestone, and has become so compact as to be “all one
stone,” to use the words of my informant, Mr. Kitson, who
superintended its construction. It is not unlikely that the
impurities of the rock, which cause it to split and crumble in the
ledge at the surface, contribute somewhat to the compactness of
the structure; for it has been found that when burnt, it behaves
like cement-rock, hardening too quickly and becoming too hard

120 Report oF THE Strate Gerouoacist.

for brick masonry or for plaster work in houses, but making a
good stone mortar. The road was two years in building (the
peculiar conditions of an asylum permitting it), and has stood
five years on a steep grade with very little wear, being slightly
guttered in places, owing to the steepness of the grade. Mr.
Kitson informs me, however, that it has not been mended in
these five years. A steam roller was not used in making it.

In illustration of the hydraulic properties of the Tully lime-
_ stone, analyses are here’ appended. No.1 was taken from the
northernmost exposure (quarry of Thompson Johnson); No. 2,
from locality of the quarry at Willard; while No. 3 represents
the best “Seneca” limestone (Giarebevon quarry). They are
taken from the Transactions of the N. Y. State Agricultural

Society, 1850, p. 611:

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
insolublessand and ‘clay.'.. A.Viroh. ese 15. 4, 627
Alumina and peroxide of iromice% se 226 oe 23, | 26. 1.4
Carbounte ol slime ;. .... .:)s,.b 4 cao Aah mews | 58.5 || 60. gl aap.
BGT 1g le ee ig 4 je 9 Weegee. abe (oy 6 laaedjott eam ns 1.5
Oxide manganese 03/5 2a eo oa een els cee 1. rad
Soluble saline matter ........ aa CELE Meee! L228) Gee 1.4

Gas Wells.

A considerable number of wells has been bored in and agate
Seneca Falls village, with the object of striking gas in the
Medina sandstone. The example was set at Waterloo several
years ago; a single well was bored with moderate success. In
Geneva two were put down (1888, 1892), but neither was turned
to account, though the later one was doubtless worth the eacules !
of saying.

At Seneca Falls the enterprise was begun in 1887 by the
‘Phoenix Gas Co.” This failed to meet obligations, and the
property was transferred. ‘The present holders now furnish heat
and fuel to 150 families. The illuminating powers are inferior.
The daily product may be set down at 30,000 feet, sold at 25
cents a thousand. A cooking-stove heated without intermission
would, it was estimated, burn 500 feet of gas in 24 hours.

Figure 31. Location of gas wells at Seneca Falls.

‘x *
aes
bets

GroLocy or SENECA County. Ft

The company own 11 wells, five of which are unproductive
There is a market for a much larger supply, but the results of
the present experiment do not seem to justify an extension.
The attempt to reach Trenton rock is under consideration.

Wherever gas has been found in the Medina, in this vicinity,
it comes from the “ white sand,” about 100 feet below the top of
the Medina, or a little lower. The layers above this are charac-
teristically, but not always, a strong red, furnishing superior
building stone. The “ white sand” itself is successfully quarried
at Gasport, though in some other places (as Medina) it softens to
incoherency under the action of the sun and weather. The oil-
bearing rock presents no ‘marked characters; it is a sandstone of
medium coarseness, not specially porous, but lacking the firmness
_ of -quartzite.

No complete records have been kept. The few data presented
are obtained from notes kept by Mr. Frank Westcott. The
depth at which the Niagara, Clinton and Medina were first
struck are points not hard to discriminate, owing to the marked
character of the changes.

Well No. 2 is the property of the brothers Westcott. It is
described as going 1,540 feet to gas; giving 8,000 feet in 24
hours, which is 2,000 less than at the start, six or seven years ago.

This well, in the southern part of the village, may be compared
with one driven three miles north of the village, on ground not
differing much in elevation:

Southern. Northern.
fie er 480 860
EO Wet PCMAG. ieee ee Acca ewe 445==1,425 | 445—1,305
De Wes ad vow w detdslesies 115—1,540 | 155—1,460

One of the northern wells (No. 4) is reported as passing
through 15 feet of salt at 565 feet. Other wells near this did
not strike salt. Salt water was encountered at various depths in
most of the wells, in the Salina. No. 2 struck it at 2,040 feet in
Medina shales. 7 ;

16

122 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

To these meagre data may be added the following statement
from Mr. Horsley:

| Well 10. | Well 11.
Pibuck Medina. ...... s+ sole eee es aa ie serene 1,400 | 1,860 ©
Duck Tht Cas... ... 1 os see co kk 7 oo Ci 1,527) Lone
DURE ReCONG ‘Oas.... .'. /s sees ot hea ee 1,578 | 1,565
in ee Pe is eee 1,624 | 1,620

Mr. Westcott states that he has bored for gas “successfully ”
in the Medina at Corfu, Genesee county, striking gas 115 feet
below the top of the formation. At Alden, Erie county, in five
wells, gas was struck at 102, 110, 114, 104 and 141 feet below
top. The first discharge of gas was so violent as to throw out
the tools; but thesupply soon failed. At Allen’s Hill, Richmond,
Ontario county, 100 feet.

Water Power.

Streams capable of furnishing power to grist and saw-mills are
numerous, especially in the southern part of thecounty. A large
number of mills were formerly maintained. Gibson’s map desig-
nates 50, exclusive of Waterloo and Seneca Falls; all but one or
two are placed on streams. Very few continue in use.

Waterloo.— The source of the water power at the above-named

villages is Seneca river. Between Waterloo and Seneca Falls—

the stream forms a part of the Cayuga and Seneca canal. Above
Waterloo the same is the case to within half a mile of the lake,
where the canal diverges, finally entering the lake at Geneva.

The fall is 62 feet (441379) between the lakes, of which 14 (dis- —

regarding fractions) occurs at Waterloo, and most of the
remainder at Seneca Falls, a few feet occurring between the latter
and Cayuga lake.

The canal was incorporated in 1818. When first opened it ad-
mitted boats of three feet draft, but between 1825 and 1857 this
was successively increased, and at present it accommodates those
of six feet draft, the depth of channel being seven feet. The

oi

Gronoay or Seneca County. 123

stream-bed has also been deepened throughout, including the
point where it connects with the lake, which is not the original
point of outlet. The effect of this enlargement has been the
lowering of the level of the lake. The dam at Waterloo is at
present the first obstruction to the outflow. It was built in 1795,
antedating that at Rochester. There are several concerns using
the power at Waterloo, obtaining at times of high water an
actual maximum of probably about 450 H. P. The canal is State
property, and has a first claim upon the water as far as required
for lockage; but the water required for this service is at present
~ but a comparatively small part of the total amount, and is exclu-
sive of the above figure. The amount of power varies greatly
with the season, and may fall to about one-half of that named,
in times of drought like the present summer, when the level is
three feet below that of flood. The wheels are not constructed
to make use of the full possible power, as in that -case they
would be at a disadvantage during low water. Estimates of
power capable of being used are necessarily only approximate;
the high-water power which mzght be used for short periods
may be double the 450 H. P., and is certainly much greater than »
that figure. There is a natural dependence of the flow upon the
season of the year ; yet, there may be dry winters, with continu-
ous low water. <A great deal of steam power is used to supple-
ment the water power. _ | |

Seneca Falls.— Mr. Harrison Chamberlain, of the Phcenix
Mills, gives me as the estimate usually adopted by mill-owners
and hydraulic engineers, the amount of 1,000 horse power, for
the total average flow of the stream, with a fall of 16 feet, at his
mills. Formerly the State used nearly one half of the flow for
navigation purposes, but of late years the amount has been con-
siderably less in consequence of falling off in canal tonnage.
Below this mill there are three lesser falls, at as many locks, in
this village, but the lowest fall has not yet been made available
for mill power and privileges. The total turned to account in
Seneca Falls is considerably over double the figure given above.

Seventeen concerns were named to me as drawing power from
the stream, including three flour-mills; malt and marble works;
manufactories of fire engines, pumps, paint, paper, knit goods,
etc.

124 Report oF THE State Gronogistr. = |. | ,

References.

Ashburner, C. A.— Petroleum and Natural Gas Wells in New
York State. Trans. Amer. Institute of Mining Engineers,
vol. 16, 1887.

Brigham, Albert T. — Finger Lakes of New York. - Bull. Amer.
Geol. Soc., 1893.

Chamberlain, T. C.— Terminal Moraine of the Second Glacial
Period. U.S. Geol. Survey, Third Annual Report.

Clarke, J. M.—On the Higher Devonian Faunas of Ontario
County. Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 16, 1884.

Id.— A brief outline of the Geological pape ae in Ontario Co.,
N.Y. Report of the State Geologist of New York for the
year 1884.

Delafield, John.— A general view and agricultural survey of the
county of Seneca. Trans. N. Y. State ee Society,
vol. 10, 1850.

Fairchild, H. L.— Glacial Lakes of Western New York. Bull.
Geol. Soc. of America, April, 1895.

Gibson, Wm. T.— Topographical map of Seneca es made
for John Delafield, 1852. (Wall map.)

Hall, James. ae of New York, Part IV, comprising the
Shiver of the Fourth Geological District, 1843.

. Johnson, Lawrence. — The Parallel Drift-hills of Western New
Yorke Annals of N. Y. aout of Sciences, vol. 2, Noyes:
1882.

Lincoln, D. F.— Ginpinson in the Finger Lake Region of New
York. Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 44.

Id.— The Amount of Gtk Erosion in the Finger Lake Revie
of New York. Ibid., vol. 47.

Prosser, C. §8.—The Thickness of the Devonian and Silurian
Rocks of Central New York. Bull. Geol. Soc. of menses!

| vol. 4, p. 91, 1893.

Id.— The TPhidlctiss of the Devonian and Silurian Rocks of West-
ern-Central New York. American Geologist, vol. 6, p. 199.

Ries, H.— Clay Industries of New York. Bull. N. Y. State Mu-—
seum, vol. 3, No. 12, March, 1896.

Vanuxem, L.— The Geology of New York, Part III, Third Dis-
trict.

Pea | Grotogy or Seneca County. | 125

Williams, H. S. — On the Fossil Faunas of the Upper Devonian,
along the meridian of 76° 30’ from Tompkins county, N. Y.,
to Bradford county, Penn. Bull. U. 8. Geol. Survey, No. 3.

Id. —On the Fossil Faunas of the Upper Devonian — the Genesee
Section. Bull. U. 8. Geol. Survey, No. 41.

Williams, S. G.— The Westward Extension of Rocks of Lower
Helderberg Age in New York. Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. 31, p.
139. ;

Id.— Dip of Tully Limestone. Amer. Jour. Sci, vol. 26, p. 308.

Id.— The Tully Limestone, its distribution and its known fossils.
N. Y. Assembly Document, No. 72, 1887. (Contributed to
the Report of the State Geologist for 1886.)

Id. — Geological Relations of the Gypsum Deposits in Cae

county, N. Y. Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 30, p. 212.

_ THE PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY.

BY

FELIX BERNARD.

(Extracted from Bernard’s Elements de Paleontologie. Paris, 1895.)

The Principles of Palaeontology.

By FELIX BERNARD.

(Extracted from Bernard’s Eléments de Paléontologie. Paris, 1895.)

CHAPTER I.

Object of Palaeontology.

§ 1. Rexations or PaLaEonToLocy To OTHER SCIENCES.

Definition.— Palaeontology is the study of the animals and >
plants which existed on the earth in epochs anterior to the
present; these have become known to us by their remains, which
are buried in the crust of the earth, and which are called fosszs.
As an independent science Palaeontology dates only from the
beginning of this century; it may be said to have been founded
by Cuvier. Before the time of that great naturalist, fossils had
frequently attracted the attention of philosophers, but had never
been the object of any profound researches. The immense field
in the domain of living nature was still but little explored, and
afforded materials easy to obtain and study. The appellation of
- the science which we are now considering dates from the same
epoch, and was proposed by de Blainville. Since that epoch,
Palaeontology has progressed with an uninterrupted rapidity.
For many years past successive discoveries in all parts of the
world have constantly augmented and given precision to our
knowledge of the subject. All nations, even those which have
most recently attained civilization, possess learned men who
count it an honor to themselves to make known to the world the
precious remains of the fossil fauna and flora of their own
countries. The Rocky mountains, the Pampas of South America,
Australia, British India and Siberia are now classic regions of
Palaeontology, and have furnished, no less than have the famous

17

130 Report oF THE Strate GEOLOGIST.

strata of France, Germany, England and Italy, materials for
the most interesting investigations.

Palaeontology, the new comer in the group of natural sciences,
to day counts illustrious adepts, but it has had for a long time to
follow step by step the progress of the two sciences with which
it is most intimately connected, Comparative Anatomy and
Geology. It is due to the efforts of zodlogists, botanists and
geologists that it has been enabled to reach an epoch where it is
accorded the unquestioned right to rank as a distinct science with
distinctive followers — palaeontologists. The interest of this
science is twofold; the history of the creatures which lived in
" past times is intimately connected with the knowledge of those
now living; and on the other-side, Palaeontology is in close rela-
tion with the succession of phenomena which, at different geologic
epochs, have modified the configuration of lands and oceans.

Palaeontology and Biology.—As a branch of Lzology Palaeon-
tology, for various purposes, requires constant comparison
between fossil remains and living creatures. The former can
never be known with the precision which attends the anatomical
and histological analysis of living forms. With rare exceptions,
only the hard parts are preserved in fossilization, and even where
the soft parts have left certain impressions, the inferences that
can be drawn from them are evidently much less exact than
those which are afforded by an animal or a plant whether living
or preserved in alcohol. In order to interpret the organization
of extinct creatures the palaeontologist must have constant
recourse to the inductive method. By carefully comparing the .
material in his hands with the corresponding parts of living
creatures, he is often enabled to draw conclusions from the
known to the unknown, and to reconstruct the entire organism
with all its essential characteristics. It is thus that a palaeontolo-
gist, even moderately expert, is able, by examining a shell, to
decide whether the animal which inhabited it was, for example,
a Pulmonate or Prosobranchiate, terrestrial or aquatic; a simple
tooth suffices to show to what group of mammals an animal
belongs; a section of vegetable remains will enable him to deter-
mine whether the plant was a Cryptogam, a Gymnosperm or an
Angiosperm, and he can thus ascertain, without having seen
them, what were the characteristics of the reproductive appara-

9°

Tur PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 413i

tus. The palaeontologist should then be, before all else, a zo6lo-
gist or botanist ; he must be capable of discerning characteristics
which, though trivial in appearance, have often a prime import-
ance, since they enable him to refer the object of his investiga-
tion to such or such a group of existing and well-known forms.
The interest of Palaeontology would be but mediocre if this
science only led to the discovery of forms identical with those
at present existing, or at least analogous to these. But, on the
contrary, it has revealed to us an immense number of beings
which at present are wholly extinct. Those extinct types are in
truth not fundamentally different from those which have survived;
and we know, for example, no subkingdom, hardly any class
indeed which is represented eaclusively by fossils. Put there
are.entire orders which are not represented in living nature, and
it may be said that if animated nature has not undergone an
absolute revolution, it has at least experienced profound modifi-
cations. This is precisely the most important fact brought to
light by the study of fossils It is well known what an import-
ant role the doctrine of Evolution plays at present among the.
natural sciences. A few students, whom we must in truth count
among the foremost, still maintain that living species are immuta-
ble, and can in no case be modified and so originate others. But
the great majority of naturalists have rallied about the transformist
idea. If it is true that both in the animal and vegetable world,
species are derived from one another, if there really exist between
species, genera, and larger groups veritable ties of derivation,
Palaeontology should present us with the best proofs in support
of this filiation. The proofs derived from living nature still
leave many things uncertain; innumerable gaps occur among
the animal and vegetable forms, for these in no wise arrange them-
selves in strictly continuous series. May we hope to find in
Palaeontology new arguments in favor of the doctrine of trans-
formation? Do there exist among the fossils terms of passage
which facilitate the establishing of genealogical trees? Can we
discover, in fine, in ancient types, the progenitors of these forms
whose origin seems still problematical? These are, in fact, the
important problems. which engage the attention of all natural-
ists, without exception, who devote themselves to the study of
Palaeontology.

132 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Despite the immense increase of material brought to light

throughout the world during the last half century, we are far
from able to state that extinct beings are known in their entirety.
It would be illusory to suppose that all the questions propounded
in regard to the origin of created beings have received a satis-
factory solution. It may even be observed that new problems
have arisen from the discovery of creatures entirely extinct and
whose nature or origin remains doubtful. But despite these diffi-
culties, notwithstanding the gaps which still exist, Palaeontology
has brought to light almost unexpected solutions of problems
already existing, and it may be asserted, without fear of contra-
diction from any of the students engaged in this science, that it
produces every day convincing testimony in support of the
doctrine of Evolution.

Palaeontology and Geology.— The relations of Palaeontology
with Geology are of another order, but not less close. . The
knowledge of the phenomena which have modified the surface
of the earth, the determining of the relative age of the layers
-which compose the terrestrial crust, evidently imply a simulta-
neous study of the beings which have inhabited the lands and
the seas, of all the organisms indeed which have been found in
the various deposits. The principle on which stratigraphical
studies have lately been almost exclusively carried forward, con-
sists in this, that the deposits of the same age contain in general
the same kinds of fossils, which isto say that the same beings
- simultaneously inhabited the various seas during the same

periods. As there is no region where the succession of beds is_

presented without interruption, we are obliged, in order to estab-
lish the age of a newly discovered formation, to compare care-
fully the fauna and flora of any stratum with those of a:correspond-

ing stratum of other regions. The formations which contain the |

same kinds of fossils are considered as dating from the same
epoch, and are given the same names, and this principle of the
identity of the fauna at any epoch has long been considered as
absolute. We shall see further on, that some restrictions are to
be admitted, but the result of these is not to lessen the suggestive
importance of Palaeontology, but rather to augment ‘it and
give it greater precision. The variations of faunas, as they
become better known, are found to be closely connected with

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 133
variations of physical conditions; from the groupings of forms
which are found in certain layers, a conclusion can be drawn
regarding the conditions in which the deposits were made; the
fauna of a deep sea is distinguisnable from that of shallow
water, shore, estuary, or coral reefs. We can gain some infor-
mation regarding climatic conditions and can even, for some
epochs, form charts to indicate equal atmospheric temperature.
It is then easily seen what services Palaeontology has already
rendered and still continues to render to Geology, and if this last- .
named science now possesses other methods of investigation, if
it engages in the study of phenomena of a purely physical order,
such as the displacements and formation of rocks, it nevertheless
constantly profits by the incessant progress which has been made

by the study of fossils.

Inversely, Palaeontology can not exist without Stratigraphy,
and looks for support to the data of this science. In studying
the relationships between organisms, it is requisite to ascertain
with the greatest possible precision the epochs at which they
have lived. This is no reasoning in a circle, for the relative
age of layers is determined primarily by their order of strati-
graphical superposition. The geologist discerns in the order in
which they present themselves on the same vertical line, the age
of the deposits with the faunas they contain.

Palaeontology serves then, so to say, as a bond of union between
Biology and Geology, between the study of living beings and
that of inanimate nature. Its limits in regard to these two
sciences are very difficult to fix. But if the object of palaeon-
tologic researches seems to make this science appear rather as a
branch of Biology, various circumstances have led most natural-
ists to hold a contrary opinion. Geologists have a good right to
claim most of the discoveries which were made in Palaeontology
until within the last few years.

-This fact explains itself; it has been for the purpose of exam-
ining the geologic deposits and ascertaining the stratigraphic
characters of a region, that naturalists have undertaken the
often long and painstaking researches which have resulted in the
discovery of fossils. There are geologists who, after having
secured from the rocks, often with great labor, the fossils
discovered therein, have furthermore carefully prepared them

134 Report oF THE StaTE GEOLOGIST.

so that no character which could possibly be preserved should
elude their investigation. Even in our days it is the geologists

who have made the most numerous discoveries in Palaeon-~
tology, but many signs indicate that in France as well as in
other lands, the time has arrived when pure Palaeontology must

occupy the best energies of students devoting themselves exclu-
sively to it.

§ 2, History or PaLanonroxoey.

Division of the subject.—The history of Palaeontology has been
written at various times by eminent students: Brocchi,*
ad’ Archiact and Lyell,t have successively recounted the gradual
efforts by which this science was created. Up to the close of the
last century its progress was vague; the profound study of fos-
sils was neglected and essays in that direction often lost them-
selves in purely theoretical discussions. Cuvier brilliantly
inaugurated a new period, and must be considered as the true.
founder of Palaeontology as well as of Comparative Anatomy.
Half a century later the acceptation of the ideas of Darwin by
the great majority of the learned world gave a new direction to
palaeontologic studies; the end to be attained became better
defined, the investigations were pushed farther, and adepts in the
long neglected science became more and more numerous.

The history of Palaeontology may then-be divided into three |
periods of unequal length and importance. We shall be very .
brief about .what concerns the first essays before the time of
Cuvier. 2

first period.— lt is necessary to go back to Hrroporus to find
the first mention of fossils. It is curious to verify the exactitude
of the opinion formulated by that ingenious historian; he says
the priests of Egypt were acquainted with fossil shells; attributed —
to them a marine origin, and drew the conclusion that Egypt was
formerly under water. This conjecture of ages so long past
is at the present day an evident truth. Some scientists have
thought to find also in Anaximanper the first indication of the

—_—_—_——$

* Brocchi, Conch. Foss. Subap.; Disc. sui progressi dello studio... .1842.
+ d’Archiac, Histoire des Progrés de la Geologie de 1834 & 1835 (1842).
+ Lyell, Principles of Geology, Ch. I-IV.

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 135

idea of transformation. Cuvier, following Eusebius, cites a curi-
ous passage on this subject :

“ Man must be descended from creatures of an eapecial form, for
while other animals procure their food without difficulty, man
alone requires a long time to attain to the power of caring for him-
self, necessitating a prolonged education ; any creature in the
beginning who resembled him must have.been wholly unable to
maintain its existence.” And Cuvier takes advantage of this
occasion to ridicule these modern scientists who, like Lamarck and
Geoffroy Saint-Ililaire, seek to revive the reveries of a Greek
poet. ?

ArisToTLy, XxNopHON and Srraso were acquainted with fossils
and had correct ideas in regard to their origin.
_ The middle ages and the modern epoch down to the end of the
eighteenth century, are filled, especially in Italy and in England,
with interminable discussions on the nature of fossils. The cur-
rent opinion was that these remains could have nothing in
common with the animals and plants of our days. The boldest
of the learned men, however, advanced the opinion, that the
shells had indeed been the habitations of living creatures, and
had been deposited on the mountains at the time of Noah’s
deluge. The principal efforts of the philosophers were directed
toward making their theories accord with the Holy Scriptures.
From time to time some more singular explanation was put
forth. Some imagined a sort of fermentation of fatty matter;
many saw in fossils only freaks of nature, or essays more or less
successful in creating new forms of life; others saw disturbed
movements and exhalations of the earth; and still others sup-
posed the intervention of some plastic power.

Some scientists, distinguished in other branches, had the
merit of discovering, in a laborious way it is true, and in connec-
tion with some fantastic contradictions, a reasonable explanation
of the facts which at the present day appear so simple. We will
cite, as a matter of curiosity, a sentence of Lionarpo pa Vinct:

“Tt is said that the shells have been formed on the hills by the
influence of the stars, but I ask where at the present day are
stars which form on hills shells of diverse age and aspect? And
how can the petrifaction of leaves, plants and sea-crabs on these
same hills be thus accounted for?”

136 ReEportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Frasoataro (1517) is the first’ who affirmed that fossils had
really been living creatures. Carpan, Ctsatpi«, BerNarD
Patissy (1580), admit that the ocean must formerly have covered
the mountains. Cotonna had the merit of making a distinction
between marine and land shells. Steno, a famous Danish
anatomist who lived in Florence, pointed out the identity of the
teeth of living and fossil sharks, and discovered a fresh-water
fauna (1669). All these learned men are pronounced defenders
of the diluvial theory. Their tendencies are clearly explained,
as Lyell ingeniously suggests, by the character of the fossils —
which are found in the museums of Italy; these, in general,
belong to the upper Tertiary, and are very analogous to the
animals at present living on the sea coast of Italy. Opinion
in England, on the contrary, took an entirely different direction ;
the fossils found there belong in general to more ancient deposits,
and the writers of the time saw no analogy between them and
any living species. Thus Hooxs (1668) for example, is one of the
defenders of the theory of the extinction of fossil forms.

With the beginning of the eighteenth century Palaeontology
enters a new phase of existence; the rocks containing fossil
remains were everywhere made an object of especial study, and
were classified according to their order of superposition; cata-
logues were made of the fossils characteristic of each deposit,
and an attempt made to form an idea of the relative epochs of
the appearance of each type. Woopwarp (1695) has the merit
of being the first in England to essay a methodical study
of this kind. ~The same work was done in Italy by Vat.
IsNERI. The example of these men was afterward followed
in Germany by Leamann, who established the difference between
the azoic and the fossiliferous deposits (1756). In 1780 Soxtpant
conceived the first idea of the distinction between the deep-
sea fauna and the littoral fauna. He separated the marine
and the fresh-water fossils in the Paris basin. Finally Wini1am
SmitH (1790) established an excellent classification of the deposits
of England according to the fossils they contained.

In Germany geologists were ‘urned away from the study of
fossils by the brilliant teachings of Werner, which acquired
great repute. This scientist and his followers occupied them-

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 137

selves with examining minerals and rocks, to which without
exception they attributed a marine origin. The contest between
the Vulcanists and Weptunists occupied the end of the eigh-
teenth century, and palaeontologic researches were relegated to a
secondary place.

The real progress achieved during that, century was due
principally to a return to more correct ideas in the domain
‘of geogenic theory.. Vaisnert sought to separate scientific
data from the interpretation of Genesis. But the principal
honor of the change effected belongs to Mor» (1740) and
his commentator Gunerriu (1749). This latter recapitulates
and admits whatever correct ideas had been suggested before his
time. He demands that no one shall invoke divine authority for
the. support of his own ideas, or suppose miracles for the sole
end of confirming his hypotheses.

It is easy to see under what a clear horizon the epoch of Cuvier
dawned. The path of the great naturalist was prepared, serious
writings on the subject were at hand; still it can not be asserted
that Palaeontology was as yet firmly established as an independ-
ent science; the fundamental principles which authorize the
comparison of fossil remains with existing creatures, were not yet
stated. Their discovery is one of Cuvier’s greatest titles to
honor. |

Second Period.— It may be said that the precise and dogmatic
genius of Cuvier created Palaeontology and, furthermore, that he
for a long while gave it an impulse and an attraction that has
with difficulty been modified. It was mainly through the appli-
cation of the principle of the correlation of forms that Cuvier
arrived at his interesting conclusions. He studied in detail the
fossil remains taken from the gypsum beds of Paris and its envi-
rons, and pointed out the resemblances and diversities between
these types and the living forms of our period. He discriminated
those forms which we at present consider as ancestral ones, Palao-
therium, Xiphodon, Dichobune, etc., and pointed out how each of
these reveals characteristics peculiar to-diverse groups at present
distinct. The discovery of marsupials in the gypsum of Paris
was a most important event in the history of Palaeontology and
Comparative Anatomy. It inaugurated a new method which
was destined to give the happiest results for the study of fossil

18

138 Report ofr tHE State GEoxoaist.

remains. Cuvier had discovered (1812) part of a skeleton, the
Jawbone of which seemed to him very analogous to that of a
marsupial. By virtue of the principle of the correlation of
forms which he had established, he affirmed that bones of a
marsupial animal must be found.in the deposit. He caused the
rock to be excavated in the presence of a large number of per-
sons, in order to disengage the posterior part of the body, and —
his hypothesis was verified to the great admiration of the contem-
porary scientific world. |

A fact not less important in the history of Palaeontology was
the determining, by Cuvier, of the character of a jawbone found
in the Bathonian of Stonesfield. He demonstrated in 1818 that
this remnant appertaining to the genus Thylacotheriwm belonged
toa mammifer of the group of marsupials. This discovery over-
threw the theory of the naturalists of that epoch, who were un-
willing to believe that a mammifer could be of such ancient date.
It was not until thirty years later that marsupial remains were
found in the Triassic deposits.

Cuvier devoted himself before all else to establishing the
true zoologic nature of fossil animals, especially the mam-
malia. He proved definitely that before the existence of the
present fauna, there existed rnany successions of diverse faunas.
The disappearance of pre-existent forms, and their replacement
by new ones was believed to have taken place abruptly, caused by
cataclysms which affected the entire surface of the earth. For
the hypothesis of a single creation, Cuvier thus substituted that of
several creations following each other at longer or shorter inter-
vals. Itis unnecessary to add that Cuvier was a firm partisan
of the theory of the immutability of species. Incorrect though
it was, still the theory of cataclysms was the one that would
most naturally present itself to the mind to explain the profound
diversities existing between the faunas of successive layers, at
least in the regions explored previous to the epoch we are now
considering. tay

The influence of Cuvier was felt during his lifetime, and even
his errors proved a point of departure for a progressive move-
ment. Since his time fossils have been studied with a deeper
interest, as an idea can now be formed of the living creatures
they represent, and attempts be made toward reconstructions,

Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 189

-which are frequently most unquestionable; furthermore, it is
well understood that variations of detail are of considerable
importance since they are characteristic of different horizons.
Thus the palaeontologic works of that epoch were carried on
with a precision and care, as they continue to be in their entirety
at the present day, and are a point of departure for effectual
researches in each group.

The progress of Palaeontology during the first half of this cen-
tury is due to the efforts of scientists who prosecuted their re-
searches in two different ways. On the one hand the theoretic
discussions among zoologists which have made'so great noise in
the world, have for their object the problem of the species, and
have given rise to the doctrine of Evolution. On this account
they are of direct interest to the palaeontologist. On the other
hand, the geologists are engaged in exploring with the greatest care
the deposits of all the countries of Western Europe, and describe
minutely the fossils they contain. Moreover, scientists applied
themselves at an early date to purely palaeontologic investiga-
tions, several described from a given geologic division all the
material known up to their time, while others devoted themselves
to the study of asingle group. It will be easily understood that
_we can not here cite names. The period of which we are speak-
ing is closely connected with the contemporary period, when
researches are becoming more and more numerous. In the
beginning of his great work, entitled Hnchainements du monde
animal, M. Gaudry enumerates, by the side of each group, the
names of the scientists who contributed most to make it known.
“Although these lists contain more than 500 citations, they are
far from being complete. . . I should never finish, did I
undertake to recount all the intellectual labors that have been
expended since the death of Cuvier, to bring to light the genera-
tions of living creatures which existed in days gone by.”

We shall have occasion, in the course of the systematic part
of this work, to mention the most important of those labors.

The problem of the origin of variations in faunas continued
to preoccupy the most eminent geologists. The prevailing opin
ion was that species are absolutely characteristic of the horizons
in which. they are found, and that no one of them passes from
one formation to another. In 1850, p’Orsiewy, following the ideas

140 - ReEportT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

of Cuvier, formulated the conclusion that animated nature must
have become extinct and been again renewed twenty-seven times.
He divided the fossiliferous deposits into twenty-seven stages sep-
arated into groups of unequal value and each characterized by its
special fauna. This classification was made with such care that
in its general terms it has remained to the present day; its
denominations have for the most part been retained, although
new researches and new ideas have brought some changes into
the stratigraphic groupings. The same can not be said of the .
theories which led d’Orbigny to his conclusions. As early as
1813, von ScHiorHeim refused to admit that each particular
layer was the result of a new revolution of nature. Bronw
demonstrated that certain species indeed really passed from one
formation to another, and though stratigraphic boundaries are
often barriers confining the persistence of some form, still this is
not an absolute. rule, since the species in no wise appear and —
again disappear in their entirety. Lyetx (1832) forever destroyed
the hypothesis, up to his time generally accepted, of cataclysms
and universal revolutions of nature. His theory of existing
causes consists in this, that all the phenomena which have
occurred on the surface of the globe during past times are of the
same nature with those which are occurring at the present time.
We see in the whole, and in parts also, the results of those phe--
nomena, but we must admit that their occurrence must have
required -considerable time. These new ideas, unreservedly
adopted by the whole learned world, opened a most propitious
way for the theories of transformation. The changes effected
in faunas must have been slow and long continued, as are all
geologic phenomena ; and it was but one step farther to arrive
at the admission that faunas were.derived one from another.
Sir Charles Lyell, at the beginning a partisan for the immu-
tability of specics, rendered, with an impartiality rare among
scientists of that opinion, full justice to the essays of Lamarck.
The exposition of the doctrine of transformation by Darwin
quickly convinced him, and the theory of Evolution has not
found among geologists a warmer or more eloquent ae tisan than
the great English scientist.

The theory of Evolution received at first a very unfavorable
reception, and was consequently unable to exert any great influ-

Tur PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 141

ence on the progress of Palaeontology. Lamarck had, moreover,
only a very imperfect knowledge of fossils; still he was suffi- -
ciently acquainted with them to be enabled to draw from the
- order of their appearance in the strata an argument in support
of his theory of progressive development, which was at that time
a novelty, and which overturned the most deeply rooted philo-
sophic ideas. But this does not lessen the importance of the
ideas of Lamarck, which were. of the very highest order. He
was the first who was bold enough to advance the theory that
species are not immutable entities, but that they are derived
one from another as individuals are, and that fossil creatures
are the ancestors of those now existing. The teachings of Gxor-
FrRoY Sarnt—Hixaire on the point of which we are treating, tends
by different arguments to the same conclusion.

In 1844 there appeared in England an anonymous work enti-
tled Vesteges of Creation, which made a great sensation. The
- author of this, since known (Cuampers), brought, together all
the arguments in favor of the doctrine of the mutation of
species, and laid especial stress on the palaeontologic changes
which had taken place at various epochs; the author pursuing
the subject still farther made a comparison between the stages of
development of the higher animals and those reached by the
inferior classes which appeared before the former and character-
ized extinct faunas. Some relative extravagancies, as, for
example, the ideas of Lamarck concerning spontaneous genera-
tion, were the subject of severe criticism which brought unde-
served reproach on the entire book.

It is doing no injustice to the genius of Darwin to recall how
much his predecessors had done to open the path for him and to
make ready for his labors. Writings capable of serving as
supports for the new ideas were much. rarer at the beginning
of the century than they were toward the middle of it (1850);
so that Lamarck and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire were entitled
to greater admiration for having originated so bold a theory,
in the face of the violent opposition to which they were
exposed. Darwin merits some censure for having failed to do
justice to Lamarck, whom he confounds in his preface with more
obscure predecessors. Many of the adherents of the transformist
school of the present day render to the illustrious scientist the

142 ReEport OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

honor he deserves, and adopt, along with the new data, the
greater part of his ideas, even those which Darwin rejected. To
this latter belongs the honor of having discovered one of the
most important factors of Evolution, namely, the phenomenon of
natural selection. He has furthermore this advantage, that he
fortified his theories with very numerous observations, with
long and patient experiments, that he presented them in a deduct-
ive form without the intervention of hypothesis, and that he
developed them with unanswerable logic. All this, in our opin-
ion, explains the success of Darwin in a matter where his prede-
cessors failed. He certainly followed the best method, since he
proved himself able to overcome all opposition, and to him is due
the great transformation which the purpose of biologic and
palaeontologic researches has everywhere undergone.

Third period.— It would be impossible for us here to cast even
a rapid glance over the progress realized during this last period,
which, beginning toward the year 1857, continues to the present
day. The two following chapters will be devoted. to the explana-
tion of the present state of ideas admitted by the transformist
school of scientists, in so far as these ideas are confirmed by
palaeontologic testimony, or give to the data furnished by this
science an especial synthetic character. But it must be said that
purely descriptive researches have not ceased to be held in honor,
- and that the number of types described increases with a rapidity
of which it is difficult to form an idea. The Annwazre Geolog-
ique mentions 735 palaeontologic publications which appeared in
1889, and to this must be added the enormous number of
descriptions contained in works especially devoted to Geology.
One of the most striking characteristics of the present period is
the precision and minuteness with which observations are carried
out; efforts are made to derive from the examination of a fos-
sil all that can possibly be known of its morphology, structure or
development. A delicate method by thin sections is employed in
order to push as far as possible the descriptive analysis, the »
younger forms are compared with the adults, and no technical
difficulty is able to daunt the investigator.

On the other side stratigraphy has made such great progress
that the reappearance of forms both in time and place is better
understood. Variations of the same species in different localities

Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 143

of the same age can be distinguished from the mutations the
species has undergone when found in more recent deposits. The
association of faunas is taken into account in reconstructing the
average conditions in which they existed,7and we can form an
idea regarding the zoologic and botanic geography of the diverse
epochs of geologic periods.

Finally, scientists at the present day much prefer the synthetic
method in treating of the results acquired, and endeavor to
affiliate the countless forms of extinct creatures which are con-
stantly being brought to light. This new science, Phylogeny,
rests in great measure on palaeontologic data, and in return sup-
plies these with their greatest attraction. Its importance in the
present condition of our knowledge is such that we are obliged
to examine in some detail the principles on which it is based and
the problems which it solves.

This brief historic ‘sketch makes manifest the fact that
Palaeontology, like every other science, but in a more pronounced
- degree, remained for long centuries in an almost rudimentary
state. Some men of genius, in the early part of this century,
‘stated the principles which have raised the study of fossils to an
independent science. At the present day Palaeontology is pro-
gressing with rapid steps. It proceeds, by successive approxima-
tions, as its object naturally indicates. We shall have occasion,
in the course of this work, to make manifest the importance of
the results achieved, and to point out the problems which still
remain to be solved.

CHAPTER IL

Palaeontology and the Doctrine of Evolution.

$1. The Species. Its Variations.*

The profound change which Palaeontology has undergone
since the transformist ideas have been so almost universally
adopted, is due to two causes: On the one hand the doctrine of
Evolution has occasioned a very rapid progress in the study of
fossils, and on the other this study has supplied new arguments
in support of the new doctrine, whose upholders are naturally
led to push paleontologic researches farther and farther. We
have now, therefore, to point out how the fundamental principles
of the theory of Evolution both receive confirmation from the
study of extinct forms, and also throw new light on the history -
of the succession of these forms. The relations of Palzeontology
to the study of the Varzations of forms will then be the subject
of this chapter. —

Definition of species.— The definition of species is founded on
current observation made in all countries, of the evident resem-
blance of certain forms among themselves and the marked dif- _
ferences between them and forms most closely allied to them.
Up to the time of Lamarck, it was held that a species was an
immutable entity, limited by an absolute law. The clearest defi-
nition was that of Cuvier: ‘A species is an assemblage of all -
organized creatures which have descended one from another-
or from common ancestors and of all those which resemble them |
as closely as they resemble each other.”

In treatises on Zoology and Botany details may be found
relating to the difficulty encountered in giving precision to these
definitions and in applying them to living creatures. Works on
Zoologic Philosophy discuss also the various criterions proposed,
such as the fecundity of hybrids, etc.

* EK. Perrrier, Traité de Zool. fase 1, 1890 Wallace, Darwinism, ch. VII. Huxley, Evolu-
tion in Brit. Encycl. vol. VIII, and Hvolution and the Origin of Species. Geddes, Variation,

idem vol. XXIV. .
‘

Tur PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. tah

It was Lamarck who first conceived the idea that species are
not immutable but were derived from one another. Philosophers,
such as Chambers, G. Saint-Hilaire, Grant, von Buch and some
. others, considered by Darwin and Wallace as the precursors of
transformism, occupied themselves in demonstrating, not the non-
existence of species, but their variability. We know that Darwin
and Wallate were the first who accumulated numerous prooft
of variation in living species and demonstrated how arbitrary as
times is the distinction made between species, races and varieties.

In Palaeontology the problem of the limitation of species is still
more difficult. We no longer have at our service the criterion,
which, moreover, is rarely used in Biology, that is the sterility of
hybrids, as a proof of difference in species ; and we have no
means of ascertaining whether the individuals observed come
from the same parents. We are forced then to take for our
guidance the principle of continuity; we bring together in one
species those individuals which resemble each other in essential
characters and differ only in secondary characters, such as
among living creatures determine varieties and races. We
appreciate how profoundly arbitrary such a definition is. One
variation may seem fundamental to some palacéontologists while
to others it may not appear of sufficient consequence to justify
the creation of distinct species. The particular tendencies of
each one will exert their influence, just as in Zoology and
Botany the discussions up to a recent epoch have been incessant
‘between students who were inclined to multiply specific denomi-
nations and those who, on the contrary, wished to restrict them.

Practically, we generally endeavor to group under the same
specific denomination those forms which show among themselves
gradual transitions. Wien the passage forms are wanting we
make a division. This presupposes that we have under consider-
ation a considerable quantity of material, whilst in fact most
species were originally established after the examination of but
few specimens, and this is the case now in regard to many new
species.

Continuous series of forms.— While the examination of these
questions is the order of the day, biologists are constantly dis-
covering many instances of continuous transitions between
extreme forms which have hitherto been considered very dis

19

146 - Report oF THE StTatTE GEOLOGIST.

similar. Examples abound in actual nature. Palaeontologists
have resolutely entered on this path and the results they have
obtained are most interesting.

The first works in which large numbers of Piel specimens
were brought under notice are those of Hilgendorf and of
Waagen. ‘The former of these writers* took up the study of the
minute shells belonging to the genus Planorbis, which are found
by myriads at various horizons in the calcareous rocks of the
Upper Miocene of Steinheim (Wiirtemburg). These shells pre-
sent forms so varied that they seem entitled to be classed in
different genera. They are smooth, carinated, umbilicated,
turriculated, rounded, furrowed, etc., ete. Bronn had united
them all under the name of Paludina multiformis. Hilgendorf
and, following him, Hyatt discovered.all the transitions between
the diverse forms and assert that they were derived one from
another. It must, however, be stated that these two writers did
not group them in the same manner.

Not less important is the memoir of Waagen on “The Series
of Forms of Ammonites subradiatus.” The author here describes
a great number of related forms which he groups under the
generic name of Oppelia, and he calls attention to an import-
ant distinction not hitherto remarked. The variations of one of
these forms are of two kinds. The one kind extend from one
locality to another in deposits of the same age; Waagen calls
these variations. The other kind make their appearance in
successive deposits of the same locality ; he calls these mutations.
In describing diverse species, Waagen establishes the filiation of ©
all these species in time, and their variations according to
_ localities. |

As a third example of classification, we may cite the history —
of the Paludinas of the Upper Miocene, studied by Neumayr,t
to which we shall have occasion to again refer.

These works were a point of departure for a marked reaction
against the former tendency, which was to multiply illimitably
the number of species. If many scientists still persist in -over-
loading scientific nomenclature with a multiplicity of specific
denominations difficult of practical application, the greater num-

* Monatsber. Berl. Akad.. 1866.
+ Neumayr und Paul, Die Congerien und Paludinen-Schichten Westslavoniens. (Abhandl. Geolog.
Reichsanst., VII.)

Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. iely¢

ber of palaeontclogists of the present day are other wise engrossed.
When they possess a sufficient quantity of materials, they study
minutely the variations exhibited by each separate form, and es-
tablish “series of forms,’ keeping in view both variations and
mutations. The analysis is carried farther than it formerly was,
but the synthetic conclusions are what complete it successfully.
The denominations and divisions may afterward undergo some
change, according to the preferences of authors, but the import-
ant facts remain. established, and the evolution of the group with
all its important details is understood.

These delicate researches recorded in works of difficult read-
ing, but whose conclusions are of the greatest interest, have been
carried on thus far principally in the class of Mollusks. We
shall farther on point out the significance of the recent work of
Hyatt on an important family of Ammonites. Buckman has
gradually brought into notice the Ammonites of the Bajocian stud-
ied from the same point of view. Analyses of a similar nature
have had an especial bearing on the following groups: Among
the Mollusks, the Cancellarias (Hoernes), the Inocerami, alobia,
the Unionidz of the Slavonic deposits (Penecke), a very great
number of Brachiopods (Davidson, Cihlert);. among the sea-
urchins, the genus Ananchytes; the plants considered as the pro-
genitors of living forms (de Saporta). These researches are more
fertile in results than those which confine themselves to distin-
guishing more than a hundred species of- /nzo in French waters,
or to creating unconsciously several species out of two branches
of the same plant.

What conclusion is to be drawn then from all that has been
said on the subject of the limitation of species in Palaeontology ?
At the present hour every criterion is at fault. The limitation
of species is, as has often been remarked, a matter of apprecia-
tion. We group under one denomination the most closely related
forms, those which are united by many degrees of transition, but
all separable from different forms by an appreciable interval.
Frequently the transitions are defective between the forms which
are found in different layers of the same locality, whilst most.
horizons are characterized by especial species for every group of
fossils. We shall presently see the cause of this phenomenon,
which everywhere presents numerous exceptions.

148 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

Natural Selection.— The principle of natural selection, dis-
covered by Darwin and Wallace, explains how individual varia-
tions accumulate and intensify among the descendants of one
and the same form until they produce at first varieties, and in
the end distinct species. This principle, so well known at pres-
ent that it is unnecessary to explain it in detail, consists in this:
that the struggle for existence permits the survival and _per-
petuation only of those forms capable of resisting changes in
their environment which are often disadvantageous; the varia
tions which are of utility, transmitted by heredity, will result in
the preponderance of the form which exhibits them, and will
become more pronounced with each succeeding generation. —
When the differentiation is pushed far enough, the new form can
no longer cross with that from which it sprang, and a species is
established ; the primitive form may either entirely disappear,

or may persist without modification, or may evolve in several
different directions. . hl

Palaeontology can bring no direct argument in support of the
principle of selection. But this principle is the foundation of
the entire transformist doctrine, the various propositions of
which constantly receive from Palaeontology demonstrative
verifications.

Intermediate forms:— We must pause here to consider an
objection which is made to the hypothesis of the evolution of
forms. It has been observed that if species are derived grad-
ually, one from another, one ought always to find intermediate
types, and the two extremes must-embrace a series of forms
- strictly continuous. To this it may be replied that the very
principle of natural selection supposes that the intermediate -
forms could not be of very long existence, since they lie, so
to say, between two fires. It is then a natural consequence that
in existing nature there should not be found any transition forms
between different species, unless in the case of a new form whose
evolution is not yet completed. This occurs in fact in Cases
which the progress of observations has shown to be more and
more frequent.

* Wallace. Darwinism, 1891. Weismann, Essay on Heredity and Natural Selection. Fr. trans.,
1892.

Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 149

But a new objection presents itself which brings us back
directly to our subject. In the examination of successive geologic
beds, we ought always to be able to find transition types
between two distinct species, either under the form of local
varieties, or else under the form of mutations. But, on the con-
trary (as it is claimed), Palaeontology fails to furnish any such
indications. |

Darwin replied to this argument by laying stress on the insuf-
ficiency of geologic documents, an insufficiency concerning both
the difficulties of fossilization and the relative scarcity of
materials acquired. Since that period, attention having been
directed toward this class of studies, the transition types
discovered have become more and more numerous. We have
cited some of these, and in the course of the following chapters
we shall, little by little, give descriptions of them. Still it
remains an indisputable fact that in the most thoroughly explored
regions, those where the fauna is best known, as, for instance, the
Tertiary of the Paris basin, the species of one bed often differ
widely from those of the preceding, even where no stratigraphic
gap appears between them. This is easily explained. The pro-
duction of new forms usually takes place within narrowly
limited regions. It may happen in reality that one form evolves
in the same manner in localities widely separated from each
other, and farther on we shall see examples of this; but this is
not generally the case, the area of the appearance of species is
usually very circumscribed. This fact has been established in the
case of certain existing butterflies and plants.* The diversity
having once occurred, the new types spread often to great dis-
tances, and may be found near the present form without crossing
with it or presenting any trace of transition.

The same phenomenon must have taken place in former epochs.
It is then only by the merest chance that geologists are able to
locate the origin of the species they have under consideration ;
if, furthermore, the phenomena of erosion or metamorphism
have destroyed or changed the locality in question, direct obser-
vation will not furnish any means of supplying the missing links
of the chain. Nevertheless in certain places rich in fossils, where
the superposition of the deposits is without interruption, some

* Bates, The Naturalist on the Amazons. London, 1863.

150 ReEport OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

special localities have been found where the appearance of new
forms have been carried forward with a certain intensity. Thus
Hyatt*, after having studied thousands of individuals from the
principal deposits of Europe, decides that the cradles of the
various branches of the Arietidz are the basins of the Cote d’Or
and of Southern Germany.

Transitions between genera and between the larger groups.—
The preceding remarks relating to the causes of the insufficiency
of palaeontologic documents are applicable also to the terms of
transition which must have existed among the more extensive
groups, as genera, families, orders and classes. If the principle
' of evolution is correct, forms the most isolated in appearance, the
most specialized types, must be connected by transition stages with
ancestral forms, whence other groups were derived. Palaeon-
tology brings to light a great number of these intermediate
types which have at the present day entirely disappeared. ‘Thus
among the Echinoderms, the group of Cystidians embraces forms
which must have given rise to the types so well defined at the
present epoch, Asteroids, Echinoids and Crinoids. Among the
Vertebrates we recognize transitions between the Reptiles and
the Batrachians; the most ancient of the Crocodilians, Lacer-
tilians, etc., differed less than do the living forms, and approach
nearer to the lowest type of the class, represented at present by
the genus fHatteria. The most ancient birds known had very
marked reptilian characteristics. Palaeobotany furnishes also
conclusive examples in plants; the primitive forms of the
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms are at present known.

Palaeontology thus furnishes important arguments in support
of the continuity of animal or vegetable forms. Nevertheless, _
considerable gaps still exist. As in the case of species, these
gaps are gradually narrowed by the recent discoveries of exotic
beds. Thus, until the last few years, it was a matter of surprise
to see the Ammonites suddenly appear in the Trias, in forms
already very complicated, and with no apparent connection with
the Goniatites of the Carboniferous. But the recent investiga-
tions of Gemmellaro upon the fauna of Sicily, those of Waagen on
the fauna of India, have made known transition forms in the

* Hyatt, Genesis of the Arietide (Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Cambridge, 1889.)

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. g sy

Permo-carboniferous age, and have demonstrated that the evolu-
tion of the Ammonite type must have taken place in the southern
and eastern Mediterranean zone.

Whilst acknowledging the importance of the new results with
which Palaeontology has enriched the history of the evolution of
organisms, it must be allowed that this science so far has not
done all that was expected of it, especially as to what concerns
the origin of the great subdivisions of the animal kingdom. Thus
the Brachiopods, Insects and Mammals appear isolated, notwith-
standing that their remains have been found in more and more
ancient deposits; the representatives of the ancestral forms of
these groups thus far have notappeared: Frequently some especial
cause for each particular case can be assigned for these gaps.
Thus, for instance, the ancestors of the Vertebrates were proba-
bly soft animals, as seems’ to be proved. by the existence of
Amphioxus ; naturally they would not leave any traces in the
rocks. The same may be said of the progenitors of the Batrach-
ians, which were cartilaginous. Or, again, the group in its
entirety is not aquatic, and leaves but few representatives, as is
the case with birds and insects. Lastly, it may happen that the
hard parts which are of much importance in affording us an
acquaintance with a large number of individual fossils, still do
not permit of any precise determination of anatomical details,
as in the case of the Crustacea, the eee noae and many of
the Coelenterata.

Saltation.*— The insufficiency of materials, so often invoked,
partly explains then the gaps observed, and weakens the im-
portance of the arguments deduced from those against evolution.
Nevertheless, this idea is not sufficient ; it does not explain, for
example, why the Acephala are never fed in the Cambrian,t
while the Gasteropoda are numerous there; and why they appear
suddenly in the middle Silurian in various forms and bearing all
the essential characteristics of a group. Neither does it explain
why, in more recent epochs, important gaps exist between fami-
lies in groups whose representative fossils are very numerous
and well preserved. If we examine the succession of life in
time, or study the contemporaneous forms of any given epoch,

* Eimer, Entstehung der Arten, Jena, 1887.
+ Later studies of these faunas by Walcott and others, show the presence of Acephala in the
lower Cambrian.— Ep,

152 . REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

nature everywhere seems to give an emphatic denial of the cele-
brated formula so long considered an axiom, natura non facit
saltus. The continuity is sometimes manifest, evident to the
point of rendering it almost impossible to form distinct groups,
for example, of those contained in a large genus; but the interme-
diate forms are more and more rare between genera, families,
orders and classes. There are times when evolution seems to
have proceeded by leaps more and more abrupt. There is a
much greater difference between the Acephalate and the Gaster-
opod which resembles it the most closely, than there is between
the two extremes of the series of, Acephala, or between the two
extremes of the series of Gasteropoda. Between the Reptiles and
Mammals only two or three intermediate forms are found, and ~
these are doubtful and aberrant. But if the appearance of this
last type had been as gradual as its ulterior evolution, millions of
transition forms must have existed in a long series of geologic
beds, and it would have been impossible for them to have left.
so. few traces. )

A great majority of the transformist school of the present day
interpret these important facts by admitting that evolution must.
have taken place sometimes very rapidly ; this is the hypothe-
sis of Saltation, especially maintained by Cope and Haldeman.
It is incontrovertible that the rapidity of evolution in the same
group presents extreme variations; thus, on the one side we see
the type of Zengula existing without any important modification
from the Cambrian [Ordovician] epoch to the present, while among
the Terebratulas and Rhynchonellas the species is constantly
losing its bearings, as Vilmorin has picturesquely expressed it. It
~is well known also that the essays of experimental transformism
have demonstrated that very appreciable variations can be ob-
tained in the course of afew generations. Saltation consists in
this, that these rapid variations of a given type may be continu-
ously produced in one and the same direction, so as to effect a
notable modification of the primitive type. There must have
been, in some sort, an accumulation of “ progressive forces” and
the ‘ conservative forces ” yielding suddenly, finally permitted the
production of the evolution, for which preparation had been
made during the course of generations. This idea of the discon-
tinuity of the effect despite the continuity of the effort has.
abundant illustration in all the physical sciences.

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 153

Advocates of the transformist doctrine had this hypothesis long
in mind, but only recently has it been definitely formulated,
and it is still at the present day difficult to give any very precise
proofs of it. We have thought it desirable to make particular
mention of it for the reason that it adapts itself in a remarkable
manner to palaeontologic data, and explains many difficulties.

§ 2. Causes or VARIATION.*

Insufficiency of the theory of selection.— Without recanting
any of the doctrines which he had so firmly established, Darwin,
toward the close of his life, became convinced that natural selec-
tion, all sufficient for the fixation of variations and the production
of divergencies, was not sufficient to explain the cause of these
variations, and was not the sole phenomenon which played a part
in the mechanism of evolution. More of a Darwinist than Dar-
win himself, Wallace has always attributed to natural selection
an exclusive influence; he admits that individual variations are
spontaneous, multifold and produced in every sense at hazard, and
that a very small proportion of them are transmitted by selec-
tion, and are of no utility in introducing any other force.

One of the most interesting questions on the subject under
consideration is this, whether individual variations are really
spontaneous or whether they are due in some degree to the
direct action of the medium in which the organism exists. We
‘know that Lamarck attributed a preponderating influence to
the conditions of the surrounding medium. MHe found the
explanation of the mechanism of variation in the development
of those organs which were frequently exercised, and the reduc-
tion of such as were not used. This is the phenomenon which
Ball calls, for the sake of brevity, the heredity of exercise. This
idea was, from the outset, ridiculed by prejudiced adversaries,
and judgment was passed on it, as is expressed by Isidore Geof-
froy Saint-Hilaire, “without any study having been made of the
sources themselves, and following unreliable accounts which are
to the views of Lamarck only what a caricature is to a portrait.”

Darwin, and especially Wallace, at the outset rejected the
ideas of Lamarck without much investigation’of them, but they
have recently been revived with distinguished success by Herbert

* Riley, On the Causes of Variation in Organic Forms. (Proc. Americ. Assoc. Adv. Sc. 1888.)

20

154 Report oF tur State Groxoeist.

Spencer,* by Semper,+ by Copet and the American school of
Neo-Lamarckians. Spencer insists on the effects of use and
disuse and shows that very small variations in the force of an
organ can be of no service to the individual nor thus preserved by
natural selection. These objections appear to have much embar-
rassed Wallace, who replies by the enunciation of a new law due to
Galton — the law of the retwrn to the mean: When any part has
been increased or diminished by selection, there is among the
progeny astrong tendency to return to the mean condition when-
ever the influence of selection ceases to act. The degeneration
of the atrophied parts might also be explained by a utilitarian
purpose; an organ too weak becomes a source of danger and
should disappear by selection. | |

The whole question becomes reduced to two terms which are
easy to define. |

1. Are there really individual modifications which are due
directly to variations of the medium ?

2. If the modifications in question are produced, can they be
transmitted by heredity ?

Influence of the medium.— The affirmative answer to the first
question has been given in particular by Semper, who supports
it by numerous examples drawn from the Mollusks. The recent
experiments made on plants, particularly by the Botanical School
of France, show in the structure of plants important and strictly
determinate variations as conspicuous in the higher types as.
in lower forms, like the Mushrooms. Facts of this kind form
the basis for the methods everywhere applied for the transforma-
tions of pathogenic microbes in vaccinations. Accurate experi-
ments have been made on beings of much higher organization.
Whitfield, Semper, Locard, Clessin, Dall, Baudon, etc., have shown
that important variations were effected among Mollusks by
changes in the dimensions of the medium, in its agitation, in its
pressure.§

These observations are not very easily explicable by the —
theory of Weismann, which Wallace has accepted, of the non-

*H. Spencer, Factors of Organic Hvolution. 1886.

+Semper, The Natural Conditions of Existence as they Affect Animal Life. London, 1883.

+ Cope, The Factors of Organic Evolution; The Natural Conditions of Existence as they Affect
Animal Life. London, 1883. The Origin of the Fittest. 1887.

§ See Locard, L’influence du milieu sur le développement des Mollusques, 1892.

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 155

heredity of acquired characteristics.* Still it is certain that
variations produced directly and artificially are not generally so
strongly fixed that the modified type may not return to the primi-
tive type by areturn tothe first conditions. This notably happened
in the famous experiments of Schmankewitz on Artemia salina.t _
This Phyllopod Crustacean normally lives in brackish waters,
but being raised in waters more and more fresh, it evolved. gradu-
ally, and at the end of some generations was transformed into a
very different form which had been described under the name of
Branchipus stagnalis, and which lived normally in fresh water.
On the contrary, by augmenting the saltnessof the water, Artemia
salina can be transformed into A. Wilhauseni, a species which
habitually lives in marine waters. But. in the case under con-
sideration it is to be seen that, on the one hand, the variation is
not sufficiently fixed to prevent the return to the primitive type
(whichever of the three species that may be); whilst, on the
other hand, the acquired characteristics are highly hereditary,
since in a given medium each of the three forms respectively per-
petuates itself with a persistency sufficient to form a veritable
species.

The direct or indirect influence of the medium on variation is
moreover an indubitable fact, but it remains to be determined
whether the variations thus transmitted are acquired by exercise
or disuse, or whether they are spontaneous variations of the ger-
minative plasma, accumulated through natural selection.

Experimentation alone can furnish a conclusive solution of this
problem, which at the present day engages the attention of so
many naturalists. Palaeontologists, moreover, have entered into
the discussion, and have brought forward arguments more or less
theoretic, drawn from the study of fossils.

American Neo-Lamarckism.— The theories of Copet and of
Hyatt are enveloped in some metaphysical obscurities which
struck Darwin himself.g The most important points are, first, |
the acceptation of the influence of the medium; and, next, the
*On this theory (theory of the continuity of the germ-plasma) and its consequences see
Weismann, Essay on Heredity and Natural Selection; Ball, Are the effects of use and disuse hereditary?
Numerous articles by Vines, Turner, Weismann, Osborn, Mivart, Ryder, Lankester, etc., in Nature
and American Naturalist. 1889, 1890, 1891.

+ Schmankewitz, Zeitsch f. w. Zool. 1877.

+Cope, Origin of the Fittest. Essays on Evolution. New York, 1887.
§ Life and Correspondence of Darwin.

156 Report oF THE StatE GEOLOGIST.

intervention of a force, not well defined indeed, called Bathmism,
which appears to be nothing else than a generalization of the
laws of acceleration and retardation, a subject which we shall
consider farther on. The interest of these works, abstracting
. from them the purely metaphysical portion, is the application of
the theory, just explained, to Palaeontology. Admitting that
frequent exercise strengthens organs, Cope points out an easy
explanation of cases of interesting variations. The most striking
example is furnished by the origin of the structure of the foot in
the hoofed animals, Cope admits that the parts which compose
the members may become lengthened, under the influence either
of reiterated shocks or of tension. Hence originates the length
of fingers in the Digitigrades, the length of the tibia among the
Plantigrades, the development of the hind feet of the Jumpers,
such as the Kangaroos and Jerboas, and the fore feet of the
Sloths.

The soldering of the bones and the development of the joints
receive a simple explanation, as does also the presence of
horns in the Ruminants. The evolution of these organs is fol-
lowed, step by step, in the fossil types down to the present forms,
and is well developed in the sense indicated by the theory. It is
noticeable how emphatically the American school reverts
to the ideas for which Lamarck was so bitterly reproached,
and explains them in almost the same terms. But Cope goes
still farther, and considers animal will and intelligence to
be primordial causes of these variations ;* thus, at the outset,
it was because the aquatic animal sought to keep its legs
stiff, that those organs lost the power of flexibility in any
‘great degree; so too the Artiodactyls would intentionally
draw back the two extreme fingers behind the others in order to
protect them, and so oh. It is unnecessary to insist on the
numerous and definite objections which are raised against these
exaggerations. The American school has, moreover, rendered
many other services to the transformist. cause, and’ we shall
presently see how the works of Hyatt put us in possession so far:
as one extensive group is concerned, of the mechanism of the
production of new forms.

* Cope, Origin of the Fittest.

Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 157

§ 3. Erreots or ExTeRNAL CAuvsEs.

Adaptation.— The adoption of the hypothesis of the influence
of the medium furnishes an immediate explanation of the
innumerable cases of adaptation which are observable in the two
organic kingdoms. Natural selection alone would, moreover,
' furnish, in many cases, a sufficient See e of the phenom-
ena observed.

Adaptation is the fact that types which, in the sum of their
characteristics, manifestly belong to the same group, present dif-
ferences which are in direct relation to their especial mode of
life. Thus the Cheiroptera differ from all the Mammals by their
adaptation to aerial locomotion; the Pulmonates are the only
Mollusks (with three or four exceptions) adapted to respiration
in the air; the limbs of the Cetacea permit only aquatic locomo-
tion, etc.

The phenomena of adaptation have been particularly eluci-
dated by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who demonstrated that in the
same group the organs adapted to diverse functions are referable
to one and the same type. He established, for example, the
homology of the parts of the skeleton of the vertebrates, what-
ever the functions to which they are applied in the diverse
forms. From this it is but one step to a reasonable explanation
of those diversities by the hypothesis that modifications are act-
ually and gradually produced at the expense of the primitive
type. This step Geoffroy unhesitatingly took.

We must include in this order of phenomena all cases of
mimicry, premonitory coloring, etc., on which Darwin and
Wallace so urgently insisted.

Zoology and Botany display at every step examples of this
important phenomenon. Palaeontology places it within our
power to grasp this phenomenon of function, and in many cases
shows how the gradual transformations are produced.

The most celebrated example is that drawn from the study of
the fossil forms which are considered as representing the series
of progenitors of the horse. It is well known that among those
animals the cubitus and the radius are rudimentary, that each
limb presents but a single finger, by the sides of which are two
small stylets, which represent, in the rudimentary state, the
fingers 2 and 4 of the other Mammals. These fingers are very
much elon gated.

But there has been found in Europe, and especially in
America, at a period later than the Lower Eocene, an entire

158 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

series of types in which these characteristics of adaptation are
more and more strongly, marked. The first of these types,
HLohippus, has one cubitus, and one fibula very distinct, four
fingers, and one rudiment on the fore foot, three on the hind
foot. This animal, small of size, presents in but a slight degree
the differential characteristics of the horse, but through all the
succeeding generations the characteristics in question make their -
appearance little by little, by a very moderate’ gradation
(Marsh, Huxley).* |

The adaptation to flight of the anterior limbs of birds is
brought avout by a process of evolution, several terms of which
are known.to us. Among ordinary birds the fingers of the
anterior extremity are shortened in such a manner that one of
the fingers is only a weak stump; the remainder of the hand
is reduced to three metacarpals united and bearing one or two
phalanges. The extremity of the wing can only execute move-
ments of flexion of small scope. But the most ancient bird
known, the Archeopteryx of the Upper Jurassic presents a much
less degree of regression; three fingers are well represented and
separated; the middle finger has three phalanges, the others two,
and the fingers terminate by claws so that the hand is adapted
to prehension. The embryos of the ostrich possess character-
istics between thesetwo extremes. Other details relating to the
power of flight are also seen in other organs, and to a less
degree in Archwopteryx which is closely related to the reptiles,
than in the living birds. In the course of this work we shall
refer to numerous cases of the same kind.

The organs most apt to undergo modifications are naturally
those which serve the animal in its relations with the external
world; such especially are the members which are employed in
prehension, progression, flight, leaping, swimming, and in the teeth
which are adapted to the food of the animal.

But in many instances the entire form of the animal may be
modified by causes of the same kind, and Palaeontology some- —
times leads to the discovery of the gradual progress of this
evolution. :

Correlation.— Generally speaking, the adaptation of any type
to a determinate mode of existence is not confined to the modifi-
cation of a single organ; for example, the transformation of a
terrestrial vertebrate into an aerial type supposes simultaneous
modifications in various parts of the skeleton, in the muscular
system of the limbs, and also in other parts of the organism.
Thus among adult birds the anterior and posterior extremities

* Marsh, Lecture on the Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life in America. (Nature, vol.
XVI, p. 471.)

Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 159

undergo the modifications already mentioned, but furthermore,
the three bones of the pelvis are closely joined, and the caudal
vertebra are united in one bone (coccyx). Inthe Archzopteryx,
on the contrary, the bones of the pelvis are separated, and the
tail is formed of 21 vertebrz; the transition. manifests itself
in young birds, where the bones of the pelvis are very weakly
united, and where the vertebre of the tail are clearly distinct,
especially in the Ostrich. |

This is a clear example of variations in correlation. The
principle of correlation was enunciated by Cuvier, and applied by
him with a success which has remained a lasting triumph.
According to Cuvier, “The parts of a living organism are so
closely related, one with the others, that no one can be changed
without necessitating change in the others.” Hence, given the
form of one organ of an animal, it js possible to deduce the form
of all the others. This is a consequence of another principle,
that of the conditions of existence, according to which an animal
especially created to live in certain conditions, must have all its
organs adapted to this end.

Cuvier, a strenuous partisan of the creation and immutability
of species, did not seek to investigate the cause of the principle
he enunciated, but confined himself to illustrating it by examples.
He showed, for instance, how among the carnivorous mammals
‘the teeth are incisive, and the jaw so articulated that only
vertical motion is possible; among the herbivora, on the con-
trary, the teeth are cuspidate, adapted to grinding, and the
articulation of the condyle of the jaw is so elongated as to favor
a lateral motion. These characteristics with others are always
associated in the same individual.

We shall presently see what estimate we should make of the
~ general application of this law. .

The question here concerns, as is understood, different organs
adapted to the accomplishment of the same function. :

But it frequently happens also, that variations appear in correla-
tion without the preceding condition being realized. Let us
consider, for example, the series of fossils of which the horse is
the last term.

The study of the dentition shows a series of progressive dif-
ferentiations from the molars with omnivorous tubercles in
EHohippus to the molars with herbivorous lamelle in the living
horse. There exists a correlation between these variations and

160 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

those of the framework of the extremities, and it furnishes a
new proof applicable to other animals. Among the Ruminant
Artiodactyls there exists a quite analogous series of fossils in
which the number of fingers passes from four to two by a
gradual regression of the two lateral fingers, while the molars
exhibit modifications entirely analogous to those in the horse.
There is then a correlation between the adaptation of the mem-
bers of the ungulates to running, and the specialization of their
teeth to an herbivorous diet. pe Se

in both the cases mentioned, each of the characters separately,
distinguishing a perfect condition for the species, is explainable
by the theory of natural selection; whilst some other instances
of correlation, perfectly authenticated, are more difficult to
explain. Certain characters which are apparently useless to the
species, present sometimes a great variability; these are the
characters which the Darwinian school calls Morphologic char-
acters. But it is undeniably established that they are in correla-
tion with characters of recognized utility to the species, varying
as these vary, and thus coming under the law of natural selec-
tion. Such,. for example, are the secondary sexual character-
istics, such as the beard of men, the long hair-of women, etc.

Rudimentary organs.— According to Cuvier the principle of
correlation of forms was in contradiction to a great number of
facts which find their explanation only in the theory of selection.
If the animal possesses all that is necessary and nothing that is
superfluous for its existence in the condition in which it lives,
one can not conceive that it can possess organs which are mani-
festly of no service to it, and which are found better developed ©
and ina functional state in allied groups. Thus there sometimes
exist in man certain muscles which are at other times wanting,
but which are found well developed in the monkey. These rudt-
mentary organs are innumerable both in the animal and the
-vegetable kingdoms.

Palaeontology often explains to fus the significance of these.
The two stylets which are found on either side of the foot of the
Horse correspond to the two fingers, provided with all their parts,
of the Tertiary Equides. The Parrot possesses in the alveolus:
embryonic teeth which never develop. But the three birds so
far known from the Secondary Epoch, Archeopteryx, Ichthyornis,
and Hesperornis, had conical, sharp-pointed teeth like those of rep-
tiles. We are acquainted, too, with instances of limbs, in a rudi-
mentary state, hidden under the skin of certain serpents, and
the existence of a very reduced pelvis in certain Cetacea, which
are furthermore, like the others, destitute of posterior limbs.

Tue PrincrpLes oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 161

A curious instance, recently brought to light, is that of the
pineal eye of Reptiles There is found among certain Lacer-
tilians, on the top of the head and on the median line, an organ
which in cases of the greatest differentiation has the structure of
an eye, with retina, crystalline humor and optic nerve which passes
through a perforation of the parietal bone. But this organ is
concealed under an opaque scale, and in no case can be used for
sight. It is, moreover, generally very small.

But anumber of Reptiles of the Primary and Secondary epochs,
especially those of the lower groups, present a parietal opening
situated exactly like that of the Lizards, with a much larger aper-
ture. It appears then almost certain that at that epoch the
pineal eve must have fulfilled the function of an eye, and its
presence is quite inexplicable in actual types where its situation
is such that it can not serve for seeing, unless we allow the
admission that these existing forms have descended from ancient
types where this organ served a useful purpose. Itisa curious fact,
moreover, that the animal in which the pineal eye is the least
reduced, the genus /atterza, belongs to the most ancient group
known in the whole class of Reptiles (Rhynchocephala).

‘To sum up this subject, the existence of rudimentary organs is
one of the most conclusive arguments in favor of the theory of
Evolution.

‘Parallelism and Convergence.— The attentive study of the
variations of organs among forms living or fossil, has brought to
light another important phenomenon which in a marked degree
restricts the importance of the principle of Cuvier regarding the
correlation of forms. It has been observed that in some groups,
whether allied or very diverse, the series of modifications was
produced in the same method and along parallel lines. Further,
in certain cases, if we examine through successive strata forms
originally dissimilar, we find that they evolve in such a manner as
to diminish their differential characters, so that the derived forms
of each series resemble each other much more than do primitive
forms. These are the phenomena of Convergence.

In regard to forms very closely allied, it is natural that we
should find similar conditions producing similar modifications.
Natural selection, or the direct influence of the medium, suffices
to explain this. Thus, in very extensive basins, the Paludinas,
though smooth and with inflated. volutions, have, at various
epochs and different points, evolved into carinated and tubercu-
lous forms. |

21

162 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

It frequently happens that an analogous process induces modi- |
fications in the same direction in very distinct animals. For
example, one of the flying Reptiles of the Upper Cretaceous,
Pteranodon, is toothless and has a sharp beak, which probably
was covered with horn. If Cuvier had seen this head he
would, without doubt, have considered it that of a bird; and he
would, on the other hand, have assigned the two toothed birds
of the same deposit to the Reptilia. The disappearance of teeth
and the presence of a beak are then characters which have
affected in the same manner very different types, Pterosaurians
and Birds, both adapted to the same mode of life. -

Among the primitive Batrachians of the group of Stegocephala,
we find the first tendency of the four-footed type to elongate the
body, multiply the number of vertebre, diminish or lose limbs,
to assume, in a word, the aspect of Serpents (Dolichosoma). But
the serpentiform types appear in very different groups. Among
living animals, true Batrachians (Cecilians), animals which have
throughout the anatomical characteristics of the Lacertilians
(Amphisbene), also assume the same vermiform appearance.
There existed in the Cretaceous epoch, among the Lacertilians,
gigantic swimmers possessing more than a hundred and thirty
vertebre, and with very small limbs, thus evincing a tendency in
the same direction. The Ophidians also form a branch of the
Lacertilians, in which modification has- affected the external
organs.

An instance often cited is the profound analogy in limbs
transformed into swimming expansions almost identical among
Reptiles such as Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, and the Mam-
majia such as Cetacea. :

The invertebrates furnish numerous examples of convergence.
Among the Ammonites, for instance, the shell often presents a
considerable difference both in form and ornamentation between
the first volutions of the spiral, and those which appear later
when the animal has reached aconsiderable size. But frequently
the differential characters of species, genera, and even of families,
disappear when the animal attains its full size, so that sometimes
it is nolonger possible to determine by external appearance, for —
the Ammonites of the Cretaceous for example, to what group the
animal belongs, without breaking’ the shell and examining the
internal volutions. We shall see what bearing this fact has on
the establishing of the genealogical tree of the Ammonites.

Among the Gasteropoda the form of the shell usually cor-
responds as a whole with the exterior form of the body. But we
must beware of drawing any conclusions from the variations of
the form of the shell as to the variations of the internal organs.
A classification founded on the shell would bring together the
most heterogeneous types. Still variations of the shell are
produced only in very few directions, and the modifications
follow the same law in groups anatomically farthest removed

Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 163

from each other. A shell normally spiral or turbinate may in
developing become simply conical, making the transition by a
cowl-shaped form; orit may uncoilso as to becomea straightened
‘tube, or again the later volutions may entirely cover those
preceding as is the case in the Cypraidex. Lastly the shell
passing beneath the mantle may regress and more or less com-
pletely disappear. These same phenomena are found in all the
types of Gasteropoda; Prosobranchia, Opisthobranchia, Pulmo-
enata, and Heteropoda. | |

These processes of evolution may be compared to those which,
in the Cephalopoda, manifest themselves at notably different
epochs, in the two very distinct groups of the Tetrabranchiates
and the Dibranchiates. Forms more or less completely uncoiled
and precisely parallel have appeared among the Tetrabranchiates
of the Silurian, and the Ammonitide toward the Cretaceous
epoch. It is thus that the Baculites of the -Maestrichtian
reproduce the Zituites of the Silurian. It would seem that the
same law of deformation of the normal type presided over the
evolution of these forms and announced their approaching
decadence. re

Of the irregular Echini some are provided with jaws, others
are destitute of them. No transition term exists between the
two types as regards these important organs. But in regard to
the exterior form, gradual modifications appear in the two
groups to such a degree that for a long time the groups of the
Gnathostomes and Atelostomes were confounded.

The Corals, both the perforate and the imperforate, between
which no transition exists, display also a certain number -of
simple or colonial forms which are reproduced in the two groups
with a parallelism sometimes so complete as to make us doubt
whether the division should be made thus between the perforate
and imperforate, or whether we should consider as allied to
each group of imperforate corals a corresponding group of
perforate forms derived from them, perhaps, by regression.

The same remark is applicable to the Horaminifera, perforate
a imperforate, which often present exactly the same exterior
orms.

It may be seen from the foregoing remarks, that when
we seek to establish the real affinities of the various groups,
that is to say, their genealogical tree, great attention must be
paid to these phenomena of convergence and parallelism, and it
must be kept in mind that the same causes have sufficed to
produce the same modifications among beings which in other
respects had no immediate kinship one with the other.

Aberrant and synthetic types.—A second important exception
to the principle of correlation is drawn from the fact that the

164 Report oF THE Strate GEOLOGIST.

various series established by taking into account only the varia-
tion of a given structure, do not often fuse into a single series,
as the principle of correlation would require. This fact leads
us to a new conception of great importance. Rt
We say that an animal of a certain group is aberrant as to one
of its organs, when this organ, through its structure, cannot be

admitted into any of the morphologic series constituted for homo-,

logous organs in the group in question. It is best to restrict, as
we have done, this term, which is somewhat misused; the evolu-
tion of an organ can take place in divers directions, ai we are
not to consider as aberrant a series which, though .less extended
than another, may be quite as normal.

Of the forms which are well represented in a fossil state, we
may cite among Crinoids the genera Barrandeocrinus, Hucalyp-
tocrinus; among the Echini, the Dysasteride; among the Mol-
lusks ie Teredine, the Rudiste, the Trigoniidz, the Anomize.
The Arthropoda will furnish the Limuli; the Fishes, numerous
types as the trunk-fishes, the genus aie etc. Among
Reptiles we find 77iceratops; among the Mammalia, Dimoceras and
many others. Comparative anatomy shows many examples of
animals which by nearly all their characteristics are naturally
ranged in a determinate series, but which in one or more organs
differ widely from the forms nearest to them.

Among these aberrant types the most interesting are those
which present in association the characters of several distinct
groups, without on that account taking a place precisely intermedi-
ate between any two of these groups. The fossil Echinoderms
present very instructive examples. The exclusively palaeozoic class

of the Cystidize is a polymorphic group, which presents instances .

of transition more or less distinct with the Asterias, Echinoids,
Crinoids and Blastoids. These four classes, oh the contrary, are
very clearly defined among themselves, and it is almost impossible
to maintain that they are derived one from another. But there
exists a curious type, Ziarechinus, which presents at once the
characteristics both of the Blastoids and the Echinoids. This
type, entirely isolated, is limited to the Trias; that is to say, it
appears long after the extinction of the Blastoids and after the
type of the Echinoids has undergone an important evolution. It
is a synthetic type of the most singular kind.

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 165

The existence of such forms which can not be assigned to any
of the natural series, often causes a complication in the relations
we suppose to have existed among organisms in the course of time,
and often, too, explains the divergencies manifested in the views of
different aiabar: It brings in evidence a principle which at first
appears diametrically opposed to the principle of the correlation
or simultaneous evolution of organs. It proves, in effect, that
there exists, to a certain degree, a relative independence m the
evolution of organs; in other terms, a system of organs in this type
will be manifestly either behind or in advance of the stage of
evolution which it will have acquired in the majority of the group.
to which the type in question belongs; or indeed the organ in
question will present characteristics entirely isolated.

A simple remark will enable us in many cases to refer these
phenomena to principles already known and demonstrated.
Frequently aberrant forms constitute terms of transition between
. two groups well marked and defined by the sum of their charac-
ters. This is the case in regard to the Prosobranchia monoto-
cardia and diotocardia, Which are delimited by important differ-
ences in the nervous system, the gills, the kidney, the heart, the
pallial sensory organs, etc. There are at least five or six forms
which are intermediate between the two groups in one or more
of these organs; but, in these transition forms, one at least of the
organs which does not possess these characteristics of transition
is aberrant in regard to both groups.

Another example may be drawn from types known only ina

fossil state. In the living world there is no term of transition.

between the Arachnids and the Crustaceans. In the palaeozoic
epoch lived the Gigantostraca, of which the Limuli are at present
the last and much modified representatives. These animals
are in many characters intermediate between the Crustaceans
and the Scorpionide, but at the same time they differ from each
of those. Between the Gasteropoda and the Acephala there is no
type of transition known, either extinct or living; the only type
which presents indifferent characteristics is Dentaliwm, which is,
moreover, very ancient, and is so aberrant that an especial class
has been erected for it.

We will also mention the three types of the family, Gnetacea,
intermediate between the Gymnosperms and the Angiosperms.

166 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The genus Welwitchia, in particular, with its two peculiar large
leaves, is one of the most curious types of the vegetable kingdom.
From the Darwinian point of view, these facts, provided they
are general enough to claim consideration, are capable of an easy
explanation. It is known that the intermediate types in general
disappear rapidly in cases where the evolution determines a
marked superiority of the new types over those from which they
are derived. These latter may, however, subsist, provided the
difference between them and the new forms is sufficiently great,
so that the vital concurrence is not too unfavorable for them, that
is to say, provided the evolution takes place so rapidly that the
new forms soon become distinct. As to the intermediate forms, —
placed, so to say, between two destructive causes, they must, in |
order to maintain themselves, undergo a special evolution, in a
sense peculiar to themselves, and that will occur only if variations
appear in an organ which has-not been already affected by the
evolution of the principal type. Thus protected, so to say, they
may persist during long periods without any important modifica-
tions; this is the case with all the types we have just cited.
Such modifications will the more readily occur, as we have seen,
as the evolution is more accelerated during the periods when the
new types are in process of formation.

- § 4. GenreRAL TrenpEency or Evo.vtion.

Hypothesis of the vital force in different groups.— We have
already planned to pursue still farther this philosophic synthesis
of the phenomena of evolution. The mechanism of Evolution is
considered sufficiently known to justify us in turning attention
to the determination of its general significance.

One of the most interesting hypotheses which has been pro-
posed is that which considers the various groups, such as the
species, genus, family, as having a peculiar individuality, and as
presenting the same vital phenomena as do single individuals.
A given group must then, according to this theory, necessarily
come into existence, grow, reach a climax, decrease and finally
die, after having in some cases reproduced themselves in some
way, by giving origin to other groups of the same value and a
little different, so perpetuating the form with a slight modifica-
tion. This ingenious hypothesis would explain why, with no

Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 167

apparent reason, groups flourish and then irrevocably disappear,
after having presented characteristics which have been compared
to the degeneration of old age. There would then be a wtal
force for the species and higher groups as for the individual, and
the lifetime of such a form would be limited, as is that of an
individual.

Against this hypothesis serious objections can be raised. The
characters compared are not of the same order. Instead of look-
ing to the higher races of animals where reproduction takes
place by means of the egg, it would be more reasonable to look
for our terms of comparison, for example among the Zoophytes
or Protozoa, where increase takes place by the division of the
individual itself into two parts. It is indeed just in this way,
by a sort of division, that species multiply. Nothing is more
indefinite than the notion of old age among such animals, where
death seems only to arrive through some accidental cause.
(Weismann, Neumayr.) |

But at the same time there exist groups which seem endowed
with an indefinite longevity ; from the most ancient epochs they
have perpetuated themselves with very slight variations. The
Brachiopoda, for instance, have changed so little that the genera
fromthe Cambrian [Ordovician]are still existing. The differences
between the oldest form known, Lingulella, and a Lingula of the
present day, are quite insignificant, and the Lingulas, properly so
called, together with the Discinas, have existed’ almost without
modification since the Cambrian [Ordovician] epoch. The same
may be said of the articulated Brachiopoda, such as the Tere-
bratulas and the Rhynchonellas. There is no Brachiopod, in
fact, at the present epoch which has not had almost identical
representatives from the earliest palaeozoic periods.*

*[ Recent study of the generic evolution of the Brachiopoda does not confirm these statements. No
evidence cculd be more conclusive than that now public of the rise, culmination and decline of a
very large number of generic groups both of the inarticulate and articulate Brachiopods. Lingula,
Crania and perhaps Rhynchonella do, indeed, represent types of great stability and vigor, which
have perpetuated themselves through geologic time with the minimum of variation; they are not
merely remarkable cases among the Brachiopods, but they are exceptional instances among organ-

‘isms generally. But it is not difficult to point out structural features wherein the recent forms of
these genera differ from their early representatives, even though such differences be not now
regarded of generic consequence. The final statement of the above paragraph could not be more
erroneous, and itis most unfortunate to find it promulgated here. Noneof the existing types of
Brachiopods were present in the earliest palaeozoic periods; not more thantwo generic types have
continued from the palaeozoic to the present, and it issafe to say of existing Brachiopods generally

hat they are for the most part highly complicated culminant forms or simple decadent expressions
of types introduced during the post-palaeozoic and later periods of the earth’s history.—ED. ]

168 — REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The examples of these persistent forms, which have remained
unchanged from the Cambrian, lessen the value of the argument
in question. [See foot-note.] In reality any form may sometimes —
carry within itself some source of weakness ; it may be doomed to
disappear soon or late, conquered in the struggle for existence ; but
this fatality seems to depend in each particular case on special
causes, often discoverable, and not to an irresistible law, an
universal fatality which embraces all the individuals beyond
a certain organic level. |

Finally we will add, that so far as species are concerned, the
problem seems of little interest. If a form undergoes a rapid |
transformation, are we justified in saying that it dies? On the
contrary is not the process itself the very condition of life?

Law of improvement.—A more exact idea is obtained by a
simultaneous examination of the order of appearance and of the
degree of organic elevation of the. leading types in the two
kingdoms — animal and vegetable. From this examination there
results, at first sight, a fact which has made a strong impression
on naturalists of every era; organisms have been constantly
improving from the first periods in which they are found in a
fossil state. | |

This general law finds immediate application when we consider
the order of appearance of the large groups of the animal king-
dom. In the Cambrian are found Sponges, Cystideans, Brachio-
pods, Worms, Gasteropods, Crustaceans. In the Ordovician
appear the Crinoids; in the Bohemian [Silurian], Arachnids,
Insects, Fishes; the Batrachians, not yet of high degree, are
found in the Devonian ; and the Reptiles, still represented by the
lower forms of the group, in the Carboniferous. Not until we
arrive at the Trias do we find the first Mammals, and no birds
appear before the Upper Jurassic. |

The first Mammals are all Marsupials, and it is only in the
Eocene epoch that the first Placentals appear. If we consider
a smaller group, for instance, the Cephalopoda, we see that the
Tetrabranchs precede the Dibranchs; the succession of the Gas-
teropoda and the Acephala shows, as we shall see in detail, an
analogous phenomenon.

Some remarkable exceptions have been found to this rule
otherwise so general. These exceptions are precisely those

‘

THE PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 169

which, as we have seen, present the comparison of groups with
individuals. Very many ancient forms have remained without
modification, so that if we confine our attention to the charac-
teristics of families or large genera, the ancient epochs are poor
in special types. The ancient types have indeed put forth many
progressive branches, but a vast number of their descendants
have remained without important evolution. There is then in
this nothing absolutely fatal, and the gradual improvement of
one form of a group in no way implies the disappearance of the
lower form. | ,

Another objection against the generality of this law is drawn
from cases of evident regression, which are so well known that
it is unnecessary to cite them in detail. The majority of para.
sites are, in the adult state, in marked regression to a deter-
minate stage of their embryogenic development; it is the same
with many attached animals, like the Ascidians. The regression,
moreover, is not in general anything more than the result of an
adaptation to a peculiar mode of life.

The palaeontologic objection to the hypothesis of improvement
drawn from the simultaneous appearance of forms of unequal
grade in very ancient epochs, does not appear to us conclusive,
on account of the insufficiency of evidence concerning the
Silurian period. In fine, if we confine our attention to the grand
lines, Palaeontology on the one side elucidates the general law
that the most differentiated forms have almost always succeeded
the others, and on the other side it makes known the fact that
certain types have persisted without any important modification,
and that consequently improvement does not necessarily imply
the disappearance of the ancient forms inferior in organization.
Some forms then remain unchanged, but the greater number
evolve in a progressive direction.

In order to explain this general tendency toward improvement
which thus manifests itself in all groups and affects all their
organs, some have thought it necessary to suppose an especial force,
a force innate in the living creature, a wital phyletic force, the
effect of which would be precisely the gradual and final progres-
sion of the organisms which are derived one from the other.
The advantage of this theory is that it supplies a solution of the
difficulties which the doctrine of selection fails to solve, an

22

170 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

explanation of these phenomena of the correlative progress of
organs, of these modifications parallel and forced, as it were, in
distinct groups, of these laws of improvement which are in fine
few and constant.

To sum up a phenomenon in one word is not to explain it, and
the objection to this new idea is that it announces in brief terms .
a known fact, but does not elucidate it. Furthermore, the
existence of this force is not constant, since on the one hand we
are acquainted with groups in whieh no tendency toward
improvement has ever shown itself, while in other cases improve-
ment has only manifested itself in a portion of the individuals
which have undergone evolution, and again another portion may
have existed for long periods wihoue appreciable modifications.

At the present day we are often obliged, in studying the
problems connected with evolution, to confine ourselves to seek-
ing through synthetic approaches the enunciation of phenomena,
leaving their explanation to a future day when more conclusive
facts shall be known, which will throw light on whatever
remains obscure in these difficult questions.

CHAPTER: Iii.

Phylogeny. .
§ 1. Natura Cuassirication anp- PayLocerny.

Definition.— Since the idea of the evolution of species is no
longer a simple conjecture, but is based on certain scientific data,
the investigation of genealogic trees of living organisms or of
fossil forms has acquired considerable importance, and there is
scarcely any systematic work either on Zoology or Palaeontology,
which does not conclude with a more or less extended essay in
that direction. Darwin contented himself with establishing
on a solid basis the principles of the doctrine of transformation,
and left to his successors the task of deducing the consequences.
He demonstrated that species are derived one from the
other, and that consequently there exist between all organisms,
both living and extinct, veritable relations of parentage more or
less removed. Phylogeny is the determination of these ties; it is
the investigation of the descent, not only of allied species, but
also of the most extensive groups, in fine of every form, both of
the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

Principles of classification.— The problem of Phylogeny is
only a new form, due to new ideas, of the problem of natural
classification, which has confronted us from the time when living
organisms first began to be objects of serious study. Buffon
opposed every idea of classification, while Linné, the first who
established a substantial classification, considered the taxonomic
method simply a convenience for abridging the exposition of
characters and for facilitating researches. Nevertheless toward
the close of his life he indicated the path to be followed in order
to arrive at a more rational principle. Jussieu was the first to
establish in an authoritative manner the principles of a natural
classification. He devoted his energies to presenting as faithfully
as possible a demonstration of the relations which exist among
all the types of the vegetable kingdom. In order to realize this

172 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

idea of natural classification we must no longer allow ourselves
to appeal to any single characteristic no matter how convenient
or easy of observation it may be; we must take into account as
far as possible the entirety of the organism. Classifications
where the divisions are founded each on a single character may
afford a certain means for facility in quick determinations; these
are systems. The word method should be reserved for the
natural classification. This could only be finally established if
all organisms, both living and fossil, were completely known, but
we can strive toward its attainment by successive approximations,

The transformist doctrine has suddenly thrown much light on
the problem of classification; it has freed the idea of natural
classification from whatever was obscure and metaphysical.
The principle of descent once established, affinities explain them-
selves by the relations of parentage, and natural classification is
nothing else than Phylogeny. |

Itis easy to understand the interest which attaches to the dis-
covery of the genealogic tree of organisms which exist or have
existed in remote epochs. One of the most illustrious teachers
of the transformist school, Haeckel, has won great distinction by
his essays in this direction, and his principal works, “ Anthropo-
geny” and “ Natural Creation,” raised polemic discussions, the
echoes of which have not yet ceased.

Palaeontology stands in the first rank among re natural
sciences which have advanced our knowledge of Phylogeny.
At every page we shall have occasion to indicate to what point
we have actually attained in the connection of extinct forms either
with each other or with forms now living. We must, therefore,
bestow some attention on the processes whereby the relations of
parentage among organisms are determined. These processes
may be referred to three general methods, two of which apply
equally to living or extinct types, while the third, founded solely
on the relations of Palaeontology and Stratigraphy, is conse-
quently applicable only to fossil forms.

§ 2. MerHop oF ComparaTIVE ANATOMY.

Evolution of organs.— If there really exists a filiation between
the creatures of the present day and those of former times; if,

Tuer PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 173

as is supposed by the fundamental hypothesis of the transformist
doctrine, there is a continuity existing between all forms, including
those which are extinct, this continuity should appear in the dis-
position and structure of all the organs in the various types of
one and the same series. Oonsequently the gradual variations of
the same organ in forms sufficiently near to each other, are in
direct relation to the filiation of the animals or plants of the
group in question. In order to apprehend this evolution of
organs, we often find it necessary to recur to the principle of
the unity of structural plan. The celebrated theory of Geof-
froy Saint-Hilaire, stripped of its exaggerations, applied and
restricted carefully in the limits of groups which are not too
extensive, thus becomes a point of departure for a method rich
in important results.

From this may be seen how Comparative Anatomy can furnish
a solid basis for the construction of phylogenic systems. It
appears, even at first sight, that the problem demands only the
examination of an organ sufficiently characteristic and variable,
and that from the relations between the forms of such an
organ a conclusion can be arrived at as to the filiation of the
types themselves. If this were the case nothing would be
easier than to convert an artificial system into a natural and
consequently phylogenic classification. This is what many natural-
ists are still doing, attributing to organs or systems of organs
which they have studied, a preponderating importance, sometimes
employing it exclusively for the establishing of genealogical
trees. Unfortunately the essays in this direction are often far
from being in accord with each other, nor can we always explain
these divergencies by insufficiency of material or faults of
interpretation.

We must indeed appeal to those phenomena which we have
already cited and which have often complicated the laws of
organic evolution. We know that organs may undergo parallel
modifications in groups sometimes widely separated from each
other, and much more may they in series near each other yet
independent, and this may give rise to phenomena of convergence.
In this case, if we take as the basis of our estimates one ef the
systems of organs in question, we incur the risk of confound-

174 Report oF THE State Geroxocist.

ing in the same series forms quite distinct. Thus, if we should
rely exclusively on the form of the limbs in Quadrupeds, we
would be led to associate Reptiles like the Ichthyosaurus and
Plesiosaurus with the Mammalia like the Whales and Seals, on
account of the fact that in them the limbs are transformed
into swimming organs. In many cases the inexactitude in the
result is less evident than in the example just cited.

It will then often be found difficult to determine which are
the organs whose diverse aspects are a decisive indication of all
the stages of the evolution of a group. We should, therefore,
turn our attention not to one single organ, but to the whole
assemblage of the more important organs. We shall often see a
type which, belonging to a determinate group by the sum of its
characters, is at the same time separated from it by some one
character which we call aberrant. In this case the difficulty
can sometimes be easily explained; in determining the general
expression of the evolution we can deduce the particular history
of a given organ which presents especial difficulties.

This method is applicable in Palaeontology only at the cost of
great labor. The organs preserved in a fossil state are usually
few in number, and it is well understood that it is not always
possible to conclude from the external form what the internal
structure is. The question of the state of preservation holds an
important place, and even under the most favorable circum-
stances, great skill is required in order to study, for instance, the
brachial organs of the Brachiopods; the masticatory organs
and ambulacral zones of the Echini; the ventral surface of
the Crinoids. The discoveries made in this direction, in other
words, the application of the method of Comparative Anatomy to
fossil forms, has effected a marked progress in Phylogeny. We
shall see a striking example of this in the chapters which treat of
vegetable Palaeontology. The knowledge of the organs of repro-
duction, the simultaneous study of the stems and roots of the
plants of the Carboniferous epoch, have made possible the com- —
plete anatomical study of these plants; has filled an important
gap between the vascular Cryptogams and the Gymnosperms,
and has marked out with an almost absolute certainty the general -
progress of the evolution of vegetable forms.

Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 175

' § 3. Emsryogento Meruop.

Law of the parallelism of Ontogeny and Phylogeny.— The
second method appeals to researches still more delicate and in
which less advancehasbeenmade. Hmbryogenyis a recent science,
‘whose progress must necessarily follow our knowledge of adult
forms. But already in many cases it has enabled us to elucidate
questions which Comparative Anatomy left unsatisfied. Even
palaeontologists have for some years past been earnestly seeking
for the results which this science furnishes. ©

The importance of Embryogeny rests entirely in the appli-
cation of a law which has been the point of departure of most of
the researches lately made on the subject of the development of
organisms. Discovered by Kielmeyer and Geoffroy Saint- Hilaire,
formulated by Serres in regard to the human species, defined
more precisely and generalized by Haeckel, this law, verified and
restricted by later researches, is still: one of the most fecund
principles of the transformist doctrine. It consists in this, that
in a general manner, before arriving at the adult state, animals,
in the course of their development, pass through the diverse
stages which marked the progress of the evolution of their
ancestors. In other words, according to the celebrated formula
of Haeckel, ‘Ontogeny is the abridged reproduction of Phy-
logeny.” If this law is strictly true, it is evident that no other
criterion is needed to reconstruct the entire genealogic tree of
the animal, since the diverse “forms constitute a gallery in minia-
ture of the portraits of their ancestors.”

In default of a direct verification, which, in the present case, is
evidently impossible, this law may be considered as proved by
numerous facts which admit of no other explanation. Many
animals reproduce in the course of their development the series
of the lower forms of the group. Such are, to confine ourselves to
classic examples, the anourous Batrachians, decapod Crustacea,
the Comatulas, etc. Examples of analogous facts are innumer-
able; we shall give in detail only a few selected from the
domain of Palaeontology.

Embryogeny of fossil forms.— The earliest results in this order
of ideas are due to Wiirtemberger who, in 1873, applied these
principles to the Ammonites.

In examining the forms of the group of Perisphinctes we see in
the oldest types the shell ornamented with ribs, two or three times

176 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

branched; among the somewhat more recent forms the points of
the ramification swell out into tubercles. Latera second range of
interior tubercles appears, and at the same time the ribs show a
tendency to disappear. The interior range of tubercles, and
afterward the exterior range diminish in turn, and the shell be-
comes almost smooth. ‘Lhis last stage is attained in Aspzdoceras
cyclotum. If the external whorls of an adult specimen of this
species are removed so as to bring to light successively the more
and more elementary whorls, we see that the same individual has
presented successively all the preceding aspects, and even on the
earliest whorls we find bifurcated projections which finally dis-
appeared. The Ammonite then has passed in succession all the
stages attained in the adult state by species which formerly
existed.

Metamorphoses such as these are absolutely general in the
group of Ammonites. The ornaments are constantly modified
with age and the youngest stages are always identical with the
adult forms of more ancient epochs. It 1s quite necessary, there-
fore, in order to determine exactly to what group an Ammonite
belongs, to be acquainted with all the stages through which it
has passed, for it frequently happens that forms notably different
in youth lose little by little their differential characteristics in
virtue of the phenomenon of convergence which in this group
manifests itself with a peculiar intensity. This embryogenic
method is now in current use for the study of this class, one of
the most important for palaeontologists; by means of this method
light has been thrown on the mass of writings accumulated by
the former researches of both earlier and later authors, and
Phylogeny is now the only process of classification employed on
this subject. |

This order of ideas is carried even farther, and, in examining
the most primitive stages, we have in many cases come to know
in what way a determinate series of Ammonites descended from
the more ancient and more simple forms known as Gonzatites.
The successive septa which, as the shell increased in size, bounded
the living chamber of the animal, were attached to the shell
itself by Hines of sutwre, the shape of which is very important.
But the sutures of the earliest septa among the Ammonites are
extremely simple, and bear a strong resemblance to these of the
Goniatites of various families. The forms of the most ancient
Ammonites recently discovered in the Upper Carboniferous,
establish precisely in the adult state the transition between the
two groups.

A similar attempt has been successfully made by Jack-
son in regard to the Acephala. This author has seen in
living species the young forms of the Oyster and Pecten,
and has shown that these forms were provided with organs
such as the byssus, the anterior muscle, etc., which are want-
ing in the adult, and the disappearance of which is accom-

Tre PrrncirLes oF PALAEONTOLOGY. ws

panied bv considerable modification in the general shape of the
body. Ile has followed out the modifications in diverse types

and demonstrated that these temporary stages were attained in
@ permanent state in extinct forms which must be considered as
ancestral.

The embryogenic study of fossil forms is still in its infancy,
and presents always greater difficulties than does the study of
living organisms. It is impossible, indeed, to take a direct view
of the development of the embryo, and the organism seldom
bears traces of the forms it has passed through in its embryonic
state. We are obliged, then, to content ourselves with carefully
comparing the forms which are considered as successive phases of
the development. Despite these obstacles the path is so fertile
in results that palaeontologists do not hesitate to enter on it; we
shall see, even in the Vertebrates, that many types deseribed as
separate species, are now considered to be embryonic forms of
organisms which are found in the adult state in the same layers,
and that this discovery has furnished valuable conclusions for
phylogenetic data.

Cases of regression.— The law of the parallelism of Ontogeny
and Phylogeny makes possible, then, the elucidation of many
questions left undecided by Comparative Anatomy. This law,
indeed, is able to indicate the right explanation of variations
which may admit of various interpretations; for instance, we
are often perplexed in comparing various forms of unequal grade
of organization to decide whether their filiation marks progress
or, on the contrary, regression; in the latter case the form the
most simple in appearance may bear traces in the embryonic
state of primitive complication ; we have just shown this to be
so in regard to certain Ammonites.

The same remark applies also to the evolution of each organic
system individually considered. The embryogenic development
displays in many cases organs which at first develop according to
the rules normal-for the group under consideration, then the
development is arrested, and the organ retrogrades. Thus are
formed the rudimentary organs of which we have spoken in the
preceding chapter. The existence of these organs in no way
implies an inferior rank for the animal itself, but it may lead to
specialization, to the adaptation to some particular mode of life.

23

178 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

In this case the regression may be simply explained by the action
of natural selection. As a striking example, we may cite the
case of birds. The wing and the foot of the bird are in a state
of regression in relation to the normal type of the limbs of Ver-
tebrates; various bones are found ina rudimentary state, the teeth
do not exist in these animals in an adult condition. But phylogenic
evolution demonstrates clearly how this regressive adaptation
gradually established itself. The most ancient bird known at the ~
present day, the Archwopteryx, possesses limbs much nearer ~
these ancestral type, and teeth of the same kind as do the birds of
the Cretaceous, which are even more specialized than the Arche-
opteryx. If now we take into consideration the results furnished
by embryogenic development, we see that the limbs of the
ostrich in the young state show characters resembling those of
these ancient forms; we see that very young parrots have in the
alveoles teeth which do not develop and which among other
birds seem never to have existed at any period. In this case the
parallelism of Ontogeny and Phylogeny is striking, and furnishes
a clear conception of the mechanism of regression.

After the discovery of the law of parallelism it appeared
as though the definitive method of phylogenic classification had
been found, and numerous. systems have been. proposed, founded
exclusively on the characters of development, for example, on
the position or nature of the vitellus and of the coverings of
the egg. If one of these systems rested on a basis strictly exact
in theory, we ought to put aside the inconvenience it might
present of being always difficult or impossible of application in
Palaeontology, and do our best in our endeavors to conform to it.

But this is not the case, and the bearing of the law of Serres.
and Haeckel is restricted by other phenomena, which we will
now consider. me

Embryogenic acceleration.— Very often two proximate forms,
for instance, two species of the same genus (or more frequently
two proximate genera) develop in very different modes. No per-
son would for a moment conclude from this that the ancestral
series of these two forms were distinct, the more so as the differ-
ences appear most generally in the earlier stages. It must
indeed be admitted that in these cases the normal development,

Tur PrincreLes or PALAEONTOLOGY. 179

which should faithfully reproduce the phylogenic evolution, is
modified by the intervention of a new force distinct from
heredity.

It is evidently for the advantage of the species that the embry-
ogenic development should take place as rapidly as possible, since
during the embryonic stages the young individual is more
exposed than in the adult state. The law of embryogenic accel-
eration is then a consequence of natural selection. It consists in
this, that the highest forms in each group develop with more and
more rapidity ; the stages corresponding to ancestral forms nota-
bly differing from the definitive form, may in some cases be
skipped. This occurs more especially in the first stages of develop-
ment. In species. even very closely allied these stages present
such a diversity that we are often unable to utilize them in seek-
ing for remote ancestral forms. Accessory circumstances, such
as the greater or less quantity of accumulated nutritive materials,
or the appearance of protecting membranes, or the structure of
the temporary larval organs, allowing transient adaptation to the
medium where this period of development is passed, alter the
normal succession of the phases, and conceal the normal
embryogeny. :

In Palaeontology, embryogenic acceleration has been espec-
ially proved among the Ammonites, for the embryonic stages are
so preserved that the successive volutions represent the different
stages through which the animal has passed. The characters of
a given form will be reproduced, in the development of the
descendants of this form, in stages more and more precocious, and
may end by never appearing again. We may notice the argu-
ment which Hyatt has drawn from these facts for the filiation of
the Arietide. In this class of Ammonites the septum of the
primary chamber is seen to resemble exactly that of the lower
forms of Nautilus; in the higher forms this first septum presents
a slight curve which, in the immediate ancestors, appears only in
the second septum; finally, higher still, to this first curve now
become more accentuated, there is added on each side a lateral
angulation which reproduces the third septum of the ancestral
forms (Branco).

The embryogeny of the Trilobites, studied by Barrande, shows
that the acceleration in this order attains a very variable degree

180 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

according to the genera considered. The normal development of
a Crustacean is at present well known and has been determined for
very different groups; the animal grows by the successive ap-
pearauce of new segments in front of the last segment. But
among the Trilobites the three divisions of the body — head,
thorax and pygidium — undergo differentiations more or less rap-
idly according to the cases, and often consist each of one piece.
Acceleration takes place in very various degrees.

Acceleration of regression.— It is easy to understand that the
existence of such a phenomenon does not result in simplifying
the phenomena of Phylogeny already so complex. 7 |

The theory of embryonic acceleration, when applied to organs
greatly modified, can be pushed too far in considering forms re-
mote from the ancestral type. And if the form under considera-
tion is a regressive form, such as we have seen examples of, it
may happen that the most recent animal has the semblance of
being the most ancient. We will add, however, that in most
cases the acceleration of regression only occurs in a determinate
organ or system of organs; the rest of the organism may enable
us to reconnect the links of the chain and to arrive at a knowl-
edge of the meaning of the evolution. 7

An interesting example of the embarrassment resulting from
the existence of such phenomena is furnished by the group of
Chelonians. The osseous carapace which covers the body of the
Turtle is formed of different pieces; some of these constitute the
independent dermal bones, not homologous, whilst others are
only flattened expansions of the ribs and spiny apophyses of the
vertebra, uniting one with another. The existence of this cara-
pace, which at the maximum of its development is continuous
and without interruption, constitutes the principal trait of spec-
jialization of the Chelonians, and distinguishes them from all
other Reptiles. It is natural to look for the primitive forms of
a group among those in which this process is most slightly ind1-
cated. Butinone group of Turtles, both living and fossil (Atheca),
the costal plates are but little developed and are far from being
united; the dermal plates, which form the ventral plastron, are
also separated from each other, there lying between them empty
spaces or fontanelles. Among more specialized forms, the Z7rton-
ychide, the Chelydrida, etc., we find the ossification of the cara-
pace more pronounced ; among the Emyda, the Testudinida, etc.,
it is fully attained in the adult state. It is an interesting fact
that among the large fresh-water Turtles and others also, the
closing of the buckler takes place very late, the fontanelles re-

Tue Principles of PALAEONTOLOGY. 181

maining for several years. The tendency of the evolution shows
itself here without a possibility of ambiguity. Unfortunately
the data of Palaeontology do not seem to be in accord with
this evidence. All the living families of Turtles are rep-
resented in the fossil state by forms but little differing from
those existing. But the most ancient of all, the Psammochelys,
of the Trias of Wiirtemberg, belongs to the group of the
Pleurodira, which is the most differentiated and farthest removed
from the modern type of Reptiles. 2

The Turtles of the Jurassic and Cretaceous epochs would appear
to be less and less ossified, the oldest of the Atheca dates from
the Upper Cretaceous, and the lowest type of the group
(Dermochelys) is at present existing. TAN

Consequently, Riitimeyer, Baur, and after them Zittel, believe
that the evolution of known forms must have been produced in
an inverse order. All the known forms which have the carapace
partially developed, whether in fossil state or living, would be
regressive, derived from specialized types. According to this,
the true progenitors of the Turtle would be unknown to us.
If this is really so, Embryogeny can scarcely demonstrate it, for
it is difficult to conceive that an osseous carapace should exist in
an embryonic state, then be absorbed, and the development be
forcibly arrested. Nevertheless, the sum of the anatomical
characters tends to prove that the Atheca are really a lower form
of the Turtles; many traits of their organization bring them
near to other Reptiles, for example, the Rhynchocephala. If
these are not primitive types, regression has at least so influenced
various parts of the skeleton that the entire animal would very
. mauch resemble its remote progenitors.

Geratology.— Acceleration not only influences the earliest
stages of development, but its action extends also to later acquired
characters. It may happen that the definitive adult state of cer-
tain species is only a temporary condition for other allied species.
This state will exist for a considerable time, during which the
animal continues the functions of reproduction. Later, when the
animal has attained an advanced age, modifications will appear.
These generally consist, in a more or less marked regression, in a
suppression of the highest characters recently acquired, and in a
general simplification. Cases of senile degeneracy are frequent
in living nature. Generally they exert no influence on the
evolution of the group, though this is not always the fact.

Late-acquired or geratologic characters, to use an expression of
Hyatt,* assume a great importance when they affect, not a few

— EE

* Hyatt, Genesis of the Arietide (Mem. Mus. Compar. Zool. Cambridge), 1889.

182 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.
4

individuals, but the entire species, and come thus under the law
of acceleration. They appear at first sporadic, and seem related
to pathologic phenomena; they indicate a change unfavorable to
the average conditions. But presently, in formations imme-
diately above, the geratologic alterations become very frequent,
which is explicable by the fact that the same physical modifica-
tions will produce identical effects on animals of the same
species (law of morphogenetic equivalence of Hyatt). The gera-
-tologic form, at first exceptional, thus becomes normal, and showsa ~
constant tendency to manifest itself earlier; thus a distinct species
is established. The evolution of fixed forms or parasites seems to
find its explanation in this phenomenon. But it is particularly
striking in the Cephalopoda, where it has undergone a thorough
investigation. It is seen both in the Tetrabranchiata in the Silu-
rian, and among the Ammonitide, in the course of the secondary
period. From it are deduced important conclusions concerning
the evolution of the group.

In general, forms thus modified are affected with a sort of con-
genital weakness which renders them less fit for the struggle for
life, and deprives them of any long line of descendants; this
occurs in the uncoiled Cephalopoda, which attain considerable
magnitude, and then suddenly disappear; this phenomenon is
observable at diverse epochs and at the expense of distinct
groups. It is especially noticeable during the Cretaceous period.
It seems, at the close of that period, as though the entire group
had been affected with some malady; the unrolled forms multi-
ply ; the septa are simplified and frequently present the appear-
ance of those of the Ceratites of the Trias; the ornaments
become heavy, thick, and often disappear in the adult, and the
entire group ends by dying out and leaving no descendants.:

But this is not always the case. Geratologic phenomena
sometimes produce simplifications not always unfavorable to the
species; they may cause a convergence toward the primitive forms
of the group, and the types thus constituted may in turn be the
point of departure for new series in regard to which they will
hold the relation of primitive forms or radicles. In this event
the law of embryogenic acceleration will strongly come in force.
All the stages which have led to the constitution of the new
radicle form will be passed through with a celerity proportionate

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 183

to the distance gained from that form; this is readily under-
stood. The radicle form being itself regressive, finds itself
situated by its characters near a form much more primitive;
matters are conducted thus as though nature, seeking to econo-
mize time and force, avoided the circuitous route through forms
which, though higher and more complex, are not enduring. But
the earlier types of this new series still may show, in the history
of their development, some traces of this complicated evolution.

The history of the various branches of the Ammonitide pre-
sents a certain number of these radicle forms with simplified
characters; thus Psiloceras planorbe is an Ammonite destitute
of ornaments, with rounded volutions not embracing. This is
the primitive stock of the long series of Arietide. But the
suture lines of the adult are less complicated than those of the
young (Neumayr).

If these phenomena allow us to separate, in "certain Cases,
relationships within the limits of a given series, and to connect
the series one with another, they also leave us confronted by new
difficulties in the solution of the problem. ‘The apparent resem-
blance between regressive geratologic forms and the simple
primitive forms sometimes gives rise to a perplexity in the deter-
mination of radicle forms, the point of departure for new series.
This is the condition at the present day in regard to the Ammon-
ites of the chalk, which only recently have been studied in
their entirety with as profound analysis as have the Ammonites
of the Jurassic.

§ 4. Mrrsop or Gxrotogio Continurry.

‘Application of the principle of continuity. — The third method
applies perhaps less than the other two to objections of a specu-
lative order, but in practice it also presents numerous difficulties.
It consists in the investigation of the correlation of the series of
fossil forms with the order of succession of the layers containing
them ; in other words, it is the historic and chronologic study of
the group. If we have sufficient material at our disposal, and
if, on the other side, the chronologic order of the deposits is well
established, we ought to be able to follow the transformations
of all the types through the epochs, to determine whether any
one form is derived by progression or regression from a more

184 RePort oF THE Strate GEOLOGIST.

ancient one, to discover at what epoch and by what process the
distinct groups, between which passage forms are wanting in
living nature, came into existence. It will be understood that
when the question concerns the establishing of relationships
between genera and families, and especially between species of
the same group, such a study can only be entered on with some
chance of success, when the materials for comparison are very
abundant, when they come from numerous localities and are in
a good state of preservation.

For a group where any one of these conditions is wanting, it
would be illusory to seek to draw from the stratigraphic succes-
sion conclusions of phylogenetic order. This, for example, is
the case for the Crinoids. These Echinoderms are abundant
only in very few regions, and it is improbable that they were
everywhere evolved on the spot. For the Ammonites, on the
contrary, the method of which we are speaking, combined intelli-
gently with the preceding two, has already succeeded in giving
interesting results, for the specimens collected up to the present
are innumerable and gathered from all parts of the world;
moreover, they can be collected any day, as many as are desired
for any especial object. The Echini also are common fossils and
present numerous characteristics which can be utilized for affili-
ation. M. Munier-Chalmas has for many years followed step by
step their evolution, and has made a study of all the terms of
transition which have come under his observation. He has seen
that sometimes continuous modifications can be followed through
a long series of forms, while the heads of certain series appear
suddenly, making it impossible to form any judgment as to their
origin except a hypothetic one. On these points of strati-
graphic and morphologic discontinuity, he established the great
divisions of his classification. The result of these researches,
which have not yet been published, we are authorized to present
in the chapter which treats of the classification of these animals.

Continuity is then our principal guide in synthetic researches
of this kind. Unfortunately in a great number of cases the
evidence to be had is not sufficient to warrant the attempt to apply
this principle. We have seen in the preceding chapter, that in
consequence of the very progress of the phenomena, we shall
never possess the intermediates between all the species.

Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 185

But naturalists are less ambitious, and often evidence even
wanting in precision is sufficient for nearly. exact conclusions.
They would be extremely fortunate to ascertain the terms of
transition which must have existed between the grand divisions,
and which would permit the establishment, otherwise than by
theoretic inductions,. of the origin of classes and orders. But
it is precisely these interesting forms which are oftenest. want-
ing. This is the case with the Birds, Chelonians, Lamellibranchs,
Cephalopods, Brachiopods, Trilobites, Corals, Sponges, not to
mention those whose ancient types are known with some detail.
The method of geologic continuitv is, in such instances,
altogether defective.

Order of appearance of new forms.— The difficulty is some-
times even still greater, and the chronologic order of appearance
is in complete discordance with what we might be permitted to
expect from the method of Comparative Anatomy applied to
- Palaeontology. If the ontogenic evolution is unknown, and if
we can not bring in evidence any fact of regression, we are
obliged to reserve our conclusion for the epoch when new evi-
dence shall permit us to elucidate the question; until then we
should formulate hypotheses with great reserve. Thus the suc-
cession of forms among the Brachiopods, the appearance of the
orders of Mammals, etc., raise difficulties of this kind.

In a general way, the result of recent discoveries has been
to cause us to refer to epochs more and more remote the pre-
sumable date of appearance of the various groups. To confine
ourselves to facts most recently brought to light, we will cite
the discovery, by Brady, of Nummulites in the Carboniferous;
that of Ammonites in the Permo-carboniferous system (Waagen,
Gemellaro); that of Sponges, belonging to the types of Hexac-
tinellids and of Tetractinellids in the Cambrian (Hinde); of the
Arachnids and Insects in the Silurian; of the Myriapods in the
Carboniferous (Scudder, Hagen, Ch. Brongniart, Fayol); Fishes
have lately been found in the Middle Silurian (Rohon).

It can be seen how dangerous it is to attach an exclusive. im-
portance to the order of appearance; every theory which in any
way rests on these data, when the question concerns the pri-
mordial forms of large groups, incurs the risk of being ere long
contradicted by some unexpected discovery.

24

186 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

_ The uncertainty grows in measure as we approach the more and
more ancient deposits. The fossils of the primary epoch which
are known at the present day are, it is true, very numerous, yet
various circumstances should convince us that the palaeozoic
faunas are still less completely known than those of the Sec-
ondary, and still more, those of the Tertiary epochs. The pri-
mary strata have naturally undergone more changes than the
others; erosions at successive epochs have removed considerable .
extents of the deposits, and displacements have frequently modi-
fied the nature of the rock and occasioned the disappearance or
alteration of the fossils contained in it; so much so, that for
many years primary fossils in a good state of preservation have
been found only in ‘few localities; it is only recently that the
discoveries made in America, Russia, India, etc., have made pos- -
sible the definition of the analogies and differences between the
faune of those countries and those of western Kurope already
known. Furthermore, many groups which had appeared at
remote epochs were represented at first by individuals few in
number and of a lower organization, the remains of which are
rarely found.

The first fauna.— As has been said, uncertainty increases as
we approach more and more ancient deposits. It reaches the
maximum when the question concerns the most ancient fossilifer-
ous beds, those from which we might hope to draw some knowl-
edge regarding the actual origin of organisms. The earliest depos-
its in which fossils are positively known to occur are the Cambrian. |
The fossils found there are a few Mollusks, belonging to three
classes of the group; Trilobites, belonging to diverse families
(Paradoxide, Olenide) ; Crustacea (Leperditia, Hymenocaris) ;
Brachiopoda (Lingulide, Discinide, Orthis), some Cystids, some
Hydroids ( Dictyonema), Medusze, Hexactinellid and Tetractinellid
Sponges (Archeoscyphia, Protospongia). We must add also the
impressions of organisms whose determination is uncertain
(Oldhamia, Eophyton, Bilobites, Fucoides, etc.). This .fauna,
rich: both in genera and in species, embraces a small number
of groups, which in reality are not high types of the animal
kingdom; but nevertheless they are far from representing the
primitive ancestors of animals. The Brachiopoda, in particular,
are organisms which must have undergone an extremely compli-

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 187

cated evolution, as is proved by the embryogeny of the existent
forms, some of which are almost identical with the Cambrian
species. The well authenticated animal discovered in one of
the oldest layers is justly ranked as a Lingulid, Lengulella
primeva.* Ata yet more remote epoch are found traces which
have been attributed to the Annelids. I do not speak at present
of the bodies called Hozoon, which probably have not an organic
origin. ,

It is then very evident that we do not really know the true
primordial fauna. That which characterizes the lowest Cambrian
has, it is true, an expression of decided simplicity, for no Mollusks
are found there except shells of doubtful relationship (Zeca),
neither are Echinoderms, nor Corals nor Vertebrates ; these forms
which appear suddenly and without apparent preparation, in the
upper Cambrian or the Ordovician, may perhaps have existed in the -
_ lower Cambrian, but they were then destitute of the hard parts
(shell, test or skeleton), which would prove their state of inferi-
ority, or they existed in regions which possessed a different facies
not yet discovered. |

Origin of life. Precambrian deposits—— We know nothing
whatever in regard to the origin of the Cambrian fauna, found
to be almost identical in every part of the globe.

The Cambrian deposits nevertheless are not the oldest of the
sedimentary formations. At a lower horizon there exist, in
diverse regions, layers which have been formed in the sea; such
are the enormous deposits of Canada formed by the Laurentian
and Huronian stages, which together are more than 20 kilometres
in thickness. The Precambrian terrane of the country of Galles,
also very thick, is found under the Lingula flags. In Canada, in
the Laurentian period, besides the famous Eozoon, Dawson found
carboniferous matter and tubules which he attributed to the worms.
The presence of thick masses of bitumen and graphite in the
Precambrian beds has a considerable importance. Among the
chemical phenomena which living nature presents, the only ones

* * [See previous foot note. Lingulella is always a distinctly more primitive type than Lingula, as
shown not only in its ontogeny, but also in the close relations of its actual characters to Qbolella.
Beecher’s determination of the radicle of the Brachiopod shell, Paterina, in the Cambrian, and its
close relation to such pre-eminent members of this fauna as Obolus, Obolella and Lingulelia indicate
that the evolution of these forms may have been more simple and direct than the author here
supposes.—ED. ]

188 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

which effect the separation of carbon from the bodies with which
it is combined are carried on in living organisms. Carbon, in all
its forms, except perhaps the diamond, results always from the
modification of materials of organic origin. It is then possible
that the carbon and the carburets of the Precambrian deposits
represent all that remains of that ancestral fauna whose exist-
ence is proved by the most simple process of reasoning.

It remains now to explain how it happens that no relics of
those primitive organisms have remained to our day. It is
because the deposits of that epoch, once formed, were subjected
to great modifications, both mechanical and chemical, which
constitute the process of metamorphism. The sedimentary lay-
ers were pierced with eruptive rocks, among others granite,
which spread over them or extended under them and filled their
interstices. Either by direct contact or more frequently by the
action of water superheated and charged with salts in solution,
the sedimentary rocks underwent a sort of baking, which devel-
oped numerous minerals not before existing therein, and which
sometimes give to them the appearance of eruptive rocks. It is
easy to understand how the schists thus metamorphosed pre-
served no traces of the fossils they may have contained.

A purely mechanical overturn also sometimes suffices to make
the discovery of fossils impossible. Thus M. Gaudry tells us
that the English. geologists, Sedgwick and Murchison, explored
the Cambrian beds for a long time without discovering fossils.
They observed that almost every part of the rock was fissured
or at least cracked perpendicular‘to the direction of the stratifi-
cation. In examining places where, on the contrary, the cracks
were parallel with this direction, they found numerous fossils
well preserved.. We should not give up the hope that at some
future time geologists may succeed in finding in the Precambrian
layers places where metamorphism has not made itself felt.
Until that time arrives we can draw no conclusions from geologic
data concerning the origin of life, and we must content our-
selves with the theories which embryogenic and comparative
studies furnish. 4

In conclusion, it is seen that the study of the filiation of organ-
isms rests on methods the precision of which increases with the
increase of our, knowledge of the laws of evolution. These

Tuer PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 189

laws are complicated, and their application presents considerable
difficulties. We have sought to place these difficulties in a clear
light, in order that the student may not be surprised at the un-
certainty which still exists in regard to many points of this great
problem; the discussions which still constantly arise, and the
discordance among the theories propounded, should not be in-
voked as an argument against the doctrine of evolution itself.
The method of the natural sciences is unfortunately subordinate
to the acquisition of the necessary materials, and in Palaeon-
tology more. than in any other science, progress depends on the
increase of collections. | |

CHA CER ..1V.

Distribution of Organisms in Geologic Time, with
Reference to Their Physical Environment. _

§ 1. Derinirion or Factzs.

‘We have now to consider a new category of problems resulting
from palaeontologic studies, problems which pertain more espe-
cially to the relations of that science with stratigraphic Geology ;
they arise from the comparison of fossils of different groups
which have existed at the same epoch in different localities. It
has long been admitted as a fundamental principle of Strati-
graphy that, in a general sense, deposits of the same age present
the same fossils. But it is evident that at the present epoch such
a principle could not be applied; the faunas and floras are local-
ized in more or less extended regions, and there are only a few
forms whose distribution is universal. It has been thus at all
epochs; never have the fauna and flora of the globe been
identical over its whole surface. |

Biologic provinces are defined for any given epoch by the con-
dition that at least one-half of the fauna and flora be distinct.

The term faces is applied to the entirety of the lithologic and
palaeontologic characteristics resulting from the external condi-
tions which determine the existence of any particular fauna or flora
for a given region. These characters are defined by physical con.
ditions, such as climate, altitude or bathymetric depth, the geo-
logical or chemical nature of the medium. We may add, also,
indirect factors relating to the preceding. By virtue of the laws.
of the struggle for existence, the variations of every living being
depend in a certain measure on the nature of the entire assem-
blage of the beings which live with it; the general characteristics
of the fauna or flora of aregion therefore influence the conditions
of existence of each of the organisms which compose it, so that
the differences which, in consequence of the influence of the

Tue PrincieLes oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 192

medium, appeared in a slight degree among the progenitors,
increase more and more in consequence of the biologic reactions
which exist among organisms.

We may find, for ‘instance, for anyone epoch, a littoral,
pelagic, fresh water, estuary, lacustrine or corallic facies; so
also we may find an arctic, temperate, tropical, etc., facies. We
shall briefly investigate what indications Palaeontology furnishes
for the determination of these facies; in other words, we shall
show how the study of the associations of fossil forms often
enables us to attain a knowledge of the conditions of the
surrounding medium.

§ 2. InrLuENcE or THE DeptH oF Szsas.

The distribution of animals in the present seas is classed
according to five zones, which are pretty clearly defined.*

1. The Littoral zone, which is covered and uncovered with
_ each tide.

2. The Zone of Laminarians (0 to 27 or 28 metres).

8. The Zone of Nullipores and Corallines (calcareous Alge)
(28 to 72 metres), also inhabited by large Gasteropoda.

4. The Zone of Brachiopoda and Corals (72 to 500 metres), to
which descend the Corals such as Dendrophyllia and Oculina,
the Echini, such as Spatangus, Brissopsis, etc.

5. The Abyssal Zone, below 500 metres.

It is seldom possible to determine with precision these zones
at different geologic epochs; but the indications with which
this excellent classification furnishes us may be utilized for the
research of the bathymetric facies in geologic deposits. We
can, in general, distinguish from this point of view three principal
faltlags the littoral, the pelagic and the abyssal.

Littoral facies.— The littoral facies is often indicated by the
lithologic nature of the rock; conglomerates and coarse sand-
stones, can only be formed in the immediate vicinity of the shore.
But the palaeontologic characteristics are also very important in
determining ancient sea- bottoms.

_ An excellent criterion is furnished by the boring shells. It is
known that at the present epoch, Lamellibranchs belonging to
various groups can pierce the hardest rocks; these forms exist,

* Fischer, Manuel de Conchyliologie, chap. III.

~

192 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

moreover, only in shallow water, mostly in the zone alternately
covered and uncovered by the tides. Such are the Pholads, the
Teredos, the genera Saxicava, Venerupis, Lithodomus. But all
these forms have representatives in the fossil state; the holes
formed by them are frequently met with either with or without
the shell in their interior (for example, in the Bathonian of the
Ardennes, the Faluns of Pontlevoy, etc.). Their presence isa cer-
tain indication of the existence of a littoral zone of a rocky
character. This particular facies presents also numerous forms
which pertain to it exclusively, as the Patellas, Littorinas,
Balani and various forms of Trochus. ~

Oysters, Mussels, Plicatulas, etc., which live attached to the
rocks, either directly by one of their valves, or by means of their
byssus, are associated with forms which characterize the highest
marine zone; they may, indeed, descend deeper in a zone which
is never exposed, and where they are accompanied by the Echini
and Brachiopoda. The great majority of deposits of this nature
contain animals which have lived fixed, or which crept on the
bottom, mixed with the remains of swimming animals which
could live in the deep sea and also approach near the coast, and
whose shells fall to the ground after death; such are the
Cephalopods. The Nautilids, the Ammonites and the Belemnites
are found side by side with the Gasteropoda, the Acephala and
the Echini. |

The expression Littoral facies has then, in Geology, a broad
signification, and is applied to a more extended zone than that
which at the present epoch is called the littoral zone. It indi-
cates simply that the formation in question was produced in the
vicinity of a coast. It may present pelagic elements, but it is
characterized by the presence of the littoral elements which we
have cited. .

Pelagic facies.— We call pelagic animals those which are
adapted by their structure to the function of swimming in the
deep sea without resting on the bottom or on the shores. Of
this class there are at present the Cetacea, Fishes, Cephalopoda,
Pteropoda, Meduse, many Foraminifera and Radiolaria. In many
regions deposits of great depths have furnished organized
remains of only such as belonged to these groups, and derived

Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. 193

from animals which lived either at the surface or at various
~ depths.

The expression Pelagic facies, in Geology, should not be under-
stood in the same sense; there are no ancient deposits in which
the fauna consists exclusively of swimming animals. A pelagie
fauna at the present day might inhabit seas whose bottoms are
very variable in depth; it might reach to the vicinity of the
ccasts or, again, might extend over the deep abysses ; it is evident
that in geologic deposits such a fauna might ‘be associated with
the elements-of all the zones.

The idea then of the pelagic facies is broadened, and we refer to
this facies the deposits formed in the deep sea, at a considerable
distance from the shore, but not in the abysmal depths; they
are characterized by the absence of the elements of the fauna of
the littoral zone, and by a mixture of forms adapted to swim-
ming, such as Cephalopods, Pteropods, Fishes, with creeping or
- fixed forms (Echinoderms, Brachiopods, Gasteropods, Lamelli-
branchs), the species of which differ from those living near the
shores.

Pelagic forms, well adapted for swimming, have naturally an
area of distribution much more extensive than the littoral forms,
and very much more so than the fixed and sedentary forms.
This results not only from the fact that these animals being able
to traverse large areas become distributed more easily, but also
from the fact that the seaward conditions are much more con-
stant than those near the shores. Thus it is that the species of
Ammonites and Belemnites, in the secondary epoch, are found at
the same horizon in places far distant from each other, and con-
sequently hold an important place in the chronologic correlation of
deposits. The European and American forms are almost identi-
cal, whilst the reverse occurs as regards the Lamellibranchs of
the same epoch.

Abyssal facies.— Submarine explorations which have every-
where been matters of much attention, have resulted in clearing up
the mystery of the conditions of life in the great depths.* It is
now known that there exists at the bottom of the sea a very rich
fauna, with special characteristics, but without close relations to

* Reports of the Challenger Expedition; Narrative of the Cruise. E. Perrier, Les Explorations
sous-marines. 1886, chap. VIII.

25

194 ReEportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

the littoral fauna. . There is scarcely any form, indeed, which
can not be referred to families already known. Representatives -
of forms considered. extinct have been found there, but thus far
efforts have not brought to light any remains of the palaeozoic
faunas which it was hoped would be discovered.

The fauna of the coast, in its most extended sense, descends to
- about 400 meters. It embraces the calcareous sponges, Gorgonia,
Comatula, Cidaris, Diadema, Bryozoans, Oysters, Cytherea,
Gasteropoda of every group. It is this which is the most gener-
ally represented in preceding geologic epochs.

Lower down, from 400 to 1500 metres, are found the siliceous
Hexactinellida, the Sea Stars with great marginal discs (Pentago-
naster), the soft Hchini; special forms of Crustacea, such as
Gnathophausia and the Polychelide. Among fishes, Hury-
pharyne and Bathypterois. The Hydrocorallines and the Aley-
onaria disappear toward 1000 metres.

_ From 1500 metres to 8000 metres occurs the transition from —
_ this fauna to the real abyssal fauna. The sample Polyps and the
Pentacrini dominate, whilst the silicious sponges become more
and more rare; toward 2500 metres the simple Polypi in turn
disappear, and. beyond 3000 metres the fauna is represented
exclusively by the symmetric Holothurvans, with ventral flatten-
ing, the large Pycnogonide and the blind decapod Crustaceans.

The most important zone as regards the object of our present
consideration is that which extends from 400 to 200 metres.
This is the Verticordia zone of M. Fischer. It contains, with
types clearly affihated to the actual littoral types, forms
which seem peculiar to the secondary period; these are, for ex-
ample, the peduncled Crinoids, belonging to genera well repre-
sented at this epoch, as Pentacrinus or other genera which are
very Closely allied to extinct forms. The soft Echini, as Calverza,
recall with exactitude the Echinothuride of the Chalk ; the Sal-
enidw, characterized by the presence of a centro-dorsal plate
quite exceptional among the Echini; the vlasteride,_repre-
sented by Powrtalesia, which recalls the genus /nfulaster, and
especially the Crustacea such as Willemoesva which represents
the Hryon of the Jurassic, are manifestly the last remains of a
part of the secondary fauna which, on our coasts, has completely
disappeared or has been radically transformed. Most naturalists

~~

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 195

have at once concluded from these facts that the {basin ,of the
Atlantic has not emerged since the Cretaceous period, and that
the fauna of that epoch had maintained itself there in part with-
out transformation. In other words, the bottom of the sea has
remained, to a certain degree, since the Cretaceous period.

This induction is justified to a certain extent, but we must add
furthermore, in order to form an exact idea of the fauna of that
zone, that it contains numerous elements of much more recent
origin, and that forms which evolved on the littoral zone must
have migrated toward the deep sea at various successive epochs ;
this is especially proved by the entire absence of transition types
between the archaic types and the others in the region in
question.

It would be natural to suppose, a priori, that the extreme
depths of the ocean would reveal phenomena of the same order.
It was expected that the zones lately explored below 3000
metres, would show us forms recalling the most ancient
types. It is not so; not only is the abyssal fauna destitute of
palaeozoic elements, but even the mesozoic types have disap-
peared. The inhabitants of the deep abysses are representatives
of some of the most specialized types of diverse classes. These
forms, few in number, bear marks of a special adaptation. It is
manifestly a fauna which has migrated fromarecent epoch. As
to the types which have persisted since the palaeozoic period, as
Lingula, the Arcas, the Aviculas, the siliceous sponges, the Gas-
teropoda diotocardia, the Nautili, etc., it is at a much shallower
depth, and even on coast; that they are to be sought.

From what precedes it is evident how difficult it will be in
Palaeontology to find a solid basis on which to rest an estimate
of the characteristics of the deepsea fauna; the middle zone,
from 1500 to 3090 metres has, as a principal characteristic, a
mixture of very ancient forms, (the littoral excepted), with recent
forms. One can conceive how perplexing this criterion is for
the older geologic epochs.

Another and a more suggestive characteristic is furnished by
the especial adaptation of the organisms to the conditions of
light below a certain depth. It is known that the solar rays
do not traverse the thickness of a body of water of more
than 400 metrés. Below this depth, however, there does

196 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

not exist complete obscurity, since many animals are phos-
phorescent; some, like the Fishes, have even special luminous
organs which enable them to illuminate themselves. But the
light in certain regions is often very feeble. In these conditions
a double adaptation may intervene; sometimes the organs of
sight assume a considerable size, as is the case for the Fishes of
the genus Jpnops, and among the Crustaceans of the genus Cysto-
soma where the eyes cover the entire upper surface of the head;
sometimes, on the contrary, the eyes are rudimeritary, or even in
some cases disappear altogether after having been represented
in embryonic life; this occurs with Pecten, various Gasteropods,
and a great number of decapod Crustaceans. These last-named
animals supply the absence of the visual organs by an extreme
development of the appendages which transform themselves into
organs of touch.

But these interesting facts are oo sr ithiotet analogies in the
ancient epochs. The Trilobites of the Cambrian period show
this same mixture of almost or quite blind forms (Agnostus, —
Trinucleus), and of forms provided with unusually large organs
of sight (Zglina).

Barrande has even shown that a species blind in the adult state
(Trinucleus Buckland?) possessed normal eyes in its early age;
sometimes even (various forms of Puradowides) the ocular
peduncle remains while the sensorial part is wanting, which actu-
ally occurs in the deep water Cymonomus. This proves at
least that the forms in question existed in conditions where the
light was distributed in the same way as it is at present in the
profound depths Still other particularities, as the absence of
strictly littoral forms and also the absence of the primordial —
forms of the diverse groups which appeared later Suddenly and
in an advanced condition of differentiation, lead us to think that
the marine forms of moderate depths were very clearly defined,
and that we do not as yet know what was the the littoral facies
of the Cambrian, or at least the fauna which characterized it.
(Suess, Neumayr.) This opinion, it must be stated, is not
accepted by the majority of French palaeontologists.

It has been supposed that in the chalk deposits the formations
of the deep sea would be found; but we have seen that the anal-
ogy of certain fossils of that age with the fauna of the present

Verticordva-zone proves nothing ; the organisms of that epoch

Tur PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 197

have a clearly pelagic character, and they must have ulteriorly
descended into the depths, as did those which appeared later.

One of the most interesting characteristics of the Cretaceous
epoch is the abundance of siliceous. sponges of the type of the
Hexactinellida which now exist in deep water. Close study of
the actual distribution of these organisms shows that they occur
in very different zones, one of which is not very deep, as it reaches
from 60 to 400 metres. |

§ 3. Inriuence or THe Nature or Aquatic ConpitTions,

Fresh water facies— The most precise characteristics of
fresh water faunas are furnished by the Mollusks. The genera
Paludina, Bithynia, Planorbis, Limnea, Physa, Succinea, among
_ the Gasteropoda; the genera Unio, Anodonta, Dreyssentia among

the Lamellibranchiata, have been associated in fresh water forma-
_ tions from the beginning of the Jurassic. But to this list must
be added also all the terrestrial or aerial animals, whose remains
‘have been carried down by the water courses, or which have been
deposited on the shores; the lacustrine beds of the Tertiary con-
tain as much of //eliw and Cyclostoma as of Limnea; in the lacus-
trine deposits, also, are found the great majority of the skele-
tons of known birds, as well as many reptiles and mammals,
which were not necessarily swimming animals. .

Most fossil plants also belong to formations of the same nature ;
not only the aquatic species, but all those which grow near
water courses, are associated in the same deposits. This is almost
the only way in which the purely terrestrial fauna and flora have
been, in certain cases, preserved to our day.

As an example of weil known lacustrine formations may be cited
the little coal basins of the Central plateau (France); the lake of
Commentry with its fauna, its flora and its shores has been, s9 to
say, restored by M. Fayol. At the commencement of the Eocene
the lake of Rilly occupied avast area east of Paris; a watercourse
fell there in cascades, and M. Munier—Chalmas has reconstructed all
the detai's of that singular locality; plants which love moist
places, such as Marchantia, Asplenium, there covered banks over-
shadowed by lindens, laurels, magnolias and palms; there also
were found the vine and the ivy; mosses (/ontinalis) and
Chara sheltered the cray fish (Astacws Edwards?) and the Edri-
ophthalmas (//eterosphwroma). Insects and even flowers have left
their delicate impressions in this travertine. Among other
lakes also well known, we may cite the lakes of Armissan
and of Aix, at the Oligocene epoch, where the succession of

198 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

deposits isso clear, that by studying the plants and insects, we
can form an idea of the alternation of the seasons. Again, we
may cite the lakes of Beauce and of Limagne during the Oligo-
cene, those of (Eningen and of Radoboj during the Miocene, ete.

Brackish water facies.— The same phenomenon of transporta-
tion, the effects of which have just been mentioned, has often
resulted in the mingling of the terrestrial and fresh water fauna
and flora with the salt water fauna. This mingling is one of the
essential characteristics of the facies of estuaries and lagoons.
Everywhere at the mouth of rivers, and wherever marshy lands
or lagoons border the sea, shells, bones and vegetable remains
even though not inhabitants of those localities, have accumu-
lated and been fossilized. These places have generally a special
fauna which. we call a brackish water fauna, consisting of
species which are able to bear great variations in the saltness ©
of the water, and to exist in a muddy medium. Various
forms of Cardium, Mya, Cyrene, Cerithium, particularly
those of the genus Potamides, and Crustaceans near to Sphwroma,
are the principal types of this brackish water fauna. In these '
localities are often found skeletons of mammals and reptiles,
sometimes also of birds. The return of the sea from time to
time brings marine forms whether or not these could live
in such localities, while the descending rivers drag down the
remains of the fresh water and terrestrial flora and fauna. From
these changes result frequent alterations in the character of the
deposits which, moreover, were accumulated with great rapidity.

As an example we may cite. the Franco-Belgic coal basin,
where the coal beds with the fresh water bivalve genus
Anthracosia, often alternating with marine sediments, indicate

the frequent return of the sea in the lagoons where the vegetable
remains accumulated.

The. London clay, the Upper Eocene of the Paris basin, the
Oligocene and Miocene south of Bordeaux, etc., also show char-:
acteristics of these brackish water or estuary deposits.

In the Sarmatic beds, which in France are referred to the
Upper Miocene, we find the best type of brackish water
deposits. At that epoch a vast sea extended from the neighbor-
hood of Vienna to Turkestan. The Black sea, the Caspian sea,
the sea of Aral, are the feeble remains of that immense sheet of
water. The saltness seems to have undergone considerable vari-
ation; it may have varied also in different parts, and numerous
lagoons must have occupied the borders of this interior sea.

Tuer PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 199

The earliest deposits are clearly marine (beds with Cerithiwm pie-
tum), with Buccinum, Tapes and Mactra; they constitute the
Samartian stage. Higher (Pontian stage) are found enormous
quantities of Congeria or Dreissena and Melanopsis, fresh water
forms able to exist in waters slightly salt; they are associated
with Cardiidz o! peculiar genera (Adacna, Monodacna), which
have continued to exist in the Caspian sea and the sea of Aral.

The most abundant representative of the Gasteropods is an
aquatic Pulmonate provided with plications, the genus Valen-
ciennesia, Which attains a considerable size.

These beds show, throughout a considerable extent, a curious
mixture of marine types capable of withstanding a diminution of
the normal] saltness; and of fresh water forms capable of adapt-
ing themselves to a somewhat salt medium. Mammals also are
found there, such as Dinotherium and the Mastodon.

A little later, the waters become less and less salt, and the fresh
water types more and more preponderate. The Congerias and
Cardium retire into the narrow basins, and almost the entire
region is occupied by an immense lagoon, inhabited by Paludinas,
_ Melanopsis, the Unionidae, and other fresh water types. But it
is a curious fact that the Unios, Paludinas and Melanopses, living
over a very extensive area, assume the angular aspect of marine
forms, and acquire plications or tubercules.

Muddy facies.— Corallic facies.— Let us now return to the
clearly marine formations, and see what varieties they present..
A factor, almos: as important as the condition of the water
holding salts in a state of solution, is the nature of the substances
held in suspension; this.characteristic is naturally connected with
the geologic nature of the sediment, and the direction of the cur-
rents. for example, we know that at the present epoch the
presence of Mussels on a rock indicates in general, muddy
waters, and that many forms which abound not far away in
clear waters, vanish as soon as the Mussels appear.

The nature of the bottom is one of the causes which produce
great changes in the facies, and that in localities often quite near
each other. The best example can be deduced from the study
of coral reefs. This study will demonstrate how an entire and
complicated fauna, formed of the most diverse elements, is wholly
modified under the influence of the same variations of the
medium. |

The conditions which the reef-constructing polyps actually
require for their development are well known: These are a mod-
erately high temperature, a depth not more than 40 metres

200 7 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

and lastly the presence of a very pure sea water, that is to
say, not mixed with fresh water and free from mud. It is
proved that whatever may be the differences of the groups to —
which these animals belong, these conditions remain the same
through all the different geologic epochs. The calcareous masses
where coral structures are found are always very pure and
saccharoidal in texture, and the interstices of the polyps show no
trace of marl or clay. The same conditions are requisite for the
existence of numerous forms belonging to all the classes of the
animal kingdom which live on the corals and appear and
disappear together with them. :

The coral formations of the Upper Jurassic are found mostly
within the circumference of the Paris basin, in the Jura, in Switzer-
land and inSuabia. Wherever those deposits are not represented,
there exist deposits of marl or clay rich in Ammonites or
Lamellibranchs. The earlier school of geologists admitted that
all the deposits of coral origin were contemporary, and united
them under the name of terrain corallien, the formations of other
origin were referred either to an anterior epoch (Upper
Oxfordian) or to a more recent epoch (infra-Cretaceous). The
works of Oppel, Niosch, and more especially of the Abbé Bour-
geatu* have demonstrated that these reefs were formed at various
epochs, and that for every different coral facies are always found
corresponding muddy facies and pelagic facies, of the same age,
but very different in the character of the fossils.

‘The reef of Valfin, which dates from the Pterocerian epoch,
may be taken as the type of these formations. It extends for
about 30 kilometres; its form is very irregular in every sense;
on one vertical line are found lateral expansions which rest on
successive deposits, like caps and columns. The mass of the
reef is a limestone of corallic origin; here and there in the
irregular mazes is found the especial fauna cf the reefs,
which is here very abundant. The polyps embrace no less
than 62 species; toward the center arborescent forms predom1-
nate, sometimes over one metre in height, such as Aplosmilia,
Stylosmilia, Calamophyllia, etc. Massive asteriate forms are also
found, as Thamnastrea, meandrinoid forms (Pachygyra, Den-
drogyra). Lastly the simple polyps, represented by Wontlivaultia,
are especially abundant in the rocks with the rest of the fauna.
This fauna is particularly rich in forms having a thick test,
which is in accordance with the fact that the corals, grow-
ing in regions beaten by the waves, must necessarily be pro-
vided with a strong power of resistance. Small sized species
having a thinner covering are only found in well sheltered places.

*E. Bourgeat, Recherches sur les formations coralligénes du Jura méridional, 1887.

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 201:

These forms are altogether characteristic of the reefs; there are
of the Gasteropods, numerous Nerineas, Cerithiums, Naticas,.
Turbos, Pleurotomarias; of the Acephala, Diceras (13 species),
Lima, Pecten, Trigonia, Corbis; regular Echini of the family of
Cidaride. Altogether more than 260 species of fossils. |
If we leave the reef of Valfin and go eastward, we find the
Oolitic coralligenous facies changing, and passing by intercala-
tion into marls more and more mixed with clay. We arrive at
deposits formed of marls and rough calcareous matter whose
fauna is quite different; no more polyps are found; Verinea
and Diceras also have entirely disappeared; in place of these
we find fossils characteristic of the Pterocerian of the Boulonnais
or of the Calvados, as Pteroceras Oceani, Thracia, Pholadomya
and Ceromya. Some fossils common to the coral zone and the
muddy zone, such as Crdaris glandifera, Ostrea pulligera, indi-
- cate, nevertheless, as is proved by the remainder of the strati-
graphic arrangement, that we have here contemporary deposits.
The intermediate zone shows the gradual modification of the
fauna. When we approach the reef the Pholadomyas give place
to the Trigonias and Cardivum,; Pteroceras and Cidaris become
more rare, whilst the Nerineas, Diceras, and finally the Polyps
appear. | (ig
This region corresponds to the lagoon region extending from
the barrier reefs to the shore, which was not far to the east-
ward. This muddy lagoon is not favorable to the development
of the Polypi nor the fauna which accompanies them; the latter,
on the contrary, develop with vigor on the side of the open sea,
and their maximum of vitality is found westward of the reef,
There they disappear suddenly. We are in the presence of the
abrupt boundary of the reef; immediately after commences a
facies altogether different, which extends far toward the south
in the open sea; this is the pelagic facies, characterized by Am-
monites (A. polyplocus, A. trachynotus), Belemnites, Brachiopods
and Kchini, a facies which persisted in these regions for some
time without modification. | :
Upon examination of the succession on a vertical line at the
center of the reef, we see that the advent of the muddy. waters
is In correlation with the sudden disappearance of the coral facies ;
this last, moreover, may reappear later, but in its entirety it is
carried farther toward the west of the deep-sea side. |

What has been said would apply equally, changing the name
of the species, to the other reefs of the Jura; everywhere we find
the threefold facies; the lagoon facies of marl, which is repre-
sented in other regions, as in Charente, Normandy, Barrois; the
corallic facies, which has also its equivalents in Normandy, in
Yonne, etc.; lastly, the pelagic facies, especially developed in the

26

202 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

south and east of France. Thecoral horizons of the Upper Juras-
sic are now distributed in five zones, which present all these
three facies; these zones characterize the Rauracian, Astartian,
Pterocerian, Virgulian and Portlandian deposits. :

The same phenomena present themselves later in other local-
- ities. The Neocomian and the Gault have a corallio facies called
Urgonian ; the Turonian is represented in the south by the facies
with Hippurites, for which also a distinct horizon has been named.
Finally, if we turn our attention to the more ancient deposits,
we see that the corallic horizons, formerly referred to the Devon-
ian and Carboniferous as especial zones, have been recognized as
the equivalents of the schistose formations which surround them.

§ 4. LyrLtvEnce or CLimates.

Effect of temperature.— Temperature exercises a considerable
influence on the distribution of animals; the factor which at the
present epoch seems the most important in this regard is the
maximum of cold attained during the winter.* We have, there-
fore, drawn on the terrestrial maps lines called Zsocrymal, which
mark the mean temperature of the coldest 30 days of the year.
The distribution of animals is in direct relation to the lines so
determined, which notably diverge from the geographic paral-
lels. In this way principal zones are established, which can be
enumerated for each hemisphere; the arctic, the boreal, the cold
temperate, the warm temperate and the tropical zone. The limits
of these zones are more clearly indicated than would at first
sight be believed.

Effect of natural barriers.—It is a known fact that the lati-
tude is not the only factor which determines the climate
of a region.. Every one is aware that the climate is much more
uniform and temperate on the sea coast than in the interior of
the great continents. But in regard to the sea itself, the mean
temperature may vary considerably in places quite near each
other, consequent upon the presence or absence of a barrier
furthering or impeding communications with colder or warmer
waters. This is the reason why at present the Red Sea and the
Mediterranean have very differing temperature, notwithstanding
their proximity. The presence of barriers of solid ground, either

* This factor is more important from the biologic point of view than the mean temperature of the
entire winter which determines the Isochimenal lines.

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 203

complete or incomplete, is then, in different degrees, an indirect
cause of the specialization of marine faunas. But it is evident
. that it is also a direct obstacle to the diffusion of a fauna already
specialized through the action of other factors.

The currents have also a double effect which opposes that of
barriers; on the one hand every current established between two
regions of different climates will result in producing a sort of
mixture between the bodies of water influenced by different
temperatures, and it will affect ‘also the erial climate; the
example of the Gulf Stream is too well known to make it neces-
sary to emphasize this point. But on the other hand these cur-
rents will bring with them the larvae of various animals which
will penetrate more or less into a zone where they were before
unknown. This migration of faunas may occur without any
very notable change in the general climate, provided the current
does not put in motion any considerable masses of water; thus
the current of Gibraltar introduced into the Mediterranean dur-
ing the Pliocene epoch, forms belonging to the Atlantic, and
those forms have remained in the Mediterranean, although the
mean temperature there is now much higher than that of the
Atlantie.

It is easy to understand that in studying geologic eras it is
very difficult to form an exact idea of the influences of barriers
and currents. When we haveestablished the presence of two dis-
tinct faunal zones which display no differential characteristics in
the respects mentioned above; when in the same region we note
the appearance of a fauna which before this period existed in
other basins, we are sometimes perplexed as to the influence to
be assigned to variations of climate, or to barriers and cur-
rents. We may succeed sometimes by closely comparing the
results furnished by the marine fauna with those afforded by the
study of the flora and of the fresh-water, terrestrial or even
eerial fauna.

The problem of the determination of climates at ancient
epochs through the data of Palaeontology is by no means insolu-
ble; it has been the object of profound and ingenious researches,
the results of which already attained deserve our attention for
a moment.*

cane

* Neumayr, Erdgeschichte, vol. II. Heer, Le Monde primitif de la Suisse.

204 REporT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Climate of the Silurian and the Devonian.— Since the epoch of
the Cambrian we can distinguish in Europe, as demonstrated by
Barrande, two different zones — a northern and a southern; the
fauna is almost identical in Russia, in Scandinavia, as well as in ©
the regions farther toward the south, such as southern Poland,
Galicia, Thuringia and England; a distinct fauna is found in the
Montagne Noire, in Sardinia, in Spain and in Portugal. This
second facies is identical with that of Bohemia. The same
genera are represented in the two bands; but the species differ.
In America, where the Cambrian covers considerable areas, in
Siberia, in China, the northern facies alone has so far been
discovered. i

These facts prove incontestably the existence of climatic zones
at the most remote epochs; to undertake to explain them by the
existence of natural barriers is to carry back the problem with-
out explaining it, for if the fauna possessed this difference during
the Cambrian, it is because it acquired the difference from the
Precambrian, and it is at that time that the temperature would
have exercised its influence.

It is probable that the climate was warm at the beginning of
the Palaeozoic epoch. This seems to be proved by the existence of
coral reefs which make their appearance after the Middle Silurian,
and which are particularly abundant in the upper part of the
stage, in Gotland, in the Baltic provinces of Russia, in the United
States and in Canada. The groups which form the present reefs
had not yet appeared; in their place we find Tetracorallia, Favo-
sitids and Stromatoporas. It would be somewhat hazardous to
suppose that these forms required precisely the same conditions
of temperature as do those of the present; but the other conditions
of depth and purity of water appear to have been palpably the
same.

At the Devonian epoch we find again two facies; the ordinary
marine facies and a northern facies, the Old Red Sandstone, which
characterizes the north of England, Scotland and to some
degree the northern part of America. But here other consid-
erations besides that of temperature must intervene; the Old
Red Sandstone presents the character of a coastal or interior
basin deposit, which forbids our insisting here on points as yet
obscure. | |

We may add that the corals of the Devonian are found also in
very high latitudes; in the Ardennes, Eifel, Canada and the
State of New York. nas ON

Climate of the Carboniferous epoch.— At the Carboniferous
epoch a new factor makes its appearance The terrestrial flora,
which has already representatives in the Devonian, assumes an
importance which warrants our introducing it into our present
- argument. :

It is known that the geographic distribution of plants is strictly
related to the divisions of the climatic zones. But the area of

Tuer PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 205

the distribution of species at the Carboniferous era is, so to say,
universal. The same forms exist in the most widely separated
localities, where they appear and disappear simultaneously.

The flora of Europe, of Siberia, of North and South America,
of. the Polar regions and of Tasmania present the closest analogy.
The greater part of the forms which compose this flora attain a
gigantic size; these are the Lycopodiacea, Equisetacea, Ferns and
arborescent Cycads. The examination of this flora has led us
to conclude that the temperature at the Carboniferous epoch was
considerably elevated and uniformly distributed through all the
regions where the deposits of that age exist. But we no longer
hold to the hypothesis that that temperature was precisely torrid ;
neither is it necessary to suppose, as has been advanced, that the
atmosphere at that time was charged with vapor. An elevation
of some degrees suffices to explain the presence of arborescent
- forms. The entirety of the characteristics of the coal flora,
which has its maximum of importance between 30° and 50° north
latitude, appears to indicate a maritime climate; Europe and
North America must have been a sort of archipelago, in the
lagoons of which existed a warm and moist temperature.

Several indications demonstrate moreover, that the preceding
data are not incompatible with the existence of climatic zones.
Still, the coal formations disappear south of 38v° of north
latitude, and we have no means of judging what transpired in the
Equatorial zone. Furthermore, there are some slight diversities
found in the flora of the Arctic regions; the Sigillarias are
wanting there.

A new element of discussion has been brought forward by
Waagen, who has discovered in the upper part of the Carbo-
niferous system almost indubitable traces of glacier action in
India, the Cape region, and southern Australia ; the flora of those
deposits, where are found rocks giving evidence of glacier trans-
portation, possesses characteristics which bring it into relation
with the flora of later periods. It is known, moreover, that
the presence of glaciers does not imply the existence of any
extreme cold ; elevated areas for condensation and great humidity
are sufficient.

The uniformity of the coal flora is, moreover, a fact which

roves less than would that of plants of a higher organization.

he wide area of distribution of the Cryptogamia, both the
vascular and others, is indeed readily explained by the fact of the
lightness and abundance of their spores; it is known also that
according to the law of the struggle for existence, localization is
much less pronounced in a flora of little variation than in a flora
of more varied forms, and that it is especially striking in types
of the highest organization. But the Dicotyledons and Mono-
cotyledons, which are the most perfect and most delicate plants,
and consequently the most restricted in locality, are wanting at
the epoch of which we speak.

206 ReEporT OF THE STaTE GEOLOGIST.
*

But these Cryptogamia are not the only plants of the Carbo-
niferous epoch; the Gymnospermia, already represented by the
Cycads and Cordaites, furnish us with more exact information
regarding climate.* It is known that the Dicotyledons and
Gymnosperms in the structure of their stems and roots present
traces, recorded continuously, of the influence of annual climatic
variations. .

Every yearly deposit of wood consists of an interior porous
layer, formed in the spring, and a more dense external one, pro-
duced in the autumn; the thickness of the entire layer varies
moreover, according as the year was favorable or otherwise.
The differences of the annual layers are slight when the climate is
uniform, and they indicate nothing more than periods of humidity
and dryness. ,

But in examining the trunks of the Conifers, at epochs more
and more remote, we find that the tissue becomes more and more
homogeneous, and at the coal epoch, the lines of demarcation are
‘scarcely indicated ; it is then especially at that epoch that the
climate must show the greatest uniformity. 7 |

Tosum up; actual researches reveal a strongly marked tendency
to reduce the great differences which were thought to have
existed between the coal epoch and the present. Nevertheless,
it remains conceded that the climate must have been very
warm, as is shown by the coral reefs which exist in the same
localities as during the Devonian, and which are also found as
far north as Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen.

Climate of the Jurassic.— At the Permian and Triassic epochs,
the differences in the faunas are mostly in the pelagic and littoral
facies. Little is known concerning the climate of those periods.
It is during the Jurassic that we find, for the first time, certain
proofs of the existence of climatic zones. The marine fauna
is distributed in seas, the contour and facies of which are
relatively well known, so that we know how much to aittri-
bute to the influence of temperature. An arctic zone is indi-
cated principally by the absence of Ammonites of the groups
of Lytoceras, Phylloceras and Simoceras, by the presence of
Acephala of the genus Avwcella, by the frequency of certain
Belemnites (3B. excentricus) and the absence of Corals. This cold
sea sends arms toward the south, the most important of which
is the basin of Moscow, which communicates by straits with
a vast mediterranean sea, in which the terranes of Western
Europe appear as an archipelago. ‘This interior sea is divided -
into two parts by the limit of the climatic zones. The northern
portion forms the transition between the arctic zone and the
southern region. This latter presents the facies called Alpene,
extending through southern France, Spain, Italy, the Alps, the
Carpathians, and the Dobroudja; it has its southern limit in

a

*Renault, Cours de Botanique fossile.

THE PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 207

Algiers and in Asia Minor; it extends through Egypt as far as
Mozambique, Madagascar and the Indies. It is defined by the
abundance of Ammonites already mentioned and by the develop-
ment of coral reefs. These diverse facies extend throughout the
entire globe, in corresponding latitudes, notwithstanding the
barriers formed by vast continents. Toward the south, in the
southern hemisphere, the temperate facies reappears, and we find
even the Aucellas in New Zealand; the Cape country, South ~
America and Australia belong to this antarctic temperate facies.
(Neumayr.)

The Corals more and more approach existing forms, and
seem to require the same conditions of temperature to form
considerable reefs.

Their northern limit notably trends toward the south; the
phenomenon is a very general one, and does not depend, as might
be thought, solely on the elevation which is apparent, for instance,
in the basin of Paris at the close of the period, and the result of
which is the appearance of a muddy condition unfavorable
to the building of reefs. Toward the Kauracian epoch, the
Coral reefs are already much farther to the south than during
the Carboniferous. They abound around the Paris basin, in
the south of England, in Switzerland, in Suabia and in Galicia.
During the Tithonic period they are found in the region of the
Jura and the Alps.

Climate of the Cretaceous epoch.—The Cretaceous, and espe-
cially the Upper Cretaceous, shows, in all that regards the
marine fauna, precisely the same climatic zones as the Jurassic,
but still more clearly defined ; the boundaries are the same in
their general lines, but their contour becomes more regular, and
tends to approach the geographic parallels.

The zones of distribution of the flora, also, are no less clearly
defined; this, as has been seen, had given no very interesting
results later than the Carboniferous ep ch. Now, on the con-
trary, the evolution of vegetable forms becomes more marked,
and their distribution becomes important. The Firs make their
appearance in Greenland, at 70° of latitude, and the first Angio-
sperms, as yet but little differentiated, appear in the Cretaceous
of Portugal (de Saporta, 1891).

The Coral reefs continue to recede toward the south; the
Turonian limestones with Rudistes, where they are represented in
their finest development, appear in the Corbiéres, in Provence, in
the Salzkammergut and the Styrian Alps. They are not found
at the end of the Cretaceous period, since the regions in question
are occupied by lacustrine or salt water formations.

Climate of the Tertiary epoch —In the Tertiary the evidence
becomes more and more abundant and precise.

During the Locene and Oligocene the northern limit of the Corals |
remains sensibly the same as during the Cretaceous; they are
found in the Corbiéres, in Switzerland, in the Vicentin, etc.; they

208 . Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

gradually approximate exististing forms. The plants which are
‘considered characteristic of a tropic climate, as Palms and
the Banana, do not extend beyond the northern parts of Eng-
land and of Germany.

The Oligocene and the Miocene have been the object of pro-
found discussions from the point of view which we are consider-
ing In central Europe, the Mammals and Corals show tropical
characteristics. The marine Mollusks are tropical with forms
-which have remained in the present Mediterranean ; the fresh
water and terrestrial Mollusks, the insects and the plants are sub-
tropical in the Oligocene and the Lower Miocene, then they
assume the characteristics of the fauna of southern Europe; the
birds differ little from the present species, but include also tropi-
cal forms. To sum up, the climate was warm, and the winters
were mild, as is proved by the distribution of the fossil plants
in the annual deposits of the lakes of the south. }

The northern regions possessed at this epoch a temperate
climate; the plants of Grinnell land, 83° of north latitude, those

of Iceland, Spitzbergen, etc., studied by Heer, are Pines, Elms,
Nymphacea, Cyperus, Carex and Potamogeton. In Spitzbergen,
at 70°, we find even Magnolias and the Gingko, which are char-
acteristic of the warm temperate flora. Heer has pointed out
that this flora requires a moderately high temperature, from 17.5°
to that attained at the present day, and the difference reaches
even as far as 28° for Grinnell land.

But, as is demonstrated by Neumayr, these conclusions hold
good only for Europe. The lowering of the temperature at the
Miocene epoch is much more marked in North and South
America; Europe at that time had probably a much milder
climate than existed in other parts of the world. In the
central portion of North America, and in Chili especially, the
‘temperature appears to have been very little higher than it is at
present.

After the period of the Upper Miocene the reef corals defini-
tively disappeared from Europe; the last of them are found in
-Malta and in Asia Minor. During the Plzocene they are found
only in the Red Sea, that is to say, they reached the limit which
has been their boundary to the present day. The Pliocene flora
of France, with its Bamboos and Laurels, is still a warm flora;
.the plants which at present do not pass beyond 35°, reached at
that time to 40°. But the temperate elements which exist now
In the same regions are already abundantly represented...

Climate of the Plhocene and Quaternary.— We now come
to an epoch very near our own, where the elements of comparison
are directly drawn from living nature, and thus allow more pre-
cise inductions.

In England, the marine deposits succeed each other uninter-
ruptedly at certain points, starting from the Pliocene. But on
the one hand almost all the marine shells of the Pliocene and

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 209 ©

Quaternary are identical with, or at least very similar to forms
actually existing. Of these forms, some are now localized in
‘the northern seas, which they already inhabited at that epoch,
others have persisted on the same coasts; lastly again, others
have migrated southward. A most interesting point for con-
sideration is the order of succession of these forms. At the
beginning of the Pliocene epoch in the Coralline crag, the species
Balaniing to the warm seas had already entirely disappeared ;
in their place are found the temperate forms (Terebratulina
caput-serpentis, Voluta Lamberti, Astarte Omaliw). Gradually the
Arctic forms make their appearance with Trophon antiquum in
the red crag, Cyprina islandica in the Norwich crag, and at
the same time such forms as Cardium edule, Turritella commu-
nis, Which have continued to exist in the same seas.

The crag of Anvers, with forms of the present temperate seas
such as Chenopus pes-pelicani, Isocardia cor, Saxicava artica,
shows also speeies of cold seas, such as Lucina borealis. The
existence of cold currents coming from the north, and bringing
progressively arctic forms, can not, therefore, be questioned.
Still, notwithstanding the gradual cooling, the temperature of
the solid land was yet, at the epoch of the Forest-bed, quite as
warm as at present; this is proved by the study of the flora
and terrestrial shells.

There are found at a still higher horizon deposits of the glacial
epoch. The raised beds of Yorkshire, of Scotland, of the Galles
country, the bowlder-clay which covers a great part of Russia
and northern Germany, contain marine fossils, some of which
are identical with the present forms of the same regions (Cardium
edule, Ostrea edulis, Buccinum undatum, Murex erinaceus);
others have a clearly arctic character, such as Leda rostrata,
Fusus carinatus, Yoldia arctica. .

The phenomenon of the recession of pre-existing forms toward
the south, and the arrival of new forms from the north, becomes
progressively accentuated during a great part of the Quaternary
period. It seems an almost evident conclusion from these facts,
that a sensible cooling of the climate and the existence of cur-
rents from the north, have brought down the arctic fauna into
temperate latitudes. Some naturalists, nevertheless, have thought
the facts justified a contrary opinion, namely, that the Quaternary
fauna was autochthonic, and by emigration toward the north
had produced the actual arctic fauna. This phenomenon, then,
would be in accord with that which would people the great
depths through colonies from the littoral fauna, and would
explain the presence of forms common to the boreal and abyssal
zones, such as Lehizocrinus, Brisinga and numerous Mollusks.

_But these ingenious views are not confirmed; they are contra-
dicted by numerous facts. The cooling of the earth at the gla-
cial Quaternary epoch is a fact so general and so well proved

27

210 - REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

that Penck has been able to trace the limit of perpetual snow in
the principal mountain regions, and to show that that line was
much lower than at the present epoch. The invasion of temper-
ate regions by arctic forms applies not only to the marine fauna
but also to the terrestrial forms, especially the flora which here
furnishes valuable data; the plants of the glacial epoch, as
Betula nana, Hypnum groenlandicum, Hypnum sarmentosum,
are arctic plants, successors of the Firs, Yews, etc., which con-
stitute a temperate flora, and which migrated temporarily
toward the south to return afterward into our regions.

The hypothesis of the local formation of the arctic fauna
could not, in any way, explain the southward migration of the
preceding fauna and flora, and the return of a portion of those
forms at the end of thé period of the great glaciers. The arctic
fauna must have begun its existence in the boreal regions.

The conclusion from what precedes is evident and absolute.
The study of faunas and floras demonstrates that the surface of
the earth has been subjected to a gradual cooling process from
the most ancient periods. The climatic zones, at the beginning
so indistinct that their existence might be doubted and still is
matter for discussion, have become more and more pronounced
to the present day. With regard to Europe, the period imme-
diately preceding the one in which we live has been the only one
which was some degrees colder.

This law is well known; it has been frequently formulated.
But we have thought it interesting to point out that in these
last years the palaeontologic comparisons which had for their
object. the inductions relating to the climatic conditions of
ancient epochs, are conducted with minute care by the most
experienced observers. 1t is not deemed sufficient to indicate
in general with what expression the phenomena have manifested
themselves; the endeavor at the present day is to push pre-
cision as far as possible, and to form an idea of the multiplex
circumstances which have brought about the constitution of the
varied faunas and floras found in the diverse formations of all
the regions of the globe.

CHAPTER V.

The Process of Fossilization.

Conditions requisite for fossilization.— Fossilization is the
sum of the phenomena by which the remains or impressions
of animals or plants are preserved in geologic deposits The
first condition required, in order that the organic remains may
_ leave some traces, is that the living organisms to which they
belonged should not be too long exposed to the atmosphere
during the time immediately following their death. The
decomposition of all protoplasmic substances is a matter of cur-
rent observation which it is unnecessary to discuss.
There is only one instance known of extinct animals having
been procured intact with their soft parts; that is the example of
the Mammoth (Hlephas primigenius), found in Siberia in a block
of ice which had preserved it from all change.
_ Matter possessing greater power of resistance than does the

protoplasmic, such as bones, shells and the cellular parts of
plants, also decomposes in the air after sufficient exposure.
Neumayr cites as an example the interesting fact noticed by
Marcou: The Buffaloes are little by little disappearing from
the prairies of North America, and are retiring before the
increasing population of those countries. But there are still
found scattered over the soil skeletons of those animals through-
out the regions which they have abandoned during the last twenty
years, while from those portions of the country which they left
before that time, their remains have almost wholly disappeared.

The condition essential for the finding of organisms in a fossil
state is that the remains should have been either speedily buried
in the earth or preserved in water. 3

The second of these conditions is not in itself sufficient. The
cellular parts are exposed in the water to the attacks of bacteria,
and may finally decay without leaving any vestiges. The same
may be said of the chitinous or horny parts of animals. On

219 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

the other hand, the carbonate of lime in the calcareous parts
of these skeletons, being dissolved by water containing car-
bonic acid, bones and shells finally disappear, whether in
fresh or salt water. . Thus, at present, it may happen that the
great depths may be found destitute of the shells of Mol-
lusks and Foraminifera, which are abundant at the surface,
the remains having been dissolved before they reached the bottom
of the sea, though found in great abundance in deposits made at
a lesser depth. |

It follows, then, that the remains found where they have been
deposited from the water, were covered by sediments in a rela-
tively short time, and even thus they are not entirely guarded
against destruction. When the fossiliferous deposits are elevated
above the water, they are exposed anew to the action of rains,
whose dissolving properties are extremely active, and calcareous
matter runs another chance of disappearing. We have indicated
in fine, that as to animals of the Precambrian epoch the thermic
and chemic phenomena have so altered the nature of the rocks
that every trace of living creatures has disappeared.
- These conditions being understood we will proceed to a rapid
exposition of the processes which permitted the fossilization of
animals and plants. |

Fossilization of animals.—Under the most favorable con-
ditions, the entire organism, including the soft parts, has left
impressions which allow the re-establishing of the form, and even
the investigation of some points of its organization. The
favored localities where these conditions have been realized
are celebrated. The best known case is that of the lithographic
schists of the Upper Jurassic in Bavaria. At Kellheim, Hich-
stadt and especially at Solenhofen, there have been found, along
with multitudes of the fossilized hard parts of animals, impres-
sions of Medusae of various species, and of naked Cephalopoda,
whose ink-bag with its canal is perfectly recognizable, the sepia
being transformed into a mass of fine coal-like granulations.
The rock consists of a laminated lithographic limestone of very
fine texture, which must have been deposited in the form of soft
mud in tranquil waters. The lithographic limestone of Cerin,
in Ain, has furnished splendid specimens of the same kind. In
England the soft parts of Belemnitidz have also left some im-
pressions.

Ordinarily traces of the hard parts only are found imbedded
in the rock. Such substances are divided into two groups.

Tue PRINCIPLES oF PALAEONTOLOGY. : GAS

The first group contains matter of purely organic origin,
as chitine and conchioline. These substances are eventually
attacked by disintegrating agents, but they resist these long
enough before they disappear to leave hollow casts, or else they
change into carbonaceous deposits which faithfully reproduce
their forms.

The localities in Bavaria already cited, contain Crustacea,
Arachnids and Insects in excellent state of preservation. These
last named are: found also by thousands in the lacustrine de-
posits of Aix, Armissan, dating from the Oligocene, of Oeningen
(Baden), of Florissant (Colorado), (Miocene). Among the impres-
sions of chitinous substances we must cite the Graptolites,
hydrozooid colonies which abound in the Silurian beds of
Bohemia, Sweden and America.

Shells, the covering of Echinoderms, and the bones of Verte-
brates are composed of calcareous salts mixed with an organic sub-
stance, conchioline or ossine. The mineral part consists of
carbonate of lime in the state of arragonite or calcite, or of
mixed carbonate and phosphate. The organic substance, as a
general rule, decomposes quickly after the death of the animal.
The remains found, whether shells or bones, then sometimes
remain porous. But usually water charged with calcareous salts
penetrates into the interstices thus produced and the salts
(carbonates or phosphates) are deposited in such a manner that
the remains become homogeneous.

Very frequently, during deposition on the bottom where the
organic remains lie, the sediment penetrates into the cavities
which remain between the hard parts; the interstices in the
skeleton of the corals, the visceral cavities of the Sea-urchins, the
shell cavities of Mollusks and of Brachiopods are thus frequently
filled with a substance identical with the contiguous rock ;
this may be carbonate of lime, clay, sand, more rarely flint, oxide
of iron or phosphate of lime. The original shell may also be
preserved, but it often disappears, being dissolved by water
charged with carbonic acid. In this case the fossil pre-
sents itself in the form of an internal mold. If the cover-
ing is thin, the examination of the mold may suffice to give an
idea of the shell itself; this is the case notably among the
Ammonites, which are generally found in this state; but it often
happens, on the other hand, that the interior of a fossil cavity
gives only a vague idea of the details of the exterior, and a
decision regarding its external features presents great difficulties.
Such is the case with many Acephala and Gasteropoda.

A fossil naturally leaves an impression on the rock which con-
tains it; this impression represents the external mould of the fos-
sil. There is often an internal mould together with the external
one; in this case the original form of the fossil itself can often be
artificially reproduced. In order to do this the space left vacant
must be filled with soft plaster or wax, and the rock then can be

914 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

dissolved by an acid or otherwise removed. Thisdelicate manipu-
lation requires great precaution. Such moulds ascan be produced
by a foreign substance are sometimes made naturally. Waters
charged with mineral substances may deposit these in the
place of the carbonate of lime which has been dissolved. The
fossil, then, is essentially restored in flint or in oxide of ir n.
This result is produced, for example, in calcareous Sponges whose
spicules are often converted into silica; also in some Mollusks,
Polyps, and particularly in the Brachiopods.

In these various cases, by dissolving slowly and carefully the
surrounding rock by means of a weak acid, splendid preparations
may be obtained displaying details which otherwise would have
eluded observation. In the Brachiopods, in particular, when the
brachial apparatus is silicious, it can be disengaged in this
manner.

An interesting case, and altogether an exceptional one, is that
of the preservation of fossils in the amber of the Oligocene
period. This substance is resinous, and is secreted by a species
of pine (Pinus succinifer). It was produced in great abund-
ance in such a state of fluidity that it enveloped immense
numbers of Insects, Arachnids and Myriopods, which are
thus preserved with the minutest details of their organization.
Amber forms important deposits in the Baltic provinces, and has
been worked there from very ancient times.

Fossilization of plants.—— The fossilization of plants takes
place by quite different processes, a fact explained by the differ-
ent nature of their tissues. The cells of plants have their mem-
branes formed of cellulose, either pure or impregnated with
various substances, or even more or less completely changed ;
but only in very rare cases is it encrusted with calcareous matter
or silica (Alga, Equistacea). In the surface of the soil, or in
water, these substances decompose, and the plant gradually
disappears unless it becomes fossilized. 7

Moulds of fossil plants are-often found. The plants, when
they fall on a soil sufficiently plastic, make an impress there. If
the vegetable remains are then removed and a new deposit of
sediment a little different takes its place it will give a mould in
relief of the object that has disappeared. Very frequently, on
the contrary, the vegetable remains persist while the deposit goes
on. In this case a double impression is found, one concave and
one in relief. Between the two it may happen that no remnant
of the vegetable matter is left, but frequently also it is trans- .
formed into a blackish substance rich in ulmic acid, which, under
the most favorable conditions, preserves the structure of the pre-
existing tissues. At other times, if the surrounding rock is porous
the vacant space left by the decomposition of the organic matter
is filled by mineral substances dissolved or held in suspension in
the waters which have penetrated the interstices; this is a phe-
nomenon identical with that which we have already considered

Tue PRINCIPLES OF PALAEONTOLOGY. 915

in the case of fossil animals. The substance in question is usually
carbonate of lime; sometimes silicate of magnesia, bisulphide of
iron, carbonate of copper, etc., or sometimes of argillaceous or
sandy particles. The fossil is found in a much higher degree of
preservation when the water holding in solution the mineral sub-
stances has been able to penetrate into the interior of the tissues.
The silica, the carbonate and phosphate of lime fill all the spaces
made by the cavities of the anatomical elements. Sych petrifac-
tion takes place sometimes in plants remaining still in their place
of growth, sometimes in their remains which are transported
and accumulated in lacustrine waters strongly impregnated with
mineral substances. In such specimens the cellular parts and
their derivatives are sometimes preserved with all their orna-
mentatiun, and thinly-cut sections present precisely the same
details as do sections cut from living or dried tissues. If, on the
contrary, the fossils have been exposed to the air, decomposition
has more or less completely destroyed the organic matter, and
there only remains a very porous mould of the cavities of the tis-
sue. In this case, before making sections, it is necessary to fill
the cavities with some fluid substance which will harden and
render the specimen compact.

Plants are often preserved in considerable quantity without
the agency of mineral matter, in the state of lignite, peat or coal.
These products are made by the incomplete decomposition of the
vegetable matter. The microscopic structure in this case is often
preserved in a remarkable manner; in order to study this it is
necessary to make thin sections which are cleared by chemical
processes and studied in transparency under the microscope.
Details concerning the technicalities of this process, too compli-
cated to be explained here, may be found in the works of M.
Renault and others.

Development and Mode of Growth of
Diplograptus, McCoy.

By R. RUEDEMANN, Ph. D.,
Dolgeville, N,. Y.

(COMMUNICATED FOR THE REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST, FOR 1894.)

28

Development and Mode of Growth of Diplo
oraptus, McCoy.

By R. Rugvemann.

In the picturesque gorge of the East Canada creek, near Dolge-
ville, N. Y., is found, intercalated in typical black bituminous
Utica slate, a very thin brown argillaceous layer which has
' proved to be covered so densely with the compound fronds
of Diplograptus Ruedemanni, Gurley,* that those which I have
obtained by taking off the overlying shale are counted by hun-
dreds. Some very complete fronds of the same species were
found in a piece of limestone on the talus of the cliff, appar-
ently derived from one of the limestone beds which are associ-
ated with the shale. The colonies from this rock are especially
instructive, because they are not much compressed and show the
formation of the frond in relief.

Since this discovery I have given special attention to the search
for complete fronds of Graptolites, for such have been described by
Prof. James Hall from the Quebec epoch (Monoprionide). I was
rewarded by finding another, unfortunately only temporary,
exposure in the Utica slate at Dolgeville, which was very rich
in compound fronds of Diplograptus pristis, Hall. The fossils
of both localities are in such good state of preservation that they
reveal many facts regarding the organization and development
of Graptolites.

Until the classical memoir of Prof. Hall on the Graptolites of the
Quebec group, only simple linear stipes, or stipes which differed
little from the linear ones, were known. Hall made us acquainted
with numerous species, the fronds of which are connected in the
center by a common stem, the “rontoite,” from which they
branch by bifurcation. The simplest forms with the funicle have
four stipes. Continued dichotomy of the four branches pro-

* This form, which the author, in a preliminary note (cf. The American Journal of Science, 1895,
vol. XLIX, p. 453) had identified as Diplograptus pristiniformis, Hall, has been since described as a
new species by R. R. Gurley (cf. The Journal of Geology, 1896, vol. IV,).

220 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

duced at first eight branches, as in Dichograptus octobrachiatus,
Hall, sp., and then 16-32 stipes as in Loganograptus. In a form
from the Hudson River group, Hall counted as many as 40 stipes
branching from a common funicle.

In all species, except some of the four stiped ones, the bases of
the stipes were found to be united by “a more or less expanded
disc ox cup of the same substance as the body of the Graptolites.”
Hall called it the “crntTraL pisc.”* It is described as a thick
corneous test, which, in the simple forms, is quadrangular, nearly
square, with straight margins, ‘sometimes extended along the ©
margins of the stipes, as if to give strength and support to the
bases of the stipes. In forms with eight branches, Hall found
an octangular central disc, and in higher forms it becomes a
round disc. This keen-eyed observer found also that the central
disc is composed of two laminz which, at least in the central
portion, are not conjoined; the spaces between the two, he sup-
poses to have been filled by some soft portion of the animal body.
We may still add that Hall observed that the bifurcation always
takes place within the central disc; that the disc is not uniform
in its proportions; that it dces not always appear to bear the
same proportions to the strength of the stipes; and that it is
often striated parallel to the margins, which are thinner, the sub-
stance attenuating from the center. This is about all that is
known of the central disc, for, since Hall, 40 years ago, was
able to make his observations on the Quebec Graptolites, and to
give us a picture of the perfect form of some of these tiny fossils,
only few species which show such a growth have been found, and
these did not furnish any new facts regarding the composition

of the frond. :

The genera which are known to have grown in compound
colonial stocks belong to the Monoprionidze with single rows of
thecze, except two, 2. ¢, Phyllograptus typus, Hall, with four
united basal stipes, and Retiograptus eucharis, Hall, from Blue
Point Lake, St. John, in which the stipes are united by “slender
basal extensions” without the presence of a central disc. The
occurrence of a compound frond in this abnormal genus is
especially interesting.

The genus Dzplograptus, however, has hitherto been regarded

as producing only simple stipes, because some species which are

*It is absent in s.me of the sub-bifurcated forms ‘‘apparently by accident.”

DEVELOPMENT AND Mops or Growts oF DipLograptus. 221

found in countless multitudes in shales on both hemispheres only
dppeared in single stipes. The specimens which ‘I have found
show that this genus also grows in compound fronds. The
extension of the axis at the growing end of Déplograptus has
presented unsurmountable difficulties to the eiforts of explana-
tion. The corneous cup which was observed by Nicholson* on
Climacograptus bicornis, Hall, the vesicular dilatations of
Diplograptus physophora, Nich., and of Diplograptus pristis,
Hall, are at the sicular end and are, therefore, other organs
than the central disc from which the stipes branch. Neither can
the prolonged vesicle in the antisicular prolongation of the axis
of Diplograptus vesiculosus, Nich., be compared with the central
disc. |
General Form of the Frond.

Typical views of the complete fronds are given in Pl. I, fig. 1,
D. pristis, Hall, and in Pl. I, fig. 2, of D. Ruedemanni, Gurley.
As figure 1 shows, there are in a frond stipes of very different
lengths. In this specimen, in which some of the ‘stipes, seem
from their dimensions, to have attained their full growth, we
notice stipes of three different lengths. Four stipes, lying in two
diameters, perpendicular to each other, are the longest. They
are accompanied on each side by shorter ones. Stipes of about
the same length as the latter bisect the right angles. Between
the others, we find the shortest stipes in varying number. The
original specimen for figure 1 has 26 stipes; but fronds with as
many as 40 stipes have been found, in which most of them have
reached the normal length. Very often we find fronds with
only one or a few stipes of the first, and numerous stipes
of the third length. It is probable that these very different
lengths of the stipes in the frond indicate different age and not
that it grew out asa whole, thus maintaining always the same
proportions in the stipes, as Dr. O. Herrmannt asserts in regard
to the frond of the compound Monoprionide.

The number of stipes of D. pristis, Hall, is considerably
greater than that of D. Ruedemanni, Gurley; the former
showing between 20 and 49, the latter only about 12 stipes.
The fronds of D. pristis, Hall, therefore, are usually crowded

* Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1868, vol. I, p. 55.
+ On the Graptolitic Family Dichograptide Lapw., The Geol. Magazine, 1886, p. 18. -

222 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

With stipes, the same covering each-other, while those of D.
Ruedemanni,. Gurley, appear rather plain.

The Funicle and the Central Disc.

In all known compound fronds, where the branches radiate
from a center, their bases are connected by a common branch
which has been termed by Hall the “funicle.” He found that —
this connecting stem within the points of bifurcation is not cel-
luliferous, more cylindrical and apparently more solid, the test
being, probably, thicker and the common canal less developed
than in the other parts of the axes. The figures of Hall and
Herrmann represent the funicle as a short cylindrical body,
slightly thicker than the axes of the branches Only in Grapto-
lithes octonarius, Hall, we see a small expansion of the funicle and
a small round node called a “rootlet,” by Hall.

The funicles of the two Diplograptide appear, if strongly com-
pressed, as small, oblong, black spots with round ends, from which
most axes spring (cf. Pl. I, figs. 1,9; Pl. LU, figs 3, 4); m a few
cases they are extended to cylinders, similar to those described by
Hall. In some specimens, however, the funicle is so well preserved
that I have been able to make out its finest details (cf. Pl. I, figs.
4,6). By these it is made evident that the funicle of Dzplograp-
tus was a chitinous vesicle, tapering to the two opposite initial
points of the main bundles of axes (PI. I, fig. 6). Vertically to
this main extension, where two other bundles leave, the funicle is
more or less expanded, sometimes so much as to appear quadran-
gular (PI. I, fig. 4). In the excellent specimen represented in Pl.
I, fig. 4, and PI. II, fig. 3, the funicle is burst open and the inside
of the almost square base becomes visible. The pits, scattered all
over it, apparently lead into axes. The chitinous test must have
been very solid, as the excellent state of preservation of this small
organ proves. The latter attracts attention by its deep black
color in compressed fossils and by its strong aaa in speci-
mens preserved in relief.

The funicle has been found to be surrounded by a more or less
expanded chitinous disc or cup, the “central disc,” of Hall. We
have observed that Hall regarded this organ as formed of two
laminae. He finds it obviously adapted to give strength and
support to the bases of the stipes, as in some forms it extends

DEVELOPMENT AND Mops or GrowrTsH or DietogRaAptus. 223

- along the axes, but suggests, at the same time, that it may have
served still other purposes of the animal economy. In concord-
ance with the first supposition is his observation that the
central disc is found where the divisions at the base become more
numerous, while it is absent in some of the four-stiped forms ;
but on the other hand, its “greater or less development is not
always corresponding to the size and extent of the stipes.”
Huxley has compared this organ with the basal plate of Defran-
cia, a Bryozoan, while Nicholson thinks it to be homologous to
the “float or pneumatocyst” of the Physophorida, an order’ of
the Stphonophora.

The central disc of the two species of Diplograptus which I

have before me appears as a nearly square chitinous plate, some-
times drawn out a little at the corners. It is relatively small in
regard to the diameter of the whole colony, but must have been
avery strong and solid organ as it is mostly distinct, even in
poor specimens, where other organs can not be distinguished.
That this plate is formed by two laminz is demonstrated by
such specimens as reproduced in Pl. I, figs. 4, 6, 8; Pl. I,
fig. 4, where the raised edges and the depressed middle part of
the organ prove that it has been burst open. LEspecially in the
specimen represented in fig. 8, the central disc is preserved so
distinctly in relief that it can easily be studied with the naked
eye. It is here a deep concave chitinous trough, inside of which
lie the funicle and the bases of the branches. In Pl. I, fig. 4,
we are able to see that the axes, which here give unmistakable
evidence of having been canals, pierce the vesicle which incloses
the funicle. Where the central disc is not broken, as in Pl. I,
fig. 7, its upper side is convex. Funicle and central disc have
in our species similar forms, parallel margins and their diagonals
coincide ; the funicle is always distinctly inclosed in the central
disc. ,

The form, solidity and connection of the central disc with the
stipes agree with Hall’s suggestion that this organ served to
support the bases of the'stipes. It was also certainly a protec-
tion to the funicle, but probably these were not its only func-
tions. Nicholson’s supposition that it was a “ float” seems very
acceptable indeed, if we regard the large central discs of some

994 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

of the Quebec forms or of Dichograptus Kjerulf, Herrmann,
from the Norwegian Phyllograptus shales; but the central discs
of the two species of Diplograptus seem to me to be relatively
much too small to carry the whole colony.* ae

The Basal Cyst.

In a preliminary notet a basal organ, appearing in most fossils
only as a subquadrate impression, has been described as a “‘ pneu-
matocyst.” The latter is often so large as to overlap the other
central parts and even the proximal ends of the rhabdosomes.
It appears only as an impression in specimens which have the
central disc and funicle well preserved as chitinous bodies (cf.
Pl. I, figs. 6, 7, 8, 10; Pl. II, figs. 1, 2, 3,5); im very; fair spear
mens it exhibits only a filiform chitinous border, while in a few
(cf. Pl. III, figs. 9, 19) the test itself is visible. It must be in-
ferred from these observations that the test was comparativély
thin. The impressions or the scant remains of the periderm
would naturally not have been sufficient to be made the object
of a description if there had not come under observation, in a
number of specimens, large prominences which show that the
organ consisted of two segments resting in the middle on both
sides of a subquadrate base. This base is formed by a neatly fur-
rowed plate represented in Pl. II, fig. 1. The prominences con-

* T have used so far, on account of some citations from the first authors on Graptolites, the old
nomenclature, especially as introduced by Hall. As there are now, however, terms in use which
are taken from the Zoology of the Hydrozoans, such as hydrotheca and hydrosoma, I intend to use
more zoological terms which, I believe, will facilitate the description and prevent misunderstandings.

There is no doubt that the use of the term hydrotheca, if the comparison of the Graptolites with
the Hydrozoans is accepted at all, is proper, though the term thecais preferable. Thetermhydrosoma,
however, means in the terminology of the Hydrozoans, as introduced by Allmann (George Q. Allmann,
A Monograph of the Gymnoblastide or Tubular Hydroids, vol. I, 1871), ‘‘ the whole colony.” This
hydrosoma includes the trophosoma, i. e. ‘the entire assemblage of zooids with their connecting
basis destined for the nutrition of the colony,” and the gonosoma, the entire assemblage of zooids
destined for the sexual reproduction of the colony. As we shall see, the compound colony of Dipio-
graptus contains a central vertici] of gonangia which constitutes the gonosoma, the remainder, 7. e.,
the centra! organs and the assemblage of stipes, ‘branches or polyparies, constitutes the trophosoma.
It is evident that the use of the term ‘‘hydrosoma” for a stipe would be a synecdoche, the
putting of the name of the whole for apart. This difficulty could be avoided by using the term
‘‘rhabdosoma,”’ now used generally in the excellent papers on Graptolites of the Swedish palzon- ~
tologists. 5

Another misunderstanding may arise from the useof the terms avis and virgula for the stem

which fastens the rhabdosome tothe funicle. In the description of the single rhabdosome it is
usually mentioned that the virgula is prolonged ‘‘ distally,” or toward the center. This prolongation
forms the connecting stem, and is a canal containing, as we shall see in another chapter, in young
stages, the virgula of the rhabdosome inclosed inits distal part (cf. Pl. II, fig. 6). The stem is, there-
fore, not the prolongation of the virgula alone. The application of the zoological term hydrocaulus
for this canal would dispense with the necessity of referring the latter to any part of the rhabdosome.

+ American Journal of Science, loc. cit. e

DEVELOPMENT AND Mover or Growrs or Dietoeraptus. 225

sist of shale and are apparently the casts of large vesicles. In
the original of Pl. II, fig. 2,a smooth segment projecting from
the center of the colony is visible; in the specimen represented
on Pl. I, fig. 10, a plate is visible, which has a diameter of 6 mm.,
and is raised in the middle to about 1 mm. Figure 7 (Pl. IJ) is
taken from a specimen in which the cyst is broken out, leaving
only its outline and a wide pit. The central organs are visible
at the bottom of the pit, while the rhabdosomes proceed from
the base of the little projection of sediment. It must be inferred
from this and other specimens that the vertical order of the
organs was as follows; basal cyst, gonangia and rhabdosomes,
both of the latter aha from the central disk and enclosed
funicle.

Whether the large vesicle’ 1 was the upper or undermost of the
organs is a problem of great interest on account of its bearing on

the question of the function of that organ. The fact that most
specimens found on the surface of the shale, show it only as an
impression, while on the original of Pl. I, fig. 10, which was
taken from the under side of the Graptolite-bearing layer, it is
preserved in relief, led the writer to the conclusion that it repre-
sents the topmost part of the colony. This conclusion and the
fact that the vesicle is often found filled. with sediment, and,
therefore, may have been hollow, have suggested the comparison
of the vesicle with a “ float,” such as certain Ta a ah VizZ.,
the Discoidew, p ssess.

There are other observations which would seem to be in con-
cordance with the assumption that the colony of Diplograptus
had a floating habit :

1. The extreme length and thinness of the hydrocaulus in cer-
tain specimens of Diplograptus Inthe State Museum at Albany,
N. Y., the writer has observed a rhabdosome of Diplograptus
with a length of 4 cm. and a breadth of 3 mm., while the hydro-
caulus has a breadth of only 0.1 mm.’ It is difficult to imagine
how such an extremely thin stem could have supported the long
and broad rhabdosome in any other than a suspended position .*

* Carl Wiman (cf. Ueber die Graptoliten, Bulletin of the Geol. Instit. of Upsala, No 4. Vol. II, Part
2, 1895, p. 68) has pointed out that the virgula could have served only to strengthen the rbabdosome.
This rod extended also, as will be shown later, into the hydrocaulus. An effort at strengthening the
latter, however, is strongly suggestive of a sessile mode of life of the colony.

29

996 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. -

2. If the colonies were sessile, one would expect to find in the
great number of colonies observed, some at least attached to
shells, pebbles, etc., for the colonies would probably have pre-
ferred fixation to foreign bodies to a mooring in the soft ooze,
as do the recent Sertularians.*

3. The wide horizontal distribution of the Graptolites and their
limited vertical range has made them the basis of a very detailed
and persistent division. into zones of the Cambrian, Ordovician
and Silurian strata such as only the widespread Ammonites have
furnished in other ages. Barroist accounts for this, as well as
for their distribution in shale, sandstone and limestone, by their
having been floating organisms at an early stage. The writer
has observed a few specimens which seem to indicate a floating
habit in the sicule. One of these, reproduced in Pl. III, fig. 2 ,
shows two siculz which give the impression of having been ar-
rested by the hydrocaulus, the surrounding surface of the slab
being free from sicule. But if the sicule floated, the colonies
most probably floated also, as there has not been found any
change in the development of Diplograptus which would indi-
cate a change in the mode of life of these organisms.

On account of these observations, the writer held the opinion
which he expressed in the preliminary note, that Dzplograptus
was a floating colony. A short time ago, however, a discovery
was made which shows evidence not compatible with a floating
mode of life. The specimen is a large slab exhibiting at one end
upward of a hundred colonial stocks of D. L’uedemanne. The
latter are all in a fair state of preservation, spread out regularly,
about equally distant from each other and arranged in a well-
defined area, outside of which only a few broken rhabdosomes
are found (cf. Pl. V, which is a representation of part of the
slab). The improbability of such an array of nicely ordered,
apparently undisturbed stellate groups having been drifted to-
gether, is obvious. |

It is further worth mentioning that ‘most of those ‘colonial
stocks which show only the central disc and funicle, are sunken
in the center, a feature which, it seems, could be easily explained

* Allman (op. cit., Vol. I, p. 27) says: ‘“‘In almost every case the general colony, as hydrosoma, is at-
tached to some foreign body, such as rocks, shells of mollusca and crustacea, seaweeds, floating
timber, etc., to which it is fixed by some part of its surface.”’

+ Memoire sur la Distrib. des Graptolites en France.

DEVELOPMENT AND Mopz or GrowtTu or Dretogrartus. 227

by assuming that the sediment which gathered around the cen-
tral organs and under the ascending rhabdosomes, caused the lat-
ter to be buried finally at a somewhat higher level than the
central disc. This explanation, however, presupposes that the
central parts were attached to the ground. There have also been
observed quite a number of sicule, the basal appendages of which
lie in another level of the matrix and appear, therefore, on the
surface of the slabs in a pit or on a little node.

The argument has been repeatedly advanced that because of their
rigidity the Graptolites can hardly have been adapted to a pelagic
mode of life. The profuse occurrence of broken rhabdosomes of
Diplograptus throughout the Utica slate is sufficient proof that
the hydrocauli and rhabdosomes of Diplograptus possessed only
a very slight flexibility. Such a lack of flexibility must have
endangered the colonies wherever the water was moved. But
there must have been motion in the depths in which the sedi-
ment constituting the Utica slate settled, for the broken rhabdo-
somes on most slabs lie in a parallel direction ; hence the relative
scarcity of entire colonial stocks in comparison with the enormous
multitudes of broken rhabdosomes. The two localities near
Dolgeville which furnished the colonies of the two species of
Diplograptus would then represent areas which were free of dis-
turbing bottom-currents at the time of the formation of the thin,
colony-bearing intercalations.

If the colonies of Diplograptus were indeed moored in the
mud, the organ which I compared with Hall's central disc, would
Hee been much too small to serve as an apparatus for fixation.
The question of the means of fixation and the function of the.
vesicle described in this chapter and termed the “basal cyst,”
would arise. May the latter, perhaps, not have been the top-
most part of the colony, as supposed by the writer, and the ver-
tical order of organs, from below upwards, have been; basal cyst,
gonangia, rhabdosomes? May it, further, have been a con-
trivance, which, by being buried in the detritus, served to pro-
cure that stability for the colony which otherwise only a large
disc like the central disc of the Monoprionide could have pro-
vided on the soft, loose ooze? Since the discovery above men-
tioned, the writer has not had opportunity to study the material
of Diplograptus so’ thoroughly peeks reference to this problem
as will be necessary.

REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Na)
Io
CO

THE GoNANGIUM.

Among the complete colonies of D. pristis, Hall, found in the |
shale, I happened to notice one of more than common interest.
It is a rather small specimen, the rhabdosomes of which are very
_ short, but, although much compressed in the rock, it reveals all
details with remarkable clearness. Moreover, the chitinous sub-
stance remains on both slabs; the exact observation of each
detail can, therefore, be tested by the counterpart. 7

This specimen, one-half of which is represented in Pl. I, fig. 5,
shows, besides five rhabdosomes and a very small central disc,
an oval group of siculze (g), all of which have their broad ends
directed outward. The proximal ends of the siculz radiate from
an axial club-shaped projection, which is surrounded by a groove.
The basal sicule are very distinct and well developed; they make
their connection by thin hair-like processes, such as are observed
on well-preserved detached sicule. . Toward the distant end of
the group they become more crowded and apparently smaller.
On the sicule lies. a thick oval chitinous ring, which forms the
margin on one side of the group, whereas, on the other side, it
overlies the sicule. It is apparently the remainder of the capsule
which inclosed the sicule and.burst in becoming compressed,
allowing the siculz to be pressed out.

There is no doubt that we have here an organ in which the
sicule originated, the details all being so clear that they can be
seen by the naked eye. After this discovery I searched all com-
pound fronds in my possession for these organs, and was rewarded
by finding them in numerous colonies, both of D. pristes, Hall,
and of D. Ruedemanni, Gurley.

One of the best specimens observed is represented in Pl. I,
fig. 8. It is especially interesting, because the “gonangia,” as
these organs are provisionally termed, are very large (they
have a diameter of 4 mm.) and because the fossil is not
so much compressed but preserved in relief. It isa compound |
frond of D. pristis, Hall, the rhabdosomes of which are mostly
crowded on one side. In a deep pit in the center, we notice the
base of the chitinous central disc with the funicle. Around
the central disc there are four, subcircular remains of gonangia,
which are as distinct as the rhabdosomes. In the center of
the gonangia, projecting on three sides, are round nodes, on

DEVELOPMENT AND Mopr oF GrowtTH oF DipLtocraptus: 229

the fourth (right-hand side) is a corresponding impression.
They are surrounded by a deep furrow, from which, in one of the
gonangia (g@), the surface rises in a projecting ring. The latter
_is apparently the section of a central vesicle which did not con-
tain any solid substance at the time of the burial of the colony,
_ therefore has been filled with sediment and is now preserved as
the solid central node, whereas the test of the vesicle became
flattened and separated from the matrix. Outside the central
node we see radiating sicule. Near the left gonangium is a
group of impressions of sicule which apparently sprung from it.
The right gonangium shows radial and concentric wrinkles, the
former of which are probably impressions of siculz, the latter
may have been wrinkles of the gonangial test.

Another specimen which aids essentially in obtaining a com-
plete conception of these organs is reproduced in Pl. I, fig.9. It
_ shows seven, more or less oval, not very, distinct impressions of
gonangia, and is remarkable for the multitude of siculee. covering
the slab in the near neighborhood of the center. The position
of these siculz gives evidence that they came from the center of
the colony, and were apparently set free shortly before the bury-
ing of the colony by sediment.

I have before me a great number of complete colonies with dis-
tinct gonangia. The number of the latter organs ranges from
four to eight, the majority of the hydrosomes, especially the
younger ones, bearing only four gonangia.

In older colonies the chitinous test is rarely distinctly perceptible
because of the crowding of the hydrocauli and rhabdosomes
toward the center. Only in specimens like that represented
in Pl. Il, fig. 4, where the parts above the gonangia are
broken away, are the test and form of the gonangia clearly
visible. Young colonies, in which the center is less obscured by
overlying rhabdosomes, show the still closed gonangia as oval,
concentrically wrinkled, chitinous plates. (cf. Pl. III, figs. 15g,
20g, 21g, and the chitinous rings in fig. 24, which probably are
remains of gonangia.)

Some specimens of JD. Ruedemanni, (Pl. Il, fig. 3g), show
avery nice preservation of the form of the gonangia. The
proximal parts of the rhabdosomes are covered by round plates
which have somewhat raised edges and a lighter color than the

230 REporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

surrounding rock. They consist of compressed sediment of finer,
grain than the matrix. The sediment apparently entered
the space between the gonangia and the stipes and preserved
thus the impressions of the gonangia.

An indication of the original form of the gonangium in its
uncompressed state is given by a very excellent specimen (PI. I,
fig. 3), where-the gonangia left deep, almost globular pits, which
the eye can not fail to see in looking at the frond-covered slab.
These impressions suggest a globular form of the gonangia, an
indication which is confirmed by a frond on a piece of limestone
(Pl. il, fig. 2) from the débris of the cliff which furnished the
fronds of D. Ruedemanni. The piece comes from a layer of
limestone, interpolated in the shale. The fossil shows two
gonangia preserved as solid globular projections.

Observations as to the proximal end of the conan could be —
made in only a few specimens.

From the originals of Pl. I, figs. 5 and 8, we might infer
that the gonangia were poner with the hydrosome by the
central vesicles. An excellent insight into the construction
of the gonangia and their connection with the hydrosoma is
given by the original of Pl. I, fig. 4. Three gonangia are visible
as deep impressions of dark color, from the bottom of which rise
club shaped projections. The proximal ends of the latter are
connected by a disc, which overlaps also part of the funicle.
Both the projections and the disc are not chitinous, but consist
of shale. Therefore they are fillings of hollow organs, the test
of which has not been preserved. The disc is apparently the
filling of a tubular organ from which the gonangia radiated, its
cavity being directly connected with the central vesicles of the
gonangia. The tube itself was apparently connected with ‘the
central disc and funicle, and by this with the system of somatic
cavities.

The result of the study of all these specimens is that there were
in the species D. pristis and L’uedemanni, around the center of
the compound frond, globular or oval vesicles, numbering from
four to eight or more, the test of which was horny.

Each vesicle inclosed a capsule varying from oval to club-
shaped, which had a rather solid test and did not contain any
obstruction to its being filled by the sediment. But the most

DEVELOPMENT AND Mopr oF GrowtTsH oF Dietograptus. 231

important fact is that the vesicles contained the so-called “ siculee.”
Since J. Hall discovered these tiny fossils and demonstrated that
they are the initial points of the growth of the rhabdosomes,
there has been no doubt that they represent a very young growth-
stage. It is, therefore, obvious that the described vesicles are
reproductive organs.

It remains now for us to see how they compare with the repro-
ductive organs of the Sertularians, which have been regarded as the
living relatives of the Graptolites.* A glance at the reproductive
organs of the Hydroza is sufficient to demonstrate the great
similarity between them and those of the two Diplograptide.
The gonophores and sporosacs of the Hydrozoa appear in just
_ such verticils of spherical or oval vesicles as the gonosome of the
two Graptolites, and they contain in the “spadix” an organ simi-
lar to the central vesicles, from which the sicule radiate. But
the gonophores, which directly produce the generative elements,
are only covered by a thin pellicle, and are found only in those
Hydrozoans which have a thin, not chitinous perisarc; whereas
the Sertularians, like all those Hydrozoans which are provided
with protective receptacles for the hydranths, inclose their sexual
buds, the gonophores or sporosacs, again in peculiar horny recep-
tacles, the gonangia. The latter are mostly oval capsules, formed
by a layer of ectoderm which secretes an external chitinous
investment, that varies greatly in thickness. ‘“ Inevery instance,”
says Allmann, “ where a gonangium exists the hydranths also are
protected by a hydrotheca, while the absence of a gonangium is
always associated with the absence of a hydrotheca.” As we
have in our Graptolites, just as in the Sertularians, chitinous

thece and also a chitinous gonosome, we must term their
reproductive organs “ gonangia.” The gonangium of the Sertu-
larians contains a cylindrical column, the “blastostyle,” bearing
the gonophores as buds upon its sides, and being generally
expanded at its summit into a conical plag or disc by which the
gonangium is closed. We have a very similar organ in the club-
shaped hollow central vesicle of the gonangia of Diplograptus.

*Cf. George J. Allmann: A Monograph of the Symnoblastide or Tubular Hydroids. Vols. I and
II., 1872.

G. J. Allmann: Report on the Hydroidea of the Gulf Stream. Museum of Comp. Zoology, Harvard
College. Vol. V, 18877.

Challenger Reports. Hydroidea, by Prof. G. J. Allmann.

932 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

It is true it does not show the conical plug or disc on top, but
neither is this always present in the recent Sertularians.

I have not been able to find how the gonangia opened. The
clusters of sicule which appear on young colonies (PI. III, figs.
15, 16, 17, 40) lead to the supposition (as we shall see more
extensively later) that the basal sicule remained attached to the
colony, while the more distal ones were detached. This, in its
turn, would suggest an opening at the top of the gonangium.

The gonangia of Dzplograptus resemble in all more important
features, 7. ¢., the shape of the gonangium, the substance of the
periderm, the possession of a blastostyle, its shape and position,
the gonangia of the Sertwlarians so closely that we must regard
not only the possession of these organs but also their structure as
arguments for the hydrozoan nature of the Graptolites.

Gonangia were described as long ago as 1859, when J. Hall pub-
lished his fundamental researches on the Graptolites of the State
of New York. (Geol of the State of N. Y. Pal., vol. IIL) The
author describes stipes of Diplograptus Whitfieldi, Hall, bearing
appendages, which are regularly or alternately arranged in two
Opposite rows on the stipe, the thecze being suppressed or
the vesicles proceeding from their axils. The appendages appear
at first as buds of oval shape, which become later on, apparently
by dehiscence or decomposition and absorption, irregulary trian-

gular. They have scarcely any substance except a filiform .

border. Although there are upon the surface of the slate, where —
these bodies occur, numerous sicule, no germ could be found
within a sac, and only one apparently attached to such an append-
age. Hall compared them with the gonangia of the Sertulariz
and Campanularie. eS
Other appendages have been found and described in England
by H. A. Nicholson.* They were found in the Graptolite rocks
of Dumfriesshire, attached, in some instances, to the stipes of Gr.
Sedgwicki, Nich. They differ from those noticed by Hall in
being free in the later stages of their growth. -They are:
described as “ oval or bell-shaped, provided with a mucro or spine
at one extremity and surrounded by a strong filiform border,
which ultimately ruptures.” Nicholson found these bodies, which

* Cf. Ann. & Magaz. of Nat. Hist., 1868, vol. I, p. 55. Nicholson gave a brief description before this
publication in a paper which I have not been able to obtain.

DEVELOPMENT AND Mopzr or Growrs or Dietoarartus. 233

he called “ Dawsonie,” in many instances attached, when small, to
the cellules of Gr. Sedgwicki; sometimes to the apex of a
theca, while sometimes they appear to spring from the
common canal’or from the under surface of a theca. The
author compares them with the “gonophores” of the recent
Hydroids, on account of their external processes and their like-
ness in form, while they differ in having a corneous envelope.
He believed that they were attached to the sides of polypites or
to gonoblastidia, although he admits that they have not been cer-
tainly detected. in direct communication with the polypary of any
Graptolite.

The gonangia described by Hopkinson in Ann. & Mag. of Nat.

Hist., 1871, vol. VII, p. 317, resemble closely the appendages
made known by Hall. Hopkinson states, on this occasion, that
the connection of Nicholson’s eee with the Grapto-
lite is not proved.
_ Alimann, who had an opportunity of studying English speci-
mens sete resembling the American ones, denies their having ~
been capsular bodies. They appear to him rather to be hollow
laminz; but, on account of the regularity of their disposition,
he does not regard them as accidental growths. He thinks that
their connection with the gonosomal system is probable, and
compares them with the leaflets which compose the corbule of
certain Plumularide, where the gonangia’ are developed in
groups, and each group is sustained in a common, basket-like
receptacle, which is a metamorphosed ramulus. He finds his
view supported by the fact that in each case where they have
been satisfactorily observed, the thecz became suppressed in
that part of the fossil which carries the appendages.

I have not yet found any appendages similar to those discovered
by Hall.

As to the “ovarian vesicles,” which Nicholson found associated
with the Graptolites, Allmann thinks their connection with the ©
Graptolites to be purely accidental, on account of their origin
from the walls of the thecz. Indeed, the fact that Nichol-
son describes them as being attached to different parts of the
rhabdosome, makes it very probable that these vesicles came only
accidentally in contact with the rhabdosome. On the other
hand, I would like to remark that Allmann himself described

| 30

934 ' Report oF THE State GEoLoGIst.

later on (in the second volume), in Syntheciwm elegans, Allm., a
form from New Zealand which stands apart from all other
Hydrozoa in bearing the gonangia upon peduncles springing
from within the hydrothece, and these nyse e do not differ
in a single point from the others.

A highly interesting form has been described “0 G. Holm *
in Dectyonema cervicorne, bearing, alternately on the two sides
of hay-forklike spines, cup-shaped bodies, “ by theeze,” which the

author supposes to have been gonangia. The-regularity of their —

distribution on the thece and the complete development

of the by-thecz bearing thece, are not quite in accordance.

with the appearance of the recent gonangia and seem to me to
be rather suggestive of a comparison with the nematophores or
nematocalyces of the Plumularide. These latter appendages, to
which Allmann refers all the thecz of Graptolites, are mostly
tube or cup-shaped offsets of the thecee, containing a sarcode
mass which can extend itself in the form of single or branched
processes. The latter are, as their thread-cells indicate, adapted
to catching food for the colony.

Tue SICULA.

Professor Hall succeeded in finding the embryo shells, or sicule,
as they have been called by Nicholson, not only detached but also
in connection with the rhabdosome. They have been found in
very widely separated spots, sometimes covering the rocks in
enormous multitudes. I, too, have obtained slabs densely cov-
ered with sicule and various young stages of D. pristzs, Hall,
while I have only one slab with free sicule of D. Ruedemanne;
these tiny fossils evading detection in the field, although they can

be easily seen at the ends of the rhabdosomas, and sometimes.

even within the gonangia. (PI. I, fig. 4.)
Hall’s description of these embryos was so complete and his
interpretation of their nature obviously so correct, that both

have been only confirmed by later investigations. He saw
them, when flattened upon the rock, asa prolonged triangular

film, containing a very fine rod, the virgula. Their real form
he supposed to be that of a conical sac. He regarded them as

*Gotlands Graptoliter. Bighang K. Vet. Akad. Handl. Bd. 16, Afd. 4, No. 7.
See also: Review by R. R. Gurley in The American Geologist, July number, 1891, p. 35.

DEVELOPMENT AND Mopr or Growrs or Dietocgraptus. 235

primary thece and found that those of Diplograptus throw off
buds from approximately opposite sides near the broad end, and
form thus the two series of thece characteristic of the Dip-
lograptide. He stated that the sicula remains embedded in
the so-called proximal end of the rhabdosome, projecting with
its broad end, and that the virgula grows out to the central axis.

An interesting contribution to our knowledge of the sicula of
Diplograptus, has been lately furnished by Carl Wiman.* The
author found in a piece of limestone, from Bornholm, half car-
bonized ‘chitinous siculz, which he was able to make transparent
‘by means of Schulze’s maceration medium. With the aid of
his excellent material he was enabled to state that the sicula has
the form of a conical tube and consists of two parts, a very thin
and transparent “ distal,’ and a thicker and less transparent
“proximal” one.

My material has not given me any opportunity to study the
details of this cone, but has furnished valuable information
regarding the relation of the sicula to the complete colony.

While the profuse covering of certain slabs with sicule and
the crowding of siculz around some colonies (PI. I, fig. 9) give
conclusive evidence that numerous sicule left the gonangia, it is
suggested by sicule and by very young stipes attached to adoles-
cent colonies that some sicule did not sever their connection with
the parent colony but grew out into new rhabdosomes. The
original of Pl. I, fig. 5, shows one sicula (s,) with two thece and
a young rhabdosome (s,) with a still distinctly visible sicula.
Young colonies bear whole bundles of siculee (Pl. III, figs. 15, 16).

The free sicula generally bears only a very delicate, filiform
process, like that by which it is attached to the blastostyle.
After I had found that this process on young free rhabdosomes
connects with a square chitinous plate, I also examined the
free siculz for these appendages and found them in fair number
(Pl. III, figs. 1-3) even on some of the sicule which apparently
had only shortly before been liberated (PL. I, fig. 9). On the last-
mentioned specimen they are visible only outside of the dense
crowd of siculz, the latter obscuring the details about the center.
The study of this specimen leads to the conclusion that the

* Ueber Diplograptide Lapw. Bull. of the Geol. Inst. of Upsala, vol. I, No. 2, 1893. Translated by
Ch. Schuchert in the Journal of Geology, 1894, p. 267.

236 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

square appendages were formed either inside of the gonangium
or immediately after the detachment of the siculae. )

Some of the best specimens bearing these plates are figured on
Pl. III. Figure 1 represents the most common appearance of the
appendage as the impression of a square plate, slightly raised
in the center and sometimes with chitinous test; at the under
side of the plate is a small round node, from which the sicula
springs with a process of varying length. While the sides -are
mostly convex, some specimens, in later growth stages, show
concave sides (fig. 2), perhaps the result of shrinkage of the still
tender organ.

Figure 3 represents a specimen which is remarkable for show-
ing to the naked eye broad radial ribs, and for displaying under
the glass a series of fine concentric furrows and wrinkles around
the central node. The same regular concentric furrowing can be
observed on some older and larger plates (Pl. III, figs. 9, 13, 14).
It excludes, by its regularity, the idea that it might be the result
of shrinkage, or of the flattening of the bladder-lke body.

In seeking an homology of the h«rny cone or sicula, among -
the growth. stages of a Sertularian colony, we shall be embar-
rassed by the very fact of the chitinous nature of this embry-
onic sheath. The horny receptacle of the Sertularians, called
gonangium, produces embryos without a horny perisarc, while
that of Diplograptus produces such with a horny perisare.. And ~
yet, there is a more than superficial similitude between the
sicula of Diplograpius and the primary polypite of the Sertu-
larians, which is borne on a short hydrocaulus, fastened by a
round disc to the bottom and produces the first hydrotheca,
whence the whole colony arises by lateral budding (cf. Allmann,
l.c.). Supposing this polypite and its disc to be clad from the
beginning in the horny perisarc by which the colony begins
to protect itself in a little more advanced stage, there would
result a first stage of growth strikingly similar to that of
Diplograptus ; there would be a primary theca, a hydrocaulus,
a basal appendage and a lateral budding of the he hydrotheca.
The earlier beginning of the secretion of the perisarc with
the embryo of Diplograptus can not be regarded as of princi-
pal importance, but there exists a distinctive feature of great

DEVELOPMENT AND Moper oF Growrs oF Dretoaraptus. 237

importance in the existence of the virgula in the sicula of Déplo-
graptus. But even with this difference the homology of the
sicula and the primary polypite of the calyptoblastic Hydrozoa
is such as to justify its being regarded as an indication of
relationship.

Devetopment or Dirtogerartus pPristis, Hall.
Plate III.

When the shale which contains the compound colonies of D,
pristis was exposed last year, I failed to pay sufficient attention
to collecting slabs with sicule. As I found later on, however,
some slabs which preserved sicule and young colonies with
attached base, I took advantage of a renewed but unfortunately
very brief exposure of the same layer, by the construction of a
road, to collect young colonies. The study of these tiny fossils
furnished the material for Plate III, in which I have arranged
the numerous various appearances of the young colonies of D.
pristis, Hall, according to supposed successive stages of growth.

Figs. 1-3 are representations of sicule with their basal ap-
pendages. The next stage are sicula with the first theca (figs.
4-7). The theca buds at the distal wide end of the sicula from a
round hole which is sometimes perceptible. The “connecting
canal” of Tornquist and the growth lines, described by Wiman,
could also be observed on some specimens.

Figure 4 represents a specimen,’the basal plate of which has
concave outlines, similar to fig. 2. The sicula is distinctly
attached to the central round node, as it is also in the following
- specimens.

Figure 5 belongs to a specimen in an excellent state of preser-
vation. The sicula is preserved as a tube and the basal append-
age as a segmental projection with a filiform chitinous border,
which is a section of the test. The central node lies on the top -
of the projection. In fig. 6 the base is broken out, leaving a
deep square impression ‘The central node is preserved as an
oval chitinous body with a central pit; the latter probably repre-
sents a connection between the node and the basal cyst (cf. fig. 6a).

Figure 7 is interesting in several regards. It not only shows
the “connecting canal” of the first theca and the hole from
which the former sprung, but also the central node on top

238 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

of an inner plate. The latter is surrounded by four oval pro-
jections which are probably the casts of budding sacs represent-
ing the gonangia. This would indicate a very early beginning
of the development of the reproductive organs.

As the next stage of growth may be regarded those rhabdo-
somes which bear two thece (figs. 8 and 9).

In fig. 8 the basal appendage is preserved as an impression
only, darker than the surrounding rock.

Figure 9 represents a primary rhabdosome, the basal cyst
of which is preserved as a plate with a chitinous filiform border
and part of the chitinous test in the lower right corner. The
concentric furrowing observed before is also distinct here; the
furrows surround a high square chitinous projection which ap-
parently develops from the original little central node and is
the central disc of the grown colony.

A further stage is represented by a rhabdosome on which three
thecz can be counted (fig. 10). The central disc appears as a
deep square pit; the basal cyst as a less me but very smooth
impression with a chitinous film.

In figure 11 we have a rhabdosome with four thece, and con-
nected by a rather short hydrocaulus to a central, strongly chit-
inous node, evidently the “funiculus” of the compound colony.
The node lies inside the central disc, a deep impression filled |
with carbonaceous matter and surrounded by the larger impres-
sion of the basal cyst. Besides these impressions, there are pres-
ent four strongly projecting oval bodies. If these are again
traces of gonangia, the latter have already extended beyond the
cyst.

The next represented stage (fig. 12) with seven thecz shows
the oval organs still more developed. In one of the latter (at g),
there are radiating impressions perceptible, perhaps those of
young sicule.

Figures 13 and 14 show primary rhabdosomes with respectively
11 and 13 thece. Both are remarkable for the distinct concen-
tric series of furrows and the great prolongation of the basal
part of the hydrocaulus.

The next stage (fig. 15) appears very different from the pre-
ceding, because the primary rhabdosome is broken off (the basal
part of the hydrocaulus is still preserved at p). This specimen

DEVELOPMENT AND Mops or GrowtTH or Dirtograptus. 239

shows two oval wrinkled chitinous plates, the gonangia, and
between them two bundles of radiating sicule, which are prob-
ably part of the contents of two other gonangia. The appear-
ance of these bundles and of others similar to that represented.
in fig. 16, suggests the idea that the basal sicule were not
detached, and perhaps, by shrinkage of the blastostyle, gained
connection with the central disc and funicle. The existence of
bundles of hydrocauli (cf. Pl. Il, fig. 3) springing from the base
of grown colonies, is in favor of this view. The dense bundles
of sicule on young colonies indicate that most, if not all, of the
sicule remained in connection with the parent colony, while the
_ appearance of the older colonies leaves no doubt that multitudes
of sicule became detached.

These bundles of sicule now begin to develop, at first, by
extending the hydrocauli (fig. 17), after which the production
of hydrothece sets in (fig. 18). It may be concluded from figs.
17 and 18 that the young rhabdosomes did not all develop alike.
While in fig. 17 most sicule do not yet bear a theca, others have
already one and a few have still more, even as many as five
thece. In the specimen represented in fig. 18 the majority of
the sicule has produced one theca, and in the original of fig. 19
most of the rhabdosomes bear about half a dozen thece. In
this excellently preserved specimen the hydrocauli no doubt take
their origin from the central disc and the inclosed funicle;
funicle, central disc and cyst are here preserved with their chitin-
ous tests. The upper rhabdosome is so far advanced that it
probably is the primary one. There is no primary rhabdosome
preserved on the original of figs. 17 and 18. In such specimens
as are represented in figs. 20 and 21 is a more advanced stage.
On the former specimen may be observed, besides the young
rhabdosome, a complete chitinous gonangium (g), a dense multi-
tude of radiating sicule at the right and some single siculee at
the lower side. Because of the great difference in age between
the sicule and the young rhabdosomes I am inclined to regard
the gonangia and sicule as a second generation, produced after
the first generation had reached a certain age. The basal cyst is
preserved in this specimen as in many others as a strong plate
with a chitinous border, apparently the result of the filling of the
empty bladder with sediment.

240 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The beginning growth of a second generation is more clearly
visible in the excellent original of figs. 21 and 21a, where the
hydrocauli of the already highly-developed first generation of
-rhabdosomes are turned to one side, thus uncovering. the well-
preserved little chitinous gonangia (g). The latter with their
interior radiation, which probably is to be referred to sicule, are
easily perceptible to the naked eye. The primary rhabdosome
is turned to the right.

A more advanced stage is that shown by fig. 22, where the
gonangia, preserved as impressions only, are larger than the cyst,
and afew sicule of the second generation are still connected
with the apparently incomplete colony. This specimen shows .
the two different kinds of sicule: the detached sicule, two of
which have been arrested in their motion by the hydrocaulus,
and the nondetached sicule.

A similar stage of growth is represented by fig. 23, which is
remarkable for its having two generations of rhabdosomes, for
the chitinous basal cyst, which is separated from the center, and
for its central disc, which shows a central pit.

The difference betweeen the two generations of rhabdosomes
is very obvious in the specimen represented of natural size in
fig. 24. The three longest rhabdosomes are left from the first
generation (the one on the left side is perhaps the primary
rhabdosome). The verticil of rhabdosomes, marked II, is evi-
dently the second generation, and a third generation is indicated
by the oval chitinous rings, the apparent traces of .gonangia.

The original difference in size between the rhabdosomes is later
on obliterated by their unequal growth, and perhaps also by
the loss of the older rhabdosomes. The beautiful specimen,
represented in Pl. I, fig. 1, still exhibits three generations of
rhabdosomes and one generation of gonangia. ‘There is a dense
verticil of almost equally long rhabdosomes found in a few very
— large colonies. | }

For the sake of completeness I add the figures (figs. 25 and 26) °
of two specimens which seem to stand outside of the line of
development, as they show two and four siculz on one central
disc. Three siculz have also been observed. As, however, the
complete development of the central organs, the presence of
funicle, central disc and basal cyst indicate, these strange little

DEVELOPMENT AND Mopr& or Growru or Dietoaraptus. 241

colonies are most probably the relics of already farther developed
colonies. There are a few other relics of colonies with a strange
appearance, as for instance a central disc bearing one large
rhabdosome and one sicula.

The following is the development of Diplograptus pristis, Hall,
given in a more comprehensive form : |

1. The detached sicula is provided with a basal appendage,
to which it is attached by means of a little round node.

2. The node becomes the central disc and funicle. The sicula
produces at first one theca, then a second, a third, etc.

8. With the budding of the first thecxz, the growth of the
gonangia already begins, with usually four small oval capsules.

4, The further growth is marked by a remarkable lengthening
of the hydrocaulus and a continued budding of thece at the
proximal end of the primary rhabdosome, along the hydrocaulus
-and toward the center. |

5. At last the gonangia mature and open. Many, or perhaps
all of the sicule, remain connected to the parent colony. The
colony consists now of a rhabdosome, about half developed, which
is the primary one, bearing a basal cyst, central disc and funicle,
and on these, bundles of sicula. ;

6. These sicule grow out to rhabdosomes, the process begin-
ning again with a lengthening of the hydrocauli.

7. After this first generation of rhabdosomes has reached a
certain age, a second generation of gonangia begins to grow.

8. These latter open again and produce a new set of sicule
around the center. The colony consists now of the primary
rhabdosome, a verticil of young rhabdosomes, and another of
siculg. This process is continued, the successive generations of
gonangia producing siculx, which, in turn, develop into verticils
of rhabdosomes.

The different size of the rhabdosomes, in all hydrosomes appa-
rently still growing (Pl. I, fig. 1); their equal length in the hydro-
somes with the longest and most numerous rhabdosomes; the
common occurrence of one mature rhabdosome and numerous
young ones in the same colony, are all facts giving evidence that
the hydrosome began to grow with one rhabdosaome, and that the
‘number and length of the rhabdosomes increased with the age of
the whole colony.

31

949 7 Report oF THE Strate GEoxoaist.

Dr. O. Herrmann,* in the description of Dichograptus Kjerulfi,
Herrm., contends that fronds of Dichograptus with a different
number of rhabdosomes (from 5 to 14) do not represent different
ages, as it has been thought; on the ground that no difference in
the thickness and length of the rhabdosomes is to be detected;
that no younger rhabdosomes are perceptible when they had just
sprouted and before they reached the margin of the central disc ;
and that young individuals occur with eight, nine and twelve
rhabdosomes, just as in full-grown specimens.

It is certainly not analogous with Dip/ograptus, for the colony
of Diplograptus does not grow as a whole with a given number of
rhabdosomes, but the number of the latter is constantly increasing

_ by the development of new rhabdosomes from sicule. This view is —

supported by Hall’s observation that the number of rhabdosomes
is no specific character and that there is apparently no law of
branching in forms with many rhabdosomes.

There was no difference in the mode of growth between the
primary and the following rhabdosomes. In both the sicula lies
in the oldest part, and both grew, as it were, backward toward the
center, forming new thece at the basal end. One could compare
this mode of growth with that of a leaf, the oldest part of which
is the most distant point, while the youngest part, where the
leaf is growing, is the base of the blade.

_ As long as only the detached rhabdosomes of Déplograptus
were known it was natural that the sicular end, where the
growth of the rhabdosome begins and which at first was
thought to be attached to the ground, was called the “ proxi-
mal” and the opposite the “distal” end. But where we have a
funicle and central disc, 7. ¢., a point of attachment of the rhab-

dosome, we must follow, in order to avoid confusion in the nomen- .

clature, the usage of the authors on modern Hydrozoans and
define with Huxley “the attached extremity of the fixed hydro-
soma or its equivalent in the free one as the proximal end, the
Opposite, as the distal end.” The sicula-bearing end of the rhab-
dosome of Diplograptus, therefore, is really the “ distal” end, as
is the point of the leaf.

Wiman holds that the virgula does not begin to develop its .

proximal part. until the sicula has been taken into the rhab-

* Dr. O. Herrmann: On the Graptolitic Family Dichograptide, Lapw., Geological Magazine, 1836,
D. I8.

DEVELOPMENT AND Mop or Growtsu oF Dietoaraptus. 243

dosome, and that the virgula does not protrude beyond the
proximal end, unless the periderm of the rhabdosome is broken
away, leaving the virgula free. This, however, is different in
my material, which shows the virgula to extend beyond the
proximal point of the sicula into the hydrocaulus, and even
beyond the proximal end of the rnabdosome into the hydrocau-
lus. A very interesting specimen bearing on this question is rep-
resented in Pl. II, fig. 6. The virgula, a shining, chitinous rod,
contrasts with the thinner film of the hydrocaulus. The latter
is broken at m; the more solid and inflexible virgula, however,
has separated from it and lies now partly outside of the canal,
still preserving its natural position in the sicula.

Nicholson, too, claims to have seen in Diplograptus pristis the
common canal “ without denticles ” continued on each side of the
prolonged rod; and Allmann states that if the virgula, as variously
observed, extended beyond the young growing portion of the
stipe, it must have been included in a ccenosarc and this confined
in a perisarc, “which was probably still so delicate as to be
incapable of preservation, its thicker rod-like portion being the
only part preserved.” As the above described specimen shows,
this thin perisarc, the hydrocaulus, has been preserved under
favorable conditions.

Wiman further came to the conclusion that the sicula was
either open or had avery thin wall at the pointed end. The
study of my specimens of sicule furnished evidence that the
sicula was attached with this pointed end by means of a filiform
process either to the parent colony, or, when the sicula was free,
to the central node of the basal appendage. In both cases the
rhabdosome developed-along this hydrocaulus toward the center
of the colony. That might induce the notion that the hydrocau-
lus became the common canal of the rhabdosome. Wiman,
however, has demonstrated that a common canal, as progenitor
of the hydrothece, does not exist, but that the common canal
is the result of the growth cf the thece. The results of
Toérnquist’s* excellent researches agree with Wiman’s observa-
tions regarding the structure of the distal end of the rhabdosome
and the growth of the common canal. Both authors assert
that the formation of the common canal goes hand in hand
with the budding of the thece. Such a mode of growth

*S. L. Torqunist. Observations on the structure of some Diprionide. Lund’s Univ. Arsskrift, Bd.
29, Lund. 1892-93.

D4 4. REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

of the rhabdosome would exclude the pre-existence of the
common canal in the hydrocaulus. Therefore the interesting
question arises: What became of the hydrocaulus of the sicula?
I hope that my material of young rhabdosomes with hydrocauli
will permit an answer to this question later.

GENERAL APPHARANOE OF THE CoLony AnD Its SysrEmatio -

| | RELATIONS. | |

The restoration of the colonial stock of Déiplograptus given in
Plate II, fig. 5, was drawn with the assumption of a floating
mode of life in Diplograptus. Since then material has been
found (cf. Pl. V)-which does not justify such a supposition, and,
therefore, the writer presents this sketch only as an illustration
of the relative vertical succession of the parts, without regard to
the question of their absolute position, for there is a possibility
that the order was the reverse of that given in the figure, and
that the basal cyst was the undermost part of the colony.

lt is a fact of special importance that the uniform association,
stated by Allmann, |. c., of the horny receptacles of the
hydranths (hydrothece) with the horny receptacles of the genera-
tive organs (gonangia) among the Hydrozoa, is also found in
Diplograptus. As this association is the specific character of the
Calyptoblastea (Plumularide and Sertularide), its observation
on Diplograptus would seem a strong argument for placing
_ Diplograptus near the Calyptoblastea. But in spite of this
homology between Dzplograptus and the Sertularians in par-
ticular, the former, like the other Graptolites, has to be separated
from the Sertularians on account of the horny sheath of the
embryo, and, what seems more important, the horny axis of the
rhabdosome.* These differences justify the grouping of the Grap-
tolites into a separate class, the /?-habdophora.

It is my pleasant duty to express my most sincere thanks to
Profs. James Hall, John M. Clarke, C. E. Beecher and R. P. Whit-
field, who, by their kind advice and by generously placing at my
disposal literature and collections, have enabled me to complete
this paper.

* Allmann-states, as another distinction, the differing communication between the hydrotheca and
central cavity. The living Hydroids have only a constricted point of communication or even an
imperfect diaphragm, while the point of communication of the Graptolites is regarded as not con-
stricted, though the latter needs verification. as there are indications of a slight constriction in some
species. For instance, Tullberg observed, in slides of Diplograptus palmeus, Barr., that “ the thecal
partitions are in all sections well marked and provided with thickened inner edges.”

DEVELOPMENT AND Mops or GrowrTsH or DretogrRaptus. 245

The writer has been highly gratified at having placed in his hands,
by the courtesy of Prof. James Hall, a large slab bearing a colony
of Diplograptus. The fossil is not only interesting because it
adds a new locality and a new horizon — the Hudson River
group, the slab coming from a railroad-cut near the Abbey, south
of Albany, N. Y.—but also on account of the remarkable size
and mode of preservation of the colonial stock. The size of the
fossil can be taken from the figure on plate IV which is a repro-
duction in approximately natural size. One rhabdosome measures
80 mm.; another 70 mm., the latter reaching a length of 40 mm.
The. diameter of the whole colony, therefore, may easily have
been 200mm. The slab, however, is covered with broken-off rhab-
~ dosomes ‘of still larger dimensions, and especially with longer
hydrocauli. One of these rhabdosomes is 72mm. long and is
attached to a hydrocaulus 67 mm. in length. This example

illustrates the remarkable length of the hydrocauli of some
- rhabdosomes, the bearing of which fact on the questivn of the
mode of life of the colony has been discussed in this paper. A
comparison of this rhabdosome with those of the colony makes
evident that there was a great difference in the length of the
hydrocauli of nearly equally long rhabdosomes; and the profuse
occurrence of detached long-stalked rhabdosomes indicates that
the colony, as we see it now, may have lost a great number of
them. The latter supposition is supported by the presence of a
dense intricate mass of hydrocauli near the center of the colony.
It is probable, therefore, that while the remains of 30 rhabdo-
somes can be counted now in the colony, the latter, when alive,
was composed of a considerably greater number.

The center is so much obscured by the superposition of several
rhabdosomes that it appears as a solid film in which only the
outline of the central disc can be discerned with difficulty.

A remarkable feature of the colony is the great variety of
aspect presented by the rhabdosomes, according to the direction
in which they became compressed, and the different states of.
preservation. Though the majority of the rhabdosomes of this
colony, from their general appearance, might be identified as
D. pristis, Wall, it would seem that the dimensions of the rhab-
dosomes are such as to constitute a difference from the forms of
D. pristis, Hall, as found in the Utica slate. Moreover, some of

946 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

the rhabdosomes, if found detached, would certainly be identi-
fied as D. guadrimucronatus, Hall; and others approach D. mu-
cronatus, Hall. It is probable that a closer study of the colonies
of Diplograptus occurring in the Utica and Hudson River slates
will necessitate a revision of the species of this genus. The
strangeness of the appearance of many stipes is still increased
by irregularly distributed aggregations of pustules which have
‘their origin in crystallizations of iron pyrite within the
rhabdosomes.
Addendum. ,

To my regret, Wiman’s important paper, “ Ueber die Grapto-
liten,” was received too late to be given the deserved appreciation
in this paper. I will, however, not miss this opportunity to thank
the author for the full reproduction of my preliminary note as well
as for the publication of his highly developed methods of prepara-
tion, which, I hope, can be applied successfully to my material.
Besides, the writer wishes to make a few remarks on some objec-
tions raised by Wiman. |

Regarding the objection to the use of the terms which Hall
introduced for the compound colonial stock of the Dichograptide
(called by mistake compound J/onograptsde instead of compound
Monoprionide), | think that the development of the colonial
stock of Diplograptus, published in this Report, will justify the
application of the terms in so far as it shows that the “central
disc” of Diplograptus originally lies at the sicular end of the
colony, for it is among the earliest outgrowths of the sicula. The
fact that this sicula, in later stages of growth, wanders outward,
away from the disc, budding thecs between the two, is a later
complication which, in my opinion, does not materially affect the
homology of the discs of Dichograptus and Diplograptus. In
case the thece of the primary rhabdosome would not grow
in the direction of the initial part of the sicula, but away from
it, as in Dachograptus, then the primary sicula would remain

always at the disc; or, in other words, the disc would continue

to lie at the sicular end of the rhabdosome. The “central discs”
of Dichograptus and Diplograptus therefore are, genetically, iden-
tical. The difference between the two comes in when the
colonial stock of Dzplograptus, by means of “ gonangia,” pro-
duces new stipes, while in Dichograptide the latter are formed

DEVELOPMENT AND Mops or Growrn or Dretoaraprtus. 247

by branching. If the sicula, remaining in connection with the
parent colony, had developed their own’ central discs, the
latter must appear, by analogy with the primary rhabdosome, at
the first central disc, where, however, no indications of such
secondary central discs have been observed. The antisicular
ends of the secondary stipes connect directly with the antisicular
end of the primary stipe, thus forming that connecting stem for
which I adduced Hall’s term “ funicle.” While the central disc
of Diplograptus, though not in secondary position, but in origin,
is identical with Hall’s central disc, Wiman is certainly right in
disapproving the application of the term “funicle” for the con-
necting stem of Diplograptus; for, while the latter, in Diplo-
graptus,is apparently formed by the connection of the antisicular
ends of the secondary stipes, that of the Dichograptide is the
product of branching.

Wiman objects to the comparison of the sicule-bearing capsules
_ with gonangia, and sees in them gemmating individuals, evidently
referring to his interesting observation of gemmation within
individuals among the Dendroidea. In the apparently complete
series of growth stages of Diplograptus pristis described in this
report, under the assumption that the “gonangia” were only
organs of asexual propagation, and the sicule consequently only
buds; sexual generation would on this supposition be entirely
eliminated, and this is most improbable. If it be supposed now
that gonangia, which are not preserved, existed somewhere on
_ the hydrothecze (the appendages observed by Hall might be ad-
duced here), and that these sexually produced larve, then it is
inconceivable that these could have developed anything but
sicule; for the growth of the whole colony, as well as that of
the stipes, starts clearly from sicule. Hence we would have
the same product, sicule, by sexual generation and a sexual
gemmation, which is improbable again. The capsules agree, as
their description shows, wholly with the gonangia of the Ser-
tularians in their general features. The fact, also, that the
larvee reached such a high stage of development within the
capsules is not without analogy among the Hydrozoans, e. g.,
Sertularia cupressina discharges larve already ciliated; Tubularia
coronata even “actinule” with tentacles. Retaining the com-
parison of the Graptolites with the Sertularians, the budding of

24.8 ReEporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

the colony of Diplograptus from the sicula is certainly homolo-
gous to the budding of the Hydroid colony from a sexually pro-
duced larva.

While it thus appears that there is a great simnilanee between
the “gonangia” of Diplograptus and their products, and those
capsules of the calyptoblastic Hydrozoa which inclose the sexual
glands and their products, there is none at all between “gonangia”
and thece, such as the gemmation individuals observed by
Wiman possess. Neither is the possible objection that the gonangia
ought toappear on thece sufficient, for there are living forms
enough among the Hydrozoans in which the sexual glands appear
on the hydrocaulus. The discovery of sicule only in the gonangia
does not exclude the possibility that the latter before that con-
tained male or female generative buds which sexually produced
eggs, these developing into sicule. Neither the generative buds
nor the eggs, which are both always very soft, could be expected
to be preserved, while the blastostyle from which these gen-
erative glands sprung, and which later gave attachment to the
sicule, is sometimes observed. There is no need of supposing
parthenogenesis in the gonangia as the whole difference between
the recent and the fossilized gonangia may consist in the non-
preservation of the generative buds within the latter, and the
longer continued existence of the gonangial test for the purpose
of brooding the larve.

I expected that the “pneumatocyst” would be objected to.
Yet I thought it my duty to publish the supposition which the.
described organ and its peculiarities so strongly suggest. As
stated in this report, the pneumatocyst is by no means a heavily
chitinized organ ; 1t cannot compare in this regard even with the
gonangia. It is true the rhabdosome was inflexible, but this
was not in my opinion possible, only because the colony was
moored, but it was so in spite of the floating habit of the colony,
because it could not be avoided as long as the animals sought
protection by a chitin us periderm which was not articulated. _
There are Sertularide and Campanularide to-day which are at-
tached to floating objects, and which have a chitinous periderm.
The virgula which, according to Wiman, kept the rhabdosome
in an upright position, may as well have served to protect the
fragile, because inflexible, rhabdosome from breaking; for if the

DEVELOPMENT AND Mop or GrowrTsu oF DrenograAptus. 249

latter was once stiff, it certainly was of advantage to resist
breaking so far as possible. While Wiman finds it difficult to
imagine how stiff tufts of Monograptide a meter long could have
been suspended, I encountered the same difficulty in trying to
imagine how the long and heavy rhabdosome of Dplograptus
pristis could have been supported by the very slender and often
very long hydrocaulus. I may be also allowed to refer here to the
disproportion between the rhabdosome and the thread-like pro-
cess of the sicula in Mewandrograptus (Moberg, J. ¢.). The waves
were of no danger to the little colony, as the latter probably kept
in deeper water. It also would be strange that complete hydro-
somes are so rare when they would have been moored and could
have been buried in situ; and supposing that the fragility of the
rhabdosome forbade the preservation of the rhabdosomes in con-
nection with the center, the former ought to be found, at least,
often in stellate arrangement.
32

Explanations of Plates.

Legend. f. funicle..
c. .central disc.
g. gonangium.
pn. basal cyst. |
Types of figures on Plates I-III from the Utica slate of Dolge-
ville, N. Y. |
| 7 Paar f.
Fig. 1.—Dplograptus pristis, Hall. Natural size.
Fig. 2.—Dziplograptus uedemanni, Gurley. Natural size.
Fig. 3.—D. [euedemanni, Gurley.
Gonangia preserved as pits. x 4.
Fig. 4.—D. Fuedemanni, Gurley.
Central disc with inclosed funicle; part of the speci-
men represented on Pl. Il, fig. 1. xX 22.
Fig. 5.—D. pristis, Hall. x 4.
g.— Gonangiun, filled with sicule.
s,—Sicula with two thece.
s,.— Rhabdosome with discernible sicula.
Fig. 6.—D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. x 10.
f.— Inside of funicle.
c.— Inside of central disc.
Fig. 7.—D. Puedemanni, Gurley. X 2.
The basal cyst is broken out.

pn.— Impression of basal cyst.
Fig. 8.—D. pristis, Hall. x 3.

Fig. 9.—D. pristis, Hall. xX 2.
Fig. 10.—D. euedemanni, Gurley, X $.
View of the under side.

PLATE 1.

wy

“Fa os

ew,

SS
er
aN

SS
SS
me

of

Ee SS ONCE
er freezes STON
eon aty

Zi
SEDAN

d,

ESSE

OA SSS

NNT,

TT |

KAD LR ER

ODED

SEEDY

Diplograptus.

1 Aik ‘ *

er he AN . a
’ . x ®,
= ; . ba ,

a
int
,
f 5
A
lf i
;
i :
Vi
5, AY
7 4 Py
, °
“
te
a
%
:
4;
.
F
‘5
7
: ry
ul
:

Prats II.

Fig. 1.—D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. x 6.
Shows middle plate of basal cyst.
Fig. 2.—D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. x 6.
Fig. 3—D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. x 7.
Fig. 4.—D. Ruedemanni, Gurley. x 10.
b.— Blastostyle. —
Fig. 5.— Restoration of D. pristis, Hall. Natural size.
Fig. 6.—D. pristis, Hall. Young rhabdosome. x
h.— Hydrocaulus.
v.— Virgula.

PLATE 2.

Diplograptus.

: racge
“o i pif ae

OR )

i,

«/
! " Fel a 5 ia My ¢ Ge i r
AD, 4 1 oe \y* 2 ie | ‘, 2 4; Pa 3 - ‘ 7
Ren is ; i '
citi ee ye 8 on i” , : “+
Pe baa! Yie't hieti igty’ sta! ‘is ‘iy ii wp me
4 ) x * a r , ;
. - : 7
: i Fi 4
ar i eo % “a
at) ere 5 ee TASSP bd i?
“ ql cote Ns : a
' ‘ ‘
- 7y +
ee is, r Wy ' i hay t
‘ c wl * ’
yh Mi
a ie i | rod +) j we. 2 ve ms |
‘ ; «'s shee ) . 4 % *
* “ aa c
‘ P
* , -
Fi { Lc v
4 v ' r
» } eer t¢ é } vi ]
w
+ 3 . a
. | y
- . pias ‘ \ ' 4 4 2 . ¥
6 / P >
. .
tring *s ' fil > hee ‘ Ae
‘ i ‘+ “ P 4 , he 4. ‘
< ‘ oh i -
eal Lara? y [ bs he / aan
f rh a
“ i '
<i " ‘
} P
wv - A
‘ es e i
> ‘ 7
, a ‘
. ’
a | . 2"
i «

OAT, ae +“ : : ri
tig) 2 . ;
, f ~
{ } »
J di ios. nue Bie | ie
A ERIE so rnceeb ok -¢ .
an f ¥
rat bin a wisest Bat TOvH i) ws |
? ea Wh F es (ay 4 é
-_ Rik Seti:
PT a etl Lae r } a
i yi 5) ty >. ‘ 7 « > 6 e
; AL ; 4
erg ie - :

ian Oe
Diplograptus pristis, Hall.
Figs. 1, 2, 3.—Sicule. x 2. :
Fig. 8a.— Natural size.
Fig. 3b.— Basal cyst. x 6.
Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7.— Young hydrosomes. x 2.
Rhabdosomes, with one theca each.
Fig. 6a.— Basal cyst. x 6.
Fig. 7a.— Basal cyst. x 4.
Figs. 8, 9.— Young hydrosomes. x 2.
Rhabdosomes, with two thece each.
Fig. 10.— Young hydrosome. X 2. |
Rhabdosome with three hydrothece.
Fig. 11.— Young primary hydrosome. X 2.
Rhabdosome, with five thece.
Fig. 12.— Young primary hydrosome. x 2.
Rhabdosome with seven thece.
Fig. 13.— Young primary hydrosome. x 2.
Rhabdosome with 11 thece.
Fig. 14.— Young primary hydrosome. x 2.
Rhabdosome with 13 thece.
Figs. 15, 16.— Hydrosome with first generation of siculae.{, x 2.
h.— Hydrocaulus of primary rhabdosome.
Fig. 17.— Hydrosome with first generation of siculea. x 2.
The hydrocauli have grown longer.
Fig. 18.—do. The sicule have begun to produce thecx. x 2.
Fig. 19.— Hydrosome, with first generation of rhabdosomes.
2: |
a.— Primary rhabdosome.
Fig. 20.— Hydrosome with second generation of gonangia and
siculea. x 2. ; opts
Fig. 21.—do. x 2.
Fig. 2la.— Center of hydrosome. x 4.
Fig. 22.—do. Natural size.
Fig. s.—Sicula, arrested by hydrocaulus.
Fig. 22a.— x 2.
Fig. 23.—do. Natural size. :
| Fig. 23a.—Central disc with pit. x 2.
Fig. 24.—Adolescent hydrosome. Natural size.
Two generations of rhabdosomes (I and II) and one
of gonangia (g).
Fig. 25.— Central disc with two sicule. x 4.
Fig. 26.— Central disc with four sicule. x 4.

PLATE 53,

Diplograptus pristis, Hall.

Prats LY.

Fig.1. Diplograptus pristis, Hall. _ Naturalsize. Hudson river
shale, Albany, N. Y.

PLATE 4.

ek
PD

Diplograptus pristis, Hall.

Prats VY.

Fig. 1. Diplograptus Ruedemanni, Gurl. Natural size. Part
of slab with colonies in natural position. Utica shale, Dolge-
ville, N. Y.

Tx s,

WERT «
Wor s

S

Enlarged 14 diameters (explanation of plate in error)

Diplograptus Ruedemanni, Gurley.

‘
7 TON
ee ap wg \

A Revision. of the Sponges and Ccelen-
_ terates of the Lower Helderberg
Group of New York.

By George Herpert Girry.

sf a
Jy’
vev &

A Revision of the Sponges and Ccelenterates of
the Lower Helderberg Group of New York.

By GEORGE HERBERT GIRTY.

Since 1861, when Prof. James Hall published volume 3 of the
Palaeontology of New York, no systematic review of the Lower
Helderberg fauna has been attempted. During that time the
_ fossils of this period have been much studied, not only in New
York but elsewhere, and many additions have been made both in
genera and species.

Specimens from the Lower Pentamerus and Tentaculite beds
of the New York series are generally difficult to manipulate, on
account of the refractory nature of the very hard and sometimes
siliceous limestone which forms their matrix. On the other hand,
those from the Shaly limestone are usually somewhat crushed.
However, in certain layers of this horizon exposed at the Indian
Ladder, in the Helderberg mountain, the fossils occur very per-
fectly silicified, and at the same time the matrix is more
calcareous than is usually the case. This fortunate concurrence
renders it possible to etch the rock successfully, and specimens
obtained in this way compare not unfavorably with the products
of recent dredgings. Delicate fronds of Frnzsrexua, arborescent
Bryozoans and spiny forms of Orania are not uncommon,
together with sponge spicules, annelid teeth, embryonic trilobites,
and other minute organisms which could not be obtained by
ordinary methods, since they would not be observed in the field.

The fauna itself is remarkable in many ways. In certain geo-
logical horizons, probably owing tocontrasting physical conditions,
the different zoological groups were markedly localized. With the
Lower Helderberg Group it is different. The conditions seem to
have been congenial for the growth and preservation of nearly
all kinds of marine life at different periods during the deposition
of these strata, and in a single locality as many as 500 species are
known to occur, representing all, or nearly all, the fossil families

262 REpPoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

then existing. Certain forms also enjoyed a remarkable develop-
ment, notably the trilobites, in Aormasris and wonderful types of
Licnas and DaLmanirEs.

This group of beds is of especial interest in view of its posi-
tion, transitional between the Silurian and Devonian ages, and its
possession of strong and very interesting faunal relations with the
Niagara and Oriskany periods. Recent discussions have brought
these faunal relations into prominence and have, to a certain
extent, necessitated a revision of this fauna.

With a few exceptions the specimens upon which the solace
observations are based all come from typical localities in the
Helderberg mountains of Albany county, N. Y.

In this paper I have covered the ground only as far as the -
Echinoderms, but have endeavored to include all species described
up to the present time from the Lower Helderberg strata in New
York. A few new species are described, and wherever the material
has afforded data as to unknown or questioned structures, this class
of facts is also added. This is especially noticeable in the case
of the genera Hinpra and Reorpracuuires. Of the structure of
the latter, a remarkable specimen has suggested a new stand- ~
point for the interpretation of itsstructure. In the case of Hinpsa,
nothing is added to our present knowledge, but Raurr’s views
have been completely corroborated in a few disputed points.
The work done in this review, while it includes some of the more
perplexing organisms among invertebrate fossils, does not, from
its incompleteness, warrant any conclusions as to the geologic
age of the Lower Helderberg fauna, but may form a starting
point for investigations which will definitely determine that
question.

New Haven, June 1, 1894.

eee Ge TA.

Order LITHISTIDA.
Suborder EUTAXICLADINA.
Family Hrypupa, Rauff.
Hindia, Duncan.

HINDIA FIBROSA, Roemer, (sp.) 1869.

Calamopora jibrosa (not C. fibrosa, Goldfuss), Roemer, 1860. Fauna des Westl.
Tenn., p. 20.

Astylospongia inornata, Hall, 1863. Sixteenth Rept. New York State Cab.
Nat. Hist., p. 70.

Spheerolites Nicholsoni, Hinde, 1875. Abstract, Proc. Geol. Soc., p. lxxxviii.
In Q. J. G.S., vol. 31.

Hindia spheroidalis, Duncan, 1879. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), vol. 4, p. 84.

Hindia fibrosa, Miller, 1889. N. Amer. Geol. and Pal., p. 160.

Hindia spheroidalis, Ulrich, i890. Geol. Surv. Illinois, vol. VIII, p. 226 et seq.

The first name which this sponge received is Calamopora,.
Jjibrosa, Roemer. Although the term arose from an incorrect
identification of one of Go.pruss’s species, this is no reason for
rejecting the specific name in favor of one of later date,
especially as these two species belong to widely different genera.

The structure and position of Hinp1a have .for years been the
subject of considerable contention, but it may at least be affirmed
that Hrypia is a siliceous sponge, and belongs to the order of
Lithistida. Yet this conclusion does not stand without a
challenge. Downoan asserts the calcareous nature of the sponge,
and only recently Stzinmann* has denied that it is a sponge at
all but considers it a Favosite coral.

As to the nature and mode of union of the spicular elements,
the later investigations of Hinps “ confirm the careful descriptions
of Hinpia given in Raurr’s paper in nearly every respect,’+ but
his conclusions as to its systematic position are not the same.
While Hryve considers the genus more nearly related to the

*STEINMANN, 1886. Neues Jahrb. Min. I,1 Heft, p. 91.
+ HINDE, 1887. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), p. 75.

264 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Anomocladina (\. c.), Raurr refers it without hesitation to the
Tetracladina. .

Uxricx’s observations and conclusions “respecting the minute
structure of the sponge agree very closely with those of both
Ravrr and Hinoz,” but he follows the former in placing Hinp1a
with the Zetracladina. He describes the structure of the sponge
as follows: :

“The individual spicules have four rays or arms extending from
an inflated center. Three of the rays are nearly straight, of
nearly equal length, with their extremities expanded mostly in a
vertical direction. By their union a tripod-shaped body is formed,
from the upper surface of which the short fourth ray projects.

“The connected structure of the skeleton is easily understood
after we have once determined the true form of the individual
spicules. In the first place the spicules form rather regular con-
centric layers, in which the individuals are arranged alternately
so that any one portion of each spicule is placed directly over or
beneath the corresponding portion of the spicules of the third,
fifth, seventh and ninth layers. Thestumpy fourth ray is always
directed toward the exterior, while the three tripodal rays extend
toward the central nodes of three adjacent spicules of the layer
- immediately beneath. The upper portions of the expanded
terminations in each case clasp about one-third of the fourth ray
of the latter, while the lower portion extends downward in a
recurving manner to the node or fourth ray of the spicule
directly beneath it.”

This description differs in two particulars from the structure as
worked out by Ravrr* and corroborated by Uinpr. Ravrr
showed that the union of the spicules does not take place by the
junction of the frilled ends of their rays with each other, as
stated by Duncan, at first accepted by Hixpsn,t+ and as the above
quotation certainly implies. Their mode of union is well shown
in figure 2, plate IT.

The tripodal rays are smooth on the inner and toothed on the
outer side.{ ‘The‘union is effected in the following manner: The

* H. Raurs, 1886. Sitzuagsber. Niederrh Gesellsch. zu Bonn.

+ HInpDE, 1883. Cat Foss. Sponges of Brit. Mus., p. 57.

+— ‘‘und dass die Verbindung in die Weise geschieht dass das ausgebreitete und gezaihnelte
Koépfchen des einen Armes gegen das in derselben Kanalflichen liegende convexe, ebenfalls
gezihnelte Armmittelstiick dexjenigen seitlich benachbarten Elementes stisst, dessen Knoten-
punkt nicht mit den Ersten auf demselben Querschnitt liegt, sondern gleichsam in einer halbe
Knctenentfernung (halbe Miischenhohle) dartiber oder darunter (RauFF, l. c. p. 5).

Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 265

expanded and dentate terminus of one arm is supported upon
the central dentate portion of the arm belonging to the spicular
element laterally adjacent, whose center does not lie in the same
canal face as that of the first, but half a mesh-length above or
below it. (Raurr l.c.) He explains Duncan’s figures (Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., 1879, vol. IV, pl. [X, figs. la, 2, 2) by supposing that
they have been drawn from a tangential section of the sponge in
which the real union of the spicules can not be distinguished.

Neither Hinpr nor Raurr makes any mention of the re-
curvature of the tripodal ray to the node of the second row
beneath or toward the center, as described by Uxrion. ' Ravrr
does say, however, that possibly the aborted fourth ray may, in
‘some cases, be prolonged outward to join the node of the next

spicule above, on the same corner of the canal, thus strengthening
' the connection and materializing the angle. He thinks, in fact,
that he has observed this prolongation in one instance. On the
other hand, the atrophy of the fourth ray seems natural, if it is
considered that the inflated terminations of the arms are often
so strongly prolonged that they impinge upon the central node
of the spicule with which they are bound. This lateral
outgrowth in the course of time must stunt the fourth arm
(Racrr 1. c.).°

My own observations on Hinpra confirm those of Raurr in
every essential particular. The only exception is that the spicules
in the Lower Helderberg specimens seem a little more slender,
and the whole spicular net-work more light and elegant in con-
sequence. Neither have I seen the prolongation of the fourth
ray above alluded to.

Upward of 175 specimens of Hindia fibrosa have been
examined by me, and I have observed the individual spicules
well preserved in but one instance. In this example, the charac-
ter of the spicules themselves and of the whole spicular frame-
work, has been maintained with a fidelity and perfection that
leaves little to be desired. Thespecimen in question has an outer
coating of pyrite. The interior is limonite, becoming somewhat
ochreous toward the center. The sponge skeleton appears as a
polished and exceedingly perfect cast in which the shape and
mode of union of the constituent spicular elements are clearly

portrayed.
34

‘966 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

= A few examples exhibit a singular condition of preservation,
and show a striking resemblance to a minute Favosite coral. The
radiating canals appear to be bounded by walls of silica, which
are pierced at regular intervals by pores. The walls, however,
are seen to be double, preserving between them an imperfect cast
of the spicular framework. This framework evidently had been
overlaid by a siliceous deposit, then the colloidal silica of the
spicules replaced by calcite, and the whole sponge filled in with
the muddy sediment which now forms its matrix.

In a large majority of specimens, the original siliceous elements
of the sponge have been imperfectly replaced by calcite. When
not decomposed, sections of these show well-developed walls, in
which the spicular mesh is Pe from the secondary
deposit.

All stages exist A Ry cute specimens where the walls of the -
radiating canals are well preserved and prominent upon the sur-
face, suggesting a globular form of Camrerrus, to others in which

the tube walls have been dissolved out, and the shaly matrix re-
duced to a soft and somewhat ochreous mass. Silicified examples
exist chiefly as casts. The radiating canals are represented by
radiating pillars, and these are connected with one another by
trabecular processes representing the pores which originally con-
nected the canals into a common system. In a few specimens,
traces of the original spicules seem to be preserved. |

I doubt if in any of the Lower Helderberg specimens, there is —
a true replacement by pyrite, where the iron in solution replaces
the original material, molecule for molecule, thus preserving the
minute structure of the organism. However, in specimens com-
ing from a certain layer of the Shaly limestone, a crude pyritiza-
tion occurs, and such specimens can be nicely etched. Inasmuch |
as the pyrite is granular and the structure no better preserved
than in other examples, it seems probable that small crystals of
pyrite are really embedded in or-cemented by silica. This con-
clusion is substantiated by a specimen, half of which is preserved
in this way as pyrite, and the rest appears as an encrusting shell
of silica in the manner above described. |

In a specimen to which reference has been made, and the only
one which preserves the original structure of the sponge, nearly
the reverse of this process seems to have occurred. The spicular

Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 267

framework was probably overlaid with pyrite while it was still
in a perfect condition. The spicules themselves were then dis-
solved out, and a deposition of pyrite over the exterior sealed up
the structure from further alteration. An oxidization of the
pyrite at the center to limonite finally reduced the specimen to
the condition in which it is now presented.

The evidence afforded by the Lower Helderberg specimens as
to the original composition of Hrnpzra is anything but conclusive,
and at first sight seems to contradict the siliceous nature of the
sponge. Specimens of LysactineLia, the undoubted Hexactinel-
lid genus described below, are represented in the majority of
cases by amorphous pyrite, while Hrypra, as before stated, is never
- $0 preserved. On the-other hand, a few examples of Lysacrin-
ELLA are replaced by crystalline pyrite, and no calcareous tests
occur pyritized. Thus, while Hinpra differs in preservation
from most examples of a known siliceous organism, it is also un-
like the brachiopods and other calcareous forms from the same
beds which are usually silicified. In view of its structure, which
is clearly Lithistidan in type, and of the facts adduced by H1npu
and Raurr, despite its ambiguous preservation-characters, the
preponderance of evidence is plainly in favor of the position
taken by those writers, that Hiyp1a is a siliceous sponge of the
order Liruistipa.

The smallest specimén observed by me in the collection is 6
mm. and the largest 64 mm. in diameter. This shows a much
greater range in size than noticed by H1npr, whose measurements
are 13 to 45 mm., or by Raurr who gives 10 to 45 mm.

formation and locality. Lower Pentamerus and Shaly lime-
stones of the Lower Helderberg group, at Clarksville, Indian
Ladder, and other localities in New York. The same species is
cited from the Silurian of Russia, Scotland, Germany, New
Brunswick, Indiana, Kentucky, western Tennessee and Minnesota.

Order HEXACTINELLIDA.
Suborder LYSSACINA.
Lysactinella, gen. noy.

The presence in the Lower Helderberg Group of a hexactinellid
sponge, belonging to the Lyssacine order, was first made known

268 ReEporT. oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

from casts of spicules in a phosphatic nodule coming from the
Shaly limestone. For more than four years Professor C. E.
Beecher has had in his possession such nodules, free spicules, and
sections of an entire specimen from the same horizon. -

It has been the custom to place in Hyalostelia dissociated hex-
actinellid spicules of various forms. The type of this genus is
Hyalonema Smithi, Young and Young,* from the Carboniferous
strata of England. ‘The spicules described by these writers are
of three kinds, “ (a) nail-like, some with four tapering generally
unequal arms, a fifth projecting at right angles to these, others
approaching the sexradiate type by the projection of a rounded,
sometimes stalked process, opposite to the fifth; (6) sexradiate,
with the arms of various sizes but always projecting, and of vari-
ous number, either by reduction or by the adhesion of other
spicules; (c) long, smooth, slender, tubular rods (the Serpula
-parallela, M’Coy ) tapering toward the extremity and ending in
the anchoring hooklets, the tip of the rod _ being either not, or
only slightly inflated.”

The spicules thus enumerated and described were referred by
the writers to the existing Lyssacine hexactinellid, HyaLonEma.
In 1879, two years later, Zrrre.t recognized Hyalonema Smithi
as a distinct form and proposed for it the name Hyatosteria. In
1883 Hinprt proposed to limit the type species “to the simple
hexactinellid spicules, which are the most abundant forms in the
beds at Cunningham Baidland, and to the spicular rods with or
without four anchoring hooks at their termination.” The abnor-
mal spicules were shown to belong to a form, subsequently
described by Carter as Holasterella conferta.

The form of the sponge in Hyatosrzxi4 and the range of its
spicular elements are unknown. The fundamental conception of
the species by Youne and Youne seems to have been its stalked
condition wherein it resembles Hyatonrema. The Lower Helder-
berg species here discussed is from a widely different horizon.
Since, moreover, there is no evidence that it once possessed
anchoring spicules, it seems impossible to refer it to HyaLosTE.ta.

* YOUNG and YounG, 1877. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), vol. XX, pp. 425-432, Pls. XIVand XV. Referred
to by the same writers in 1876 as Acanthospongia Smithi, Y. and Y. Cat. of West. Scot. Foss.

+ ZITTEL, 1879. Handbuch der Palzeontologie, Bd. 1, II, Lief.

+HINDE, 1883. Cat. Foss. Sponges of Brit. Mus. p. 150.

LowrErR HELDERBERG FAUNA. 269

Therefore to receive this and allied forms, I have proposed the
generic name LysacTINELLA.*

The material on which this genus is established consists of
spicular casts in phosphatic nodules, isolated spicules, and an
entire sponge. The free spicules are preserved mostly as pyrite,
but, in a few examples, they are silicified. Two types of these
spicules are recognizable ; one extremely ornate, the other simple
and without spines. The complete specimen mentioned contains
only the simpler sort of spicules. In the large collection of
Lower Helderberg sponges examined, no other entire specimen
of Lysacrinetta was found. This must fairly represent the
various constituent spicular elements of the sponge, and probably
its original form.

In shape it is a flattened sphere, and in this particular is
indistinguishable from the ordinary Hinpra. <A polished section,
however, clearly. distinguishes the two types of structure, and
the regular radiating canals of Hinpra are very characteristic.

This genus will also include a number of Silurian hexactinellid
sponges, known only by scattered spicules, especially when there
is no reason to believe that they were attached by a basal tuft of
anchoring spicules, as in Parrersonra or Hyatonema. Among
such would be numbered Utrica’s Yyalostelia solivaga mentioned
as isolated hexacts accompanying india jibrosa.t This
species may be identical with Lysactinella Gebhardi, described
below. ;

Sponge spherical to subspherical, sessile, i. e., without anchor-
ing spicules. Spicules (hexacts, pentacts, tetracts, etc.), without
such modifications as in Holasterella, obscure the systematic
arrangement and number of the spicular axes.

LysacTINELLA GEBHARD, sp. NOV.
Plate I, figures 1-21.

Sponge flattened-spherical, composed of hexacts, pentacts, ete.
Arms of the spicules simple rods, without ornamentation of
nodes or spines.

As seen in section, this sponge appears as amass of uncemented
spicules, so great in number that it is difficult to differentiate
individuals. These vary considerably in size and also in char-

* bw, I loose, and azr¢v, spicule.
+ ULRicH, 1890. Geol. Surv. Illinois, vol VIII, p. 232.

270 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

acter. In dobenmiaine the latter there is a donee of uncertainty
necessarily dependent on viewing only one plane, which cuts an
object whose members lie in three. The original arrangement of of
the spicules has doubtless been Jost, as they lie in great confusion,
but usually, at or near the outside of the section, a number of
spicules can be distinguished which may be referred with consid-
erable certainty to the dermal layer. These spicules are larger
than the other sponge elements, and appear to be pentacts, which
rather favors the conclusion that they were | of a
dermal position and character.

~ There i is every reason to believe that the remaining spicules are
3 hexacts or tetracts, and that monacts also are present. As all
the _Spicules distinguishable in these sections are composed of
simple, Straight rods, destitute of spines, I have » placed in in 1 another
species ‘the elaborate and ‘spinose forms found “free, and have
referred 7 ‘to Lysactinella Gebhardi the simple elements, whether
occurrin g free or as spicular casts. In section a few Ae the spic-
ules appear to have five arms in a single plane, with the possibility
of two others at right angles to them. This may be the case, or
it may be the result of the imperfect orientation of<the arms’
geometrically. This is not uncommon and might permit a sec-
tion to cut portions of five hexactinellid arms. At all events, the
number of such abnormal instances is so small that it can not
affect the systematic position of the sponge. An outline, natu- |
ral size, of a section taken near the center of the specimen is
given on Plate II, figure 3. It measures in width 23 mm.; in
height 9 mm.

LyYS8acTINELLA PERELEGANS, Sp. NOV.
Plate I, figures 22-381; Plate II, figure 1.

Body of the sponge not known. Spicules ornate, with various
arrangements of spines, thorns, etc.

Horizon.— Both these species are found in the Shaly limestone
at the Indian Ladder, Albany county, New York. .

INCERTAE SEDIS.
Ischadites, Murchison, 1839.

IscHapITEs SquamMiFER, Hall, 1859.
Dictyocrinites, Conrad, 1841. Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. New York, plate, fig. 22.
Dictyocrinites squamifer, Hall, 1859. Pal. New York, vol. III, p. 135.
Receptaculites squamifer, Hall, 1888. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl.
POT, figs. 1,2.

Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. O71

Tschadites squamifer, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 291, Pl. XXIV,
figs. 1, 2. . 3

Receptaculites squamifer, Miller, 1889. N. Amer. Geol. and Pal., p. 164.

Horizon. Shaly limestone. (Hall, 1859.)

Receptaculites, De France, 1827.
RECEPTACULITES INFUNDIBULIFORMIS, Eaton, 1882.

Coscinopora infundibuliformis (not Goldfuss), Eaton, 18382. Geological Text-
Book, p. 44, Pl. V, figs. 64, 65, :

Receptaculites infundibuliformis (Eaton), Hall, 1863. Sixteenth Rep. New
York State Cab. Nat. Hist., p. 67.

Receptaculites infundibuliformis (Eaton), Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for
1882, expl. Pl. XXIII, fig. 10.

Receptaculites monticulatus, Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl.
Pl. XXIII, figs. 3-9, 11. Ye

Receptaculites infundibuliformis, Miller, 1889. N. Amer. Geol. and Pal., p.
163.

Receptaculites monticulatus, Miller, 1889. N. Amer. Geol. and Pal., p. 164.
Horizon. Shaly limestone. Helderberg Mountain, N. Y.
| Receptaculites monticulatus = R. infundibuliformis.— This spe-
cies, recognized by Hall as a synonym for R. infundibuliformis,
is retained by Miller as a distinct form.
In 1889, a paper was read by Raurr, before the Deutsche Geo-
logische Beeelschatt, at the August session, giving briefly the
results of his work on Receptacucirss, [scuapirEs, and Potye@ono-
SPH#ZRITES, and an abstract of the paper was published in the
transactions of the society.* This -abstract is summarized by
Nicwoxtson+ as follows: 7
“1, The Receptaculitidz are spherical or pyriform bodies, with
a central closed cavity, the supposed basin-shaped examples being
only fragments of the base. :

2. Each of the individual spicular elements forming the mal
of the bedy is composed of six parts, viz.: an external plate of
- an essentially rhombic form, four diagonally intersecting tangen-
tial arms whigh lie immediately below the outer plate, and a
radial arm or pillar which springs from the tenter of the outer

plate on its inner side and is directed perpendicularly in wards.
3. An upper and a lower pole may be distinguished on the
exterior surface, the arrangement of the plates at these points
being peculiar. The basal pole (the starting point of growth)

3 RAuvrFF, 1888. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geol. Gesellsch., Bd. XL, Heft 3, p. 606 et seq.
NICHOLS ON and LYDEKKER, 1889. Manual of Paleontology, vol. II, p. 1563.

272 _ Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

is constituted by a circle of eight or four plates. The apical pole
is closed by a variable, but always large, number of plates.

4, Hach of the five arms of the skeletal elements or spicules
is traversed by an axial canal, the canals of the four tangential
arms having a conspicuously fusiform shape. |

5. The radial arms or pillars terminate on the inner or ‘gas-
tral’ side in a conical dilation, which is laterally extended till
adjoining pillars touch. This internal thickening of the radial
pillars is not furnished. with a special “plate, corresponding with
the external plate, and is not penetrated by transverse canals.

6. The inner or ‘gastral’ wall of the fossil is imperforate,
the pores described by Brittives being the result of fossilization.

7. The genus Iscaanprrxs agrees essentially with RecrrracuLitEs
in structure, but its skeletal elements are more slender. An
apical aperture is in some cases clearly wanting in IscHaprTxs,
and probably did not exist at all.

8. The genus AcantHocxonia is identical with IscHapirTss.
9. The geological range of TEED: extends to -the Upper
_ Devonian.

10. The genus PotyeonospHarites (SpH#ROsroNGIA) is simi-
larly constructed to Recspracutires as regards the tangential
arms of the spicules, but the radial arms or pillars are wanting.

11. The Receptaculitidw are not sikiceous organisms, but the
skeleton was originally calcareous, and the siliceous examples are
the result of silicification. The group, therefore, can not be
referred to the Hexactinellid sponges, and its systematic position .
is still entirely uncertain.”

These conclusions, as given by Raurr, embody, in large measure,
the results obtained by previous writers on RecErTacuLitzEs, and
furnish a basis for additional investigation. :

Upwards of twenty specimens, including fragments, of /ecep-
taculites infundibuliformis have been examined by me, exemplify-.
ing several <lifferent conditions of preservation. Qf these, one in
which the original tigsue has been replaced by pyrite, is of unusual :
interest. ‘The excellence of pyrite as a medium of preservation
for fossils is shown in the recent discovery, in the Utica slate, of
Trilobites retaining antennae and other appendages. The speci-
men in question leaves little to be desired in the way of preserva-
tion. It displays details of structure rarely indicated, and may
serve to throw some light on the phylogenetic position of this

Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. B73

perplexing organism. In section, this specimen, described in
detail below, has the outline represented by the diagram on
Plate III, figure 1. The edges are ragged, indicating that it is not
complete, and probably preserves only the basal portion of a form
which, when perfect, had somewhat the proportion of a pine cone
(as described by Raurr). The surface structure consists of ridges
which start from a point, the basal pole (Ravrr), and radiate
spirally in two directions, after the manner of the engine-rolling
on a watch. The ridges are thin, solid, high, and usually con-
tinuous. The rhombic depressions which they form are well
marked and deep. This description is true of both surfaces, but
that one which is here called the gastral surface has the reticula-
_ tion much reduced, perhaps one-fourth the size of the other. A
comparison of the two surfaces may be made by referring to
Plate II, figure 4, and Plate III, figure 1. Both faces are retained
in an equal state of preservation, an unprecedented occurrence
with the Lower Helderberg Recerracuttrss, the interior of which
is rarely preserved at all.

In this incomplete example, the basal pole exists only on the
gastral sarface, where it is partly covered over. It may be
inferred with certainty from other specimens, that a similar pole
existed on the outer basal surface, directly beneath the gastral
one. In general terms the organism consists of an outer and an
inner, or gastral wall, connected by perpendicular processes.
Each of these walls has, of course, an outer and an inner surface.

The Outer Wall.
Plate III, figures 2, 3, 4.

The radiating ridges above referred to, intersect at regular in-
tervals and form slender pillars at those points. From each of
these pillars, near its outer end, there projects toward the right
a peg-like spine, short, cylindrical and blunt. Across the floor
of each rhomboidal pit, between opposite angles. run two rounded,
fusiform channels. These channels extend well into the corners
of the pit, where they make slight indentations. In the middle
of each pit, at the point of intersection of the channels, is a still
further depression. This is circular in outline or sometimes
diamond-shaped, contracting slightly as it descends, and, at its
base, communicates with a tube which serves to connect the inner
with the outer wall.

~

35

274 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

At one time the tubes were probably normal to the two walls, _
but in places they now lie nearly tangent to them. This dis- .

placement, as well as the absence of the lower basal pole from
the field of the specimen, is apparently due to a skewing of the
walls as the result of pressure. For the same reason, the spines
above referred to may have projected longitudinally instead of
laterally. This is shown by the fact that the spines in this speci-
men bisect the obtuse angles, and that the long diagonal of the
rhombus is normally directed horizontally instead of laterally.

Where the tubes join the outer wall, their diameter is about
one-half that of the rhomboidal pit,.but they diminish consider-
ably in size as they approach the gastral surface. Whether the

tubes taper gradually or. have a fusiform shape, can not be as-
- serted. They are rather longer and more slender than in R.
| Oweni, and I think are not fusiform. The character of the inner
or gastrally directed surface of the outer wall is not presented
by the Lower Helderberg specimen. |

The Gastral Wall.
- Plate II, figures 4 and 6; Plate III, figures 8 and 5.

The points where the connecting tubes meet the inner wall
are united longitudinally by low, rounded elevations which a
fractured surface shows to be hollow. The channels thus formed
probably connect with the interiors of the tubes. The characters
of this surface are obscured by the nature of the pyrite which is
distinctly granular. The inner wall has a vesicular structure,
composed of labyrinthine canals. Each tube terminates immedi-
ately beneath the center of one of the gastral rhombic pits, into
which, however, it does not open directly, but into the canal net-
work with which the gastral pits connect. Upon the gastral
side the rhombic depressions are traversed by horizontal parti-
tions, situated a little below the surface. These are thin and
continuous, and undoubtedly represent some real feature in the
original organization. It is probably owing to these structures
that the radial tubes and the canals of the gastral wall are not
filled with the shaly matrix, but with a white crystalline mineral
impossible to confuse with it. |

Lower Hetprersere Fatwa. 275

Another feature of this specimen should not escape notice.
The gastral surface is partly covered, to the depth of 3 mm. in,
places, by a layer of minute acerate spicules. They lie in a con-
fused mass and evidently are not in situ, but, since they are pre-.
served as pyrite, like the test, they doubtless belonged to the
organism itself.

Reference has already been made to certain indications of
crushing exhibited by the specimen in question. In the region
of the basal pole the walls are held apart by the pillars, more or
less normal to each. They gradually approach one another and
their contact forms the limit of the fossil. That this is not the
original condition is proved by a fracture, which shows the

tubes lying nearly parallel with the two surfaces. Some of them
retain a circular section, others are flattened into an ellipse,
while many are broken‘and biconcave. (Plate III, fig. 8.) Still
further evidence is afforded by the condition of the outer surface.
Some of the tubes are there seen to have been forced up to a
considerable distance through the rhombic pits, and on the same
surface the ridges are so broken and crumpled in places that it
is impossible to follow them.

Another fine specimen iy this collection is that. figured by
Hall, in Pal. New York, vol. VI, Plate XXIV, figures 3-7.* It
is probably a cast representing the inner surface of the outer
wall. Like most Lower Helderberg specimens it gives no

indication of the nature or existence of a gastral wall. The
radiating ridges are mostly absent or else represented by low,
triangular, sinuous elevations which often form circular basins
about the orifices of the radial tubes, instead of clear-cut
rhombic depressions. Sometimes the points of intersection alone
are represented by monticules, to which reference has been made
by Prof. Hall. The tubes that run from the base of each rhom-
bic pit, form, from their size and depth, a striking feature.

A group of individuals which come next in excellence of preser-
vation were found in the firmer portions of the Shaly limestone.
On the whole the regular reticulate nature of the surface is more
- apparent than in that above mentioned. This is partly due tothe
fact that although the radiating ridges are not prominent, they are

*This was the type specimen of Receptaculites monticulatus (Hall, 18838. Rep. State Geologist for
1882, expl. pl. XXIII, figs. 3-9, 11), before Prof. Hall considered the species asynonym of R. infundi-
buliformis.

276 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

straight and continuous. Furthermore, these forms under dis-
cussion are of a comparatively large size, whereas the specimen.
of the monticulatus type is a small one, representing only the
circumpolar region, where the reticulations, as they become
finer, are less distinctly indicated. The radial tubes appear only
as hemispherical depressions, one in the center of each rhomb.
No details of structure are well defined. Fractures on several
specimens show traces of the extension of the tubes upward, and
one preserves indications of a roofing wall. That it is not the
inner wall of the basal portion to which it is at present adjacent
is shown by the fact, that not only does the upward prolongation
of the tubes fall short of the line that indicates the structure in
question, but furthermore it is continuous with the outer wall.
It-is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the exact nature of
preservation of these specimens. The fact that they are more or
less silicified suggests that they represent the organism itself.
Or the other hand, since the portion preserved exists: only as a
surface, apparently without thickness, it seems credible that they
are nothing more than casts. Yet this again is contradicted by
the detail of the outer surface, which, on the whole, is the same
as that of the pyritized specimen. Perhaps the forms in question
result from a maceration of the original organism, producing a
fossil which presents both internal and external characters at the
same time.

These specimens have all been more or less preserved by silica.
The group described below comes from the softer portions of
the Shaly limestone, and is represented chiefly by casts. Many
exist only as reticulate, ferruginous markings on a flat shaly sur-
face, while others have, in addition, rows of rounded elevations,
which represent the tubes of better preserved examples. Several
have a circular rim which is detachable. As far as can be ascer-
tained from the material at hand, this rim uniformly contains on
both surfaces the same characteristics as the silicified specimens,
but in a state of poor preservation. The Lower Helderberg
specimens, all of which, I believe, had a subspherical or conical
shape when mature and whole, are now flattened so that the
upper portion is nearly or quite contiguous to the base. Evidence
relating to this point is scarce, yet it is thought that the truth of
these statements can be established. The loose rim, then, is the

Lower Hetperser¢ Fauna. is

lateral portion of the organism, which, being even at first the
thickest part of the wall, and now double, proved less destructible
than the base and the fragile top.

OxservATIons ON OrHerR Lower Hetprersere Specimens. “|

The form of Receptaculites infundibuliformis is “ usually
discoid, sometimes broadly infundibuliform. The upper surface
is more or less depressed with frequently a small conical projec-
tion in the center.”* Whether the specimens are regarded as
entire individuals of an original saucer shape, or, as Ravurr
claims, are merely basal portions of a cone-shaped test, the
orientation of the fossil is attended with few difficulties on
- account of the curvature of the surface and the starting point of
the radiating-ridges. The surface uniformly preserved, which is
convex in the better specimens, is either the outer or inner sur-
face of the outer wall. That this surface is not the inner wall,
is shown by the curvature and by tubes which are seen in
traces directed upward from the.concave side. Furthermore this
circumstance is the natural result of the physical conditions
which attend the burial of such an organism. The base would be
more or less protected and preserved by the bottom on which it
rested, while the upper part, and later, the gastral wall of the
lower, would lie exposed to the destructive and solvent action of
the sea until covered over by the gradual deposition of sediment.
As has been said, which surface of the outer: wall is represented
can not be determined in all cases. |

In the case of the pyritized specimen the curvature of the sur-
faces is misleading. It suggests that the inner wall is in fact the
outer, and that the outer or concave side bounds the gastral
cavity. However, the structure of the coarsely reticulate surface
corresponds in a general way to that of specimens from other
horizons whose orientation is known, showing that it is the outer
wall. The reticulations agree in size and character with those of
the common Lower Helderberg forms. This fact warrants the
identification of this fossil with R. infundibuliformis, and at the
same time confirms the orientation of surfaces here adopted.

* HALL, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 290.

1278 Report or THE Stare GxEoxoeist.

Conclusions.

Specimens of 2. infundibuliformis, as ordinarily preserved,
are so ambiguous in character that the current views on Rroxp-
TACULITES would probably have been regarded as satisfactory
had not a remarkable specimen opened the way to a new
interpretation of the structure of this genus. :

I. The Form.

That Recepracuritzs and Iscnaprres were subspherical, when
entire, and inclosed, or nearly so, is the position taken by
Binuines, which Raurr confirms. Hu1nps, however, follows
SaLtTER, and considers that Iscuapires alone had this form, and
that Recepraco.ites was a flat, platter-shaped organism, in eee
condition it at present usually occurs.

The evidence afforded by the Lower Helderberg Rxronr-
TACULITES is not of a positive character, but, on the whole, seems
to support the view of Ravrr and. Bittiyes. The regular
circular outlines which unbroken specimens maintain might
appear to indicate an explanate organism. On the other hand, ©
a homogeneous, top-shaped or spherical test, flattened by down-
ward pressure, would assume the same form. This supposition
is further borne out by the specimen with traces of a roofing
wall and those with a detachable rim. If the sides were
extended so as to completely inclose a central cavity, the upper
portion must have been of extreme tenuity.

II. Structural Elements.

(a) The Summit Plate-—— According to the generally accepted
construction of Recepracuuites, the radiating ridges should
represent part of the matrix thrust in between the summit plates _
of the spicules, the plates themselves heing subsequently
dissolved away. The radial tube would be interpreted as the
perpendicular ray, and there also should be four other rays
forming diagonals of the rhombus. Two of the rays would
thus be directed lengthwise or meridionally, and the other two
at right angles to these. Not only have none of these supposi-
tious summit plates been observed on Lower Helderberg speci-
mens, but there is no evidence that they ever existed. Three
_suppositions concerning them are possible: (1) they were loose,

LoweErR HreLpERBERG FAUNA. 279

-and, becoming detached before gradual deposition covered the
organism, were thus lost; (2) they were of a different composi-
tion from the rest of the skeleton; (3) they did not exist.

If these summit plates were detached and lost, some trace of
them would surely be found either associated with the original
fossil or as separate bodies. Of the twenty or more specimens
belonging to the large collection from this horizon, each must
have possessed many hundred plates, some of which would
certainly have been found.

It seems improbable, however, that one ‘ray of the spicule
should have been different chemically from other rays of the
same spicule. Furthermore when we consider that the rest of
the skeleton is preserved (1) as calcite, (2) as pyrite, (8) as silica,
(4) as shaly casts, (5) as ferruginous shadows on shale, it. seems
incredible that this eccentric ray should have been of such
“material as to elude all these phases of replacement. Moreover,
everything goes to show that the radiating ridges are an integral
part of the original skeleton, and not an infiltration or an
impression of the matrix. They are too high and regular to
warrant this idea, and, furthermore, they are preserved as pyrite
like the rest of the organism, while the matrix is shale, and the
filling between the two walls celestite(?). The evidence, there-
fore, seems conclusive that the spicular summit plates claimed
for the organism did not exist.

(6) The Tangential Rays.— The same conclusion is vermeil
regarding the four tangential rays. A careful examination of all
accessible specimens shows no trace of such structure. They can
not be the radiating ridges, for these partake of the nature of
partitions rather than of spicules, z. ¢., they are solid, thin and ©
high. Moreover, the orientation of the ridges, which are not
longitudinal and horizontal, respectively, as the spicular rays are
said to be, precludes such an interpretation. The only features
that bear resemblance to the missing spicules are the short spines
which project, one for each rhomb, from the intersections of the
radial ridges. If these are the tangential rays, there is no evi-
* dence of the three other rays and the summit plate. Further, if
this is such aray it has become disconnected from the “ radial
arm,” and joined to the ridge with which it should have no
organic union.

280 ReEportT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

(c) The Radial Pillar— There can be no question that the
structure here called the radial tube or canal is the perpendicular
spicular ray of other writers. Inasmuch as it has been shown
that the five other rays of the spicule did not exist, it seems
illogical to denominate this structure in any sense a spicular arm.
The fact that the central canal is so large in comparison with the
surrounding integument, taken in conjunction with the relation
of these bodies to the outer and inner walls, leaves little doubt
that they were really tubes and did not partake of the nature of —
spicules. Moreover, the tubes appear to terminate at the bottom
of the rhombic pits, and this character both argues against their
original spicular nature, and suggests the probability that they
were never connected with a summit plate.

III, The Poles.

In the Lower Helderberg specimens of 2. infundibuliformis
the upper part has been destroyed, but the basal portion has, on both
;ts outer and inner surface, what may be called a polar region.
Neither the number nor arrangement of the plates which lie
about the lower pole is indicated in specimens accessible to me.
If,as Raurr claims, the basal pole is the starting point of growth,
it seems unwise to deny as he does that Recepraco.tirses and Iscaa-
DITEs occur as cup-like or saucer-shaped individuals, since they
must have assumed these forms as intermediate steps toward a
completely inclosed condition. |

IV. The Inner Wall.

It is agreed by Ravurr, Hinpz and Briiiines that the endorhin
is formed by the dilatation of the inner extremities of the radial
pillars. The wall is, then, theoretically, composed of plates, but
these are usually more or less united into a continuous surface,
and are not equivalent to the summit plates of the ectorhin.
Hinvz and Brrurwes further agree in ascribing to this wall both
transverse and longitudinal canals. The latter are excavated in
the substance of each plate, and run between the middle points .
of opposite sides. The transverse canals or pores are formed by |
the truncation of the four angles of each plate. The juxtaposi-
tion of four plates produces the pore. The canals of adjoining
plates communicate with one another, thus forming a reticulation
of confluent channels in the wall. The pores served to connect

‘

Lower HeLpErBere Fauna. ; 281

the intermural cavity with the surrounding medium. MRavrr
denies the existence of both pores and canals, and I have been:
unable to find anything analogous in the Lower Helderberg
Specimens.
V. The Chemical Constitution.

The conclusions to be deduced from the appended table confirm
those of Raurr with regard to the chemical composition of
ReoEPTACULITES, at: least so far as to show that it was originally
calcareous and not siliceous, as claimed by Hinpg. Specimens of
Reorpracutites from the Helderberg mountain agree with the
Cephalopods in their mode of preservation, and it seems probable
that, like them, Recrpracutitss had a test composed of aragonite.

Bryozoa. | Brachiopods. Hindia. Receptaculites. | Cephalopod ,
NPD UER EU cha nisie'e soo o0ae Calcareous..| Calcar...... SUITOR erence cette C Aragonite.
Tapes he eee SUICEOUS. .:..() SUIG.< co cues Pytites se Casts (colored)....| Casts.
Acidaspis shale......... Caleareous..| Calcar....... SGUUIBUGi ee ee VIULCY kids cc'scle<'s Pyrite.
MGI BUBIC! ccc clcciccaccsss Calcareous..| Calear....... Caleary.c.scs Ferrug. Impress ..| Pyrite.

IEIAORUONOG 20... ccc. hese SLIGeOUS . 62.) SHies siete Sie: 2s. sec ds Casts (colored)....| Casts.

In considering the various features belonging to this species as
stated above, the view that the examples of Ruoxpracu.irss
which have been regarded as representing the true structure of
the organism, and studied as such, are probably only casts or
infiltrations, must have suggested itself. From many considera-
tions, this seems the inevitable conclusion, yet, if the Lower
Helderberg specimen is Recrrracoti1Es, it is not a cast, but repre-
sents the original organism more truthfully than any example
yet described.

In some respects the structures referred by different writers to
REOEPTACULITES are so analogous to those seen in this specimen,
that it seems more than probable that they are casts; yet certain
features, as described, are impossible to explain on that basis,
and the hypothesis must be, in many cases, considerably modi-
fied. Much, however, can be explained by the mode of preser-
vation. The processes of replacement and of fossilization are
known only as results. Noone has been able to study them in
operation. To make a priori assertions in regard to them is
impossible, since conditions beyond consideration might at any
moment change what would seem the probable course. This is

36

282 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

especially true in regard to RecrrracuLirss, an organism whose
original nature and composition are not positively known.
Whether composed of calcite, aragonite or chitine, it is certain
that it was not as enduring as most animal remains preserved in
the fossil state. |

Had the examination of type specimens been possible, many of
the present difficulties and contradictions which a comparison
with figures alone has entailed, might not have been met, and
those still unsolved might be satisfactorily ascribed to preserva-
tion or specific differences. The conclusions of Hinpu* regarding
the structure of RecmpracuLirus agree so nearly in every detail
with those of Briuines,t that it has been possible to unite the
results of these two authors in comparing them with my own.
Both writers employed for study representatives of a number of
different species, probably in several different modes of preserva-
tion. Briiiines, moreover, seems to have considered IscuapritTEs
as a synonym for Reorpracuritrs, and studied both genera,
though his conclusions refer to Recrerraoutitss alone.

My own observations lead to the opinion that the spicular
summit plates mentioned by these writers are an infiltration of
the rhombic pits of the outer surface or of their casts. The fact
that the summit-plates are admitted to be structureless and of a
single layer, enhances the probability of their originating in this
way. The four horizontal spicular rays are casts of the four
canals or stolons, which, in the Lower Helderberg specimen, run
from the radiating tubes into each angle of the rhombic pits.
The fact that these rays are said to be in contact with the summit
plate coincides with this view. Both Bittines and Hinpz men-
tion the curious circumstance that one ray, that which points
away from the nucleus or basal pole, is sometimes not in contact
with the summit plate. ;

In addition to the stolons which extend into the angles of each
pit, a conical spine projects into one angle and above the stolon,
penetrating that angle. There is, moreover, only one such spine,
and reason has been given for supposing that it pointed longi- .
tudinally. The existence of this spine satisfactorily explains the
separation of one ray of the cast from the summit plate.

* HINDE, 1884. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. XL, p. 821.
+ BILLINGS, 1861-65. Geology of Canada. Palaeozoic Fossils, vol. I, p. 378 et seg.

LowER HELDERBERG FAUNA. . 983

The radial pillarsare said to be continuous with the summit plates
and they must be preserved and represented in the same way.
The summit plates are regarded as casts of rhombic pits. Hence.
the radial pillars seem only infiltrations filling the radial tubes.
On this basis, the spicular canals, the presence of which has
been confirmed by many writers, would be the result of an incom-
plete process of deposition.

The character of the inner wall does not appear to be definitely
made out by any of the investigators who have written on
Recerracutites. In the case of 2. infundibuliformis, my own
observations are not wholly satisfactory. The salient features of
the descriptions given by H1ypr and Briuines are that (1) it is
probably not composed of separate plates like the outer wall,
but many examples show a continuous layer; (2) this is pierced at
regular intervals by round holes arranged in a quincunx order,
and these perforations are sometimes connected by furrows which
apparently mark off the surface into rhombic plates similar to
those beneath, with which they are joined by the radial pillars;
(3) in the body of each plate lie four canals running from the
center (the point of union with the radial pillars) to the middle
of each side, where they join the canals similarly situated, of the
four plates adjoining. Ravrr regards both perforations and
canals as the result of fossilization. If Ravrr’s conclusion is cor-
rect, the endorhin need not be discussed. If, on the other hand,
the traces interpreted by H1inpr and Briiiines stand for real
structures, the distinction between the ectorhinal and endorhinal
canals should be noted.

“The stolons run along the inner surface of the ectorhin, but the
endorhinal canals are excavated in the substance of the endorhin.”*
Since the canals in the Lower Helderberg species run longitudin-
ally and the endorhinal canals spirally, it is difficult to regard the
two as identical. Should this, however, be the case, the distinc-
tion pointed out by Biixrnes corresponds to a difference between
the canals of the outer and inner walls, as shown in ZR. infundib-
wliformis. In the ectorhin, the canals are trenches in the
bottom of rhomboidal depressions; in a cast, they would appear
like stolons attached to a rhomboidal plate; yet, in the endorhin,
they are enclosed as described by Bittines and Hinpz.

* BILLINGS 1861-5. Geol. of Canada, Palzeozoic Fossils, p. 382.

284 ' Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

Most writers on Recerracuites have reached different eon-
clusions as to its original composition. Hyp believes that it
was siliceous; Raurr that it was calcareous; Gumpet that it was
aragonite, and Birxines that it was calcite or in part coriaceous.
These variations in results may be explained by the fact that infil-
tration products only have been investigated, the nature of the
material being that which at the time was most plentifully
dissolved in the sea-water of a given locality.. This notion
naturally modifies conclusions reached under such conditions-
However, my own conclusions agree either with those of GumsEL
that RecerTacu.itses was originally composed of aragonite, or of
Bitiines that it was chitinous. The matrix of the pyritized
specimen is shaly limestone. The radial tubes and the space
between them are filled by calcite or (?)celestite. This feature
is in marked contrast with ordinary specimens, for, as BiLLines
says, “the space between the tubes is almost always filled with
the rock of the same kind as that in which'the fossil is imbedded.”

The majority of examples studied by H1nvx, Bitiines, and
others, are probably like 7. Owenz, described below, where the
cavity left by the dissolution of the original organism has been
filled by a structureless deposition from infiltering waters. It
seems as if the more unique details of structure may have been
derived from an infiltration, filling the organism itself, or from
others where a maceration of the skeleton has left upon the
cast traces which usually would not be received. Replace-
ments by silica or calcite may also in some instances have been
investigated.

The conclusions of the above writers are of a general character,
and it has been possible to discuss them only in a general way.
However, specimens of both f. Neptuns and F&. Owens have
been examined and afford a definite basis for comparison. ;

Leceptaculites Owenr.

This species commonly occurs as tabular fragments of the.
basal portion of the organism. Specimens from Illinois usually
have a thickness of 5 mm. near the basal pole, increasing distally
to 20 mm. or more, and sometimes attain a very large size. The
material is a granular dolomite, having much the appearance of
yellowish sandstone. The outer surface is marked off into.

Lower HELpERBERG FAUNA. 285

rhombic areas by two sets of intersecting ridges. Shallow
rounded canals transverse each rhombus and connect the
opposite angles. Of the four, that which runs between the
center and one of the obtuse angles.is noticeably on a higher
plane than the others, the opposite one being lower than the
rest. Nothing similar to this arrangement has been observed in
L. nfundibuliformis. From the center of each rhombus a
radial canal perforates the specimen, opening on the gastral side.
Just below the surface the canals suddenly expand, then taper
gradually, until they meet the inner surface. The diameter
where they terminate is considerably larger than that at the
starting point. The canals are not terete, but are modified by
annular constrictions and dilatations like the growth-lines of a
coral. The inner surface, also, is marked by ridges, which,
however, do not make a regular rhombic pattern, but wind
irregularly among the tubular orifices. Sometimes the openings
.of the tubes are surrounded by shallow, circular depressions ;
sometimes there is an appearance as if canals ran from the tube
to the acute angles of the rhombus; and sometimes the inter-
sections of the ridges are emphasized by monticules.

Bruurynes calls attention to the fact that in magnesian lime-
stones, where the hard parts of fossils are in general totally
removed, so that the cavities once occupied by them remain
empty, Reozpracutirss is found in the same condition (p. 386 Joc.
cit.). This is true of 2. Oweni, which bears every evidence of
being a cast. In most specimens, then, the remains consist of the
filling of the intermural space, with casts of the outer surface of
the inner wall, the inner ae of the outer wall and of the con-
necting tubes. |

The structures in 2. Oweniand the pyritized specimen of Le. infun-
dibuliformis correspond very closely, although the former, as a
cast, represents inner surfaces of the skeleton and the latter
seems to preserve the outer surface. Details in 22. Oweni are
imperfect in character, and partly obliterated by the granular
nature of the matrix.

Another feature, the configuration of the external surface, has
been noticed by Prof. Hauu.*. The specimen representing it is
preserved in the American Museum of Natural History, New

* HALL, 1861. Rep. Prog. Geol. Surv. Wisconsin, p. 15.

286 REpPoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

York city.* This specimen is adherent to the matrix along its
outer wall, but a portion has been broken away, and shows the
inclosing rock marked off by curving ridges into rhombic figures,
which have the characteristic intaglio ornamentation presented in
the diagram, Plate VI, figure 4. The ridges on the specimen are
Opposite to, and continuous with, those on the matrix. It is evi-
dent that the outer surface must have had individual opercula or
a common investment whose cast is preserved on the matrix.
That something of the sort existed is shown by the pyritized
specimen also, since the radial tubes are not filled with the shaly
matrix (as would be the case if the ends had not been closed),
but by a white, crystalline mineral, probably celestite.

Why the matrix appears to be continuous with the specimen
along the radiating ridges is a perplexing problem. Perhaps it
may be due to the granulo.crystalline condition of the matrix.

The specimens thus far discussed are casts and have been
found in the Galena limestone of Illinois and Wisconsin.
Another example of 2. Oweni comes from the same horizon in
Iowa, and illustrates a different condition of preservation. It is
composed of calcite and represents what has usually been called ~
the true structure of the organism, but what I consider as only
an infiltration product of a form like the foregoing. The matrix
is dolomite, softer than that from Illinois and less crystalline.
The curvature of the specimen affords a clue to its orientation,
and the indication thus given is confirmed by the presence on
the concave surface of gentle elevations covered with a network
of intersecting channels.t Yet.the pores which are said by Br1-
Lines and Hinpx to pierce the endorhin between the radial pil-
lars do not exist in this specimen, but they do exist in the
ectorhin.

The outer wall is marked off into rhombic plates by thin par-
titions of the matrix, which is continuous alike with that around
the fossil and that between the pillars. The points of intersection
of the partitions are represented by rounded pillars. A section -
of the ectorhin showing these features is given on Plate VI, fig-

* This specimen is the one studied by Prof. HALL, and will be figured shortly in an illustrated cata-
logue of the Museum.

+The inner surface of the plate is flat; the upper surface, or that which is exposed in the cup or
disk, is oftentimes convex and deeply ridged and furrowed.” (Pl. XXXVII, fig. 3, c-g.) HINDE, 1884.
Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. XL, p. 825.

Lower HELDERBERG F'AUNA. 287

ure 8. The summit plates are structureless and the tangential
rays have not been observed in this specimen. The pillars are
connected directly with the summit plates, and like them are of
crystalline calcite. There is no trace of a central canal. A little
below the summit plate the pillars expand suddenly and then
taper slightly. They are marked by distinct annular constric-
tions or lines of growth. At their ixner extremities they meet
the gastral wall, or expand to form it. At any rate, the wall is
continuous, and the demarkation of the plates no longer exists.
Opposite the pillars, and occupying nearly the whole of each
plate on its outer side, is a rounded elevation covered by anasto-
mosing channels, as described above. This structure seems to

be characteristic of the gastral surface. As the inner wall of
this specimen exhibits neither the canals nor perforations described
by Hinpz and Bri11nes, it confirms the observations of Raurr,
who considers these features to be due to preservation. Sections
illustrating the various structures of the specimen are shown on
Plate VI, figures 1, 2, 3, 4.

Leceptaculites Neptuni.

In the American Museum of Natural History, New York city,
there is a siliceous representative of 2. Veptunz (the type species),
which in the structure of its outer wall agrees with the pyritized
specimen from the Helderberg. The tubes are hollow, their
wall continuous with the radiating ridges and their central canals
open into the rhombic pits, which are not occupied by summit
plates.

The foregoing comparison illustrates the conflicting nature of
the evidence afforded by Recsrracutites. It shows that speci-
mens apparently well preserved contradict others of the same
genus, and that structures were maintained or obliterated as the
result of slight changes in the conditions of preservation. The
specimen of 2. infundibuliformis is certainly more trustworthy
than any other example of the genus before noticed, and affords
a more accurate notion of the original structure and its details.
Still the belief is unwarranted that this specimen represents the
organism in its entirety, and that nothing further remains to be
studied. Enough, however, has been preserved to direct aright
the consideration of the affinities and systematic position of the
genus.

COP LCENTERATAg

HY DROZOA.

Family Dictyonrmip2.
Dictyonema, Hall, 1852.
DioTYoNEMA CRASSUM, Sp. Nov.
Plate IV, figures 1, 2.

Shape of entire frond not known. The largest fragment
measures 7.5 by 7.5 cm. The branches are marked by coarse
longitudinal striz, or wrinkles, which are not continuous. The
dissepiments are nearly equal in size and parallel in direction,
forming with the branches a rather uniform reticulation. Both
branches and dissepiments are enlarged at their point of union,
giving the fenestrules a more or less rounded form. Thickness
of branches, .5 tol mm. Dissepiments of about the same size.
The specimens examined are casts.

The zoarium in Dictyonema crasswm is coarser than in D. reti-
forme, Hall, of the Niagara group, the dissepiments heavier, and
the ee iy more rounded.

The quality of the material would hardly warrant the jena
tion of a new species, were it not that this is the first appearance
of the genus noted in Lower Helderberg strata.

Horizon.— Shaly limestone.

Locality.— Clarksville, Albany county, New York.

Family Monoprionip#.
Monograptus, Emmons, 1856.

Monocrartus BEEcgsERI, sp. nov.
Plate IV, figures 3-15.

Stipe linear, minute, with a carination on either side. Surface —
marked by fine longitudinal strie, which are not continuous.
Denticulations about the same width as the stipe, acute, distant.
It is not known whether the stipe is simple or branched.

This species of Monocraprtus is interesting, not alone as the
first example of the genus reported from the Lower Helderberg
rocks, but also as the last known representative of this character-

LowerR HELDERBERG FAUNA. 289

istic Silurian genus. Its presence here is important in its bear-
ing upon the position of the Lower Helderberg Group in the geo-
logical scale, for similar forms have been found in the earliest
Devonian faunas of Germany. ,

The stipe is cylindrical, sometimes tetragonally prismatic. It
is hollow, with thick walls, crossed at intervals by tabulz, one
for each serration, which bound the zo@idal habitations. On op-
posite sides, there are projecting ridges, or cost, the plane of
the latter being at right angles to the plane of the serrations.
Besides the: costs, there are often fine longitudinal grooves or
strie. The teeth are rather distant; the upper side is sometimes
at right angles to the stipe, at others acutely inclined to it. The
upper surface is somewhat flattened and is pierced by circular or
elliptical zooidal openings, situated well toward the stipe. The
under surface of the teeth is sometimes flattened, sometimes
rounded, the flattened examples at least being provided with a
' median ridge. The specimens observed are all fragmentary, and
the nature of the sicula has not been ascertained. No indica-
tions of branching have been noticed, but the zoarium may be
bifurcated or even ramose.

Horizon.—Shaly limestone, Indian Ladder, Helderberg
Mountain.

STROMATOPOROIDEA.

With the exception of Actinostroma Ristigouchense, Spencer, I
have been unable to find notices of any American Stromato-
poroids from the Lower Helderberg Group. The species de-
scribed below constitute only a beginning in the investigation of
this class of Coelenterates, which is well represented in the life
of this period. But to make an exhaustive study of this portion
of the fauna would require a large collection, gathered with that
end especially in view. —

All the Stromatoporoids in this collection, with the exception
of Clathrodictyon Jewett, appear to be formed on one type of
structure, and I have referred them, but with some hesitation, to
the genus Syringostroma, Nicholson. This genus (type S. denswm)
was proposed by Nicnortson* for some Stromatoporoids from

* NICHOLSON, 1875. Geol. Surv. Ohio, Pal., vol. II, p. 251.

37

290 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

the Devonian strata of Ohio. The original description contains
nothing of generic value. S. denswm, however, is said to be
composed of concentric lamine of very dense, finely cellulose tis-
sue, traversed by numerous horizontal canals. ‘The upper sur-
face exhibits two distinct sets of apertures — firsily, a series of
very minute and crowded perforations, which doubtless corre-
spond with the cells of the mass; and, secondly, a larger set of
apertures which are very irregularly distributed, and are like-
wise very numerous.” These are said to be almost certainly the
apertures of a series of vertical canals (probably such as fre-
quently form the center of astrorhizal systems). The presence
of well-marked astrorhizze is also noticed. The figures accom-
panying the text appear diagrammatic, and show no new points
of structure.

In the Monograph on British Fossil Stromatoporoids, NicHot-
son has brought together his more careful investigations on that
group of fossils, and it is to this work that we must look for his
latest and best considered results.

Of the genus Syrincostroma, he gives the following descrip-
tion — “‘Ccenosteum massive, formed of successive ‘latilamine.’
Skeleton-fibre minutely porous. The skeletal tissue is, on the
whole, of the reticulated typ echaracteristic of the Srromato-
PORID#, but the radial pillars are distinctly recognizable and some
of them are of large size. Astrorhize are largely developed.”
He further states, “In the more minutely porous character of the
skeleton-fibre, as also in the essentially reticulate structure of the
skeletal tissue, S. denswm quite resembles the species of Stromato-
pora,Goldf. It has, however, the peculiarity that the coenosteum
is traversed at intervals by large-sized radial pillars which are
recognizable in both tangential and vertical sections. I should
not have been disposed to regard this feature as of generic value,
except that I have recently had an opportunity, through the
kindness of Prof. J. W. Spencer, of examining an apparently re-
lated form which seems worthy of generic distinction. |

“Tangential and vertical sections of this beautiful type show a
curious combination of the characters of Srromarorora, Goldf.,
and Aotinostroma, Nich. Thus, the skeleton-fibre has to a

Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 2914

marked extent the minutely porous structure which is so charac-
teristic of Srromaropora, properly so called; while the radial
pillars and their connecting processes are as distinctly and clearly
developed as in the type-forms of Actinostroma. The radial
pillars, in fact, are exceedingly large and give off whorls of deli-
cate ‘arms’ or connecting processes which are emitted at cor-
responding levels in a radiating manner, and which circumscribe
rounded pores representing the zooidal tubes. The astrorhizal
canals are largely developed, and we therefor see in vertical sec-
tions, as in similar sections of S. densum, the large rounded aper-
tures which represent cut ends of these tubes, and upon which
the genus Syrineosrroma was originally based. This latter
_ character is, of course, one of no generic importance, as, indeed,
present in all Stromatoporoids with large astrorhizal canals.”

It may seem unjust to a writer to discuss his work without the
advantage of consulting identified specimens, but under the cir-
‘cumstances I have been forced to do so. After a careful study
of both text and plates, no other conclusion is possible than that
S. Listigouchense is an Aotrnostroma of no abnormal type, and
if the generic claims of SyrincostRoma rest on the validity of S.
Listigouchense, it will have to be united with some other form.

Nicuotson well says that, in radial section, the structure is
characteristically Actinostromoid, but the statement that tan-
gential sections show the minutely porous structure of Srroma-
ToPoRA seems ill-advised. The skeleton of the latter genus is
porous, and the tissue itself minutely fibrous or vesiculose.
Radial pillars are few or absent, and the porous skeletal tissue is
not formed by connecting processes springing from the arms, but
by independent anastomosing fibers. According to Nionotson,
however, this structure is represented in S. Pistigouchense, and
is also typical of the genus Actinostroma. On this account I
have placed the species in that genus. The unusual appearance
in tangential section exhibited by <Actinostroma Listegouchense
seems to be due to the large size of the radial pillars, to which
Nionorson has called attention, accompanied by a corresponding
reduction in the length of the connecting processes. It is owing
to the same fact that, in vertical section, the laminated char-
acter of the skeleton is not as striking as in other species of
AcTINOSTROMA. |

292 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

On the other hand, Syrrncostroma seems well able to stand as
a genus without. the support of Actinostroma Listigouchense, if
the characters attributed to it by Nicholson from a fac. of
S. densum hold good.

The Lower Helderberg representatives of this genus, if cor-
rectly ascribed to SyRrincostroma, agree in many respects with
S. densum. As far as examined, they are all normal and exhibit
well-marked Stromatoporoid characters. The division of the
coenosteum into latilamine is usually conspicuous, as are also the
large astrorhize often situated on monticules with a tubular axis.
Tangential sections of well-preserved specimens show a doubly
porous structure. In the first place, the skeleton is rendered:
pumicious by the presence of numerous vacuole, usually of an
elongated or vermicular form. This appearance resembles that
common in StromarToporA, and is-easily seen when slightly magni-
fied or even with the naked eye. Further, the skeletal tissue
itself is of a minutely porous character, and appears to be com-
posed of a mesh of anastomosing fibers. This structure suggests
the system of radial pillars joined by horizontal arms character-
istic of Actrnostroma, but such interpretation is discountenanced
by a study of vertical sections. Viewed in radial section, the
skeleton is seen to be composed of laminz and radial pillars,
which are continuous and usually of large size. Instead of being
dense and granular, as in Actinostroma, these have the same mi-
nutely porous structure as the laminz. Moreover, although the
pillars are usually superimposed and continuous in that sense,
they are not the controlling structural element as in Aortnos-
TRoMA. It often happens that the dark lines which demarkate
different laminze pass continuously through the pillars, cutting
them into many sections or drums. Each of these is continuous
with the lower portion of the lamina immediately beneath it, and
is terminated by the upper face of the lamina above.

Thus, while Syrrycostroma unites structures characteristic of
both Actinostroma and Stromaropora, and in an intermediate —
form between the Hydractinioid and Milleporoid groups of
SrroMATOPORAS, in typical examples, its separation from any other
genus is attended with little difficulty, and its validity as a
separate type seems certain. It resembles Srromatopora in the
poro-fibrose structure of the lamin, but is without the tabulate
zodidal tubes of that genus. Neither by implication nor by direct

LowrER HELpERBERG FAUNA. 293

statement does Nicuotson refer this structure to S. densum.
Moreover, the interzooidal spaces are regularly arranged into
columns, and the more minute division into laminz is conspicuous,
which is never the case in STROMATOPORA.

While the radial structure of Syringostroma is suggestive of
Actrnostroma, the pillars are porous, not granular. They are
either confluent with, or terminated by the lamine. |

In most of the Lower Helderberg specimens the laminz appear
in radial section of a darker color than do the radial pillars which
support them. In a similar way the monticules are still darker
than the rest of the laminz, and become prominent to the eye on
that account. Whether this circumstance is due to a difference
in density of the skeletal tissue, or is owing to mechanical causes
governing infiltration or replacement, I have been unable to
determine.

The preparation of drawings to illustrate the newly described
material was attended with some difficulty, for it was almost
impossible to depict the sections as they appeared with fluctua-
tions of shade and distinctness, and with the gradations through
which the dark fibers of the skeletal tissue passed into the nearly
_ colorless calcite in filtering the vacule or chambers. Conse- .
quently the annexed figures partake somewhat of the nature of
restorations, for they are intended to convey the expression of
the original, without faithfully reproducing its defects or defic-
iencies. At the same time they do not aim to present the organ-
ism in the condition in which it perished and became imbedded
in the marine deposits.

SYRINGOSTROMA CENTROTUM, Sp. Nov.
Plate VII, figures 1, 2.

Coenosteum massive, spheroidal, often attaining a large size.
Intermittent concentric growth results in the formation of lati-
laminz, which are usually conspicuous. The surface is thickly
covered with rounded eminences or “ mamelons,” and astrorhizze
are numerous but minute. The presence or absence of an
epitheca has not been ascertained.

No specimens in this collection are entire, but all evidence
points to an originally spheroidal form for the ccenosteum.
One specimen appears to have had a diameter of about 27 cm.
when entire. The concentric character of the structure is usually

994. Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

quite striking. Some specimens are readily separated into thin
sheets or latilamine. In others, more completely infiltered by
calcite or less weathered, the latilamine are indicated only by
darker and lighter bands. When in this condition they are not
disjoined by a blow from the hammer, but the specimen chips or
fractures like a structureless limestone. Surface characters are
best studied under the former condition of preservation. Sections
of many Helderberg Stromatoporoids examined show that the
original calcareous skeleton of the colony has been replaced by
some dark material, probably impure limestone, while the spaces
between pillars and partitions are filled by transparent calcite.
The definition is nearly always indistinct.

Tangential sections do not remain parallel to the surface in
this species, except over small areas, for the curvature is not
regular but flexuous, and the latilamine are more or less
foliaceous and imbricating. Thus extended sections cut the
frequent monticules at all angles and appear like panels of curly
maple. )

In specimens which break along the latilamine the surface
is seen to be vermiculate and porous, thickly covered with
prominent conical elevations. This characteristic vermiculate
structure is shown also in tangential sections, and is not due to
weathering and preservation. Astrorhize are numerous, but
small and inconspicuous, as if they were merely the usual porous
structure intensified. They are distributed over the surface, and .
are often to be found on the sides of the monticules. The
monticules, as shown by radial sections, are usually superimposed
throughout one latilamina, but in two consecutive latilamine
this may or may not be the case. They are often pierced by
straight central canals directed radially. These canals often
extend through one whole set of monticules. They have no
proper walls and, therefore, cannot be referred to “ Caunopora”
tubes or tubicolous annelids. When broken transversely the
mamelons are seen to be distinctly porous. The pores, or canals,
are often arranged in concentric series, coincident with the cut
edges of the intersected laminz, and evidently represent sections
of the astrorhizal canals.

Weathered fractures and properly oriented sections show that
the radial pillars are strong, parallel, and continuous through

LowER HELpERBERG FAUNA. 295

several layers of the ccenosteum. They are united at more or
less regular intervals by concentric partitions which have the
porous structure above described. These concentric laminze
appear to be composed of inosculating fibers forming a retic-
ulate skeleton, and not of lateral arms given off in a whorl
around each pillar as in the genus Aotinostroma. Vertical
sections through a monticule show that the radial pillars are not
parallel as elsewhere, but are inclined at a slight angle away from
the imaginary axis of the monticule.

This species agrees well with the figures and descriptions of
Syringostroma densum, except that the cut ends of the radial pil-
lars are not distinguishable in tangential section. This seems to
be the common species at Cedarville, N. Y., and is readily
recognized by the number and prominence of the mamelons.

fHorizon.— Lower Pentamerus limestone.

Locality— Cedarville, N. Y.

SyRINGOSTROMA FOVEOLATUM, Sp. nov.
Plate VI, figures 8, 9.

Coenosteum massive and of large size. Outer surface and
point of attachment not known. Division into latilamine usually
apparent. In one specimen the latilamine are folded into regu-
lar hemispherical elevations, having a diameter of about 50 mm.
Radial pillars continuous and usually large. Viewed in vertical —
section, the lamine are thick and, the interlaminar space narrow.
Tangential sections show the laminz to have a dense structure,
but the organism may still be referred to the Milleporoid type.
The pores, which in S. centrotum appeared as transparent ver-
miculate patches, in this species are represented only by minute
spots, sometimes connected by transparent thread-like bands.
The skeleton fibers are large, with fine reticulations, giving the
_ tissue as a whole a dense consistency. The concentric lamina,
likewise, are unusually thick and heavy, the vacuoles of small
size and the intercolumnar spaces minute. Astrorhize are fre-
quent, and well-developed monticules appear to be present, chiefly
associated with astrorhize. ‘They are indicated in the section by
a darker shading, but their elevation is so slight that tangential
sections often show the astrorhizz equally well on all sides. The
monticules sometimes have tubular axes. When weathered, the

996 REportT oF THE STatTE GEOLOGIST.

coenosteum often develops little pits or conical depressions about
4 mm. apart, which are rather characteristic of the species. S.
foveolatum differs from S. centrotum in its thick and dense
laminz, its low monticules and its conspicuous astrorhize. |
Horizon.— Lower Pentamerus limestone.
Locality.— Cedarville,N.Y.

SYRINGOSTROMA MICROPORUM, SP. NOV.
Plate VI, figure 7.

Coenosteum massive, latilaminate, shape unknown, probably
spherical or subspherical. Surfaces parted along the latilaminz
are covered with numerous monticules, which are, however, of
small size. They are usually pierced by axial tubes and provided
with well-developed astrorhizz seldom visible on the lamellar
partings. In vertical sections the skeleton is seen to be composed
of persistent radial pillars and the customary concentric lamine.
Tangential sections show the lamine to have a finely porous
structure, the skeleton fiber being of the characteristic reticulated
tissue common to other Helderberg Syringostromas. Tangential
sections through the monticules show only the cut ends of the
astrorhize. When the section lies in the lateral slope of a
monticule, the latter is seen to be provided with an extensively
spreading astrorhizal system. The thickness and density of the
' lamine in 8. foveolatum readily distinguishes it from this species

in microscopic examination. Furthermore, monticules are here
apparent, and there is no indication of a tendency to weather
into conical pits, as in S. Soveolatum.
Compared with S. centrotum, the skeletal tissue is much finer,
~and the monticules less numerous.
Formation.— Lower Pentamerus limestone.
Locality.— Cedarville, N. Y.

SYRINGOSTROMA BARRETTI, Sp. Nov.

Plate VII, figures 5, 6.
Ccenosteum large, hemispherical, spreading. Latilamine dis-
tinct, more or less labyrinthine toward the center, on the
periphery flowing in broad folds. They end abruptly on the
under side, and are attached directly without an epitheca. Lam-
ine parallel and gently flexuous. Astrorhizz not numerous, but

LowER HELDERBERG FAUNA. 297

large and conspicuous. The nucleus of an astrorhizal system is
sometimes represented by an axial tube, and the laminez at that
point are often elevated into a low monticule. Skeletal tissue
finely fibrous, but a little coarser than in S. centrotum.

This species is characterized by the infundibuliform concentric
growth and the flat base without an epitheca (7). Without the
aid of thin sections, the outer surface of the type specimen ap-
pears dense, fine-grained and structureless, except for latilaminz
which separate in unusually thin sheets. Sections near the sur-
face are without monticules, astrorhize, and axial tubes, exhibit-
ing only the uniform, porous skeleton and fibrous structure.
The same surface characters are presented by the basal portion
_ and suggest an epithecate condition, but it has not the polished

surface and concentric wrinkles characteristic of the epitheca in
Favositres. The flat base of the specimen is attached to a branch-
ing form of Dipropuyitium. Syringostroma Barretti is the com-
mon species at the Indian Ladder.

Horizon.— Lower Pentamerus limestone.

Locality.— The Indian Ladder, N. Y.

SYRINGOSTROMA OONSIMILE, Sp. Nov.
Plate VII, figures 8, 4.

Coenosteum massive, large, and subspherical. Latilaminate
structure shown by sections or on weathered surfaces. Thelam-
inz are disposed in pointed, wave-like folds, which are not super-
imposed. Skeleton-fiber finely porous; tissue reticulate; astro-
rhize few and very large, sometimes provided with a tubular
axis.

This species is similar to S. Barretti, but the material examined
can be separated with little difficulty by the character of the
lamine, which, in the latter, are gently curved, proximate, and
parallel, but in S. cons¢mile are angular and independent in their
flexures. Thus, S. consimile generally lacks the superimposed
monticules of the kindred form. The reticulations of the skele-
ton-fiber are somewhat coarser than in S. Barretti, and very
much coarser than in S. centrotum, while the thinness of the
laminz is also characteristic. The figure which presents a ver-
tical section of this species is drawn to slightly too large a scale,
making the columno-lamellose structure of the cut more open

38

998 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

than in the original. Comparative study of a series of speci-
mens, however, may prove these two types to be identical, but
for the present, at least, it is necessary to regard them as
distinct. | 5
Horizon.— Lower Pentamerus limestone.
Locality.— Outlet of Skaneateles lake, N. Y.

CLATHRODICTYON JEWSTTI, sp. NOV.
- Plate VI, figures 5, 6.

Coenosteum known only as a small fragment. Latilaminate,
probably massive. Surface characters not known. Laminz very
conspicuous in vertical section. Radial pillars persistent through
one interlaminar space, usually terminating in the laminar parti-
tion. Tangential sections show the cut ends of the radial pillars,
which are apparently not connected by arm-like processes, but
by a continuous wall. Monticules are present, associated with
astrorhize and axial tubes, but. the character of the astrorhize
has not been determined. The skeleton does not show the
“pillar and arm” structure characteristic of AcTINosTRoMA nor
the reticulated skeleton common in SyRingcosTROMA.

The species resembles (. striatellwm, Nicholson, in many par-
ticulars, but the latter is without astrorhize, monticules, etc.,
which form a striking feature in the Actonostromide. It differs
from Nicuotson’s species, also, in the more normal radial pillars
and regular mesh. All the sections studied have been cut from
the small fragment which alone represents this species. In none
of them do the radial pillars extend systematically through a
number of interlaminar spaces; and although an apparent pro-
longation through two or even three such spaces may occasionally
be observed, the occurrence is too rare to influence the generic
determination of the specimen.

Horizon.— Lower Pentamerus limestone.

Locality.— Cedarville, N. Y.

Actinostroma, Nicholson, 1886.
AOTINOSTROMA RISTIGOUCHENSE.

Caenostroma Ristigouchense, Spencer, 1884. Bull. No.1, Univ. State Missouri,

4 On :
Syringostroma Ristigouchense, Nicholson, 1886. Pal. Soc., vol. P.2 8.0
__... British Stromatoporoids, expl. Pl. XI, figs. 11, 12.

ee ee

Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 999

I have not been able to examine specimens of A. istigouchense
nor to consult Spencer’s description of the species. Fortunately
it is figured and discussed by Nionorson (/.c.). For reasons given
above it has been removed from the genus SyRrincostroma where
Niocxotson places it.

ANTHOZOA.
Family CyaTHAXonIDs.
Duncanella, Nicholson, 1874.

DouNcANELLA RUDIS, Sp. NOV.
Plate II, figures 7, 8.

Corallum simple, straight, turbinate, rather evenly and rapidly
' expanding. Ruge on the exterior coarse, and not sharply
defined.

Horizon.— Delthyris Shaly limestone.

Locality.— The Indian Ladder, Albany oahe Ney.

This species of Duncanexra is not a rare form in the higher
beds of the Shaly limestone of the Helderberg mountains, and
specimens of it may have been heretofore identified as Strepte-
lasma strictum. While StrrpreLasmMa was attached like most
cyathophylloid corals, DowcaneLta was probably in a free con-
dition. The latter also possessed this unique characteristic, that
the theca is incomplete at the base, leaving the septa exsert. In
' Srrepretasma, they meet in the center and are twisted to forma
pseudo-columella, while this structure is replaced in DuncanELua
by a sort of tube reaching nearly to the base, and formed by the
extremities of the septa, which do not extend quite to the center.
DonoanELLs, moreover, is entirely without tabule or dissepi-
mental tissue, which seem to be always present in StREPTELASMA,
although in varying degrees.

Duncanella rudis differs from D. borealis, Nicholson, of the
Niagara group, in several particulars. It is erect, not bent or
uncinate like the latter, while the apical angle is considerably
greater. The rugze on the surface are much less numerous and
less sharply defined, while the parallel, horizontal growth lines,
which are rather characteristic of the Niagara species, are very
obscure.

300 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Family ZaPHRENTID#.
Streptelasma,, Hall, 1847.

STREPTELASMA STRICTUM, Hall, 1874.

Streptelasma (Petraia) stricta, Hall, 1874. Twenty-sixth Rep. New York
State Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 142.

Streptelasma stricta, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus.
Nat. Hist., p. 142.

Streptelasma strictum, Hall, 1883. Rep. State (Geologist; for 1882, expl. Pl. I,
figs. 1-10.

Streptelasma strictum, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 1.

Horizon.— Shaly limestone. Indian Ladder, Catskill Creek,
Clarksville, Hudson, Schoharie and other localities in New York.

The genus SrrerreLasma was proposed by Hall* in the first
volume of the Palaeontology of New York. At the same time,
also, several species were described, but as no type was desig-
nated, S. expansum, the first described, should be taken as such,
although the practice has been to employ S. corniculum as the
typical form. The original description of the genus is as fol-
lows: “Turbinate, gradually or abruptly expanding above; form

ike CyaTHOoPHYLLUM; terminal cup more or less deep; lamellez

vertical or longitudinal, more or less spirally twisted together
when meeting in the center.”

As the type species (S. expansum) still remains uninvestigated,
and as the description above quoted is insufficient to distinguish
the genus from other Cyathophylloid corals, Sir TELAsma strictly
becomes little more than a name.

Unfortunately, owing to the poor preservation of examples
from the Trenton limestone where the original specimens of
S. corniculum were obtained, many investigators, among them
Epwarps and Harmer, Zitre, and Nicucison,} have used for study
well-preserved specimens of the species from the Cincinnati group.
This species was described as Zaphrentis Canadensis. Much
confusion, therefore, has resulted. Epwarps and Haims, regard-
ing S. corniculum as the type, say that Srrrpreasma is distin-
guished from OCyatTHoruytium “by the structure of the wall

* HALL, 1848. Pal. New York, vol. I, p. 17.

+ Both ZiTtTEL (Handb. der Pal., Bd. I, 2 Abth., p. 228) and NICHOLSON (Man. of Pal., vol. I, p. 297, 1889)
figure Z. Canadensis as S. corniculum. On the authority of ROMINGER (Geol. Surv. Michigan, Lower
Peninsula, vol. III, part II, p. 142. 1886) EDWARDS and HAIME are included.

Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 801

which is destitute of an epitheca and covered by sublamellar
coste.”* The statement that S. corniculum, whether from the
Trenton or Hudson River Group, lacks an epitheca, is incorrect
(Romincer, Joc. cit.). The best usaget at present regards Strepts-
- LAsMA as a subgenus of Zarurentis. The two groups pass into
each other by insensible gradations, but typical forms differ in
this, that Srrepreiasma has a less complete development of dis-
sepimental tissue. |

Since the genus S:repretasma is in honorable usage as repre-
senting an actual coralline type, it seems inexpedient to abandon
it at present in view of our inadequate knowledge of S. expansum.
Should a careful investigation of this species show that it does
not belong to the Srrerrenasma type, MurriopHyittum, Edwards
and Haime, will probably have to be substituted. Merriopayrtum
(type Jf. Bouchard) is one of the new genera published by
Epwarps and Harms in 1850, four years after StREPTELASMA Was
established. The original description (Brit. Foss. Corals, p. lxix)
is elaborated as follows: Corallum simple, turbinate, subpedicil-
late, inclosed in a complete epitheca. Septa appear as well-
developed partitions, slightly curved, and extending for the
most part to the center of the visceral cavity ; they are grouped
in four bundles, but the cross formed by the four principal septa,
as it exists in other genera of the family, is indistinguishable.
Tabulz well developed, simple and horizontal, corresponding in
the different interseptal loculiin such a way as to form complete
transverse floors, which are usually marked by the septa, but
which show plainly when the latter are partially destroyed.t The
figures of WU. Bouchardi and the description above quoted
correspond with SrrerrELasma. The only questionable point of
identity consists in the regularity of the tabula, which in the cut
is so marked as to appear almost diagrammatic. The figure
shows that YW. Bouchardi also had acentral axis like a columella.
Although no specimens of Mutriopayiium have been obtainable,
I have ventured to regard it as a synonym of SrrepreLasma.
ZitTEL, however, recognizes both genera, possibly because of their

* EDWARDS and HAIME, 1850. Brit. Foss. Corals, p. xviii. Thesame idea is repeated Mon. des Polyp.
Foss. des Terr. Pal., p.398. 1851.

+ HALL, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. xi, “Streptelasma,” also ROMINGER, loc. cit., p. 141.

+ EDWARDs and HAImMg, 1851, Mon. des Polyp. Foss. des Terr. Pal., p. 317 et seg., Pl.7, figs. 1, 1a, 1b,

2, 2a.

302 ' REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

distribution, as he refers MetriopHyitium to the Devonian and
STREPTELASMA to the Silurian age.

Zaphrentis, Rafinesque, 1820.

ZAPHRENTIS Rormeri, Edwards and Haime, 1851.

Zaphrentis Roemeri, Edwards and Haime, 1851. Mon. des Polyp. Foss. des
Terr. Pal., p. 341.
Zaphrentis Roemeri, Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. I,
figs. 11-21.
Zaphrentis Roemeri, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 2.
Horizen.—- Lower Pentamerus and Shaly limestone.
Localities.—-- Clarksville and Indian Ladder.

PERFORATA.

Family Favosirip2.

Favosites, Lamarck, 1812.

FAVOSITES HELDERBERGIZ, Hall, 1874. s

Favosites Helderbergice, Hall, 1874. Twenty- -sixth Rep. New York State Mus.
Nat. Hist., p. 111.

Favosites Helderbergice, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus.
Nat. Hist., p. 145.

Favosites Helderbergic, Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pi.
IV, figs. 1, 2; Pl. V, figs. 1-3; Pl. VI, figs. 1-8.

Favosites Helderbergic, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 8.

FAVOSITES CONICUS, Hall, 1874.
Favosites conica, Hall, 1874. Twenty-sixth Rep. New York State Mus. Nat.
Hist., p. 112.
Favosites conica, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. Nat.
Hist., p. 146.
Favosites conicus, Hall, 1888. Ban, State peee for 1882, expl. Pl. III, ee
4, 6-18.
Favosites conicus, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 9.
Horizon.-- Shaly limestone.
Locality.-- Clarksville and Indian Ladder, New York ; and Cumberland,
Maryland.

A comparison of Favosites conicus and F. Helderbergiw shows
that these species agree in many important particulars. As
regards the structural peculiarities and the measurement of indi-
vidual corallites, the two species as described by Haut are in

Lower HELDERBERG FAUNA. 303

almost perfect accord, and it is in the size and shape of the
coralla that the most striking differences are shown. Both
forms are covered with a strongly wrinkled epitheca. In /
Helderbergice the mural pores are said to be in one or two ranges,
comparatively large, circular, with margins distinctly elevated ;
the tabule frequent, from ten to fifteen in a space of 10 mm.
In F. conicus the mural pores are comparatively large, circular,
with distinctly elevated margins, disposed in one, two, or some-
times three rows. The tabule vary from eight to ten in a space
of 10mm. The septa in both forms are represented by longi-
. tudinal ridges. Hat describes the walls of 7. Helderbergi« as
sometimes granulose or spinulose on theinnerface. In 7 conicus
the interior of the cells is said to give evidence of numerous
spinules or small nodes.

Of F. conicus, Prof. Haut says, ‘The conical form of this species
and the irregularity in the size of the cells distinguish it from every
_ other known species of Favosrrzs in the Silurian rocks of New
York.”* In the same description the diameter of the cells at
the surface is said to vary from 1.5 to 3.5mm. This places
their size as a little greater than in /. Helderbergiav, where they
range from .66 to2mm. My own measurements show the aver-
age size of the corallites in either species to be from 1.5 to
2mm., and in / conicus from about .5to3mm. The collection
at my command probably does not present the range of speci-
mens which Prof. Haut studied. It is possible that Favosites
conicus and F. Helderbergie both refer to the same organism
_at different stages of growth and preservation. / J/elder-
bergie is found in and at the top of the Lower Pentam-
erus limestone, in_ the neutral zone between that and the
Shaly limestone. /. conzcus is obtained from the Shaly lime-
stone itself, but, toward the base of that horizon, the specimens
occur silicified, and of a larger size, thus displaying a great
resemblance to /. Helderbergiew. The conditions of argillaceous
sedimentation are unfavorable to the growth of corals, and it
is possible that /. conicus simply represents immature or
small forms of the larger species, which a change from favorable
to unfavorable conditions has uniformly prevented from further
growth. :

* HALL, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 9.

304 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

The smallest corallum of /. conicus in this collection is
8mm. in diameter and the largest 48 mm: The majority of
Specimens are discoidal, or flattened hemispherical. A few have
the characteristic form, being conical or strawberry-shaped.

formation and locality.— Indian Ladder, Clarksville, Schoharie,
Herkimer Co., and Cumberland, Maryland.

Favosires Conranl, sp. nov.
Plate V. figures 3-5.

Corallum ramose, branches slender. Oorallites polygonal,
contiguous, of comparatively small size. Pores large, with usually
but a single row to a face. Septa represented by spines which
are close set and regularly arranged so as to give twelve longi-
tudinal rows, forming at the same time transverse rings.
Tabule complete, straight, and near. The mature corallite are
2mm. in diameter, the cells of various sizes. Usually disposed so
that each large cell is surrounded by a ring of smaller corallites
of about half its size. Tabule 1 to 1.5 mm. apart, evenly
distributed.

Although the tabule are near together, they do not appear so
when compared with a closely tabulate form like /. Helderbergia.
The specimens which represent /. Conrad are silicified, and the
character of the septal spines is not satisfactorily shown. The
cell walls are thin, but, near the surface, they are somewhat
thickened by silicification. At this point, the septa are represented
by parallel coronz of prominent spines, which are less conspicu-
ous a little below, and eventually nearly or quite disappear. The

number of septal ridges is regularly twelve. When, through -

abnormal growth among the corallites, an epitheca is developed,
it is ornamented with fine radiating strize and delicate concentric
wrinkles.

Horizon.— Lower enters limestone.

Locality.— Indian Ladder, N. Y.

Favosites sphericus = Chetetes (Ptychonema) spherieus, Hall,
1874.

Favosites proximus = Chetetes (Ptychonema) proximus, Hall,
1883.

These two species have been examined with considerable care
by means of microscopic sections, and I have been unable to

Lower HEeLpEerRBerG FAUNA. 305

detect the presence of either mural pores or septa. It is, therefore,
impossible to retain these forms in the genus Favosites. On the
other hand, the small size of the ceils, the superimposed mode of
growth, and, in the case of Chetetes sphericus, the presence of
macule, all indicate an affinity with the Bryozoa.

Alveolites, Lamarck, 1801.
ALVEOLITES EXPLANATUS, Hall, 1884.
Alveolites explanatus, Hall, 1884. Rep. State Geologist for 1883, expl. Pl. 13,
figs. 15, 16. -
Alveolites explanatus, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 11.

Formation.— Lower Pentamerus limestone.
Localities.— Cedarville, Clarksville and Schoharie, N. Y.

Pleurodictyum, Goldfuss, 1826.
PLEURODICTYUM LENTICULARE, Hall, 1874.
Michelinia lenticularis, Hall, 1874. Twenty-sixth Rep. New York State Mus.
Nat. Hist., p. 113.

Michelinia lenticularis, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus.
Nat. Hist., p. 145.

Michelinia lenticularis, Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl.
ir ties, 1,2, 3, 5.

Pleurodictyuwm lenticulare, Beecher, 1891. Trans. Connecticut Acad., vol.
VIII, p. 207.

Formation.—Shaly limestone, Albany county, N. Y.

Striatopora, Hall, 1852.
STRIATOPORA Issa, Hall, 1874,
Striatopora Issa, Hall, 1874. Twenty-sixth Rep. New York State Mus. Nat.

Hist., p. 114.

Striatopora Issa, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. Nat.
Hist., p. 144.

Striatopora Issa, Hall, 1883. Rep. of State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. III,
figs. 14, 15.

Striatopora Issa, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 6.

Formation and locality.— Shaly limestone, Helderberg mountains, Albany
county, and Becraft’s mountain, Columbia county, N. Y.

39

306 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST..

Cladopora, Hall, 1852.

CrapoporA OLARKEI, sp. Nov.
Plate V, figure 1.

Corallum compact, ramose. Branching, bifurcate infrequent.
Cells in five longitudinal rows, comparatively large, distinctly
labiate. Diameter of the branches varies from .2 to 4 mm.

The branches of this species are unusually small, and the bi-
furcations infrequent. One specimen measures 46 mm. from
a broken end to the point of branching; another measures 42
mm. The apertures also are comparatively distant and are
regularly arranged in five longitudinal rows. The corallites are
long, nearly parallel to the axis of the branch, with a slight out-
ward curvature as they approach the periphery. The plane of
the orifice is nearly perpendicular to the cell wall. This, taken
in connection with the acute angle at which the corallites meet
the surface, gives the cell mouths a somewhat labiate appearance.
Above each orifice the branch is slightly flattened or convex,
causing it to have a subangular or nodose form. The surface of
the branches is without ornamentation, very smooth and dense.
A cross section of the branches shows that the cells have been
distorted by mutual pressure. They are not, however, polygonal
as in Favositrs, but have become more or less cresent shaped.
No tabulz have been observed. The mural pores are small and
very distant. |

Horizon.— Shaly limestone.

Locality.—The Indian Ladder, Albany county, N. Y.

Crapopora Hatt, sp. nov.
Plate V, figure 2,

Corallum dense, branching. Ramification bifurcate. Branches
usually flattened, of larger size than in C. Clarkei, varying from
7x5 to 5x3 mm. in diameter. Cells smaller, more closely set, ©
not labiate and not serially arranged.

This species can be readily distinguished from C. Clarkei by
the large size of the branches and by the small cells, thickly and

LowErR HELpERBERG FAUNA. 307

indiscriminately placed without being disposed in vertical series.

The projection of the outer wall, which gives to C. Clarkei a

labiate appearance, is not a well-marked character in this species.
Horizon. — Shaly limestone at a slightly higher level than @.

Clarkie. |

' Locality.— Clarksville, N. Y.

Vermipora, Hall, 1874.

This genus has been usually regarded as a coral, closely allied
to AvLorora, a sort of vertical aggregation of AvLopora tubes.
Such a classification, however, overlooks several important struc-
tural characters, which, if duly considered, would place it among
the Lryozoa, in close proximity to HEDERELLA.

The genus Avtopora, Goldfuss,* is said to have neither tabulae
nor septa,t although most species are found to possess them.
Hatt states that the type species of Vermipora is without both
septa and tabulae, and my own observations confirm the statement.
In this particular and also in its system of budding VERmMIporaA
agrees with Heprrritia. In the latter genus there is a central
stolonal rhachis, which sends off buds pinnately. The stolon is
often very long, and the buds may also reach a considerable
length in some species. In Auvtopora the system is quite dif-
ferent. There is no long central axis, but each cell grows for a
short distance in the line of such axis, then bending upward, puts
forth one or two buds, which in turn repeat the same process.
Each corallite ceases to grow shortly after budding and the
rhachis, instead of being simple and homogeneous, is composite.

Therefore it seems advisable to remove VeRmirora from its
position near AvLopora, and as it possesses points of resemblance
to Huprretya, I have associated it with that genus. There is,
however, another form, Cionorora, closely allied to HEpERELLA,
but differing from VxErRmipora chiefly in that the buds bend out-
ward from the stem in umbels. It may be a synonym for the
latter, and at all events is closely related to it. °

* GOLDFUSS, 1826. Petrif. Ger., vol. I, p. 82.
+ HALL, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, pp. XII and 5.

308 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Family AvLoporipz.
Aulopora, Goldfuss, 1826.

AULOPORA SUBTENUIS, Hall, 1879.

Aulopora subtenuis, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus,
Nat. Hist., p. 148,

Aulopora subtenuis (pars.), Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl,
II, figs. 9-20.

Aulopora subtenuis, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 4.

> This species is an abundant form at the Indian Ladder, and is
represented in the collection by several hundred specimens. It
is never found procumbent and attached like other examples of
the genus, and there is reason to believe that the corallum grew
upright from a single attached individual. Buds are given off
along the medial dorsal line, and not somewhat laterally, as is
commonin Avtopora. The cells are often turned sidewise instead
of upward. Furthermore, the corallites are not flattened and
impressed as they would be if they had been once attached
and subsequently broken off. These features may prove sufficient
for founding a new genus on this form, closely allied to AULopoRA.

Horizon.— Shaly limestone, N. Y.

AULOPORA SCHOHARIZ, Hall, 1874.

Aulopora Schoharie, Hall, 1874. Twenty-sixth Rep. New York State Mus.
Nat. Hist., p. 110.

Aulopora Schoharie, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus.
Nat. Hist., p. 142.

Aulopora Schoharie, Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. II,
figs. 1-6. :

Aulopora Schoharie, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 3.

Horizon.—Shaly limestone, Schoharie and Clarksville.

AULOPORA TUBULA, Hall, 1879.

Aulopora tubula, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. Nat..
Hist., p. 142. ;
Aulopora tubula, Hall, 1888. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. II, figs.
ace
Aulopora tubula, Hall, 1887. Pal. New York, vol. VI, p. 3.
Horizon.— Shaly limestone, Schoharie.

LowrEr HELpERBERG FAUNA. 309

AULOPORA ELONGATA, Hall, 1879.

Aulopora elongata, Hall, 1879. Thirty-second Rep. New York State Mus. Nat.
Hist., p. 143. .
Aulopora subtenwis (pars.), Hall, 1883. Rep. State Geologist for 1882, expl. Pl. .
II, figs. 9-20.
Aulopora elongata, Hall, 1887. Pal. N. Y., vol. VI, p. 5.
Horizon.— Shaly limestone, Schoharie.

In concluding this revision I take pleasure in acknowledging
my obligation to Prof. C. E. Brxcuzr, of Yale University, to
whom I am indebted for the material studied, for the facts of its
occurrence, and for other valuable suggestions and advice.

Explanation of Plates.

PLATE I.
Figs. 1-12. Spicules of Lysactinella Gebhardi, as shown in a section through
the sponge. xX 380.

Figs. 14-17. Spicules of Lysactinella Gebhardi preserved as casts in a phos-
phatic nodule. xX 30.

Figs. 13, 18-21. Spicules of Lysactinella Gebhardi preserved free as pyrite.
x 80.

Figs, 22-31. Spicules of Lysactinella perelegans preserved as pyrite. X 30.

PLATE 1. e”

Lower Helderberg Fossils.

PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Large spicule of Lysactinella perelegans preserved as pyrite. x 30.

Fig. 2. Diagram representing the spicular structure of Hindia spheroidalis
(after Rauff).

Fig. 3. Outline of Lysactinella Gebhardi. Section taken near the center.
Natural size. |

Fig. 4. Gastral surface of the pyritized specimen of Receptaculites infundie
buliformis. xX 8.

Fig. 5. Ends of radial tubes in the same specimen. The tubes are embedded
in a white, crystalline mineral which fills the intermural cavity. The
fracture is just below the gastral or inner wall. xX 26.

Fig. 6. Portion of the gastral surface much enlarged. X 26.

Figs. 7, 8. Two views of a specimen of Duncanella rudis, showing the usual
characters of the species. X 8.

PLATE 2.

Lower Helderberg Fossils.

a

ele
BESESR AC
OEE.

EJ fed
Ey.

J
:
ak

EES

pes

Da

2

eR P|

Fy
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Pt

nd
ly i, rs v ‘Pu
#1 hi dike

? i
. , ' .
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.
*
¢ j
4 ¢ ¢
. * ‘
-
:
+
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‘
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? *
‘
; « 4 4
1 ‘ ' ?
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. f ‘ ye
; Oo a aby
j
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bd *
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+
7
c
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.
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. Fy -
.
.
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Pap.
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+ ira
.
4
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. a

PLATE III.

Fig. 1. Diagram representing a section cut through the middle of the pyri-
tized specimen of Receptaculites infundibuliformis. 4.

Fig. 2. A portion of the outer surface of the same specimen, showing rhom-
bic pits, radial tubes, and projecting spines. xX 8.

Fig. 3. R. infundibuliformis. The inner surface of the gastral wall, showing
the broken radial tubes. xX 26.

Fig. 4. Thesame. The ridges belong to the inner surface of the gastral wall,
more fully illustrated in the preceding figure. The edge of the specimen
is beveled, giving the canals an elongated shape. The large perforations
in the lower part of the figure are the rhombic pits of the gastral surface.
They are covered over with a plexusof minute spicules, to which reference
has been made in the text. X 26.

Fig. 5. One of the rhombic depressions of the outer wall enlarged, showing
the diagonal canals and the radial tube at the bottom. X 26.

Fig. 6. Another view of thesame. xX 26.
Fig. 7. Fractured surface showing the crushed radial tubes. X 26.

PLATE 3.

Lower Helderberg Fossils.

o keith Wi yn 1 ait |

nd Bis. He,t ideqe eid) of ;

ne pth oraouoMt & gi .

ah) AX
UE us GN > ayia

Prag). AT OL je egi'a

Weak: a 909 dloidw

. - HA x ‘jabia

M20 rete BM: agit
ba fee u fae inbiiiox

NPAT rok Y amre .€ pe ts Bi

a

PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. Portion of a frond of Dictyonema crassum. X 6.

Fig. 2. Same. The indistinct longitudinal wrinkles which are sometimes seen
in this species, are not represented by the figure. X 6.

Fig. 3. Monograptus Beecheri, translucent specimen showing tabulation.
x 60.

Figs. 4-8. Monograptus Beecheri. X 60.

Figs. 9, 10. Two views of an abnormal specimen of Monograptus Beecheri in
which for a short distance some of the serrations appear on the unserrated

side. x 60.

Figs. 11-18. Views of M. Beecheri showing character and position of the
zodidal openings. X 60.

Fig. 14. Under surface of the serrations in M. Beechert. X 60.

Fig. 15. End of a specimen of M. Beecheri showing perforated stipe.

PLATE 4.

Lower Helderberg Fossils.

» ’
Caw :
Te Va)

Dy ry aris. ia) Var hee ; - '

ND Saks yy ia hs, Sore" wines No pies eto nD Ab op eee

a . , t , : , 7 ( ; «
By * q - _ . ¥ . Pd a i A id

-

ms f al : Ah al
oe ee oi here pi 26 f “24 rk we | is

Ps

&
om +3) Vref ANAS PP ty 2 3()% rh is »
@ hy ~ »

ees

wf OLD) [s an 7

7]

. ry

PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Cladopora Clarkei. A bifurcate stem showing the labiate zooidal
openings. xX 6.

Fig. 2. Cladopora Halli. Portion of a corallum showing the small pores,
which are more regularly arranged than is commonly the case. x 6.

Fig. 3. Outline of a corallum of Favosites Conradi showing the branching
form, <2:

Fig. 4. Enlargement of a portion of the surface, showing the sizes and
arrangement of the cells. X 4.

Fig. 5. Enlargement of a portion of the surface showing the septal spines
thickened by a deposit of silica. x 8.

Fig. 6. Enlargement of a portion of the epitheca showing finely striate and
wrinkled surface. X 10.

eat

PLATE 65.

22;

te
“pi,

PB
G4 Deng 5h, ph
Gi Ba TE: Nahi

Lower Helderberg Fossils.

PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. Receptaculites Owent. Section transverse to the radial pillars showin
the latter to be solid and structureless. x 4. :

Fig. 2. R. Owent. Section through the gastral wall near the inner surface,
showing by the dark portion irregular, anastomosing channels filled with
matrix, and cutting the structureless calcite of the inner wall. x 4.

Fix. 3. R. Oweni. Section through the outer wall. The dark portion repre_
sents what is generally considered matrix thrust between the summit
plates. At the corners of the plates are round pores which are usually
supposed to be characteristic of the inner wall. x 4.

Fig. 4. A diagrammatic representation of a relief ornamentation preserved as
a cast in the matrix above the rhombic pits of the external surface of a
specimen of R. Oweni,

Fig. 5. Clathrodictyon Jewetti. Longitudinal section showing the discontinu-
ous radial pillars. x 15.

Fig. 6. Transverse section of the same showing the cut ends of the radial pillars
which are not joined by connecting processes. The skeleton-fiber is seen
_ to be dense, not reticulated as in the genus Syringostroma. 15.

Fig. 7. Syringostroma microporum, This is a transverse section, showing the
finely porous structure of the laminze and the minutely reticulated skele-
ton-fiber. A mamelon with axial tube and astrorhizal canals is cut in the
lower right hand portion of the figure. X 15.

Fig. 8. Syringostroma foveolatum. Transverse section showing an extended
astrorhizal system, and illustrating the dense character of the skeletal tis-
sue. X 15.

Fig. 9. Longitudinal section of the same. The figure shows the thick laminz
and continuous radial pillars; at the same time it traverses an axial tube
and illustrates the superimposed nature of the monticules. X 15.

PLATE 6.

, a Phas
=. Be Roe Nahe A ¥ pres

Lower Helderberg Fossils.

PLATE VII.

Fig. 1. Transverse section of Syringostroma centrotum. The figure shows two
monticules with axial tubes. The concentric groups of apertures probably
represent the cut ends of astrorhizal systems. The skeleton-fiber is mi
nutely reticulated. x 15.

Fig. 2. Longitudinal section of the same showing the continuous radial pillars.
x 15.

Fig. 3. Syringostroma consimile. Transverse section showing a low monticule
with'an axial tube and a very strong and complex astrorhizal system.
x 15. ;

Fig. 4. Longitudinal section of the same illustrating the independent flexures
of the laminae. The radial pillars in this and the following species are
not systematically continuous. » 15.

Fig. 5. Transverse section of Syringostroma Barretti, which shows a low
monticule with its tubular axis, and a very complex, extended astrorhizal
system. X 15, .

Fig. 6. Longitudinal section of the same. This section shows the reticulated
structure of the skeleton-fiber and the wave-like flexures of the laminz.

RAE

*

ress LON

See

iN

Ses

eee

ay

My
i

SAS
rs

sn

PLATE 7.

7
Sy,

BD

Sat

%.

aS
ak

Ax:

EF?
EFL)

cKOLa
Fe

o
7a
oj

Acti
&
, 2,
Ge >
a ‘
>:

a

SiN var eee
rs aS
i sé
EB cc
Pipe
Er? ;
3% oo
, Pe tae
=
ee Ag} ize

“Ses
oe gan
Fay Al
MS aD,F:

Ty

SIC Dares

LAP

fF
2,
Tf

Fe,

PIECES
CA?

aay

WL

th

or)

OD)

pe

THY
i

ot
25 my Y

* +

iH

s

6

a5 SE on
APD
po Fp 0S
eet gs

ae

x

a

Lower Helderberg Fossils.

THE NEW SPECIES OF BRACHIOPODA

DESCRIBED IN

PALAEONTOLOGY OF NEW YORK,

WMolume Viti=Rarts 1 and’2.

1892--1894.

WITH FOURTEEN PLATES.

THE NEW SPECIES OF BRACHIOPODA

DESCRIBED IN

Palaeontology of New York, Volume VIII,
Parts 1 and 2, 1892-1894.

WITH FOURTEEN PLATES.

[Fortheconvenience of the student, such new species of Brachiopoda as have
been described or figured in Volume VIII of the Palaeontology of New York,
in illustration of generic structures, are here brought together in one place,
with requisite illustration and description. |

Lingula compta.
Plate 1, fig. 1.

Lingula compta, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, part 1, p. 171,
pl. i, fig. 16. 1892. 7

Shell very narrow, with lateral margins nearly parallel for
most of their length; the anterior margin transverse and the
posterior less abruptly rounded. Shell-substance thin. Surface
marked by fine concentric strie.

The interior of the brachial (?) valve bears two strong lateral
muscular ridges which meet in the median line at about one-third
the length of the shell from the anterior margin. A narrow
median furrow extends from just behind the center of the valve
nearly to the anterior margin. Length of this valve, 9 mm.,
greatest width, 4.5 mm.

This species is allied to LZ. densa, Hall, but differs in its nar-
rower form and thinner shell.

Hamilton group. T%chenor’s Gully, Canandaigua Lake, N.Y.

326 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Lingula scutella.
Plate 1, fig. 8.
Lingula scutella, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 171, pl. i,
fig. 30. 1892.

Shell broad, subquadrate; lateral margins parallel for a short
distance,. but soon rounding to the extremities, which have about
equal curvature. Length to width as 2 to 3. Surface covered
with more or less distinct concentric lines and wrinkles. The
interior of the original valve, a cast of the interior, shows a broad
central elevation, corresponding to the muscular impressions, and
converging ridges over the pallial region, representing the vascu-
lar sinuses. Fine radiating lines are also visible over the anterior
region. Length of the valve, 12 mm.; greatest width, 8 mm.

Chemung group. Allegany county, WV. Y.

Lingula (Glossina) flabellula.
Plate 1, figs. 5, 6. |
Lingula flabellula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 172, pl. i,
figs. 38, 84. 1892. : :

Shell large, subtriangular ; lateral margins diverging from an
acute apex, rounding broadly at about two-thirds the length of
the shell, to the slightly transverse anterior margin. Length —
to greatest width as 6 to 7. Surface convex, slopmg more
abruptly to the sides than to the anterior margin; covered with
low, rather faint and distant concentric lines or wrinkles. Shell-
substance comparatively thick, showing fine radiating lines on
the inner lamin. Length of the largest specimen observed,
42 mm.; greatest width, 36 mm.

Waverly group. Sciotoville and Berea, Ohio.

Lingula paracletus.
Lingula paracletus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt.1, p. 172, see
p. 12, fig. 8. 1892.

Shell moderately large, broadly spatulate. Posterior margins -
diverging from an acute beak, rounding slowly to the sides of
the shell where the curve is less; the interior margin is subcircu-
lar, rarely transverse. The greatest width of the shell is in front
of the middle and the proportions of length to greatest width
areas 2 to 1.8. Surface ornamented with distant, concentric
wrinkles between which are exceedingly fine concentric striz.

Tue New Species or Bracutopopa,. 327

On the interior the valves have a notably broad margin of con-
tact. The internal cast sometimes shows this to be broadest at
the middle of the anterior margin; faint radiating striz are also
observable on this cast. The muscular and vascular impressions
of the interior are frequently well defined, as described on the
page above cited. Length of the original specimen 16 mm.,
width, 11 mm.
Waverly group; Cuyahoga shales. Chardon, Ohio.

Fig. 1. Lingula paracletus. h, centrals; k, middle laterals; /, outside laterals; j, anterior laterals;
i, transmedians; g, umbonal scar.

Lingula tzniola.

| . Plate 1, fig. 4. )
Lingula lamellata, Hall. Palaentology of N. Y., vol. II, p. 55, pl. xx, figs. 4,
a,b,c. 1882.
_ Lingula teniola, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 173. 1892.
Shell of medium size, with the margins diverging rapidly from
the apex for a short distance, thence curving rather abruptly into
subparallel lateral margins. The anterior margin is nearly
transverse. Surface covered with fine elevated, nearly horizontal
- ornamental lines, which are crossed in the umbonal region by the
concentric growth lines.
Clinton group. Clinton, lV. Y.

Lingula lingulata.

Plate 1, fig. 2.
Lingula lingulata, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 173,
pl. iv k, fig. 5. 1892.
Shell elongate-subquadrate, having somewhat the form of Zin_
gula oblata, Hall. Valves very slightly convex. Distinguished

328 Report oF THE STATE GeoLoaist.

from other species by the peculiar deflection of the anterior por-
tion of the shell considerably below the plane of the lateral
margins.

Clinton group. Wear Hamilton, Ontario.

Lingulops Granti.
Plate 1, figs. 7, 8.
Lingulops Granti, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 173, pl.
iv k, figs. 14,15. 1892.

Shell small, linguloid in external see Outline elliptical,
subacuminate at the posterior extremity. External surface
marked by faint, elevated, equidistant concentric lines. Margin
of contact broad and conspicuous about the entire periphery.
On the interior of the pedicle-valve the margin is broadest
beneath the beak and slightly grooved on its posterior edge for
the passage of the pedicle. Thecentral and lateral muscular scars
are elevated on a well-developed platform, the ante-lateral margins
of which meet each other at an acute angle. In the brachial
valve the posterior margin is also broad and faintly grooved, the
platform more conspicuously developed both in length, width and
height than in the other valve, while the muscular scars have
essentially the same arrangement. In neither valve do the speci-
mens at hand afford evidence of the arched parietal impressions
seen in the other species of the genus. Length of an average
specimen, 5 mm., width, 3 mm.

This species diifors from L. Whitfieldi and L. Norwood, not

only: in the absence of the parietal scars, but also in the develop-

ment of the muscular area of the pedicle-valve into a distinct
platform, and in the absence of the anterior longitudinal septum
in the pedicle-valve.

Niagara group. Hamilton, Ontario.

Monomerella Greenii.
Plate 1, figs. 9-14. " ,
Monomerella Greenii, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 174,
pl. iv d, figs. 5-10. 1892.

Shell enlongate-subovate. Valves comparatively shallow;
shell-substance relatively thin. Surfaces of contact very broad,
especially toward the posterior portion of the shell. Pedicle-
valve with an erect but not high cardinal area, which is continu-

Ture New Srectes or BRACHIOPODA, 329

ous with the broad margins. Umbonal cavities very short, rarely
reaching to the hinge-line and sometimes scarcely more developed
than in Dinozotus. Cardinal slope well defined and divided by
a deep longitudinal groove. Cardinal buttress faint. Platform
scarcely developed; the scars upon its surface usually faint, but
the lateral impressions sometimes sharply defined. Crescent and
terminal scars generally distinct. Pallial sinuses usually discern-
ible. Brachial valve with a low, rotund beak and transversely
striated area. Umbonal cavity deep. The deep groove of the
crescent is followed within by a sharply elevated ridge extending
for the entire length of the cardinal line; terminal scars gener-
ally deeply impressed and apparently compound. Platform rep-
- resented only by a median thickening of the muscular impressions,
having the characteristic V-shaped outline and sometimes divisi-
ble into the component scars. From the anterior extremity of
this muscular area two diverging ridges pass toward the anterior
margin ; these may be connected with the pallial sinuses.

This shell is readily distinguished from all other described
species by the general tendency toward suppression of the plat-
forms and muscular scars, the broad surface of contact, and the
diverging anterior furrows of the brachial valve.

From the dolomites of the Niagara group, between Cedarburgh
and Grafton, Wisconsin.

Monomerella Kingi.
Plate 2, figs 1, 2.
Monomerella Kingi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 174, pl.
iv d, figs. 1,2. 1892.

Shell subcircular or longitudinally oval. Pedicle-valve prob-
ably with a low cardinal area, as far as may be judged by the
size of the casts of the umbonal cavities, which are quite short
mamiform, not extending to the cardinal line. Cardinal buttress
strong, produced as a septum nearly to the anterior edge of the
platform. Platform well developed, broadly V-shaped ; anterior
wall vertical, not excavated; surface marked by strong impres-
sions of muscular attachments. Crescent distinct, terminal scars
very prominent. Brachial valve with the umbonal region much
thickened; the platform sharply V-shaped, its anterior wall being
considerably excavated to form imperfect vaults; the whole ele-

42

330 | Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

vation is situated somewhat further forward than the opposite
valve. <A faint longitudinal septum extends a short distance for-
ward from the apex of the platform. Crown of the crescent
faint; terminal scars as in the pedicle-valve.

From the magnesian limestone of the Niagara group, near
Cedarburgh, Wisconsin, in association with Déinobdolus Conradn,
Monomerella prisca and M. Green.

Monomerella Ortoni.
Plate 2, figs. 4, 5.
Monomerella Ortoni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 175,
pl. iv c, figs. 14, 15. 1892.
Pedicle-valve large, with a high cardinal area, which is gently
incurved longitudinally and crossed by lamellose growth-lines,
upon which the evidences of the deltidial ridges are extremely

faint or altogether wanting. Umbonal cavities conspicuous, but —

much shorter than is usual in Jf. prisca. Cardinal slope large,
triangular and divided by an axial furrow. Cardinal buttress
broad at the base but not especially prominent. Platform appar-
ent only at its anterior edge where it has a broad anterior slope.
Crescent well defined beneath the hinge-line ; terminal scars very
prominent ; central, lateral and anterior impressions discernible on
the platform. Pallial sinuses very strong, the outer ramifications
from which are distinctly seen. Brachial valve unknown.

From the Niagara dolomitic limestone, at the Rising Sun
quarries, Wood county, Ohio.

Monomerella Egani.
Plate 2, fig. 3.
Monomerella Egani, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 175,
pl. ive, fig. 16. 1892.
Brachial valve with an unusually high cardinal area, indicating
a quite elevated beak. This area is strongly striated trans-
versely, and bears two faint longitudinal depressions correspond-
ing in position to the deltidial ridges of the pedicle-valve. It is
continued laterally nearly to the middle of the margins. Cres-
cent very narrow over the crown, lying close upon the cardinal
line; at its turn forward it is developed into a deep, narrow,
elongate muscular scar, which is continued into a broader ter-
minal impression. Platform sharply elevated at its anterior

Tue New Specrizs or BRACHIOPODA. 381

edge, sloping rather abruptly backward. Its surface bears the
usual tripartite arrangement of the muscular scars. Anterior
longitudinal septum distinct. From directly behind the crescent
to the central muscular impressions is a very broad, smooth,
lunate slope, occupying the position of the simple umbonal cavity
usual in this valve of Monomemretua, and presenting the appear-
ance of an abnormal deposition or callosity.

Though represented by a single specimen only, this form shows
features not elsewhere observed in the genus, viz., the great
development of the cardinal area, the composite character of the
muscular impressions terminating the crescent, and the broad
posterior slope. |

From the Niagara group. Wear Grafton, Wisconsin.

Rhinobolus Davidsoni.
Plate 2, figs. 6-8.
Rhinobolus Davidsoni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 176,
pl. iv b, figs. 10-12. 1892,

Shell with a circular outline, except for the prominence of the
beak. Pedicle-valve with a moderately high, acuminate cardinal
area, upon which the central area, the deltidial ridges and areal
borders have each about the same width. Cardinal slope short;.
crescent sharply defined; terminal scars distinct. Platform
broadly V-shaped, sloping less abruptly backward than in A,
Galtensis. Pallial sinuses faint. Brachial valve with marginal
beak and inconspicuous area. Orescent more prominently devel-
oped than in the opposite valve, transverse over the crown as in
DivnopoLvus; terminal scars large. Platform more sharply angu-
lated than in the pedicle-valve and somewhat more elevated,
bearing conspicuous lateral and anterior scars. Longitudinal
septum not pronounced. Pallial sinuses quite distinct.

This species is based upon internal casts of opposite valves,
which are in entire harmony with each other and are readily sepa-
rated from Dinobolus Conrad and the various species of Mono-
MERELLA associated with them at the same locality. It is distin-
guished from the forms referred to /?hinobolus Galtensis, Bil-
lings, by its more circular outline, less elevated pedicle-umbo,
inconspicuous brachial umbo, and broader, though less sharply
elevated platform. |

Niagara group. Wear Grafton, Wisconsin.

332 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Siphonotreta (?) Minnesotensis.
Plate 2, figs. 9, 10.
Siphonotreta (?) Minnesotensis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1,
p. 177, pl. iv, figs. 37, 38.

Shell subovate in outline. Pedicle-valve more convex than the
brachial, slightly flattened along the median line, sloping with
equal convexity toward the lateral and anterior margins. Fora-
men apical (?). Brachial valve depressed-convex, somewhat ele-
vated about the umbo. Surface covered, in the umbonal region,
with fine, anastomosing and gently undulating concentric lines,
which, in the later portions of the shell, are finely granulose or
serrated ; at about one-third the length of the shell coarser var-
ices of growth appear, between which the finer lines are retained.
Surface covered with hollow spines of various sizes, which appear
to have been most closely set over the umbonal region of the
pedicle-valve. Here, where the growth-lines are absent, the
spine-bases in the original specimen are large: and all of about
the same size and are disposed without order. Over the other
portions of the shell the spines are set along the edges of the
varices, small and large being indifferently mixed. The bases
of the spines make annular swellings on the interior of the
valves The length of the original specimen is 15 mm., width
12 mm. :

Trenton limestone. Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Orbiculoidea (Schizotreta) ovailis.
Plate 2, figs. 12, 18.

Orbiculoidea (Schizotreta) ovalis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII,

pt. 1, p. 177, pl. ive, figs.4,5. 1892. . 3 .

Shell subelliptical in outline. Valves with apices situated a

little behind the center. Lower valve with the apex erect or
inclined slightly forward. External foraminal groove narrow,
extending for about one-half the posterior radius of the valve.
Surface about the foramen convex, but elsewhere slightly
depressed in its slope from apex to margin. Upper valve more
elevated than the lower, apex inclined backward, posterior slope
gently concave. Surface marked by elevated nearly equidistant
concentric striae. Shell-substance thick, the inner laminz show-
ing fine radiating lines over the anterior region. Length of the

Tur New Species ofr BRACHIOPODA. 388

original specimen, 8 mm., width, 6 mm., thickness through the
apices of the conjoined valve, 3 mm.
_ Trenton limestone. Middleville, V. Y.

Orbiculoidea numulus.
Plate 2, fig. 11.
Orbiculoidea numulus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII. pt. 1, p. 178,
pl. ive, fig. 14. 1892.

The original specimen is a lower valve, having a nearly circular
outline. The apex is subcentral, elevated and directed anteriorly.
The external groove of the foramen is moderately broad and
extends one-half the length of the posterior radius. The posterior
slope is convex while the anterior is depressed or slightly concave.

Surface smooth about the apex, thence outward marked by a few
— distant, elevated, concentric lines or ridges, between which are
numerous fine concentric lines. Length and width, 12 mm.

Lower Helderberg group (Waterlime). Marshall, V. Y.

Orbiculoidea Herzeri.
Plate 2, figs. 14-20.
Orbiculoidea Herzeri, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 178, pl.
iv e, fig. 19, and pl. iv f, figs. 9-13, 30. 1892.

Shell subcircular in outline. Upper valve with an eccentric
apex, situated less than one-fourth the length of the shell from
the posterior margin, and directed backward. Surface gently
convex, sloping evenly forward from the apex, but abruptly
depressed on the post-apical region. Lower valve with the apex
much nearer ‘the center ; shell almost flat. Pedicle-aperture, in
the primary stages of development, a triangular opening extend-
ing from the apex to the margin; this gradually closes with
advancing growth, the external groove at maturity extending
from one-half to two-thirds the length of the posterior radius of
the valve. On the interior, the groove is frequently more or less
enveloped by the development of testaceous deposits. Surface of
both valves ornamented by crowded concentric lines and
wrinkles. The internal surface of the lower valve sometimes
shows fine radiating lines and faint vascular sinuses. Length
and width of an adult individual, 14 mm.

Waverly group (Cuyahoga shales). Berea, Baconsburg and
elsewhere, Ohio.

334. Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Lindstremella aspidium.
Plate 3, figs. 1-4.
Lindstremella aspidium, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. Vill mies
p., 178, pl. ive, figs. 25-28. 1892.

This species is readily distinguished from Orbiculoidea (Ronee
ella) grandis, its associate in the fauna of the Hamilton shales,
and the only form with which there is danger of confounding it,
by the convex pedicle-valve, the distant, elevated, concentric
surface-ridges, which have a peculiar undulation as they approach
the margins of the foramen. The internal characters of the
shell are at once distinctive. (See discussion of these features
on page 134, op. crt.) Length and width of a mature specimen,
50 mm.

Hamilton group. Leonardsville, Hamilton, Darien and Canan-
daigua Lake, NV. Y.

schizocrania Schucherti.
Plate 3, figs. 5-7.
Schizocrania Schucherti, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 179,
pl. iv g, figs. 31-33. 1892.

Shell small, usually found unattached; marginal outline ga
ovate. Surface of pedicle-valve flat or slightly concave; con-
centrically striated. Pedicle-aperture broad and sharply triangu-
lar. Brachial or upper valve strongly convex, often laterally

* compressed. Umbo full and rotund, incurved at the apex, which

is almost, but not quite, marginal. Surface covered by numerous

simple, sharply elevated, uninterrupted striz, frequently crossed

by concentric wrinkles. On the interior of this valye only the

strong posterior muscular impressions are distinctly shown.
Hudson group. Cincinnati, Ohio.

Schizocrania (?) Helderbergia. :
Plate 8, figs. 8, 9.
Schizocrania (?) Helderbergia, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1
p. 179, pl. iv g, figs. 34, 35. 1892.

Shell subcircular in outline. Upper valve convex; apex pos-
terior and marginal. Surface covered with fine, closely crowded,
elevated, radiating lines, which extend to the apex, and increase
by intercalation. Lower valve flat and of less diameter than
the upper. Apex subcentral, posterior. Foramen apparently a
’ narrow triangular slit extending to the margin. A short median

Ture New Spectres of BRACHIOPODA, 335

septum extends forward from the apex. External surface cov-
ered with low, crowded and rather faint concentric lines. On
the interior, the surface bears a series of distant, deep but nar-
row radiating furrows, about twenty-five in number; these do
not reach the apex, and increase in number toward the margin.
Between them are very fine radiating lines. The animal was
parasitic in its habit, attachment being considerably aided by the
overlapping margin of the upper valve. Length and width of
an average adult; upper valve, 9 mm., lower valve, 7.5 mm.
Lower Helderberg group. Wear Clarksville, VN. Y.

Crania agaricina.
Plate 3, fig. 10.
Crania agaricina, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 180, pl.
iv h, fig. 2. 1892.

Shell small. Apex posterior, slighly elevated. Surface
covered by a few coarse, elevated, radiating lines, of ‘which
-about twelve reach the apex. These increase by intercalation
toward the margin to about thirty. The edges of these ridges
appear to be minutely granulose. Length of the original speci-
men (allowing for its incurvature upon the surface of attach-
ment), 5 mm. |

Lower Helderberg group. Wear Clarksville, V. Y.

Crania pulchella.

Plate 8, fig. 14.

Crania pulchella, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 180, pl.
iv h, fig. 3. 1892.

Shell like that of C. agaricina, but larger and with much
finer, more numerous radiating ribs. These are about sixty in
number at the margin of the valve. Length of the original
specimen, 8 mm.

Lower Helderberg group. ear Glarkavitle 7: an

Crania granosa.
Plate 3, figs. 11, 12.

Crania granosa, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 180, pl. ivh,
figs. 19, 20. 1892.

The original specimen is an upper valve, quite irregular in its
growth, with a nearly central beak and strong convexity. The

336 | Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

surface is completely covered with closely set granules which are

somewhat coarser toward the margins. A few concentric

wrinkles of growth are also visible. Diameter, 18 mm.
Hamilton group. Centerjield, N. Y.

Crania favincola.

Plate 3, fig. 18.
Crania favincola, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 181, pl.

' ivh, fig. 33. ©1892.

Two interiors of the lower valve attached to a colony of Favo-
sites prrum have very strongly developed muscular and vascular
impressions. The posterior scars are large and their strongly
elevated margins unite with the broad lateral border of the shell.
The anterior scars are situated in front of the center and are
partially enveloped by the great elevation of the anterior and
median fulcra. The vascular sinuses are broad, slightly undulat- —
ing grooves, extending from the median region to the anterior
border. Length, 17 mm., width, 21 mm. :

Hamilton group. Crab Orchard, Kentucky.

Craniella Ulrichi.

Plate 8, figs. 15, 16.
Craniella Ulrichi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 181, pl.
iv at ses. A tes SOR:

Shell moderately large. Outline normally circular. Apices
subcentral, slightly posterior, inclined backwards. Upper valve
with the posterior scars large and the adjustors well defined;
anterior scars subdivided, the outer or posterior portion possibly
representing the insertion of the brachial muscles. The vascular
sinuses make a 3-shaped curve on the lateral portions of the valve,
with the crest of the double arch toward the center; narrowing
rapidly, becoming indistinct over the anterior region. Lower
valve regularly convex, evidently unattached at maturity. An-
terior adductors very large, situated on a thickened posterior
area. -Posterior adductor and adjustor scars very faint, lying
just within the margin. The vascular sinuses are a series of low
grooves extending forward in subparallel lines from the anterior
and lateral margins of the central muscular area. External

Tue New Species oF BRACHIOPODA. 387

surface of the valves smooth or covered with concentric sub-
lamellose growth-lines. Length of an upper valve, 11 mm.; width,
12 mm.; diameter of a lower valve, 16 mm.

Trenton shale. Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Pholidops calceola.
Plate 3, fig. 20.

Pholidops calceola, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 182,
pl. ivi, fig. 30. 1892. .

Shell small.. Outline subelliptical, the posterior margin being
- narrowed by the extension of the beak, which is long and acute,
slightly elevated above the plane of the margin. External surface
_ marked by concentric lamellose growth-lines, which extend about
the posterior side of the beak. Muscular area central; posterior
margin divided into a broad central and two lateral arches, from
the latter the outline extending in a regular curve to the anterior
margin. Adductor scars sharply defined. The dorsal (?) valve
only is known. Length of the original specimen, 3.5 mm.

Corniferous limestone. alls of the Ohio.

Pholidops patina.
Plate 3, figs 17-19.

Pholidops patina, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 182, pl.
iv i, figs. 27-29. 1892. .

- Shell comparatively large; outline elongate-ovate or elliptical.
Length to width as 3 to 4. Apex posterior. Surface covered
with lamellose concentric growth-lines, which are crossed by
fine, interrupted radiating striez. The interior of the ventral (?)
valve has the anterior and posterior adductors well defined, the
latter being lobate. The median scars are well developed and
the parietal impression acutely angled at the center. In the
opposite valve the anterior edges of the muscular area are
sharply elevated, both pairs of adductor scars prominent, and the
parietal scar extended posteriorly.

Corniferous limestone; from boulders of decomposed chert.
DeCewville, Ontario. |

43

938 Report oF THE State GroLogist.

Orthis Panderiana.

Plate 4, figs. 1-3.

Orthis orthambonites, Billings. Palaeozoic Fossils, vol. I, p. 77. 1862.
Orthis Panderiana, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, expl.
pl. v, figs. 1-3, and foot-note.

This shell was identified by Brzimnas with the Orthis calli-
gramma, var. Orthanibonites, de Verneuil, under the designation
O. orthambonites, Pander. Panprr, however, did not employ
this term in a specific, but in a generic sense, though it was sub-
sequently taken by von Bucu and von Eronwatp as a specific
designation to cover all the species referred by Panpezsr to his
genus OrruampBonites. As a specific term it must be accredited
to von Buox, and it is synonymous with some one (it is impossible
to say which) of Panp«r’s species. The American shell is quite
distinct from the Russian O. calligramma var. orthambonites in
its smaller size, fewer and coarser ribs.

“Pointe Lévis. In the upper part of Limestone No. 2. Quebec
group.” (BiLuiwes.) ) |

Orthis ? glypta.
Plate 4, figs. 5, 6.

Orthis? glypta. Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 359, pl.
Ixxxiv, figs. 8,9, 1894. ek

Shell small, transverse, with long, straight hinge, making the
greatest diameter of the shell; short along the median axis}
marginal outline transversely subelliptical. Pedicle-valve with
a broad and low median sinus and generally depressed surface.
The exterior bears from twelve to sixteen low, flat plications,
separated by narrow sulci, and sometimes with a fine groove on
the surface of each. These extend from apex to margins, and
are crossed by fine, undulating, subconcentric lines apparently
-in two oblique sets, producing a peculiarly reticulated or wavy
surface, similar to that occurring in the Swedish Silurian species,
O. Lovent, Lindstrém. The muscular area of the pedicle-valve is
small. Length of an average pedicle-valve, 12 mm., width, 18
mm.

Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wasconsin.

Tur New Specres or BRACHIOPODA. 839

‘Orthis flabellites var. spania.
Plate 4, fig. 4.
Orthis flabellites var. spania, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2,
expl. pl. lxxxiv, fig. 10. 1894.

Shell with the general aspect of 0. flabellites, Hall, but with
very coarse plications, scarcely more than one-half the number
usual in that species.

Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Orthis ? Holstoni (Safford), Hall.
Plate 4, figs. 19-21.
Orthis ? Holstoni, Safford. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 340, pl.
v a, figs. 35-37. 1892.

Shell transverse; outline semicircular. Hinge-line long and
straight. Pedicle-valve with a high, vertical, cardinal area,
transected by a very broad, uncovered delthyrium ; beak not in-
curved; surface sloping evenly toward the margins, slightly
_ rounded in the median line, and faintly depressed toward the
cardinal angles. Brachial valve depressed convex, nearly flat,
with a broad and low median sinus.

Surface of both valves covered with fine, elevated, radiating
striae, crossed by faint, concentric, cancellating lines which have
a slight retral bend on the striz.

This shell has very much the aspect of a CriramponirtEs, but of
the two specimens examined, neither has evidence of a deltidium
plate, and a transverse section across the umbo of one, shows
that the dental lamella, though strong and convergent, did not
unite to form a spondylium. Received from Professor Sarrorp.

Trenton horizon (Glade limestone). Near Mashwille, Tennessee.

Orthis (Plzsiomys) loricula.
Plate 4, figs. 7-9.
Orthis (Pleesiomys) loricula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1,
p. 341, pl. v a, figs. 32-34. 1892.

Shell strophomenoid in outline; reversed convex. Hinge-line
long and straight, making the greatest diameter of the shell.
Cardinal areas narrow, subequal. In the pedicle-valve the del-
thyrium is covered by a convex plate extending for one-half its
length; the area is erect, the beak not prominent. The valve is

346 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

slightly convex in the umbonal region, but is depressed outward
in all directions, most strongly in the median line. The brachial
valve is depressed about the beak, convex over the pallial region
and divided in the median line by a shallow sinus. The interior
characters of the valves are essentially the same as those in
Orthis subquadrata.

External surface covered with numerous fine, elevated stria,
alternating in size and crossed by finer concentric lines.

Length of an average specimen, 18 mm.; width, 21 mm.

Trenton horizon. Fountain, Minnesota. ;

Orthis P Saffordi.
Plate 4, figs. 10-12.
Orthis ? Saffordi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 340, pl.
v a, figs. 38-40. 1892.

Shell semielliptical in outline; valves subequally convex, the
pedicle-valve being the more elevated at the apex. Hinge-line
long and straight, giving the shell a strophomenoid appt
Cardinal area low; delthyrium uncovered.

Surface covered with numerous rounded, sharply elevated
striz, increasing by intercalcation, and crossed by exceedingly
fine concentric lines. The details of the interior are not known,
but the relations of the shell to Orruis are demonstrated by the
open delthyrium and simple cardinal process, ba lobate on
its pcsterior face.

Length of the type specimen, 17 mm.; width along the ills
22 mm.

Trenton horizon. ast Tennessee.

Orthis (Dalmanella) arcuaria.

Plate 4, figs. 18, 14. ,
Orthis (Dalmanella) arcuaria, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1,
p. 341, pl. vc, figs. 20, 21. 1892.

Shell with a general similarity to that of Orthis elegantula,
Dalman, but having the marginal outline more circular, the
pedicle-valve more evenly convex, the umbo more prolate, and
the brachial valve considerably more convex. The pedicle-valve
bears a broad fold, and the brachial a shallow sinus, in the median
line. In the interior of the pedicle-valve the muscular area is

Tur New Species oF BRACHIOPODA. 341

elongate and very deeply impressed, the umbonal portion of this
valve being considerably thickened.

Surface covered with numerous very fine radiating striz.

Length of the type specimen, 19 mm.; width, 18 mm.; depth,
9 mm.

Hudson River group. Last Tennessee.

Orthis (Dalmanella) superstes.
Plate 4, figs. 15-18.
Orthis (Dalmanella) superstes, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1,
p. 342, pl. v c, figs. 44-47. 1892.

Shell of small size and having the general form and expression
of O. hybrida, Sowerby. Hinge-line short, beaks but slightly
elevated. Marginal outline varying from subquadrate to sub-
circular. Valves about equally convex. In the pedicle-valve the
beak is somewhat inflated and slopes evenly in all directions for
nearly one-half of the shell; from this point onward is a broad,
low median sinus, which is most conspicuously developed in old
and gibbous shells. In rare instances there is a low elevation in
the bottom of this sinus. The opposite valve also bears a median
sinus which takes its origin at the beak. In the interior of the
pedicle-valve the muscular area is sharply defined, subquadrate
in outline, the adductor scars small and the diductors well
developed. In the brachial valve the cardinal process and crural
plates are prominent; the muscular area well defined and
quadruplicate.

The external surface of the valves is covered with fine, elevated
strize, of which twenty of the coarsest reach the beak; this number
increasing by intercalation to about fifty at the margin. Near
the margin very fine concentric striz are visible.

Length of normal individual, 12 mm.; width, 13 mm.; depth,
9 mm.

Chemung group. Wear Howard, Steuben county, NV. Y.

Orthis (Rhipidomella) Oweni.

Plate 4, figs. 24-26.

Orthis (Rhipidomella) Oweni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1,
p. 842, pl. vi, figs. 19-21. 1892.

Shell having somewhat the outline of O. Vanuxemz, but more
elongate transversely and gently sinuate or emarginate on the

842 Report OF THE State Geoxoaist.

anterior edge. The shells are usually flattened, but where the
form is retained the pedicle-valve shows a hinge-line whose length
is somewhat less than one half the transverse diameter of the
shell. The beak is acute, the umbo full but not conspicuous.
Along the center of the valve is a broad, low sinus, frequently
very inconspicuous. The interior of this valve is characterized
by the relatively small area covered by the muscular scars, a
feature in which it resembles 0. Peloris of the Schoharie grit.
The pallial region is pitted or covered with faint, closely anasto-
-mosing ridges. On the brachial valve the median sinus begins at _
the,apex and becomes very pronounced as it widens anteriorly.
From the ridges forming its lateral margins the surface slopes
rather abruptly and without much curvature. On the interior
the cardinal process and crural plates are not prominently elevated;
the muscular area is small, quadripartite, the lateral pairs of scars
being separated by a broad, thick ridge.

Surface of both valves covered by a great number of fine
radiating, hollow striz, from 110 to 130 in number, which are
crenulated by minute concentric lines and crossed at intervals by
coarser lines of growth. The surface was originally covered
with short spinules, which are rarely preserved. This shell has
heretofore been commonly referred to Orthis Micheloni, Léveille.

Keokuk group (Knobstone eo Button-mould Knobs,
Kentucky.

Orthis (Schizophoria) senecta.
Plate 4, figs. 22, 23.
Orthis (Schizophoria) senecta, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt.1,p
348, pl. via, figs. 23, 24. 1892. ;

Shell subquadrate or transversely elliptical, resupinate, un-
equally biconvex. The pedicle-valve is depressed convex in the
umbonal region and develops a broad, low median sinus toward
the anterior margin. The brachial valve is the more convex and
slopes evenly toward the lateral margins, the median region —
being rendered slightly more prominent by an obscure fold.

Internal markings as in other members of ScaizopHortA.

External surface covered with fine, subequal, closely covered
radiating strie.

Length of a typical example, 17 mm.; width, 21 mm.

Clinton group. Leynale’s Basin, Niagara county, New York.

Tur New Srectizs or BRACHIOPODA, 343

Orthotropia dolomitica.
Plate 6, figs. 4-8.
Orthotropia dolomitica, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl.
pl. Ixxxiv, figs. 3-7. 1894.
_ Shell known only from internal casts, which are somewhat
elongate, biconvex; the pedicle-valve having a prominent and
slightly arched umbo, and a distinct, triangular cardinal area.
The hinge-line is straight, but shorter than the greatest width of
the valves. Both valves are most convex in the umbonal region,
and slope to’ the anterior margin, each with a median sinus.
The delthyrium is open; the muscular impression of the pedicle-
valve short, deep and restricted to the rostral region. Its mar-
gin is elevated and a short vertical median septum extends from
its anterior margin. In the brachial valve the muscular impres-
sion is very narrow, also has elevated edges and a median
septum.
Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Strophomena Conradi.
Plate 4, figs. 27-30.
Stroghomena Conradi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 344,
pl. ix a, fig. 3, and pl. xx, figs. 32, 33. 1892. 3

Shell semiovate in outline; hinge-line straight and forming the
greatest diameter of the shell. Cardinal area narrow on both
valves; broader on the pedicle-valve and but slightly elevated at
the umbo. Delthyrium covered; deltidium perforated at the
apex. Pedicle-valve convex in the umbonal region, but becoming
deeply depressed and concave over the middle of the shell and
again elevated about the margins. The depression of the valve
is most conspicuous along the median line and on the anterior
margin where it produces a subnasute extension. The brachial
valve is flat or slightly concave at the umbo, becoming convex
over the pallial region; it reaches its greatest convexity at about
the middle of the shell and is thence deflected gradually in the
median line and more abruptly on the lateral slopes.

Surface of the shell covered with radiating strie, arranged in
fascicles of 4 to 7 fine ones between each pair of coarser ones.
There are no concentric rug on either valve, but the radiating
striz are crossed by exceedingly minute concentric lines.

544. REpPoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

\

Width of the original specimen along the hinge, 23 mm.’;
greatest length, 19 mm.
Trenton limestone. Jacksonburg, NV. ¥.

Strophomena Winchelli.

Plate 4, figs. 31-33.

Strophomena nutans, Hall. Rept. State Geologist N. Y. a 1882, expl. pl. (ix)
39, figs. 10, 12-14. 1883.

Strophomena Winchelli, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., van VIII, pt. 1, p-
344, pl. ix, figs. 10, 12-14, and pl. xx, fig. 26, 1892.

Shell elongate semiovate ; strongly convexo-concave. Hinge-
line straight and making the greatest diameter of the shell.
Cardinal angles sometimes extended. Pedicle-valve with a
moderately broad area and deltidium; apex slightly elevated, the
valve becoming deeply concave over the pallial region and
reflected at the margins. The teeth are strong and divergent,
and from their bases extend elevated curving ridges which form |
the margin of the subcircular or subovate muscular area.
Diductor scars broad, inclosing an elongate and narrow adductor.
Within the anterior and lateral margins of the valve is a thick-
ened ridge which is crossed by branches of the vascular sinuses.
Brachial valve flat in the umbonal region, very convex over the
median portion and sloping gradually to the margins. The car-
dinal process consists of two slender and short apophyses which
are united at their base with the crural plates. The latter are
very divergent and extend in a broad curve subparallel to the
hinge-line. The muscular scars consist of two pairs, the posterior
being broad and striated, the anterior narrow and close to the
median line. The members of the pairs are separated by a low
median ridge. Surface of the shell covered with numerous very
fine filiform striz, regularly but not conspicuously alternating in
size. Delicate concentric striz are sometimes discernible.

Trenton horizon. Clifton and Janesville, Wisconsin. -

This shell has been referred to the Hemipronites nutans, J ames
(Meek), of the Hudson River group, which it resembles in’ its
general expression. It differs from this species in its internal
characters and more finely and abundant striated exterior.

Tur New Sprcies or BRACHIOPODA, B45

Orthothetes desideratus.
Plate 5, figs. 1, 2.

Streptorhynchus, sp.? Hall. Rept. State Geologist N. Y. for 1882, pl. (xi a)
42, figs. 26, 27. 1883.

Orthotetes desideratus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 345,
pl. ix a, figs. 26, 27. 1892.

The original specimens of this species are internal casts of a
form with a subcircular marginal outline, very gibbous brachial
valve which has its greatest convexity central and slopes evenly
to the margins, though with a slight tendency to depression
toward the cardinal extremities; a strongly and regularly con-
cave pedicle-valve, elevated at the beak and about the margins.
The cardinal area on this valve is moderately high and erect, the
hinge-line being slightly shorter than the greatest diameter of
the valves. The surface of both valves is covered with numer-
ous fine radiating striz. The general form and contour of the
species is very similar to that of Orthothetes umbraculum of the
Eifel.

Waverly group. Medina county, Ohio.

Derbya ruginosa.

Plate 5, figs. 12-14.

Derbya ruginosa, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 346, pl.
x1 a, figs. 25-27. 1892.

Shell subelliptical in outline. Hinge-line short, its length
being about two-thirds the greatest diameter of the shell. Ped-
icle-valve shallow; cardinal area moderately high, its lateral
slopes being slightly more than one-half the length of its base;
-apex scarcely prominent; surface depressed or flat in the umbonal
region, becoming irregularly concave anteriorly. Entire valve
very irregular in growth, with concentric ridges and furrows.
Brachial valve very convex; apex depressed, but the umbonal
region gibbous, the greatest convexity being reached at the cen-
ter of the valve. This valve is also of irregular growth, though
the irregularities are not so strongly developed as on the oppo-
site valve. The original specimen is an internal cast in chert to
which portions of the inner lamine of the shell adhere. There
are evidences of a flabellate muscular scar on the pedicle-valve
and a short ovate muscular area in the brachial valve.

44

346 Report oF THE State GeoLoeist.

The traces of the surface striae preserved show them to have
been very fine and numerous. |

Keokuk limestone. Mew Providence, Indiana.

This species is similar in some general respects to Derbya
Broadheadi, but differs in its narrower and lower cardinal area,
less convex umbo on the brachial valve and in the absence of a
median sinus on this valve. It may be compared with the Strep-
torhynchus crenistria, var. senilis, Phillips Ca from the
lower Carboniferous of Great Britain.

_Derbya? costatula.
Plate 5, fig. 9.
Dertbya ? costatula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 346, pl.

xi b, figs. 16,17. 1892. ;

Shell small, outhne semioval: Huinge-line nearly equal to the
greatest diameter of the valve. Cardinal area moderately high,
with a prominent deltidium very wide at the base. Pedicle-
valve with an elevated beak from which the surface slopes to the
margins with a tendency to irregular growth. Brachial valve
faintly depressed at the umbo, but otherwise pretty ‘regularly
convex, the most elevated point being a little behind the middle
of the valve. There is a faint median sinus over the anterior
region.

Surface marked with afew coarse radial ribs, between each
two of which are implanted one, two or three much finer ones.
These ribs are crossed by afew distinct concentric varices of

growth.
Chester limestone. Crittenden county, Kentucky.

This species is readily distinguished by the character of its sur-
face ornamentation, and though the interior features of the shell ~
‘are as yet unknown, a very closely allied form from the upper
Coal Measures near Kansas City has a well developed median
septum in the pedicle-valve, and is hence to be referred to the
genus DeRBya.

Derbya Broadheadi.
Plate 5, figs. 15, 16.
Derbya Broadheadi, Hall. Palaeontology of N.. Y.; vol. VEG pe aes,

pl. xia, figs. 23, 24. 1892.

Shell with irregularly suboval marginal outline. Hinge-line
short, its length not exceeding and usually less than one-half the -

’ Tur New Species oF BRACHIOPODA. 347

greatest diameter of the valves. Cardinal area of the pedicle-
valve high, sometimes regularly triangular, often distorted or
somewhat incurved; deltidium broad at the base and rapidly
tapering with a faint median groove on its surface. Pedicle-
valve convex in the umbonal region, irregularly rugose and
depressed over the pallial area. Brachial valve very gibbous at
the umbo, the greatest convexity being behind the center of the
valve. From the umbonal region the surface slopes evenly toward
the lateral and anterior margins, but is more abruptly depressed
toward the cardinal extremities where it forms short subalate
expansions. The valve is but slightly unsymmetrical and is
_ bilobed by a conspicuous median sinus which takes its origin near
the umbo, and widens to the anterior margin.

Surface covered by fine radiating strize which are of cae
size over the umbonal region, but: toward the margin became
arranged in fascicles on account of the addition of finer striz as
_ growth advances. Concentric ruge and er OWL HCG are fre-
quent, especially on the pedicle-valve.

Upper Coal Measures. Wear Kansas City, Missours.

Derbya Bennetti.
Plate 5, figs. 3-8.
Dertya Bennetti Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 348, pl.
xi a, figs. 34-39. 1892.

Shell subtrihedral in general aspect, quite irregular in its
growth. Hinge-line short, its extremities on both valves being
-auriculate. Pedicle valve much the more irregular in growth,
sometimes retaining the scar of attachment at its apex. Cardinal
area unusually high, narrow, erect or slightly incurved, and
frequently distorted ; delthyrium curved. General surface of the
valve depressed-convex in the middle, sometimes rapidly sloping
in all directions, at others concave in the umbonal region; as-a
rule very unsymmetrical. The brachial valve is deep, more regu-
larly convex and has a full rounded umbo and a conspicuous
median sinus. On the interior the pedicie-valve bears an
extremely high median septum which is united with the dental
ridges near the apex. The cardinal process is high, erect and
deeply bilobed, each of its apophyses being strongly grooved on
its posterior face. Other internal characters unknown.

348 Report or THE Strate Geoxoaist.

The surface of both valves is covered by fine, elevated, thread-
like striz increasing very slowly by intercalation. The edges of
these striz bear numerous minute asperities which may be due
to the crossing of fine concentric lines. Irregular lines and
wrinkles of growth are abundant near the margins.

Upper Coal Measures. Wear Kansas City, Missouri.

Derbya cymbula.
Plate 6, figs. 1, 2.

Derbyu cymbula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 348, pl.
xi b, figs. 2, 3. 1892.

’ Shell large ; marginal outline transversely subelliptical. Hinge-
line straight, its length being about two-thirds the greatest
diameter of the shell. On the pedicle valve the cardinal area is
high, its base being one-third longer than its sides, and it may be
somewhat unsymmetrical from distortion. Its surface is finely
striated both longitudinally and transversely, and is divided into
an outer and inner portion by two lines diverging from the apex
and meeting the hinge-line halfway between its extremities and
the edges of the deltidium. Deltidium broad at the base, rapidly
narrowing for one-third its length, whence tapering more gradually
to the apex; its surface is marked bya well defined median groove
for its entire extent. The surface of the valve is elevated in the
umbonal region and slopes somewhat irregularly to a low depres-
sion over the pallial region and about the margins. ‘The brachial
valve is broadly concave at the umbo, but rapidly becomes regu- -
larly convex, the greatest convexity being in the middle of the
valve, whence it slopes almost equally in all directions. There
is no evidence of a tendency to irregular growth in this valve.
Surface covered with numerous fine, sometimes irregular strie,
increasing by implantation. Over the umbonal and pallial
regions these striz are of about equal size, but about the margins
the tendency to fasciculate arrangement is more apparent. Inte-
rior structure, except the existence of a median septum in the
pedicle-valve, unknown.
Upper Coal Measures. Wear Kansas City, Missoure.

Tur New Sprcims or BRACHIOPODA, 349

Derbya affinis.
Plate 5, figs. 10, 11.
Derbya affinis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 349, pl. xi b,
figs. 4,5. 1992, | .

Shell subsemicircular in outline, somewhat transverse. Hinge-
line straight, nearly equaling the greatest diameter of the valves.
Cardinal area of the pedicle-valve high, its greatest height being
about equal to one-third the length of the hinge-line; divided by
diverging lines as in the preceding species and crossed by con-
spicuous horizontal and fainter vertical striations. This area is
often much distorted. Deltidium having a width at the base
equal to one-fifth the length of the hinge-line; it tapers evenly
to the apex and bears a median groove on its surface. The umbo
is elevated, but the surface of the valve becomes depressed,
irregular in growth and concentrically wrinkled, though not con-
cave anteriorly. Brachial valve faintly depressed at the apex,
but rapidly becoming convex, the greatest convexity being in the
-umbonal region, whence the slope is quite regular in all direc-
tions, being somewhat more abrupt toward the cardinal extrem1-
ties. This valve also shows a slight tendency to unsymmetrical
growth in the umbonal region.

Surface covered by sharply defined, subequal radiating striz,
‘which increase by implantation. The grooves between these
strie are deep, and both strie and grooves are crossed by fine
concentric lines, which on the former produced a series of sharp
asperities. Interior, with the exception of the median septum in
the pedicle-valve, unknown.

Upper Coal Measures. Wear Kansas City, Missouri.

There are many points of similarity in the Orthis Kaskaskiensis,
McChesney, from the Kaskaskia limestone, Derbya cymbula and the
species under consideration. All have the same general aspect.
In O. Kaskaskiensis the brachial valve is most convex at the.
umbo, the pedicle-valve generally concave and the hinge line
equal to the greatest diameter of the shell; in Derbya affinis the
brachial valve also has its greatest convexity at the umbo, but
the hinge line is considerably shorter than in McCgssney’s species,
and there is a notable difference in the character of the surface
strie; while in Derbya cymbula the convexity of the brachial
valve is greatest at its center, the hinge-line very short and the
pedicle-valve concave or depressed only over the pallial region.

350 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Derbya (?) biloba.
Plate 5, figs. 17, 18.
Derbya (2) biloba, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 350, pl. xi,
figs. 4, 5. - 1892.

Shell small, obcordate in outline. Hingeline short and
straight, its length being considerably less than one-half the
width of the shell. On the pedicle-valve the cardinal area is
moderately high and slightly arched backward; delthyrium
covered. The surface of the valve is somewhat depressed or
flattened over the pallial region. The brachial is deeper and
more convex, the umbo is full but not elevated, and just in front
of the apex there begins a broad and conspicuous sinus which
widens rapidly and renders the shell bilobate on its anterior
margin.

Surface covered with numerous fine radiating strize. Interior
unknown.

Upper Coal Measures. Wénterset, Iowa.

Streptorhynchus Ulrichi.

Plate 6, fig. 3.

Streptorhynchus Ulrichi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p.
351, pl. xib, fig. 15. 1892.

Shell of comparatively large size for this genus. General con-
tour subtrihedral. Hinge-line shorter than the greatest diameter
of the valves. Cardinal area high, somewhat incurved and dis-
torted; sides considerably shorter than the base. Deltidium
broad. Marginal outline of the pedicle-valve, from hinge-line
forward, semiovate, somewhat irregular, contracted toward the
hinge and expanding in the pallial region. The interior of the
pedicle-valve shows strong teeth, the dental lamellae extending
_ downward and inclosing the posterior portion of an ovate mus-
cular scar. There is no median septum. External surface con-
vex in the upper part, becoming depressed toward the anterior
margin; quite irregular in growth, being crossed by more or less
conspicuous concentric ridges or varices ; covered with numerous
fine radiating, subequal strie, which increase by implantation.
Brachial valve not known.

Chester limestone. Crittenden county, Kentucky.

pehh)
Or
=

Tue New Species or BRACHIOPODA,

Triplecia Niagarensis.
Plate 7, figs. 1-4.
Triplecia Niagarensis. Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl.
pl. lxxxiii, figs. 16-20. 1894.

Shell of medium size with biconvex valves, the pedicle-valve
having a deep median sinus, and the brachial an elevated fold.
The brachial valve is much the more convex. Both lateral
slopes and median fold and sinus are plicated by well-defined
rounded ribs. ‘ .

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Christiania subquadrata.
Plate 6, figs. 13-18.
Leptcena subquadrata, Hall. Rept. State Geologist N. Y. for 1882, pl. (xv)
46, figs. 32, 33. 1883.
Christiania subquadrata, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p.
351, pl. xv, figs. 32, 33; pl. xv a, fig. 36, and pl. xx, figs. 18-20, 1892.

Shell small, elongate, semielliptical in outline, strongly con-
vexo-concave. Hinge-line short, straight, not equaling the greatest
diameter of the valves anteriorly. In the pedicle-valve the
umbo is full, rounded and incurved, with the apex obscure; the
cardinal area is moderately broad and bears an open delthyrium
which terminates above in acircular foramen. The teeth are
short, divergent and continued into ridges which form the lateral
margins of two linguiform, muscular scars, traversing the shell
for almost its entire length. These scars inclose two much shorter
impressions. In the brachial valve the area is narrow, the cardi-
nal process bipartite on its anterior face, each of the lobes being
grooved behind. The crural plates are very long and divergent,
the upper portion of each terminating in an elevated extremity ;
the lower portion produced on each side as a strongly elevated
ridge, curving slightly inward on the sides, then outward on
approaching the anterior margin of the valve; each branch
recurving and passing backward, paraliel to the median axis, as
far as the base of the cardinal process. The symmetrical spaces
thus formed are each divided transversely by a somewhat lower
vertical ridge. Between the inner muscular walls in the median
line is a low, rounded, longitudinal ridge.

852 _ Report or THE State GEOLOGIST. .

The surface is smooth or covered with concentric, usually
somewhat squamous lines of growth. 7
Lower Helderberg group. Perry county, Tennessee.

Leptznisca adnascens.
Plate 6, figs. 26, 27. ;
Leptenisca adnascens, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII pt= Ep:
302, pl. xv a, figs. 22, 23. 1892.

Shell small, very irregular’ in outline; cemented to shells of
other. brachiopods, especially of Ortuts, by the entire external
surface of the pedicle-valve. Hinge-line making the greatest
diameter of the shell. Cardinal area well developed on the
pedicle-valve and bearing a convex deltidium. Internal charac-
ters as in ZL. tangens. Brachial valve prominent at the beak,
elevated in the umbonal region and slightly depressed anteriorly.
Surface smooth or with irregularly concentric wrinkles.

Lower Helderberg group (Shaly limestone). ear Clarksville,
I a

Leptenisca tangens.

Plate 6, figs. 19-25.
Leptenisca tangens, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, p. 352, ee
xv a, figs. 24-380. 1892.

Shell transverse; hingeline making the greatest diameter;
contour regularly convexo-concave; attached by the apical or
umbonal portion of the pedicle-valve, usually fronds and twigs of
bryozoa. Cardinal areas narrow; delthyrium covered. In the
pedicle-valve teeth not prominent but continued into strong, con-
verging lamellz which nearly enclose an oval muscular area;
this area is divided by a median septum. External surface con-
vex; bilobed by a more or less conspicuous median furrow.
Brachial valve strongly concave.

Surface smooth, with a few inconspicuous concentric growth-
lines, and faint radiating strize on the inner lamellae toward the
margins.

Lower Helderberg” group (Shaly limestone). Wear Clarks-
wulle, NV. Y¥.

Tur New Srecies or BRACHIOPODA, 353

Chonostrophia Helderbergia.
Plate 7, fig. 11.
Chonostrophia Helderbergia, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VII, pt. 1,
p. 353, pl. xv b, fig. 14. 1892.

Shell tenuous, semielliptical in outline. Hinge-line straight
and making the greatest diameter of the valves. Valves nearly
flat, the pedicle-valve being gently concave and the brachial cor-
respondingly convex. Cardinal areas very narrow; marginal
spines not observed. Teeth of the pedicle-valve well developed
on either side of the moderately broad delthyrium; at their bases
arises a median septum, strongest at the point of beginning and
continuing for one-half the length of the valve. In the brachial
valve the crural plates are very short, subparallel to the hinge-
line and apparently coalesced with thé short cardinal process.
No traces of muscular scars retained. 7

Surface covered with a great number of exceedingly fine, sub-
equal radiating striz, all of which are apparent on the interior
of the shell, even to the bases of the teeth and crural plates.

Lower Helderberg group (Shaly limestone). Albany county
ee a

Strophalosia Rockfordensis.
Plate 7, figs. 6-10.
Strophalosia Rockfordensis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1,
p. 353, pl. xviia, figs. 1-3. 1892.

Shell semielliptical in outline, somewhat elongate. Hinge-
line scarcely as long as the greatest diameter of the valves. Car-
dinal area well developed on each valve, that of a pedicle-valve
bearing a convex deltidium; scar of attachment on the pedicle-
valve covering only the apical region... Surface regularly convex,
depressed toward the cardinal angles; bearing scattered spines,
of which there is a well-defined row of six or seven on the car-
dinal margin. There are faint, irregularly concentric wrinkles
among the spine-bases. Apex of the brachial valve convex, but
the valve rapidly becomes concave, being of somewhat less curva-
ture than the opposite valve. Surface with conspicuous, irreg-
ular, concentric corrugations, and a few short spines over the
pallial region. |

45

354: REporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Length of the original specimen, 9 mm.; width along hinge-
line, 10 mm.
Upper Devonian. Lockford, Towa.

Strophonella costatula.
Plate 6, figs. 9, 10.
Strophonella costatula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p.
309, pl. Ixxxiv, figs. 15, 16. 1894. Z .

Shell subsemicircular in outline; hinge-line straight or slightly
arched ; surface depressed concavo-convex.

Pedicle-valve elevated at the beak, becoming rapidly depressed
anteriorly, the median depression continued upon the short lin-
gcuiform extension at the anterior margin. Corresponding to
this depression is a broad anterior fold on the opposite valve.
The surface of both valves is covered with a few coarse, round,
sharply elevated ribs, which rapidly bifurcate or multiply by
implantation. These are more or less irregular or sinuous, ele-
vated at the concentric varices and crossed by faint concentric
lines. |

The typical example has a length of 21 mm., and a width on
the hinge of 24 mm.

Niagara group. Louisville, Kentucky.

Plectambonites producta.
Plate 6, figs. 11, 12.

Plectambonites producta, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p.
360, pl. Ixxxiv, figs. 23, 24, 25. 1894.

The original of this species is an internal cast of the pedicle
valve, with short, straight hinge; rather narrow, depressed

umbo, the shell becoming highly convex and greatly produced

anteriorly. The sides of the valve are somewhat appressed
medially and the anterior margin slightly expanded and suboval
in outline. The cast shows the impression of short, divergent
dental plates and a moderately broad muscular impression. The
width of the shell on the hinge is 10 mm; its length, 23 mm; its
convexity from. the posterior margin, 8 mm.; from the anterior
margin, 28 mm.
Niagara dolomites. Yellow Springs, Ohio.

Tur New Species or BRACHIOPODA, 355

Strophalosia cymbula.

. Plate 7, fig. 5.
Strophalosia cymbula, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 1, expl. pl.
xviia, figs. 3, 4, 8,9. 1892.

Shell of medium size, convexo concave, -hinge-line, cardinal
area, deltidium and chilidium well developed. Brachial valve
smooth, pedicle-valve spinose, with a distinct scar of attachment
confined to the apex. |

Keokuk group. Lebanon, Kentucky.

Spirifer crispatus.
Plate 7, figs. 12, 13. 7
Spirifer crispatus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 360, pl
xxxvi, figs. 9,10. 1894. : |

Shell small, with moderately high, incurved area, scarcely
extended on the hinge; well-developed median fold and sinus,
and three coarse plications on each lateral slope. The surface is
covered by conspicuous concentric lamelle.

Niagara group. Maryland. |

Spirifer Canandaigue.
Plate 7, figs. 14-16. —

Spirifer Canandaigue, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 360,
pl. xxxvii, figs. 23, 24, 26. 1894.

Shells of rather small size, having somewhat the aspect of an
elongate and umbonate S. jimbriatus. Umbo of pedicle-valve
prominent, narrow and closely incurved at the apex. MJinge-line
quite short, cardinal area small, incurved. Median sinus deep,
produced on the anterior margin, its anterior width being nearly
equal to the length of the hinge. On each lateral slope are from
two to four low radial undulations or plications, all of which are
sharply defined at the umbones. Surface covered with very fine,
closely crowded concentric lines which are granulous and were
originally fimbriate. Length of typical specimen, 21 mm.;
greatest width, 22 mm.; length of hinge, 10 mm.

Hamilton group. Centerfield and Canandaigua Lake, VN. Y.

856 ReEporT oF THE State GroLoGIst. |

Spirifer mucronatus, Conran, var. posterus,
Plate 7, figs. 20-24.

Spirifer mucronatus, Conrad, var. posterus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y.,
_ vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 361, pl. xxxiv, figs. 27-31. 1894. .

A late variety of.the typical Hamilton form, characterized by
its small size, usually narrow bodies and acuminate cardinal
extremities.

Chemung group. Tompkins county, NV. Y.

Spirifer disjunctus, Scwersy, var. sulcifer.
| Plate 7, fig. 27.

Spirifer disjunctus, Sowerby, var. sulcifer, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y.,
vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 361, pl. xxx, fig. 16. 1894.

This variety is distinguished by the sharply defined median
sulcus on the folds of the brachial valve. It has heretofore been
embraced within the limits of S. disjyunctus, but the character
referred to appears to be persistent.

Chemung group. Wear Olean, WV. Y.

Spirifer Williamsi.
'. Plate 7, figs. 17-19.

Spirifer Williamsi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 361, pl.
xxxvii, figs. 20-22. 1894.

Shells of the form of Spirifer increbescens, Hall, and varying
but little in size. Median fold and sinus well developed. The
latter bearing usually three, sometimes four plications, finer than
those on the lateral slopes. Of these the median plication is
generally the strongest. This, however, is not always the case,
the arrangement of these plications being frequently quite irregu-
lar. The median fold generally bears a median groove and one
lateral plication on each side. On each lateral slope of the shell
are seven or eight plications. |

A normal example measures: Length, 15 mm. ; width on hinge,
24 mm. .

Chemung group. Allegany county, NV. Y.

Tur New Species or BRACHIOPODA, 357

Spirifer Newberryi, Hall. 1883.
Plate 7, figs. 25, 26.

Spirifer Newberryi, Hall. 2nd Ann. Rept. State Geologist, pl. (xxxi) 56, figs.
9,10. 1883.

Spirifer Newberryi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 362, pl.
xxxi, figs. 9,10. 1894.

Shell moderately large, with sharp cardinal angles. Surface
plication consisting of numerous fine simple or duplicate ribs
which cover the median fold. On each lateral slope there are
twenty-five to thirty of these plications. The plications and the
grooves between them are covered with fine radiating lines.

Waverly group. Ofvo.

Cyrtia radians.
Plate 7, figs. 28, 29.

_ Cyrtia radians, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 362, pl.
xxviii, figs. 4, 5, 50, 52; pl. xxxix, fig. 33. 1894.

The typical form is of medium size, with high area, incurved
umbo and general cyrtiniform aspect. Its outer surface is char-
acterized by an absence of plications and fine radial striae. —
Median fold and sinus well developed.

Clinton group. Rochester, NV. -Y.

An allied but larger form, here referred to this species, occurs.
in the Niagara dolomites, near Milwaukee, os.

Cyrtina umbonata, Hall, var. Alpenensis.
- Plate 8, figs. 9-13.

Cyrtina umbonata, Hall, var. Alpenensis, Hall. Palaeontology BE NY) «4, Vous.
VIII, pt. 2, p. 362, pl. xxviii, figs. 16-20. 1894.

Cyrtina umbonata, Hall, from the original locality in Iowa, is a
small shell, often obscurely plicated; this variety possesses the
contour of C. wmbonata, but is a larger and more robust shell
with broad and well-defined plications, smooth median fold and
sinus. )

Hamilton group. Alpena, Michigan.

(a)
Ort
192)

Report or THE State GEOLOGIST.

Cyrtina lachrymosa.
Plate 8, figs 1-3.
Cyrtina lachrymosa, Hall. Paleontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 362, pl.
xxviii, figs. 36, 37, 47. 1894.

Shells small; cardinal area high, more or less inosteell Sur-
face with low and rather narrow median fuld and sinus, on each
side of which are two or three low, faint plications. Lateral
margins of the cardinal area broadly rounded. Surface covered
with elongate pustules, some of them coarse, but the greater
number quite fine.

Height of an average specimen, 5 mm.; width and length
6 mm.

Waverly group. Richfield, Ohio.

Syringothyris Missouri.
| Plate 8, figs. 14-16.
Syringothyris Missouri, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y. vole VIII, pt. 2, p.
363, pl. xxxix, figs. 29-31. 1894,

Shell small, cyrtiniform ; cardinal area biel slightly incieen
toward the apex; lateral cardinal margin broadly rounded, ren-
dering the definition of the area quite obscure. Median fold and
sinus neither wide nor highly developed. Surface of both
smooth. Each lateral slope with five or six low plications.
Interiorly the pedicle-valve bears strong divergent dental
lamellz which are attached to the surface of the valve for fully
one-third of its length. There is no median septum. The trans-
verse delthyrial plate is thin and is developed into a delicate but
distinct tube. Shell substance highly punctate on the inner
lamine. Height of original specimen, 13 mm.; cardinal width,
18 mm.; length, 15 mm.

Choteau limestone. Choteau Springs, Missourr.

Athyris densa.
Plate 9, figs. 3-9.

Athyris densa, Hall. Palaeontology of N.Y. , vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 364, pl. xlvi,
figs. 6-12. 1894.

Shell transversely elongate, valves compressed; median fold
and sinus not conspicuously developed. Pedicle-valve shallow,
with broad, sharply angled cardinal slopes, greatly thickened

Tur New Species of BRACHIOPODA, 359

interiorly. The anterior margin is frequently extended intoa
linguate process at the termination of the median sinus. Brachial
valve the more convex, with an indistinct, flattened, and some-
times broadly grooved median fold with regular and even lateral
slopes. In the interior of the valves the form of the muscular
scars is normal, though there is a notable variation in the size
of the diductor scars. |

St. Louis group. Washington .county, Indiana; Colesburgh,

Kentucky.
Seminula Rogersi.
Plate 9, figs. 10-13.
Seminula Rogersi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 364; pl.
xlvii, figs. 1-4. 1894.

Shell rather small, suboval in outline. Valve subequally con-
vex. Pedicle-valve with:a low, broad median sinus and brachial |
valve with a corresponding fold, both becoming more distinct
toward the anterior margin. Lateral slopes depressed-convex.
Umbones not conspicuous ; deltidium concealed.

External surface smooth. , ,

A normal individual measures 15 mm. in length, and 13 mm. in
greatest with.

Pendleton sandstone (Schoharie grit). Pendleton, Indiana.

Seminula Dawsoni.
Plate 9, figs. 14-16.
Seminula Dawsoni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 364, pl.
xvii, figs. 32--34. 1894.

This species was originally identified as Athyris subtilita, Hall,
by Davipson (Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London, vol. XIX, 1863). Its differences from this species are
indicated on the pages referred to.

Carboniferous limestone. Windsor, Nova Scotia.

Torynifer criticus. ,
Plate 9, fig. 1.
Torynifer criticus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl.
Ixxxiv, figs. 34, 35. 1894.
Shell but imperfectly known. The pedicle-valve has a smooth
exterior, narrow cardinal area and unclosed dilthyrium. On the

360 > Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

inside it bears a short but well defined spondylium supported by

a median septum, and strong recurved teeth. This structure

is unlike that of any other genus. ! 3
St. Louis group. La Rue, Kentucky.

Rhynchospira scansa.

Plate 9, fig. 2.

Fhynchospiras scansa, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. .
pl. 1, fig. 45. 1894.

Pedicle-valve large, with prominent,,somewhat arched beak,
cardinal slopes extending about one-half the length of the shell,
anterior margin semioval. Surface with a sharply defined median
furrow bearing a single small plication, the lateral slopes having
eight or ten broad and rounded plications. Shell known only
from an internal cast of the pedicle-valve.

Waverly group. /cKean county, Pennsylvania.

Trematospira Tennesseensis.
| Plate 8, figs. 17-19.
Trematospira Tennesseensis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, pl.
Ixxxiii, figs, 21-28. 1894. |

Shell small, subelliptical or subcircular in outline. Valves
coarsely plicate, the pedicle-valve bearing six, with a small median
plication at the bottom vf the sinus, the brachial valve having the
median fold divided by a low furrow, and with three plications
on each lateral slope. Valves subequally convex. Apex of the .
pedicle-valve slightly elevated, truncate; deltidial plates coalesced.
Surface with distant concentric growth-lines. :
Lower Helderberg group. Perry county, Tennessee.

Meristella Walcotti.
Plate 8, figs. 26-81.
Meristella Walcotti, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 365, pl..
xliii, figs. 16, 17; pl. xliv, figs. 6-11, 23, 382. 1894. ;

Shell elongate-ovate, valves convex, regular. Pedicle-valve
with umbo moderately full and beak incurved ; foramen generally
concealed at maturity. Cardinal slopes concave and well delimited
by divergent cardinal ridges. Dorsum more or less distinctly ridged

Tue New Specizs or BRACHIOPODA. 361

in *the umbonal region, broadly convex anteriorly and slightly
extended on the anterior margin, but with no median sinus.
Brachial valve with the median elevation somewhat more strongly
defined, especially in the umbonal region. Umbo-lateral slopes |
rather more abrupt than in the other valve.
Internal structure normal for the genus.
Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario. —

Merista Tennesseensis.
Plate 8, figs. 20-25.
Merista Tennesseensis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 365,

pl. xlii, figs. 1-6. 1894.

Shell subpentahedral in outline, transverse, rarely elongate.
Valves subequally convex, with broad, low fold and sinus devel-
oped on the anterior portion of the brachial and pedicle-valves
respectively. Umbo of pedicle-valve not conspicuous, apex

truncated at maturity by a circular foramen. Deltidial plates
concealed by incurvature. Umbo of brachial valve full, apex
acute. ‘External surface smooth. Dimensions of an average
example: length, 17 mm.; greatest width, 19 mm. |

Upper Silurian. Perry county, Tennessee.

Clintonella vagabunda.
Plate 9, figs. 17-26.
Clintonella vagabunda, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y.,vol. VIII, pt. 2, p, 160,
pl. lii, figs. 1-11. 1894.

Shells small, suboval in outline, valves subequally biconvex,
the axis of greatest convexity being oblique. Pedicle-valve with
a small umbo, which is compressed laterally, the apex being
slightly incurved. Delthyrium wide, without traces of deltaria.
The umbo merges anteriorly into. a sinus which makes a deep
flexure at the margin and bears two plications, both of which
reach the beak. The lateral slopes bear from four to eight radial
plications of smaller size. On the interior the teeth are promi-
nent and strongly recurved. The muscular impression is moder-
ately large, flabellate in outline and deeply impressed. The
brachial valve has an inconspicuous beak ; the umbonal region is
depressed for about one-third the length of the valve, but an-

46

362 REPORT OF THE StTatTE GeoLoaist.

teriorly the median fold becomes prominent. The hinge-plate
consists of two flat processes, inclined toward each other but not
meeting. A stout median ridge supports this plate and divides
the muscular area. Spirals are present but their direction is
undetermined.

Clinton group. . Drift block in Western New York.

Zygospira putilla.
Plate 9, figs. 31, 32.

Zygospira putilla, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 365,
pl. liv, figs. 35-37. 1894. j

Shell small, elongate-suboval in outline. Pedicle-valve the
more convex; umbo narrowed, apex acute, delthyrium unclosed.
Medially this valve is elevated by a strong double plication, the
parts of which diverge anteriorly, leaving a flat, low depression
between them, and in this lies a single faint plication. The
lateral slopes are considerably depressed, and each bears from
four to seven coarse, often irregular plications, only a part of
them reaching the beak. ;

The brachial vaive is depressed convex, with a conspicuous
median fold, grooved longitudinally and bounded by deep mar-
ginal depressions. . The lateral slopes are more convex than on the
other valve, but are similarly plicated. :

Surface of the valves usually without concentric growth-lines.

An average example has a length of 8 mm. and a greatest
width of 7 mm.

- Hudson River group. Wear Edgewood, Pike county, Missouri.

Atrypina Clintoni.
Plate 9, figs. 27-30. 4
Atrypina Clintoni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 162,
pl. liii, figs. 7, 17-19. 1894. :
Shell smalJ, subplano-convex. The pedicle-valve projecting
slightly at the apex, with short oblique cardinal margins and

nearly circular periphery. This valve has a low median sinus ~

bearing a median plication, and four or five somewhat stronger
plications on each lateral slope. The brachial valve is slightly
convex in the umbonal region, and has but avery faintly developed

median fold. The surface of both valves bears rather distant —

=

Tur New Species or BRACHIOPODA, 363

concentric lamellz. On the interior the pedicle-valve has mod-
erately strong teeth and a large flabellate muscular impression.
In the brachial valve the hinge-plate is divided into two flat
lobes, supported by a thickened median ridge extending nearly
the full length of the valve.

Clinton group. Jn the drift of Western New York.

Glassia Romingeri.
Plate 9, figs. 33-36.
Glassia Romingeri, Hall. Palzeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 152, pl.
lxxxiii, figs. 32-35. 1894.

Shell small, subequally biconvex, obcordate in outline. Surface
smooth, with a median depression on both valves, which
gives the shell a bilobed appearance on the anterior margin and
over the anterior region. On the interior are introverted spirals
whose primary lamelle are united by a posterior jugum.

Trenton limestone. Jn a drift boulder, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Camarophoria rhomboidalis.
Plate 9, figs. 37-40.
Camarophoria rhomboidalis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2,
p. 366, pl. Ixii, figs. 25-29. 1894.

Shells of rather small size, subtriangular in outline with‘cardinal
margins extending for half the length of the valves. Pedicle-
valve with apex scarcely elevated, incurved, with deltidial plates
usually concealed; slightly convex about the umbo, broadly
depressed medially, forming a sinus which makes a linguiform
extension on the anterior margin. This sinus may bear one and
sometimes traces of two other low plications. The lateral slopes
are smooth, except at the margins, where there is faint: evidence
of one or two plications on each. The brachial valve is convex
and broadly rounded with abrupt umbo-lateral slopes ; broad, low
median fold, apparent only in the pallial region, and bearing a
median plication. Traces of two lateral plications are visible at
the margin of the valve, and these are somewhat more distinct
on the surface than on the opposite valve. Surface smooth or
with fine concentric lines. The interior structure of the shell is
normal for this genus.

Corniferous limestone. Cass county, Indiana.

364 REporT oF THE STATE GEOLCGIST.

Parastrophia divergens.
Plate 10, figs. 11-14. ©
Parastrophia divergens, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p.
366, pl. lxiii, figs. 4-7. 1894.

Shell of medium size with strongly convex brachial valve and
depressed convex, anteriorly concave pedicle-valye. The beak of
the pedicle-valve is erect, but not. conspicuous; from the gently
convex umbo the surface slopes gradually to the lateral margins,
and abruptly to the front, forming a broad and deep sinus, which
is sharply defined at the sides, and bears from two to four angu-
lar plications. Two or more smaller plications occur on each
lateral slope. The brachial valve is well rounded in the umbonal
region, but the median fold is defined only near the anterior
margin. It bears from three to five plications, with three on
each lateral slope. All the plications, as well as fold and sinus,
become obsolete in the umbonal region, and in old and thickened: ~
shells the latter can be distinguished only at the anterior margins
of the valves. In the interior there is a supported spondylium
in the pedicle-valve, but in the brachial valve the septal plates do
not unite. .

Hudson River group. Welmington, Lllinors.

Parastrophia Greenii.
“Plate 10, figs. 1-5.

Parastrophia Greenii, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. oF p. 867,

pl. lxiii, figs. 17-20, 22. 1€94. ;

Shell robust, with convex brachial valve and shallow pedicle-
valve, convex in the umbonal region, but concave anteriorly.
Beaks not prominent; that of the pedicle-valve low but erect;
that of the brachial valve full and incurved. Cardinal slopes
sharply defined on pedicle-valve. Median fold and sinus on
brachial and pedicle-valves not strongly defined except at the
anterior margin. The brachial valve bears six broadly rounded >
plications which are obsolete in the umbonal region; four of
these belong to the median fold, the other two to the lateral
slopes. The pedicle-valve has five plications, with three in the
median sinus. Interior with a median supporting septum in each

valve. .
Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Tur New Spectes oF BRACHIOPODA. 365

Parastrophia multiplicata.

Plate 10, figs. 15-17. |

Parastrophia multiplicata, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2,
p. 367, pl. Ixiii, figs. 15, 16, 21. - 1894.

This species differs from P. Greenz in its more conspicuously
developed median fold and sinus, flatter and larger plications,
and the greater number of the latter on the lateral slopes. The
usually sessile spondylium of the brachial valve may also prove a
distinguishing feature.

‘Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Parastrophia latiplicata.

Plate 10, figs. 6-10.
‘Parastrophia latiplicata, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p.
368, pl. Lxiii, figs, 23-27. 1894.

This species is distinguished from the two preceding by its
smaller size, less robust form, two broad plications on the fold
and one in the sinus, with but a single pair on the lateral slopes.

Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin. —

Liorhynchus robustus.
Plate 10, figs. 18, 19.
Liorhynchus robustus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl.
pl. lix, figs. 80, 31. 1894.

‘Shell large, with highly convex brachial valve and shallow
pedicle-valve. Median fold and sinus well developed on brachial
and pedicle-valves respectively. Surface abundantly plicate.
Species is known only from an internal cast, which shows very
perfectly the muscular scars and vascular sinuses.

Chemung group. ' Steuben county, WV. Y.

Liorhynchus Lesleyi.
Plate 9, figs. 41-43.

Liorhynchus Lesleyi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 368. pl.
lix, figs. 34-36. 1894.

Shell of medium size with shallow pedicle, and deep brachial
valve. Median sinus on the former well defined; median fold on
the latter broad and not sharply delimited. Surface of both
valves sharply and abundantly plicated.

Upper Devonian. Pennsylvania.

366 Report oF THE State GEoxocist.

Conchidium exponens.
‘Plate 10, figs. 20-23.
Conchidium exponens, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl.
pl. lxvi, figs. 6-9. 1894.

Shell elongate, subtriangular in marginal outline; valves subse-
quently convex. Median fold distinct over the anterior region
of the pedicle-valve. Surface with numerous fine, rounded plica-
tions which are more or less obsolete over the lateral slopes and
umbonal region of the valves. The pedicle-valve bears a spondy-
lium extending less than one-half its length, while i in the brachial
valve the septal plates do not unite.

Niagara group. Lowisville, Kentucky.

Conchidium scoparium.
Plate 11, figs. 8, 9.
Conchidium scoparium, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl.
pl. Ixvii, figs. 6, 7. 1894.

Shell with biconvex valves; marginal outline subcircular.
Pedicle-valve with prominent, suberect umbo, slightly incurved
at the top, with gradually expanding sides. Surface without
median fold or sinus, but covered with numerous fine plications.

Guelph dolomites. Durham, Ontario. |

Conchidium obsoletum.
Plate 11, figs. it 2.
Conchidium obsoletum, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl.
pl. xvii, figs. 8,9. 1894.’

Shell with highly convex valves and greatly fnivened cardinal
slopes. Anterior margin broadly curved, subtransverse. Surface
with ‘a few obscure and broad plications, obsolete at the sides of
the valves. 7 ;

Niagara dolomites. Genoa, Ohio.

Conchidium Nettelrothi.
Plate 10, figs. 24, 25.
Pentamerus Knighti, Nettelroth, Kentucky Fossil shells, p. 57, pl. xxix, figs.
te ie 1889;

Conchidium Nettelrothi, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. viii. pt. 2, p. 234,
foot-note.

Tur New Species or BRACHIOPODA. 367

Shell somewhat similar in general expression to that of Con-
chidium Knighti, Sow., but smaller, more sparsely and closely
plicated. |

Corniferous limestone. Wear Louisville, Kentucky.

Conchidium Greenii.
Plate 11, figs. 5-7.
Conchidium Greenii, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 368, pl.
Ixvi, figs. 20-22, 1894.

Shell subequally biconvex, ventricose, subcircular in marginal
outline. Umbones full and rounded, both incurved, that of the
pedicle-valve somewhat elevated. Thereisnoevidenceof median
fold and sinus. Surface of each valve bearing, over the pallial
region, from forty-five to fifty rounded plications, which very
gradually increase by implantation and become more numerous
anteriorly. . These plications are of slightly unequal size, which
appears to be due to variation in the rate of their multiplication.
In the umbonal regions the plications are obsolete.

Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Conchidium crassiplica.
Plate 11, figs. 3, 4.
Conchidium crassiplica, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p.
369, pl. Ixvi, figs. 24, 25. 1894. |

Shell elongate, subelliptical in outline. Valves subequally con-
vex, depressed above; cardinal slopes broad and abrupt on both.
Umbo of the pedicle-valve erect, not prominent, surface slightly
elevated medially. Umbo of brachial valve depressed, apex con-
cealed; median region depressed anteriorly; surface of both
valves bearing broad rounded plications, separated by deep
grooves. Of these plications there are from eight to ten on each
valve over the pallial region; by dichotomizing these become
more numerous anteriorly.

Niagara group. Wear Louisville, Kentucky.

Conchidium Georgiz.
Plate 11, figs. 10, 11.

Conchidium Georgie, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 369,
pl. Ixvi, figs. 18, 19. 1894.

Pedicle-valve unknown ; brachial valve trilobed by the develop-
ment of a strong-median fold which extends from apex to mar-

368 REportT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

gin, and is sharply delimited by abrupt lateral slopes. The sides
of the valve are convex, rather narrow, and slope abruptly to the
lateral margins. Umbo full and incurved. Surface covered with
numerous duplicating plications, of which from fifteen to twenty
may be counted on each side at the margins, and twelve to four-
teen in the fold.

Clinton group. Trenton, Georgia.

Pentamerus oblongus, Sowxrrsy, var. Maquoketa.

Plate 11, figs. 12-14. .
Pentamerus oblongus, var. Maquoketa, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol.
VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl. Ixvii, figs. 11-138. 1894. :
Shells small, with highly ventricose valves; general aspect —
ovoid. Umbo of the pedicle valve not greatly elevated. Mar-
ginal outline suboval. Surface smooth. Spondylium well
developed in the pedicle-valve ; septal plates of the brachial valve

not uniting. 4 i

Niagara dolomites. Wear Dubuque, Lowa.

Pentamerus oblongus, Sowrrsy, var. subrectus.
Plate 12, figs. 1-6. — |
Pentamerus oblongus, var. subrectus, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII,
pt. 2, expl. pl. Ixviii, fig. 6; pl. lxix, figs. 2, 3, 8-10. 1894.

Shells with elongate, subquadrate marginal outline, high, sub-
rectangular cardinal extremities, narrow and exsert umbo.
Valves subequally convex, the greatest convexity being from
umbo to anterior margin along the median axis. Each valve —
bears a longitudinal impressed median line and two divergent
grooves which divide the surface. into three divisions or fault
lobes. Surface smooth ; sometimes with traces of obscure, coarse
radial folds in the median region. .

Niagara group. Jones county, Lowa.

Capellinia mira.

Plate 18, figs. 5-13.

. Capellinia mira, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 249, pl. xx,
figs. 6-14. 1894.

Shells large, elongate subovate. The relative size and convex-
ity of the valves normal for Pentamer s are here reversed, the
brachial valve being the larger and deeper, with full, strongly
arcuate and incurved beak, the apex of which is concealed within

Ture New Sprcirs or BRACHIOPODA. 369

the umbo of the opposite valve. The pedicle-valve has an acute,-
suberect beak, which is not arched posteriorly but rises directly
from the cardinal margins. Below it is a broad delthyrium
without evidence of deltidial plates. There is no hinge-line but
the margins of the delthyrium make subacute angles with the
lateral margins of the valve. Cardinal slopes very broad and
abrupt. The pedicle-valve is flattened above, while that of the
brachial valve is evenly and deeply convex; it also shows a
tendency to trilobation or obscure radial plication. Surface of
both valves otherwise smooth. Internal apparatus as in Pen-
tamerus oblongus.
Niagara dolomites. Wear Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Barrandella Areyi.
, Plate 13, figs. 1-3.
Barrandella Areyi, Hall. Palacotitology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 368, pl.
Ixxi, figs. 14-16. 1894.

Shell small, ventricose, with sinus on the pedicle-valve and fold
on the brachial valve. Surface on both valves rather sharply and
- coarsely plicated, the largest plication being in the median sinus,
with traces of finer ones on the slopes of the sinus. The median
fold bears two well-defined plications with faint traces of others,
while on each lateral slope of. the valves there are four or five less
sharply angular ribs.

- Clinton group. Rochester, WV. Y.

Gypidula Romingeri.

Plate 12, figs. 7-12.

_ Gypidula Romingeri, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl.
Ixxii, figs. 27-33. 1894.

Shells plano, or subplano-convex; marginal outline circular
or subelliptical. Pedicle-valve highly convex, regularly arched
from beak to margin. Hinge-line short, straight; cardinal area
distinct, narrow, sometimes with remnants of deltaria or deltid-
ium. On the interior the pedicle-valve bears a short, free spondy-
lium and the brachial valve a sessile cruralium which may extend
for one-half the shell’s length. The surface of both valves is
covered with coarse, often irregular and bifurcating plications.

Hamilton group. Alpena, Michigan. .

1 SR

370 Report oF THE State Gronoaist. a a

Sieberella Roemeri.

Piate 18, fig. 4.

Pentamerus galeatus, F. Roemer. Silur. Fauna des westl. Tennessee, p. 73,
pl. v3 fies 11.

Sieberella Roemeri, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 247, pl.
Ixxii, fig. 6. 1894,
Shell similar in general aspect to Sieberella galeata, but some-
what more elongate, less distinctly plicate and always smaller,
having, also, the septal plates of the brachial valve united, form-
ing a cruralium resting on a median septum.
Niagara group. Perry county, Tennessee.

Rensselzria Cayuga.

Plate 18, figs. 14, 15.

Rensseleria Cayuga, Hall. Relaconnclony of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 370,
pl. xxv, figs. 1,2. 1894.

Shell lenticular, often of large size; suboval in marginal out-
line. Valves subequally biconvex, Blgnne regularly in all
directions. Apex of the pedicle-valve scarcely prominent ; umbo
not conspicuous, somewhat elevated medially. Divergent cardi- -
nal ridges and cardinal slopes well defined. Brachial valve with
apex depressed and concealed; somewhat less convex in the
umbonal region than the opposite valve. Surface of both valves
covered with a great number of fine, simple, thread-like, rarely
duplicating plications, of which from 70 to 100 may be counted.
on each valve near the anterior margin.

Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario.

Rensseleria ovulum.
Plate 14, figs. 15, 16. E
Rensseleria ovulum, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl.
Ixxv, figs. 3, 4. 1894.

Shell large, distinguished from 7. ovoides by its more orbicular
form and regularly convex valves, and from 2. Cayuga by its
larger size and greater convexity. Its outline is rather regularly
oval, the greatest diameter of the valves being somewhat in front
of the middle. Surface covered with fine radial plications.

Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario.

Tue New Specizs or BRACHIOPODA. Stk

Oriskania navicella.
Plate 14, figs. 1-3.
Oriskania navicella, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 270, pl.
lxxix, figs. 25-27. 1894.

Shell of considerable dimensions, elongate-ovate, plano-convex.
Pedicle-valve much the deeper with a prominent median ridge.
Surface of both valves smooth. Interior with a broad, triangular
undivided hinge-plate, bearing an erect, lamellar unciform cardi-
nal process and stout crural lobes. In the pedicle-valve are well-
developed dental lamelle.

Oriskany sandstone. Rondout and Hudson, N. Y.

Selenella gracilis.

Selenella gracilis, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 271, figs.
184-186.

Shells small, elongate-ovate, with attenuate, truncate beak.
Valves convex, surface smooth. Interior with a simple centro-
nellid loop. |

Corniferous limestone. Cayuga, Ontario.

Selenella gracilis.

Fig. 2. Outline profile of conjoined valves.
Fig. 3. Preparation showing the form of the loop.
Fig. 4. An oblique view, showing the upward curvature of the anterior plate.

Cryptonella subelliptica.
Plate 14, figs. 4-6.
Oryptonella subelliptica, Hall. Ealscontoloey of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expt.
pl. Ixxxi, figs. 41-48. 1894,
Shell elongate-oval, broadest near the center of the length;

valves convex,smooth. Pedicle-valve with arched and truncated
beak.

Waverly group. Sczotoville, Ohio.

372 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. .

Beecheria Davidsoni.
Plate 14, figs. 7-11.

Terebratula sacculus (Martin), Davidson. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London, vol.
XIX, p. 169, pl. ix, figs. 1-8. 1863.

Beecheria Davidsoni, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, p. 300, pl.
Ixxxix, figs. 33-36, 1894.

Shells small, terebratuliform, oval, broadest medially, attenu-
ate at the beak. ‘Valves biconvex, surface smooth. On the
interior the pedicle valve is without dental plates, and the loop,
which is short, is supported by a divided hinge-plate.

Carboniferous limestone. Wdandsor, Nova Scotia.

Dielasma obovatum.
Plate 14, figs. 12-14.

Dielasma obovatum, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl.
lxxxi, figs. 38-40.. 1894.

Shell elongate-ovoid, attenuate in the umbonal region. Sur-
face biconvex, smooth, sloping subequally from the median por-
tion of the beaks. Beak of the pedicle-valve broadly and some-
what obliquely truncated.

Coal Measures. Kentucky.

Cyrtina neogenes.
Plate 8, figs. 4-8.

Cyrtina neogenes, Hall. Palaeontology of N. Y., vol. VIII, pt. 2, expl. pl.
Ixxxiv, fig. 41.

Shells having the form of SprrirERina, extended on the hinge,

with 5-7 plications on the lateral slopes. Internally with the
structure of Cyrrina. |
Chart of the Burlington limestone. Burlington, Lowa.

Explanation of Plates.
PLATE 1.

LineuLta compta, Hall.
Page 325.

Fig. 1. A specimen of the brachial valve (?); showing the lateral impressions
and the median septum extending to the anterior margins. X 2,
Hamilton shales. Canandaigua Lake, N. Y.

LINGULA LINGULATA, Hall.
Page 3827.

Fig. 2. The pedicle-valve, from which the epidermal layer is partially exfoli-
ated; showing the peculiar deflection of the anterior margin, which is a
constant feature. X 2. °

Clinton group. Near Hamilton, Ontario.

Linevuta scuTeuua, Hall.
Page 326.

Fig. 8. An internal cast, indicating that the muscular region of the valve was
depressed instead of thickened and elevated, as is usually the case. X 2.
Chemung group. ey, county, N. Y.

LINGULA T#NIOLA, Hall.
Page 327.

Fig. 4. The pedicle-valve; showing the peculiar surface ornament, crossed
near the beak by concentric growth-lines. xX 1.5.
Clinton group. Clinton, N. Y.

Lingua (GuLossina) SLADE, Hall.
Page 326.

Fig. 5. A very large example from which a portion of the shell has been
exfoliated, without showing any traces of muscular markings.
Waverly group. Sciotoville, Ohio.
Fig. 6. A similar valve, aoe the inner lamine of the shell, with faint
radiating lines.
Berea grit. Berea, Ohio.

Lincutors Grantt, Hall.
Page 3828.
Fig. 7. The interior of a brachial valve. x 6.
Fig. 8. The interior of a pedicle-valve. The muscular area is here developed
into a well-defined platform, while in the species L. Whitfieldi and L.

Norwoodi, it retains its linguloid character. - x 6.
Niagara group. Hamilton, Ontario.

374

a

BRACHIOPODA.

, 1894.

ist

Report State Geolog

MonoMERELLA GREENUI, Hall.
Page 328.

Fig. 9. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve; showing the extremely small

umbonal chambers and the sharply defined crescent, cardinal groove and
lateral scars.

Fig. 10. An internal cast of a pedicle-valve; showing the very broad cardinal
margin and its lateral extent ; also the faint umbonal cavities and the con.
spicuous cardinal groove and crescent.

Fig. 11. An intérnal cast of the brachial valve; showing in the matrix the
impression of the cardinalarea. The platform scars are accompanied by
only a very faint thickening of the shell.

Fig. 12. The interior of a brachial valve, from a gutta-percha cast of a natural
“impression. The crescentic fulcrum is exceedingly strong and the plat-
form very obscure.
Niagara limestone. Grafton, Wisconsin.

Fig. 18 An internal cast of the brachial valve ; showing a portion of the broad
area of contact, the platform scars with the diverging anterior ridges.
Niagara limestone. Rising Sun, Ohio.

Fig. 14. The interior of a brachial valve, with sharply defined terminal scars

and anterior ridges. From a gutta-percha cast.
Niagara limestone. Grafton, Wisconsin.

315

PLATE II.
Monomegzetia Krnar, Hall.
Page 829.
Fig. 1. An internal bakit of a pedicle-valve; showing fie very short umbonal
chambers and the sharply defined muscular impressions.

Fig. 2. Opposite side of the same specimen ; showing the internal characters
of the brachial valve.
Niagara limestone. Hawthorne, Illinois.

Monomeretia Eeant, Hall.

Page 330,
Fig. 3. A brachial valve ; showing the strongly developed cardinal area, the
"narrow crescent and the platform scars. The umbonal cavity is filled by
a thick deposit of testaceous matter. 5
Niagara limestone. Grafton, Wisconsin.

MonoMERELLA Ortont, Hall.
Page 3380.

Fig. 4. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve, in which all the characters of
the shell are very sharply defined.

Fig. 5. The counterpart of the same from a gutta-percha impression; show-
ing the broad deltidium without evidence of subdivision, the conspicuous
cardinal slope and groove, the crescent and platform scars and the pallial
trunks with their ramifications.

. Niagara limestone. Rising Sun, Ohio.

Rurnozotus Davipsoni, Hall.
Page 331. |
Fig. 6. The interior of a brachial valve.
Fig. '7. The interior of a larger brachial valve; showing the undeveloped
platform, the crescent and the transverse muscular scars.

Fig. 8. A small pedicle-valve, showing its internal characters.
Niagara limestone. Grafton, Wisconsin. :

SrPHONOTRETA (?) Minnusorensis, Hall.
Page 332.

Fig. 9. View from the brachial side of a specimen retaining the vaives in jux- .
taposition, and preserving most of the epidermal layer of the sheli. The
spine-bases about the beak are notably larger and more closely set than
over the rest of the surface, where they occur at considerable intervals
along the concentric varices. The entire length of the spines is evidently
not represented in the fringe at the margin. X 2.

376

BRACHIOPODA.

1894

’

Report State Geologist

=)
”

JO

=

Ay

>

vame;

-

Fig. 10. The opposite side of the same specimen. The imperfection of the
valve in the umbonal region has rendered it impossible to determine with
accuracy the generic character of the species. X 2.

Trenton limestone. Minneapolis, Minnesota.

ORBICULOIDEA NUMULUS, Hall.
Page 333.

Fig. 11. The exterior of a pedicle-valve.
Lower Helderberg group (Waterlime). Marshall, N. Y.

OrBicuLoipEA (ScHIZOTRETA) OVALIS, Hall.

Page 382.
Fig. 12. View of the pedicle-valve; showing the short foraminal groove. 3.

Fig. 18. Profile of the same specimen; showing the valves in juxtaposition.
x 3.
Trenton limestone. Middleville, N. Y.

OrBICULOIDEA Herzen, Hall.

Page 333.

Fig. 14. The exterior of a pedicle-valve. 1.5.
Cuyahoga shale. Berea, Ohio.

Fig. 15. An internal cast of a brachial valve ; showing the impressions of two
strong, diverging vascular sinuses (?) and finer markings about the
margins. x 1.5.

Cuyahoga shales. Newark, Ohio.

Fig. 16. The internal pedicle-area, having the lateral pedicle callosities
coalesced, leaving the foramen open but otherwise concealing the structure
of the area. X 3.

Fig. 17. A similar structure. ~X 3.

Fig. 18. The interior of the apical portion of the brachial valve; showing the
small median septum, extending forward from the apex. *X 8.
Fig. 19. The internal pedicle-area, in which the lateral callosities have not
fully coalesced. X 8.
Cuyahoga shales. Berea, Ohio.
Fig. 20. A similar structure, the lateral callosities being somewhat more com-
pletely united. x 3.
Cuyahoga shales. Baconsbery, Ohio.

48 317

PLATE III.

LINDSTR@MELLA ASPIDIUM, Hall.

Page 334.
Figs. 1,2. Interior and internal casts of a brachial valve to which a portion of
the shell adheres, showing the strong lateral ridges, faint median septum
and obscure muscular impressions.

Fig. 2a. Outline profile of conjoined valves of a smaller example, the pedi-
cle-valve being at the left.
Hamilton group. Near Hamilton, N. Y.

-

Fig. 3. A natural cast of the exterior of a large pedicle-valve ; showing the
character of the surface ornament and the peculiar undulation of the con-
centric ridges on approaching the pedicle-area. The pedicle-passage
differs from that in the normal mature ORBICULOIDEA in not being closed,
though its margins appear to be in contact. ti

Hamilton group. Near Leonardsviile, N. Y.

Fig. 4. A small pedicle-valve, with characteristic ornamentation and strongly
developed forgminal groove.
Hamilton group. Darien, N. Y.

ScHIzocRANIA ScHUCHERTI, Hall.
Page 334.
Fig. 5. A small brachial valve retaining most of the external surface. * 3.

Fig. 6. A large brachial valve, showing the posterior muscular scars. X 3,

Fig. 7. An individual from which most of the upper valve has been removed
exposing the flat pedicle-valve. X 3.
_Hudson River group. Covington, Kentucky.

Scuizocrania (?) Hetperperetra, Hall.
Page 334,

Fig. 8. The lower exterior surface of an individual, showing the coarsely
radiate surface of the pedicle-valve, and the overlapping edges of the
finely striated pedicle-valve. ~ 2.

Fig. 9. The internal surface of the pedicle-valve, showing a broad pedicle-fis-
sure and the overlapping margins of the upper valve. X 3.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.

CRANIA AGARICINA, Hall.
Page 335.
Fig. 10. An individual attached to a branch of TREMATOPORA; showing the

sparse and relatively coarse radiating ribs. X 3.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.

378

4
4
"

BRACHIOPODA.

rer a
rea

CD) &

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An 2
g
wa
5
Ss
a

: OQ
“
5
Lae
st

ro)

oe)

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ay

a

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On

Oo

Fa |

oO

o

oO)

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7

wD 3

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oc fey

Ko

CraANnia GRANOSA, Hall.
Page 335.
Fig. 11. A somewhat distorted upper valve; showing the finely granulose
surface.

Fig 12. A portion of the surface enlarged. X 20.
Hamilton group. Centerfield, N. Y.

Crania FAVINCOLA, Hall.
Page 336.

Fig. 13. A lower valve, slightly broken about the posterior margin, but show-
ing the very large posterior muscular impressions, the deeply impressed
anteriors with sharply elevated margins and median fulcrum ; also, the
radiating pallial sinuses. The shell is attached to a specimen of /avo-
sites pirum, Davis.

Hamilton group. Crab Orchard, Kentucky.

CRANIA PULCHELLA, Hall.

Page 335.
Fig. 14. An individual attached to a valve of ORTHIS.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.

CRANIELLA Uxricut, Hall.
Page 336.

Fig. 15. A cast of the interior of a lower valve, somewhat restored at the
right ; showing the strong anterior and very obscure posterior adductor
scars and the marks of the vascular sinuses. The shell is convex and
shows no evidence of attachment, though the external surface is covered
with bryozoan growth. X 1.5.

Fig. 16. An internal cast of the upper valve. The sigmoid vascular impres-
sions are simpler than elsewhere observed. The scars of the dorsal adjust-

ors and of the muscles accessory to the anterior adductors are also shown:
x 1.5.

Trenton limestone. Minneapolis, Minnesota.

PHoLipors patina, Hall.

Page 337.
Fig. 17. The exterior of a valve, showing the lamellose growth-lines, crossed
by fine, interrupted radiating striz. x4.

Fig. 18. The interior of a ventral (?) valve. x 4.

Fig. 19. The interior of the opposite valve. ~X 4.
Corniferous limestone. DeCewville, Ontario.

PuHourpors catcéoua, Hall.
Page 337.

Fig. 20. The interior of a dorsal (?) valve, showing the terminal beak, the sub-
apical area and the character of the muscular scars. X 2.
Corniferous limestone. Falls of the Ohio.

379

PLATE 2

Ortuis PanpERiana, Hall.
_ Page 338.
Figs. 1, 2. Exterior and interior of a pedicle-valve. X 3. 2

Fig. 8. Interior of a brachial valve. X 8.
(From the originals of BILLINGS’s species. ‘‘Orthis orthambonites, Pander.”
“* Point Levis; in the upper part of Limestone No. 2, Quebec group.” :

ORTHIS FLABELLITES, var. SPANIA, Hall.
Page 339.

Fig. 4. An internal cast of a pedicle-valve, having the expression of O. jiabel-
lites, but with scarcely more than one-half the number of plications usual
in this species. .
Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Orruis (?) Guypta, Hall.
Page 338.
Fig. 5. A partial internal cast of a pedicle-valve ; showing the outline of the
shell, its surface ornamentation and the form of the muscular impression.

Fig. 6. A similarly preserved shell with but a single series of radial plica-
tions and showing the peculiar reticulating surface sculpture. X 2.
Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Ortuis (PLa&siIoMyYs) LoricuLs, Hall.
Page 389.

Fig. 7. The exterior of a pedicle-valve.
Fig. 8. The interior of a brachial valve.
Fig. 9. The interior of a pedicle-valve; showing the character of the muscular
area and ovarian markings.
Galena limestone. Fountain, Minnesota.

Oxgtuis (?) Sarrorpi, Hall.
Page 340. “i

Figs. 10, 11, 12. Ventral, profile and dorsal views of the exterior, showing the
characters of the species.
Trenton horizon. Near Knoxville, Tennessee.

Ortuis (DALMANELLA) ARCUARIA, Hall.

Page 340.
Figs. 18, 14. Dorsal and profile views of a silicified and partially exfoliated

shell.
Niagara group. Perry county, Tennessee.

380

BRACHIOPODA.

es vt ¢
ee

Report. State Geologist, 1894

Ortuis (DaLMANgLLA) suUPERSTES, Hall.

Page 341.
Figs. 15, 16. Dorsal and profile views of the exterior.
Fig. 17. The interior of the brachial valve, showing cardinal process, adductor
scars and vascular sinuses.
Fig. 18. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve; showing traces of the vascular
sinuses. ’
Chemung group. Howard, N. Y.

Ortuis Hoxstroni (Safford), Hall.
Page 339.
Figs. 19, 20, 21. Ventral, profile and cardinal views of the type specimen.
Trenton horizon. Near Knoxville, Tennessee.

Ortuis (ScuizopHoriA) sENECTA, Hall.
Page 342.
Fig. 22. The exterior of a pedicle-valve; showing the depression over the
pallial region.
Fig. 28. An internal cast of a pedicle-valve; showing the diductor and
adductor scars.
Clinton group. Reynale’s Basin, N. Y.

Ortuis (RuiPIDOMELLA) OwEnl, Hall.

Page 341.
Fig. 24. The interior of a brachial valve.
Fig. 25. The exterior of a brachial valve.
Fig. 26. The interior of a pedicle-valve.
Waverly group. Button-mould Knobs, Kentucky.

SrseoPHOMENA Conrapt, Hall.

Page 343.
Fig. 27. Dorsal view, showing the reversed convexity of the valves, and the
fasciculate striz.

Fig. 28. Outline profile of the same specimen.
Trenton limestone. Jacksonburg, N. Y.

Fig. 29. Profile of a brachial valve.

Fig. 30. Outline profile of both valves of the same specimen.
Trenton limestone. Trenton Falls, N. Y.

STROPHOMENA WINCHELLI, Hall.
Page 344,
Fig. 31. The exterior of a brachial valve, showing its great convexity and the
fine filiform radial strize of the surface.
Trenton limestone. Clifton, Wisconsin.
Fig. 32. The interior of a brachial valve.
Trenton limestone. Janesville, Wisconsin.
Fig. 33. The interior of a pedicle-valve, showing the character of the muscu-
lar area and the submarginal thickening of the shell.
Trenton limestone. Clifton, Wisconsin.

381

PLATE V.

ORTHOTHETES DESIDERATUS, Hall.
Page 345. |
Fig. 1. A cardinal view of an internal cast.

‘Fig. 2. A dorsal view of the same specimen, showing the dorsal muscular
scars. .

Waverly group. Ohio.

Derrpya Bennett, Hall.
Page 347.

Fig. 3. Transverse section near the apex of the pedicle-valve, showing the
median septum coalesced with a solid callosity filling the apical portion
of the deltidial cavity.

Fig. 4. A section of the same specimen nearer the hinge. This shows the
dental ridges, tips of the cardinal process and the median septum.

Figs. 5, 6. Cardinal and profile views of the same specimen.

Figs. 7,8. Dorsal and ventral views of a smaller shell, with a large scar of
attachment.
Upper Coal Measures. Kansas City, Missouri.

Dersya (?) costatuLa, Hall.
Page 346.

Fig. 9. Dorsal view, showing the characteristic surface ornamentation of the
species. X 2.
Chester limestone. Crittenden county, Kentucky.

Dersya AFFINIS, Hall.
Page 349.

Figs. 10, 11. Cardinal and profile views of a small individual, with the irregu-
lar growth very pronounced on both valves.
Upper Coal Measures. Kansas City, Missouri.

DzRBYA RUGINOSA, Hall.
Page 345.

Figs. 12, 18, 14. Cardinal, anterior and profile views of an internal cast in
chert. :
Keokuk limestone. New Providence, Indiana.

382

is BRACHIOPODA.

Report State Geologist, 1894. Plate 5.

C.Fausel, lith. James B. Lyon, State Printer

bs
.

DersyA BroapuEany, Hall.
Page 346.

Figs. 15, 16. Profile and cardinal views of an entire individual, showing the
rugose and somewhat irregular pedicle-valve and the median sinus of the

brachial valve.
Upper Coal Measures. Kansas City, Missouri.

Derpya (?) BriLoBA, Hall.
Page 350.

Figs. 17, 18, Cardinal and dorsal views, showing the bilobed contour and obo-
vate outline. X 2.
Coal Measures. Wéinterset, Iowa.

383

NPLATE Vi.
Dersya cymButa, Hall.

Page 348.

Figs. 1, 2. Dorsal and cardinal views of a large specimen.
Upper Coal Measures. Near Kansas City, Missouri.

STREPTORHYNCHUS ULricui, Hall.

Page 350.

Fig. 3. The interior of a pedicle-valve referred to this genus on account of |
the peculiar form of the shell and the absence of a median septum.
Chester limestone. Crittenden county, Kentucky.

ORTHOTROPIA DOLOMITICA, Hall,
Page 843.

Fig. 4. Ventral view of an internal cast; showing the form of the shell, the
short straight hinge and the conspicuous muscular scars.

Fig. 5. The interior of a pedicle-valve, showjng the cardinal area, open
delthyrium, muscular scar and short median septum.

Figs. 6, 7, 8. Dorsal, ventral and cardinal views of an internal cast, showing
the form of the muscular impressions, the median get in each valve
and the elevation of the cardinal area. X 2.

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

STROPHONELLA cCosTaTULA, Hall.
Page 3854.

Figs. 9,10. Dorsal and profile views of the shell, showing the reversed con-
vexity of the valves and the sharp, irregularly dichatomizing plications.
Niagara group. Louisville, Kentucky.

PLECTAMBONITES PRODUCTA, Hall.
Page 354.

Figs. 11, 12. Profile and front views of an internal cast of 4 pedicle-valve.
Niagara dolomites. Yellow Springs, Ohio.

CARISTIANIA SUBQUADRATA, Hall.

Page 351.
Figs. 18, 14. Two views of a pedicle-valve, showing its elongate form, smooth
or squamous surface.
Fig. 15. The interior of a pedicle-valve, with an open delthyrium and showing
the muscular walls and scars.

Fig. 16. The exterior of a brachial valve, showing the cardinal process and
edges of the crural plates. :

384

BRACHIOPODA.

Report State Geologist, 1894. Plate 6.

Bee j
Fausel, lith. James B.Lyon,State Printer.

Fig. 17. The interior of a brachial valve, showing the bilobed cardinal process
and the quadruple adductor scar, divided by high, vertical muscular
walls.

Fig. 18. Cardinal view of the brachial valve, showing the cardinal process,

widely divergent crural plates, and the prominent longitudinal and trans-
verse muscular ridges inclosing the scars of the adductor muscles. X 3,

LEPT ANISCA TANGENS, Hall.
Page 352. :

Figs. 19, 20. Opposite sides of a pedicle-valve which has been attached toa
frond of Fenestella. X 3. .

Fig. 21. The exterior of a pedicle-valve in which the rugose growth has
obscured the median sinus. The deep umbonal cicatrix has been caused
by attachment to some bryozoan. X 3,

Figs. 22, 28. Exterior and interior of a pedicle-valve, showing the cicatrix of
attachment, deltidium and dental plates. X 3.

Figs. 24, 25. Opposite sides of a pedicle-valve attached toa twig of Tremato-

pora. X68.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.

LEPTr=nisca ADNASCcENS, Hall.
Page 352.

Fig. 26. A pedicle-valve attached by nearly its entire surface to the interior of
a valve of Orthis oblata. The specimen shows the dental lamelle and
median ridge dividing the muscular area. X 3.

Fig. 27. A specimen retaining both valves, attached to the surface of Orthis
perelegans. X 4.

Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.
49 385

PLATE VII.
Triptecia Nriacarensis, Hall.
Page 351.

Figs. 1, 2, 3,4. Cardinal, oblique cardinal, anterior and profile views of an
internal cast, showing the sharply defined median fold and sinus on
brachial and pedicle-valves, respectively, the marginal plication and the
cavity left by the cardinal process.

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

STROPHALOSIA CYMBULA, Hall.

Page 355.

Fig. 5. The exterior of a pedicle-valve, showing the scar of attachment.
Keokuk group. Lebanon, Kentucky.

STRoPHALOSIA RockForDEnsiIs, Hall.
Page 353.

Figs. 6,7, 8. Dorsal, cardinal and ventral views of a specimen, showing the
external characters and size of cicatrix.
Upper Devonian. Rockford, Iowa.

Figs. 9, 10. Cardinal and dorsal views of a larger, but incomplete example.
Upper Devonian. Rockford, Iowa.

CHONOSTROPHIA HELDERBERGIA, Hall.
Page 353.

Fig. 11. A specimen in which the valves are opened, exposing their internal
surface, showing the extremely fine radial striation, teeth and cardinal
process.

Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.

SPIRIFER CRISPATUS, Hall.
Page 355.

Figs. 12, 18. Views of the original specimen, showing the coarsely plicate
surface.
Niagara group. Maryland. i

SprriFER Cananpaicu#, Hall.
Page 395.
Figs. 14, 15. Ventral and profile views of a somewhat imperfect individual,
showing the low rounded lateral plications.

Fig. 16. Enlargement of the surface, showing the closely crowded concentric
row of fine granules or spine-bases. X95.
Hamilton group. Canandaigua Lake, N. Y.
386

BRAC HIOPODA.

Lyon, State Printer

B.L

James

+2 crease ati

Pausel. lith

=
wed

Report State Geologist, 1894.

Sprrirerk Wivwiamsi, Hall.
Page 356.

Figs. 17, 18, 19. Dorsal, cardinal and ventral views of a large example, show-
ing the low, coarse and sparse plication of the fold and sinus.
Chemung group. Allegany county, N. ¥;

SprrirFER MUCRONATUS, Conrad, var., postERUS, Hall.
Page 356.

Fig. 20. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve, showing the impression of the
muscular area.

Fig. 21. Internal cast of a brachial valve.

Fig, 22. Exterior of a brachial valve, showing the lamellose surface and ex-
tended cardinal extremities. .

Fig. 23. Internal cast of a brachial valve.

_ Fig. 24. The central portion of the interior of a brachial valve, reer:
Chemung group. Tompkins County, N. Y.

SprrirER Newserry], Hall.
Page 357.
Fig. 25. The exterior of the brachial valve.

Fig. 26. An enlargement of the surface.
Waverly group. Ohio.

SPIRIFER DISJUNCTUS, Sowerby, var. suLciFsR, Hall.
Page 356.

Fig. 27. The internal cast of a brachial valve ; showing the sulcus on the pli-
cated fold. .
Chemung group. Near Olean, N. Y.

CyrtTra RapiAns, Hall.
Page 857.

Figs. 28, 29. Cardinal and profile views of the original specimen. The cen-
tral cardinal area of two examples, showing the direct circular foramen
and elongate foraminal groove.

Clinton group. Rochester, N. Y.

387

-. PLATE VIII.
CyrTINA LACHRYMOSA, Hall.
Page 358.
Figs. 1,2. Views of an average example; showing the regular, slightly
incurved cardinal area, and the sparsely pustulose exterior. X 2.
Fig. 3. An enlargement of the exterior; showing the large pustules of various
sizes, X 5, ;
Waverly group. Richfield, Ohio.
CYRTINA NEOGENES, Hall.
Page 3772. ;
Fig. 4. The pedicle-valve broken so as to show the median septum supporting

_ convergent dental plates.
Fig. 5. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve.
Fig. 6. Cardinal view of the same specimen; showing the convergent dental

plates uniting with the median septum. X 2.
Fig. 7. An enlargement of the external surface; showing the bases of concen-

tric rows of spinules. 4,
Fig. 8. An enlargement of a portion of the interior of the pedicle-valve;

showing the convergence of the dental plates and the projection of the

median septum beyond their union. X 3.

Chert of the Burlington limestone. Burlington, Iowa.

CyRTINA UMBONATA, Hall, var. AtpENENsis, Hall.
Page 307.

Figs. 9,10. Views of an individual of normal size.
Fig. 11. The conjoined valves split along the median septum ; showing the
extreme extension of the latter, its acute anterior extremity, and the pene-
tration of its median edge beyond the base of the dental lamellee.
Fig. 12. Front view of a preparation ; showing the normal shape of the spiral

cones, and the form of the crura and loop. xX 14.

Fig. 18. A lateral view of another preparation showing the extension of the

spiral into the rostral cavity divided by the median septum, and the pro-
jection of the loop downward and toward the brachial valve. X 14.

Hamilton group. Alpena, Michigan.

SyrineotHyris Missouri, Hall.

. Page 358.
Figs. 14, 15, 16. Three views of the original specimen; showing its small size,
elevated pedicle-valve, broadly rounded cardinal margins and coarse

lateral plications.

Choteau limestone. Pike county, Missouri.

388

a

bi as

BRACHIOPODA.

Report State Geologist, 1894.

e Prirwer

Ce
nm, otat

Lyo

nes B.

J

. een — 4

TREMATOSPIRA T'ENNESSEENSIS, Hall.
Page 360.

Figs. 17, 18, 19. Dorsal, profile and ventral views, showing the convexity and
coarse plication of the valves.
Lower Helderberg group. Ferry county, Tennessee.

Merista TENNESSEENSIS, Hall.
Page 361.
Figs. 20, 21. Two views of the exterior of a somewhat elongate example.
Fig. 22. Dorsal view of a broader example. |
Fig. 23. The exterior of the pedicle-valve, showing the cavity left by tbe
removal of the ‘‘shoe-lifter.”
Fig. 24. The interior of a pedicle-valve.

Fig. 25. The interior of a brachial valve.
Lower Helderberg group. Perry county, Tennessee.

Meristetita Watcorti, Hall.

Page 360.
Fig. 26. The hinge-plate. x 3.
- Fig. 27. An internal longitudinal view; showing the position and form of the
jugum and one of the spiral cones.
| Fig. 28. The spirals and jugum naturally preserved by incrustation and
viewed from the posterior margin.

Fig. 29. A similar preparation to which a portion of the internal cast of the
valves adheres. The specimen is viewed from the dorsal side, and shows
the form of the spiral cones and the length of the median septum.

Figs. 30, 31. Dorsal and profile views of the exterior.

Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario.

389

PLATE IX.
TORYNIFER cRiITICUS, Hall.

- Page 359.

Fig. 1. A fragment of the pedicle-valve with well-defined cardinal area.
prominent teeth, convergent dental lamelle, forming a distinct spondy-
lium, supported by a median septum. * 2.

St. Louis group. La Rue, Kentucky.

RAYNCHOSPIRA SCANSA, Hall.
Page 360.

Fig. 2. A view of the exterior of the pedicle-valve, showing a median sulcus
similar to that occurring in typical representatives of the genus.
Waverly group. McKean county, Pennsylvania.

ATHYRIS DENSA, Hall.
* Page 358.

Fig. 3. The interior of a small but thickened pedicle-valve; showing the broad
cardinal slopes, the deep pedicle-cavity and relatively large muscular
impressions.

Figs. 4, 5. Dorsal and profile views of conjoined valves; showing the contour
of the shell, the foramen and broad cardinal slopes of the pedicle-valve,
the median elevation and low marginal sulcus of the brachial valve.

St. Louis group. Colesburgh, Kentucky.

Fig. 6. The interior of a larger pedicle-valve; showing a faint median ridge.

Fig. 7. The interior of another pedicle-valve, showing an umbonal thickening
of the shell, and the division of the muscular area.

St. Louis group. Washington county, Indiana. ©
Fig. 8. The interior of a pedicle-valve with relatively small muscular area and

linguate extension of the anterior margin, which is much foreshortened
in the figure.

St. Louis group. Lanesville, Indiana.

Fig. 9. The interior of a pedicle-valve, showing the details of the muscular
structure.

St. Louis group. Colesburgh, Kentucky.

SEMINULA Rogers, Hall.
Page 359,
Fig. 10. A dorsal view of an internal cast.

Fig. 11. A ventral view of a similar specimen; showing tue cast of the
pedicle-cavity and muscular scars.

Fig. 12. Cardinal view of the same specimen.

Fig. 18. A profile of the specimen represented in Fig. 10.
Pendleton sandstone. Pendleton, Indiana.’ °

340

BRACHIOPODA.

Report State Geologist, 1894.

: James

B. Lyon, State Priruter.

Seminuta Dawsont, Hall.
Page 359.
Figs. 14, 15. Dorsal and profile views of conjoined valves. X 2.

Fig. 16. A view of the brachidium naturally preserved by incrustation and
exposed by the removal of a portion of the valve. X 2.
Coal Measures. Windsor, Nova Scotia.

CLINTONELLA VAGABUNDA, Hall.
Page 361.

Fig. 17. A dorsal view of an internal cast, retaining the shell at the umbo of
the pedicle-valve.

Fig. 18. View of another specimen similarly preserved,

Fig. 19. Profile of the same; showing the normal convexity of the valves and
the elevation of the median fold on the brachial valve.

Fig. 20. Ventral view of the same specimen; showing the depth of the median
sinus.

Fig. 21. The interior of an imperfect pedicle-valve; showing the teeth and
delthyrium. ~* 2.

Fig. 22. The interior of a pedicle-valve; showing the elevation and curvature
of the teeth. X 2.

Fig. 23 An internal cast of a pedicle-valve, showing the muscular area crossed
by plications of the shell. X 2.

Fig. 24. The interior of the umbonal region of conjoined valves, viewed from
in front; showing the mode of articulation and the bilobed cardinal
process. 3. |

Fig. 25. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve; showing the division of the
muscwar scar into adductor and diductor scars. x 2.

Fig. 26. The umbonal portion of the brachial valve; ee the bilobed hinge-
plate. X38.
Clinton group. Drift of western New York.

ATRYPINA CuinTon]I, Hall.
Page 362.

Fig. 27. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve; showing the adductor and
diductor scars. X 2.

Fig. 28. The exterior of a pedicle-valve. X 2.
Fig. 29. The interior of an incomplete brachial valve; showing the small
bilobed hinge-plate and low muscular ridge. ~ 8.

Fig. 30. A dorsal view of a specimen; showing the internal cast of the brachial
valve and the teeth and rostral cavity of the pedicle-valve. x 2.
Clinton group. Drift of western New York.
391

ZYGOSPIRA PUTILIA, Hall.
Page 362.

Figs. 31, 32. Dorsal and ventral views of a typical example. X 2.
Hudson River group. Pike county, Missourt.

Guass1a Romincert, Hail.
Page 363.

Fig. 33. A preparation showing the introverted coils and the direction of the
loop. X38. :

Figs. 34-36. Ventral, profile and dorsal views of the exterior; showing the
smooth surface and bilobed anterior margins of the valves. X2. _
Trenton limestone. Ina drift boulder near Ann Arbor, Michigan.

CAMAROPHORIA RHOMBOIDALIS, Hall.
. Page 363.
Fig. 87. Dorsal view of a rather small specimen.
Figs. 38, 39, 40. Anterior, dorsal and ventral views of an average adult possess-
ing a sharper median fold and stronger plication and showing the median

septum in each valve through the substance of the shell. X 2.
Corniferous limestone. Peru, Indiana.

Liornyneaus Lusiryi, Hall.
Page 365.

Figs. 41, 42, 43. Dorsal, profile and ventral views of a mature shell; showing
the rather obscurely defined median fold on the convex brachial valve, the
deep sinus of the pedicle-valve and the unusually complete plication of the
lateral slopes,

Upper Devonian. Pennsylvania.

392

PLATE X,
PARASTROPHIA GREENII, Hall.
Page 364,

Figs. 1-4. Ventral, profile, dorsal and cardinal views of an internal cast; show-
ing the character of the plication of the surface and the median septum
of each valve. :

Fig. 5. Cardinal view of another individual; showing the cavities left by the
median septa.

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

PARASTROPHIA LATIPLICATA, Hall. -
Page 365. .
Fig. 6. An internal cast of a brachial valve; showing the few broad plications
and the extent of the median septum.

Fig. 7. An internal cast of the brachial valve in which the filling of the
spondylium is exposed and the four scars of the adductor impression dis-
tinctly retained.

Figs. 8, 9. Profile and cardinal views of the same specimen.

Fig. 10. Anterior view showing the elevation of the median fold and char-

acter of the plication.
Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

PaRASTROPHIA DIVERGENS, Hall.

Page 364.

Figs. 11, 12. Ventral and dorsal views showing the spondylium and septa in
the umbonal region. ;

Fig. 18. Cardinal view of a specimen which has been transversely sectioned in
the umbonal region, the brachial valve being represented above; showing
the spondylia. 14.

Fig. 14. Anterior view of the specimen represented in figs. 11, 12.

Hudson River group. Wilmington, Illinois. .

PARASTROPHIA MULTIPLICATA, Hall.
Page 360. =
Figs. 15, 16. Anterior and profile views of an internal cast; showing the
broad, strong plications, of which there are four on the fold and three in
the sinus.
Fig. 17. Cardinal view of another and rather more convex internal cast; show-

ing the cavities left by the median septa.
Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin,

394

BRACHIOPODA.

ro)
wx
o
pes)
bs
AY

, 1894.

_ Report State Geologist

LioRHYNCHUS ROBUSTUS, Hall.
Page 365.

Figs. 18, 19. Ventral and cardinal views of a sharply marked internal cast of
large size; showing the muscular impressions of both valves and the vascu-
lar sinuses in the pedicle-valve radiating from the impression left by the
umbonal testaceous callosity.

Chemung group. Steuben county, N. Y.

Concuipium ExponeEns, Hall.
Page 366. }

Figs, 20-23. Interiors of pedicle (figs. 20, 21) and brachial] valves (figs. 22, 28),
Niagara group (Halysites bed). Louisville, Kentucky.

Concuipium NeEttTeLrotui, Hall.
Page 366.

Figs. 24, 25. Dorsal and lateral views. (After NETTELROTH.)
Corniferous limestone. Near Lowisville, Kentucky.

This fossil published by Mr. Nettelroth, under the name of Pentamerus
Knightii (FOssIL SHELLS OF KENTUCKY), is referred by him to the Corniferous
limestone. The form and entire external characters of the species are so sim-
ilar to those from the Niagara formation in the vicinity of the Falls of Ohio
and elsewhere, that the reference to this geologic horizon is probably errone-
ous. The form is,very similar to Conchidiwm biloculare, Linné, from the
Island of Gotland; and to some varieties of Conchidiwm nysius, Niagara
group, near Louisville, Ky., that one can scarcely doubt its Silurian age.

395

PLATE XT.
- ConcuHipium ogsoLetTum, Hall.
Page 366.

Figs. 1, 2. Dorsal and ventral views of an internal cast; showing the few low
and broad plications, the length of the median septum of the pedicle-valve,
the septal plates and muscular impressions of the brachial valve.

Niagara dolomites. Genoa, Ohio.

CoNcHIDIUM cRassIPLica, Hall.
Page 367.

Figs. 8, 4. Dorsal and profile views; showing the ovate form of the shell, the
subequally convex valves, short and depressed beak of the pedicle-valve
and the coarse duplicate plication of the surface.

Niagara group. Probably from the vicinity of Louisville, Kentucky.

ConcHipiumM GREENII, Hall.
Page 367.

Figs. 5, 6,7. Ventral, cardinal and profile views of a specimen somewhat
restored about the margin; showing the short, ventricose valves and the
fine duplicate plication.

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Coxcuipium scoparium, Hall.
| Page 366.

Figs. 8,9. Ventral and dorsal views of a specimen retaining much of the
shell and preserving a very distinct and rather fine radial plication.
Guelph dolomites. Durham, Ontario.

ConcHipitum GxrorGi4, Hall.
Page 367.

Figs. 10, 11. Cardinal and dorsal views of the brachial valve, characterized by
its strong median fold.
Clinton group. Trenton, Georgia.

PENTAMERUS OBLONGUS, var. Maquoketa, Hall.
| Page 368.
Figs. 12, 18. Dorsal and profile views of an internal cast; showing the ovoid
and regularly convex valves.
Fig. 14. Cardinal view of another individual; showing the position and extent
of the internal plates.
Niagara dolomites. Near Dubuque, Iowa.

396

BRACHIOPODA.

Plate 11.

tate Geologist, 1894.

ort S

Rep

ers

tate

Cc
wo

B. Lyon

~
7S)

c

ie

s+)
SERN

ag

.Fause

Fd
uu

z
4
é
'

VCs

OA I ese v

PLATE XII.
PENTAMERUS OBLONGUS, Sowerby, var. SUBRECTUS, Hall.
Page 368. ;
Figs. 1, 2. Dorsal and ventral views of a normal mature individual; showing

the characteristic outline, prominent umbo, trilobate exterior and linear
median depression on both valves.

Fig. 3. Dorsal view of a large individual, ee imperfect at the anterior
margin.

Fig. 4. A somewhat weathered specimen, in which the valves have been dis-
placed from their normal position, exposing the spondylium of the pedicle-
valve, and, by the removal of the rock, also showing part of the united
septal plates of the brachial valve.

Figs. 56, 6. Ventral and dorsal views of a small specimen of subquadrate out-
line, trilobed exterior, and showing the single median septum on each
valve.

€ Niagara beds. Jones county, lowa.

GypipuLA RomineEri, Hall.
- Page 369.

Fig. 7. Cardinal view of a pedicle-valve; showing a well-defined cardinal
area, the teeth and the form of the spondylium.

Fig. 8. Dorsal view of the umbonal region of the specimen represented in
fig. 30; showing the sharply defined cardinal area, and the delaras or
remnants of the deltidium. X 2.

Fig. 9. Interior of a large brachial valve; diese the size and structure of
the spondylium.

Fig. 10. A smaller specimen; showing similar features.

Figs. 11, 12. Dorsal and profile views of a large specimen; showing the char-
acters of the exterior. Thesurface of the brachial valve is somewhat
exfoliated in the umbonal region, exposing the base of the spondylium
and the vascular markings.

Fig. 18. An individual of average size with an unusually flat brachial valve
and coarse, duplicating plications.

Hamilton group. Near Alpena, Michigan.

398

BRACHIOPODA.

ist, 1894.

ist

Geolog

port State

Vater kaw eticne wey

eerie:

Va GI

B. Lyon,State Printer.

James

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C.Fausel

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PLATE XIII.
BaRRANDELLA ARzEyYI, Hall.
Page 369.

Figs. 1, 2,3. Dorsal, profile and ventral views; showing the strongly plicated
fold and sinus on brachial and pedicle-valves respectively, and the sharp
plication of the lateral slopes. X 2.

‘Clinton group. Rochester, N. Y.

SIEBERELLA RoEmeEsr!, Hall.
Page 370.

Fig. 4. Dorsal view of an individual of rather large size; showing the charac-
teristic plication of the sinus and lateral slopes and their obsolescence in
the umbonal region.

Upper Silurian. Perry county, Tennessee.

CaPELLINIA MIRA, Hall —
Page 368.

Fig. 5. Cardinal view of a pedicle-valve; showing the suberect beak and wide
delthyrium.

Fig. 6. Ventral view of the same specimen.

Figs. 7, 8. Cardinal and ventral views of a normal example; showing the pre-
dominant convexity of the brachial valve, the smooth surface and the
‘position and extent of the internal plates.

Fig. 9. A brachial valve, showing the length of the septal pier!

Figs. 10, 11. Ventral and profile views of a specimen in which the umbo of
the pedicle-valve is abruptly depressed.

Fig. 12. Cardinal view of another example.

Fig. 13. Profile of a normal individual.

Niagara dolomites. Near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. ee

RENSSELAERIA CayuGa, Hall.
; Page 3870.
Figs. 14, 15. Dorsal and ventral views of a specimen which retains most of the
shell and shows the fine plication of the valves.
Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario.

400

BRACHIOPODA.

Plate 13

Report State Geologist, 1894.

Printer.

yoru, State

44

es B

h

+
c

C.Fausel, li

te
i
. ; _
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> a =
Bs Pee ina asc te ae Uy

PLATE XIV.

ORISKANIA NAVICELLA, Hall.
Page 371.

Figs. 1, 2, 3. Dorsal, profile and ventral views of the exterior; showing the
elongate form and plano-convex contour of the species.
Oriskany sandstone. Rondout, N. Y.

CRYPTONELLA SUBELLIPTICA, Hall.
Page 371.

Figs. 4, 5, 6. Ventral, profile and dorsal views of an internal cast in iron-stone;
showing the form and contour and the muscular scars of the brachial
valve. .

Waverly group. Sciotoville, Ohio.

BzrrcuEria Davipsont, Hall.
Page 372.

Fig. 7. The internal cardinal structure exposed by the removal of a portion of
the pedicle-valve; showing the absence of dental plates and the structure of
the loop. X93.

Fig. 8. Outline profile showing the manner in which the lamellae of the loop
originate from the hinge-plate.

Fig. 9. Dorsal view of an elongate shell.

Figs. 10, 11. Profile and dorsal views of an average specimen.

Carboniferous limestone. Wéndsor, Nova Scotia.

DrIzLASMA OBOVvATUM, Hall.
Page 372.

Figs. 12, 18, 14. Ventral, dorsal and profilé views of the original specimen ,
Coal Measures. Kentucky.

RENSSELZRIA OVULUM, Hall.
Page 370.

Fig. 15. An internal cast of the brachial valve; showing the muscular scars,
the large cavity left by the hinge-plate and the genital hie in the
umbonal region.

Fig. 16. An internal cast of the pedicle-valve.

Oriskany sandstone. Cayuga, Ontario.

402

BRACHIOPODA.

Plate 14.

- Report State Geologist, 1894.

James B. Lyon, State Printer.

Ae PE ACN DE OOK.

OF THE

Genera of the North American Palaeozoic
Bryozoa.

Witten INTRODUCTION UPON THE STRUCTURE
OF LIVING SPECIES.

By GEORGE B. SIMPSON.

Aupany, N. Y., January 1, 1895.
James Hatt, LL. D., State Geologist:

Srr.— Herewith I beg to communicate for your report a paper
which I have entitled “A Handbook of the Genera of the North
American Palaeozoic Bryozoa,” prefaced by some observations
upon the structure of living species. |

This work is the direct outcome of the investigations made in
preparation of Volume VI of the Palaeontology of New York
(1887), and has been done by me as a member of the staff of the
geological department. The collections made for use in that
work, as well as your own private collection, and, through your
intervention, those of the American Museum of Natural History
of New York, have been freely accessible to my use, and I take
this opportunity of expressing my appreciation of the favorable
conditions under which my work has been done.

Very respectfully yours,
GEORGE B. SIMPSON.

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HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.

It is scarcely more than one hundred years since naturalists gen
erally recognized the fact that corals belong to the animal king-
dom. Though in the year 1599 Ferrante Imprraro, a naturalist
of Naples, in his work, “Histoire Naturelle,” asserted that fact, he
found few, if any, believers in his statement. In every reference
that I have seen to this author he is referred to as an “ Apothe-
cary of Naples” —seemingly overlooking the fact that this man
-as a naturalist possessed knowledge nearly 150 years in advance
of any other naturalist in regard to the Zoophytes. To him
should be given the honor which is generally accorded to men of
the eighteenth century. This book was republished in 1672, but
even then attracted little attention, and subsequently seems to
have been relegated to oblivion. Ds Buarnvitze speaks of his
work as being one ‘of the most important in zoophytological
_ history. 7

Whatever had been the importance of Imprrato’s work at the
time, his statements had fallen into complete oblivion at the
beginning of the eighteenth century. In 1706, Count Marsie11, or
Marsitur as his name is sometimes written, in a letter to the
Abbé Brenon, and later in 1711 in “ Brieve ristretto del Sagio
fisico intorno alla Storia del Mare,” Venice, 1711, reasserted the
doctrine of the vegetable nature of corals and makes the
remarkable assertion that he had seen the plants in full flower
mistaking the expanded tentacles for the petals of a flower.

Jm#AN ANDRE PrysonNELLE, a physician of Marseilles, saw the
error into which Marsiexi had fallen, and in 1727, in a communi-
cation to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, reasserted the doc-
trine of Imperato, that the seeming flowers were animals, and
that the hard part was provided for the protection of the ani-
mals. This communication was entrusted to the great naturalist,
Reavumor, to be presented to the Academy, but so ludicrous did

408 REvoRT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Reavumor consider Peyvsonnewix’s belief to be, and so great was his
contempt for his doctrine, that while presenting it to the Acad-
emy, he not only vigorously combatted the idea, but suppressed
PrYsSONNELLE’s name in connection with the article.

At the same meeting of the Academy Reaumur read a paper
‘explaining the growth of corals in accordance with vegetable
physiology. (See Hist. de Acad. Royale des Sci. p. 51, and also
Reaumur’s memoir in the same volume, p. 380.)

In his communication to the Academy PrysonneELLE main- —

tained that the organisms described by Marsice11 as flowers were
analogous to the ActintrA, whose animal nature was admitted,
and that the hard parts were formed by a fluid deposited by the
animal, which afterward hardened, and that in these parts was no
trace of vegetable organism, mixing up the principal truth,

namely, the animality of corals, with many false conclusions

from observations. |

PEYSONNELLE seems to be remembered chiefly by this discovery,
which, though previously recorded by Imprrato, was to all intents
original, as [mpsrato’s writings were at that time practically
unknown. According to the Philosophical Transactions “M.

PrysonneEi&, disposed from his youth to the study of natural —

history, after having qualified himself for the practice of medi-
cine, applied himself with great diligence to the practice of
that science, to which his inclination so strongly prompted him,
and being a native of, and residing at Marseilles he had an
opportunity for examining the curiosities of the sea, which the
fishermen, more especially those who fished for corals, furnished
him with.” According to Jonnston (History of British Zoo-
phytes) he was subsequently appointed Physician-Botanist to

his “ Most Christian Majesty ” in the island of Guadaloupe, and

had every opportunity for prosecuting his researches on -the
coast of Barbary. He is the author of two or three communi-
cations to the Philosophical Transactions, of which the most

interesting is “ An account of the visitation of Leprous persons -

in the isle of Guadaloupe,” in the volume for the year 1757. _
In the year 1741, Asranam Tremsiey, while making experi-

ments on the fresh-water Hydra, which had been discovered by

LEsuwENnHOOoK in 1702, especially on its reproductive power, dis-

GENERA oF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLArozorc Bryozoa. 409

covered in the fresh waters near the Hague, a plant-like animal,
growing in masses, from which proceeded crescent-shaped ten-
tacles. The tentacles were the most striking feature of these
animals, and from them Tremsuey gave the name to the animals of
“ Polype 4 panache,” the Polyp with plumes. In the Philosophical
Transactions for 1742 will be found a full account of this discov-
ery, and in “ Mémoirs pour servir a |’ Histoire du genre de Polypes
deau douce,” Leyden, 1744, he gives an accurate account of the
anatomical details, which have been surpassed by few subsequent
observers. He demonstrated an alimentary canal, consisting of
cesophagus, stomach and intestine, and also the muscles. He also
showed the relation between the animal and its cell, and proved
that the latter was created by the former. He further described
and fully understood the statoblast. Though recognizing the in_
testine, he failed to detect its termination.

This species was subsequently found in England by Baxzr,
who gave to it the name “ Bellflower animal” in “ Employment
for the Microscope,” 1753. In this paper is first recorded the
termination of the intestine.

In the autumns of 1741 and 1742, Barnarp pe Jussieu and
GuETTARD Visited different points on the coast of France for the
purpose of studying the marine zoophytes. They had an oppor-
tunity of observing several forms, which had not been seen by
PrysonneE.te, notably Serturaria, Firustrra and Axcyontum, the
last of which especially excited their admiration by the beauty
of its tentacles which could be seen by the naked eye. Lamarck
speaks very highly of Gortrarp’s labors, which seem to have
been especially directed to fossil Polypes and Sponges.

The result of the observations of Jussizrv was communicated to
the Royal Academy of Sciences on the 14th of November, 1742,
and was published in 1745. His observations were precise and
were illustrated by excellent figures. He described four species as
illustrating the most remarkable forms, viz.: Alcyoniwm digita-
tum, Tubularia indivisa, Flustra foliacea and Cellepora pumicosa.
In regard to the Szerrutarip# in the Mem. de |’Acad. Royal des
Sciences, 1742, he says, “Il s’en presentoit ensuite quantité des
celles qu’on appelle Corallines, les unes pierreuses dans lesquelles
je ne remarquai rien, et les autres dont les tiges et les branches, et

52

pm)

410 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

ce qui passoit pour feuilles, etoient d’une apparence membraneuse,
dans lesquelles je decouvrais que ce qu’on y prenoit pour feuilles
disposées alternativement, ou dans un sens opposé, n’etoit autre
chose que de petits tuyaux contenant chacun un petite insecte.”

The work of Trems.ey, Jussreu and Guerrarp convinced Reav- -
Mur that the views of Prysonne:Le were in the main correct,
and that he had been in error in combatting them. He now
advocated the animality of corals (Memoires pour servir 4 lHis-
toire des Insectes, Paris, 1742, tome xvi, Prefatio, pp. 68-80), but
so deep seated was the belief in the vegetality of corals that
his views made a very slight impression. Dr. Vitat1ano Donatr
in a work entitled ‘‘ New discoveries relating to the History of
Corals,” translated by Sracx and published in Phil. Trans., Vol. —
XLVII, Feb. 7, 1750, gave a minute account of the coral and its
inhabitant, but his terms were botanical and his opinions so
‘ doubtful that he rather confirmed the advocates a the vegetable
theory in their opinion.

A few years afterward (Phil. Trans. 1757, abridge. x1, p. 83), he
says: “| am now of the opinion that the coral is nothing less than
a real animal with a great number of heads. I consider the
polyps of the coral as the heads of the animal. This animal has
a bone ramified in the shape of a shrub. This bone is covered
with a kind of flesh, which is the flesh of the animal. My
observations have discovered to me several analogies between
the animals of a kind approaching to this. There are for
instance Kwratopayta, which do not differ from coral, except
that the bone or prop that forms part of the animal is testaceous
in the coral and horny in Kwratopsyra” P&YsoNNELLE was
- still living and in 1751 he sent to the Royal Society a treatise
entitled ‘“ Traité du corail, contenant les nouvelles decouvertes, ©
qu’on a fait sur le corail, les pores, madrepores, eschares, lito-
phitons, éponges et autres corps et productions, que le mer four-
nit, etc., par le Sieur pz Peysonneie, M. D., correspondent de la
Royal Acad. de Paris, etc., etc.” This manuscript was never
published, though a review of it was given by Dr. Watson in
the 47th volume of the Phil. Trans., published in 1752. This
treatise was very lengthy and consists of about 400 quarto pages.

In the same year, 1752, we find the following statement in
answer to PsrysonneaLLe concerning the formation of corals,

Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozoic Bryozoa. 411

corallines, etc.: “And indeed it would seem to me much more
difficult to conceive that so fine arrangement of parts, such
masses as these bodies consist of, and such regular ramifications
in some, and such well-contrived organs to serve for vegetation
in others, should be the operation of little, poor, helpless, jelly-
like animals, rather than the works of more sure vegetation,
which carries the growth of the tallest and largest trees, with
the same natural ease and influence as the minutest plant.”
(Parsons.)

Even Liyy&é could not be convinced of the purely animal
nature of corals, but maintained that the stems and branches
were of a purely vegetable nature, while the polyps were a sort of
flowering which had been raised and perfected to an animal
nature.

The conversion from the belief of the vegetable to the animal
nature of corals is due to the efforts of Joun Exuis, of London,
more than to those of any other oneman. Et.is seems to have been
ignorant of the labors of his predecessors, and to have imagined
that his discoveries were original. In 1755 he published his
work “ Essay on the Natural History of the Corallines,”’ which,
from its fidelity of observations and its correct pictorial illustra-
tions left but little room for doubt as to the true nature of corals.
He also contended for the animality of Sponges, in which he was
not only opposed by the naturalists of his time, but this theory
was not universally accepted for more than one hundred years
later.

Lryx&é could not be convinced by the clear descriptions and
figures of Exxis,and wrote to him, as follows: “ Zoophyta are con-
structed very differently, living by a mere vegetable life, and are
increased every year under their bark-like trees, as appears in the
annual rings in a section of a trunk of Goreonta. They are,
therefore, vegetables, with flowers like small animals, which you
have most beautifully delineated. All submarine plants are
nourished by pores and not by roots, as we learn from Fuci.
As Zoophytes are, many of them, covered with a stony coat, the
Creator has been pleased that they should receive nourishment
by their naked flowers He has, therefore, furnished each with a
pore, which we calla mouth. All living beings enjoy some motion.
The Zoophytes mostly live in the perfectly undisturbed abyss of

412 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

the ocean. They can not, therefore, partake of that motion which
trees and herbs receive from the agitation of the air. Hence the
Creator has granted them a nervous system, that they may spon-
taneously move at pleasure. Their lower part becomes hardened
and dead like the solid wood of a tree. The surface, under the
bark, is furnished every year with a new living layer asin the |
vegetable kingdom. Thus they grow and increase and may even
be truly called vegetables, as having flowers, producing capsules,
etc. Yet as they are endowed with sensation and voluntary
motion, they must be called, as they are, animals; for animals
differ from plants merely in having a nervous sentient system,
with voluntary motion, neither are there any other limits between
the two.”

Notwithstanding the opposition of a few naturalists, the
animality of corals was hereafter almost universally. admitted,
more than one hundred and fifty years after its discovery by
IMPERATO.

In 1827, Professor Grant read before the American Society an
account of the structure of FrLusrra, in which he describes its
locomotive embryos. (New Philosophical Journal, Edinburgh,
Vol. III, 1827)

In the following year M. Aupourw and Mitne-Epwarps gave a
very complete account of the anatomy of Fr.ustrra in which they
called attention to their close resemblance to the Asctp1a and the
bearing of this resemblance upon their systematic rank.

They called attention to the fact that some of the polypes
possessed an anal as well as an oral opening to the canal, and
proposed to found a division of the polyps into classes, according
to the form of the alimentary canal. He includes moreover
sponges in this class.

ExrKENBERG in his “Symbole Physice” published in 1831
divided the polyps into two principal groups, AnTaozoa and
Bryozoa, according as the alimentary canal had one or two
aboral openings. Afterward, in 1834, he modified this division —
by separating the Serturarp#£ and other Hydriform polyps,
which he placed in a class called LimorpH#a.

In 1830 Dr. Joun V. THompson, at that time stationed at Cork
as deputy inspector-general of hospitals, made a series of observa-
tions on the marine fauna of the coast. He examined the ani-

Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN PaLartozorc Bryrozoa. 413

mals of Bowerbankia imbricata, Valkeria cuscuta, V. pustulosa,
Vesicularia spinosa and other allied forms. He also perceived
their internal relation with the compound Ascrpra, and separat
ing them from corals, gave to them the-name, Poryzoa. Being
situated in a remote part of Ireland he was seemingly ignorant
of the previous work of Exrenpera, Epwarps and Grant.
EsRENBERG’s papers were printed from 1828 to 1¢31 (Symbol
Physicee) and Tuompson’s in 1830. There is no date printed on
the title page, but according to Atiman it is‘to be found on the
paper wrapper in which the publication was originally stitched.

It has been, and still: is a matter of dispute whether the term
' Bryrozoa of Earenpera or Poryzoa of Tompson has priority.
The name Bryozoa has been adopted by many English natural-
ists, and seems to be growing in favor among them, while it is
used by all the naturalists of the world, with the exception of
those of England and her colonies, and the use of that term will
' probably in time become universal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Recent Forms. ,
Although I have endeavored to make this list as complete as

possible with means at command, it is, in all probability, very
imperfect.

1599 Feranrx Imperato. Historia Naturale. Napoli.

1672 Ferantre Imezeato. Historia Naturale, new ed.

1703. Leeuwennocs. Phil. Trans. Royal Society of London.
Account of discoveries in 1702. |

1727 Prysonnette, Jean Anpvré. Memoir de I Acad.

1742 Trempcrey, Apranam. Philosophical Trans.

1742 pe Jusstzu, Bernarp. Memoir de |’Acad. Roy. des Sc.
p. 292. ,

1742 Reaumor. Mémoirs pour servir 4 Vhistoire des insectes.
Tome sixiéme. Quarto. Preface, from p. 68 to p. 80.

1744 Trempiter. Mémoires pour servir a l’histoire d’un Genre
de Polypes d’eau douce; Leyden. Mém. III.

1746 Boxox. Berdttelse om Watten Polypen, i anledning af
dem som dro fundne omkring. Stockholm. Acta
Holm: Vit.

41-4

1753
1754

1754

1758
17Gl
1761
1766
1768

1769

1773

1774

1776
Lito
1782
1786

1789
L797

1798
1804

1804

Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Baxer. Employment for the Microscope.

Euus, Joun. Essay toward a natural history of the
corallines and other marine productions of the like
kind, commonly found on the coasts of Great Britain
and Ireland. |

ScuarFER, J. Cur. Die Armpolypen in den siissen
Wasser um Regensburg entdeckt und beschrieben.
Regensburg, 1754. d

Linyaus. Systema Nature, editio decima.. Holmiz.

Roser. Insecten. Belustigungen, 1746-1761.

Linnzvus. Fauna Sueccia. Stockholmiz.

Patras. Elenchus Zodphytorum. Hagze-Comitum, 1766. |

Patras. Descriptio Tubulariz fungose propre Volode
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LrrnpEert Bomuer. Bericht aangaande verscheiden zoon-
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‘“Mouuuter. Vermium terrestium et fluviatilium Historia.

Lips. 1773.

Biumensacu. Von den Federbusch-polypen in den Got-
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ErcoHorn. bBeitrige zur Naturgeschichte der kleinsten
Wasserthiere in den Gewiissern und um Danzig.

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ScumrrpeL. Icones plantarum. —

Mutter. Animalcula Infusoria Fluviatilia et Marina:
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Brueurere. Encyclopédie Methodique.

LicatenstEin. Skrivter of Naturhistorie Selkabet, Kio-
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Cuvier. Tableau é¢lémentaire de Vhistoire naturelle des
Animaux. Paris.

Vaucuer. Observations sur les Tubulaires d’eau douce.
Bull. Soc. Philom.

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1815-22 Lamarck. Histoire des Animaux sans Vertebre.

1816

1821

Lamouroux. Histoire de Polypiers Coralligénes flexibles. —

Caen.
Lamovroux. Exposition Méthodique des genres de l’ordre
des Polypiers. Paris.

- tit aia aa

Genera or THE Nortn AMERICAN PatArozorc Bryozoa. 415

1824 Dxsronacouames. Encyclopédie Méthodique. Zoophytes.

1826 Grant. New Phil. Journal. Edinburgh, December.

1827 Grant. Observations on the structure and relations of the
Flustre. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, April
and June, pp. 107-118, and July and Sep., pp. 337-342.

1826-1829 Avpourin anp Gerorrroy St.-Hitarre. Zoologie de
Egypte (faissant partie de la description de Egypte,
2d ed.) Paris. )

1828 Avpouin nt Epwarps. Resumé des recherches sur les
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1828 Mzryen. Naturgeschichte der Polypen. Isis.

1828 Fremine. A History of British Animals, exhibiting their
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1828-1831 Eurenperc. Symbol Physics, seu icones et descrip-
tiones animalium, etc. LBerol.

1830 TxHompsoy. Zoological Researches and _ Lllustrations.
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1830 Meryrn. Nachtriigliche Bemerkungen zur Naturg. der
Polypen des stissen Wassers. Isis.

1830-33 Quvoy et Gaimarp. Zoologie des Voyage de Astro-
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1833 Enrenpere. Beitrag zur Erkenntniss grosser Organisation
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1834 Datystt. On the propagation of certain Scottish
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1884 De Buainvirre. Manuel d’Actinologie et de Zoophytol-
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1834 Leister. Tubular and cellular Polypi. Royal Society.

1835 Domorrigr. Recherches sur |’ Anatomie et la Physiologie
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Bruxelles.

1836 Mitnre-Enowarps. Recherches Anatomiques, Physio-
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1837 Gervais. Recherches sur les polypes etc., Ann. Sci. Nat.
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416

1837

1837
1837

1838
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1841

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1843
1842

1844

1844

1845
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1845

18418

Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Turpin. Ktudes microscopique de la Cristatella mucedo-
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Farr. On the structure of the Ciliobranchiate Polypi.
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Jounston. History of British Zoophytes.

D’Orsieny. Voyage dans l’Amerique meridionale, vol. V,
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Roy. Bruxelles.
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| in the Anatomy of the Bryozoa. Reports of the British
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Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.
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Thiere. | mat
1851 Letpy. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. Vol. V.
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. and Polyzoa. |
1852-4 Busx. Catalogue of the marine species of Polyzoa in
the British museum. .
1853 Gossr. A Naturalist’s Rambles on the Devonshire coast.
London.
1851 Hinoxs. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. From this date
Hincks had articles in many numbers of this publi-
cation.
1856 Axrrman. A monograph of fresh-water Polyzoa.
1857 Hinoxs. Quart. Jour. Micro. Sci., Vol. V.
- 1858 Reprern. Quart. Jour. Micro. Sci. London.
1360 Mucter. Archives fiir Anatomie, 1860. On the nervous
system, etc., of Bryozoa.
1861 Hrvoxs. Quarterly Journal Micro. Sci., pp. 278-281.
1863 Ssirr. Bidrag till Kannedomen, etc., dans Upsala univers.
arskrift. |
1863 CraparEpE. JBeobacht. tiber Anat und Entw. wirbell.
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1865 Sars. Zoologie k Riese i Liéfoten og Finnmarken; N.
Magazin fur Natur. Kab., Vol. V.
1865 Smirr. Om Hafs-bryozoernas uty. och fetkroppar: Ofver
sigtaf k. Vet. Akad Forhandl.
53

418

Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

1866-8 Smirr. Kritisk Forteckning 6fver Skandinaviens Hafs-

1863

1867
1867

1867

1860

1869
1869

1869

1870

eT

1871
1871
1872

1872
1873

1873

bryoz. ofversigt k. Vetensk. Akad. Forhandl., Vol.
XXII, pp. 115-142, 1866; Vol. XXIII, pp. 395-533,
1867; Vol. XXIV, pp. 279-429, 1868. Bihang, pp.
3-230, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1115-1134. .

Kowatsky. Beitriige sur Anatomie und Entwickelungs-
geschichte des Loxosoma neapolitanum. Mem. de
Acad. de St. Petersbourg. :

Kererstrin. Bericht tiber die Fortschritte der Anatomie
und Physiologie. Jahrbuch, 1866.

Smitr. Bryozoa marina in regionibus arcticis et borealibus
viventia.

Apriat Heiter. Die Bryozoen des Adriatischen Meeres,
Verhandl. d.k. k. Zool-bot. Gesellsch. Wien, Vol.
XVII, pp. 77-186.

Mertscunixorr. Nachrichten der Gottingen Universitat.
1869. |

Nirscue. Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool.

Reicuerr. Ueber Zoobotryon pellucidus Abh. d. Konigl.
Akad. der Wissenschaften. “Berlin.

ScHNEIDER. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte und system-
atischen Stellung der Bryozoen, und Gephyreen. eT
fiir mikro. Anat.

Ursanin. Zur Anat. und Entw. des Pedicellina, No. I
Bull. de la Soc. Imper. des Nat. de Moscow.

Smirt. Floridan Bryozoa, collected by Count L. F. De
Pourtales. K. Svensk. wenanste Akad. Handl. Vol. X, .
pt. 1, No. 1a:

Me Rte Jonns. The Animal Kingdom. Article Poly-
zoa, p. 501-517.

Mertscuntkorr. Bull. de ?Acad. de Saint Petersbanee
DOV |

Attman. On the structure of Cyphonantes. Rept.
British Ass’n.

Nitscuz. Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool. Vol. XIII, fase. 4.

Hinczs. Quarterly Jour. Micro. Sci., No. XLIX. p. 16.
“Contributions to the history of Polyzoa.”

Hurron. Catalogue of the marine mollusca of New
Zealand, with diagnosis of the species. Wellington.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALArEozo1c Bryozoa. 419

1873 Morsr. On the systematic position of the Brachiopoda.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. XV.

1874 Sarensxy. Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool. Vol. X XV, fase. 2.

1874 Lanxester. Quart. Jour. Micro.Science. Vol. XIV,n.s.

1875 O.Scumiptr. Arch. fiir wiss. Zool. Vol. XXIV, fase. 3.

1875 Oscar Sonmipt. Die Gattung Loxosoma Arkiv. fur mikr.
Anatomie. :

1875 Nrrscnz. Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool. Vol. XXIV, fasc. 3.

1875 Reprtacuorr. Zeitschrift fiir wiss. Zool. Vol. XXV, fasc. 2. —

1676 Reriacnorr. Zeitschrift ftir wiss. Zool. Vol. XXVI,
fase. 2.

1876 Esrers. Hypophorella expansa. Abhandl. d. Konig.
Gesellsch. Gottingen. XXI.

1877 Hurron. Corrections and additions to the list of Polyzoa
in the catalogue of the marine mollusca of New Zealand.
Trans. and Proc. of N. Z. Institute. Vol. TX.

1877 Joxuer. Bryozoaires des cdtes de France. Arch. de
zool. experim. Vol. VI.

1877 Barrots, Jores. Mémoire sur l’embryologie des Bryo-
zoaires.

1877 Dantetsen et Koren. Fauna littoralis Norwegia, pt. III. -

1878 Huxiny. Anatomy of Invertebrate Animals, pp. 53, 56,
389, 572, 576.

1880 Hinoxs. History of British Marine Mollusca.

1880 Barrors. Annales des Science Naturelles. Vol. IX.

1880 Batrour. Comparative Embryology. London, Vol. I,
p. 242.

1880 Haswetr. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales. Vol. V,

--. pt. 1, p. 33, pls. I-III.

1€80 Maprxson. Jour. Micro. Soc., Victoria. Vol. I.

1881 GoxpstErm. Proc. Royal Soc., Victoria. June.

1881 Maceritivary. New species of Bryozoa from the Marin
Islands. Proc. Royal Soc., Victoria. June.

1881 Bosx. Kinetoskias (Maresia) cyathus, details of. Quart.
Jour. Micro. Soc. ;

1881 Busx. On the use to be made of the chitinous organs in
the Cheilostomata in the diagnosis of species. Jour
Linn. Society. London.

1881 Honoxs. Quart. Jour. Micro. Science, n.s., Vol. X XI.

430 _ Revort or THE State GEoLogist.

1883 Maceituvary. Proc. Royal Soc. of Victoria, Aug. 9.

1883 Catpwett. Proc. Royal Society.

1884 Lanxester. Quart. Jour. Micro. Sc.

1884-6 Busx. Report on the Polyzoa collected by H. M. §.
Challenger during the years 1873, 1874. a

1885 Harmer. On Loxosoma. Quart. Jour. Micro. Sc., April.

1885 Lanxxster. Encyclopedia Britannica, article Polyzoa.

Tar ‘Onn

The typical Bryozoan, (fig. 1) is composed of a sac, with walls
ormed of an inner and outer layer, the endocyst, Plate I, fig. 1,

/

SISO ERAS DOA 1 ASNT

Fic. 1. Diagram showing the structure of a single polypide of a Bryozoan (after Busk): ¢, Ten-
tacles; m, Mouth; @w, (sophagus; s, Stomach; 7, Intestine; a, Anus: z, Funiculus; a, Testis;
0, Ovary; r, Retractor muscles; g, Nerve ganglion; v, Tentacular sheath; d, Perigastric space ;
¢, Ectocyst; or, Aperture of the zocecium (after BUSK).

u, and the ectocyst, fig. 1, ¢, and Pl. A, fig. 1, v. The outer
layer is usually chitinous or calcareous, though in some forms
it is gelatinous and sometimes entirely wanting, though this is

*In writing this paper on the recent BRyozoA I make no claim to original investigation, but have
placed the results of the study of the literature of the subject in such a form that the student can
readily obtain a clear idea of the morphology of these animals, as at present known.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOZzOIO Bryozoa. 421

of very rare occurrence. Within this sac is suspended the alli-
mentary canal, consisting of cesophagus, stomach and the intestine
bent upon itself so that the anus is in close proximity to the
mouth, as shown in fig. 1 and in the figures on Plates A and B.
Around the mouth is a fringe of ciliated tentacles, which serve
as respiratory organs and as a means of conveying food. In all
the marine species and in the fresh-water genus Pa.upiceua,
the tentacles are arranged in a circle around the mouth, but in
the other fresh-water genera they are bilateral, the arrangement
being in the form of a horseshoe, from which fact this group of
Bryozoa is called Hippocrepian.

The mouth and tentacles are protruded from and contracted into
the cell by the action of occlusor and retractor muscles. From the
fundus of the stomach to the base of the cell is a cord known as
thefuniculus. This cord extends through the cell, forming a means
of communication with the other cells composing the colony.
_ This cord frequently gives off filaments which extend through
the walls of the cell, being continuous with similar filaments from
adjacent cells (Plate A, fig. 17). The testis is formed on the funi-
culus, the ovaries being situated on the endocyst much nearer
the mouth of the cell (fig. 1, 0, and plate A, figs. 1, 2). The
space between the alimentary canal and wall of the cell is
filled with a perigastric fluid. There is a single nerve ganglion,
on the side of the cesophagus, near the mouth (fig. 1, g), from
which filaments proceed in different directions, but principally to
the lophophore and tentacular crown. In some forms, as in
Bowerbankia densa, the ectocyst is chitinous and beautifully
transparent, so that all the parts of the animal can be
distinguished through it. In most of the forms the ectocyst
is calcareous’ and opaque. Some portions of the cell are fre-
quently more fragile than others. These are usually absent in
the fossil stage, the more calcareous portions alone remaining
and giving a very false impression as to the original form of the
cell. Some species which when living had an ampullate or cucul-
late cell, with opercula, appear in a fossil state as having poly-
gonal cells, as in a thin section of a Favosite. This condition may
also be observed in some of the forms adhering to shells. In the
Mempranipora, a large group of incrusting Bryozoa, the cells
are surrounded by a well-marked and elevated border. The

429 ZPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

space within this border is called the area, and is frequently
entirely occupied by a chitinous membrane, in which is the cell-
mouth. In the fossil state the membrane has disappeared, the
elevated border alone remaining, the whole “ area” appearing as
the mouth of the cell. The loss of all chitinous portions of the
cell and chitinous appendages will, of course, greatly change its
appearance, making it much more difficult to classify fossil than
recent forms ‘The ectocyst is not, as has often been supposed, a
calcareous exudation from the surface of the animal, but is
‘deposited in a tegumentary membrane, forming not a mere cal-
careous crust, but an integral portion of the animal itself, which,
like the cartilage of higher animals, hardens by the deposition of
calcareous matter, but still is the seat of nutritive movement.

Mitye—Eowarp has made a number of experiments on the
cell walls of Escuarip#, and the results are here given in
translation. In the Ann. des Sciences Nat. Zool., Vol. I,
pp. 25-31, he says: “If the stony cells of the Escharide
were formed by the exudation of a calcareous matter which
molded itself on the surface of the secreting membrane, it is
evident that the first layer thus formed must be the external
one, and that the addition of new quantities of this earthy mat-
ter could only augment the thickness of the parietes of the cell
and modify the disposition of its interior cavity, without at all
changing the exterior configuration of the first formed layer;
for here the solid cell completely envelops the animal and is not
overlapped by the secreting organ, as in the Mollusca gasteropoda,
whose shell changes its form with age, because the deposit of
new matter taking place on the border of the part already con-
solidated continually lengthens it and is molded on the soft
parts whose configuration is liable to change.

“To throw some light on the mode of formation and on ne
nature of the cells of the Eschares, it becomes, consequently,
interesting to examine these cells at different ages and to see if
their exterior form changed or remained always the same. This ~
study, indispensable for the anatomical and physiological history
of these little beings, may also lead to a knowledge useful to
zoology and geology, for the determination of the species, recent
and fossil, rests principally on the characters furnished by these
cells. And we are still ignorant whether or not they can be
modified in the progress of age.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOZzOIO Bryozoa. 423

“This examination can be made more easily than one might at
first imagine; for neither the observation of the same individual,
at different stages of its development, nor the collection of a
series of specimens so as to represent all the phases through
which these little creatures pass successively, is required.
Indeed, since these polyps spring from each other, and do not
separate from their parents, each polypidom must present a long.
series of generations enchained to each other, and in each of
these series the relative age of living individuals must be indi-
cated by the place they occupy. To resolve the question which
we have put, it is sufficient, therefore, to study comparatively the
cells situated near the base of the polypidom, in its middle, in its
young branches, and toward the extremity of the latter; for we
are certain that it is not only in this last place that living polyps
are found, as some authors affirm, but that they exist over almost
the entire extent of the polypidom.

“ After examining in this manner, with a sufficient magnifying
power, the cells of the Lschara cervicornis, I am quite convinced
that the mode of development of these stony cells is not that
which is usually admitted.

“Indeed, I have seen that not only does the general conforma-
tion of the cells change with age, but also that these changes
operate in a great measure on the exterior surface — that is to
say, on that side of their parietes, which, in the hypothesis of
their formation by layers, must exist from the first, and once
consolidated, ought to change no more, unless from.exterior and
accidental frictions.

“In the young cells whose partitions, although thin, have ©
already acquired a stony consistency, the exterior surface is quite
convex, and the margin of their apertures just out so they are
easily distinguished ; but by the progress of age their appear-
ance changes; their free surface rises so as to efface the deep
depressions which marked originally their respective limits, and
to raise to the level of the surface the border of the openings.
The result of this is that the cells cease to be distinct, or even
distinguishable without, and,that the polypidom seems to be
formed of a stony continuous mass, in the substance of which are
excavated certain holes slightly widened interiorly, and disposed
in quincunx.

4.24. Rxrprort oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

“ But differences of this nature can not be formed by the sim-
ple juxtaposition of new calcareous layers under those primi-
tively formed, for the soft parts of the animal—the only ones
which can be the seat of a secretion of this calcareous matter —
do not extend over the surface which is thus modified, and the
position of the cells thus immersed in the apparently common
mass of the polypidom is often such that we can not attribute
their change of form to any operation or friction of foreign
bodies. |

“Tt appears evident to us that these facts indicate the presence
of life in the substance which composes the parietes of these
" cells and can only be explained by the existence of a nutritive
movement, like to that which in the configuration of bones effects
analogous modifications. |

“To know better the nature of these cells, I submitted to the
action of nitric acid diluted with water a part of a polypidom
recently taken from the sea. A brisk effervescence was visible
immediately, and in some minutes the cells becaine flexible and
separated from one another. Before treating them thus no dis-
tinct membrane was seen on the internal wall of these cells, and
when the nitric acid had destroyed all the calcareous carbonate |
on which their rigidity depended these same parietes still existed
and had not changed their form much, only they. were formed
now of asoft and thick membrane constituting a bag, in the
interior of which we perceived the digestive apparatus of the
polype. The opening of this bag was no longer truncated, as it
appeared when the texture of the membrane was thickened by
‘the stony deposit from which we had just freed it, but the
- membrane was continued uninterruptedly with the tentacular
sheath. ! ;

‘“‘ We see, then, that in the Eschares, the cell in which it is said
the polyp retires as into a shell, is a component part of the
animal itself, in which it conceal!s itself, if we may use the com-
parison, as the hedgehog enters into the thorny skin of his back.
It is not a calcareous crust which is molded on the surface of its ©
body, but a portion of the general tegumental membrane of the
skin of the polyp, which by a molecular deposit of earthy mat-
ter in the meshes of its tissue, ossifies as the cartilages of superior
animals ossify, without ceasing to be the seat of a nutritive
movement.

GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PaLArozoic Bryrozoa. 425

. “ We see, also, that that which is considered generally as being
the body of these polyps, constitute in reality only a small por-
tion of it, and consists of little but the digestive, and probably
breathing organs, of these little animals.

“The tegumental bag, freed from its carbonate of lime, seems
tome formed of a tomentose membrane covered, particularly
without, with a multitude of cylindrical filaments, disposed per-
pendicularly to the surface, and pressed close to one another. It
is in the space left between these fibers that the calcareous mat-
ter appears to be principally deposited, for if we examine, with
the microscope, a transverse cut of the polypidom in its natural
state, we distinguish in it an analogous conformation, the exter-
nal wall of the cells being not composed of layers, but rather of
cylinders or irregular prisms placed perpendicularly to its
surface. —

“ Asto the operculum, which serves to shut the entrance of the
tegumental cell of the “scharva, when the animal is wholly con-
cealed in it, it is but a labial fold of that which we may call the
skin of the polyp, and of which the projecting margin has
acquired a horny consistence, whilst that portion continuous with
the general envelope preserves sufficient softness to remain
flexible, and to obey the action of the muscles whose tendons are
inserted in its thickness. 7

“The changes which we have indicated above in the external
formation of the cells of the Eschares are not the only ones
effected by the progress of age in the stony integuments of these
zoophytes. The form of their opening is modified considerably,
as may be seen by the figures which accompany this memoir; the
sinus or emargination situated under the operculum disappears by
degrees, and their interior cavity becomes filled up so as not to
occupy more than about the quarter of their original diameter.
This thickening changes even a little the general appearance of
the polypidom ; for as it is more considerable in the cells situated
farthest from the extremities of the branches, it results that
these, at first almost flat, become more and more cylindrical.
Lastly, it is not without surprise that we have seen these same
cells when they arrived at extreme old age, lose altogether the
opening from which the polyp extended its tentacula. In fact,
the margins of this opening, swelling more and more inwardly,

54

425 . Rrport oF tHE State GEOLOGIST.

come at last to touch and to close, so that no trace of its existence
is left; but the cell, now a shut cavity, still exists toward the ©
axis of the polypidom. ;

“Thus, then, the last external mark of the individual existence
of these collected polyps disappears before that life is extinct in
the interior, and the most remarkable character of the polypidom
is lost without hope of recovery.

“Reflecting on the fact we have just noticed, we are naturally
led to ask how the nourishment necessary for aa support of the
secretions on which the progress of consolidation depends, can
continue when the cell containing the digestive apparatus of the
animal is shut up in this manner. Is it from its neighbors that
it receives its nutritive matters, or can it continue to absorb them
directly from without through these stony integuments? The
nature of this solid shell seems at first sight to oppose great
obstacles to this imbibition, particularly to that which would
take place by the free surface of the polypidom, but an experi-
ment which is, so to speak, the counterpart of that which has
been already detailed, shows that it is otherwise.

“ On boiling a fragment of the solid polypidom of an Esonara
in a solution of caustic potash, I have extracted the major part
of the substance which composes the organized part of its tissue,
and I have then seen that the appearance of the polypidom is
considerably changed. The external parietes of the cells had
become of an almost spongy texture, and its surface, from
being simply granular, presented a great number of very distinct
pores, which were before concealed by the soft parts with which
they were filled.

“We may understand, then, that the organized tissue of the old
polyps finding itself without covering in different points of the
external surface of the cells, the absorption may continue to be
effected directly from without, although the opening by which
the nutritive matters penetrate usually into the digestive cavity
is obstructed and obliterated.” (From Johnston’s History of
British Zoophytes.)

Tae OPERCULA.

Nearly all the forms in the sub-order CaEILostomata are sup-
plied with a chitinous organ for the purpose of closing the mouth
of the cell when the animal is retracted. In the fossil Croxnosto-

Genera or Tue Nortu American Patarnozoric Bryozoa. 427

MATA many forms possess a calcareous plate whose purpose was
undoubtedly the same. Fig. 2 illustrates several variations in
this organ from the recent cells.

Fie. 2.

In the recent cells the opercula are sometimes composed of a
continuous chitinous substance, but generally it is composed of a
chitinous frame supporting a membrane; in addition there are
sometimes lateral rods and occasionally a complicated frame
work. Sometimes the chitinous frame is continuous all around ;
at other times the lower border is membranous and is continuous
with the chitinous ectocyst of the cell. In other forms the oper-
cula are calcified and are preserved in many fossil forms, as in
FenEsTELLa, Cattopora, Fistutipora, etc. Usually the opercula
are somewhat convex, and concentrically striated; sometimes
minutely granulose; at other times, as in Callopora elegantula,
small ridges radiate from the central portion to the margin, hay-
ing a resemblance on a superficial examination, to septa or project-
ing spinules. Sometimes there is a central perforation, at other
times there is a central node or projection.

The mode in which the opercula are articulated to the cell
varies considerably ; when the cells are calcified they are directly
attached to the sides of the orifice, usually near the lower border,
sometimes above. The articulation is effected by an elastic
fibrous ligament, which is generally inserted in a notch on each
side of the opercula, but sometimes it is attached to projections
which correspond to notches in the margin of the cell.

The opening and closing of the opercula is effected by two
pairs of muscles, the occlusor and retractor, which are variously
inserted in the different forms of Bryozoa.

The opercula are constant in form in the same species, as are
also the avicularia, and form the most reliable means for the
identification of species in recent forms. Of course in fossil
forms, where the opercula are seldom preserved, such a means of
identification is impossible.

428 Report ot tHe Stare Geroroaist.

The form in recent species varies, but they are all more or less
circular or semicircular in outline. The lower border is straight,
sinuate or concave, forming a segment of a smaller circle than
the upper border, or produced in the middle into a peduncular
process, which usually, but not always, corresponds to a notch in
the margin of the cell.

AVICULARIA AND VIBRACULA. ~~

The chitinous organs called avicularia were first observed by
Extts in a species to which he gave the name “ bird’s head coralline,”
and it is from their resemblance to the beak of a bird that they
take their name. They are supposed to be modifications of the

Fies. 3-5. Illustrating immersed avicularia.

Fieé. 3. Cellepora Honoluluensis.
Fie. 4. Cellepora vagans.
Fie. 5. An enlargement of the mandible of the latter (after BusxK).

cell proper. There are three distinct forms, the simplest of
which is in the rudimentary form of a dwarfed cell, with an
enlarged operculum, called the mandible (figs. 3, 4, 5), and is
known as the immersed form. The sessile forms (figs. 6’, 7, 8),
are those which are situated on the cell walls and have a small
chamber and mandible. The pedunculate forms, which are situ- -
ated at the extremity of a movable stalk, which is frequently
jointed, and which is in almost incessant motion (figs. 6” and 9).
These avicularia have a very close resemblance to a bird’s head.
All the forms may be said to consist of three parts, the chamber,
the beak and the mandible. In the chamber are occlusor and
retractor muscles, by means of which the mandible keeps up a
constant flapping motion. The different parts and the muscles
are illustrated in figs. 9, 10, enlargements of sessile avicularia.

Genera or THE Norto AMERICAN Patanozoic Bryozoa. 429

In the Report on the Bryozoa of the Challenger expedition,
Busx arranges the avicularia as follows:

As to form:
a. Pedunculate and usually articulate.
b. Sessile.
c. Immersed.
As to function :
a. Prehensile — when the mandible, beak and muscles are
adapted for prehensile purposes.
b. Retentive— when the mandible is thin, membranous,
and adapted to serve merely a as a lid for the cup or receptacle.
As to position :
a. Vicarious — when they represent or replace an ordinary
zocecium.
b. Adventitious — when either attached to some point or
other of the zocecium or interspersed among the zocecia.
The mandibles exhibit a great variety of form, some of which
are shown in figure 12. The prehensile forms are semicircular,

Fia. 6’, Sessile avicularia of Scrupocellaria scruposa. a, Mandible; b, Beak; c, Chamber of avi-
cularium; m, Muscles ; p, Peduncle.
f& Fie. 6/’. Pedunculate avicularium, ideal figure.

Fie. 6’. Three cells, showing vibracula.

Fie. 7. Cell of Eschara sulcata, with sessile avicularia tation HINCKS and Busk),

430 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

triangular, elongate or sword shaped. They are formed of a
strong chitinous frame and base, by the extremities of which the
mandible is articulated to the cup. _The space between the frame
is occupied by a membrane, nearly always with a foramen, above
which the occlusor muscles are inserted. These are usually two
in number. The form of the retentive mandible is usually semi-
circular or spatulate. They are generally simple, but sometimes
bifid or trifid. They are without the continuous chitinous frames
of the prehensile mandibles, and consist of a membrane sup-
ported only by the base, or by a frame at the sides extending
only a short distance from the base; the’foramen is generally
absent, and the occlusor muscles are much weaker than in
the other variety. The purpose of the avicularia is not -
known. By some it is thought that they procure food,
and it is a favorite mode of illustration to picture an avicu-

Fie. 8. Menipea flagellifera. a, Sessile avicularia; v, Vibracula; p, Peristome; o, Opercula.
Fic, 9. Bugula bicornis, showing two kinds of pedunculate avicularia, the larger one with the
digitiform process (after BUsK).

GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PALAEozoIc Bryrozoa. 431

larium with a captive worm, longer than the polyp cell; of
course the avicularia can not convey food to the mouth, and the
animal is incapable of swallowing any but the most minute
particles. Any capture by an avicularium is clearly accidental,
- caused by the mandible shutting as the particle floated beneath
it, and the constant flapping of the mandible would tend to
create a current away from it. According to other authors its
functions are purely defensive. ‘“‘They may either arrest or
scare away unwelcome visitors. Their vigorous movement and
the snapping of their formidable jaws may have a wholesome or
deterrent effect on loafing annelids or other vagrants, while the
occasional capture of one of them may help still further to pro-
tect the colony from dangerous intrusion.” (Hrnoxs.) But the
avicularia occur only on the Caxtcosromara, and as other forms
are without them, it shows that they are unnecessary as weapons
of defense.

Figs. 10,11. Two views of a pedunculate avicularia of Bicellaria pectogemma, showing occlusor
and retractor muscles (after Busk). F

The vibracula consist of long slender setz or bristles thickened
near the base (figs. 6” and 8,v). They are divided by Busx into
two kinds, as follows:

439 Rerort oF THE State Groroaist.

Simple — consisting of a basal cup without a beak, to which
the flagellum or seta is articulated, usually by a Re joint,
admitting of motion in only one nae

Compound — in which the seta is continuous with or articu-
lated to a basal mandible, and the cup or receptacle has a more
or less distinct beak.

The use of these appendages is not known. Busx says: “These
whip-like appendages serve as defensive and cleansing organs, and
may be observed in almost constant motion, sweeping slowly and
carefully over the surface of the colony and removing whatever
might be detrimental,” but as is the case with avicularia, only a
portion of the Bryoz»a are furnished with these appendages.

Fic. 12. Showing various forms of mandibles (after BUSK).

The two kinds of appendages are frequently coexistent on the
same colony, as shown in figure 8, and surely it is not neces-

GENERA OF THE NortH AmERICAN Patarozorc Bryozoa. 433

sary that some species need a double means of defense, while
other species equally fragile are destitute of any.

The compound forms of vibracula may develop into an avicu-
laria, according to H1ncxs who, in The Annals and Magazine of
Natural History, 1*81, cites the case of the nearly ubiquitous
species Microporella ciliata. Fig. 13, a, b, c, d, shows the transi-
tion from avicularia to vibracula; a@ shows a cell with a sessile
avicularium of the ordinary type; in 4 the mandible is prolonged
into a slender spine, in other respects resembling a; in c the man-
dible has entirely lost its lid-like character, and is prolonged into
a long, slender process, tapering to a point, and analogous toa
vibraculum. The beak has also undergone a slight modification,
recalling the vibracular cell which supports the movable seta.
In d@ another modification is seen; the mandible is prolonged into
a narrow spine, and on each side of it there is a membranous
expansion, forming a flapper.

Fic. 18. Microporella ciliata; a, b, c, d, showing modifications of a sessile avicularium (after HINCKS).

In the fossil state the obverse or noncelluliferous face of Fenes-
telloid forms is apparently a solid calcareous layer ; but in a thin
transparent section it is seen to be penetrated by numerous
minute tubuli at right angles to the surface. In a decorticated
specimen of the same family, the longitudinal structure is appar-
ently composed of numerous cylindrical fibers. In a cross-section
these have the appearazice of tubuli. Many of the cells, both in

55

434 Report or tur State GEOLOGIST.

a recent and fossil state, are ornamented with ridges, granules,
nodes or spines; the latter frequently hollow. In the course of
. growth, as illustrated by fig. 14, as layer after layer is added,

Fic. 14. An enlarged section of FENESTELLA, showing minute tubuli and large pores.

these hollow nodes, as seen in a transparent section, assume the
appearance of tubuli. These have been likened by some authors
to the “Acanthopores” of the MonricuLtrorip2; but I think that
in most cases too much importance has been given to them, and
that in reality they are only ornamentations. The deposit of cal-
careous matter continues after the animals in the immediate
vicinity are dead, and all ornamentations of the surface are
obliterated, it presenting a uniformly smooth appearance. The
difference in appearance between the younger and more aged
portions of a Fenestelloid frond, and this applies to other forms
also, is often so great that seen in different fragments they would
be considered as belonging to two species. In the noncellulifer-
ous face of some Fenestelloid forms there are frequent, small,
circular pores with raised margins or peristomes, and in some
forms, as FenestTRapora and Isorrypa, there are more conspicu-
ous apertures, frequently larger than the cell apertures. In
Frnestrapora the ridge (carina) dividing the two ranges of cells.
is also poriferous. The purpose of these pores have not been sat-
isfactorily accounted for.

It has been suggested by Prof. Nicnotson that the larger pores
may have been the bases of avicularia; if that explanation
should be accepted the smaller pores might be considered as

=

GrneRA or THE Nortu AmeERICAN Patarozoic Bryozoa. 435

bases of vibracula or of the smaller avicularia. In support of
his theory Prof. Nicnoxson gives the following figures :

Z
?
;
ol

—
ae
in

ARG

vi

ww

==
a

is oy

a. 3
mee wit Sy

“+

nv
x

<
he

Fig. 15. a, A transverse section of a recent species of RETEPORA, taken parallel to the noncellu
liferous surface of the frond, enlarged ; showing the thickened tubes p, to which the avicularia were
attached; b, A section of Cosciniwm (Coscinotrypa) cribriformis, from the Devonian rocks of Canada,
showing similar thickened tubes; c, A section of Rhombopora (Ceriopora) Hamiltonensis, showing
similar tubes (after NICHOLSON). :

The following discussion is from Hrycxs’ “ British Marine Poly-
zoa, Vol. I. Introduction, pp. ]xiv—lxxxiii, inc., 1880.”

“ MopIFiGATIONS OF THE ZocmoraAL TYPE.

“The structural type of which the zocecium is the most famil-
iar representative, exhibits a number of modifications amongst
the marine Potyz>a. Of these the most remarkable are the
avicularium and vibraculum. These curious appendages are
confined to a single suborder, the CuxrtLostomata, within the
limits of which they occur in great abundance and variety. The
vibraculum (probably a derivative from the aviculariwm) is
rarely met with as compared with the latter, which is present in
a large proportion of the Cheilostomatous genera. The avicu-
larium is best known in its most highly specialized form as it
occurs in the genera Breuvca and BiceLvarta.

“This is the true ‘bird’s head,’ an articulated appendage at-
tached to the zocecium, with a formidable hooked beak and a
mandible worked by powerful muscles, perpetually snapping its
jaws with a monotonous energy, and swaying to and fro with a

456 REFORT oF THE SraTE GEoLoGiIst.

vigorous swing on its jointed base, grotesque both in form and
movement. .

“ But in a large proportion of cases the appendage exhibits a
much simpler structure, and is totally destitute of the peculiar
Shape which has suggested its name. _ It is necessary to study its
morphology in extenso to obtain a clue to its history ; the articu-
lated ‘bird’s head’ bears no resemblance to its associated struc-
tures which yet are undoubtedly of its kin; it has assumed an
alien form and has parted with all the familiar features of its
tribe; its aspect and habits are those of a foreigner, and as we
watch it even with its genealogy in our hands, we cease to won-
der that it remained so long a mystery and a puzzle to the zoolo-
gist. When we come to consider the avicularium, not merely in
its more complex and highly organized condition, but in its
totality, as it is represented in a long series of gradational forms,
we are left in no doubt as to its structural affinities. We can
trace the course of its development from the first rudimentary
stages, which are hardly distinguishable from the ordinary zo-
cecium, through a multitude of phases, up to the highly elaborated
prehensile appendage in which no family likeness survives. And

probably the best way of presenting its history will be to begin ©

with the lowest form in which it occurs, and to follow it through
its chief modifications up to the highest.

“It will be desirable, however, first to indicate the essential ele-
ments of its structure; and in doing so, it will be necessary to
avoid the descriptive terms which might naturally be suggested
by the organization and apparent function of the true ‘birds
head.’ The latter would be a grasping organ, but in a large
proportion of the lower forms there is nothing which can prop-
erly be called a ‘beak,’ whilst the equivalent for the mandible is
utterly inefficient for prehensile purposes. Every avicularium

consists of a chamber, of variable size and shape, in which is
lodged an apparatus of muscles; of a movable horny appendage,

which is moved backward and forward by the action of the
muscles, and of a fixed frame opposed to it, surrounding an aper-
ture upon which it falls when closed. In many cases, if not in
all, the chamber also contains a cellular body, which is in all
probability the homologue of a polypide.

GrreRa oF THE NorrH AMERICAN Patanozorc Bryozoa. 437

“These elements may compose a structure very closely resem-
bling an ordinary zocecium; or they may be so modified as to
constitute an articulate and prehensile appendage, armed with
curved beak and powerful jaws, and provided with a delicate
tactile organ such as we find in the genus Bueura. In all cases
the avicularium is to be regarded morphologically as a metamor-
phosed zocecium, though in its more complex form there is little
to betray its lineage. |

“Amongst our British Potyzoa we find this zooidal form in its
most rudimentary condition in such genera as Fustra and Cet-
LARIA. Here it is not a specialized structure attached to one of
the zocecia; it occupies the place of one of them in the colony.
It consists of a dwarfed cell, on the upper surface of which is
placed the usual oral valve, but which is destitute of a polypide ;
at the same time the valve is frequently of unusual and dispro-
portionate size, and occupies a large part of the area of the cell.
Except in size, however, it has undergone but little change, al-
though a certain variation of form already indicates its plas-
ticity. In one species (Cellarza stnuosa) it assumes a triangular
shape; in the common C. jistulosa it is almost indistinguishable
from the ordinary operculum. The degree in which the avicu-
larian chamber (or cell) is reduced in size varies greatly amongst
these primitive and rudimentary forms. In Cellaria Johnsoni it
is a miniature copy of the normal zocecium, almost its only pe-
culiarity being the elevation and somewhat increased size of the
operculum. In other cases the atrophy of the cell is carried to a
great extent and the operculum occupies almost the whole of the
area. | ;

“As specialization proceeds, the chamber is minimized and the
adaptive modification of the valve becomes more and more varied
and elaborate. In the mandible of the ‘ bird’s head’ appendages
it reaches its climax, whilst in this form the zocecium itself has
lost every trace of its original character and function, and merely
lodges the machinery by which the curious prehensile instrument
is worked.

‘“‘ Nowhere, perhaps, is the relation of the avicularium to the
normal zocecium more clearly traceable than in a foreign species
of Mempranipora (as yet I believe undescribed), in which a very
striking modification of the operculum is combined with the

4.32 2EPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

slightest change in the zocecium itself. In this species a number
of zocecia are scattered over the colony, which, whilst retaining
in great measure the usual form, are distinguishable by a re-
markable elongation of the oral valve.

“This structure, which is normally semicircular in shape, is
here much produced and somewhat elevated above, and stands:
out conspicuously on the surface of the zoarium. It is fully four
times the size of the ordinary operculum, and of course increases
very materially the length of the whole zocecium, which, in other
respects, departs very slightly from the normal condition. The
aperture is somewhat reduced and the spines are aborted, but in
general, these abnormal cells very closely resemble the other
members of the colony. The polypide in such cases is probably
suppressed. We have here, it would seem, one of the earliest
and simplest departures from the normal type of the zocecium in
the direction of the avicularium. In Fuvsrra the change is
much more marked, as the cell is merely rudimentary and the
movable operculum constitutes the essential feature. These
slightly specialized forms, which fill the place of the zocecium in
the colony, may be distinguished as primary avicularia.

“They occur under various modifications. In Schizotheca jissa
the avicularium has an area of the same size and form as that of
the zocecia, the beak and mandible occupying much the same po-
sition as the oral opening. Nowhere is its morphological signifi-
cance more apparent. A striking case of the same kind is pre-
sented by Cellaria tenwirostris. In Schizoporella venusta, on the
other hand, the area (which replaces a cell) is reduced to a very
diminutive size and has a minute rounded mandible. The next
marked stage in the developmental series is characterized by the
contraction of the area combined with the assumption of .a more
or less peduncular character by the hollow portion of the struc-
ture. The external resemblance to the ordinary z cecia has dis-
appeared ; the cell is commonly represented by a subconical ele-
vation, on the summit of which are placed the beak and man-
dible. At the same time the avicularium is now, for the most
part, a secondary growth and is developed not on the original
plane of the colony, but on the zocecia themselves. There has
been a large reduction in the size of the chamber, no longer re-

™~

Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 439

quired for the accommodation of the polypide, and a growing
specialization of the mandible and its adjuncts. To a great ex-
tent the avicularium has lost its apparent status as a distinct
Zooid in the colony, and become an appendage of the zocecium.
The bosses or mounds, so often forming part of it and supporting
the mandibular apparatus, are to be regarded as the homologue
of the chamber in the normal zocecium. Such forms as I have
now described, and others allied to them, may be classed as séc-
ondary or transitional avicularia. We must not suppose, how-
ever, that they constitute a clearly defined section; they are con-
nected at all points by intermediate forms with the primary
group. Nor are these divisions coincident with any particular
genera or families; the various modifications of the avicularia
are distributed sporadically over the whole suborder, with the
exception of the highest, which occur only in very narrow and
definite limits.

“The raised or pedunculate character commonly assumed by
the hollow portion of the avicularium in this division becomes
very pronounced in certain cases. The beak and mandible are
elevated on a distinct stem, and (we may suppose) obtain in this
way peculiar advantages for the discharge of their function,
whatever it may be. In such forms we recognize an advance
toward the peduncle of the true ‘bird’shead.’ A nearer approach
to it is met with in the remarkable pedunculate avicularia which
occur in one or two species of Memsranrrora. -T’he want of
mobility is perhaps the most essential distinction between this
form and the avicularium of Boevia; the beak and mandible
are less highly organized than in the latter, but the general char-
acter is the same in both, and very slight changes would serve
to convert the one into the other.

“In Scrvpocentarta the avicularium is attached to the side of
the zocecium by its entire length, but it is truly pedunculate, and
if attached only by the base, would bear a close general resem-
blance to the Bugulan form. |

“The mandible is curved in toward the extremity, and the
beak is somewhat hooked, so that the appendage has considerable
prehensile power. The chamber is not more than sufficient for
the lodgment of the muscular fascicles. A still nearer approach
to the higher avicularium occurs in the remarkable form de- °

440 ) Report or tHe Strate GEorocist.

scribed by Smi1r under the name of Membranipora mina.
Here we have the perfect form of the ‘ bird’s head’ (a curious antici--
pation of the organ as it exists in Bugula Murryana), but there |
is no basal joint and the whole structure is calcareous. A con-
nection is very clearly established between the simply mammillated
avicularium and the articulated through such forms as we have
in the true Membranipora minazx, in Serupocellaria Jerox and in
the present species.

“In Noramta we have probably the fixed form, which comes,
on the whole, nearest to the movable ‘bird’s head,’ and consti-. »
tutes the most direct link between the two classes of avicularium.
Here the hollow portion (or chamber) is borne on a slender stem
of considerable length, from which it is separated by a partition;
it expands from the base upwards, and on the upper surface is
placed the curved beak (‘like that of a cuttle fish *), occupying
about two-thirds of its length, at the base of which the mandible
takes its origin. The latter is much curved and terminates above
it in a sharp point. The upper edge of the chamber below the
mandible surrounds a semicircular space, closed in by a mem-
brane, which probably represents the aperture of the normal :
zocecium. ‘Two new features (both of them present in the ‘bird’s
head’) make their appearance in this form. The beak and the
portion of the chamber from which it arises are both of a horny
material; in the lower form they are calcareous. Between the
mandible and the beak, when the former is elevated, a tuft of
minute sete, placed on a slight rising, is visible, which consti-
tutes a tactile organ, and conveys the external stimuli which
brings the muscles into play. It is possible that this structure
may exist in species in which it has not yet been observed, but:
so far, I believe, it has only been noticed among the higher
forms, which I shall call the articulated avicularia, and in No-
Tamia. In all but the fixed condition Noramta agrees with the
articulated group. It may, I think, be concluded that it is the
concomitant of the more highly specialized form.

“JT may add that the avicularia in the Noramra have very
much the shape and general appearance of zocecia reduced in
size, and are placed, like the latter, in opposite pairs. We pass
now to the articulated forms in which the zocecial type is com-
pletely masked, its elements being so modified as to constitute

Guxera or THE Norra Amprican Paraxozorc BRyYoz0A. AAT

an elaborate prehensile appendage, charged with a special ser-
vice in the interests of the colony.

“In the articulated avicularium, the ‘pbird’s head’ is supported
on a short peduncle with a basal joint, on which it sways to and
fro. The head is composed of two portions, a lower which is
more or less rounded above, and forms the chambers for the
muscles (=the cavity of the zocecium), and an upper and anterior,
which consists of a movable mandible and a curved beak opposed
to it. This anterior portion is composed of horny material,
whilst the chamber itself is calcareous. The walls of the pro-
jecting upper jaw, which terminates in the hooked beak, inclose
an aperture, over which stretches a delicate membrane, pierced
by a‘small circular orifice. This aperture represents the mouth
of the zocecium, the mandible taking the place of the operculum.
Within the chamber occurs a small circular body, composed of
distinct cells, which is connected (in Bugula flabellata) with a cup-
shaped organ, opening out through the membrane of the aper-
ture. From the bottom of the cup rise a number of sete, which
project beyond the opening and constitute the tactile organ be-
fore referred to. The cellular body, in connection with the
setiferous cup has been regarded as a nervous ganglion (B sx,
Surrr); the two together constitute, according to Nitsche, the
homologue of the polypide, which is here reduced, in conformity
with the altered significance of the whole structure, into a mere
organ of touch. There can be but little doubt, I think, but that
the latter is the true view; at the same time it must be regarded
as probable that the rudimentary polypide is furnished with
its nerve center, by which the powerful muscular apparatus
and the sensitive organ may be supplied. Whether the cellular
body constitutes the ganglion, we are not at present in a posi-
tion to decide. The articulated avicularia are always attached
- to the wall of the cell, and usually at a short distance from the
orifice; they are confined apparently to a small number of
genera. Some further evidence of the morphological nature of
these curious appendages may be briefly noticed. (I.) In some
cases I have met with ovicells developed over the upper extrem-
ity of the aviculariaf beak and mandible, clearly indicating their
morphological relation to the orifice of the zocecium,. On more
than one occasion this 7usus has occurred to me in Schizotheca.

; 56

yy Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

Jjussa. (II.) The resemblance in minute detail between the avi-
cularian cell and the species to which it belongs, which are not
unfrequently met with, have a like significance. Thus, to take a
single illustration, in one species a minute sinus occurs on the
lower margin of the avicularian mouth, corresponding with a
similar sinus in the orifice of the zocecium. Instances of the
same kind might be multiplied. The function of the avicularia
is difficult to determine; nor indeed can the same function be
assigned to all of them. The primary forms are many of them
quite unfit for prehensile work. The lid-like mandible, with
plain rounded margin, has no power of grasping and could not
detain for a second the active worms which are sometimes cap-
tured by the articulated kinds. Their service for the colony
must lie in some other direction. Even the fixed transitional
forms, in which the beak and curved mandible are present, must
be inefficient for this work from their want of mobility, whilst in
many of them the parts concerned in the act of prehension are
but slightly developed. The articulated avicularia are, however,
undoubtedly grasping organs, and the presence of the tactile
tuft between the jaws must be taken to indicate that capture in
some form or other is their function. They have been seen to
arrest minute worms and hold them for a considerable time with
a tenacious grip as if with some ulterior object, but what the
object may be, it is difficult to decide. -Dr. Jonnston suggested |
that they may assist in providing supplies of food, seizing ‘ cir-
cumfluent animalcules,’ and retaining them until, enfeebled or
killed by the grasp, the ciliary currents may bear them to the
mouth. But the avicularium is not fitted to capture the ex-
tremely minute organisms in which the polypides feed ; and even
if they could be captured and rendered helpless, there would be
many chances, placed as the appendages usually are, against
their coming within the attraction of the ciliary vortex. The
worms, which seem to be the commonest victims, could only be
utilized as food by being retained until decomposition having set.
in, the particles of decayed matter might diffuse themselves
through the surrounding water and find their way, in a greater
or less degree, to the stomach of the polypides. But the sup-
plies of nutriment in the waters of the ocean must be ample and
unfailing, and no better provision for appropriating them than

Grnpra or THE Nortx Amprioan Patazozoro Bryozoa. 443

the ciliary whirlpool can well be imagined. Unless we can sup-
pose that a peculiar diet is necessary for the species furnished
with the prehensile appendage, it is hardly probable that the
ordinary arrangements would have to be supplemented by the
service of such uncertain purveyors. And should they be feed-
ers on dead organisms only (as has been suggested), they would
certainly lead a precarious existence if dependent on the chance
supplies of the avicularian commissariat. The appendages, it
must be remembered, have no freedom of movement; they do
not go in quest of prey; they merely oscillate, without variation,
to and fro, snapping their jaws at haphazard, or when aroused —
by some irritation of the tactile sete. Their captures must be
fitful and uncertain, and if the food requires long keeping to be
fit for use (and under the conditions this seems to be a necessary
supposition), the colony must be in a chronic condition of famine.
If living animals be the required diet, then the cilia are adequate
to the supply of them, and the avicularia are not.

“On the whole (though the question is involved in much ob-
scurity), I am inclined to regard the avicularia as charged with
- a defensive rather than an alimentary function. They may
either arrest or scare away unwelcome visitors. Their vigorous
movements and the snapping of their formidable Jaws may have
a wholesome deterrent effect on loafing annelids and other va-
grants, whilst the occasional capture of one of them may help
still further to protect the colony from dangerous intrusion. On
this view of them, they have a function analogous to that of the
other appendage with which the CuxtLosromata are furnished.
The vibraculum, though morphologically related to the zocecium
like the avicularium, is more immediately connected with the
latter; and we find a line of transition forms linking the two to-
gether. It consists, in its more perfect condition, of a chamber,
in which the muscles are lodged, and a movable bristle, sus-
pended in a kind of cleft at its upper extremity, in which it
works backward and forward. The seta (or bristle) is broad at
the base and above it slender, and often of considerable length.
In some cases it attains an enormous development, and forms
either a whip-like appendage or an organ of such a size and
strength as to be available for locomotive purposes. On the
lower part of the wall of the chamber there is always a small

444 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

opening, marking the point from which a long tubular appendage
(or radical fiber) originates.

“The vibraculum, as already mentioned, is of comparatively
rare occurrence. In its most highly peo forms it is placed
on the dorsal surface of the zocecium, and the movable seta
(which, when at rest, is laid back upon the chamber) is swung
around at intervals to the front of the cell, sweeping slowly over
the surface as if to remove all noxious matter, and then returns
to its original position. This movement goes on uninterruptedly
during the lifetime of the colony, and there can be no doubt
‘that its object is to scare away dangerous intruders or accumula-
tions of refuse from the neighborhood of the orifice. We have
no difficulty in recognizing the equivalent of the avicularian
mandible and the operculum of the cell in the sete. The mouth
is here modified in the same sense as the rest of the structure;
the raised ‘ beak’ is absent, being no longer useful, but the mar-
gin is carried out above into two prominent points, just within
which the bristle is articulated, clear of all hindrances, and so as
to possess the utmost freedom of movement.

“The homology of the parts becomes more evident when we
study the transitional forms. We meet with a developmental
stage (corresponding to the promary avicularium) in which the
vibraculum is developed on the original plane of the eolony and
occupies the position of an ordinary cell; in some species the ~
vibracular cells alternate regularly with the z-cecia. In such
cases the movements of the setz are of necessity much restricted,
and the appendage is rather the servant of the colony than ‘of
the individual polypide.

“The direct links between the vibraculum and avicularium are
found in those forms of the latter in which the mandible is pro-
longed and attenuated, whilst the beak is almost rudimentary.
Indeed, it is difficult to draw the line between them, unless we
regard the total absence of a distinct beak as an essential charac-
teristic of the vibraculum. We have a case of the slight exten-.
sion and attenuation of the mandible in Schizoporella spinifera;
in Membranipora ciliata the change is occasionally carried still
further, but there is a,great variability, and the mandible is now
of the ordinary form and now prolonged into a vibracular pro-
cess. In Schizoporella vulgaris the mandible is metamorphosed

GENERA OF THE Norra American Partarozoic Bryrozoa. 445

into a seta, but the beak survives and the movement is prob-
ably nothing more than the rising and falling as of a lid. In
Mastigophora Hyndmanmni, the mouth is so modified as to give
much more play to the seta, which is thrown backward and for-
ward with perfect freedom, and has much the appearance of a
lash. In this species the vibraculum is borne on a distinct cell,
resembling the zocecium (on which it is developed), except in
size. In yet another case the vibracular cells are still further
reduced, and one is placed on each side of the orifice of the
zocecium. When we come to the higher forms, we meet with
cases in which the seta resumes the dimensions of the mandible,
and loses its free and vigorous swing. The most elaborate form
of this appendage is found in the genus Caserna. There the
- chamber is large and traversed on the upper side by a channel
or groove, in which the seta lies when at-rest. The latter is of
great length and serrated or toothed along the edge. In this
genus the entire dorsal surface of the branch is covered by the
vibracula, and the movements of the setz are synchronous; they
act together with perfect regularity, the whole company on a
branch swinging to and fro at the same moment, and as if under
a common impulse. We can hardly doubt but there must be
some intercommunication between the nerve centers of the indi-
vidual vibracula, on which these combined movements depend, |
but so far the synchronism has attracted very little attention,
and we have no observations that throw any further light upon
it. The sete attain their highest development in the family of
the SeLmnarup#, Busk; here they are of enormous size and of
great strength and assume, in some species at least, a locomotive
function, acting probably as oars, and propelling the colony,
which is free in the adult state. In the history of these appen-
dages we have a curious illustration of the variety of function
that may connect itself with the same morphological element.”

Tue ANIMAL.

In the Gymyormwata the principal species studied have been
the marine form, Bowerbankia densa, and the fresh-water form
Paludicella Ehrenbergi. These two forms, though differing some
in detail, are of essentially the same structure.

For the Hippocrepian forms Alcyonella fungosa furnished the
principal material.

446 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The tentacular crown may be divided into two portions: the
disc which surrounds the mouth and to which is given the name
lophophore, and the tentacles which are inserted on the margin
of the lophophore.

In all the marine species and in one fresh-water species,
Paludicella Ehrenbergi, the lophophore is continuous around
the mouth ; the tentacles being arranged in a complete circle. In
the other fresh-water forms the arrangement is bilateral. The
lophophore is extended in two triangular arms; the tentacles, ar-
ranged continuously on the margin of the dise and the arms are
disposed in a horseshoe form. From the mouth descends the
cesophagus; at first a little expanded, then contracting and con-
tinuing nearly straight to its terminus. The upper, expanded
portion may be called the pharynx. The walls are thickly
studded with minute oval spots. In the marine species the ceso-
phagus leads into an oval sac, which performs the office of a
gizzard (Plate B, fig. a, 3). The walls of this cavity are thicker
than those of any other portion of the alimentary canal. In the
walls are two dark bodies, opposite to each other (fig. 16), with radi-

16a. 16D.

Loma neGee
SSO CEE

> RS
ie

Fic. 16a. Bowerbankia densa, showing the dark bodies of the cesophagus separated ; the cardiac
teeth showing between them.
Fie. 16b. Showing the dark bodies in apposition.
Fie. 17. An enlargement of the cardiac teeth (after FARRE).
/

ating lines, and in the walls between these bodies are the cardiac
teeth (fig. 17), which present a somewhat regular tesselated appear-
ance. This again opens downward into the true digestive

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozoric Bryozoa. 447

stomach (Plate B, fig. a), an oblong cavity terminating below
in a blunt extremity. From the upper part of the stomach, near
the gizzard, by a true pyloric cavity (fig. 5, a), arises the intestine,
which continues nearly straight, alongside the cesophagus, and
terminates by a distinct anal orifice, close to the outer side of the
lophophore. Thus the alimentary canal consists of pharynx,
oesophagus, gizzard, stomach and intestine, with distinct oral,
cardiac, pyloric and anal orifice.

The whole floats freely in the perigastric cavity, the boundaries
of which are the walls of the cell, and which contains the peri-
gastric fluid and the muscles of the animal.

In Patupicetta, the upper part of cesophagus is wide (the
pharynx) but soon contracts and continues as a long narrow tube,
which leads-into an oval sac (Plate A, fig. 1, c), corresponding to
the gizzard of the marine forms and to the cardiac cavity of the
stomach of the Hippocrepian forms. This sac is much more
distinctly expanded from the large cavity of the stomach (the
pyloric cavity) than in the other fresh-water forms. When
the animal is completely retracted it is bent backward upon
the pyloric cavity (Plate A, fig.2,c). The intestine arises from the
upper portion of the pyloric cavity (Plate A, /).

In the Hippocrepian forms, the cesophagus becoming narrower
and opening into the stomach with a distinct conical projection.
In the contraction of the animal within its cell, in these
forms, the alimentary canal occupies essentially the same
relative position as when the animal is protracted, the cesophagus
‘remaining straight; but in PatupiceLia and in the marine forms,
the alimentary canal is doubled upon itself and its form is some-

what modified (Plates A and B). The lophophore is brought
down to the upper part of the stomach; the intestine is doubled
upon itself, and the cesophagus is forced down to the side of the
stomach, and again turning upward has somewhat the form of
the letter S. The stomach is composed of three different layers;
the inner one of which has frequently longitudinal ridges
(fig. 20, d), though this feature is often absent. The layer is com_
posed of easily separable spherical cells, which contain a smaller
cell or nucleus, floating in a colorless liquid having yellowish-
brown contents (fig. 18, a,b). These are, in all probability, hepatic
follicles, secreting a fluid which colors the stomach and its con-

448 | Report or tue Stare Gxroroaisr.

tents; the inner layer thus being the representative of the liver.
The median layer is composed of hexagonal cells, with a brilliant

Fic. 18. a, Portion of internal or hepatic layer of the stomach; b, Three isolated cells, further
magnified; each cell contains within it a secondary cell with brownish contents; c, Middle
layer of stomach composed of cells with colorless contents and brilliant nucleus; d, Structure of
the endocyst ; the tissue has been treated with acetic acid, and presents isolated nuclei, and nucle-
ated cells in various stages of formation ; ێ, Muscular net work of the endocyst; f, Muscular fibers
from the endocyst, treated with acetic acid and more highly magnified ; g, An isolated muscle cell of
the same, still more highly magnified ; h, Tubular net work occasionally seen in the substance of the

endocyst, and containing peculiar corpuscles; 7, Corpuscles separated from the tubular net work;
&, The same under the action of acetic acid. .

nucleus (fig. 18, c). The outer layer consists of a very thin mem-
brane with a cellular structure. It covers the whole of the
alimentary canal, and by the application of acetic acid it may be
frequently separated from the median layer. Delicate circular
striz may be observed in this layer, in some species very dis-
tinctly. They are, in all probability, muscles. These muscles:
have not been observed in this layer of. the intestine, but proba-
bly do occur there. In the cesophagus there are only two layers
(fig. 19, c, g), corresponding to the median and external layer of
the stomach, the inner layer of the stomach having entirely dis-
appeared and the external layer being much thickened. The
mouth and upper portion of the cesophagus are thickly covered
with vibratile cilia ; apparently disappearing in the lower portion.
The structure of the intestine is very similar to that of the
oesophagus, with the exception that the cilia are entirely wanting.

SS

Genera or THE Norra American PAaLAEozorc Bryozoa. 449

{In the Hippocrepian forms there are no cilia except at the
mouth and upper part of the stomach, but in PaLUDICELLA and in

Wee S¥ro 5°

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oho

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ae

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Fic. 19. Aleyonella fungosa. a, Internal layer of cesophagus; }, External layer of cesophagus ;
¢, Internallayer of rectum; d, Hepatic layer of stomach; e, Pylorus; f, Cardia; g, External layer of
rectum; h, Medial layer of stomach; i, External layer of stomach; 7, Polyp retractor muscle;
o, Radial muscles; p, Ovary; r, Superior radial muscles; s, Testis; ¢, Spermatozoa; u, Endocyst ;
wv, Ectocyst ; z, Statoblasts;(after ALLMAN).

450 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. Bus
the marine forms there are long vibratile cilia near the pyloric
orifice of the stomach.

The cesophagus and stomach are very irritable, and the ~
stomach is in constant motion whenever the animal is exserted.
When food is received the contraction of the stomach is very de-
cided ; the food remaining in the stomach a very short time,
then descending with great rapidity. In the gizzard of marine
forms they are subjected to a sort of crushing process, the two
dark bodies previously spoken of, being brought in apposition
(fig. 16, 0). After remaining in the gizzard a very short time, the
food: passes into the stomach, where it is rolled about in a peris-
taltic motion, being frequently regurgitated into the gizzard. In
the upper portion of the stomach, near the pyloric orifice, the
food assumes a rotary motion from the action of the vibratile
cilia. In some species with very clear walls the motion of the
cilia can be very plainly seen by microscopic observations. The
alimentary matter passes from the stomach by the pyloric orifice,
and in the large portion of the intestine, near this orifice, it is
formed into little pellets of excrementious matter, which, by the
contractions of the walls of the intestine, is carried to the anus,
and passing out is carried away by the current caused by the
action of the cilia of the tentacles.

Fic. 20. Eschara cervicornis. t, Tentacula: b, Pharynx; f, Filiform appendages; d, Stomachal ©
dilation; 7, Intestine; o, Oral aperture ; m, Muscles (after JONES).

TENTACLES.

The tentacular crown of the Bryrozoa consists of two portions,
a disc surrounding the mouth, the lophophore, and the tentacles
which are borne upon the margin of this disc.

GEnERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 451

In the Hippocrepian forms, one side of the lophophore, that
on which the anus is situated, is prolonged in two triangular
arms. The tentacles are arranged continuously on the outer and
inner margins, making a double row (fig. 23), in the form of a
horseshoe, a fact from which the name Hippocrepian is given to
this class of Bryozoa. This condition is not found in any marine
form.

The Hippocrepian forms have also another organ which is
absent in those genera in which the lophophore forms a continu-
ous circle. This is a hollow valve-like organ continuous with one
side of the lophophore, and is known as the epistome. The in-_
terior communicates with the perigastric space by an opening in
the lophophore (fig. 22, #). The walls which are turned toward
the mouth are thick and are covered with a vibratile cilia; the
others are membranous and transparent.

Fic. 21. Membranipora pilosa. In one of the cells the animal is partially retracted, in the other
it is fully expanded (after FARRE).

When the animal is protruded, this organ is in constant mo-
tion, elevated and depressed. The elevation is effected by the
action of a muscle (fig. 22,2), to be hereafter described ; while the
depression is probably effected by the antagonistic elasticity of
the organ itself, though it may be effected by the action of a
muscle not yet observed. |

Notwithstanding this organ has been studied by many observ-
ers, its purpose has not yet been ascertained.

452 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The fresh-water form, PatupioEeLia, and all marine forms have
the lophophore circular and the tentacles arranged in a single
row on its outer border, having, when expanded, somewhat the
form of an inverted cone. The tentacles are cylindrical, with a
blunted extremity. They are hollow and are composed of two
layers (fig. 23); the outer layer being composed of comparatively
large spherical cells, frequently with a brilliant nucleus, and the
inner layer of a very thin transparent membrane, without any
trace of a cellular structure. .

The exterior of the tentacles has two rows of vibratile cilia,
situated on opposite sides, one row vibrating toward the extremity
and the other toward the base.

The tentacles are hollow and communicate with the perigastric
cavity through the lophophore. In allthe Hippocrepian forms the
tentacles are surrounded, on their lower portion, by an exceed-

Fic. 22. Lophopus cristatus. a, Tentacles; b, Calyx; c, Lophophore; d, Intestine; e, Invaginated
portion of the endocyst; f, Nerve ganglion; g, Nerve filament tolophophore; h, Nerve filament passing
around the lophophore; 7, Anus; k, Epistome; k’, Orifice in lophophore forming a communication
between the cavity of the epistome and the perigastric space; 1, Elevator muscle of the epistome
{after ALLMAN).

Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOZOIO Bryozoa. 453

ingly thin transparent membrane, a prolongation of the outer
margin of the lophophore, fig. 22,6, which is known as the calyx.
The calyx never exists in forms destitute of an epistome.

PERIGASTRIC SPACE.

The perigastric space is filled with a colorless fluid, which prob-
ably fulfils the triple purpose of circulation, nutrition and respira-
tion; the last-named office probably in conjunction with the ten-
tacles, but there is no absolute certainty on this point. The fluid is
colorless and the circulation, which undoubtedly takes place, is de-
tected only through the medium of certain small particles, held in
suspension in the fluid; but these particles are not necessary for

Fie. 23. Tentacle enlarged, showing outer cellular and inner membranous layer,

the performance of the functions of the fluid, because they are fre-
quently absent, and Mr. Hancock thinks that when they are
present, it is from some rupture of the walls. Dr. Farre has
described and figured parasites occurring in this fluid, but judg-
ing from his figure, he mistook the spermatozoa for parasites,
and he describes them as moving with a slow, undulating motion,
which is characteristic of the spermatozoa.

Autman is of the opinion that the perigastric fluid is chiefly
aqueous and supplied from without In that case there must exist
pores through the ectocyst capable of being opened and closed
at the will of the animal or the water must exude through the
alimentary canal. What the other constituents of this fluid may
be has not yet been ascertained. Autumn says:. ‘That the fluid
thus contained in the perigastric space and thence admitted into

454 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

=_—

the tentacles consists mainly of water obtained from without,
there can, I think, be little doubt ; and yet I have in vain sought
for any opening through which the external fluid can gain
admittance into the interior. I have allowed the transparent
genera CRISTATELLA and LopHopus to remain many hours in car-
mine without being able to detect a single particle of this pig-
ment in the perigastric space, though I have seen this space
rapidly empty itself on the removal of the animal from the
water and again fill on restoring it to its natural element. Von.
BEnEDEN believed that he had detected in AtcyonmLLa, apertures,
which he named ‘bouches aquiferes,’ at the base of the ten- ©
tacles ; but this distinguished naturalist is certainly here in error,
as indeed he himself subsequently admits.” Meynn asserts that
an opening exists in the vicinity of the anus, through which he
himself had witnessed the escape of the egg of ALcronELia, and
SIEBOLD corroborates him. But, without doubt, any such aper-
ture was the result of a rupture. One objection to the theory
that the water finds its way through tubes in the cell walls too
minute to be detected is that in many forms the cell tubes are
so closely packed together that no water has access to the
exterior of the cell walls.

The perigastric fluid enters the tentacles through the lopho-
phore, and thus becomes aerated by the constant flow of the
oxygenating medium over their surface by the action of the
vibratile cilia, though if the perigastric cavity can be emptied
and filled as quickly as stated by ALtLmay, any special aeration by
the tentacles would seem unnecessary. While the aeration of the
blood or perigastric fluid can be easily understood when the animal
is protruded, it is difficult to understand how the oxygenation
can be effected when the animal is withdrawn in the cell, for
then the orifice is completely closed by the folding of the sides of
the orifice, and there is no communication with. the exterior.
The only explanation can be that, as is the case with bivalves, a —
constant aeration of the blood from the air in the water is
unnecessary.

There can be little doubt that the perigastric fluid is nutritive,
and holds in suspension the results of digestion, which proba-
bly exude through the walls of the stomach. It is only on such
a supposition that we can understand the nourishment of the

GENERA OF THE Norto AmmRICAN Patarozoic Bryrozoa. 455

walls of the cell and the buds which take their origin in the
endocyst, and must be nourished by it until they have acquired
such a stage in their growth that they have an external orifice.

Tue MusovuLar System.

The following description of the muscular system refers espec-
ially to that of a fresh-water species, Paludicella Lhrenberqi;
but it is almost identical with that of the marine forms, and
mention will be made of the details in which it differs.

There are six sets of muscles, three in connection with retrac-
tion, two with protrusion and one for the closing of the orifice
when the animal has withdrawn in its cell.

Of the retractors one set acts directly upon the orifice, the
others upon the tubular orifice of the cell. The former is much
the more powerful muscle (Plate A, 2’). It takes its origin in the
endocyst, toward the bottom of the cell, and passing upward,
alongside of the alimentary canal, its superior extremities are
inserted around the base of the lophophore. It is composed of
numerous long, stout fibers, which by their action draw the ani-
mal into the cell. In the marine and in the Hippocrepian forms
the corresponding retractor muscles differ only in being com-
posed of two fascicles instead of only one.

In the withdrawal of the animal into the cell, the tentacula,
which when well expanded are in the form of an inverted cone,
are first brought together in a straight line, and immediately
begin to descend. The body does not descend in a mass, but
becomes folded up so as to be accommodated in the cell. The
cesophagus, surmounted by the tentacles, descends first; whilst
the integument of the upper part of the animal begins to be
inverted, where it has its insertion around the tentacular disc.
As the tentacles descend the invagination of the integument
continues, forming a close sheath around the tentacles. The
withdrawal of the animal continues until the extremities of the
tentacles have reached a point level with the top of the ectocyst ;
that is, to the unyielding part of the cell. The stomach of the
animal is now near the bottom of the cell; the cesophagus is
bent in the form of a letter S; the tentacles are lying close
together inclosed in their tegumentary sheath. It now remains
to complete the closing of the orifice. This is effected by the

456 Report oF THE STaTE GEOLOGIST.

second and third sets of muscles, called by Farre the oper-
cular muscles, by Hancock the tube retractors, and by Atuman
the antero-parietal vaginal muscles. They have their origin
near the top part of the ectocyst, and are inserted in the
flexible part of the invaginated tunic (endocyst) on which they
act. They consist of four flat bundles of stout linear fibers
(Plate A, 2). The fibers of the muscle are inserted one after
another in a straight line, commencing near the point of invagi-
nation, and extending some distance down the invaginated tunic.

The arragement of the fascicles causes the margins of the orifice
to fold in four portions in the retraction of its tube. The end is
consequently square, the angles corresponding to the insertion of
the muscles. The third set of muscles, the superior tube retractors,
consist of only fourfibers. They have their origin below the other
tube retractors, and are inserted in the tegumental tunic above
them. The action of this set of muscles completes the action of the
second set. In the marine forms as represented by Bowerbankia
densa, the muscles are the same, except that they have a tri-
radiate arrangement, and the orifice is puckered into three folds
instead of four.

The fourth set of muscles is for the purpose of closing the
orifice and was discovered by Mr. Hancoox. They consist of
two sets of muscles passing around the invaginated tunic. One
set is made up of several fibers passing around the tunic at the
insertion of the inferior tube retractors and is of considerable
width; the other consists of only two or three fibers and passes
around the tube at the interior of the superior tube retractors.
This action is to close the orifice on the retraction of the animal,
and also to oppose the tube retractors, which would have a
tendency, by their divergence, to keep the orifice open. These
muscles exist both in fresh-water and marine forms.

The fifth set of muscles is connected with the endocyst and is
called the parietal muscles. They are numerous and strong (Plate
A,.m). Their extremities are probably attached to the ectocyst. _
They run transversely, each muscle embracing a fourth ora third
of the cell, and consist of three or four fibers each. Their pur-
pose is the contraction of the endocyst, assisting in the propyen
of the animal.

The sixth set (the posterior parietal muscles) is for the purpose
of preventing the entire invagination of the tunic and tentacles.

Genera or THE Nortu American PaLarozoric Bryozoa. 457

It consists of four thin fasciculi (Plate A, i). They have their
origin in the tunic (endocyst) near the top of the cell, two in the
front and two in the back, and are inserted in the opposite sur-
face of the tentacular sheath.

In the Hippocrepian forms the muscles differ somewhat from
those just described, principally owing to the difference in the
structure of the tentacular crown.

The presence of the epistome necessitates another muscle for
its movements. It arises from the tentacular disc, within the
cavity of the epistome, and passing obliquely across he cavity is
inserted on the inner surface of the oval wall) of the epistome
(fig. 22,7). Its action is to elevate the epistome, raising it from
the mouth.

Fic. 24. Alcyonella flabellum, a, Endocyst; b, Ectocyst; f, @sophagus; g, Cardiac cavity of
stomach; p, Rotary muscles of tentacular crown; 0, 7, Radiating muscles; J, Polyp retractor
muscles (after ALLMAN).

‘

The rotary muscles of the crown consist of two fascicles, which
take their origin at the same place as the retractor muscle of the
animal, and passing upward with that muscle,until,within some

58

458 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

distance of the lophophore, they separate from it, and continuing
to the right and left, are inserted one in each arm of the lopho-
phore. Their action is to rotate the tentacular crown and to
depress the lobes (fig. 24, »). Van Benupen first directed atten-
tion to a set of parallel bands running along the margin of the
lophophore. These bands are continuous with one another
below, but when they arrive at the space between adjacent
tentacles, each band divides in two, appara running up
opposite sides of adjacent tentacles. .

These bands do not present any fibroid structure. Vawn
BeEnepEN considered them muscles, and that to their action was
due the movement of the tentacles. They have not been ob-
served in the Gymnota@mata, but if they are muscles and the
movements of the tentacles are due to them, they will probably
be found in all Bryozoa. There is another set of muscles
peculiar to the Hippocrepian forms, which consists of a circle of
short, stout radiating fibers (fig. 22, 0, v, and fig. 24,0, 7). They
take their origin on the inner surface of the endocyst, on the
same plane, and are inserted in the tentacular sheath some dis-
tance below the mouth of the cell, on a plane parallel to that of
their origin. Their action is to prevent the eversion of the
whole of the tentacular sheath, and to keep the mouth of the
animal at the proper distance from the cell aperture.

Mr. Hancock says in relation to this muscle: “The true value
of these muscles will be understood if we refer to the marine
genus Bowrrpangia, in which they are deficient, and of course
the tentacular sheath can be wholly everted, and accordingly the
animal can reach to a greater distance than it could otherwise
have done, but an apparatus of extraordinary beauty is provided
to obviate the inconvenience that must have arisen from the
greater elevation of the tentacular disc above the support of the
horny cell. This is effected by what may be considered an
elongation upward of the cell. Numerous sete, bound together
by a membrane, are attached to the lips of the orifice of the cell,
so that when the polyp is exserted they stand up in a circle, sur-
rounding the lower portion of the exposed part of the animal
(fig. 25, d), and give support to it. By this means the far out-
stretched tentacular disc is brought completely under the control
of the muscles for directing its movements.

GrnEeRA oF THE NortH American Patarozoic Bryrozoa. 459

“We thus clearly see that the set of radiating muscles isa
compensation for the absence of sete.

“On examining an animal of Bowrrganxia in action it is evi-
dent that the use of the sete is as I have pointed out. The
circle of setz is then seen to encompass the lower part of the
extended polyp, and when the tentacular disc moves from side to
side the neck always bends from the top of the setze in a decided
angle and does not gradually arch away from the lips of the cell,
as might be expected if this contrivance was for the purpose of
giving flexibility. The delicate membrane uniting the sete is
strengthened with numerous minute transverse fibers forming
the whole into a powerful sphincter, thus giving great firmness
to the part.

“ By this arrangement BowrrBanxta is enabled to raise the ten-
tacular disc far above the polype cell and yet to remain as per-
fectly under the control of the muscles as is the tentacular disc
of PrumaTetia and FrREpERICELLA, in both of which it is confined
close to the surface of the cell.”

, they are entirely retracted; in fig. d they are completely extended. a, Sete; d, Muscles (after

FARRE).

Fig. 25 (a, 6, c and d) shows the position of the sete when the
animal is contracted and during the process of eversion.

460 ReEportT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

When we compare the muscular system of the fresh-water
and marine forms we find a great similarity in them, but also
some modifications. In all forms the endocyst continues beyond
the ectocyst and is continuous with the margin of the lopho-
_ phore. In the marine forms, when the animal is exserted, the
endocyst or tunic is, of course, carried with the lophophore, and
not being held by any muscles is continuous in essentially a
straight line with that portion of the endocyst lining the cell.
When the animal is retracted the endocyst is invaginated, the
evagination and invagination being complete; the evagination
being effected in the same manner as if the finger of a glove
was pulled in from its inner extremity, the eee portion
forming the tentacular sheath.

In the fresh-water forms the evagination and invagination is
incomplete, a portion of the endocyst being pee in-
vaginated.

Though the evagination in ParvpicELLa is not complete, yet it
in common with the marine forms, is without the small radiat-
ing muscles near the orifice and the larger radiating muscles
which are connected with the tentacular sheath (fig. 19, 0, 7).
The polyp retractor muscles are essentially the same in all forms
of Bryozoa. The sphincter muscles are present in PaLuUDICELLA
and the marine forms. The parietal muscles are the same in all
forms, and the tube retractors are essentially the same. Patupr- ~
CELLA is very closely related to the marine forms even in its mi-
nute structure.

The protrusion of the animal from its cell takes place as fol-
lows: The principal agency to which we must assign the pro-
trusion of the animal is undoubtedly the contraction of the endo-
cyst by the parietal muscles and the consequent pressure of the
perigastric fluid upon the body of the animal, making it neces-
sary for it to move in the direction of the least resistance, namely;
the orifice of the cell. :

Farre, in his admirable paper on Bowerbankia dene states
that the principal cause of the protrusion of the animal is
the pressure of the perigastric fluid, and that the straightening -
of the cesophagus raises the tentacular crown a certain distance,
which it undoubtedly does, as the cesophagus has the power to
straighten itself without the action of the fluid.

Genera or THE Nortu American Patarozoric Bryozoa. 461

As the parietal muscles contract, the endocyst leaves the
ectocyst, especially in the lower part of the cell, and the animal
begins, on account of the consequent compression of the perigas-
tric fluid, to move up the cell.. The sphincter muscles relaxing
affords to the tentacles an easy passage through the inverted
endocyst. The tube retractors relaxing the inverted lips of the
orifice begin to evolve. As the contraction of the parietal
muscles continues, the protrusion goes on until it is complete.
In the marine forms the whole of the invaginated endocyst is
protruded ; in the fresh-water forms with the single exception of
Patupicett, nearly all that portion of the endocyst continuing
beyond the ectocyst is permanently invaginated, its evagination |
_ being stopped by the radial muscles (fig. 18, o and fig. 24, 0.)

In Patupicetta there is a more complicated process. The re-
laxation of the tube retractors permits the endocyst to be evagi-
nated, but only for a short distance, the posterior fibers of these
muscles soon checking its further progress, and keeping a small
portion. of the endocyst permanently invaginated. The second
portion of the endocyst, which when invaginated constitutes the
tentacular sheath, continues to be evolved by the relaxation of the
posterior parietal vaginal muscles, but the relaxation.soon ceasing
the complete protrusion is prevented. Thus we have two small,
permanent invaginations after the eversion is completed as
shown in Plate A, fig. 1, one within the other, forming the mem-
branous cup at the mouth of the cell. The retraction can be
much more easily understood. ‘The parietal muscles relax; the
polyp retractor contracts, pulling the animal in the cell. The
superior tube retractors first, and then: the inferior contract, and
when the animal is withdrawn entirely within the cell, the action
of the sphincter muscles closes the orifice. When an operculum
exists this is closed by the action of the muscles prowionsls
described.

ieee ais SYSTEM.

The nervous system consists of a single ganglion attached to —
the external surface of the cesophagus (fig. 1, g, and fig. 22, /),
with its filaments.

In the Hippocrepian forms filaments have hee distinctly
traced by Azitman running to the tentacular crown. ‘The
ganglion gives off a rather thick cord, immediately running into

462 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

the lophophore (fig. 22, g). It gives forth a band which runs
along the root of the lophophore toward the back (fig. 22, h), giv-
ing off a branch to each tentacle, continuing on the arms to the
extremity, giving off branches to each tentacle on the outer
margin of the arms; turning at the extremity in its backward
course it gives off branches to each tentacle on the inner side of
the arms. The ganglion also sends forth a filament which imme-
diately enters the substance of the cesophagus, probably supply-
ing the mouth, epistome and cesophagus, but it has been traced
for only a short distance.

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS.

The ovary and testes occur in the same cell. In certain sea-
sons of the year the ovary may be seen attached by a short
peduncle to the endocyst a short distance below the mouth of
the cell (Plate A, figs. 1, 2, »). It isa rounded mass composed
of ova in various stages of growth. The testes are situated on
the funiculus, below the fundus of the stomach (Plate A, s), and
are developed in the form of an irregular mass. It 1s formed of
spherical cells, each of which contains a second cell, which devel-
ops into a spermatozoidal filament, escaping by the rupture of
the cell. They havea distinct but somewhat sluggish, undulat-
ing movement. They are carried about the perigastric space by
the current and thus come in contact with the ova. They were
observed in 1837 by Dr. Farrz, but were mistaken for parasites.

There are three methods of reproduction, first by the true ova,
developing into a free ciliated embryo; secondly, by gemmation;
and thirdly, in the Hippocrepian forms by statoblasts, the
nature of which will be hereafter described. |

The process of gemmation may be observed with comparative —
ease in Panupicenia, and is illustrated by figure 26. In the
earliest stages in which the “bud has been noticed, it consists of
a slight tubercle on the parent cell, a, filled with parenchyma.
It soon becomes elongated and has a cavity communicating with .
the parent cell, 6. In c it has increased in size and consists of an
external envelope continuous with the ectocyst of the parent
cell, and a thick lining continuous with the endocyst and con--
taining numerous round, nucleated cells. These two features
develop into the ectocyst and endocyst of the adult cell. Ind

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALArozorc Bryozoa. 463

we observe a thick portion of the endocyst projecting into the
cavity. This is the rudiment of the future polyp. Within this

D ay
aes 7h

ee ; 5 ,

Tay

Fig. 26. Paludicella Ehrenbergi, showing development of bud (after ALLMAN).

when viewed from the front, may be seen an oval ring, which
develops into the lophophore, ¢. This ring is at first a mere

464 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

fleshy fold, but soon develops on its inner side a series of small
tubercles, which become the tentacles, 7. At this stage the
lophophore is bilateral, being prolonged to that side where the
rectum is to make its appearance. The space between the rudi-
mentary tentacles is prolonged downward, being the first trace

Fic 27. Paludicella Ehrenbergi. Free spermatozoa (after ALLMAN).

of the body of the polyp, g. The embryo is now suspended in
a membranous sac from the walls of the cell. A few minute
fibers can be observed, which develop into the polyp retractors.
In h, the tentacles are much more developed; the body of the
polyp is prolonged downward, and we are able to trace the

Fic. 28. Paludicella Ehrenbergi, showing manner of growth (after ALLMAN).

positions occupied by the cesophagus, stomach and intestine. The
tube retractors can now be observed as a few indistinct fibers. ©

GeneERA oF THE NortH AMERICAN PAaLArEozorc Bryozoa. 465

In 2, the lophophore has lost its crescentic shape and become
orbicular ; the different portions of the animal are well defined.
Hitherto there has been no external opening in the cell, and the
nourishment has been effected from the parent cell; but now an
opening occurs at the extremity of the young cell; the different
organs rapidly become perfected, and the polyp is capable of
obtaining nourishment from without.

Fig. 29 represents the development of a free embryo of Alcy-
onella fungosa; a represents the free spermatozoa greatly enlarged;
6 a group of ova; ca single ovum much more enlarged. In d the
ovum has undergone segmentation and a central cavity has
begun to show itself. Fig. e represertts the ovum developed into
- an oval ciliated sac destitute of an external opening. In/ the
embryo presents an orifice, through which an unciliated portion
is protruded by a process of evagination; in this protruded portion
a polyp is developed. Fig. g shows the polyp isolated from
the cell, and further enlarged; the lophophore is yet destitute
of tentacles. Fig. 4 shows the polyp more advanced; a few of
the tentacles have begun to develop on the lophophore. Fig. 2
shows an embryo containing two polypes; fig. k the same more
advanced, the polyps having acquired nearly their perfect
development. Fig. 7 shows a more advanced stage. The first
invagination has become obliterated ; the cilia have disappeared
from the surface, and the young Bryozoan has acquired its ecto-
cystal investment. A new bud is seen at each side within its
cell, near its anterior extremity.

For the knowledge of the development of Phalangella jlabel-
larva, a gymnolematous bryozoan of the sub-order CycLostomata,
I am indebted to Jutes Barros’ “ Embryologies de Bryozoaires,”
from which work I have copied the figures on Plates C, D and.
E. The first stage recognized is that of a morula already well
formed and composed of numerous, comparatively large, vitelline
spheres (Plate C, iig. 8). The morula does not yet show any trace
of a central cavity, and is very easily seen to be composed of a
great number of the round cells represented in figs. 1, 2.

In the following stage the morula is slightly enlarged, and the
vitelline spheres are segmented into more and more numerous
elements.

59

466 REprort oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. ;

Fie. 29. Alcyonella fungosa, showing the development of a free embryo. a, Spermatozoa; b, A
group of ova; c, A single ovum, much enlarged; d, Showing segmentation and central cavity;
ce, Showing ovum developed into an oval ciliated sac; f, Showing rudiment of polyp; g, Polyp isolated
from the cell and further enlarged ; h, Polyp more advanced; 7, An embryo containing two polyps; —
k, the same more advanced ; J, A still more advanced stage.

A little later (fig. 4) a central cavity is seen, and the vitelline
spheres are arranged ina radiating manner around the center.
Figure 5 shows the progressive thickening of the egg with an:
enlargement of its central cavity ; the embryo becoming elon-
gated and of oval form. Figure 6 shows the blastula stage well
formed. The central cavity is more spacious and the cells more
clearly radiatingly disposed. The gastrula stage shows the
invagination of the gastrula which here follows the typical

GENERA OF THE Norto AmerRIcAN Patarozorc Bryozoa. 467

method ; that is, there is at first a sinking in of a part of the
blastula inside the other part, afterward the bringing together of
the margins of the depressions thus formed. Figures 1-7 represent
the first stage; figs: 8, 9, 10, Plate C, the second. The sinking in
of one-half the blastula into the other part is not effected rapidly,
as frequently happens, reducing at once the cavity of the body
to a simple slit, but is effected, on the contrary, in a very slow
manner. It is during this slow process of invagination that the
egg assumes an elongate form, as shown in fig. 7. It is toward
the end of the process of invagination that the elongate form is
most decided. Afterward, by degrees, the egg recovers its round
form. Figure 9, which is an exterior view of the stage represented
in section by fig. 8, shows the form already lesselongated. Figure
10 shows a complete return to the round form. Figures 8,9 show
the archigastrula already well formed; nevertheless it is not until
the following stage, fig. 10, that the form is completed. We
have not only the constriction of the opening of the invagi-
nation which forms the mouth of the gastrula and the constriction
of the cavity of the body to asimple slit, but there are other
changes of great importance. The surface begins to have a
general covering of fine vibratile cilia, and the embryo is swollen
a little forward of the middle, so as to present at this portion a
line (c) of the greatest width; this line separating the primitive
uniform exodermic sac into two faces, the portion above the line
being the oral face, and the portion below, the aboral face.
The stage illustrated by fig. 11 shows another change equally
equally important; the ciliary covering hitherto disseminated
over all the surface begins to be concentrated on the oral face,
the aboral face being without it. At the same time at the
point of greatest width the exoderm begins to separate from the
internal layer, which it has heretofore carpeted, in such a man-
ner as to give rise toa sort of fold, formed as a thick bourrelet.
This is developed more toward the aboral than toward the oral
face, making the two faces hitherto unequal of the same dimen-
sions. On account of the formation of this bourrelet the cavity
of the body, heretofore a simple slit, begins to be enlarged at
this point (cc); but at the same time that this local enlargement
appears, it begins to disappear at another portion. All that part
of the outer layer which formed the aboral face, in effect com-

468 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

mences to disappear at this stage and already presents vague traces
of a welding with the inferior part of the endoderm (fig. 11, m,
Plate C), and the cavity of the body as it enlarges laterally begins
to recede and disappear at the base of the embryo. Figure 12,
Plate C, shows the same modifications much more accentuated.
The annular bourrelet is developed in such a manner as to form
the most voluminous part of the entire embryo and has quitted
its exactly intermediary position, approaching more and more to
the aboral pole, to which it is now much nearer than to
the oral pole, and the face in which is situated the mouth,
from being the smaller, is now much the larger face of the
embryo. In this progressive enlargement of the exterior the
annular fold which constitutes the bourrelet carries with it the
entire layer, which is now strongly separated from the endoderm
except at the aboral face, where it is welded with the endoderm.
The cavity of the body, previously continuous, is thus reduced to .
its superior portion, which: in turn is divided into two distinct
parts, the part which borders the oral face (cé) and which forms
the general cavity, properly speaking, and the part comprised in
the bourrelet (cm), which later forms the cavity of the mantle.
On the aboral face it is no longer visible except as a scarcely per-
ceptible line, which in a confused manner delimits the exoderm
from the inferior portion of the endoderm. On all the rest of
this face it is seen that the two primitive layers are thickened in
giving birth to a thick white mass of a histological structure diffi-
cult to determine. The cavity of the body is seen in the middle
of this mass very indistinctly, and in the stage represented by
fig. 13 it has entirely disappeared.

We have seen that since its first appearance, the median swell-
ing and later the bourrelet, at first situated near the oral
pole, afterward moves toward the opposite extremity, and
finally is situated much nearer to the aboral pole. This process
still continuing, the bourrelet is found situated at the extreme
limit of the aboral face, necessarily by the continuation of this —
process, it comes to project beyond the aboral face in the form
of a mantle (fig. 138, Plate C). The position of the bourrelet at
the extreme limit of the aboral face modifies very much the
general aspect of the embryo. It is no longer composed of two

Genera oF THE Norra Ammrican Patarozorc Bryozoa. 469

equivalent faces separated by the bourrelet, but now takes on
the form of a hat, of which the crown is formed by the oral
face, while the rims are formed by the bourrelet, which makes
a strong projection around the aboral face. The embryo has at
this time very much the structure described by Sarrras the struc-
ture of the embryo of Tubularia serpens and Crista, and agrees
_ very well with the description of that author, of an embryo of the
form of a flat hat, with large rims, analogous in form to the em-
bryo of Axrcyontum, described by Hinors. ‘1. It is composed
of a convex and a flat face, the latter surrounded by a projection
and showing by transparence at the center, an internal organ
formed by a round swelling of the outer layer, which is an open-
ing to the center of a cavity.” The two organs which Smrrr
describes as the rudiments of the tentacular crown, and the ad-
hesive organ, are probably the annular bourrelet, the evolution
of which has been described, and the digestive tube.

At this stage the buccal opening, situated at the middle of
the oral face, is very distinct, and all this face, as well as the .
superior part of the bourrelet, is provided with a continucus
covering of long vibratile cilia. The cavity of the bourrelet (cm)
and the general cavity (cc) are still in direct communication as in
the preceding stage.

All the rest of the development of the embryo consists of a
general shrinking of the form, with an elongation toward the
inferior part, whilst the bourrelet strongly projects beyond the
aboral face. In consequence of the general shrinkage, which
takes place rapidly, the embryo quickly changes from the dis-
coidal to the elongate form represented in fig. 14, Plate C. At
the same time the different organisms undergo modifications
corresponding to the change in form.

The solid aboral face, hitherto almost flat, commences to project,
the projection becoming more prominent as the shrinkage pro-
ceeds, and eventually forming a round or somewhat elongate
mass (fig. 14, Plate C). While this round mass is forming, the
bourrelet projects more and more as a sort of mantle, and finally
the mass is almost entirely enveloped by the mantle, leaving only
a simple opening, which forms the communication with the in-
terior of the cavity circumscribed by the mantle. The figures 12

470 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

and 13, Plate OC, show its formation in optical sections. In
this transformation the two primitive portions of the embryo
become more and more separated. In the stage represented
by fig. 14, Plate C, the two extremities are enlarged and the
middle constricted, forming two visceral masses of the body.
The general cavity of the body (cc) and the mantle cavity
are reduced to mere slits, and are not as heretofore in direct
communication with each other, but their ends are close to-
gether at the constricted portion of the body, without being
connected. Externally the free larva, at this stage, presents
an elongate form (fig. 15, Plate C), with the posterior extremity
much the larger, occupied by the mesodermic mass and covered
by the mantle. The anterior part is less swelled and con-
tains the intestine. The two portions are separated by the
constricted portion before mentioned. The two visceral masses
are visible by the transparence of the body as two dark spots
at the extremities of the free larva. Each pole is occupied
by an opening. The first, situated at the superior pole, is the
buccal opening. It is capable of contracting in such a manner
as to be reduced to a simple point, and frequently it is so small
that it is almost impossible to distinguish it; in this case there
are always present, in that part of the skin covering the intestine,
radiating striz, which are probably plications produced by the
contractions of the buccal opening. At the opposite pole there
is another opening capable of expanding and contracting itself,
and at the bottom of which the aboral mass is visible. As at
the opposite pole there are radiating lines, but finer and situated
more closely together.

METAMORPHOSIS.

After the embryo has become fixed the first stage observed is
that represented in Plate D, fig. 16, and is composed of an internal
mass, @, and an external layer, 0, which are separated from each
other by a fatty layer, c; the first constituting a pyriform mass ;
the second, soft and transparent; the third is composed of fatty —
globules closely enveloping the central mass, and in turn envel-
oped by the external layer. The form of the entire embryo is
determined by that of the internal mass and is necessarily pyri-
form. At this stage it does not present in its interior any cavity

GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PaLArozoric Bryozoa. 471

but apparently forms a solid flat mass, composed of thin concen-
tric layers, a, b, c, in direct contact with each other. In the fol-
lowing stage (Plate D, fig. 17) the external layer has expanded into
a round cell, which is separated from the internal mass, and forms at
this time a discoidal plate. The wall, at first formed of an uniform
transparent membrane, is now differentiated into three parts: the |
external layer, d, which completely invests the embryo ; an interior
layer, a, which has preserved the essential structure of a, fig 16,
and at this stage consists of a somewhat thick, obscurely cellular
layer, and is called the endocyst. Between the endocyst and the
peripheral zone, d, there is already visible a calcareous deposit,
in the form of an opaque ring. The cavity of the body situated
between the endocyst and internal mass, before this, compressed
ina small compass, as shown in fig. 16, Plate D, by the enlargement
of the external layer into a round sac, becomes very spacious, and
the fatty globules, heretofore generally adhering to the external
layer, for the most part detach themselves and drop into the
spacious cavity. Finally, the internal mass which has preserved
its pyriform aspect, commences to show two small papillz, which
are the rudiments of the tentacles. Even at this early stage we
are able to see, with certainty, that the internal mass forms the
rudiments of the polyp, of which the inflated portion gives rise
to the tentacular crown, while the more slender portion is the
beginning of the alimentary canal. The differentiation of the
parts of the zocecium proceed in a very gradual manner and, as
illustrated in fig. 17, are still vague, but in the stage represented
by fig. 18, Plate D, the parts previously vaguely indicated are
seen distinctly separated. The rudiment of the polyp is clearly
seen, divided into the tentacular crown and the beginning of the
alimentary canal. Moreover, the fatty globules are definitely
separated from the outer envelope, and are irregularly dissemi-
nated in the cavity of the body. Another important change
which takes place at this stage, is the appearance, a little in front
of the center, and just at the anterior part of the polyp, ofa
round swelling of the endocyst. The disc first appears in the
form of a round swelling, sessile on the walls of the body, but is
soon elevated above the level by the circular uprising of the walls
of the endocyst, which is rapidly effected and gives rise toa
tubular conduit, terminated above by a disc, which is pierced by

472 ReEpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

an opening. This uprising is not uniform but is much more
rapid forward than behind, so that the disc first occupies a hori-
zontal position and is parallel with the superior portion of the
endocyst, but gradually, from the unequal development of the
sides of the tube, it assumes first an oblique and then a vertical
position.

The tube is at first very slender, but rapidly changes to the
form represented in fig. 19, Plate D; but in this stage it is yet
entirely membranous, and presents very distinctly a cellular
structure. Fig. 19 shows the polyp more distinctly ; a tentacu-
lar crown already well formed, as well as the rectum and the
stomach distinct from each other. It occupies all the space
between the tube g, into which is prolonged the tentacular sheath
and the bottom of the cell, and apparently divides the cavity of
the last into two symmetrical parts, in each-of which the fatty-
globules unite in two coherent masses. The endocyst is still
visible, but becomes less distinct by the thickening, already
considerable, of the calcareous ectocyst. |

In the following stages (figs. 20, 21) the terminal disc is com-
pleted, also the terminal opening which forms the mouth of the
cell; also the tube /, which is a little elongated, is covered, with-
out sensibly increasing the diameter, by a calcareous layer,
continuous with the primitive ectocyst, which it soon equals in
thickness. Figure 20 shows the continuation of the growth of

the polyp, the tentacles begin to elongate themselves into the ~

tube, which begins to lose its very regular form.

_ The two symmetrical masses of fatty globules, which are
seen in the preceding stage (fig. 19) assembled to the right and
left of ‘the polyp, are at this stage condensed in two compact
masses, Occupying a much smaller space. The arrangement of
the globules are the same as in the Cheilostomata at a corre
sponding stage, except that in those forms they are condensed in
“one mass instead of two, as in this form. Passing by the inter-

mediate stages (fig. 21) shows us the polyp completely formed,

with a pigmented stomach (hepatic follicles?). Figure 22 shows us
the last stage in which the polyp is observed before the completion
of the cell.

Figure 23 shows us a completed cell, and fig. 24 a group of
cells, of which the cells marked 2 were formed by the budding
of the cell, whose growth we have been studying.

ik hight OS

_ Geyer or THE Norta American PatAnozoic Bryozoa. 473

In Plate E, figs. 1, 2, show the free embryo, front and back
view of Mottta. | |

a, Ciliary plume. 6, Mouth of gastrula. ce, Oculiform points.
d, Obscure portion of the body, comprised between the two.
branches of the stomach (intestine of Repracdorr?).

Figures 3 and 4 show the changes toward the formation of a
cell. p, The polyp. 7, Fatty globules disseminated in the period
following fixation. e, Endocyst. e’, Ectocyst. z, The peri-
pheral zone. In fig. 5 the calcareous ectocyst has acquired its
normal thickness, while the peripheral zone has disappeared, as
we have already seen in Tusutipora. The primitive cell is now
completely ‘formed and has always on the right or left a lateral
cell. Figure 6 represents a more advanced stage than fig.
5. The lateral cell 1, after increasing in size, buds and is now
divided by a wall into two superimposed cells, 1 and 1’, both
still incomplete. In fig. 7 the cell 1 has acquired its com-
plete development, but has not given birth to another cell. The
cell 1’, has increased in size and shows two new cells, 2 and 2’,
budding from it, showing in this stage as two lateral swellings ;
2’ is already divided from its parent cell by a wall. In fig. 8 we
see that the rudimentary cells of the preceding figures have in-
creased in growth, 1’ being completely formed and the others
well advanced; moreover, we see that the cells 1, 2, 1’ and 2’ are
spread out to the left in such a manner as to fill the space be-
tween them and the neighboring cells, a process resulting in
three new cells, 3, 3’ and 3". In fig. 9 we see that the cells num-
bered 3 have increased in size, while the cells numbered -2 are:
nearly or quite completed, whilst the cells numbered 3 have
spread out in such a manner as to fill the interstices between
them and the cells 1’, 2, 2’, giving birth to a new range of cells
numbered 4, composed of more and more numerically, which in
turn thicken and give birth to another range. This form of
growth continues indefinitely, each range of rudimentary cells
giving birth to a new range, while the cells of the preceding
range acquire their complete character. The continuation of
‘this mode of growth finally forms a discoidal mass, the primitive
60

474. Report oF THE State Geroxocist.

b

cell occupying the center, the mass growing in size by the in-
crease of the cells occupying the border.

a 29a b

Left-hand figure. Bicellaria ciliata, Free embryo, oral face.
Right-hand figure. Canda repens. Free embryo, profile view. a, Pharynx; b, Opening of the
cavity ; c, Stomach; d, Mouth of the gastrula; e, Flagellum; g, Aboral mesoderm;; J, Intestine.

STATOBLASTS.

In the Hippocrepian forms, there is still another mode of repro-
duction. At certain seasons of the year peculiar bodies occur
attached to the funiculus (fig. 18, z) or lying loose in the perigas-
tric space, to which ALtmMan has given the name of statoblasts,
figs. 30,31. They are lenticular bodies, varying in different genera
from orbicular to elongate oval, and enclosed in a horny shell, .
consisting of two concavo-convex discs, united at their margins
by a ring, which is of a different structure from the discs.

The statoblasts have erroneously been described as an egg, but
“are considered by Attmaw to be a form of bud. They are devel-
oped on the funiculus and may be seen on that organ in various
stages of growth. :

The following account of them is taken from ALiMaAn’s
‘“ Fresh-Water Polyzoa.”

“In Lopsorus I have succeeded in following them through
their various stages of early development. Their first appear.
ance here is in the form of little swellings on the funiculus,
consisting of a mass of minute cells, surrounded by a dense
layer, continuous with the surface of the funiculus. The swell-
ing now increases in size and assumes a more regularly oval
form, whilst its contents appear more uniformly granular, and

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozorc Bryozoa. 475

are plainly to be seen to be composed of two masses in close
apposition to each other [fig. 30, a]. We next find that the two

x
Be

Fie. 80. Showing the development of a statoblast (after ALLMAN).

- masses have lost their distinctness and fused together, and the
whole contents now appear to be composed of minute cells, con-
fined by common, external, transparent membrane, which is itself
plainly cellular [4]. The cellular condition of its contents must
not be confounded with true segmentation. The whole body
now begins to assume a more lenticular form, and within the
external envelope two other investments begin to show them- |
selves. One of these, the more internal, extends over the whole
of the cellular mass, but the other is confined to the margin
of the lenticular mass, which it embraces in the form of a
ring [c]. No manifest structure, beyond a simple granular one,
can as yet be detected in these last formed envelopes; but the
ring is soon seen to be composed of distinct cells [@], which . pre-
sent a bright central nucleus-like point, and a number of concen-
tric layers, which remind us of the secondary deposits in certain
vegetable cells. Up to this point the investments are all color-
less and nearly transparent, but we now find that the internal
envelope and annulus become more and more opaque, while the
former assumes a deep brown color and the latter becomes
yellow. They have both acquired a horny consistence, and the
annulus is composed of large hexagonal cells filled with air. If
now the whole be crushed under the microscope multitudes of
cells will escape all filled with minute, strongly-refracting cor-
puscles, but any further observation of the progressive develop-
ment of the contents, up to the opening of the statoblast and
the escape of the young polyzoan, is henceforth, on account of
the opacity of the covering, impossible. The statoblast having

476 Report oF THE State Geoxoaist.

now its full form and breaking free from the funiculus,'lies free
in the perigastric space.

Fie. 31. A fully developed statoblast, frond.and side view (after ALLMAN).

‘“‘ When exposed to conditions favorable to its development, the
two faces after a longer or shorter period separate from one
another and a young polyzoan gradually emerges and floats
away freely through the surrounding water. The surface of
the young polyzoan thus become free is destitute of cilia except
on the tentacles, and the motions of the young animal seem to be
quite passive, except as they may be influenced by the cilia on
the tentacles. At the period of its escape it possesses all the
essential organization of the adult. The retractor muscles are
well developed and the polypid is capable of regular exsertion
and contraction, but the ectocyst is colorless and transparent
and free from the earthy particles which in the greater number
of species are afterward formed in it, and the little animal is .
still simple. It loses no time, however, in developing gemme,
which soon change it to the compound form of the adult.

“The general structure of the statoblasts being now under-
stood, the important question at once suggests itself, What is the
true importance of these bodies? All that we have seen of them
is manifestly in accordance with the nature of a bud. The
invariable absence of a germinal vesicle and germinal spot, and
their never exhibiting the phenomena of yelk cleavage, inde-
pendently of the conclusive fact, that true ova and ovary occur
elsewhere in the same individual, are quite decisive against their
being eggs. We must then look upon them as gemme peculiarly
encysted and destined to remain for a period in a quiescent or
pupa-like state. It was for this reason, therefore, that I pro-
posed for them the name of statoblasts — Statd- Bidory.”

NORTH AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC BRYOZOA.

C.assIFICATION.

In determining the systematic position of the forms described
in this paper, the form and manner of growth of the zoarium as
a whole, as well as that of each cell, has been considered.

It is best not to give too much weight to microscopical charac-
ters, which not one student in ten can detect, to the neglect of
more obvious characters, which can be observed by any student
of ordinary scientific penetration. This is especially true of
those forms which have undergone fossilization, and the con-
sequent modification of microscopic characters.

It is a well-understood fact that one making a special study of
a certain group or groups can see minute differences whieh can
not be distinguished by others; not that they do not exist, but in
order to distinguish them it needs constant and close study of
that particular group; and it is apt to be the case that in the
study of these minute differences more important points of
agreement are overlooked. .

In many forms, as Stictorora, the cells, from their manner of
growth, need some support. In some species this support is pro-
vided for by a vesicular tissue between the cells; in others
the space between the cells is filled up by an apparently, but not
in reality, solid mass. As the structure in either case is simply
for the support of the individual cells, if in other respects the
zoarium and zocecia are essentially the same, such difference in
the supporting structure can make but little difference in system-
atic position of the two forms; certainly not a generic difference.

Though the Montiovutirroripz and allied forms are described
here, there is but little doubt that all the forms which are
here placed in the family AmpLtexororip# and other allied forms
are not Bryozoa. Any form which increases by fissiparity or
by coenenchymal gemmation, must of necessity be considered as
a Coral.

478 Report oF THE State Geotoaist.

In Miller’s “North American Geology and Paleontology,”
1889, the names of 1093 species of Bryozoa are given, occurring
in the different geological formations of this country, as follows:

Species.
5G 01 A aa ee Rl NA el Jet ca an 5
Trenton: 6.23080 0e il. Se ee 79
Hudson River (......0.0). 60.600 De 141
Clintom or. 2. cee ce aie ke est hoe AS
Ninearaeene ! cn, weee ne De ese Soe 1a ee 95
Lower Helderberg .2.......200.0.6,00+.40: or 86
Cormiterous. 0. ccc. 6 ee eles ch pein ns Cee 201
Hamilton’. oe oc oooala van suka cole 203
ROTTS ys Ae sh coh s one es ty alee
Sub Carbonilerous «(005.0 00) A e Re 229.
Carboniferous: o.oo obuieknic (cee ee oi 34
Permian... ec kaha ads vewuses lance 3

But no significance can be attached to these figures, as the
Bryozoa of some of the formations have been more thoroughly
studied than those of others. For instance, though more forms
have been described from the Lower Carboniferous than from
the Hamilton Group, more than sixty additional species of the
FrnusTELLip# alone from the Hamilton Group have been described
in manuscript from the State of New York, and these occur in a
comparatively small collection. It is safe to say that not one-
half of the species of Bryozoa occurring in this country have yet
been described.

Sub-kingdom MOLLUSCOIDEA.
Class BRYOZOA.
Order Gymnolcemata.

Sub-order Chilostomata.
Family Fenestellide, King, emend.

ANASTOMOPORA. ARCHIMEDES. A RCHIMEDIPORA.
Crotoporina. FENESTELLA. FENESTRALIA. I ENESTRAPORA.
FLABELLIPORA. FLABELLIPORELLA. Hexzicopora. HeEmirryPa.
Isotrypa. Locurrpora. Lyroprora. .LyRoPoRIDRA.
LyroporInA. LyRoporRELIA. Payriopora. PoLypora.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEozorc Bryozoa. 479

PoLyPoRELLA. PritoporA. PriLopoRELLA. PTILOPORINA.
Pinnaporina. PiNNApoRELLaA.

RetTeroRINA. SyNOCLADIA. TECTULIPORA.
TECIULIPORELLA. UNITRYPA. |

Family Acanthocladiidae, Zittel, emend.
AOCANTHOCLADIA. GLAUCONOME. IcHTHYORACHIS. RAMIPORA.

Family Thamniscide, King.
CRISINELLA.. Diptopcra. 'THAMNISCUS.
THAMNICELLA.

Family Arthrostylidz, Ulrich, emend.

ARTHROSTYLUS.

Family Stictoporidz, Ulrich, emend.

-CERAMELLA. Evurypictya. EvaAcriNnopoRA.
Pacuypiotya. PuHyciopictya. Prismorora.
SCALARIPORA. SEMIcPORA. STICIOCELLA.
STIOTOPCORA. STICTOPORIDRA. STICTOPORELLA.
TAENIODIOTYA. 'TAENIOPORA.

Family Intraporide, nov. fam.

CoscInELLA. INTRAPORA. SEMIOPORA.
STICTOPCRELLA.

Family Cystodictyidz, Ulrich, emend.
Cystop:ctyA. Coscrnium. DicHotrRyPaA.
PHRAOCTOPORA. MEEKAPORA.

Family Actinotrypide, nov. fam.
AOTINOTRYPA.

Family Rhinoporide, Ulrich.

RHINOPORA.

Family Ptilodictyide, Zittel, emend.

GraptTopictya. PH#NvuPporA. PuILopiIcrya.
Pritotrypa. STioToPpoRINA. STIOTOTRYPA.

-

480 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Family Acrogenide, nov. fam.
AOROGENIA. DICRANOPORA. (GONIOTRYPA.

Family Clathroporide, nov. fam.

CLATHROPORA.

Family Thamnotrypide, nov. fam.

THAMNOTRYPA.

Family Arthroclemidz, nov. fam.

-ARTHOCLEMA. HELOPORA. 'SEPTOPORA.

Family Rhomboporide, nov. fam.

BAtTosTOMELLA. Co oELOcONUS. RHOMBOPORA.
-TREMATELLA.

Family Streblotrypidz, Ulrich emend.

CALLOTRYPA. STREBLOTRYPA.
ByTHOPORA.

Family Rhabdosemonide, Vine, emend.

ACANTHOCLEMA. NEMATAXIS.

Family Bactroporide,. nov. fam.

Bactrorporsa. NEMATOPORA.

Family Chilotrypidz, nov. fam.

CHILOTRYPA.

Family Phaceloporidz, Ulrich.
PHACELOPORA. |

Family Worthenoporidz, Ulrich.
W oRTHENOPORA.

Suborder CYCLOSTOMATA.
Family Fistuliporinide, nov. fam.
Ca@LocaAuLis. FIsTuLIPORIDRA. FISTULIPORINA.

PINACOTRYPA.

GeneERA oF THE NortH AMERICAN PAaLaArozorico Bryozoa.

Family Fistuliporide, Ulrich emend.
Fistutrpora. LiIcoHENALIA. STROTOPORA.
? FIsTULIPORELLA.
¢ GLOSSOTRYPA.

Family Odontotrypide, nov. fam.
Eripopora. OpontotryPA. PILEOTRYPA.
SELENOPORA. |
Family Ceramoporide, Ulrich emend.

CERAMOPORA. ATAOCTOPORA. PRETIGOPORA.

Family Ceramoporellidz, nov. fam.
CERAMOPORELLA. CHILOPORELLA. OREPIPORA.
DIAMESOPORA.

Family Lichenoporide.

BotryLuopoRA. SPHAGIOPORA. SOENELLOPORA.

Family Tubuliporide, Busk.

BerenickA. Drastopora. DrAstToroRINa.
Hernopia. Proposcina. SAGENELLA.
STOMATOPORA.

Family Entalophoridz, Reuss. | |

Cronopora. COystopora. MuITooLEMA.

Family Reptaride, nov. fam.

ReEpTARIA. HEDERELLA.

Suborder TREPOSTOMATA.
Family Monticuliporidz, Nicholson emend.
Homotryres. Monticutirora. PErRoNOPORA.

Family Amplexoporidz, Ulrich emend.
AmpLExoporA. DgseKayra. HegrtrerotryPa.
LeptotryPpa. Monotrrypa. MonoTryPELLa.

Prratotrypa. PrycHoneMa. STENOPORA.
61

481

4892 . Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Family Prasoporide.
AsPIpoPpoRA. ATACTOPORELLA. HoMOTRYPELLA.

PRASOPORA.

Family Calloporidz, Ulrich emend.
Batostoma. OantoporaA. DrKayerta. DieLotrypa.

2 IpIOTRYPA. ;
Suborder CTEN OSTOMATA.

Ascopictyum. RHAPOLONARIA. VINELLA.

UNCLASSIFIED.

— CycrtoporA. PrRovutE ua.

COT & Or PH &~

28

1801
1821

1825
1826
1832
1836
1839
1840
1841

1842
1842
1844
1846
1847
1849
1849
1850
1851
1851
1851
1852
1855
1857
1858
1858
1858
1858
1859
1860

PoalatOGRAPH Y:

Fossil forms found in North America.

Lamarck. System. Animaux sans vert.

Lamourrux. Exposition methodique des genres de
Vordre des Polypiérs.

Bronn. System. des Urwelt; Pfian.

GotpFuss. Petrefacta Germaniea.

Eaton. Geological Text-book.

Puiturres. Geol. Yorkshire, pt. 2.

Lonspatr. Maurchison’s Silurian System.

Troost. 5th Rept. Geol. Tennessee.

Puaiturps. Pal. Foss. Cornwall, Devon and W. Somer
Set. :

LieSvuxur. Amer. Jour. Science, Vol. 43, p. 19.

Vanouxrem. Geol. Rep. 3d Dist. N. Y.

McCoy. Carboniferous Fossils of Ireland.

Krysrrtine. Geognost. Beobacht.

Hatz. Palaeontology of New York, Vol. 1.

McCoy. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd Series, Vol. 3.

Kine. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd Series, Vol. 3.

D’ Orzieny. Prodrome de Paléontologie, Tome 1.

Epwarps AnD Harmer. Pal. Foss. des Terr. Pal.

Lronnarp anpD Bronn. Neues Jahrbuch.

Hatz. Foster’s and Whitney’s Report, Vol. II.

Hatt. Palaeontology of New York, Vol. II.

Satter. Belcher’s Last Arctic Voyage.

Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. I.

Swattow. Trans. St. Louis Acad., Vol. I.

Prour. Trans. St. Louis Acad., Vol. I.

Bituines. Canadian Journal.

Harty. Geol. Rept., Lowa.

Prout. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Science.

Prout. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Science.

484
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
35a
36

37
38
39
40
40a
41
49,
43
44
45
45a
456
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
Do

60
61

1860
1860
1860
1862

(1862

1863
1863
1865
1865

1866
1866
1866
1868
1868
1869
kewl
1872
1872
1873
1873
1873
1873
1874
1874
1874

1874

1874
1874
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875

1875
1875

Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Rormer. Sil. Fauna West. Tennessee.

EroHwaup. Lethaea Rossica.

Hatt. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, Vol vi

McCoy. Carb. Foss. of Ireland.

Bituines. Palaeozoic Fossils, Vol. I.

Des Kosincx. Quart. Jour. Geol. Society.

Winone.t. Proc. Acad. Nat. Science.

Bruines. Cat. Silur. Foss. Anticosti.

Mrex and Wortuen. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila-
delphia.

WinowELt. Rept. Lower Peninsula, Michigan.

Rominerr. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia.

Prout. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci.

Mex and WorrHey. Geol. Survey Ill., Vol. ILL.

Dawson. Acadian Geology. :

SaFForD. Geology, Tennessee.

Musk. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Philadelphia.

Murr. Pal. Eastern Nebraska. |

Mutx. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia.

Hatt and Wuitrierp. 23d Rep. N.Y. State Museum.

Nicuotson. Can. Nat. and Geologist.

Mrex. Pal. Ohio, Vol. I.

Merrx. Hayden’s 6th Rep. Geol. Sur. Terr.

Nicuotson. Geol. Magazine, N.S., London, Vol. I.

Nicwoison. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXXIV.

NicHotson anp Hinpze. Canadian Journal.

Wuite. Geol. Survey West 100th Meridian, Vol. IV.

Bituines. Palaeozoic Fossils, Vol. II.

Hatt. 226th Rept. N. Y. State Museum.

James. Intro. to Cat. Am. Fossils.

Hart and Wuirtrietp. Pal. of Ohio, Vol. II.

Nicuorson. Geological Magazine, Vol. I.

Youne and Youne. Proc. Nat. Hist. Sce., ‘Glasgow. :

Nicuotson. Pal. Province of Ontario.

Touta. Neues Jarhbuch fiir Mineral.

Touta. Permo-Carbon. Fossilien von der West Kiiste
von Spitzbergen.

Nicuorson. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

Nionoitson. Pal. of Ohio, Vol. II.

=——

=—_—.—-~

62
63

67
68
68d
69
ya
T1la
71d
T1e
Tle
2

73
74
75
76
717
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
92a
93
94
94a
95

GENERA OF THE NortuH AMERICAN PALArEozoic Bryozoa. 485

1876
1877

1878
1878
1878
1878
1878
1879
1879
1879
1879
1881

18381
1881
1882
1882
1882
1882
1883
1833
1883

1883

1883
1884

1884

1884
1834
1885
1885
1886
1886
1886
1887
1887
1888
1888
1890

Harty. 28th Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Museum.

Nicuotson. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th Series,
Vol. XIX.

Wuirrietp. Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Wisconsin.

Mitter. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist.

Uxrion. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist.

Waits. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. ,

Micter and Dysr. Cont. to Paleontology, No. 2.

Urion. . Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. :

Hatt. Deserp. New Species Fossils.

Nicuorson. Paleozoic Tabulate Corals.

Harr. 32d Rep. N. Y. State Museum Nat. Hist.

Nicnorson. Structure and Affinities of Monticuli-
pora.

Hatt. Trans. Albany Inst., Vol. X.

Haut. Bryozoans of the Upper Held. Gr.

WuitrigsLtp. Geol. Wisconsin, Vol. LY.

Mirirr. 2d ed. Palaeozoic Fossils.

James. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V.

Uxeicxe. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V.

CuaypoLe. Quart. Jour. Geological Society.

Vaw Creve. Indiana Geol. & Nat. Hist., 12th Rept.

Foorp. Cont. to Micro-Palzontology.

Hatt. Report of State Geologist.

Utrica. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI.

Unricw. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII.

Spencer. Bull. No. 1, Univ. Missouri. —

Rinevesure. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Harty. Rept. State Geologist N. Y.

James. Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist.

Hart. Report of State Geologist.

Uxrice. Cont. to Amer. Pal.

Rinevesure. Bulletin Buffalo Soc. Nat. Hist.

Urricu. 14th Rep. Geol. Surv. Minnesota.

Uxrica. Bulletin Dennison University.

Hans. + Palate Y., Vol. VI.

Uxrica. Bulletin Dennison University.

Uxreica. American Geologist. —

Uneicn. Geol. Surv. [Il., Vol. VIII.

486 REpPoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

96 1893 Utrica. Geol. Surv. Minnesota.
97 1894 -Smpson. Genera of Fenestellide.
98 1889 Utricu. Micro-Paleontology of Canada.

In the list of species, the name of each species is followed by
a number and letter. The number refers to the work in which
the species was first described, the letter to the formation in
which the species occurs, as follows:

C. CHAZY. K. CORNIFEROUS.

D. TRENTON. L. HAMILTON...

E. HUDSON RIVER. N. CHEMUNG.

F. CLINTON. O. LOWER CARBONIFEROUS.
G. NIAGARA. P. CARBONIFEROUS.

H. LOWER HELDERBERG. R. PERMIAN.

GENERA AND Sprorzrs of AmeRicAN Patatozoio Bryozoa.

In the list of works containing accounts of genera and species,
each work is preceded by a number. The number following
each name refers to those numbers. The letter refers to the
geological formation. (See above.) |

ACANTHOCLADIA, 15. ANISOTRYPA, 83.
americana, 23, R. fistulosa, 95, O.
fruticosa, P. ramulosa, 95, O.

ACANTHOCLEMA, 93. solida, 95, O.
alternatum, 74, K. symmetrica, 83, O.
bispinulatum, 73, L. ARCHIMEDES, 9.
confluens, 94, O. communis, 95, O.
divergens, 93, K. compactus, 95, O.
ovatum, 93, K. distans, 95, O.
scutulatum,.'73, L. » grandis, 95, O.
sulcatum, 93, L. i intermedius, 95, O.
triseriale, 82, K. invaginatus, 95, O.

ACROGENIA, 87. laxus, 22, O.
prolifera, 87, L. : Meekanus, 22, O. Nie

ACTINOTRYPA, 95. negligens, 95, O.
peculiaris, 38, P. Owenanus, 22, O.

AMPLEXOPORA, 78. permienimus, 95, O.
affinis, 95, E. Proutanus, 95, O.
Canadensis, 81, D. reversus, 26, O.
cingulata, 78, E. sublaxus, 95, O.
discoidea, Cheetetes, 61, Bl. Swallovanus, 22, O.
pustulosa, E. terebriformis, 95, O.
robusta, 83 E. Wortheni, 22, O.
septosa, Atactopora, 71¢, E ARCHIMEDIPORA, 16.
superba, 81, D. ARTHROCLEMA, 83.

winchelli, 92, D. angulare, 95, E.

———

Genera or THE Norra AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 487

ARTHROCLEMA, Billingsi, 95, D.

pulchellum, 33, D.
ARTHROPORA, 78,

Shafferi, Stictopora, 44, E.

simplex, 92, D.
ARTHROSTYLUS, 94%.

curtus, Arthronema, 78, E.

tenuis, Arthronema, 78, D.
ASCODICTYUM, 63.

fusiforme, 63, L.

stellatum, 63, L.
ASPIDOPORA, 78.

areolata, 83, E.

caliculus, Chetetes, 53, D.

parasitica, 92, D.
ATACTOPORA, 71%.

hirsuta, 71%, E.

maculata, 71%, E.

subramosa, 71a, E.
ATACTOPORELLA, 94.

multigranosa, Atactopora, 71a, E,

mundula, Atactopora, 71%, E.

Newportensis, 83, E.

Ortoni, Cheetetes, 48, E.

Schucherti, 83, E.

tenella, Atactopora, 7la, E.

typicalis, 83, E.
BACTROPORA, 93.

curvata, 93, L.

granistriata, Trematopora, 73, L.

simplex, 95, O.
BaTostoma, 78.
fertile, 92, D.
imperfectum, 95, E.°
implicatum, Monticulipora,
E.

irrasum, 92, D.
Jamesi, Cheetetes, 53, E.
Manitobense, 98, E.
Ottawense, 81, D.
Tugosum, Fistulipora, 75, E.
variabile, 95, E.

' BATOSTOMELLA, 78.
abrupta, 95, O.
gracilis, Cheetetes, 48, E.
interstincta, 95, O.
nitidula, 95, O.
obliqua, 95, L.
spinulosa, 95, O.
simulatrix, 95, E.

BERENICEA, 2.

insueta, 9, O.
Minnesotensis, 92, D.
primitiva, 78, E.
vesiculosa, 78, E.

BOTRYLLOPORA, 48.

socialis, 48, L.

BUSCOPORA, 92.

lunata, Fistulipora, 38, K.
lunata, var. tubulata, Lichenalia,
89, K.

BYTHOPORA, 71.

arctipora, Ptilodictya, 60, E.
fruticosa, 71, E.

Herricki, 92, D.
Nashvillensis, 71¢, D.
striata, 98, E.

CALLOPORA, 20.

aspera, 20, G.
cellulosa, 82, H.
cervicornis, 71%, G.
diversa, 71°, G.
elegantula, 20, G.
fistulosa, 82, H.

florida, 20, G.
geniculata, 93, K.
incontroversa, 92, D.
laminata, 20, G.
magnopora, 92a, G.
nodulosa, Cheetetes, 48, E.
nummiformis, 20, G.
Ohioensis, 53, G.
Oneali, Cheetetes, 93, E.
oppleta, 93, H.
perelegans, 52, H.
punctillata, 37, L.
sigillaroides, Cheetetes. 61, E.
singularis, 62, G.
subnodosa, 95, E.
subplana, 78, E.
undulata, 92, D.

CALLOPORELLA, 78.

Harrisi, 83, E.
nodulosa, 95, E.

CALLOTRYPA, 93.

heteropora, Callopora, 52, H.

internodata, 71,.L.

macropora, Callopora, 73, H.

macropora, var. signata, Cal-
lopora, 52, H.

488 Report oF THE StatTE Geroxogist.

CALLOTRYPA, multiseriata, Callopora, | CHLOCAULIS, 93.

"4, K. aculeolata, Callopora, 74, K.
oculifera, Callopora, 71, E. Hyale, Callopora, 52, K.
paucipora, 98, H. irregularis, Callopora, 74, K.
striata, 93, H. mediopora, Callopora, 98, H.

“unispina, Callopora, 52, H. venusta, Callopora, 52, H.
CERAMELLA, 93. CLOCONUS, 95.
scidacea, 93, L. granosus, 95, O.
CERAMOPORA, 20. rhombicus, 95, O.
agellus, 62, G. COSCINELLA, 93.
Beani, 88, E. cosciniformis; Ptilodictya, 57, L.
confluens, 62, G. elegantula, 938, L.
explanata, 710, G. CoscINium, 12. |
foliacea, 20, G. asterium, 28, O.
Huronensis, 55, L. Cyclops, 28, K.
imbricata, 20, G. elegans, 28, O.
incrustans, 20, G. escharoides, 28, O.
labecula, 62, G. Keyserlingi, 28, O.
labeculoidea, 8&2, H. latum, 95, O.
maculata, 52, H. Michelini, 28, O.
maxima, 52, H. plumosum, 28, O.
Nicholsoni, 53, E. Haganella, 28, O.
Nothus, 718, G. striatum, 93, O.
Ohioensis, 61, E. striaturum, 93, K.
parvicella, 712, H. tuberculatum, 28, O.
raripora, 71%, G. Wortheni, 20, O.
CERAMOPORELLA, ‘1. COSCINOTRYPA, 938.
distincta, 95, E. cribriformis, 24, K.
granulosa, 95, E. CREPIPORA, 95.
. stellata, 95, E. epidermata, 95, E.
CHANODICTYUM, 71a. hemispherica, 95, E.
laxum, 714, G. simulans, 95, E.
laxum, var. minor, 95, O. solida, 95, E.
CHILOPORELLA, 78. CRISINELLA, 82.
flabellata, 78, E. . scrobiculata, '74, K.
CHILOTRYPA, 84. CYCLOPORA, 28.
hispida, 84, O. expatiata, 95, O.
ostiolata, Trematopora, 20, G. fungi, 28, O. :
CLATHROPORA, 20. polymorpha, 28, O.
alcicornis, 20, G. - _ | CYCLOPORELLA, 95.
Clintonensis, 54, G. perversa, 95, O.
flabellata, 19, D. spinifera, 95, O.
frondosa, 20, G. CISTODICTYA, 78.
gracilis, 85, G. americana, 95, O.
intermedia, 49, G. angusta, 94, O.
intertexta, 48, K. Hamiltonensis, 95, L.
CLONOPORA, 74. . lineata, 84, O.
fasciculata, 98, K. . nitida, 95, O.
incurva, 74, K. ocellata, 78, O.

semireducta, 74, K. Gilberti, 42, K.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patartozoic Bryrozoa. 489

CISTODICTYA, pustulosa, 95, O. EUSPILOPORA, 95.
simulans, 94, O. Barrisi, 95, L.
zigzag, 94, O. serrata, 95, L. ;
CYSTOPORA, 74. EVACTINOPORA, 36.
geniculata, 74, K. grandis, 40, O.
DIAMESOPORA, 20. quinqueradiata, 95, O.
camerata, Trematopora, 82, K. radiata, 36, O.
communis, 95, E. . sexradiata, 40, O.
constricta, Trematopora, 52, H. | FAVICELLA, 93.
dichotoma, 20, H. inclusa, Thallostigma, 78, L.
dispersa, Trematopora, 71°, H. FENESTELLA, 6.
Vaupeli, 95, E. acmea, 62, G.
DICHOTRYPA, 95. © acuticosta, 29, G
elegans, 95, O. adornata, 93, H.
expatiata, 95, O. Adraste, 82, H.
flabellum, Fistulipora, 38, O. eequalis, 74, K..
foliata, 95, L. eesyle, 82, H.
grandis, 95, G. albida, 93, O.
intermedia, 95, O. albida, var. Richfieldensis, 95, O.
_ lyroides, 95, O. Althzea, 82, H.
DICRANOPORA, 78. ‘angulata, 74, K.
emacerata, Ptilodictya, 61, E. . angustata, 87, L.
fragilis, Ptilodictya, 33, E. anonyma, 74, K,
internodia, Ptilodictya, 71, E. aperta, 93, O.
lata, 78, E. arctica, 21, P.
nitidula, Ptilodictya, 33, E. aspectans, 87, L.
Trentonensis, 78, D. assita, 87, L.
DIPLOCLEMA, 95. banyana, 27, O.
Trentonense, 93, D. bellistriata, 71, G.
DIPLOPORA, 56. bicornis, 85, F.
bifurcata, 95, O. bifurca, 90, K.
biserialis, 95, O. bifurcata, 39, L.
ee bigeneris, 90, K.
devonica, 90, K. biimbricata, 74, K,
elegans, Cheetetes, 71 , E. biseriata, 74, K.
ENALLOPORA, 16. biserrulata, 74, K.
cinctosa, Mitoclema, 78, D. brevilinea, 87, L.
perantiqua, Gorgonia, 13, D. Burlingtonensis, 95, O.
ERIDOPoRA, 78. cavernosa, 90, O.
macrostoma, 78, O. Cestriensis, 95, O.
minima, 90, K. cinctura, 74, L.
punctifera, 78, O. cingulata, 95, O.
ESCHAROPORA, 13. clathrata, 98, K.
angusta, 71°, G. Cleia, 82, H.
recta, 13, D. conferta, 71,, G.
recta, var. nodosa, 13, D. confertipora, 93, K.
EURYDICTYA, 95. coronis, 82, H.
Calhounensis, 95, D. corticata, 24, P.
montifera, 95, E. crebripora, 52, H.
Sterlingensis, 95, E. cribrosa, 20, G.

62

490 Report or THE State Geroxoaist.

FENESTELLA, cultrata, 74, K. FENESTELLA, patellifera, 90, K.
curvata, 87, L. perelegans, 438, P.
curvijunctura, 74, K. . permarginata, 74, K.
¢cylindracea, 74, K. perminuta, 95, O.

Davidsoni, 55, L. perplexa, 74, K.
delicata, 42, O. pertenuis, 71», G.
depressa, 74, K. philia, 82, H.
delata, 39, L.
dispanda, 93, K.
elegans, 20, G.
elevatipora, 95, O.
emaciata, 87, L.
erectipora, 74, K.
exigua, 95, O.
eximia, 37, L.
exornata, 87, L.

planiramosa, 87, L.
plebeia, 32, P.
Popeana, 94, R.
prisca, 6, F.
proceritas, 93, K.
prolixa, 71°, G.
Proutana, 76, K.
pulchella, 94, K.

filistriata, 95, O. puncto-striata, 62, G.
filitexta, 37, L. quadrangula, 87, L.
flexuosa, 95, O. quadrula, 82, H.
foliata, 94, O. regalis, 94, O.
funicula, 95, O. remota, 95, O.
granifera, 74, K. rudis, 95, O.
granulosa, 67, E. sculptilis, 90, K.
hemitrypa, 27, O. semirotunda, 74, K.
Herrickana, 94, O. serrata, 74, K.
Hestia, 87, H. serratula, 94, O.
Idalia, 52, H. Sevillensis, 94, O.
inaequalis, 95, O. Shumardi, 24, P.
inflexa, 87, L. singularitas, 74, K.
intermedia, 24, O. sinuosa, 95, K.
interrupta, 74, K. Spio, 95, H.
junceus, 82, H. stellata, 74, Ke
latijunctura, 74, K. subflexuosa, 94, O.
latitruncata, 87, L. subretiformis, 24, P.
limbata, 71, O. — substriata, 74, K.
lineanoda, "4, K, A fie subtortilis, 87, ee
lunulata, 74, K. ; Sylvia, 52, H.
Lyelli, 40,, O. Tantalus, 71°, G.
magnifica, 48, K. tenax, 95, O.
marcida, §7, L. tenella, 98, K.
marginalis, 48, K. tenuis, 20, F.
Meekana, 94, O. Thyena, 82, H.
mimica, 95, O. torta, 74, K.
modesta, 95, O. tuberculata, 24 K.
multiplex, 87, L. trituberculata, 93, P.
multispinosa, 95, O. variabilis, 24, P.
nodosa, 95, L. variopora, 74, K.
Norwoodana, 24, O. vera, 95, L.
parallella, 74, K. verrucosa, 82, K.
peculiaris, 82, K. virgosa, 30, P.

parvulipora, 62, G. Wortheni, 95, O.

GrnerRA OF THE Norto American Patarozorc Bryozoa.

FENESTRALIA, 24.
St.-Ludovici, 24, O.

St.-Ludovici, var. compacta, 95, O.

FENESTRAPORA, 89.
biperforata, 89, K.
infraporosa, 90, K.
occidentalis, 95, L.

FISTULIPORA, 14.
acervulosa, 38, L.
astricta, 95, L.
carbonaria, 84, P.
collina, 95, L.
communis, 95; L.
compressa, 38, O.

confertipora, Thallostigma, 73, L.
constricta, Lichenalia, 73, L.

corrugata, 95, L.
crassa, 30, L.

decipiens, Thallostigma, 73, L.

densa, 73, L.
digitata, 73, L.
Eriensis, 38, L.*
excellens, 84, O.
Foordi, 9°, L.
Halli, 38, G.

helios, 38, K.
hemispherica, 73, L.
incrassata, 47, L.
intercellata. 73, K.
involvens, 95, L.
labiosa, 37, L.
lamellata, 73, K.
lens, 67, E.
longimacula, 73, L.
micropora, 67, L.
minuta, 38, L.
monticulata, 95, L.
multiaculeata, 87, L.
nodulifera, 43, P.
normalis, 90, K.
occidens, 45, N.
Oweni, 85, E.
parasitica, 715, H.
prolifica, 84, O.
proporoides, 71¢, L.
ponderosa, 52, H.
Saffordi, 37, L.
scrobiculata, 87, L.
segregata, 87, L.
serrulata, 87, L.

FISTULIPORA, solidissima, 67, E.

spergenensis, 38, O.
spheroidea, 87, L.
spinulifera, 38, L.
stellifera, 38, L.
subtilis, 87, L.
sulcata, 38, L.
triangularis, 87, L.
trifaria, 93, L.
trifolia, 38, O.
triloba, 93, H.
umbilicata, 87, L.
unilinea, 93, L.
utricula, 38, L.
variopora, 87, L.
tuberculata, 27, O.
GLAUCONOME, 38.
bellula, 95, O.
carinata, 87, L.
curvata, 94, O.
flexuosa, 95, O.
intermedia, 94, O.;
minor, 94, O.
nereidis, 50, P.!
nodata, 74, K.
simulatrix, 95, O.
sinuosa, 74, K.
subangulata, 94, O.
tenuiramosa, 94, O.'
tenuistriata, 94, K.
trilineata, 43, P.
Vinii, 94, K.
Whitii, 940, O.
Youngi, 94, O.
GLOSSOTRYPA, 93
paliformis, 73, K.
GONIOTRYPA, 95.
bilateralis, 95, E.
GRAPTODICTYA, 78.
nitida, 78, E.
perelegans, 68, E.
HEDERELLA, 87.
Canadensis, 45a, K.
cirrhosa, 87, L.
conferta, 87, L:
filiformis, 25, L.
magna, 87, L.
HELICOPORA, 79.
latispiralis, 79, G.
Ulrichi, 79, K.

491

492 Report or toe Srare Groroaist.

HELIOTRYPA, 83. HOMOTRYPELLA, 92. —
bifolia, 83, O. contexta, 95, E.

HELOPORA, 20. i granulifera, 78, D
armata, 36,, E. instabilis, 92, D.
bellula, 36a, E. ICHTHYORACHIS, 11.
Circe, 36a, E. Nereis, 52, H.
concava, 3864, E. IDIOTRYPA, 838.
divaricata, 92, D. parasitica, 83, G.
formosa, 854, E. INTRAPORA, 74.
fragilis, 20, F. puteolata, 74, K.
irregularis, 364, E. ISOTRYPA, 89.
imbricata, 95, E. conjunctiva, (3. 1
lineata, 36a, E. consimilis, 89, K.
liniopora, 36,, E. LABECHIA, 17.
nodosa, 36¢, E. montifera, 90, E.
spiniformis, 78, D. LEIOCLEMA, 78.

striatopora, 36a, E.

strigosa, 36a, EK.
variopcra, 36g, E.

HEMITRYPA, 8.

aspera, 95, O.
biordo, 93, K.
biserialis, 71°, H.

columellata, 93, K.

cribrosa, 93, K.
favosa, 73, K.
nodosa, 73, O.

pateriformis, 95, O.

perstriata, 95, O.
plumosa, 24, O.
Proutana, 95, O.

Proutana var. nodulosa, 95, O.
Proutana var. vermifera, 95, O.

tenera, 95, L.
Ulrichi, 942, F.

HERNODIA, 87.

humifusa, 87, L.

HETERODICTYA; 55.

gigantea, 55, O.

HOMOTRYPA, 78.

arbuscula, 95, D.
curvata, 78, E.
exilis, 92, D.
flabellaris, 95, E.
gelatinosa, 95, E.
insignis, 92, D.

Minnesotensis, 92, D.

obliqua, 78, E.
subramosa, 92, D.

araneum, 95, O.
foliatum, 95, O.
gracillimum, 95, O.
minutissimum, 57, L.
punctatum, 26, O.
subglobosum, 95, O.
Wachsmuthi, 95, O.
Wilmingtonensis, 95, E.
LEPTOTRYPA, 84.
clavacoidea, 53, E.
clavis, 78, E.
cortex, 78, E.
hexagonalis, 95, D.
minima, 78, E.
ornata, 78, E.
semipilaris, 95, E.
Stidhami, 95, E.
LICHENALIA, 20.
alternata, 74, K.
bistriata, 74, K.
bullata, 98, L.
carinata, 74, K.
clypeiformis, 87, L.
colliculata, 87, L.
concentrica, 20, G.
concentrica, var. maculata, 62,G.
concentrica, var. parvula, 62, G.
confusa, 93, L.
conulata, 74, K.
cornuta, 938, L.
crassa, 71¢, H.
crustacea, 74, K.
cultellata, 87, L.

Genera or tue Nortu American Patarozoic Bryozoa. 493

LICHENALIA, dissimilis, 82, H.

distans, 82, H.
foliacea, 87, L.
geometrica, 93, K.
imbricella, 87, L.
maculosa, 87, H.
operculata, 93, L.
ovata, 93, K.
permarginata, 74, K.
pustulosa, 93, L.
radiata, 74, K.
ramosa, 93, L.
serialis, 93, H.
stellata, 87, L.
subcava, 74, K.
substellata, 74, K.
subtrigona, 93, L.
tessellata, 93, L.
torta, 82, H.
tortuosa, 82, H.
vesiculata, 93, L.
LICHENOTRYPA, 90.
cavernosa, 90, K.
- longispina, 73, K.
LOCULIPORA, 93.
ambigua, 62, G.
circumstata, 93, K.
perforata, 87, L.
LYROPORA, 22.
cinctura, 89, L.
divergens, 95, O.
lyra, 22, O.
ovalis, 95, O.
quincuncialis, 22, O.
ranosculum, 95, O.
retrorsa, 40, O.
subquadrans, yy an ©
MEEKOPORA, 995.
aperta, 95, O.
approximata, 95, O.
_ clausa, 84, O.
eximia, 95, O.
NEMATAXIS, 93.
fibrosus, 93, K.
simplex, 93, L.
NEMATOPORA, 95.
alternata, 95, D.
delicatula, 95, D.
quadrata, 95, D.
retrorsa, 95, D.

NICHOLSONELLA, 995.
cumulata, 95, E.
ponderosa, 95, D.

ODONTOTRYPA, 93.
alveata, 73, K.

| ORTHOPORA, 93.
bispinulata, 87, L.
regularis, 52, K.
ornata, 93, L.
‘reticulata, 93, L.
rhombifera, 52, K.
scutulata, 73, K.

PACHYDICTYA, 78.
concilitrix, 92, D.
Everetti, 95, D.
fimbriata, 92, D.
firma, 95, E.
foliata, 92, D.
gigantea, 95, E.
occidentalis, 92, D.
robusta, 78, D.
splendens, 95, E.

PALESCHARA, 52. -
amplectans, 52, L.
bilateralis, 82, H.
concentrica, 93, H.
incrassata, 62, G.
incrustans, 52, H.
intercella, 87, L.
maculata, 62, G.
offula, 62, G.
pertenuis, 87, L.

radiata, 82, H.
reticulata, 87, L.
Sapheerion, 62, G.
tenuis, 98, H.
variacella, 87, L.

PETALOTRYPA, 95.

~ compressa, 95, L.
delicata, 95, L.

PETIGOPORA, 78.
asperula, 83, E.
gregaria, 83, E.
petechialis, 61, E.

PHACELOPORA, 95.
constricta, 95, D.
pertenuis, 95, D.

PHZZNOPORA, 20.
constellata, 20, F.
ensiformis, 20, F.

494 Rerort oF THE State Geotoaist.

PHAENOPORA, excellens, 36¢, E.
expansa, 54, G.
explanata, 20, F.
multipora, 19, D.
tenuis, 52, H.

PHRACTOPORA, 73.

‘cristata, 73, K.

cristata, var. lineata, 98, K.

PHYLLODICTYA, 78.
‘frondosa, 78, D.:
PHYLLOPORA, 15.
aspera, 95, K.
. superba, 95, L.
PILEOTRYPA, 93.
clivulata, 73, K.
denticulata, 73, K.
granifera, 73, K.
pyriformis, 73, K.
PINACOTRYPA, 995.
elegans, 38, L.
POLYPORA, 11.
aculeata, 73, K.
adnata, 73, K.
Albionensis, 85, G.
approximata, 95, O.
Arkonensis, 76, L.
arta,.112;, iL.
biseriata, 95, O.
blandida, 90, K.
brevisulcata, 73, K.
Burlingtonensis, 95, O.
carinella, 93, K.
celsipora, 73, K.
Cestriensis, 95, O.
compacta, 71°, H.
complanata, 95, O.
compressa, 71°, H.
corticosa, 95, O.
crebescens, 93, K.
crassa, 93, P.
cultellata, 78, K.
distans, 73, K.
elegans, 52, H.
elongata, 74, K.
Eudora, 93, H.
fistulata, 87, L.
flabelliformis, 73, K.
gracilis, 28, O.
grandis, 58, P.
granilinea, 73, K.

POLYPORA, Hallana, 28, O.

Hamiltonensis, 39, L.
hexagonalis, 73, K.
hexagonalis, var. forminulosa,
Viel: O..
idothea, 71° ,-H.
imbricata, 39, K.
impressa,'94, O.
incepta, 20, G.
intermedia, 24, K.
leevinodata, 73, K.
leevistriata, 82, K.
largissima, 73, K.
lileea, 52, H.
Maccoyana, 95, O.
megastoma, 34, P.
mexicana, 24, R. —
mutabilis, 73, K.
nexa, 73, K.
nodocarinata, 95, P.
obliqua, 938, H.
papillata, 82, P.
paxillata, 710, H.
perangulata, 73, K.

- perundata, 73, K.

porosa, 73, K.
propria, 73, K.
Psyche, 51.
pulchella, 47, K.

_quadrangularis, 73, K.
_radialis, 95, O.

retrorsa, 95, O.
rigida, 39, K.
robusta, 93, K.
rustica, 98, K.
separata, 74, K.
Shumardi, 24, K.
simulatrix, 95, O.
spinulifera, 95, O.
stragula, 50, P.
striatopora, 73, K.
stricta, 98, H.
submarginata, 438, P.
submutans, 73, K. .
tenella, 48, K.
transversa, 90, K.
tuberculata, 28, O.
Varsoviensis, 24, O.
Whitii, 95, P.
Whitii, var. eximia, 95, P.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLarozoic Bryozoa.

PRISMOPORA, 74.
dilatata, 87, L.
lata, 93, L.
minima, 95, P.
paucirama, 74, K.
serrata, 61, P. :
serrulata, 84, O.
Sparsipora, 73, K.
triquetra, 74, K.

PROTOCRISINA, 95.
exigua, 95, D.

PROUTELLA, 95.
discoidea, 28, O.

PTILODICTYA, 6.
bipunctata, 80, G.
Briareus, 78, D.
canadensis, 36%, E.
dictyota, 46, O.
falciformis, 61, E.
fenestelliformis, 61, E.
flagellum, 61, E.
gladiola, 36¢, E.
Hilli, 78, D.
libana, 41, D.
lirata, 52, H.
maculata, 78, E.
magnifica, 71, E.
Meeki, 47, K.
nebulosa, 52, H.
parallela, 93, L.
pavonia, 16, E.
plumaria, 77, E.
plumea, 93, L.
punctata, 49, F.
ramosa, 78, D.
retiformis, 93, L.
scutulata, 87, L.
subrecta, 92, D.
sulcata, 36%, E.
superba, 36%, E.
tarda, 51.
triangulata, 69, P.
variabilis, 95, E.
Whiteavesi, 95, E.

PTILOPORA, 11.
acuta, 95, O.
cylindracea, 95, O.
infrequens, 93, L.
nodosa, 87, L.
paupera, 95, O.

PTILOPORA, Prouti, 26, O.
striata, 87, L.
valida, 95, O.

PTILOPORELLA, 93.
inzequalis, 93, K.
laticrescens, 93, K.
nervata, 61, G.

PTILOPORINA, 93.
conica, 98, K.
disparilis, 93,-K.
pinnata, 93, K.
sinistralis, 93, K.

PTILOTRYPA, 95.
obliquata, 95, E.

RAMIPORA, 59.
Hochsteteri, 59, P.

REPTARIA, 18.
nodata, 87, L.
penniformis, 87, L.
stolonifera, 18, L.

RETEPORINA, 16.
coalescens, 93, K.
Hamiltonensis, 39, L.
perundulata, 87, L.
Phillipsi, 48, K.
prisca, 53, L.
rhombifera, 73, K.
striata, 87, L.

RHINIDICTYA, 78.
granulosa, 93, H.
Nicholsoni, 78, D.

RHINOPORA, 20.
curvata, 91, G.
frondosa, 54, G.
tuberculosa, 20, G.
tubulosa, 20, F.
venosa, 85, F.
verrucosa, 20, F.

RHOMBOPORA, 48.
armata,-84, O.
asperrima, 95, O.
attenuata, 95, O
crassa, 84, P.
decipiens, 95, O.
dichotoma, 95, O.
elegantula, 84, O.
exigua, 95, O.
gracilis, 95, O.
incrassata, 94, O.
lepidodendroidea, 43, P.

496 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. .

RHOMBOPORA, Ohioensis, 94, O. SPATIOPORA, montifera, 83, E.
persitnilis, 84, O. tuberculata, 17, E.
pulchella, 84, O. SPHRAGIOPORA, 95.
simulatrix, 95, O. parasitica, 95, O.
spiralis, 95, O. STICTOPORA, 13.
subannulata, 95, L. acuta, 18,°D.
sulcifera, 95, L. Alcyone, 35q, E.
tabulata, 95, O. — alternata, 93, H.
tenuirama, 95, O. angularis, 93, L.
transversalis, 95, O. - arguta, 35a, E.
varia, 95, O. basalis, 78, D.
Wortheni, 84, O. bifurcata, 80, G.

RHOPALOMARIA, 71, Bristolensis, L.
venosa, ‘71a, E. carbonaria, 42, P.

SAGENELLA, 20. compressa, £0, G.
ambigua, E. crassa, 20, F
elegans, 62, G. crescens, 98, K.
membranacea, 20, G. crenulata, 87, L.

SCALARIPORA, 74. divergens, 93, L.
approximata, 95, L. elegantula, 13, D.
scalariformis, 74, K. fidelis, $2, D.
separata, 95, L. fruticosa, 74, K.
subconcava, 74, K. glomerata, 13, C.

-SCENELLOPORA, 78. granatula, 93, H.
radiata, 78, D. granifera, 87, L.

SCEPTROPORA, 94g, graminifolia, 86, G.
facula, 94a, E. incisurata, 87, L.

SELENOPORA, 93. incrassata, 87, L.
circincta, 73, K. interstriata, 87, L.
complexa, 73, K. invertis, 74, K.

SEMICOSCINIUM, 27. labyrinthica, 13, D-
Eriense, 27, K. *lichenoides, 454, K.
obliquatum, 90, K. limata, 93, L.
planodorsatum, 95, K. linearis, 74, K.
rhomboideum, 27, K. lobata, 98, L.
rhombicum, 95, L. magna, 54, G.
tuberculatum, 28, K. , multifida, 80, G.

SEMIOPORA, 87. mutabilis, 92, D.
bistigmata, 87, L. obsoleta, 98, H.

SEPTOPORA, 27. orbipora, 71%, G.
Cestriensis, 27, O. ovata, 93, L.
decipiens, 95, O. : ovatipora, 74, K.
delicatula, 95, O. palmipes, 87, L.
robusta, 95, P. papillosa, 82, H.
subquadrans, 95, O. paupera, 90, D.

SPATIOPORA, 78, perarcta, 74, K.
areolata, 81, D. permarginata, 87, L.
aspera, 83, E. punctipora, 20, G.
lineata, 88, E. - ramosa, 13, D.

musculosa, 8&3, E. raripora, 20, F.

GENERA OF THE NortuH AMERICAN PALAEOZzOIC Bryozoa.

STICTOPORA, recta, 93, L.

rectilinea, 93, L.
recubans, 87, L.
rhomboidea, 74, K.
rigida, 74, K.
rustica, 35%, E.
scitula, 93, G.
semistriata, 74, K.
similis, 62, G.
sinuosa, 62, L.
striata, 87, L.
subrigida, 93, L.
sulcata, 37, L.
tenera, 354, E.
trilineata, 93, L.
tumulosa, 93, L.
Vanclevii, 82, G.
variabilis, 39, K.
vermicula, 93, K.

STICTOPORELLA, 78.

angularis, 90, D.
basalis, 95, O.
cribrosa, 90 D.
frondifera, 90, D.
interstincta, 78, E.
undulata, 95, O.

STICTOPORINA, 93.

claviformis, 73, L.

STOMATOPORA, 2¢.

alternata, 45, N.
auloporoides, 61, E.
confusa, 61, E.
frondosa, 61, E.
inflata, 138, D.
nexilis, 53, E.
pertenuis, $2, D.
Proutana, 76, E.

STREBLOTRYPA, 95.

denticulata, 95, O.
distincta, 95, O.
Hamiltonensis, 48, L.
Hertzeri, 94, O.
major, 95, O.
multiporata, 94, O.
Nicklesi, 95, O.
obliqua, 94, O.
radialis, 95, O.
regularis, 94, O.
striata, 94, O.
subspinosa, 95, O.

63

STROTOPORA, 95.
dermata, 95,0.
favolata, 85, O.
perminuta, 95, K.
SUBRETEPORA, 16.
angulata, 20, G.
aspera, 13, C.
asperato-striata, 20, G.
clathrata, 71, E.
corticosa, 92, D.
Dawsoni, 95, D.
dichotoma, 20, G.
fenestrata, 13, D.
gracilis, 13, C.
incepta, 13, C.
reticulata, 13, D.
Trentonensis, 55, D.
variolata, 78, E.
SULCOPORA, 16.
fenestrata, 13, C.
SYNOCLADIA, 15.
biserialis, 23, P.
‘rectistyla, 74,. O.
TZNIODICTYA, 95.
cingulata, 95, O.
frondosa. 95, O.
interpolata, 94, O.
ramulosa, 95, O.

497

ramulosa,- var. Burlingtonensis,

95, O.
subrecta, 95, O.
TZENIOPORA, 48.
exigua, 48, L.
occidentalis, 95, L.
penniformis, 48, L.
THAMNISCUS, 15.
Cisseis, 82, H.
diffusus, 20, G.
fruticella, 82, H.
divaricans, 95, O.
furcillatus, 95, O.
multiramus, 74, K.
nanus, 74, K.
Niagarensis, 62, G.
Nysa, 82, H.
octonarius, 95, P.
pauciramus, 87, L.
ramulosus, 95, O.

ramulosus, var. sevillensis, 95, O.

variolata, 82, H.

498 REporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST. .

THAMNISCUS, sculptilis, 95, O. TREMATOPORA, punctata, 20, G.
THAMNOTRYPA, 93. . primigenia, 92, D.
divaricata, 73, K. rectilinea, 74, K.
TREMATELLA, 93. solida, 20, G.
annulata, 74, K. sparsa, 20, G.
arborea, 74, K. spiculata, G.
glomerata, 93, K. spinulosa, 20, G.
nodosa, 93, L. : ‘striata, 20, G.
perspinulata, 73, L. subimbricata, 712, G.
TREMATOPORA, 20. subquadrata, 87, L.
americana, O. superba, 36q, F.
annulifera, 67, E. tortalinea,.87, L.
annulata, var. pronospina, 74, K. transversa, 87, L.
aspera, 20, G. tuberculosa, 20, G.
calloporoides, 95, D. tubulosa, 20, G.
canaliculata, 82, H. varia, 62, G.
carinata, 98, L. variolata, 62; G.
coalescens, 20, G. vesiculosa, 35, O.
corticosa, 52, H. Whitfieldi, 83, G.
crebipora, 710, G. TROPIDOPORA, 93.
debilis, 95, D. nana, 93, K.
densa, 52, H. UNITRYPA, 89.
echinata, 62, G. acaulis, 74, K.
elongata, 93, L. acaulis, var. inclinis, 93, iK.
fragilis, 35, O. acclivis, 93, K.
granifera, 93, L. biserialis, 87, H.
granulata, 67, E. conferta, 90, K. j
granulifera, 20, G. ' consimilis, 98, K.
Halli, 83, G. . elegantissima, 93, K.
hexagona, 938 L. fastigata, 73, K.
immersa, 93, L. -ficticius, 93, K.
infrequens, 62, G. lata, 73, K.
interplana, 93, L. nana, 93, K.
lineata, 93, L. nervia, 52, H.
macropora, 716, G. nervia, var. constricta, 71°, H.
minuta, 62, G. preecursor, 52, H.
nitida, 95, E. pernodosa, 73, K.
nodosa, 98, H. projecta, 93, K.
orbipora, 87, L. retrorsa, 90, K. :
ornata, 92, D. scalaris, 87, li.
osculum, 62, G. stipata, 73, K.
ovatipora, 82, H. tegulata, 73, K.
parallela, 82, H. transversa, 93, K.

perspinulata, 87,[L. WORTHENOPORA, 95.
polygona, 87, L. spatulata, 27, O.
ponderosa, 87, H. spinosa, 95, O.

Descriptions of Families and Genera.

Family Fenestellide, King.

All the members of this family are reticulate, funnel or fan
shaped, and are composed of slightly diverging bifurcating
branches, either rigid and connected by cross. bars (dissepiments)
which are formed by opposite projections from adjacent
branches, uniting midway between the branches, or sinuous
and connected at intervals by anastomosis; in both cases the
frond being perforated by symmetrically disposed quadrate or
oval spaces (fenestrules). The cells are short utricular and
arranged in two or more series, on one side of the branch only.
The cell apertures are usually circular, surrounded by an eleva-
tion (peristome). The noncelluliferous face of the frond is com-
posed of a more or less thick stratum of calcareous fibrous tissue,
which is perforated by minute tubuli, rectangularly to the surface,
and in some forms by larger thick walled tubes, the use of which
isnot known. The surface is usually striated and ornamented by
granules, nodes or spinules. These features in aged fronds are
usually obscured or obliterated by a calcareous deposit; the dif-
ference in appearance between the older and more recent por-
tions of the frond being very marked.

The following genera are included in this family: Anastomo-
PORA, ARCHIMEDES, ARCHIMEDIPORA, CycLoporINA, FENESTELLA
and its groups, FrnestraLia, FenestraporA, FLABELLIPORINA,
Hetivopora, Hemirrypa, Isotrypa, Locutipora, Lyropors, Lyro-
PORIDRA, LyrRoporina, LYROPORELLA, PHyLLopora, Potypora, Poty-
PORELLA, Pritopora, PrILOPORELLA, PriLopoRINA, PiNNAPORELLA,
Pinnaporina, RererorRELLA, RetTerorina, Synociapra, SEMIcos-
cintuM, TrEcTuLiporA, TEoTULIPoRELLA and UnitTrypa.

Several of these genera have been placed by authors under
other families or subfamilies but they are so intimately connected
and the change from one form to another, through intermediate
forms, is so gradual (as shown in the article on the “ Genera of
Fenestellide” in the Annual Report of the State Geologist for
1893) that a separation into different families does not seem ad-

500 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

missible. Thus Fenrsterya and Potyrora have been placed in
different families, yet both forms very gradually merge into the
genus Potyporztia. A full discussion of the different genera will
be found in the paper above referred to.

All the forms have a general resemblance to FenrsTELLa and
are separated from it by the number and disposition of the cell
apertures, difference in the structure beyond the celluliferous
face, mode of growth, etc.

FENESTELLA, Miller.

Type, Fenestella antiqua, Miller.

(Plate 2, figs. 1-17.)

This genus was first proposed in manuscript by J. 8S. MiruER
of Bristol, England, but the first published description of it was
given by W. Lonspate in Murchison’s Silurian System, Pt. II,
p01) (1839.

Diacnosis. A ramose, calcareous bryozoum, forming cup
shaped or funnel shaped expansions; branches bifurcating and
connected by apparently solid dissepiments; cell apertures.
occurring on one side of the branches; arranged in two parallel
rows, which are separated by a carina or row of nodes. Reverse
side consisting of a stratum of fibroid, calcareous tissue, which *
is traversed by numerous minute tubuli, at right angles to the
surface. For illustrations of this genus, see Plate 2

The species of this genus have been placed in the following
groups based upon the character of the carina.

Group «, for forms with low, smooth carina.

Group ¢, for the forms with a range of nodes between the
cell apertures, or a low, nodose carina.

Group 7, for forms with very prominent, equal, thin carine.

- Group 6, for forms having carinz expanded midway of their
height, then contracting, the expanded portion
having nodes on its margins.

Group «, for forms with prominent carine, summits expanded,
margins smooth.

Group £, for forms with prominent carine, scpaniee at ie
summit, margins nodose.

Group 7, for forms with prominent, moderately thin caring,
having conspicuous lateral projections at the
summit. (Fenestella perplexa.)

‘~..

Genera or THE Nortu AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 5OL

Figs. 32, 33, Group B. Figs. 34, 35,Group7y. Figs. 36, 37, Group O, Figs. 38-41, Group =,

502 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

PoLyPorELLa, Simpson.

(Rep. of State Geologist for 1893, p. 700. 1894.)

Type, Polyporella fistulata, Hall (sp.).

(Plate 1, figs. 9, 10.)

Zoarium having the same general aspect as Fanneramam Cell
apertures, on the narrower portion of the branches, disposed in
two parallel rows, with or without a dividing ridge; on the wider
portions in three and occasionally four rows.

This genus is intermediate between FanestELta and PoLyPora
and was constituted to include those forms which might with
propriety be included in either genus.

Potypora, McCoy.
(Carb. Foss. of Ireland, p. 206. 1845.) :
Type, Polypora dendroides, McCoy.
(Plate 1, figs. 18-15.)

Bryozoum having the same manner of growth and general
_ aspect as FEnESTELLA, but having the cell apertures disposed in
three or more ranges, entirely covering the celluliferous face of
the branches, which are without a median keel or carina.

F'LABELUIPORELLA, Simpson.

(Ann. Rept. State Geologist of N. Y. for 1893, p. 703. 1894.)

Type, /labelliporella lilea, Hall (sp.).

Zoarium consisting of ramose flabellate or fan-shaped expan-
sions. Branches slender, bifurcating, connected by dissepiments.
Celluliferous on one face only; cell apertures disposed in three or
more longitudinal series.

A fragment of this genus is similar tooneof Potypora. The forms
are separated from that genus by the flabellate mode of growth

FrenesTRAtia, Prout.
(Trans. Acad. Sci., St. Louis. 1858.)

Type, Lenestralia St. Ludovici, Prout.

“Corallum flabelliform, bifurcating frequently and rapidly
expanding into a broad frond, folded upon itself ong near
the top.

“ Longitudinal rays or «interstices (branches) large, round
near the base, more angular toward the middle of the frond;
midrib indistinct near the base, very prominent and well marked
when slightly weathered.

GevERA oF THE Nortu American Patarozorc Bryozoa. 5038

“ Dissepiments short, strong and enlarged at their junction with
the longitudinal rays. .

“Fenestrules, long, oval, or elliptical, rarely quadrangular, two
to two and a half in two lines measured longitudinally ; four in
_two lines transversely.

“Cells in two rows on either side of the midrib, most generally
opposite to the two rows, and opposite on the two sides of the
midrib, five to each fenestrule, or twenty inclusive of the two
rows on either side.

“Reverse, fenestrules quadrangular from the want of expansion
in the junction of the dissepiments; rays and dissepiments
rounded, minutely tubular, striate.”

This species differs from Frnrstre.ia in its flabellate mode of
growth, and in having two rows of cell apertures on each side
of a median carina. It differs from FLapetiporina, in having a
median keel and it having uniformly four rows of cell apertures.

<a

Fic. 42. Fenestralia St. Ludovici. Frond natural size. Fie. 43. A portion enlarged.

RetErorsiya, Simpson.
(Ann. Rept. of State Geologist of N. Y. for 1893.)
Type, Reteporella undulata.
(Plate 1, figs. 1-5.)
Bryozoum consisting of infundibuliform or cup-shaped expan-
sions, celluliferous on one face only ; branches sinuous or zig-zag,

504 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

anastomosing at short and regular intervals in such a manner
- as to give rise to a regularly disposed system of fenestrules; cell
apertures disposed in from three to seven longitudinal rows;
branches without a median keel. :

Many of the forms included in this genus have been described .
under the name RezEpora, owing to a misapprehension of the
characters of that genus. By some authors it is considered a syn-
onym of Psy.uiopora, but the original figures of that genus show
that the branches are connected by celluliferous dissepiments,
not by anastomosis. :

The genus most nearly resembles Potypora in its general
appearance, but it differs from that genus in the anastomosis of
the branches. 7

-Rerteporina, D’Orbigny.
(Prodrome.de Pal. t. 1., p. 101.) -
Type, Reteporina prisca, Goldfuss (sp.).
(Plate 1, figs. 6-8.)

“Ce sont des Potypora dont les cellules placés sur deux lignes
paralléles, rapprochés, réguliéres, longitudinales, non séparées par
une cote, sont a la partie supérieure des branches largement
anastomosées de maniére 4 ne laisser entre elles que des oscules
oblongs, reguliérs, placés par lignes divergentes.”

This genus differs from Retmporeua in having only two rows
of cell apertures...

The original diagnosis states that the rows of apertures are
not separated by a ridge, but as we have seen in I’ enusTELLA, the
presence or absence of a carina, all other characters being the
same, is not of generic importance.

CycLoporina, Simpson.
(Ann. Rept. State Geologist for 1893.)

Type, Cycloporima hemicycla, Hall (sp).

(Plate 3, figs. 1-5.)

Bryozoum having the same general aspect as ReTeportna ; at
irregular intervals, but invariably over a dissepiment, there are
semi-circular, lateral projections from the carina, which extend
about half the distance to the adjacent carina. Frequently the

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALArozorico Bryozoa. 505

projections from adjacent carinz uniteand form solid connections
of the two carine.

The carine of this genus vary in the same manner as do those
of Frnustecia, and from these variations the species are divided
into several groups, corresponding to, and designated by the
same letters as the groups of FenusTHua.

° 44 45

o a
=o a = ae
ee
; ‘
tS
.

Figs. 44-50. CycLoporina, showing various forms of the carina.

Figs. 44, 45, 46. Showing the carinz of the species of this genus ; viewed from above.
Fies. 47. Illustrating the carine of group /.

Fic. 48. Illustrating carinz of group &.

64

506 Rerort or Tur Srare GEoLocist.

49

Fias. 49,50. Illustrating carine of group 0.

FrnestraporA, Hall.
(Rept. N. Y. State Geologist, p. 36, Pl. 2, fig. 17. 1885.)

Type, Fenestrapora biperforata, Hall.

(Plate 3, figs. 6-12.)

Bryozoum having the same general aspect as Fanustetta. On
the noncelluliferous face there are numerous triangular or circular
pores or apertures of the larger tubuli. On the celluliferous face
the cell apertures are disposed in two ranges, separated by a
prominent carina, which has a row of small pores along the
middle of its expanded summit.

PatLopoRELia, Hall.

(Pal. N. Y., Volo Vi, p17 yeaa
Type, Ptiloporella laticrescens, Hall. .
| (Plate 4, figs. 1-6.)

Bryozoum ramose, forming infundibuliform expansions;
branches of two sizes, the smaller or secondary branches pro-
ceeding laterally from the larger or primary ones, either from
one or both sides. As the frond expands other large branches
proceed laterally from the primary ones, this process continuing
during the growth of the frond; cell apertures arranged in two

GENERA OF THE Norra AMERICAN PALArozorc Bryozoa. 507

parallel rows, separated by a carina, the carine of the primary
branches being much more po ca than those of the second-
ary branches.
Pritoporina, Hall.
(Pal. Ne ¥., Yok: Vi,p. 172, Pl. 43, figs: 79.)
Type, Pieloporina sinistralis, Hall.
(Plate 4, figs, 8-12.)

Bryozoum having the same manner of growth and general
appearance as Pritoporsiua, but differing from that genus in
having three or more ranges of cell apertures, not separated by a
carina. This genus bears the same relation to PrILOPORELLA that
Potrpora does to FanustE.ua.

Pinwaporina, Simpson.
(Ann. Rept. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1893. 1894.)
Type, Pinnaporina pinnata, Hall (sp.). |
(Plate 4, fig. 7.)
In general appearance and disposition of cell apertures this
genus resembles Pritoporrna, but differs from that genus in hav-
ing a flabellate mode of growth. It differs from PrynaporELia

in having three or more ranges of cell apertures not Bena tied
by a carina.

jute Phillips.
(Pal. Foss. Cornwall, Devon. and West Somerset, p. 27, 1841.)

Type, Hemitrypa oculata, Phillips.
(Plate 5, figs. 1-11.)

Bryozoum having the same general appearance and manner of
growth as Frenustetya; cell apertures arranged in two parallel
rows separated by a carina; carina prominent, expanded above
and having lateral processes (scale), which, meeting midway
between the carinz, form an intermediate ridge or pseudocarina.
The spaces between the scale or fenestrules usually correspond
in number to the cell apertures.

This form differs from Unirrypa in having simple lateral pro-
jections, instead of thin oblique plates, and in the formation of a
pseudocarina.

508 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

51 52

Fies. 51-53. Hemitrypa columellata.

Fie. 51. A transverse section of a frond, x18.

Fig. 52. A side view of a portion of a branch and its carina, x18.

Fig. 538. Showing the tubular appearance of a transverse section of the carine and scale.

Unritrypa, Hall.
(Rep. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1884, p. 36. 1885.)

Type, Unitrypa lata, Hall.

(Plate 5, figs. 15-19; Pl. 6, figs. 1-6.)

Fronds having the general appearance and mode of growth of
FenesteLtya. The cell apertures are arranged in two parallel
rows, separated by a carina; carina prominent, thickened above
and connected by thin oblique plates (scale). Frequently the
scale are abruptly bent at about half their height, and ys

present an imbricated appearance.
54 55

Fic. 54. Unitrypa fastigata. An enlargement showing the side view of a branch, with its carina,
and section of the scale. The scalz are oblique toward the base of the frond, a mode of growth of

rare occurrence.
Fic.'55. U.lata. A side view of a branch and its carina, and a section of the scale, x18.

fon) ® mM .
= — i Se
Yer a eee ®
48 hn a
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7 | en =| =| Vine =
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: Coe Sea 5 een
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8 = ped = TC B i 2
ro) ,8 re Zi es en” a8 2 wn
< s : = ee a 2 R ars ; : esd ss ogee 7 Saeed < a <i i iy i(e) . Le oe
o mM fo) o) oO eye Rede yoo ot ry y 1G MUL O MK, So oats May, Me ve Be ~ /{s) al{e Sond
< ar = alee 4 fo) a : RARE res : i le) no oe
Ay . a Ay ~~ : Y, > a es nS ae ys ESS ; Bae aoe? (s7(2, (e oy
= 3 5 4 = la} S i " me : * ta, = pr
He EN oH gees We ge < 2
: go Cis See e
pa Sa on WS 8 4h Se a3
<3) o 2 OS oe Oo 2 =
go 3 > — raf ™M q
5 ~ Drs 2 5
ss eB Peet (ee oe
br pegs iS ne ae ae S)
fe oa 2S SoS
em 3 g Oo O Na 3 3 ©
2 ee elo) eee mas aq
ao & 3s r=
i cee | xen ue Oo 8
oH ns °C a)
o MN “2 O 42 5
. ga A os 2° oe
H o A aS q UH I
2 A Hoang SO &
S o oO See 1 ord =
© as > gc B
5 3 a) ™M ore o -
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= g 5 a) 50 M “3 D
© fe g2as g
> = (<a = Oo
Sg ee 80 & a
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o 8 q

given.

510 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Isorrypa, Hall.
(Report of N. Y. State Geologist for 1884, p. 37. 1885.)
Type, Lsotrypa conjunctiva, Hall.

(Plate 6, figs. 7-12.)
Bryozoum having the same general appearance as FenmstTEcys;
cell apertures arranged in two parallel rows separated by a
carina; carine prominent, expanded at the summit; summits
connected by round or oval, comparatively distant lateral bars.
On the noncelluliferous Bee a cone pore occurs on or near
each dissepiment.

This genus differs from Unirrypa not only in having con-
spicuous pores on the noncelluliferous face, but also in the char-
acter of the lateral processes. In Unitrypa the scale consist of
thin, oblique or bent, imbricating plates, which usually extend
on the sides of the carinz for at least one-half their height, each
scala being formed of two lamella, coalescing at the summit.
The carine of this genus are not of equal thickness, and when -
broken the base of the thicker portion alone remains attached to
the branches, closely resembling a row of elongate nodes, in this
respect being similar to Hmmirrypa.

59

Fic. 59. Isotrypa conjunctiva. A side view of a portion of a branch and its carinee ; also showing a
section of the dissepiments and scale, x18.

TECTULIPORELLA, Simpson.
(Ann. Rept. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1893.) -

Type, Tectuliporella consimilis, Hall.
(Plate 6, figs. 13-15.)

This genus resembles Isotrypa in general appearance and man-
ner of growth, but the summits of the carine and connecting
bars are much stronger and are scarcely distinguishable from the
noncelluliferous face of the frond. It differs, also, from IsorryPa
in being without pores on the noncelluliferous face of the frond,
and on the sides of the carinz, above the cell apertures.

GENERA OF THE Norra AMERICAN PALArEozoic Bryozoa. Sil

Trotu.ipora, Hall.
(Ann. Rep. State Museum Nat. Hist. 1887.)

Type, Tectulipora loculata, Hall.

(Plate 7, figs. 1-5.)

Bryozoum having the general aspect of TroruLrrors3ta ; cell
apertures arranged in two parallel rows; branches and dissepi-
ments carinated ; the carine of the dissepiments coalescing with
those of the branches; carine prominent; summits expanded,
frequently having a width nearly or quite equal to the branches
and dissepiments below. The summits of the carine are angu-
lar or carinated, sometimes with a row of nodes along the middle,
this portion of the frond having a strong resemblance to the
noncelluliferous face of some Fenestelloid forms. This genus
differs from Locutipora in having the cell apertures arranged in
two parallel rows; the dissepiments being noncelluliferous. ©

60 61

Fig. 60. Tectulipora loculata. A transverse sction of the branches and carinz, showing a side view
of dissepimental and its carinz, x18.

Fia.61. A transverse section of three dissepiments and their carine and aside view ofa portion of a
branch and its carina, x18.

Locuripora, Rominger, mss.
(First published in Pal. N. Y., Vol. VI, p. xxiii. 1887.)

Type, Loculipora biperforata, Hall.
(Plate 7, figs. 6-12.)

Bryozoum infundibuliform, branches sinuous or zig-zag, anasto-
mosing or connected by very short dissepiments, which are of
about the same width as the branches. The noncelluliferous
face usually presents more of an anastomosed appearance than
the celluliferous ; cell apertures disposed in oval order entirely
surrounding the fenestrule; branches and dissepiments cari-

nated ; carine coalescing ; summits much expanded, angular and

slightly carinated; width of the summits usually about equal to
the branches and dissepiments below. So close is the resem-
blance of this portion of the frond to the noncelluliferous face,
that it is almost impossible to distinguish them. This genus

512 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

is the only one, so far observed, in which the cell apertures
are not arranged in parallel rows. It differs from Trcruxtpora,
which it most closely resembles, in the sinuosity and frequent
anastomosis of the branches, and in the oval arrangement of the
cell apertures.
Pay iopors, King.
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2d Series, Vol. 111, p. 389. 1849.)
Type, Phyllopora EFhrenbergi, King. :

62

Fic. 62. Phyllopora Ehrenbergi, 1, 2, Fronds natural size; woper figure, celluliferous face; lower
left-hand figure, noncelluliferous face: lower right-hand figure, showing filling of cells, the surface
being worn away.

GENERA OF THE Norta AMERICAN PatArozoric Bryozoa. 513

\

Original diagnosis. “A Fenestellidia consisting of infundibuli-
form, folded, perforated fronds or foliaceous expansions; cell-
ules on the whole of the outer or under surface of the fronds,
and planted more or less approximately to a position at right
angles to the plane of the capillary tubular basal plate; cellule
apertures with plain margins and parallel to the surface of the
fronds.”

The original illustrations, a photo-engraving of which is given
below, show this genus to be a Fenestelloid form, the branches
of which are connected by celluliferous dissepiments, in this re-
spect differing from the genera hitherto described.

A discussion of this genus will be found in the Annual Report
of the N. Y. State Geologist for 18%3.

Synoctapia, King.

(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2d Series, Vol. 111, p. 389. 1849.)

Type, Synocladia virgulacea, Phillips (sp.).

Bryozoum infundibuliform, branches bifurcating, having at
regular intervals lateral projections, obliquely ascending, coalesc-
ing with an opposite series from adjacent branches, and forming

63

Fic. 68. Synocladia virgulacea. Frond, natural size.

arcuate or angular dissepiments. In some specimens many of the
lateral projections are not oblique, in which case they have the
65

514 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

same appearance as the ordinary forms of Frnzs1zLLa.™ Usually
there are three or more ranges of cell apertures on the, branches
and two on the dissepiments.

64

Fic. 64. A portion of the celluliferous face enlarged.

SEPTOPORA, Prout.
(Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis; Vol. I, p. 448. 1859.)

Type, Septopora Cestriensis, Prout.

Bryozoum infundibuliform, having the general aspect of
FENESTELLA. On the celluliferous face the cell apertures are
arranged in two longitudinal parallel rows, separated by a carina;
dissepiments arcuate, angular or straight, and celluliferous..

Provr in his original description says: “I have established this
genus upon the character of the dissepiments, which are more
celluliferous than the longitudinal rays (branches). Though in
its general features it resembles Fz .zstE.va, it a in a oo
degree by its celluliferous dissepiments.”

This genus differs from Synociapria in having only two ranges ©
of cell apertures, separated by a carina, having the same relation
to that genus that FenestrEtia does to PoLypora.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLArozorc Bryozoa. 515

65

4
2 >
ryterrerr tiie eee)

Coes

Fig. 65. Septopora Cestriensis, 2a, Fronds: natural size; 2b, A portion of the frond e. x4; 2c A small
portion x8.

Lyropora, Hall.
(Proc. Amer. Ass. Ad. Sci., Vol X, p.179. 1857.)
Type, Lyropora lyra, Hall.
“ Bryozoum consisting of reticulated, foliated expansions, mar-

gined on either side by strong,”stony supports, which diverge
from the base curving upwards and outwards.”

Fig. 66. Lyropora ranosculum. The thickened margin, natural size and transverse section of same.
Fig. 67. Noncelluliferous face of a frond, x9.
Fig. 68, Celluliferous face, x18.

516 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

The structure between the thickened margins has the same
appearance as Potyrora, being composed of bifurcating branches,
connected by noncelluliferous dissepiments; cell apertures in
three or more ranges, with no separating carina.

LyRroporE.ia, Simpson.

(Ann. Rep. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1893. 1894.)
Type, Lyroporella quincuncialis, Hall (sp.).
Bryozoum having the same manner of growth and general
appearance as Lyropora, but having on the narrower portion of

69

Fie. 69. Lyroporeila quincuncialis. Middle figure; the thickened margin of the frond, natural size ,
Lower figure. Noncelluliferous face of a frond, x9.
Upper figure. Celluliferous face of a frond, x9.

o =e

GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN Patanozo1c Bryozoa. 517

the branches only two ranges of cell apertures, frequently sepa-
rated by a carina, and on the wider portion of the branches
three and occasionally more ranges without a dividing ridge.
This genus has the same relation to Lyrorora that PoLyPORELLA
has to Po.ypora.

LyRoporRIpDRA, nov. gen.
Type, Lyroporidra subquadrans, Hall (sp.).
(Plate 9, fig. 19.)

This genus has the same general appearance and mode of
growth as Lyrorora, but on the celluliferous face the cell aper-
tures are arranged in four parallel rows, two rows on each side
of a median carina or row of nodes.

This genus bears the same relation to Lyropora that FENESTRA-

Lia does to PoLyporRa.

ANASTOMOPORA, NOV. gen.

Type, Anastomopora cinctuta, Hall (sp.).
(Plate 9, figs. 20-23.)

This genus has a general resemblance to Lyrropora, but the
branches are sinuous and anastomiosing; cell apertures disposed
in three or more ranges, without separating carina.

This genus bears the same relation to Lyropora that RerEpo-
RELLA does to Potypora, and is separated from it by the fact that
the branches are connected by anastomosis, not by dissepiments.

Hexicopors, Claypole.
(Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., p. 30. 1883.)
Type, Helicopora latispiralis, Claypole.

Original diagnosis. “ Polyzoary expanded, fenestrate and spiral.
formed of slender, bifurcating rays, poriferous on one face, con-
nected by nonporiferous bars, forming an open network; cells
arranged in two rows along the rays, one on each side of a
median keel; axis none, or consisting only of the thickened in-

518 Report or THE Stare GEoLocist.

ner border of the polyzoary ; not straight, but forming a spiral,
rounded, nonporiferous or slightly poriferous inner margin.” —

70

Fic. 70. A photo-engraving of CLAYPOLE’s original illustration. Fig. 1, Helicopora latispiralis.
Lower face, showing four whorls of the spiral, nat. size; 2, H. Ulrichi, x8; 2a, A small portion, x8;
3, H. archimediformis, nat. size; 4, Enlarged view of the celluliferous part of fig. 8, x4.

Hi
GENERA OF THE NorrH American Pataxrozoic Bryrozoa. 519

Arouimepss, Le Sueur.
(Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. 43, p. 19. 1842.)
Type, Archimedes Owenana, Hall (sp.).

The forms in this genus do not differ in their essential struc-
ture from FrenusteLia; their mode of growth, however, is quite
distinct; the expansion acquiring a solid central axis, around
which it revolves in an ascending spiral form, spreading equally
on every side. On the celluliferous face, the cell apertures are
arranged in two parallel rows, separated by a carina or row of
nodes.

rel — R

\\\ id tant

" nh

LECH AC HORII
shy ya | b
OA MT i ~ ch
iy) NPy Wal
IAL ! no)
uy ili i es hii
HH 1a AHN |
SAT pe it
Oa {

1 7 i}
i)! i il
Va a

in
Uf, Hi
Yih, i

ih

ty

Fie. 71. Archimedes Wortheni, frond natural size.
Fie. 72. A longitudinal section of the central axis.
Lower fig. A transverse section of the central axis, x2.

Pritopora, McCoy.
(Syn. Carb. Foss. Ireland, p. 200.)

Type, Ptilopora flustriformis, McCoy.

(Plate 8, figs. 1-7.)

Flabelliform, attached by roots, from which a strong midrib
arises, giving origin on each side to thin equidistant branches,
which are connected by regularly disposed dissepiments; cellu-
liferous on one face only; cell apertures disposed in two longi-
tudinal, parallel rows, separated by a carina or row of nodes.

520

RECAPITULATION OF FAMILY FENESTELLIDE

Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Branches connected by dissepiments :

INFUNDIBULIFORM.

Cells in two ranges, separated by carinz
or row ‘Of “MOMES Die. ...8.) om cee ena
Cell apertures in two or three ranges,
branches carinated or not............
Cell apertures in three or more ranges, no
COMIMA st eer ds a) Aan oi
Cell apertures in four ranges, median
COMUNE (1 a pies) oo Wide aia ogee oe ee
Cell apertures in two ranges, carina promi-
nent, poriferous ; reverse face poriferous
Cell apertures in two ranges ; carinz with
prominent, semicircular projections...
Cell apertures in two ranges; carin
prominent, connected by scala, which
meet midway, forming pseudo-carine. .
Cell apertures in two ranges; carine
prominent, connected by oblique, thin

Cell apertures in two ranges; carine
connected by bars; reverse face porifer-

Cell apertures in two ranges; carine
connected by bars; reverse face non-
POVILELOUS yoo ee OSes) hee seq

Cell apertures in two ranges; branches
and dissepiments carinated ; carine very
prominent, expanded at summit, and
CoOaleseIn Geet a ees TO ee

Cells arranged in oval order, around
fenestrules ; branches and dissepiments
carinated ; carine prominent, expanded
at summit, and coalescing............

Cells in (?) two ranges; dissepiments cel-
PalihorQ uss. aos cite tie ptecters ieee ee

FENESTELLA.
PoLyPoRELLA.
PoLyPoRA.
FENESTRALIA.
FENESTRAPORA.

CYCLOPORINA.
HEMITRYPA.
UNITRYPA.
IsoTRYPA.

TECTULIPORELLA.

TECTULIPORA.

LocuLiP )RA.

PHYLLOPORA.

GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PALAEozoic Bryozoa. 521

Cell apertures in two ranges; branches
carinated; dissepiments celluliferous
SU RUC ULC) fos soc eR IR Ths alsa is < 0s s SEPTOPORA.
Cell apertures in more than two ranges;
dissepiments arcuate and celluliferous. Synocoiapia.

FLABELLATE.
Cells in two ranges; median carina ..... FLABELLIPORINA.
Cell apertures in more than two ranges; |
meee Ia CHrIMa NN, .. RODS ad. FLABELEIP BELLA.

- Forms having large primary branches, smaller lateral branches :

INF UNDIBULIFORM.

Cell apertures in two ranges; median

SOS i ea i Ym be AAR. PTILOPORELLA.
Cell apertures in more than two ranges;

Me AeIaN CAPMNA. Sees es alae. 3s PTILOPORINA.

F'LABELLATE.

Cells in two ranges; median carina..... PINNAPORELLA.
Cell apertures in more than two ranges; .

no median carina ....... ee 2s _..... PINNAPORINA.

Branches at nearly right angles:

Cell apertures in two ranges; median
20 ae eee ae 1 ede le NB -. PaILOPoRA.

Branches connected by anastomosis :

INFUNDIBULIFORM.
Cells in two ranges; median carina ..... RETEPORINA.
Cells in more than two ranges; no
MIEdIan. CATING... 62-0... 'l0 «3 Pes psi, +2 RETEPORELLA.

529 Report oF THE Strate GEoLoaisr.

Base and.lateral margins greatly thickened. Branches connected
by dissepiments :
FoLiAcKovs.

Cell apertures in two ranges; median

carma” 292)... ae TERE es 2 yet, SON ea LiyRuPORINA.
Cell apertures in two and three ranges;

with or without carina ..........52.. LyROPORELLA.
Cell apertures in more than two ranges;

no median Canima ss 0a. eee LyRopora.
Cell apertures in four ranges; median -

nodes or carina: oo ee LYROPORIDRA.

Branches connected by anastomosis :

Cell apertures in more than two ranges;
no median Carma’ <2. 2nase ee eee ANASTOMOPORA.

Forms with central axis ; growth spiral :

Cells in two ranges; median carina ..... ARCHIMEDES.
Cells in more than two ranges; no
median Carma). .2i)4-)i.42 Ap ees ARCHIMEDIPORA.

Growth spiral ; no central axis:
Cells in two ranges; median carina ..... HELICOPORA.

Family Acanthocladiide.

The forms included in this family have a flattened stipe, from
which proceed numerous short lateral branchlets and occasionally
a larger branch having the same manner of growth as the main ~
stipe; celluliferous on one side only ; branchlets not connected by
dissepiments. The following genera are included in this family:
AcantTHocLapIs4, G:auconomr, IcuTHroRAcHis and RAmIpPoRA.

AoantHociapia, King. mite
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist , 2d series, Vol. 111, p. 389. 1849.)
Type, Acanthocladia anceps, King.

Original diagnosis. “A Thamniscidia; stems symmetrically
and bilaterally branched; more or less on one plane; rarely

GENERA OF THE Norru AmERICAN PaLArozorc Bryozoa. 523

bifurcating ; branches short, simple; occasionally elongated and
becoming bilaterally branched; stems and branches celluliferous
on the side overlooking the imaginary axis of the coral; cellules
imbricated and arranged in longitudinal series; series of cellules
separated from each other by a dividing ridge; gemmuliferous
vesicles (?) on the dividing ridge.”

The following figures are photo-engravings from Krna’s orig-
inal illustrations : 7 |

de

CA amy
eons, ey
Fy ~ \} . 4

Fic. 73. Acanthocladia anceps. 13, A specimen slightly enlarged; 14, A specimen x2; 15, "An
enlargement to show the cell apertures; i6, A specimen, nat. size.

594 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

GLavconome, Goldfuss.
(Petrefacta Germanica, Vol. I, p. 10), 1826;,emended by Lons-
dale in Murchison’s Silurian System, p. 677, 1839.)
Type, Glauconome disticha, Goldfuss.
(Plate 8, figs. 8-15.)

Zoarium consisting of a main stem or rachis, from which pro-
ceed simple lateral branches, at regular intervals, and occasionally
branches having the same manner of growth as the primary
rachis ; celluliferous on one face; cell apertures disposed in two
longitudinal, parallel rows; usually separated by a carina.

IcutHyoracuis, McCoy. |
(Carb. Foss. of Ireland, p. 205. 1844.)

Type. ee ease Newenhami, McCoy.
- (Plate 8, figs. 16-21.)

Zoarium plumose, consisting of a rachis with short lateral
branches or pinnules; celluliferous on one face. On the rachis the
cell apertures are disposed in five or more rows, laterally in
oblique ascending order; usually three ranges on the branches.

Family Thamniscide, King, emend.

The following genera are included in this family :
THamnisous, THAMNOCELLA, CRISINELLA and DIPLoPoRA.

Tuamniscos, King.
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 2d Series, Vol. III, p. 309. 1849.)
Type, Thamniscus dubius, King.
"(Plate 9, figs. 14-18.) ,

Zoarium fruticose, giving forth lateral branches or bifurcating,
on one plane; branches numerous, frequently of clavate appear-
ance; not connected by dissepiments; celluliferous on one face;
cell apartares in quincunx order or irregularly disposed.

Kine’sdiagnosis. “Thetypical Thamniscidia; stems equcntly

and irregularly bifurcating, more or less on one plane; cellu-
liferous on the side overlooking the imaginary axis of the coral ,
cellules imbricated and arranged in quincunx; gemmuliferous
vesicles overlying the cell apertures.”

5: i ee

a

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOzoIC Bryozoa. 525

Figs. 74 and 75 are photo-engravings from Krna’s original
illustrations.

74 73

at ge 4 amet
res ya
ee Re MY

ea

Fie. 74. Thamniscus dubius, natural size.
Fie. 75. Celluliferous face of same, enlarged.

THAMNOCELLA, NOV. gen.
Type, Zhamnocella Cisseis, Hall (sp.).
| (Plate 9, figs. 4-12.)

Zoarium ramose, sometimes fruticose; giving off lateral branches

or bifurcating; branches of equal size, and, compared with THam-
Niscus infrequent; cells numerous; arranged in quincunx order,
forming oblique transverse rows.
_ This genus differs from THamniscus in the infrequency of the
branches, and in the fact that the branches are of uniform size;
from some forms of DrpLopora in having numerous cell apertures,
that genus having but two ranges.

Dretopora, Young and Young.
(Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow. 1875.)
Type, Diplopora marginalis, Young and Young.
Very slender straight stems, throwing off a few lateral branches
of equal dimensions (or bifurcating); celluliferous face with two

ranges of cell apertures, and moderately developed median keel;
noncelluliferous face striated.

526 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

Fic. 76. Diplopora bifurcata, natural size.
Fie. 77. A frond, x9.

CrisINELLA, Hall.
(Rep. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1883, pl. 26.)
Type, Crisinella scrobiculata, Hall (sp.).
(Plate 9, figs. 1-3.)

Zoarium ramose, solid; celluliferous on one face; cell apertures

disposed in oblique ascending rows from the middle to the margin
of the branch; peristomes prominent.

Family Arthrostylidz, Ulrich, emend.

This family contains at present only the genus ARTHROSTYLUS.

Fic. 78.
Fig. 79.

Arthrostylus conjunctus. Lateral view of a portion of a segment,"x18
Fic. 79a.

Noncelluliferous face,x18. .
Lateral view of another species.

i

GENERA OF THE NorrtH AMERICAN PataArozotc Bryozoa. 527

ArtHrostrtvus, Ulrich.
(Amer. Geologist, Vol. I, p. 230. 1888.)

Type, Arthrostylus tenuis, Ulrich.

Zoarium somewhat fruticose; composed of numerous, slender,
equal segments, joined to each other by terminal articulation;
celluliferous on one face only; opposite face longitudinally
striated; cell apertures disposed in three or more longitudinal
rows, separated by ridges. |

Family Stictoporide, Ulrich, emend.

The forms included in this family are very similar in their
mode of growth to Cystodictyide, but differ from the forms in
that family in the absence of pseudo-septa and lunaria, the dif-
ference in the skeleton making a corresponding difference in the
living organism. The following genera are included in this
family: CrRrameEtita, Evurypictya, Evspitopora, EvactTInopora,
Paouypiotya, Payituopiotya, Prismopora, ScALARIPORA, SEMIO-
PORA, STICTOCELLA, STIOTOPORA, STICTOPORIDRA, STICTOPORELLA,
TaEnropioTyA, TaEnropora and (??) AcTINOTRYPA.

CERAMELLA, Hall.
(Pale ee vol vip: xix: 1887.)

Type, Ceramella scidacea, Hall.
(Plate 14, figs. 2-6.)
Zoarium consisting of thin, foliaceous expansions, arising from
a spreading base; celluliferous on each face; cells tubular,
oblique; cell apertures oval or circular, disposed in quincunx
order; surface marked by sterile maculae, which are usually de-
pressed below the general surface of the branch.

Eurypictya, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 309. 1890.)
Type, Hurydictya montifera, Ulrich.
“ Broad, simple or irregularly divided bifoliate expansions
without nonporiferous parallel margins; surface with more or
less conspicuous, small, solid macule or monticules; zocecial

528 Report or THE Strate Groroaist.

structure very much as in Suncopora, the difference being of
small importance and due to zoarial habit.”

80 81

Fic. 80. Hurydicta montifera. A portion of the frond, natural size.
Fic. 81. Surface enlarged.
Fic. 82. A transverse section of the cells enlarged.

Eusrrtopora, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol> VIII, p.-389. “18309

Type, Huspilopora serrata, Ulrich.
(See Plate 10, fig. 20.)

“ Zoarium consisting of small, flattened, irregularly dividing
branches; zooecial apertures subcircular or elliptical; arranged in

four or more rows over the central portion of the branches, ©

between slightly elevated longitudinal ridges, having numerous
small nodes. At brief intervals, occurring alternately on each
side of the branch, there are several short rows of apertures,
directed obliquely upward and outward from the central rows,

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLArozoic Bryozoa. 529

extending nearly to the sharp margins. Between these lateral
rows the margin of the frond is more or less indented.” (U:Rt0# )

The type species closely resembles Stictopora palmipes, which,
though showing some variation from the ordinary forms of
Sriororora, has not been considered distinct from that genus,
though it may be. |

Euspilopora Barrisi is identical with Stictopora crassa and does
not have the characters which have been used to separate Eospt1-
LoPORA from SticTopoRa.

83 84

Fic. 83. Huspilopora serrata, natural size.
Fic. 84. Surface, x10.

Fig. 85. FE. barrisi, natural size. .,

Fic. 86. A portion, x10.

Evactinopora, Meek and Worthen.
(Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., p. 165. 1865.)
Type, Hvactinopora radiata, Meek and Worthen.
“ Zoaria consisting of four or more vertical leaves, which radi-
ate from an imaginary axis so as to present in a transverse sec-

tion a star shaped or cruciform outline; leaves thin, double;
- 67

530 Report oF THE Strate Geoxoaist.

celluliferous on both faces; * * * zocecia with subcircu-
lar apertures; interspaces apparently solid at the surface; occu-
pied by vesicular tissue internally. As growth (proceeded, a
gradually increasing deposit of minutely perforated calcareous
laminz covered the lower and older portions x the _zoarium.”
(Marx anp WorrTHEN.)

87

Fic. 87. Evactinopora, illustrating various forms of this genus.

Pacuypiotya, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 152. 1882.)
Type, Pachydictya robusta, Ulrich

“ Zoaria varying from paralleled, margined, narrow branches,
to large undulating expansions. The edges are acute and have
a noncelluliferous border; * * * zocecia rising rather ab-
ruptly from the mesial lamina, near which they have very thin
walls; are broad elliptical or subquadrate in outline, arranged in
longitudinal series, and partially separated from each other by
small vesicles. Toward the surface their walls are thickened,

GENERA OF THE Nortu AMERICAN PatArozorc Bryozoa. 531

ring like, and usually completely isolated and the interspaces

solid.” (ULrtoz.)
Puyxuopictya, Ulrich.

(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 153. 1882.)
Type, Phyllodictya frondosa, Ulrich.
“Zoaria leaf-like or consisting of irregular, broad branches.
Zocecia tubular, the prostrate portion long, apertures circular,
slightly oblique, with the posterior portion elevated; inter-

spaces wide, solid, traversed*vertically by numerous minute
tubuli.” (Uxricz.)

Fic. 88. Phyllodictya frondosa.
Upper fig., natural size. *
Lower left hand fig., a portion of the surface x18.
Lower right hand fig., a transverse section of the cell tubes, x18.

Prismorora, Hall.
(Bryozoans of the Upper Helderberg Group, p.17. 1881.)

Type, Prismopora triquetra, Hall.
(Plate 12, figs. 9-15.)

Zoarium ramose ; consisting of triangular branches, bifurcating
or sometimes trifurcating; frequently forming irregular groups;
branches with the sides equal or unequal, concave; celluliferous
on each face ; cells tubular, arising from the mesial plates, which
extend from the center of the branch to each angle; margins of
the branches solid ; intercellular tissue vesiculose.

532 Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

Scavcaripora, Hall.
(Trans. Albany Institute, Vol. X, p. 159. 1881.)
Type, Scalaripora scalariformis, Hall.
(Plate 12, figs. 16-22.)

Zoarium consisting of groups of triangular prismatic branches,
celluliferous on each face; sides of branches concave and crossed
by transverse, elevated, celluliferous scale ; cells tubular, arising
from the radiating mesothece of. the branches and from the
mesotheca of the scale ; marginseof the branches and ge non-

celluliferous.
STICTOCELLA, Nov. gen.

(Plate 10, figs. 6, 7.)

Type, Stictocella sinuosa, Hall (sp.).

Zoarium consisting of flattened bifurcating branches, cellulif-
erous on each face; cell apertures oval, irregularly disposed ;
peristomes equally elevated; interapertural space occupied by
short irregular ridges, which are frequently covered by minute
nodes, giving to the surface of some of the species a granular
appearance. ;

This species differs from Stictopora in the irregular disposi-
tion of the cell apertures, and in the presence of the irregular
ridges between the cell apertures.

STicTOPORINA, NOV. gen.
(Plate 10, fig. 8.)

Type, Stict-porina subcarinata, Hall (sp.).

Zoarium’ consisting of flattened bifurcating branches, cellulitf-
erous on each face; cell apertures arranged in longitudinal
parallel rows, circular; peristomes prominent; apertures of the
two central rows the boalee eradually enlarging to the outer
row; margins of. branches sca transverse section of the
branches lenticular; central rows S apertures separated by a
ridge, sometimes the adjacent two rows are also separated by a
carina. aa

This form has some resemblance to T#niopora (and is erro-
neously given by Mirier as a synonym), but aiffers from that
genus in its more decidedly bifurcating mode of growth, and in
the form of its transverse section. In this genus a section is
lenticular, the most gently rounded near the base, while in

GeneRA or THE NorrH AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 533

T»yropora the sides of the branches are angular, and near the
base the branches are always triangular.

Tzntopicty4, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. [ll., Vol. VIII, p. 528, pl. 67, figs. 1, 1b.)
Type, Zweniodictya ramulosa, Ulrich.

“ Zoarium growing from a basal expansion, into dichotomously .
divided narrow branches or broad fronds; * * * apertures
elliptical or subcircular, surrounded by a sloping area. Inter-
spaces ridge like.” (UxRicH.)

This genus very closely resembles and is probably identical
with Sricrorora.

FiG.89. Teniodictya ramulosa, natural size.
Fic.90. Surface of same, x9.

Tzniopora, Nicholson. |
(Geol. Mag., N. S., London, Vol. I, p. 120. 1874.)
Type, Twniopora exigua, Nicholson.
(Plate 11, figs. 12-16; Plate 12, figs. 1-6.)

Zoarium ramose, flattened, proceeding from a spreading base, or
from rootlets attached to foreign bodies; branches triangular or
flattened. The branches of the lower portion of the frond are
usually triangular, though this condition may occur on all por-
tions of the frond; sides concave, equal or nearly so; from each
angle proceed depressed, quadrangular branches, which both
bifurcate and ramify laterally, continuing growth in the same
manner as the parent branches; margins flat, smooth; cells
tubular, cylindrical, gradually enlarging to the aperture.

534 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

In the triangular branches they proceed from lamin, which
extend from the center to each angle of the branch; in the flat- —
tened branches they proceed from the mesotheca, and are recum-
bent for about one-half their length, then abruptly turning and
generally opening directly outward ; intercellalar tissue vesicular q
cell apertures disposed in parallel longitudinal rows, and frequently .
in oblique ascending rows from the middle of the branch; —
‘apertures of the central rows the smallest, gradually enlarging

to the marginal rows. .

There is usually a prominent carina along the middle of the

flattened branches.

—

Family Intraporidz, nov. fam.

- The forms included in this family have essentially the same
manner of growth as the Stictoporide, but differ from the mem-
bers of that family in having the interapertural space occupied
by the cavities of vesicles.

The following genera are included in the family; CosomngLua,
INTRAPORA, SEMIOPORA AND STICTOPORELLA. —

Coscinetia, Hall.
(Pal. N. Y., Vol. VI, p. 19, pl. 64, figs. 9-127 1ssae)

Type, Coscinella elegantula, Hall.

(Plate 14, figs. 7-12.)

Zoarium consisting of an explanate frond, celluliferous on each -
face, with perforations or fenestrules at somewhat regular distances
from each other; the whole having the appearance of being com-
posed of sinuous anastomosing branches; base spreading, adher-
ing to cyathophylloid corals or other bodies; mesotheca very
thin, marked by arching undulations of growth, and also by
longitudinal striations caused by the recumbent portions of the
cell tubes; cells tubular, cylindrical; for one-half their length
resting upon the mesotheca, then abruptly bending and continu-
ing at right angles to their former course, opening directly out-
ward; intercellular tissue composed of minute tubuli, with very
closely disposed septa, or of vesicles so disposed that they have
the appearance of septate tubuli; cell apertures circular; closely
and irregularly disposed. The interapertural surface, and a space
about .75 mm. wide around each fenestrule are occupied by
minute angular pits.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLarozoric Bryozoa. 535

cee ae Hall.
(Trans. Albany Institute, p. 157. 1881.)
Type, Jntrapora puteolata, Hall.
(Plate 11, figs. 1-9.)

Zoarium consisting of a flattened, dichotomously branching or
bifurcating frond, arising from a spreading base; cells tubular
for one-half the length, parallel with the mesotheca, then turning
abruptly outward; apertures oval, irregularly and very closely
disposed ; very frequently in contact; peristomes strong, slightly
and equally elevated. The interapertural space is occupied by
minute angular pits, generally a single series between adjacent
apertures ; intercellular space irregularly vesiculose.

SemioporaA, Hall.
(Trans. Albany Institute, Vol. X, p. 193. 1881.)

Type, Semiopora bistigmata, Hall.

(Plate 11, figs. 10-11.)

Zoarium consisting of a flattened dichotomously branched
frond, proceeding from a spreading base attached to foreign
bodies; branches narrow, not expanding before bifurcation ; non-
celluliferous marginal space very narrow; transverse section
abruptly narrowing and very thin toward the margin; obscurely
subangular near the middle; cells tubular, oblique, gradually
enlarging to the aperture. The intercellular tissue is composed
of irregularly disposed vesicles ; cell apertures oval, sometimes
nearly circular; regularly disposed in parallel longitudinal rows ;
the apertures of the marginal rows being larger than the others.
Between adjacent cell apertures in a longitudinal direction are
two minute pits side by side. In the course of growth these pits
form minute tubuli between the cell tubes.

STICTOPORELLA, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 152. 1882.)
Type, Stectoporella interstincta, Ulrich.

The type species of this genus belongs to Inrrapora; other
forms, as S. cribrosa, are members of the genus CoscrnELLa.

5386 Report or THE Strate Groxrogist.

Compare these figures with those of Intrapora puteolata-and
Coscinella elegantula.

91 92

Fig. 91. Stictoporella basalis, a portion of the frond, x9.
Fie. 92. A still further enlargement, x25.
Fic. 93. Stictoporella cribrosa, x6.

Family Cystodictyide, /Ulrich, emend.

The forms in this family have the same general appearance
and manner of growth as the forms included in the Stictororips,
but differ from those forms in having two septa, situated close ~—
together, in the cell tube, which form a lunarium at the aperture.
The following genera are included in this family: Cysropictya,
Coscintum, Coscinotrypa, Dicaotryea, Merxapora and Pxrac-

TOPOBA.
Cystopiotya, Ulrich.

(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V,p. 152. 1882.)

Type, Oystodictya ocellata, Ulrich.
(Plate 10, figs. 11-20.)

This genus has the same general’ appearance and mode of:
growth as Sricropora, but differs from that genus in having two
pseudosepta in the cell tube and a lunarium at the aperture.

Cystodictya Gilberti, though not the type species, shows the
characteristic features of the genus much more clearly than any
other.

Genera oF THE Nortu AMERICAN PaLaAhozoric Bryozoa. 537

Cosorntum, Keyserling.
(Geognost. Beobacht., p. 192. 1848.)

Type, Cosconium Cyclops, Keyserling.

(Plate 138, figs. 8-12; pl. XIV, fig. 1.)

Original diagnosis. ‘Lobed expansions in the form of a leaf,
consisting of two mutually applied strata, whose free planes ex-
hibit free pores quincuncially arranged so that on a cross fracture
of the leaf are seen the tubular oblique cells, biserially distributed
on either side, quite the same as in Escuara; but here the foli-
aceous expansions are perforated by a regular series of holes as
in Adonea cribriformis, from which it varies, however, in the
want of an articulated stipe. Our genus coincides also with
_ Esouara in the character of the intercellular substance, which is
permeated by capillary tubules. This substance fills up with
age; the holes likewise, which are then distinguished as spaces
without cells.” |

The fronds of this genus very closely resemble those of Cos-
OINELLA, but differ in the absence of interapertural pits, and in
the presence of pseudosepta and lunaria.

Coscinotrypa, Hall.

(Report of N. Y. State Geologist for 1885 ; advance sheets Expl.
of Plate X XIX. 1886.)
Type, Coscmotrypa cribriformis, Hall.
(Plate 13, figs. 1-7.)
Zoarium consisting of explanate fronds, celluliferous on both
. faces, with perforations or fenestrules at varying distances from
each other. At irregular intervals the surface is raised into
augular folds or plications, which continue growth in the same
manner as and at right angles to the parent frond. These in
turn give rise to similar elevations, the frond forming a very
irregular mass; cell apertures arched and triangular, usually
irregularly disposed, but sometimes alternating and subimbri-
cating. The apertures adjacent to the fenestrules radiate from
them; cells with two closely disposed, parallel pseudosepta,
which form a lunarium at the cell aperture, which consists of
strong crescentic denticulations.. The fenestrules, in size and
distance from each other, are extremely variable.
68

538 Report or THE Strate GEOLOGIST.

‘ °
Meexarora, Ulrich.

(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 183. 1890.)
Type, Meekapora eximia, Ulrich.

Original diagnosis. “ Bifoliate, sometimes branching ; the
median laminz thin, flexuous; cells arranged with their oblique

94

FIG. 94. Upper left-hand fig., Meekapora eximia, a frond, and vertical section, naturai size.
Upper right-hand fig., transverse section, x18.
Middle figs., surface x9 and x16.
Lower right-hand figs., M. clawsa. Surface, x9 and xi8.
Lower left-hand fig , vertical section, x18,

GenERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozoric Bryozoa. 539

apertures directed toward the distal margin of the expansion;
lunarium moderate or obsolete ; cell tubes oblique, the anterior
walls thinned and flexuous; diaphragms numerous, often
recurved ; ocecium a large oval cell, showing a convex space with
a small apical perforation.” (Ulrich.)

- Paractopora, Hall.
(Trans. Albany Inst., abstract, p..12.. 1881.)
Glyptotrypa, Ulrich.
Type, Phractopora cristata, Hall.
; (Plate 24, figs. 11-14.)

Zoarium consisting of explanate fronds, having the surface
raised at irregular intervals into prominent crests, which are
celluliferous on each face; cells tubular, arising from a mesotheca,
cellujiferous on each face, with lunaria, which are frequently
indistinct. The apertures are generally disposed in diagonally
intersecting rows; intercellular structure, near the base, irreg-
ularly vesiculose, and having the appearance of septate tubuli
above.

95. 96.

Fig. 95. Phractopora sagenella, natural size.
Fig. 96. Phractopora michelini, natural size.

540 Report OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Family Actinotrypide.
Actinotrypa, Ulrich.

(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p. 386. 1890.)

Type, Actinotrypa peculiaris, Ulrich.

“Zoaria very much as in Dichotrypa. Zocecial apertures show-
ing the ends of from eight to ten vertical septa-like ridges, which
extend down the inner side of the vestibule, nearly or quite to
the primitive apertures.” (ULrtou.) |

The structure of the cell tubes precludes placing this genus
under either Stictororip# or OysToDICTYID&.

97. 98. 99.

Fie. 97. ; Actinotrypa peculiaris, portion of the surface, x9.
Fie. 98. A still further enlargement, x18.

Fie. 99. A transverse section, showing the structure of the zoarium a short distance from the
surface. ;

Family Rhinoporidz, Ulrich, emend.
Rurnopora, Hall.
(Pal. N. Y.,: Vol: UH, p. 170-1528
Type, Rhinopora verrucosa, Hall.

Zoarium consisting of lamellate or subpalmate fronds, which
are celluliferous on both sides. The outer edges are thickened
and celluliferous, and the entire surface on both sides is uni-
formly tuberculous. The tubercles (monticules) are usually
smooth and solid at their summits, rarely celluliferous; surface
also exhibiting slender, rounding, bifurcating ridges, which,
when the zoarium is a little worn, appear as shallow grooves;
cell apertures nearly circular, occupying the summits of prom-
inent papille, arranged in more or less regular intersecting lines ;
jnterapertural space smooth; intercellular space occupied by
mesopores. 7

Genera or THE Norra AmeriIcaAN Patarozorc Bryrozoa. 541

‘Family Ptilodictyidz, Zittel, emend.

The genus Prmoprorya includes those forms which are pointed
below, articulating into a spreading base; unbranched; straight
or curved; but other genera are included in this family whose
structure and mode of growth is the same as that of Pu11xo-
pioTya, except that they are bifurcating.

The following genera are included in this family: Grapto-
pioTya, Paznoprora, Prinop:otya, Sticropormna and STIoTOTRYPA.

Grapropiotya, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 165. 1892.)

Type, Graptodictya perelegans, Ulrich.

“ Zoarium arising from a pointed articulated base into continu-
- ous dichotomously divided narrow branches ; zocecia with sub-
circular apertures surrounded by a low peristome; subpolygonal
in outline; interspaces depressed, generally linear; sometimes
with one or two fine, tortuous, elevated lines; vertically linear in
longitudinal sections, but with the lines interrupted.” (Uxrtoz.)

| Psarnopors, Hall.
(Pate y Olt p26, 1852.)
Type, Phenopora explanata, Hall.
(Plate 15, figs. 8-10.)

Bryozoan forming thin, broad or ensiform expansions, cellulifer-
ous on each face; cell apertures oval, separated by ridges, and
having two minute pits between the ends of adjacent apertures.

This genus has a very close resemblance to the typical forms of
Pritoprotya, but is separated from them by the presence of inter-
apertural pits, which is a constant feature.

Pritoprotya, Lonsdale.
(Murch. Silurian System, p. 676. 1839.)

Type, Ptilodictya lanceolata, Lonsdale.

(Plate 15, figs. 4-7.)
~ Bryozoum consisting of a radially striated basal expansion,
attached to foreign bodies, and which has at the center of the
upper surface a socket for articulation with the subsolid extremity
of the erect and conjoined frond; frond commonly lanceolate or
falciform unbranching ; margins of frond acute, noncelluliferous,

4

549 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

smooth or striated; disposition of cell apertures variable; in the

typical forms plumose, with longitudinal rows in the middle of

the frond, and oblique lateral rows diverging from those on each

side. Other species have longitudinal rows separated by ridges,

and still others have the apertures arranged in diagonally inter-

secting rows. 3 :
Pritotrypa, Ulrich.

(Geol. Sur Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 193. 1890.)
Type, Ptilotrypa obliquata, Ulrich. |

Original diagnosis. “Bifoliate, forming large ramose expansions.
Zocecial tubes and apertures very oblique. At the upper extrem-

100. 101.

Fie. 100. Ptilotrypa obliquata, natural size.

Fig, 101. Vertical section,"natural size.

Fig. 102. A portion of the surface enlarged.

Fig. 103. Tangential section, showing usual characters and accessory pores.

Genera or THE Nortu AMERICAN PaLArozoric Bryozoa. 543

ity of the acutely oval aperture, there is a small cell, which is
best seen in.a tangential section; surface. with irregular longi-
tudinally channeled spots.” (Uxrtc# )

Sricroporma, Hall.
(EalN. ¥-) Vol Vij}p: 20. 1887.)

Type, Stictoporina claviformis, Hall.
(Plate 10, figs. 1, 2.)

Zoarium obtusely pointed at the base, enlarging above and
becoming flattened; bifurcations few ; cells tubular, arising from
a mesotheca; apertures oval, disposed in diagonally intersecting |
rows; interapertural space elevated, angular, enclosing the aper-
tures in rhomboidal or polygonal areas.

Family Clathroporide.

The forms of this family are similar to those of Priioptoty-
ip in the form and arrangement of the cell apertures, but
they consist of fenestrate fronds, arising directly from a spread-
ing base. ;

tp Set Hall.
peal Ne. Ye Viel Tt p:.169:° 1852.)

Type, Clathropora frondosa, Hall.

Original diagnosis. “ Ramose or reticulate corals; uniformly
poriferous on both sides of the reticulate fronds and all sides and
branches of the stems.of the ramose forms; apertures of cells
more or less quadrangular; regularly arranged in series parallel
to the direction of the stems or obliquely in quincunx order.”

Two forms which can not be placed in the same genus were
embraced in this description. The forms which have been con-
sidered for the past forty years as CLatHropora have the same gen-
eral appearance and manner of growth as Cosornium, but the cell

B44 Report oF THE Srate GEoxocist.

structure resembles that of Prinopictya. Clathropora frondosa
must then be considered as the type of the genus.

Fic. 104. Clathropora frondosa, natural size.

Family Acrogenide.

This family includes segmented forms, celluliferous on each
face, segments narrow, very gradually increasing in width; mar
gins noncelluliferous. It includes the genera Aoroamnta and —
DicRANOPORA.

AcrogcentA, Hall.
(Rept. of State Geologist, p. 51. 1884.)
Type, Acrogenia prolifera, Hall.
(Plate 15, figs. 11-20.)

Zoarium segmented, arising from cylindrical rootlets. Two
segments proceed from the truncated termination of the preced-

: f

GENERA OF THE Nortn AMERICAN PaLArEozoic Bryozoa. 545

ing one; base of each segment obconical; terete above and
strongly striated, gradually becoming flattened and celluliferous;
apertures in rows separated by ridges; central ranges of aper-
tures the smaller; apertures with comparatively prominent
lunaria.

Dieekxorons: Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 166, pls. 6, 7.)
Type, Dicranopora internodia, Ulrich.

Zoarium comprised of bifurcating segments; bifurcations
short; extremities truncate; a bifurcating segment arising from

- each preceding truncated extremity; margins subparallel; cell
* apertures usually arranged in parallel longitudinal rows, sepa-

rated by ridges; the apertures of the outer rows being larger
than the others; margins of segments noncelluliferous.

This genus bears some resemblance to Aorogenta, but differs
from that genus in the fact that each two segments proceed from
the bifurcations of the preceding segment instead of from the
truncated extremity of a simple segment.

Goniotrypa, Ulrich.
(Micro. Pal. of Canada, Pl. 2, p.14; Pl. 9. 1889.)
Type, Goniotrypa bilateralis, Ulrich.

“ Like Dicranopora in all respects, save that there is a promi-
nent median ridge on each of the two faces of the double-leaved
segment.” (ULRIcH). -

Family Thamnotrypide.

This family includes at present only the genus THamNnorryPa, a
form which can not well be included in any of the existing
families. .

69

546 Report oF THE Strate GEOLOGIST.

Taamnotrrypa, Hall.
™ (Pal. N.Y; Vol. VL p. 101, Pl. 33, fiegaoeeue
Type, Thamnotrypa divaricata, Hall.
(Plate 12, figs. 7, 8.)

Zoarium consisting of a very narrow. stipe, from which pro-
ceed, rectangularly, lateral branches; celluliferous on each face ;
- cell apertures oval; usually disposed in two parallel longitudinal
rows, separated by a prominent ridge. Sometimes three. rows
occur and occasionally four rows for a short distance on the
stipe. On the lateral branches there are never more than two
rows.

Family Arthroclemide.

Zoarium articulated, ramose ; consisting of numerous subcylin-
drical segments; cells subtubular, more or less oblique; radially
arranged around a central axis, opening on all sides of the seg-
ments. The family includes the following genera: ArTHROCLEMA,
He opora and (?) ScEPrRoPoRA.

ARTHROCLEMA, billings.
(Pal. Foss., Vol. I, p. 54. 1862.)
Type, Arthroclema pulchella, Billings.

Zoarium jointed, composed of numerous ‘subcylindrical seg-
ments; celluliferous on all sides; arranged in a pinnate manner ;
articulation both terminal and lateral. The segments ‘are of
three kinds, primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary
segments form the strong central stem, of which each seg-
ment has normally one or two sockets on opposite sides, for
articulation with the secondary segments, which usually articu-
late in like manner, terminally with each other and laterally with
still more slender tertiary segments; cells subtubular, apertures
ovate, oblique, the lower border more or less prominent ; disposed
in longitudinal rows separated by ridges.

~ Pe,

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLarozoric Bryozoa. 547

106 105 107 108

ws
eae
35,

X
s

a\ he aes
-%

p
S on ;

5

‘"

«
ge
fi di
J

VSP

AOR, OO

nr re ee ee

Satin
Moe OF

co

Fie. 105. Arthroclema Billingsi, natural size.

fie. 106. A. cornutum, one of the primary segments, showing lateral sockets.

Fie 107. A. cornutum, four primary segments, natural size, and three x7, showing the
articulating sockets near the base of each.

Fic. 108. Five of the secondary segments, natural size, and x7.

Fie. 109. A. striatum, lateral view of a large and strongly striated primary segment,
x18.

Fie. 110. A secondary segment, x18, aid «nd view of the preceding, x18.

Fic. 111. A.armatum, a complete segment of the secondary set, x18.

Fic. 112. A. cornutum, a primary segment, x18.

- 548 ' Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Henopora, Hall.
(Pal. N. Y., Vol. II, p. 44. 1852.)
Type, Helopora fragilis, Hall.

Zoarium consisting of numerous, subequal, small cylindrical
segments, articulating terminally; celluliferous on all sides; cell
tubes somewhat oblique, rectangular to the surface, or geniculate ;
cell apertures oval; arranged in a diagonally intersecting series
or in longitudinal series separated by ridges.

118 114 ; 115

Figs. 118,114. Helopora Harrisi; two segments, natural size and x18.
Fie. 115. Vertical section, and transverse section, x50.
Sorprropora, Ulrich.
(American Geologist, Vol. I, p. 228. 1888.)
Type, Sceptropora facula, Ulrich.

Segments club shaped ; the lower half striated ; noncelluliferous; —
the extremity bulbous; upper half expanded; the center of the
top with a large socket; cells tubular, arranged between vertical
lines ; apertures ovate.

GenerRA OF THE Nortno AMERICAN PAaLArEozoric Bryozosa. 549

Fie. 116. Sceptropora facula, a,Segment of the average size and appearance; b, A vertical section,
showing tubular cells, and central axis; c, Transverse section of a lower half of a segment;-
d. Transverse section of the expanded portion of a very large segment. All x18.

Family Rhomboporide, nov. fam.

Zoarium ramose solid; apertures more or less regularly
arranged, oval or circular, placed at the bottom of a sloping
area, rhombic or hexagonal in outline, or between straight or
flexuous longitudinal ridges; mesopores wanting.

The following genera are included in this family: Catoconus,
Raomporpora and TREMATELLA.

Catoconvs, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p. 402. 1890.)
Type, Caloconus rhombicus, Ulrich.

“Zoarium simple, hollow, expanded gradually from the stri-
117 118

Fie. 117. Ccaloconus granosus, natural size and x18.
Fic. 118. C. rhombicus, natural size and x18.

550 _ Report or tHe State GEoxoaist.

ated and subacute basal extremity; substance thin; external
characters of zoceciaasin RuomsBoprora; primitive portion short ;
hemisepta well developed.” (Uxgtiox.)

RHoMBOPORA, Meek.
(Pal. Eastern Nebraska, p. 141.)
Type, Z2hombopora lepidodendroidea, Meek.
(Plate 19, figs. 10-13.)

Zoarium ramose, solid; cells cylindrical, radiating from an
imaginary axis; bea cell apertures disposed in straight
longitudinal rows or in diagonally intersecting rows. In
the former case the rows are generally separated by promi-
nent ridges; in the latter the interapertural surface consists
of rhombodial or polygonal elevations surrounding the aper-
tures. Usually nodes or short spines occur between the cell
apertures. The intercellular space near the surface is occupied
by tubuli formed by the growth of the interapertural nodes.

TREMATELLA, Hall.
(Rep. of N. Y. State Geologist for 1886, advance sheets.)

Type, Zrematella annulata, Hall.

(Plate 19, figs. 6-9.)

The internal character is similar to that of Ruomsorora, but
the cells are more closely disposed and the intercellular space is
generally solid; but sometimes the spiniform tubuli occur. The
apertures are more closely arranged in a somewhat quincunx
order, surrounded by polygonal elevations. The monticules are
elongated laterally and are so disposed as to give to the branches

an annulated appearance. This peculiar disposition of the mon-
ticules has been observed in all the species of the genus.

Family Streblotrypide, Ulrich, emend.

The forms included in this family are very similar to the

Raompoporip&, but they have in the peripheral portion intercel- |

lular tubuli and interapertural polygonal pits.

1
}
¢
}
}

GENERA OF THE NortHo AMERICAN Patartozoric Bryozoa. 551

Siksb,ctrypa, Ulrich.

(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p.103. 1890.)

Type, Streblotrypa Nickels, Ulrich.

(Plate 19, figs. 14, 15.)

The internal and external characters of this genus are very
similar to those of Raomsorora, but between the ends of the cell
apertures are one or more angular pits, and in the peripheral
intercellular space mesopores instead of “spiniform tubuli.”’

Catiotrypa, Hall.

Pera, OY VOL. Vil: p24. L6sT,)

Type, Callotrypa macropora, Hall. |

(Plate 18, figs. 8-14.)

Zoarium ramose solid; cells arising from an imaginary axis at
the center of the branch; cell apertures oval, irregularly dis-
posed; peristomes equally elevated; interapertural space occu-
pied by angular pits; sometimes there are also more or less
prominent spines; peripheral intercellular space occupied by
mesopores and spiniform tubuli.

The internal structure of this species is almost identical with
Str: BioTRyePa, but it differs from that genus in having the cell aper-
tures irregularly dispcsed and entirely surrounded by the meso-
pore apertures.

Byinorors, Miller and Dyer.
(Cont. to Pal., No. 2, p. 6. 1879.)
Type, Bythopora fruticosa, Miller and Dyer.
“ Dendroid, branches small, sometimes anastomosing; smooth;

=,
cell apertures longer than wide; separated by impressed lines.”

Fic. 119. Specimens of the genus, nat. size.
Fic. 120. Bythopora Herricki, surface, x9.
Fic. 121. B. alcicornis,°x9.

552° ReEport OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Family Rhabdosemonide, Vine.

This family includes forms whose external characters are simi-
lar to those of Ruomzororip#, but the cells arise from a filiform

axis at the center of the branch. It includes the following —

genera: AcanTsoctemA, Nemataxis and (?) TRoPID PoRA.

AcantHoctEMé, Hall. .

(Pal. N. Y., Vol. VI, p. 72. 1887.)
Type, Acanthoclema alternatum, Hall.
(Plate 16, figs. 6-12.)

Zoarium ramose, branches slender, cells cylindrical, arising
from a filiform axis at the center of the branch; cell apertures
oval, arranged in longitudinal parallel rows, separated by ridges
or in diagonally intersecting rows; each aperture enclosed by a
polygonal elevation. Nodes or conical spines usually occur
between the cell apertures. When the interapertural space is
spinulose the intercellular space is occupied by tubuli formed by
the growth of the hollow spines. When the spines are absent
the intercellular space is solid. The external characters of this
genus and Raomsorora are so similar that a knowledge of the
internal characters is necessary to distinguish the genera.

Nemaraxis, Hall.
(Pal. N.Y¥., Vol. V1, p. 740% 18873
Type, Nemataczis fibresa, Hall.
: | (Plate 16, figs. 15-18.)
Zoarium ramose; cells cylindrical, arising from a central filiform
axis, diverging at an angle of forty-five degrees until within a

short distance of the surface, when they abruptly turn outward;

. the former portion of the cells in contact, the latter slightly sepa-
rated; interspace apparently solid; cell apertures oval, arranged in
parallel longitudinal rows, separated by a ridge; peristomes very

thin, slightly elevated. On the surface, at intervals, there are.

monticules destitute of cell apertures, which extend across the
branch and give to it an annulated appearance. Frequently a
solid calcareous growth extending over the branches obliterates
all traces of the cell apertures.

ee

Tl

——

GenerRA OF THE Norto AMERICAN PaLaArozorc Bryozoa. 553

TropipoporaA, Hall.
(Report of N. Y. State Geologist for 1886, Expl. pl. 25. 1886.)

Type, Zropidopora nana, Hall.

(Plate 16, figs. 1, 2.)

Zoarium minute, ramose; cell apertures arranged in irregular
longitudinal rows, separated by sinuous ridges; peristomes very
thin, slightly elevated.

It has been impossible to determine the internal character of
this genus, but the external characters are so different from other
Trematoporoid forms, that there here seems a necessity for a new
genus. . |

Family Bactroporide.
Baotropora, Hall.
(Pal aN. Yes Vok. V1) p.l93. )1887.)

Type, Bactropora granistriata, Hall. ;

; (Plate 16, figs, 13, 14.)

Zoarium simple, unbranched, lower extremity pointed, striated;
external and internal characters very similar to Raomsopora,
but it can not be placed in the family Ruomsoporipa#, on account
of its simple form and pointed, striated base.

Nematopora, Ulrich.

teco our Dev ol Vit, p. 401. - 1890.)
Type, Vematopora quadrata, Ulrich.
“Zoarium ramose, very slender; continuous above the pointed

basal extremity; cells subtubular, short; arranged ina radial
ne ARB 124

123

Fic. 122. Nematopora quadrata, natural size and x18.
Fig. 123. A vertical section, x18.

Fic. 124.. N. delicatula. A frond, natural size and x18.
Fig. 125. A transverse section, x50.

70

554 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

manner around a very minute axial tube; apertures elongate
oval, with a very thin, equally elevated peristome; disposed in
longitudinal series, separated by smooth or granulose ridges.”

Family Chilotrypide.
Cattotrypa, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin..Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, p. 49. 1884.)

Type, Chilotrypa hispida, Ulrich.

(Plate 21, figs. 1, 2.)

Zoarium ramose, branches cylindrical; cells tubular, arising
from a small axial tube and curving to the surface; apertures
oval, oblique to the surface, the lower portion of the peristome
being the most strongly elevated; frequently arranged in diag-
onally intersecting rows; interapertural space solid ; intercellular
space vesiculose; vesicles comparatively large and irregularly
disposed.

- Family Fistuliporinide.

The forms comprised in this family consist of explanate fronds,
free or incrusting, globuiar or semiglobular masses, occasion-
ally ramose, with hollow branches; cells tubular, cylindrical,
arising from a base consisting of a wrinkled epitheca; cell walis
smooth, entire; intercellular space occupied by vesicular tissue,
or tabulate mesopores, serving as a support to the slender cell
tubes. | ;

Some of the forms have hitherto been included in the family
Fistuiporip#, but they differ from the forms properly included
in that family by the entire absence of pseudosepta, a difference
in the cell structure which must be accompanied by a correspond-
ing difference in the structure of the animal. The following
genera are included in this family: Ca ooavtis, FisTuLrrorina,
LicHENOTRYPA, PiNacoTRYPA.

Caxocautis, Hall.
(Pal IN. Y., Wolk: Vil, p.323. 1S Sia)
Type, Celocaulis venusta, Hall.
(Plate 21, figs. 3-5.)

Zoarium ramose, hollow, inner surface a thin epitheca with
transverse wrinkles, and fine longitudinal striations; cells tubu-

Genera or THE Nortuo American’ Patartozoic Bryozoa. 555

lar, arising from the epitheca, and parallel with it for a short
distance, then turning abruptly outward; apertures circular or
oval, sometimes irregularly disposed, at other times in a more or
less regular quincunx order; peristomes thin, distinctly and
equally elevated, usually smooth, but sometimes with numerous
minute nodes or spinules; intercellular space occupied by
irregularly disposed vesicles, or by regularly superimposed
vesicles, resembling tabulate mesopores; interapertural space
occupied by minute angular pits. This genus has been con-
sidered by one or more authors as a synonym of CartLotrypa, but
the structure is radically different. In that genus the cells arise
from a small, irregularly contracting and expanding tube, and
the posterior portion of the peristome is much the thickest,
strongly elevated and hood-like. Compare the figures of the
two genera. ;

FIsTULIPORINA, NOV. gen.
(Plate 21, figs. 11-15.)
Type, /istuliporina serrulata.

Zoarium usually consisting of free or incrusting explanate
fronds, or of masses formed by the aceretion of successive layers
of growth; cells tubular, cylindrical, rectangular or oblique to
the surface ; intercellular space, near the base, occupied by
irregularly disposed vesicles; above by regularly superimposed
vesicles, or by tabulate tubuli (mesopores); cell apertures circu-
lar or oval; irregularly disposed ; peristomes equally developed,
often prominent; often granulose or spinulose; interapertural
space occupied by angular pits, and frequently, in addition, by
more or less prominent conical nodes or spines. This genus
differs from Fistu.tpora in the form of the cell tube, and in the
absence of pseudosepta and lunaria.

Pryacotrypa, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 384. 1890.)
Type, Pinacotrypa elegans, Ulrich.

“Thin, contorted expansions, with a wrinkled epitheca below ;
cells with subcircular apertures, and well-developed granose peris-

~ tomes, thin walls, and, so far as observed, no lunarium ; inter-

cellular spaces wide, occupied by a single series of very large -

556 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

angular mesopores, which never present the appearance of vesicu-
lar tissue; tabulze horizontal, few in the cell tubes, numerous in
the mesopores.”

Family Favicellide.

This family includes those forms having the cell apertures in a
depressed vestibular area, enclosed by angular elevations, and
comprised of two groups, in one of which the interapertural sur-
face is solid, in the other occupied by Age pits. It includes
the genera Favioetia and Licuenoreypa.

F'AVICELLA, rs
(Pals: N.. Y.5 Vol W lyon xviii Srey
Type, Favicella inclusa, Hall.
(Plate 24, figs. 15-17.)

Zoarium consisting of thin, lamellate expansions, free, or
incrusting other objects; cells tubular, cylindrical; for nearly
one-half their length parallel and in contact with the epitheca;
then somewhat abruptly bending, continuing almost rectangularly
to the former portion, and opening directly outward inter-
cellular space occupied by vesicles, usually regularly super-
imposed, and having the appearance of tabulate mesopores about —
two-thirds the diameter of the cell tubes, with closely disposed
tabulze ; cell apertures circular, irregularly disposed ; peristomes
thin, equally elevated. Midway between the cell apertures are
comparatively strong, angular ridges, which coalesce and inclose
the apertures in pentagonal or hexagonal vestibular areas. The
surface between the angular ridges and cell apertures is occupied
by minute angular pits, of much less diameter than the vesicles.
On the surface at intervals are monticules occupied by pits or
vesicles at the center ; the cell apertures immediately surrounding
them being larger than those on other portions of the frond.

LicnEnotrypa, Ulrich.
(Cont. Amer. Pal., p. 23. 1886.)
Type, Lichenotrypa longispina, Hall, (sp.).
(Plate 23, fig. 7.)
Zoarium consisting of thin laminate expansions incrusting
other objects. In the earlier stages of growth (which may be

a ee

Genera or THE Nortu AMERICAN PanaArozorc Bryozoa. 557

observed near the margin of the frond), the cell tubes are very
short, the apertures oval, closely and irregularly disposed ; per- -
istomes prominent, the posterior portion strongly elevated ;
interapertural space smooth, flat or slightly concave. As the
growth continues the posterior portion of the peristomes becomes
more elevated, and those of adjacent apertures are united by
thin irregular connecting walls, which traverse the interapertu-
ral spaces, and gradually form an elevated and very irregular net-
work, which at numerous points is further elevated into strong
spines. The apertures of some of the cell tubes occupy one side
of the bottom of the large depressions; while others have grown
with the net-work, and are on a level with numerous, irregularly
distributed, angular and smaller cells, probably corresponding to
the vesicular tissue of the immature type.

Family Selenoporide.
This family includes the forms similar to Licnmna 1a, but hav-
ing the cell apertures enclosed in a vestibular area formed by the
coalescence of thin prominent plications.

SELENoPoRA, Hall.
(eae Nave Vol L.-p.-xyils. ISS.)

\

Type, Selenopora circincta, Hall.
(Plate 24, figs. 4-7.)

Zoarium forming incrusting expansions. Cells tubular, oblique
to the surface, pseudo-septate ; frequently alternating and imbri-

_ cating; apertures circular or slightly oval; anterior portion of

3D?

_ peristome slight or entirely wanting ; posterior portion strongly

elevated, denticulated, projecting over and partially concealing
the aperture. The vosterior portion of the peristomes are con-
nected by prominent oblique walls, which traverse the surface
between the apertures, uniting and forming polygonal vestibular
areas; the cell apertures being situated on the posterior portion
of the floor of the area; surface with flat circular macule des-
titute of cell apertures. The cell apertures adjacent to these
macule, and radiating from them, are larger and more oblique

than those on other portions of che frond ; intercellular structure

the same as in Fistunipora. It is distinguished from the Ovonte-

558 ReEporT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

TRYPID#& by the cell apertures being situated in vestibular areas ;
. from Favice.unz by the presence of pseudosepta and lunaria.

‘Family Fistuliporide, Waagen, emend.

The forms comprised inthis family usually consist of explanate
fronds, free or incrusting, globular or subglobular masses, or
sometimes of irregular masses. Cells tubular with two pseudo-
septa and a lunarium at the aperture ; intercellular space occupied
by vesicles or tabulate mesopores; near the base invariably by
vesicles, which probably serve to support the slender cell tubes.

The general appearance of these forms is very similar to the
FIsTULIeORINIDZ, but they may very easily be distinguished by
the presence of pseudosepta and lunaria. ‘The peculiar horse-
shoe shaped sinus along one side of the autopores (cell tubes)
formed by the pseudosepta has been considered with much prob-
ability, as corresponding in the living animal witha ciliated groove
(“siphonoglyphe”’) such as is found in the onopae of the
Aleyonarians.

“Tt is but fair to state here, that several authors consider Fistv-
LiporA and allied genera to be ccelenterate corals of the order
ALoyonaRI4, and to increase by coenenchymal gemmation; that
. the cell ee are occupied by autozooids a the vesicles or
mesopores by siphonozooids.

“In coenenchymal gemmation a number of these coenenchymal
tubes apparently unite to form together a new autozooid, so that
several reduced individuals become blended together into a single
perfectone. * * * Now with this transformation a great change
in size certainly goes hand in hand, and the new autozooid certainly _
requires much more room than did the siphonozooid. It might
then be imagined that in reality that only one of the siphono-
zooids inhabiting the coenenchymal tube is transformed into an
autozooid, but to make room for the new individual, thus formed,
the surrounding siphonozooids die, and that the first sign of the
beginning of the decay is just the thickening of the outer walls,
which are destined to form together the outer wall of the new —
autozooid.” (Waagen, Paleontographica Indica, Vol. I, Ser. XIII,
pp. 905, 906.)

If this view is correct, the vesicles (coenenchymal tubes) should
be smaller than the autopore, but in reality they are frequently

a le

Genera or THE Nortu AMERICAN PaLArozoic Bryozoa. 559

larger, as in Lichenalia cultellata, where the diameter is from
two to four times that of an autopore; and it seems almost a
rule that the smaller the autopores, the larger the vesicles pro-
portionally.

The forms of Fistutipora so gradually pass into other genera of
undoubted Bryozoa, that sometimes it is difficult to distinguish
the genera apart, especially from fragments. %istulipora cellata
and Jntropora puteolata have the cells and intercellular tissue so
similar, that it is only possible to distinguish the two genera by
their mode of growth; the one consisting of lamellate incrusta-
tions, and the other of bifoliate, dichotomously divided, flattened
branches, with noncelluliferous margins.

Fistutipora, McCoy.
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, 2d Series, Vol. 111, p. 180. 1849.)
Type, /istulipora incrustans, Phillips (sp.).
(Plate 22, figs. 11-13.)

Zoarium incrusting or massive, under surface of explanate
forms consisting of a wrinkled epitheca; cells tubular, tabulate ;
with two more or less prominent pseudosepta along one side,
giving a bilobed or trilobate form to a section of the cell; inter-
cellular space, near the base, occupied by irregularly reed
vesicles; above by vesicles or tabulated mesopores; sometimes
the Bales are so regularly superimposed that they resemble the
tabulate mesopores; cell apertures irregularly and generally
closely disposed, bilobate or trilobate in outline, and having on
the septate side a prominent lunarium; interapertural space
occupied by mesopore apertures or vesicular cavities; surface
usually with monticules or macule, the centers of which are
generally occupied only by angular pits, the cell apertures imme-
diately surrounding them being larger than those on other por-
tions of the frond.

Licnsenatt, Hall.
(Balen. ¥.,-Vol. 1, p..171- 91852.)
Syn., Dybowskiella. Type, Lichenalia concentrica, Hall.
(Plate 22, figs. 8-10; Pl. 28, figs. 1-6.)
Zoarium having the same general appearance and manner of
growth as Fisrucipora, but the interapertural surface is solid.

—560 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Notwithstanding statements to the contrary, it is a fact that the
‘same species has invariably a cellulose interapertural surface or
a solid one. Both characters do not occur on the same species.

FIsTULIPORELLA, NOV. gen. ag

Type, /istuliporella constricta, Hall (sp.).
(Plate 22, figs. 5-7.)

Zoarium laminar or massive from the superposition of suc-
cessive layers of growth ; cells tubular ; pseudoseptate ; apertures
subcircular, enclosed inasloping, polygonal, vestibular area. On
the interapertural surface, in addition to the vesicular cavities,
are small oval apertures, with equally elevated peristomes;
intercellular space vesiculose.

Strotorora, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p. 383. ee
Type, Strotopora Javeolata, Ulrich.

‘‘Ramose, branches large, irregular, solid or hollow; large,
abruptly spreading cells, which are supposed to represent ocecia,
are distributed among the ordinary cell apertures. When well
preserved they appear on the surface as strongly convex nodes,
with an opening on one side. In all other respects they are like
FisTuLieoRA.” | j

Fic. 126. Strotopora faveolata. Fragment, natural size and a portion of the surface of the

same, x9.
Fic. 127. ''Strotopora dermata. A flattened fragment, natural size and a portion of the same, X9.

GENERA OF THE Nortu AmeERICAN PaLArozotic Bryrozoa. 561

Family Odontotrypide.

The forms included in this family are usually very thin, incrust-
ing expansions, but sometimes ramose, branches hollow; zoarium
thin; cells short, oblique, pseudoseptate; intercellular space
vesiculose ; interapertural space solid.

Eripoprora, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 187. 1882.)

Type, Lridopora macrostoma, Ulrich. |

Original diagnosis. ‘ Zoarium thin, incrusting. Cell aper-
tures subtriangular or ovate, and moge or less oblique, with the
margin strongly elevated on oneside, or the peristome may extend
unequally all around the aperture ; it being always more promi-
nent on one side than the other. Cell apertures surrounded by
from one to three series «f smaller, angular, interstitial cells,
which, when the zoirium is well preserved, is covered by a
membrane. Intercellular spice occupied by vesi: ular tissue.”

Fic. 128. Eridopora macrostoma. 2. Enlargement of a portion of the surface. 2a. Vertical
section.

OpontotrypPa, Hall.

(Report of N. Y. State Geologist for 1835; advance sheets,
explanation plate 30, figs. 24-27. 1886.)
Type, Odontotrypa alveata, Hall.
(Plate 24, figs. 1-3.)

Zoarium consisting of very thin expansions incrusting other
objects; cells oblique, frequently imbricating; pseudoseptate ;
apertures oblique to the surface, trilobate, irregularly and very
closely disposed; peristomes thin, anterior portion slightly

elevated ; posterior portion more strongly elevated, and having
71

562 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

two prominent denticulations, producing a crescentic projection ;
intercellular space vesiculose; surface with elongate depressed
macule, destitute of cell apertures.

Pirzotrypa, Hall.

(Pal. NOY... Vol. Vijp:xvi: Sea
Type, Pileotrypa denticulata, Hall.
(Plate 23, figs. 8-15.)

Zoarium usually consisting of thin incrusting expansions, but
one form having the same characters is ramose, branches hollow.

Cell tubes very oblique, frequently imbricating, pseudoseptate ;
cell apertures trilobate, irregularly disposed, or alternating and
imbricating ; anterior portion of the peristome slightly elevated ;
posterior portion strongly elevated, projecting over and partially
concealing the aperture ; denticulate; on some parts of the frond
the upper portion of the cell tubes are frequently exposed for a
third or more of their entire length; intercellular space occu-
pied by irregularly disposed vesicles on tabulate mesopores ;
surface with frequent monticules the centers of which are desti-
tute of apertures; from this space the cell apertures radiate in
every direction; interapertural space solid.

GrossotryPa, Hall.

(Pal N_Y., Vol. V1, p. xvi geen)

Type, Glossotrypa paliformis, Hall.

(Plate, 24, figs. 8-10.)

Zoarium tubular, cylindrical, hollow; diameter of tube 2 mm.;
thickness of zoarium 40 mm. Cells tubular, with frequent
narrow projections, (semi diaphragms) from the cell walls, extend-
ing partially across the tube; two pseudosepta on one side; cell
apertures paliform, very closely disposed, frequently in diagonally
intersecting rows; the surface presenting a reticulated appear-
ance; apertures with denticulated lunarium; interapertural space
elevated, forming ridges; frequently a prominent node at the
intersection of the ridges; sometimes a depression or pit ; surface
with monticules which are laterally in contact, giving to the frond
an annulated appearance; intercellular space vesiculose.

GrenERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALArozoric Bryozoa. 563

Family Ceramoporide, Ulrich.
* The forms in this family are usually incrusting lamellate
expansions, but sometimes free; cell apertures arched or triangu-
lar, usually imbricating; no pseudosepta.
The following genera are included in the family: Aractropora,
Crramopora and Prricopora. ;

Atactopors, Ulrich. .
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. II, p. 119. 1879.)
Type, Atactopora hirsuta, Ulrich.

_“Zoarium consisting of very thin expansions incrusting other
_ objects; cell tubes short, very oblique, frequently alternating
and imbricating; cell apertures oblique to the surface, oval but
appearing petaloid from the numerous nodes, which occur not
only between the apertures, but also on the cell walls near the
aperture; surface with numerous small monticules, the centers of
which are destitute of cell apertures.”

Ceramopora, Hall.
(Pal. N. Y., Vol. II, p. 16%. 1852.)

Type, Ceramopora imbricata, Hall.
(Plate 20, figs. 10-15.)
Zoarium consisting of flattened discoidal or lamellate incrust-
ing expansions; cells radiating from one or more centers; cell
apertures arched or triangular, frequently alternating and imbri-

cating ; mesopores few or entirely wanting; interapertural sur-
face solid.

Perticopora, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 155. 1882.)-
Type, Petigopora gregaria, Ulrich.

Zoarium consisting of small circular or lamellate expansions
incrusting other objects; cell tubes rectangular or oblique to
the surface; walls very thin; cell apertures oval or circular,

564 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

sometimes polygonal; very frequently oblique to the surface,
alternating and imbricating, with frequent comparatively large
spines at the angles formed by the junction of the cell walls ;
surface with monticules having apertures larger than those on
other portions of the frond, the cell walls usually extending
above the surrounding surface.

129

Upper-right-hand figs. Petigopora gregaria, a frond natural size and vertical section enlarged.

Upper left-hand fig. Surface of same enlarged.
Lower right-hand figs. P. asperula, natural size and vertrical section enlarged.

Lower left-hand fig. Surface enlarged.

Family Ceramoporellide.
Crramororgtia, Ulrich. —
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p- 156. 1882.)

Type, Ceramoporella distincta, Ulrich.

Zoarium incrusting, becoming massive by the superimposition
of numerous thin layers; cell tubes short; walls thin; apertures
more or less oblique; posterior portion of peristome strongly
elevated, cucullate, denticulate ; mesopores abundant, often com-”
pletely isolating the cell tubes; surface with macule destitute
of cell apertures, frcm which the cell apertures frequently
radiate in all directions.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PAaLArEozoic Bryozoa. 565

This genus may be distinguished from Csramorora by the
numerous mesopores.

Fie. 180. Ceramoporella distincta. Surface x18.
Fig. 1381. C.interporasa. x18.
Fie. 1382. C.inclusa. Surface x9 and x18.

CattoporE.i A, Ulrich.
ieur.cm. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. for. 1882.)-
Type, Chiloporella flabellata, Ulrich.

Original diagnosis. “ Zoaria rising up into flabellate fronds
from a greatly expanded heavy crust ; cell tubes long, very thin-
walled ; large and of irregular shape in the axial region; walls
much thickened near the surface ; apertures ovate; the lunarium
conspicuously elevated; mesopores numerous; diaphragms few,
generally absent.”

(?)Synonym for Fistutrpora.

~

566 - Report or toe Stare GEoxoaist.

CrEPIPORA, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol. VIL, p. 404. 1890.)
Type, Crepipora simulans, Ulrich.

Incrusting, lamellate or massive from the superimposition of
successive layers of growth; cells slightly oblique ; pseudoseptal ;
apertures rhomboidal or pyriform; lunarium prominent ; surface
exhibiting at irregular intervals minutely porous or subsolid
elevations or depressions; mesopores usually restricted to the
maculee. } ;

Fie. 1838. Crepipora simulans. A frond, natural size.
Fig. 134. A portion of the surface, x12. :

Fic. 185. .C. impressa. A frond, natural size.

Fig. 1386. A portion of the surface, x12.

Dramesopora, Hall.
(Pal. N.-Y., Vol. il, p. 158... isazs)

Type, Diamesopora dichotoma, Hall.
(Plate 16, figs. 3-5.)

Zoarium ramose, hollow; thickness of frond about .33 mm.
Inner surface composed of an epitheca, marked by strong con-
centric undulations of growth, fine concentric striations and fine
longitudinal strie, caused by the recumbent portion of the cell

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PAaLArEozoric Bryozoa. 567

tubes ; cells tubular, cylindrical, arising from the epitheca, and
for about one-half their length parallel with it, then abruptly
turning outward and opening obliquely to the surface ; apertures
oval, more or less regularly alternating and imbricating; pos-
terior portion of the peristome strongly elevated and cucullate,
projecting over and partially concealing the apertures, with two
minute denticulations; surface with frequent macule destitute
of cell apertures, the macule immediately adjacent to them
being larger than the others and radiating.

OTHE. MON TICULLPOROIDS::

The systematic position of many of the forms which have been
included in the families Monrticutieorip# and Fisto.iporip# has
- been the subject of much discussion, and authors are not now
agreed whether they should be placed with the Bryozoa or
. the Corals. Although in this work they have been placed with
the Bryozoa, undcubtedly further study and investigation will
show that some of the forms at least must be associated with
the corals.

Prof. H. A. NicHoxson has made a close study of these forms,
and in his Manual of Paleontology, Vol. I, p. 352, he sums up
the matter as follows:

“Tt must be admitted, however, that the zodlogical affinities of
the Monticuliporoids is still a matter of uncertainty; in many of
their features, both structural and developmental, they show
marked relationship with the Actinozoa generally and with the
AtcyonaRkia in particular, while in others they approach the
Potyzos, and it must in the meanwhile remain a matter of indi-
vidual opinion whether the Monticuliporoids should be con-
sidered as a very peculiar group of corals or an equally peculiar
group of Potyzoa. * * * Leaving the external form of the
skeleton entirely out of consideration, the general features which
favor the reference of the Monticuliporoids to the Ccelenterates
is as follows:

1. The common. dimorphism of the colony in the Monticu
liporoids finds its best parallel in Hetiopora and Herioxirss, the
coelenterate nature of which is undoubted. In particular the
structural relationship between Fisrutirora and Hewiorirss or
PiLasmopora are exceedingly close, the skeleton in both consisting

568 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

of large sparsely-tabulated tubes (autopores) separated by
smaller closely-tabulated tubes (mesopores), and the former of
these possessing radial structure of the nature of septa or
pseudosepta. 7

2. The Monticuliporoids increase by fission as well as by gem-
mation, whereas the recent Bryozoa appear to be uniformly
characterized by a gemmiparous mode of development, which
varies in its precise detail in the various groups. Moreover the
gemmation of Monticuliporoids is intermural, and is precisely
similar to that which obtains among the Favostripa.

3. Coenenchymal gemmation occurs in the Fisrciiworips, this
mode of growth being otherwise characteristic of Htiopora
and the He tiouitips. oes

4. The walls of the tubes in the Monticuliporoids are imperfor-
ate, while in the calcareous Bryozoa the skeleton seems to be
almost always (probably always) perforate, and the cavities of
contiguous cells are usually placed in direct communication by
means of connecting foramina or tubes.

5. The abundant development of tabule in the Montiad eet
is a feature in which the organisms resemble a a large number of
undoubted corals.

6. Certain Monticuliporoids possess in their.autopores radial
folds or plications which may be compared with the pseudosepta
of Hetiorora; while others (Monticulipora mammulata) possess
radially disposed calcareous spines, which are closely similar to
the septal spines of Favosires, of Syrine pora and of certain
species of HELtoLirTxs.

On the other hand there are the following considerations which
would point to a relation between the Monticuliporoids and the
Bryozoa, or which, at any rate, would more or less diminish the
importance of some of the features above mentioned as showing —
Coelenterate affinities of these organisms.

1 The polyzoary of Hetsropora (which is undoubtedly a
Bryozoan*) consists of large tubes scattered among small ones,
though there does not seem to be any essential difference in the-
structure of these respectively.

*Waagen says: ‘It may suffice to have proved that the systematic positionof HETEROPORA is by no

means certain. * * * If HETEROPORA, from a careful study of its animals, should ever be proved to
be a Bryozoan, then also the FAVOSITID® would have to be removed to the BRYOZOA.’’

GreneRA oF THE NortH American Panarozorc Bryozoa. 569

2. Tabule are by no means confined to the Ccelenterates,
precisely similar structures, so far as appearances go, being present
in undoubted Bryozoa (e. g. in Hergropora, Lomopora, F'asorov-
LARIA, ALVEOLARIA, etc.)

8. Radial structures in the form of rows of spines are present
in a number of Bryozoa (e. g. HeteRorora, DiscoporELia, etc.)

4, There are various Bryozoa, such as RHomBorora, CERIOPORA,
and some of the Fenestelloids which possess structures very
similar to the “acanthopores” of many Monticuliporoids.
Structures possessing in some degree the same aspect, are found
in the recent Rzrzporipz, where they serve to carry the
avicularia. 3

5. Portions of the skeleton of /2stulipora incrustans have been
shown by Joun Youne, to become thickened and to exhibit a
finely tubular structure, similar to that seen in the skeleton of
FENESTBLLID&.

6. According to Linpsrrom, certain of the Monticuliporoids
pass through early stages of development in which the skeleton
is a distinctly Bryozoan type;* as an example of this we may take
the base of the singular Cellopora heterosole, the base, and therefore,
the first formed portion of which exhibits Bryozoan characters,
while the main mass of the skeleton is of the ordinary Monti-
culiporoid type. |

7. Lastly certain extinct forms, the Bryozoan nature of which
seems unquestionable, are hardly distinguishable, as regards
minute structure, from other forms which have always been
regarded as Monticuliporoids. Thus an extremely close
structural resemblance obtains between Cerzopora imterporosa on
the one hand and Batostomella (Monticulipora) tumida on the
other.

Wiiiam Waacen (Paleeontologia Indica, Vol. I, Series XIII,
p. 854), has the following to say in regard to the family, Monrr-

*Probably LINDSTROM was mistaken in his observations, being deceived by the superimposition of
different forms,the incrustation of one form by another being of common occurrence. Two cases
of metamorphosis are treated in-detail, one of Monticulipora (Diamulites) petropolitana, which
begins as a CERAMOPORA, and during its growth several times reverts to that form, but M. (D.) petro-
politana, has unmistakably an intermural gemmation, which would preclude its being a Bryozoan.
The other case is still more extraordinary, that of M. ostiolato. LINDSTROM says, that in its earliest
stage it is a DISCOPORELLA, then a FISTULIPoRA, then a THECOSTEGITES, finally becoming a MONTICULI-

PORA, FISTULIPORA has according to WAAGEN a coenenchymal gemmation, THECOSGITES a stolonal
gemmation and MONTICULIPORA an intermural gemmation.

72

570 ReEporT oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

cULIPoRIDZ. “The family which has given us the greatest
trouble in working out its affinities and its internal structure is ©
Montiovtirori#, not only because there had to be taken into
consideration two opposite opinions of long standing, one sup-
ported by Lrypsrrém and Rominerr, regarding these fossils as
Bry ozoa, and another, supported strongly by Nicxotson, taking
them to be corals, but also, because the family as circumscribed
by Nicwotson could not be retained as made to include forms of
AtcyonaRiA as well as those belonging to Huxacogauta.

“The first point, therefore, is to show the affinity of the Montr-
cuLIPorID& to the corals, in opposition to the view which con-
siders them as Bryozoa. In our endeavors to decide this question,
great difficulties -were encountered on account of the fact that no
decisive characters have so far been made out, by which the
stony abodes of certain corals, and those of the Bryozoa cyclo-
stomata could be distinguished. Both consist of minute cells,
more or less tubular, often with horizontal partitions or tabule ;
and even organs comparable externally to radial septa are not
entirely absent in some Bryozoa; from all of which it appears
that in fossil forms neither the general habitus of the colonies
nor the internal character of the single cells can be made use of
for the distinction of the Monticuttporip” and the Bryozoa. Yet
after careful study we detected certain distinctive characters in
the mode of propagation which are so radically different as to
affect the shape and structure of the colonies; the structure of
the walls of the cells is also different in the MonticuLiroripz
and in the Bryozoa. : |

‘“In all these considerations we must exclude, however, the
genus Herrrorora. In its structure it can not be denied this
genus exhibits a certain affinity to the MonricuLirporipz, but
there are also so many discrepancies that its real relations must
probably be looked for in other quarters.
ve % a % % % * % “

“Tf we turn now to the modes of propagation occurring in .
different groups of animals, we find that in Bryozoa there is only
one such mode observable and that is gemmation. In the corals,
on the contrary, two such modes have long since been made
known —fissiparity and gemmation. Whilst, however, gemma-

GENERA OF THE NortH AmeERICAN PaLArozoic Bryozoa. 571

tion takes place in the Bryozoa only in a single manner, by pro-
truding one of the walls of the mother cells and then partition-
ing off the protruded part, there are many different ways in
which gemmation has been observed to occur in corals. With
regard to the gemmation of Bryozoa very excellent observations
have been published by Barrors (Recherches sur ’embryologie
des Bryozoaires, Lille, 1877) Nirscax, CLararios, etc. The mode
of gemmation of corals, on the other hand, has been studied in
detail by Kocu, whose chief work on the subject has been pub-
lished in the Paleontographica. (III Series, Vol. V.)

“The difference between the animals inhabiting the colonies of
Bryozoa and those that build up the colonies of corals are
extremely striking in many respects, and must find their expres-
sion also in the mode in which the colonies are built up. The
animals of the Bryozoa are, in the first place, much less long-
lived than those of the corals, as they show, for by far the largest
part of their existence, a so-called latent vitality. Each animal
of a colony of Bryozoa produces only one or two gems”*, only
exceptionally more, more or less simultaneously, and mostly
while it is yet in a rather juvenile stage, after which it stops its
functions in this direction. The animal of a colony of corals
never stops producing gems, but develops them at all times of its
life and at different levels. This difference alone is the cause of
a quite different growth of the colonies of the two classes of
animals. Whilst in the Bryozoa gems are produced only in the
peripheral parts of the colony, as for instance in BERENICEA or
in arborescent forms only at the apex of the branches, as in
Enracopnora, in the corals gems are produced all over the colony
in great numbers if the animals are well fed, etc., and in smaller
numbers if the contrary is the case. be ss < a :
From all that we can gather in regard to the gemmation of
recent Bryozoa, it appears that besides having the gemmation
restricted to a very short period in a single animal’s life, the
production of gems is restricted to one side of the animal. It is
always on the side opposite the aperture of the cell. This can be
very easily made out in the CusiLosromata, where the aperture is
always more or less lateral; but also in the Crorostomara, where

* A word used by the author to express the product of gemmation.

572 Report oF THE STaTE GEOLOGIST.

the aperture is terminal, the apex always bends to one side, oppo-
site to the side on which the gems are produced. We will call
the gem-producing side the dorsal one. In creeping colonies this
dorsal side is always turned downwards; in arborescent forms it
is turned inward, toward the axis of thestem. If thus acreeping
colony changes into an arborescent one, the animals must turn
around to acertain extent to bring their dorsal sides into a
fitting position, but that is all the change that takes place in such
a@ case.

“‘In the corals, on the contrary, pone takes place, indis-
criminately, on all sides of the animal, and, therefore, no lineal
descent of the animals is observable. .

“In the MonricoLiporip2 propagation takes place in a way which
deviates very far from the modes described in the Bryozoa. As
in corals two essentially different modes of propagation are
observable — gemmation and fissiparity. The first of these is the
more common one, and, therefore, we shall consider it first in the
Monticuriroripz. If we turn to Prof. Koon’s extremely impor-
tant paper on the propagation of corals, we find he does not
retain the old opinion as to the essential difference between fissi-
parity and gemmation, and from a biological point of view such
an opinion may not be entirely justifiable, but from a practical
point of view it appears to us as of great importance.

* * * * * * * * Ses

“The four modes of gemmation are classed by Kocn in the
following manner:

“A. Internal gemmation.

“a. Tabular gemmation; the young coralites are » produced by
means of singularly transformed tabule.

“This mode of gemmation chiefly occurs in the Rucosa or
TETRACORALLA.

“'B. External gemmation.

“q. Intermural gemmation; the young corallites are produced by
the splitting of the primary mural plate (or primordial ra of two
or more adjoining corallites.

“db. Coenenchymal gemmation ; young corallites are produced
by the fusion of several interstitial tubes.

“¢, Stolonal gemmation; young corallites are produced by the
budding of one of the stolons.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOozoIc Bryozoa. 573

“The last of these modes is entirely restricted to the ALOYONARIA :
the second seems chiefly so, while the first has been observed up
to the present time in Favositipz and some Hexacora.ta.

“If we regard the Monticutivorip# as a whole as they have
been circumscribed by Nicxotson, we find in the forms thus com-
prised under the name that two of the above distinguished modes
of gemmation are observable, the intermural and the ccenen-
chymal gemmations. According to the occurrence of the two
modes of gemmation two different groups of forms can be dis-
tinguished within NicHotson’s Monrticutieorips, of one of which
the genus Mostiouttrora, whilst of the other the genus Fisrutt-
poRA may be considered the types. We take the two groups as
forming two different families, for the one of which we retain
the name MonticuLirorip#, whilst for the other we create the
name F stutirorip&. The latter family must, however, be removed
to the Arcyonartia, a mode of proceeding which will be justified
later on.

“In the Monricuttror1p4, in this restricted sense, there remains
onlyone method of propagation, the intermural one, which is
chiefly characterized by the circumstance that the young animal
formed by gemmation has no part in common with the mother
animal, so that it is impossible to say from which of. the surround-
ing animals the new one took its origin. It looks as if the new
animal were only filling up a void space between several old
animals. * * * |

“This gemmation is certainly very far different from the mode
of gemmation of Bryozoa as described above. The most radical
difference always consists in the circumstance that in the Bryozoa
the fully developed animals do not produce gems, but only the
quite young ones, which are themselves still more or less in the
state of buds. After this the next important difference is, that
in Bryozoa the mother animal can always be made out, which is
not the case in MonttsuLipora.

“On the other hand the gemmation of Monricutrpora is abso-
lutely identical with that occurring in the FavositipzZ.

* * * * * * * * *

“Tf thus the mode of increase of the colonies of the Monticttt-
PoRA seems not to be in favor of the supposition of these organ-

574 ReEporT oF THE STatTE GEOLOGIST.

isms being Bryozoa, there are yet other points which also oppose
such a supposition. One of these is the structure of the walls in

the Monticutirorip# and in the Bryozoa. There are many forms —

of Bryozoa which deposit carbonate of lime in the ectocyst of

_ their body more or less abundantly. This deposit takes place in ~

the median layer of the ectocyst only, whilst the outer and inner
layers remain of a horny nature, which probably is the cause that
in thin sections the calcareous walls of single individuals appear
separated from each other by dark lines. If we now consider
more in detail the structure of the calcareous substance of which
the walls of the cells are built, we find that it is composed of very
thin fibers placed vertically to the surface of the wall, so that in
sections cutting the single cells transversely, a concentric arrange-
ment of the fibers can never be observed. These fibers leave

interstices between them at intervals, producing numerous capil-

lary tubes, by which the walls of the Bryozoa seem always to be
pierced in great numbers, if. otherwise sufficiently well preserved.
Every work on recent or fossil Bryozoa shows this.

“ Of all this there is not a trace in the MonticuLiporipZ.
* * ee * * -¥ * * *

“ The animals of a colony of corals undergo constantly a certain
process of renovation. The animal deposits large masses of
sclerenchyma behind itself and thus slowly ascends within the
tube, sometimes chambering off the dead and useless parts of the
corallum by diaphragms or tabule ; the animals are all self-feed-
ing, performing all their vital functions during their whole life-
time, at the same time constantly producing new gems. The
structure of the wall is in accordance with these peculiarities,
the reversedly conical layers of sclerenchyma by which the wall
of the Monticu11poripz is built up indicate the ascending move-
ment of the animal within its tube.

“The circumstance that the greater part of the animals of the
colony of Bryoza is in a state of latent life, the functions of
taking and digesting food being performed by only a few indi-
viduals at the top of the branches in arborescent forms, brings
with it the other peculiarity, that all the animals of a colony are
in intimate connection and communication with each other; this
communication seems to be brought about partly by the capillary

~

Genera oF THE Nortu AMERICAN Patarozorio Bryozoa. 575

tubes mentioned above; for the most part, however, it is affected
by large openings in the walls of the lodges, by which a free
communication of all the animals of a colony is established. If
the Monticutirorip& were Bryozoa such openings must exist, and
they must have been observed in some case or other, but nothing
of the kind has ever been detected.

“From all this it appears that the MonricuLiporip# are not
Bryozoa, and as they show the greatest affinity to Fav simpa, it
is very probable that they must be considered as corals and
placed among the HexacorE.ta.”

Family Monticuliporida, Nicholson, emend.

Zoaria massive, discoidal, lamellar or ramose. Cells polygonal
in contact their entire length, increasing by intermural gemma-
tion or by fissiparity. Cells tabulated and invariably with “cysti
phragms” near the surface. The following genera are included
in this family: Homorrypa and Monricutrrora. |

Homotrypa, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 240. 1882).
Type, Homotrypa curvata, Ulrich. |

Zoarium ramose to subfrondescent; cells tubular polygonal,
arising from an imaginary axis at the center of the frond,
gradually diverging till near the surface, where they turn abruptly
outward. The tube walls are very thin till they reach the peri-
pheral region, where they become thickened. The thin walled
portion of the cells have straight diaphragms, usually infrequent.
In the peripheral portion of the zoarium the cells are provided
with a series of cystoid diaphragms or cystiphragms, the space
between their flexuous inner wall and the opposite wall of the
cell being crossed by an equal number of straight diaphragms ;
mesopores wanting, but the numerous gemme or young cells have
sometimes the appearance of mesopores; surface usually with
maculz or monticules, the centers of which are occupied by very
small cells, while the cells immediately adjacent to them are

576 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

larger than on other portions of thefrond. Internally the smaller
cells of the macule or monticules are without cystiphragms.

Fig. 187. Homotrypa curvata, natural size.

Fia. 138.
x18-

Fig. 1389. Hometrypa callosa. Vertical section x18.

Fie. 140 Transverse section x18.

Upper fig., surface, «18; Middle jfig., transverse section x18; Lower fig., vertical seCtion

oe ile ey

Genera oF THE NortH AMERICAN Pataxozoic Bryozoa. 577

Monticuttpora, D’Orbigny.

(Prod. 2, p. 279. 184’7.)
peer NMonticulipora mnamaliont, D’Orbigny.
(Plate 17, figs. 1-3.)

Zoarium massive, lobate, laminar, incrusting and sometimes
irregularly frondescent. Cells tubular, polygonal, arising from
an imaginary axis at the center of the frond, gradually diverg-
ing until near the surface when théy more abruptly turn outward,
at the same time becoming slightly thickened. Immediately
above the point of gemmation the young cell or tube is crossed
by numerous straight diaphragms, giving to it the appearance of
a mesopore, subsequently the tabule become less crowded and
the tube assumes the character of an ordinary cell. In addition
to the diaphragm numerous cystiphragms are developed in the
greater number of cells; surface with numerous conical monti-
cules closely and subregularly disposed in intersecting rows.

This genus is distinguished from Homotrypa by the much
greater number of diaphragms and cystiphragms in the thin
walled portion of the cell tubes, and the absence of the thicken-
ing of the cell walls in the peripheral region of the frond that is
characteristic of Homotrypa.

Family Amplexoporidz, Ulrich, emend.

This family includes, the forms which have a general resem-
blance to the Monticuliporide, and essentially the same mode of
growth, but the cell tubes are without cystiphragms. The fol-
lowing genera are includéd in the family: Amp.zxopora, Dexaytia,
Mownorrypa, Monorrypeuia, Leproreypa, Patarorrypa and STEn-
OPORA.

Ampuexopora, Ulrich.

(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 154. 1882.)
Type, Amplexopora cingulata, Ulrich.
(Plate 17, figs. 6, 7.)
Zoarium ramose or massive ; cells polygonal, forming prismatic
tubes, which arise from an imaginary axis at the center of the
frond, gradually diverging till within a short distance of the

surface, when they turn more abruptly outward. In the axial
73

57 By Report oF THE State GEOLOGIST.

region the cell walls are very thin, and the diaphragms are com-
paratively distant. In the peripheral region the walls are much
thickened and the diaphragms are much more numerous; surface

with slightly elevated monticules, having cell apertures a little

_ larger than those on other portions of the frond.

- Dexayia, Edwards and Haime. :
(Mon. de Pol. Foss. de Terr. Pal, p. 127. 1851.)
Type, Dekayia aspera, Edwards and Haime.
Zoarium. ramose, branches cylindrical or flattened cells
tubular, polygonal, arising from an imaginary axis at the center
of the branch, gradually diverging until near the surface, when
they abruptly. turn outward. In the axial region the walls are

very thin, and the diaphragms are very infrequent or entirely -

wanting. In the peripheral region the cell walls are much
thickened and the diaphragms are of moderately frequent occur-
rence, the walls becoming moniliform. The cell apertures are
polygonal and have numerous spines (acanthopores) at the angles;
surface with numerous macule, the cell apertures of which are
larger than those on other portions of the frond.

141 Ged 143 144

Fie. 141. Dekayia devonica, natural size.
Fig. 142. Vertical section, x18.

Fie. 143. Surface, x18.

Fie. 144. Transverse section, x36.

Hererorrypa, Nicholson.» -
(Pal. Tab. Corals, p. 291. 1879.)
Type, Heterotrypa mammulata, Nicholson.

Zoarium consisting of large lobate or frondescent expansions;
cells tubular, polygonal, arising from an imaginary axis, gradu-

'

Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN PaLAEozo1o Bryozoa. 579

146

AEX

Sry
ro

ad

Fic. 145. Heterotrypa prolifica, natural size.

Fic. 146. Surface and transverse section x18.

Fia. 147.

Transverse and vertical section x18.

H. singular

te

580 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

ally diverging for about two-thirds of their length, then abruptly

turning outward, the walls, previously very thin, becoming much
thickened. In the axial portion of the cells the diaphragms are
very infrequent or entirely wanting. In the peripheral portion
they are closely disposed; surface with numerous monticules
subregularly disposed in intersecting rows, occupied by cell
apertures larger than those on other portions of the frond.
Numerous species have been placed in this genus, but with one

exception they are not cogeneric with the type species. The

mesopores spoken of by various authors are not mesopores, but

young cells, there being no mesopores in the type species.

Leprotrypa, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, p. 158. 1883.)

Type, Leptotrypa minima, Ulrich.

“Zoarium varying from thin incrustations to free forms of
discoidal, spiral or elongate-spiral shape; irregular massive speci-
mens also occur; cells polygonal, with thin walls and a variable
number of delicate diaphragms; cell walls appreciably thickened
in the peripheral region; spines or acanthopores small, more or
less numerous, but usually restricted to the angles of junction
between the cell tubes.”

Fic. 148. Leptotrypa semipilans. A frond and vertical section, natural size.
Fic. 149. Vertical section of same, x18.
Fig. 150. Transverse section, x18.

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozoic Bryozoa. 581

Monorrypa, Nicholson.
(Pal. Tab. Corals, p. 320. 1879.)
Type, Monotrypa undulata, Nicholson.

Zoarium irregularly massive, discoidal, subglobose or hemi-
spheric. Cell tubes polygonal, prismatic, and very thin through-
out their entire length, and often undulating or wrinkled
transversely ; diaphragms remote or entirely wanting, except
near the surface.

Fic. 151. Monotrypa rectimuralis, natural size.
Fig. 152. Transverse section, x18.
Fig. 158. Vertical section, x18.

Monotrypsetua, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 173. 1882.)

Type, Monotrypella equalis, Ulrich.

Zoarium ramose, branches cylindrical or flattened; cells
tubular, polygonal, arising from the center of the branch, and
more or less regularly curving to the surface. For the greater

582 REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

portion of the length of the cell tubes, their walls are very thin,
and diaphragms remote or entirely wanting. Near the surface
the walls become thickened and the diaphragms are numerous ;
surface with frequent macule of cell apertures a than those
on other portions of the frond.

Fie. 154. Monotrypella cequalis surface, x18. oss
Fic. 155. Transverse section of same, x18. ;
Fig. 156. Vertical section, x18.

Peratorrypa, Ulrich. |
(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p. 3877. 18902)

Type, Petalotrypa compressa, Ulrich.

Zoarium bifoliate, consisting of irregular comme branches
or simple fronds; celluliferous on both sides; cell tubes prismatic,
arising from a strongly flexuous mesvtheca; apertures polygonal.

This genus may be distinguished from the other forms of this

family by its bifoliate mode of growth, and the presence of a
mesotheca.

Fig.157. Petalotrypa compressa, zoarium natural size.
Fic. 158. Transverse section of same, x18.
Fig. 159. Vertical section, x18.

Genera or THE NortH AMERICAN PALAEOZOIC Bryozoa. 583

PrycnoneMA, Hall.

(Pal. N. Y., Vol. VI, p. 14, PL. IX, figs. 12-17.)
(Plate 17, fig. 9.)

Type, Ptychonema tabulatum, Hall. a

Zoarium forming spheroidal or hemispheric masses or ramose ;
cells polygonal; walls very thin, strongly and regularly corru-
gated, not wrinkled; the corrugations forming nodes at the
angles; diaphragms entirely wanting in the typical species.

This genus may be distinguished by the strong and regular
corrugations of the cell walls, a feature which must not be con-
founded with the transverse wrinkling of the cell walls of some
other forms. |

Both Monorrypa and Prycuonema are undoubtedly ccelenterate
corals.

Srenopora, Lonsdale.

Appendix to Darwin’s Volcanic Islands, p. 161. 1844.)
pp P

Type, Stenopora ovata, Lonsdale.

I have not seen a specimen of this genus, but WaaceEn’s
diagnosis is as follows: |

“ Zoarium incrusting, arborescent ; foliaceous or hemispherical ;
fixed by its base to foreign bodies ; composed of tubular cells,
which are nearly vertical at the center of the zoarium, and
radiate thence on all sides toward the surface. The cells are
polygonal in the center of the zoarium, with thin walls, and very
closely packed together ; in their radiating peripheral part they
become cylindrical, and their walls show regular transverse annu-
lar thickenings, which occur in the same manner and at equal
distances in a great number of adjoining tubes. These thickenings
alternate on the inside of the cells with periodical contractions
of the walls; a vertical section of the walls being moniliform.
There are other thickenings which extend longitudinally in the
walls as in the Montrovrirorip#.. They are the thickenings which
precede gemmation, and project on the surface of the fronds as
little spines between the single cell apertures. The cell apertures
are partly quite open, partly quite closed by a kind of hemispheric
lid. They are of unequal size. Tabule are present at very

584 ReEporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

irregular distances. Mural pores and distinct well-developed
septa are absent.”

Fie. 160. Stenoporaintercalaris. Surface and transverse section, x18. : /
Fig. 161. Vertical section of same, x18.

Family Prasoporide.

This family includes the forms having cells with diaphragms
and cystiphragms, as in the Monricu.iporips, but in addition
there are mesopores, that feature separating the family from
Monticutivorip#2. It includes the following genera: Asprporora, ©
ATAOTOPORELLA, HoMoTRYPELLA and PRAsoPpora.

Aspiporora, Ulrich. }
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 155. 1882.)
Type, Aspidopora areolata, Ulrich.

Zoarium consisting of thin lamellar expansions, or of more
massive expansions formed by the superimposition of successive

Fig. 162. Aspidopora elegantula, natural size.
Fig. 163. One of the areas, x9.
Fia@. 164. A vertical section, x18.

GenersA or THE Norto AMERICAN PAaLArEozo1ic Bryozoa. 585

layers of growth; rarely parasitic, generally free with a radiately
and concentrically striated epitheca on the lower side; typically
composed according to age of from one to many subequal parts,
each part gently convex, with the cell apertures increasing in size
from their margins to their centers; cell tubes with very infre-
quent diaphragms and’ more numerous cystiphragms; mesopores
numerous, closely tabulate ; surface with spiniform nodes.

ATACTOPORELLA, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, p. 247. 1883.)

Type, Atactoporella typicalis, Ulrich.

Zoarium generally forming thin crusts over foreign bodies,
rarely lobate or subramose; surface with monticules and very
closely resembling some forms of CzeRAMOPORELLA.

165

- a hay
CARES
Sh Se a

Fig. 165. Atactoporeilla typicalis, surface, x18,
Fig. 166. Transverse section, x18.
Fic. 167. Vertical section, x18.

Cells with very thin inflected walls: apertures oval, but the

numerous nodes at their margins give to them an irregular
74

586 Report oF THE State GroLoaist.

petaloid appearance; cells with cystiphragms and occasional dia-
phragms ; nodes very numerous, encroaching more or less on the
cell cavity. |

Homorrype.ta, Ulrich. |
(14th Rept. Geol. Sur. Minn., p. §3. 1886.)
Type, Homotrypella instabilis, Ulrich.

Zoarium somewhat irregularly ramose, sometimes palmate or
frondescent; surface with macula, consisting of clusters of meso-
pores; cell apertures subcircular ; mesopores abundant frequently
isolating the cell tubes, closely tabulate; cell tubes with dia-
phragms and cystiphragms, the latter being chiefly developed in
the median portion ofthe cell tubes; usually absent just below
the surface and never occurring in the axial region; surface with
numerous small nodes or granules.

168 169

aK
A
ally:

Fic. 168. Homotrypella instabilis. Fronds natural size. 1
Fies. 169. Vertical and transverse sections, x18.

Prasopora, Nicholson and Etheridge.
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th Series, Vol. XX, p. 38. 1877.)
Type, Prasopora grave, Nicholson and Etheridge. ;

Zoarium forming conical, hemispherical or irregular masses,
the under side of the conical forms usually being concave and
covered with a concentrically wrinkled epitheca; cells tubular,
prismatic, becoming cylindrical as they approach the surface;
walls thin, with both diaphragms and cystiphragms; mesopores
few or numerous, sometimes completely isolating the cell tubes.
In some species there are numerous spiniform nodes; surface
with frequent macule of large cell apertures, or with monticules,

Genera or THE Nortu AmericAN Patarozorc Bryozoa. 587

the centers of which are destitute of cell apertures, and occupied
by mesopore apertures.

170

KEUCIClE

= eS

i: sat CRE
my DIESE
Ny EIS ER
aie BASE ER
nA Nw ees ck
eal oa GRE 2 <1)
mer 8

ae Sa

Fie. 170. Prasopora conica. Lateral, basal and sectional view of a specimen, natural size.
Fics. 171,172. P. simulatrix. Transverse and vertical sections, x18.

Dranvtirss, Eichwald.

(Zool. special. Vol. I, p. 180. Dybowsky, Cheetetes d. ost-balt.
Siluriform., p. 14. 1877. Syn. Diplotrypa, Nicholson. Pal.
Tab. Cor., p. 312. 1879.)

Type, Dianulites petropolitana, Kichwald.

I have been unable to obtain an authentic specimen of the type
species, but judging from the published descriptions, its affinities
are with the forms included in the family AmpLexoporip#.

-Most.of the forms described under the name Drerorrypa are
not congeneric with the type species.

Family Calloporide, Ulrich, emend.

The forms included in this family are usually ramose, cells
tubular, cylindrical, tabulate; mesopores more or less abundant,
closely tabulate; interapertural space with pits (mesopore aper-
tures).

588 Report or THE State GEOLOGIST.

The following genera are included in this family: Batostoma,
CatLopora, Daxayetia, NicHoLsoneLLA and TREMATOPORA.

Barostoma, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 154. 1882.)
Type, Batostoma implicatum, Ulrich.

Zoarium ramose; cells tubular, arising from the center of the
branch and curving outward ; cell walls in the axial region very
thin, becoming thicker in the peripheral region; cell apertures
circular; peristomes equally elevated; interapertural surface
with numerous pits (mesopore apertures), occasionally there are
ornamental nodes or spines on the surface. .

This genus in all probability is synonymous with CALLopora.

174 173 ~ 176 175

Fie. 178. Batostoma Minnesotense, zoarium, natural size.
Fie. 174. B. Winchelli. Surface x18.
Fies. 175,176. B.variwm. Vertical section and transverse sections, x9.

Caxiopora, Hall.
(Pal. N. Y., Vol. I, p. 144. 1852.)

Type, Callopora elegantula, Hall.
(Plate 18, figs. 1-7.)

Zoarium ramose, smooth or tuberculated; cells cylindrical, aris-
ing from an imaginary axis, gradually curving to the surface;
diaphragms few or numerous; intercellular space occupied by
tabulate mesopores; tabulz very closely disposed, much more so
than in the cell tubes; apertures circular; when perfect, closed by
an operculam ; closely and irregularly disposed, frequently nearly
or quite in contact; interapertural space occupied by angular

GENERA OF THE Nortno AMERICAN PALAEOzOIC Bryozoa. 589

pits (mesopore apertures). The principal difference between this
genus and Trematopora is the presence of interapertural pits.

DexayeE.ua, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 155. 1882.)
Type, Dekayella obscura, Ulrich.

Zoarium ramose, cells tubular, polygonal, arising from the
center of the branch and curving outward ; diaphragms distant ;

2)
»>
OK)

Fie. 177. Dekayella prenuntia. Natural size ,and surface, x9.
Fic. 178. Transverse sections of the same, x18.

Fic. 179. Vertical section, x9.

Fic. 180. D. obscura, surface, x18,

Fic. 181. Transverse section, x9.

Fig. 182. Vertical section, x9.

590 ' Report oF THE STatTE GEOLOGIST.

walls of cells in axial region very thin, becoming much thickened
and sometimes slightly moniliform in the peripheral region.

This genus has been placed in this family because the author
of the genus says that mesopores occur, but in a large number of
sections of the type species that I have examined, the “ meso-
pores” have much more the appearance of young cells. The
genus should probably be placed in the family AmpLExoporID#&:

Nicuorsonera, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 374.)
Type, WVecholsonella ponderosa, Ulrich. 3 |
Zoaria consisting of irregular, intertwining flattened branches
or fronds. Cells tubular witha few diaphragms in the peripheral

Fic. 183. Nicholsonella cumulata. Natural size.
Fie. 184. Surface of the same, x12.

Fie. 185. Transverse section, x18.

Fic. 186. Vertical section, x18.

region; apertures circular, with a faint granular peristome;
intercellular space occupied by numerous angular mesopores or
tubuli, that more or less completely isolate the cell tubes; walls
of both the cell tubes and mesopores thin ; mesopores with thick
and numerous tabule or diaphragms.

GENERA OF THE NortoH AMERICAN PALaArozoic Bryozoa. 591

TrEMATOPORA, Hall.
(Pal. N. Y., Vol. IT, p. 149. 1852.)

Type, Zrematopora tuberculosa, Hall.

(Plate 19, figs. 1-5.)

Zoarium ramose, branches solid; surface with or without
monticules; cells cylindrical, walls thin; apertures circular or
oval, irregularly disposed ; peristomes equally elevated ; meso-
pores with numerous tabule; interapertural space solid. Fre-
quently spinules occur between the cell apertures or on the
-_peristomes. | |

This genus in its manner of growth is very similar to CaLto-
pora, but differs from that genus in having a solid surface be-
tween the cell apertures. The solid surface is a persistent feature
in all the species of this genus. __

Iptotrypa, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, p. 272. 1883.)

Type, ldiotrypa parasitica, Ulrich.

Original diagnosis. Zoaria parasitically adhering to foreign
objects; cells of two kinds, the true zocecia being subcircular,
with a slightly elevated thin peristome, and more or less com-
pletely separated from each other by a series of large angular
interstitial cells. The two sets of cells are not distinguishable
from each other in vertical sections, both being crossed by thick
horizontal diaphragms occurring at short and regular intervals
so as to divide the zoarium into so many equal layers.

187 : 188 189

Fic. 187.. Idiotrypa parasitica. Surface x18.
Fig. 188. Transversesection. x18.
Fic. 189. Vertical section of same, x18.

592 Report oF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Hemiporaama, Ulrich.

(Report of the Geological and Nat. Hist. Survey. Minn., p.
299. 1893.)

“ Zoaria like Batostoma save in this, that the diaphragms in the
peripheral part of the zocecial tubes are incomplete.” Ulrich.

190 191

Fie. 190. Hemiphragma irrasum. Specimens, natural size.

Fie. 191. Surface, x9. ; =
Fie. 192. Vertical section, x9. ‘

Fig. 198. Cell walls, x35.

Family Botrylloporidz, Miller.
Botryiiopora, Nicholson.
(Geol. Mag. N.8., Vol. I, p. 160... 1874)
Type, Botryllopora socialis, Nicholson. |
(Plate 20, figs. 16, 17.)

_ Zoarium consisting of small discoidal bodies, occurring singly
or in groups, connected by vesicular tissue; adherent -to foreign

Genera or THE Nortuo AmeERICAN PaLArozoric Bryozoa. 593

bodies by their under surface, which consists of a concentrically
wrinkled epitheca. Nearly all the specimens observed are para-
sitic on Cyathophylloid or Favositoid corals, sometimes occurring
in groups of from seventy-five to a hundred zoaria.

Zoarium convex with a depressed central area, which is some-
what variable in size.

Cells tubular, rectangular to the aenaee! disposed in double
radiating rows, extending above the surface and forming promi-
nent ridges; adjacent ridges generally separated by a space
about equal to the width of a ridge, but sometimes more closely
disposed. Alternate ridges extend from the depressed central
space to the margin, the others commencing at about one-half
the distance to the margin; cell apertures circular, in contact,
often inosculating, having the appearance of being immersed ;
intercellular space vesiculose; vesicles comparatively large and
irregularly disposed. The concave central space, that between
the ridges and between the zoaria is vesicular, the vesicles
between the ridges being much smaller than those occupying the
central space. Between the zoaria some of the vesicles are of
the same size as those between the ridges, others are much larger,
circular or polygonal from mutual pressure.

ScENELLoPoRA, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., p. 150. 1882.)
Type, Scenellopora radiata, Ulrich.
Zoarium obconical the under side with an epitheca; the upper
slightly concave and celluliferous; cell apertures occupying the

center of ridges which radiate from a subsolid and depressed
center ; intermediate space smooth, without cells.

194 195

Fie. 194. Scenellopora radiata. Profile and top view, natural size.
Fig. 195. A portion of the noncelluliferous surface, x8.

75

594 Report oF THE STatE GEOLOGIST. or a

SpHRaciopora, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. Ill., Vol. VIII, p. 398. 1890.)
Type, Sphragiopora parasitica, Ulrich.

Zoarium a small discoidal body attached to other objects;
upper surface flat or a little concave; cell apertures disposed in
an irregularly radial manner from the center, on the summits of
from six to nine more or less elevated ridges; at first they form

only single rows, but at the outer margin the arrangement is
biserial. | :

196

Fic. 196. Sphragiopora parasitica. A frond, x18.

Family Tubuliporide, Busk.

The forms included in this family are composed of simple
cylindrical tubes, with inoperculated aperture. The following
genera are included in the family: Brrxrnicea, Driastoporina,
Hernopi4, Prozoscina, SAGENELLA and STOMATOPORA.

Brrenicea, Lamoureux. 3

(Exp. Meth. des genres d. pol., 80. 1821.)

Type, Berenicea diluviana, Lamoureaux.

“Tncrusting, composed of a very thin foliaceous base, from:
which proceed, gradually enlarging, distantly separated tubular
cells ; apertures circular or. oval, situated near the broad anterior
end; cells disposed in an obscurely radiate arrangement.” Brrz-

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN Patarozoric Bryozoa. 595

NicEA is a recent genus and I very much doubt if any Paleozoic
forms are properly placed here.

Fie. 197. Berenicea Minnesotensis. Twospecimens, natural size.
Fic. 198. A portion of the surface, x25.

Drastoporina, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XII, p. 177. 1890.)

Type, Diastoporina flabellata, Ulrich.

“Zoarium bifoliate, in general resembling Drastopora ; cells
subtubular, prostrate, immersed; apertures constricted, subcir
cular, not prominent; interspaces finely punctate and striate
longitudinally.”

Probably a synonym of Drastopora.

199 200

Fie. 199. Diastoporina flabellata, natural size and enlarged.
Fie. 200. A still further enlargement of the surface.

596 Report oF THE STaTE GEOLOGIST.

Hernopia, Hall.
(Rep. State Geologist, N. Y., p. 58. 1884.)

Type, Hernodia humifusa, Hall.

(Plate 25, figs. 1, 2.)

Zoarium parasitic, procumbent, consisting of tubular, annulated
cells, enlarging to near the aperture; increasing by lateral gem-
mation, the buds continuing growth in the same manner as the
parent tube so that comparatively large surfaces are often covered.

Progposoina, Audouin.
— (Desc. de PEgypte; Pol., p. 236. 1826.)
Zoarium adnate, branching dichotomously or inosculating, in
the latter case forming an irregular large meshed net-work.

201

Fid. 201. Proboscina tumulosa, natural size and x9.
Lower fig, P. frondosa. A‘frond, x18.

Cell tubes as in Sromatopora, excepting that they are more or
less immersed and not uniserial, being arranged in two or more
contiguous rows.

GENERA OF THE NortH AmerRICAN PaLArEozoic Bryrozoa. 597

SaGENELLA, Hall.

(Pal. N. Y., Vol. Il, p. 172. 1852.)

Type, Sagenella membrunacea, Hall.
(Plate 20, fig. 4.)

Zoarium a thin membraniform expansion, growing upon the
surface of other organic bodies cells subcylindrical, flattened
for the greater part of their length, and continuing nearly
parallel with the plane of the epitheca; arranged in a more or
less regular diverging or radiating order, with intercalated ranges
presenting a subimbricated appearance, turning abruptly and
opening directly outward , cell apertures circular.

StomatToPora, Bronn.

(System d. Urwelt; Pflanzenthiere. 1825.)
Type, Stomatopora dichotoma, Bronn.
Zoarium adnate, cells subtubular, club shaped or ovate, not

Fie. 202. Stomatopora inflata. Enlargement of different colonies, x9.

Fic. 208. Three cells, x 18.
Fic. 204. Vertical section of one of the cells, x18.

598 REporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

immersed; arranged ina single branching series; apertures sub-
terminal, circular, more or less elevated, opening directly
outward.

The shape of the cells and mode of increase is the same as in
Prozoscina, differing from that genus only in having the cells
arranged in a single series, in Prososcina the cells being arranged ~
in two or more series and more or less immersed. )

Family Entalophoride, Reuss.
CLONOPORA, Hall.
(Bryozoans of the Upper Helderberg group, p. 20. 1881.)

ae Clonopora semireducta, Hall.
(Plate 25, figs. 6, is)
- Zoarium ramose; branches consisting of an aggregation of
elongate, cylindrical, tubular cells, which at more or less regular
intervals become entirely free, and turn abruptly outward in an
umbelliform expansion or in alternation ; cell apertures expanded.

. CyrstoporA, Hall.
(Trans. Albany Inst., Vol. X, p. 161. 1881.)
Type, Cystopora geniculata, Hall. —
(Plate 25, figs. 3-5.)
Zoarium consisting of an aggregation of ampullate, tubular
cells; the greatest diameter of the cell tube being at about two-
thirds of its length; near the anterior end turning abruptly out-
ward and much constricted at the aperture ; cell tubes exposed
for more than half their length, alternating, imbricating,
arranged in spiral rows around the branch.

Mrroctema, Ulrich.

(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 150. 1882.)
Type, UWitoclema cinctosum, Ulrich.

Zoarium ramose, slender; transverse section subcircular; cells
‘tubular; very long; gradually diverging in all directions from

GENERA OF THE NortH AMERICAN PaLArozoic Bryozosa. 599

an imaginary axis; apertures prominent, circular, arranged in
a transverse series or spirally around the stem; walls thin.

Fic. 205. Mitoclema cinctosum, natural size.
Fig. 206. A portion of the same, x18.

Family Reptaride.

This family includes those adnate forms, having a central axis
and bilateral tubular cells. The following genera are included
in the family: Heprretia and Reprartia.

HEpDERELLA, Hall.
(Trans. Albany Institute, Vol. X, p. 194. 16881.)

Type, Hederella Canadensis, Billings.

(Plate 25, figs. 10-13.)

Zoarium parasitic, procumbent, attached its entire length;
usually occurring on corals or Brachiopoda. Zoarium consisting
of a primary, cylindrical, tubular axis, which has bilateral
tubular cells at frequent intervals and occasionally cells having
the same manner of growth as the primary axis. This manner
of growth is indefinitely continued so that comparatively large
surfaces are covered by the fronds; cells subcylindrical with
transverse annulations and striations, and also fine longitudinal
striations; cell tubes in contact with the axis for a portion or
the whole of their length.

ReptariA, Rolle.

(Leonhard and Bronn, Neues Jahrbuch, p. 180. 1851.)

Type, Reptaria stolonifera, Rolle.
(Plate 25, figs. 8, 9.)
Zoarium adnate, consisting of a rachis, from which proceed,
laterally, simple cell tubes, and, at irregular intervals, tubes

600 REpoRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

which have the same manner of growth as the primary rachis.
This mode of growth is continued indefinitely, the zoarium
frequently covering a comparatively large area.

Cell tubes subcylindrical, slightly sinuous, especially near the
base; the attached portion flat, the free portion convex. For a
short distance the cells are nearly parallel with the rachis, then
diverge at an angle of thirty-five or forty degrees; near the
aperture turning directly outward, so that the aperture is at right
angles to the main portion of the cell tube; margins of the cell —
tubes in contact, but not coalescing; the end of each succeeding a
cell tube projecting beyond the preceding one, giving a serrate
appearance to the margin of the frond ; cell tubes annulated.

Family Phaceloporide, Ulrich.
This family at present includes one genus, PHACELOPORA.

PHACELOPORA, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. Ill., p. 388. 1890.)
Type, Phacelopora pertenurs, Ulrich.

Zoarium articulated, segments short, conical, consisting of two
or more equal conical cell tubes, with pehenly contracted, circular
apertures.

Fie. 207. Phacelopora pertenuis. Natural size, and x 25.}
Fie. 208. A vertical section of the same, x 25.
Fra. 209. P. constricta. <A portion of a frond; x 25.

GrenERA OF THE Norto AMERICAN PatArozorc Bryrozoa. 601

Cyrctopora, Prout.

(Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. I, p. 574. 1860.)
Type, Cyclopora fungia, Prout.

Zoaria consisting of lamellar or discoidal expansions; incrust-
ing or free; under surface an epitheca, concentrically wrinkled
and radially striated by the recumbent portion of the cell tubes.
Cells tubular, at first prostrate, then curving somewhat abruptly
and continuing rectangularly to the surface; apertures subcircular
or somewhat truncated posteriorly ; more or less regularly dis-
posed. When regularly disposed there is an oblong depression

between adjacent apertures;

when irregularly disposed, this

space may be divided into two smaller ones; or it may appear
that the apertures are separated by unequal and irregularly

situated depressions.

oped into tabulate mesopores.

212

210

‘

Le

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Fig. 210.
Fig. 211.
Fig. 212.
Fig. 213.

i v
eee 4 ky Se
PTR PAT asta

213

Cyclopora fungia. A portion of the surface, x 9.
Surface, x 18.

An enlargement showing a portion of one of the macula.
A vertical section, x 28. ;

Provte.ia, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sur. Ill., p. 403. 1890.)

Type, Proutella discoidea, Ulrich.

“Zoarium discoidal, thin, free; the lower surface convex and

with a concentrically wrinkled epitheca.

Cells subtubular ;
76

602 Report oF THE Strate Groroaist.

walls thin; apertures broadly elliptical, surrounded by a narrow
sloping area, hexagonal in outline. When perfect there is a
depressed calcareous plate that closes nearly two-thirds of the
aperture, the orifice left being subtriangular inform. With age,
successive layers are developed directly over the first, so that
they gradually form a cell tube, seemingly having the cavity
intersected by incomplete diaphragms, which appear to have
their origin on the posterior wall, and extend out half way
across.”

214 216 215

Fic. 214. Proutella discoidea. Under surface, natural size.
Fie. 215. Upper surface of a fragment, natural size.
Fie. 216. A portion of the surface, x 9.

Family Worthenoporide, Ulrich.
This family includes at present only the genus WorTHENOPORA.

Worrasnorora, Ulrich.
(Geol. Sar. Ill, Vol. VIII, p. 403. 18907}

Type, Worthenopora spinosa, Ulrich. f

“Zoarium bifoliate, branching or palmate. Cells very regu-
larly arranged, subtubular, with the apertures semielliptical.
On the surface the line of junction between the cells is marked
by a longitudinal, elevated ridge. The truncate posterior margin
of the aperture is raised into a less strong transverse bar. The
elongate, triangular depressed front appears perfectly plain.”

The condition in which the three following genera occur render
their classification difficult: Ascoprorron, RHopatonaRia and

VINELLA.

Genera or THE NortH AmeErtcAN Patarozoric Bryozoa. 603

217 ; 218 . 219

wy

Fic. 217. Worthenopora spinosa, natural size.
Fie. 218. Surface, x9. |
Fie. 219. A portion of the surface, x28.

Ascopiotyon, Vine.
(Ann. and Mag. Nat Hist., 4th Series, Vol. XIX, p. 463. 1877.)
Type, Ascodictyon fusiforme.

“ Zocecia consisting of radially arranged fusiform or bulbous
cells, or filiform threads with periodic swellings.”
220

Fic. 220. Ascodictyon stellatum. <A group of vesicles, x18.

RuopatonariA, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. II, p. 26. 1879.)

Type, /¢hopalonaria venosa, Ulrich.
Cells slender, fusiform, arranged in a single anastomosing

FIG. 221. Rhopalonaria venosa, x18

604 REportT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

series; cell mouths small, near one end of the cells. The animal
had the power of excavating the substance of the body upon
which it grew. |

Vinetta, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XII, p. 173. 1890.) —
Type, Vinella repens, Ulrich.

slender, ramifying, thread-like tubular stolons, arranged in a
more or less distinctly radiating manner ; surface of tubes some-
times faintly lined longitudinally ; a row of widely separated small
pores along the center of the surface of the tubes ; cells unknown.
The cells must have been deciduous and developed by budding
from the creeping stolons from the points now represented by
the pores.” ,

“Zoarium attached to foreign bodies; consisting of exceedingly

222

Fic. 222. Vinella repens, natural size, and a portion of the colony, x18.

GENERA OF THE Norto AMERICAN PAaLartozorc Bryozoa. 605

ADDENDUM.

Srio ToporA, Hall.
(Pal Woy 4 Vol 1, p. 73. 1847.)
Type, Stictopora elegantula, Hall.
(Plate 10, figs. 9, 10, 20.)
. seri attached by a spreading base to foreign objects;
ramose; branches thin, transverse section lenticular; composed
of two layers of cells eae by a mesotheca; cell apertures
circular or oval, surrounded by a peristome; rows of cells fre-
quently separated by narrow ridges; margins noncelluliferous;
interapertural space vesiculose or apparently solid.
This genus differs from Cysropictya principally in the absence
of pseudo septa and lunaria.

ArrTuHropora, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 152. 1882.)
Type, Arthropora Shafferc, Ulrich.

“ Zoarium jointed; segments short, with several branches pro-
jecting from each edge, some of which may or may not be tipped
_ for articulation with succeeding segments; cell mouths sub-circu-
lar, separated by interstitial pits or sulci.”

Rarnipictya, Ulrich.
(Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. V, p. 152. 1882.)
Type, 7 hada Nicholsoni, Ulrich. |
(Plate 10, figs. 3-5.)

“ Zoarium narrow, branching at long intervals; cellssurrounded
by a close series of spiniform tubuli.”
Very similar to Stictopora.

PrILocELLA, nov. gen.
Type, Ptzlocella parallela, Hall (sp.).
3 (Plate 15, figs. 1-3.)
Zoarium ensiform; in its pointed, striated base resembling
Putnopictya, but the cell apertures are circular, arranged in par-

606 REporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

allel longitudinal rows, which are separated by ridges as in Sric-
TOPORA; margin of frond noncelluliferous, striated.

FIsiULIPORIDRA, NOV. gen.

Type, /istuliporidra tesselata, Hall (sp.).

(Plate 22, figs. 1-3.)

The manner of growth and internal structure is the same-as in
Fisruttporina, but the cell apertures are surrounded by angular
elevations, enclosing the apertures in a polygonal vestibular area,
the surface presenting a very different appearance from that of
FIstULIPORINA. |

FIsTULICELLA, NOV. gen.
Type, Mistulicella plana, Hall (sp.).
(Plate 22, fig. 4.)
The manner of growth and general appearance is the same as
that of Liesmnatta, but the cells are circular and without pseudo
septa or lunaria. |

eS ill a ttl Ps

INDEX TO GENERA.

PPPRMMOCIAUIA oie icc c cee ea cess 522
Preambnoclema ..:.. 6.26. 586b 606s 552
eae 544
MEIMIGOUEY DA cic esc dace bees e tes 540
PeNMOXOVOTA ls. csc cee eee tee OUT
POMSAVOMMOPOTA .2¥ cscs ese e eee os 517
PEMCMMICUOS occ osc ewes cee eee ds 519
AMGMIPICOIPOTA: occ s eee cee 522
POBEROGIOMA Sc. . cece ee een ees 546
PPEPMPEDOLA cose c ccc ver edae sens 605
PREUMEGHUV IOS. 06 ce ects e eee ewes 526
Ascodictyum........... Me Weg LT Ets 603
PRG LS ails wine oe trate Peels 584
MMMM ei. oy decrees be 563
PMMA OROU ES 6 oc)a ccc cvewesea ness 585
MN SRORITT RE Fo os .s, clo:is, nick. 0.9 od SRG SY 553
NUTONE To 0c oe oc, s, sows We. ahGieh cos 588
We lS re 594
RMR POT 32,6. a. 0, «aii ain, ane wislivear dh sb 592
Bythopora......... Teas Gata tvs 551
2 ees Pe 588
Nis wi es)ecece's a,=/0 Is ws 551
SPEDE eae ce an 527
MEMORECEOE A pa, 5.5;60.5.. Ue.e jolt bob Oate ys 563
BeEIMOPOFElIS. ..... oo. «siecle des: 564
SOMME ENA. scant, sip 6 dap leii pees 565
EVEN 35 an) 8.s,ty0c0,0,0,0,cised Stars wld 554
UR MMMEPER CEN, Soc cod. cte pula, ova sid did Siow le 536
PRR MMWODOES oo. ccc a aw dola deci’, 543
IRN ERNE SD 5 cia hc bre po naipso. vid BIG Les 598
RI EELLET SS, oy s eiainiees/aiais eae ds & « 554
Eo ee te eee 549
LEG) a a 534
PERETTI ech Evie os viene we 537
BURMAN Ey (2k Ses oc vs va 537
MMIVOTA Soiled wee SE See 566
(| TRL EL SEAS eee ea 526
EERE eS ere: flo, c.¢ 5 dx w'eretece 601
Gyeloporina........... ORS eee ae 504

Gy StOGict yas agri ho a/a oo ono elds 536
WystopOrars cikyeedne veg vd oll Mee 598
Dekavolla eserves us o's averse eee 589
SRA I 5, 9am ee Mae id wm sw AO a ca 578
WIAMESOPOTAke y aes sven se be otk ee 566
AN UMLGOS oy Gas areas 6 ov oc Alia lad 587
YASTOP OPIN mg am oie aatire eis ete ees 595
DICEADOPOLA sane das shots Oni 545
Diploporarts cattery. ews < 5 «deat ss) 525
Bridoporareus Sage nasedkescie sees 561
ERE VOLLCU Via te aca tol siete tte oreo oe 527
BAISMMOPOLAs 2 serecacite ater, fess 528
Hivachinoporar:..505 so eee fee es 529
Bavicellay «nix 'c,csais aietead opts Sete tate 556
Menestella: «04. «3% aan meas nd cemees 500
Penestralia.. < «.ic\sias.000 wee eerie 502
Henestrapora) .\.. 6 aj wenn eaten sas 506
Bastullicella: 5:3 occt anne secsomeaerets 606
baatalapota: . 2 o2cceqae cease 559
Mistuliporella as cease epee 560
BNSHUIPOTN Ass cigtees es acakae ae 559
Plabelliporella gece oi, fc see varelsce 502
GAUCONGMKa ani ses ae kere 524
Glossotry pai odes ccna cater 562
Gono try passa spcrrweiyel basse Te SS 545
Graptodichya: sows. easels % 541
Federellas.scta nek eee one 599
Eeliconora tease eee 517
Eeloporaeward ices - 548
Hemiphragnianttete aoe... Ss 592
EPOPAIDEN DA. eta oe suis ea eres 4 ce hs 507
Eermpitat taser tetas cs . 596
EIBLGPOnE VPS ori dostige tenlene <2 8 2 578
EQOA. ccs aero eee 3 575
ERomairy pelle. oo. ole Sasiiees sae 586

608

PAGE.
felitiyorachis 04 saciewsaceenen ce 524
Tah otry paeac, occe ais yee ae 591
Tntrapota :cap.cs chs sees eo coweree 535
DSOtry Pa torr ce 66s cee eee ee 510
Spiny De fico: «de cs tah cee 580
fhichenalia,,.. 2) Ges sen Hace soe 559
dboenlipora.-2.5.4 cs <teex eee 511
ACY OPOTA: 0... c.c. «sacs cs See Sine 515
Lyroporellay sca es... a55.c eee 516
Lyropormdra :. 2c5/scom ae ae ene 517
Meekapora...... Bij atier s-2¥o.'a's OEE 5388
Mitoclenia e254 ..: 3s). Beak 598
Mon Gtr yA feck aici = 3s ds ok eee bee 581
Monotry pela, 5.2545 scic0.02 seeeeeee 581
Monticulipora yc, cians oaks 577
Nemataxis/ 220256. 5. cseo nae 552
NemMalOpOtAa 2 oc y-oithsits). eee See ee 553
Mrcholsonella ss. sees ete 590
Odontotirnypain tis sid. 622s ees ems 581
Pachydictyan <2.) masses. 530
PELQIOULY DAs «60/0 sess ate les Sa 582
PCLIZOPORA 56s. .ates tweens SRE AD 563
Phacelopora........ COP to RAnen 600
PURBAOPOPA 632) eoia 5. 101.0 bs Soa es 541
PHTrActOporas./ 4%." '2 6%! fiasS tel. 539
Phy lodictyai wwii. ceeet eshte 531
Pay llOpora echo. cr ete oe 512
Pileotrypa....... teliets odes eae 562
Pimacowwy pas... eaters s LA Se 555
Pinnaporina..... PN: Suk eoaia 507
Polypora....... pista d cmgs SPLEEN 502
Poly porellas nits. . scan an lee ee . 502
PYOSOMOLON. . eo: sad ecw oo aa eene. 586
BrisMOPOFA:. 3. 2, cckescie ema ele 531
IPEODOSCINE 345 tink ke Oe seas oan 596
Broubetlas § vd. excite o Memeaeeees 601
IOUOUAy occ joie pee ee tere 605
Biilodictya... 2... x <4 Shae atl eateny 541
Ptilopora....... een cla eee See ees 519
Pttloporella,.-.. ioc. san ec nee 506
PAUGHOEUAD .)3'.5 cca avian wa Sees 507

ReEporRT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST.

Philotrypa .... ..4:cccee eee eee 542
Ptychonema......-. s.20.n wee 583
Reptaria . io. i... .5 2 oe eee 599
Reteporella .... .2.¢2 2s eee 503
Reteporina. ..: .. 2 shee eee 504
Rhinidictya .... .....c.e 42 eee 605
Rhinopora....... PE rt 540
Rhombopota. ....: .. 25. a eee 550
Rhopalonaria . ....)..2)- pee 603°
Sagenella.... ....-... s<-)0 eee 597
Scalaripora .........<-<.-. ghee 532
Scenellopora. .....->. -44-e eee 593
Sceptropora.. .....: 2 ..see eee sawp, 9948
selenopora... ...<,.:..:2 .. aes 557
Semicoscinium ............. anes Dep
Semiopora. .. i)... sis eee 535
Septopora.... .... <4. ase 514
Sphagiopora...:.....)) 4.2542 e see 594
Stenopora. «.... ..2.<.0,40 ee 583
Stictocella .:. ..). .-..:.2,.4.05 =e eee 532
Stictopora...<,... sce ee eee a ae 605
Stictoporella..-....:. 22.25 5385
Stictoporina. «...c..eueEr 3 eee 543
Stomatopora.... ......<.c:ese eee 597
Streblotry pa.........: 2-25. eeeeee 551
Strotopora...c-.\. si. ose 560
Synocladia .. ..... .:..sicie cee 513
Taeniodictya . ..:. <<. see 533
Taeniopora. ....0 ...s .:60 eee 533
Tectulipora i.) ...<<seeeeee erg ei)
Tectuliporella. ....¢. <henn ee mers
Thamniscus ....«...+<oneeeeeee 524
*Thamnocella .... 3..<...aseeeen 525—
Thamnotrypa....2.....< se5 «nee eee 546
Tremaiella .. ...:.....<.senm =e _550
Trematopora....~...-+s60eeeeee 591
Tropidopora ., ....-. 2005 sey eee 553
Unitrypa . .......6s.cnsnke eee 508
Vinella.......s0s «sores se eee 604
Worthenopora. . ...<. 2. sss eee 602

EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES.

PLATE Ay

PALLUDICELLA EKHRENBERGI.

Fig. 1. A very much enlarged drawing of a cell seen in section, with
the polypide exserted, and exhibiting anatomical details.

Fig. 2. Showing a section of a cell with the polypide retracted.

Fig. 3. Lophophore viewed upon the upper surface, with the mouth
and roots of tentacule (after ALLMAN).

Explanation of lettering.

a, Tentacles. | k, Muscles closing the orifice.

b, Lophopore. i, Retractor muscles of polypid.

c, Cardiac cavity of stomach. m, Parietal muscles.

d, Pyloric cavity of stomach. o, Superior funiculus.

é, Pylorus. p, Ovary.

J; Intestine. | 7, Funiculus. 7

g, Anus. s, Testes. _

h, Posterior parieto-vaginal mus- 7%, Spermatozoa. ‘ H
cles. u, Endocyst. ‘

7, Anterior par leto- -vaginal mus- v, Kctocyst.

{
cles. : :
}
:

' 610

PLATE A.

5
BS,
BSS o0> rere SIRES Os
AMS “Be
C D RUD:

OF OS Sos
< e

CosCote, etd

ANATOMY OF THE BRYOZOA.

lh Awad
Mig
an

ty
heh

Lis « AAS

es ee |, ee

rip ach v4 ;
¥ ' : 4a v2 hy f

Ao ka ae Vb Oe Saas a OU aa

A A a Uh Rvacee aly) ptt A Ky Alt
qian Gaui hs ee al {

Ass oe yi RE ik hal Pa: a * vos) eau ot a |

Shey ea cladalaunic loinuias sk. Ahan

bal a

: an . )
: are at ' smiiey iy Ry A ee, tole ry? aN

: oe . té- I
ahi ter bad el wa on Rita ah

4 oy
} ata) sha Eo ae yr esaet eid Th Tae ae | 4 ‘ < Ba) ¥

. 7 by; ues : t : Ft a

whe P 7

RAPA OR NR eC one ‘on

» ce. :
E ar * ‘
; ¥
* 1

* “~~ na

> ¥ r] ‘ 4 ; a

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fi g

PLATE 'é,

BowERBANKIA DENSA.

a. Showing the animal fully expanded. |
1 Pharynx ; 2 Cardia; 3 Gizzard ; 4 Stomach; 5 Pylorus ;
6 Intestine ; 7 Anus; 8, 9 Muscles. | |
6. The animal completely retracted.
2, 3 Opercular retractor muscles.
ce. An immature animal.
d. One of the buds in its earliest state (after Farrz).

612

PLATE B.

ANATOMY OF THE BRYOZOA.

ea
as Aa C <%.
9 ” bebe 8 ot eee ae

iris a vthhiyt die | |
maitane of). 70 hapoWey bis i Ma -
et ‘Siox ms Pee

a | pba et of cs ch eae a, |
| sig ee x ALA es oe Ma

a

Oe lea ae wirobar sin 4g ae Wo ee

ie

tenia 1 mde pebie Sid Hike 4 ane) 2) ey

5 on “ ; Oele py #8 Mis tak J ; A ae at a
; 1 E . ~ 1 | - 4 Loy
balls A) Son as p : ; 7 { «ih hel
Be 24 onus (eds paiwade nattnor A Ot ie eee a
He i > Ty 5

, we i 4 i Pe ; . A Oy a Oe

Miwa & ae Wi4i eee (wa shag ‘j id a - :
‘6 x rr ; A vee tate Le (

' ee : Wy

2p P
ne

” aun et

Le tai eR: EER
S Nisle

ey

toe Aa ORT a eee
. \ a Tain ‘ae ’ 4

romney he oe Tae i aaa Sag aS
F i ‘ 4 ‘

te qi as -y SOCMw ven y | J As a ; : ND

PY ae

/ 4 et »s ’ ¥ : rf

en eo EN, i : aed | a} an

| Sura Masi Pe DIR al, eG ; Al:
F 1 Ad f : he

ak IRA a. ait

ia th aif ith s MAY .s oo
nee pi ee) < ‘

YUP & ORS ‘

a, Cavity of the body. : 1, Cavity of the mantle.
b, Digestive cavity. ' m, Mantle.

¢, Mouth of the gastrula. -n, Tentacles.

d, Exoderm. 0, Endocyst.

e, Endoderm. p, Polypide.

J; Orai face. 7, Rectum.

2, Aboral mesoderm. «, Crown.

k, Aboral face. z, “‘ Zone anhiste.”

Fig. 1. Cell greatly enlarged.

Fig. 2, Cell divided in two, still adhering to the endocyst.
Fig. 3. Morula.

Figs. 4,5. Beginning and enlargement of the cavity of bicamins

PLATE CG:
Embryology of PHALANGELLA FLABELLATA,

Explanation of lettering.

Fig. 6. Blastula.

Figs. 7, 8, 9. Gastrula in different stages of formation, fig. 8 being a

vertical section.

Fig. 10. A section, showing the appearance of the median swelling,

which represents the crown. _

Figs. 11,12. Development. of the median swelling, which at first

(fig. 10) is near the oral face, approaching the middle
(fig. 11), and afterwards nearing the aboral face (fig. 12).
The same figures show the formation of the mesoderm’,
between the aboral face and the posterior walls of the
intestine.

Fig. 13. Showing a more developed state.
Fig. 14. A free embryo, vertical section.

Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.

‘Fig. ay,

An exterior view of the.same.
First stage of fixation, composed of an internal pyriform
mass, and an external layer spread over, and following all

the contours of the internal mass. Between the two are
shown the fatty globules.

The external layer has separated from the internal mass, and

has formed a discoidal sac, in which is easily distinguished
the endocyst (e), the ectocyst (7), and the “zone anhiste
(z). Internally are shown the fatty globules and the pyri-
form mass, which now begins to show the rudiments of a
polypide. |

614

235

'
e
,
i
4
4

PLATE C.

3
<
4
é
’
>
€

res ck

DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRYOZOA

5

oy AS
BN
Ameena

Continuation of embryology of PHALANGELLA FLABELLATA,

PLAT Ee:

Explanation of lettering.

d, Ectocyst. — 7, Rectum.

é, Endocyst. v, Terminal disc of tentacular tube.
n, Tentacles. w, Stomach. | .
o, Fatty globules. © z, “ Zone anhiste.” |

Fig. 18. A more advanced stage; a little beyond the center is a

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

19.

20.

21.

22.
23.
24,

discoidal plate, formed by the tubular uprising of the
surface.

The uprising of the surface under the disc » has formed a
long tube (tentacular tube) ; the disc has changed from a

horizontal position to a vertical on account of the unequal

increase of the two faces of the tube, and has the beginning
of an, opening (opening of the cell), The rudimentary
polyp begins to acquire a definite structure.
The ectocyst is greatly thickened, and has formed on the
tentacular tube. The fatty globules are condensed in two
- Masses 0. afta!
The polyp has reached the complete state, and the “zone —
anhiste” has disappeared.
The primitive cell and tentacular tube more developed.
A profile view of a cell:

Showing the manner of increase of the celle.

616 i

PLATE D.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRYOZOA.

ae eee
8. CA ee
tive

Te hie) Tht at te phe Cate

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Lite wie at Mamma wea oo ieee aie
ie : “ , a, ath

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, ee Ae mi : oe its [ . +
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i Pav, ba i r A faci :
- ihe z > et ee : os ‘ J ‘
i ay." .
+ =

ph ARH nue AL EI

ye Cae A , . 7 * ‘ ie
Rls ehh i tho Lt aba

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He

s

a

| > | , |
; . j ‘ae . o “ » ta
r iy a icy, oe yf i> } a } Mk eff es ah / re Hi

Ale t a

= 4 es sie
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: - tay
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« r ’ é we i
)
MET) LAO BRL, Se Rte mE he
‘ Ts - 6 : a y "
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tne * «*

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:
a

re

an BB

a

1 ‘ a
rae |

BI

PLATE E.
Mo.iia GRANIFERA,

Explanation of lettering.

a, Ciliary plume. o Endocyst.
6, Mouth of the gastrula. 1, Ketocyst.
e, Oculiform points. : Fatty globules.

d, Obscure portion of the cavity J, “Zone anhiste.”
of the body comprised be- p, Polyp.
tween the two branches of the
stomach,

Figs. 1, 2. The oral and aboral face of a free embryo. - x150.

Fig. 3. The first stage of metamorphosis, showing the beginning of —
the calcareous incrustation ; the rudimentary polyp already — q
exists ; the fatty globules are less abundant. x125.

Fig. 4. The same more advanced. x125. a

Figs. 5-9. Showing the manner of the growth and increase in number —
of the cells, page 473.

O15

|
|
i
:

PLATE E.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRYOZOA.

Pig.

ry
Lh.

a
| eames ‘ , ti
rials Ce. art

beh =) ; . r >
; ais” fs fi io ait, URN Yi ib

Ria Wie aa
steed Sis) edie:

™ he Wah x)
OE Bs un to oh a ee eee. “I
(ie MeALE a ) que betsy 2
: ov, .
im Se WA a!

he Ri 4 yt bagkhA |
4 i ak," 4 yi ,
a Oe ila nat

in ‘ ey

ue ates al eb a

> > i |
yt) aE rye cogeghil AEE. cay j
‘hs Fee au.
., wae aan
Masts |
we .
s Ah 4

wii aoe ‘ag hD haa

je Egon ug, he “aaa OY Pe

Sr arm Af it if a sigs 8
ac ee ee ix LOD eee

+ _" isi l ba | Hitt 3 z

nae rks A i
; ran ia ee Ae
bh ‘s

Sheht (nina at Be

j
ae qi
Wee li eeee J
5 NOS n ata
VF ‘ rif,
L i
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+
y ‘ ‘
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Vat Wiese ean %
ey Oe
ht wel hay Me
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4 W y | it
t i oe
fil by
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- ri j
‘ a Wg oa i
Meat. oy :
Oa Sie YS
L » ul ve
, l ' " Ny at ,
A f 5 ya ‘
Ling a) iy ’
‘ P| ‘es 4? ?
¥ t
4 ive ;
, . "
AG er
Dees:

=
Seas >

PUATE st.
RETEPORELLA.
(Page 503.)
RETEPORELLA a Hall.

Bigs. 1, 2: Natural size.
Fig. 3. Celluliferous face. x6.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

RETEPORELLA ADNATA, Hall (sp.).

4, Noncelluliferous face. x6.

12.
13.

i.
14,
15.

. Celluliferous face. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

RETEPORINA.
(Page 504.)
RETEPORINA STRIATA, Hall.

. Noncelluliferous face. x6.
. Celluliferous face. x6.

Hamilton group. New York.

RETEPORINA PERUNDULATA, Hall.

. Noncelluliferous face. x6. _
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

POLY PORELLA.
(Page 502.)
' PotyporELia FistuLata, Hall (sp.).

. Transverse section. x6.
. Celluliferous face. x6.

Hamilton group. New York.

- POLYPORA.
(Page 502.)
PoLypoRa ASPECTANS, Hall.
Transverse section. x6.
Celluliferous face. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. alls i the Ohio.

PoLYPoRA STRIATOPORA, Hall.
Natural size.
Celluliferous face. x6.
Noncelluliferous face. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. Fuils of the Chae

620

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations

Plate 1.

Report State Geologist,1894.

te Toth
nD ste : ) 14 Ong fh
de® , : Seg at Ss wee
Pe Gee kT Sole - 65 er" Vea
Abra te i NE og ey Clg
CES pg Ry oe A TE ES vi OSE
RINE SES HD BOR SLL es

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DITA NI VIE IND YO derarer Oe
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LANA ATS

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POF OD Me PIM IDS OXPO ODO Lys FD he

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ie. 1.
Fig.

Pig, (2.
Fig. 4.
Big. 5:
Fig. 6.
Bie 37.
Fig. 8.
ie. 9,
Hig. 10.

PLATE Il,
FENESTELLA.
(Page 500.)
Celluliferous face, showing low, smooth carina. x6. Group a.

2. Celluliferous face of a form showing a row of nodes between

the rows of apertures. x6. Group f.

Celluliferous face, with prominent carinze expanded at the
summit. x6. Group «.

Transverse section of a form belonging to group «.

Oblique view of a portion of the celluliferous face of /

* stellata, showing the very prominent stellate nodes. x6.

A transverse section of a branch showiny conical nodes. x6.

Side view of a branch of F’ exornata, showing the prominent,
thin carina. x6. |

End view of branches of the same species. x6.

Side view of a branch of / latijunctura, showing the charac-
teristics of the’carine of Group 6.

End view of branches of the same species. x6.

Figs. 11, 12. End view of branches of / bi-imbricata and F. lati-

Fig. 13.

carina, showing the characteristics of Groupe. x6.

An enlargement from the celluliferous face of a specimen, ~

showing the characters of the carine of Group ¢.

Figs. 14-17. Fragments of specimens, natural size.

Fig. 18.

An enlargement of the base of a frond of / variapora.

622

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

Report State Geologist,1894. Pilate ve:

oN Py. rf

5 teal pa Z
pea anew ene
a fn Same

+

Av
+

: $
th ao date

sy ™ a
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BA pO, eae

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James Blyon, State Printer.

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Fig.

5S

Fig.

Big: 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 6.
Bie? 7
Fig. 8
Fig.

Fig. 10
Big. 11
Fig. 12

. Noncelluliferous face. x6.
9. Celluliferous face. x6.
5. Side view of a branch. x6.

PLATE III.
CYCLOPORINA.
(Page 504.)
CYCLOPORINA HEMICYCLA, Hall (sp.).

Hamilton group. New York.

CYCLOPORINA SEMIROTUNDA, Hall (sp.).

Noncelluliferous face. x6.
Celluliferous face. x6.

- Hamilton group. New York.

FENESTRAPORA.
(Page 506.)
FENESTRAPORA LARGIOR, Hall (sp.).

Noncelluliferous face. x18.
Hamilton group. Moscow, N. Y.

FENESTRAPORA BIPERFORATA, Hall.

. An enlargement from the celluliferous face, showing the

triangular pores. x18.

. An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face. x18.
9, An enlargement from the celluliferous face, showing the cell

apertures and the poriferous summits of the carine. x6.

. A still further enlargement of the poriferous summits of the

carine. x18.

. Side view of a branch. x6.
. End view of branches. x6.

Hamilton group. Moscow, NV. Y.

624

BRYOZOA.

ic Illustrations.

Gener

Plate 3.

*

1894.
|
|
|
|

aA

Report State Geologist,

James B Lyon, State Printer.

G.B.Simpson , de]

pias

et we

“Pe

A we , }
4; eel i

Fig.

Hie: 3:
Fig.

Big. 35.
Figs. 6.
mie. 7.
his. -8.
ig: 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.

. A fragment of a specimen, natural size.
2. An enlargement of a portion of the preceding figure. x6.

4, A transverse section of the branches. 6x.

PLATE My,
PTILOPORELLA.
(Page 506.)
PTILOPORELLA INEQUALIS, Hall.

Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario.

PTILOPORELLA LATICRESCENS, Hall.

A fragment, natural size.

An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face of a frond,
showing two of the primary branches. x6. |

An enlargement from the celluliferous face of Fig. 3, showing
the form and arrangement of the cell apertures.

Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario.

PINNAPORINA.
(Page 507.)
PINNAPORINA PINNATA, Hall (sp.). _

A fragment of a frond, natural size.

PTILOPORINA.
(Page 507.)
Prinoporina conica, Hall.

A fragment, natural size.
Upper Helderberg group. Schoharie, N. Y.

PTILOPORINA SINISTRALIS.

. A frond, natural size, showing all of the secondary branches

proceeding from the sinistral side of the primary or larger
branches. ;

. An enlargement of a portion of the same frond. xé.

Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario.

PTILOPORINA DISPARILIS.
A fragment, natural size. |
An enlargement from the celluliferous face, showing from two
to five ranges of cell apertures. x6. .
Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario.

626

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

Plate 4.

1894.

Report State Geologist

pk ag “Deyo Bop Slee lok At Oe

we, a ee ee ee oe a
. lia SF Sa j :

phy

HA ash tise Botiart Ste

oo

James B Lyon, State Printer.

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Fig.

Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Hig.’ 6.
Bigs; 7,

Bigs) °8:

Hig. 9:
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.

2, A still further enlargement of the same specimen. x18.

PLATE Y:

HEMITRYPA.
(Page 507.)
HEMITRYPA CRIBROSA, Hall.

An enlargement of the base of a specimen. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. ails of the Ohio.

HEMITRYPA COLUMELLATA, Hall:

A fragment, natural size.

An enlargement from the noncelluliferons nee of the
frond. x6.

An enlargement from the geltaliterads face of afrond. The |
upper portion of the figure shows the superimposed hemi- |
trypic structure. x6.

A side view of a portion of a branch and carina. x6.

End view of branches and carinez. x6. :

Side view of a branch showing the cell apertures and the
columellar appearance of the broken carina.

Noncelluliferous face. x6.

An impression in the rock of the celluliferous face. x6.

Pseudo-carine and connecting scale. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario.

UNITRYPA.
(Page 508.)

Unirrypa connexa, Hall.

An enlargement of the summits of the carine and connecting
scale. On portions of the figure the scale are of unitrypic
character, while on other portions they are hemitrypic.
This species could, with equal propriety, be included in
either Unirrypa or HEMITRYPA.

Side view of a portion of a branch and its carine. x6.

Transverse section of branches and carine. x6. —

Upper Helderberg group.

628

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

Piate 3.

Report: State Geologist,1894.

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Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.
Fig. 19.

UnitTrypa acctivis, Hall.

An enlargement. The lower left-hand corner shows the cellu-
liferous face of the branches; the other portion showing
the irregular summits of the carine and the connecting
scale. |

Upper Helderberg group. ulls of the Ohio.

UNITRYPA LATA.

An enlargement, showing the summits of the carine and con-
necting scale, the celluliferous face of the branches, and
also the interior of the branches.

A fragment of a frond, showing the unitrypic face, natural
size.

A side view of a portion of a.branch and its carina. x6.

A transverse section of branches and their carine. x6.

629

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

ie
12,

13.

14,

15.

. A fragment of a frond, showing the noncelluliferous face,
. A fragment of a frond, showing the unitrypic chasacieed
. A transverse section of branches and their carine.

. Aside view of a branch, showing the form.of the scale. x6.

. An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face of the

. An enlargement, showing the summits of the carinz and their

. A transverse section of branches and their carine. x6.
. A side view of a portion of a branch and its carina. x6.
. Aside view of the upper portion of a branch, showing the

PLATE (Vi.

UNITRYPA.
(Page 508.) .
Unirrypa FasticaTa, Hall.

natural size. f

natural size.

frond: x6.

connecting scale. x6.
Upper Helderberg group.

ISOTRYPA.
(Page 510.)
IsoTRYPA consuNcTIVA, Hall.

columellar appearance of the broken carine; in this respect
closely resembling a HemirryPa. |

. An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face of a frond,

showing the conspicuous pores on or near the dissepiments.
An enlargement from the celluliferous face of a frond. x6.
An enlargement, showing the summits of the carine and their
connecting bars. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario.

TECTULIPORELLA.
(Page 510.)
TECTULIPORELLA CONSIMILIS, Hall (sp.).

An enlargement. The left-hand portion of the figure shows
the summits of the carine and connecting bars; the central,
the celluliferous face of the branches; the right-hand
portion the interior of the branches. x6.

An enlargement, showing the celluliferous face of the
branches. x6.

An enlargement, showing the summits of the carine and
their connecting bars. x6.

Upper Helderberg group.

630

i

BRYOZOA.

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Fig.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.
Big.73;

Fig. 6.

PEATE VIL
TECTULIPORA.
(Page 511.)

TECTULIPORA BIPERFORATA. .

A transverse section of branches and carine. x18.

and their carine. x18.

An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face of a frond.
x18. ,

An enlargement from the celluliferous face of a frond. x18.

An enlargement, showing the summits of the carine of the
branches and dissepiments. x18.

Upper Helderberg group. Walpole, Ontario.

LOCULIPORA. —
(Page 511.)
LocuLipoRA PERFORATA, Hall.

A side view of a branch, showing a section of the dissepiments
and their carine. x6.

. A transverse section of three of the branches and their carine.

x18.

. An enlargement from the noncelluliferous face of a frond.

x6.

. An enlargement of the summits of the carine of the branches

and dissepiments. x6.

. An enlargement. The lower portion of the figure shows the

celluliferous face of the branches; the upper portion the
summits of the carine. x6.

. An enlargement from the celluliferous face of a.frond. x6.
. A portion of a frond, natural size.

Lower Helderberg group. Albany county, N.Y.

632

BRYOZOA.

10ns.

Generic Illustrat

7.

Plate

Report State Geologist,1894.

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PTILOPORINA.
(Page 507.)
PTILOPORINA PINNATA, Hall.

An enlargement of the noncelluliferous face. This figure is
inserted here for comparison with Prinopora.

PTILOPORA.
(Page 519.)

Prinopora sTRiaTA, Hall.

Fig. 2. Noncelluliferous face. x6.
Fig. 3. Celluliferous face. x6.
Hamilton gronp. Moscow, Livingstor county, N. Y.
PTILOPORA INFREQUENS, Hall.
Fig. 4. A fragment, natural size.
Fig. 6. The same specimen. x6.
Fig. 7. Noncelluliferous face of a fragment. x6.
Hamilton group. Western New York.
Prinopora noposa, Hall.
Fig. 5. The celluliferous face of a fragment. x6.

Hamilton group. Near Alden, N. Y.

GLAUCONOME.
(Page 524.)
GLAUCONOME stnuosa, Hall.

Figs. 8, 9. Fragments, natural size.

Fig. 10.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

ivi
12,
13.

14,
15.

The celluliferous face. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. Wear Leroy, N. Y.

GLAUCONOME TENUISTRIATA, Hall.

A fragment, natural size. -
The noncelluliferous face. x6.
The celluliferous face. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. Near Buffalo, N. Y.

GLAUCONOME CARINATA, Hall.

Fragments, natural size.

The noncelluliferous face. x6.

Hamilton group. Full Brook, four miles east of Canandaigua

Lake, IN. ¥.
634

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

Plate 8.

1894.

.

Report State Geologist

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ICHTHYORACHIS.
(Page. 524)
Icutayoracuis Ngwrenuami, McCoy.

Figs. 16-18. Copies of McCovy’s original illustrations.

IcntHyoracuis Nereis, Hall.

Fig. 19. The celluliferous face. x6.

Fig. 20. A fragment, natural size.

Fig. 21. The noncelluliferous face of a specimen. © x6.
Lower Helderberg group. Schoharie, N. Y.

6355

PLATES.

CRISINELLA.
(Page 526.)

CagIsINELLA SCROBICULATA, Hall.

Fig. 1. A portion of a frond, natural size.
Fig. 2. Noncelluliferous face. -x6. |
Fig. 3. Celluliferous face. x6.

Upper Helderberg group.

THAMNICELLA.
(Page 525.)
THAMNICELLA Nysa, Hall.
Fig. 4. A fragment, natural.size.

Fig. 5. The same. x6.
Lower Helderberg group. Clarksville, N. Y.

THAMNICELLA ascuTa, Hall.
Fig. 6. A fragment, natural size. .
Fig. 7. A portion of the celluliferous face. x9.
Fig. 8. A portion of the noncelluliferous face. x9.

THAMNICELLA Cissxis, Hall.
Fig. 9. A frond, natural size.
Figs. 10, 11. A portion of the noncelluliferous face. x6.
Fig. 12. A portion of the celluliferous face. x6.
Fig. 13. A group of Bryozoa, ae which are several specimens of

this species.
Lower Helderberg group. Clarksville, N. i

THAMNISCUS.
(Page 524.)
THAMNISCUS VARIOLATA, Hall.
Fig. 14. A fragment of the noncelluliferous face of a frond. x3,

Toamniscos NraGaRrensis, Hall.

Fig. 15. A frond, natural size.
Fig. 16. A portion of the celluliferous face. x2. :
Fig. 17. A portion of the celluliferous face of ance specimen,
showing angular, carinated branches.
Niagara group. Waldron, Indiana.

636

BRYOZOA.

ions.

Generic Illustrat

,1894. Plate Q.

Report State Geologist

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Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

18.

19.

20.
21.

22.

23.

THAMNISCUS NANUS, Hall.

A portion of the celluliferous face. x6,
Upper Helderberg group. Falls of the Ohio.

LYROPORIDRA.
(Page 517.)
LYROPORIDRA SUBQUADRANS, Ulrich (sp.).

An enlargement of a portion of the celluliferous face of a
frond, showing the dispcsition of the cell apertures.
Lower Carboniferous.

ANASTOMOPORA.
(Page 517.)
ANASTOMOPORA CiNCTUTA, Hall (sp.).

A fragment of a frond, natural size.

An enlargement of a portion of the noncelluliferous face,
showing irregular anastomosis. x6.

An enlargement of the noncelluliferous face, showing regu-
larly anastomosing branches. x6.

An enlargement from the celluliferous face, showing the dis-
position of the cell apertures and the thickened margin of
the frond.

Hamilton group.

637

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

iN)

. A frond, natural size.
. The same. x6.
Hamilton group. Bellona, N. Y.

. A segment, natural size.
. The same. x6.

PEATE se

STICTOPORINA.
(Page 543.)

STICTOPORINA CLAVIFORMIS, Hall.

RHINIDICTYA.

R#HINIDICTYA GRANULOSA, Hall.

. A still further enlargement of a portion of the surface, show-

ing more distinctly the cell apertures and surface orna-
mentation.

Lower Helderberg group. Catskill Creek, NV. Y.
STICTOCELLA.
(Page 582.)
STICTOCELLA INTERSTRIATA, Hall.

. A frond, natural size.
. A portion enlarged, showing the disposition of the cell aper-

turer, the interapertural striations and the spinuliform pro-
_ jections in the cell tubes.
Hamilton group. Alden, NV. Y.

STICTOPORINA.
(Page 582.)

STICTOPORINA SUBCARINATA, Hall.

. An enlargement of a portion of a branch. x6. The natural

size of the frond is illustrated in fig. 6, pl. xii.
Hamilton group. Lellona, V. Y.

STICTOPORA.

(Page 605.) |
SricropoRa CRESCENS, Hall.

. A portion of afrond. x6.
10.

A vertical section showing the form of the cell tubes, ae
the intercellular vesicular tissue. x6.
Upper Helderbarg group. Ontario.

638

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

Piaie ie.

Report State Geologist,1894.

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19.

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A frond, natural size.
Hamilton group. New York.

CYSFODICTYA.
(Page 536.)
CysTopIcTyA INCISURATA, Hall.

A transverse section of a branch. x6.
Hamilton group. New York.

CysTODICTYA GI BERTI, Meek.

A portion of a frond from which the surface has been worn
away, showing the cell tubes. x6.

A fragment of a frond, natural size.

A natural vertical section showing the cell tubes, and in
some of them the septx. x6.

A natural transverse section. x6.

An enlargement of the mesotheca, showing the transverse
arching lines of growth and the longitudinal lines formed
by the recumbent portion of the cell tubes. x6.

An enlargement showing the cell apertures with denticulated

_ projections. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. ails of the Ohio.

CYsTODICTYA OVATIPORA, HALL.

A portion of a frond, natural size.
The same. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. Fulls of the Ohio.

639

PEATE AL.

INTRAPORA.
(Page 535.)

InTRAPORA PUTEOLATA, Hall.

Figs. 1-5. Fragments of fronds, natural size, showing variations in
| form.
Fig. 6. A portion of a frond. x6.
Fig. 7. A still further enlargement from the preceding figure. x18.
Fig. 8. An enlargement from another specimen having circular aper-
tures and fewer interapertural pits. x18.
Fig. 9. A transverse specimen of one-half of a specimen. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

SEMIOPORA.
(Page 535.)
SEMIOPORA BISTiGMATA, Hall.
Fig. 10. A frond, natural size.
Fig. 11. A portion of the preceding. x6.
Hamilton group. Wew York.

TAINIOPORA.
(Page 533.) _
Tazniopora Exicua, Nicholson.

Fig. 12. A portion of the concave face. x6.
Fig. 13. A portion of the angular face. xé.
Fig. 14. The mesotheca worn away, showing the under portion oi

the cell tubes. x6. ?
Fig. 15. A transverse section of a branch. x6.
Fig. 16. A side view of the cell tubes, showing their form and mode

of growth.

Hamilton group. Various localities in New York,

640

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BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

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Report State Geologist,1894.

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PUATE it,

TASNIOPORA.
(Page 533.)
T2NIOPORA Exieua, Hall.

2. Portions of fronds, natural size.

A transverse section of the triangular main branch of fig.
1, x6. Compare this figure with fig. 15, Prismopora
triquetra, -

An enlargement of a portion of a frond. x6.

An enlargement from a specimen having only two ranges
of cell apertures on each side of the carinz. x6.

Hamilton group. New York.

STICTOPORINA.
(Page 582.)
STICTOPORINA SUBCARINATA.

This figure is inserted here for comparison with figs. 1 and 2.
Hamilton group. New York.

THAMNOTRY PA.
(Page 546.)
THAMNOTRYPA DIvARIcATA, Hall.

A frond, natural size.

A portion of the same. 6x.
Upper Helderberg group. Wear Buffalo, Wa

PRISMOPORA.
(Page 531.)
PRISMOPORA TRIQUETRA, Hate

Figs. 9,10. Two specimens, natural ‘size.

Bio! 11.
Fig. 12.

| ‘Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

A portion of one face of a branch. x6.

An enlargement, showing the denticulated cell apertures.
x LS:

A transverse section, showing the mesotheca and inter-
cellular vesiculose tissue. x6.

A natural transverse section showing mesothen and cell

tubes. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. ails of the Ohio.

642

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4

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

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James B Lyon, State Printer.

Réport State Geologist,1894.
G.B.Simpson , del

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

5

Fig.

» LS,

21,
22.

PRISMOPORA SUBTRIQUETRA, Hall.

A portion of one of the faces of a branch. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

SCALARIPORA.
(Page 582.)
ScALARIPORA SCaLAgirormis, Hall.

. A specimen, natural size.
. An enlargement of the concave face of a branch. x6.
. An oblique view of the same, showing the form of the scale.

x6.

. An enlargement of the two narrower faces of a frond. x6.
. A transverse section, showing the radiating mesothece, the

cell tubes and the form of the scale. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. Falls of the Ohio.

ScALARIPORA suBcOoNCAVA, Hall.

A fragment, natural size.
A transverse section: x6.
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

645

PLATE <XITE

COSCINOTRYPA.
(Page 537.)
CoscINOTRYPA CRIBRIFORMIS, Hall.

Figs. 1-4. Fragments, natural size.
Fig. 5. A portion of afrond. x6.
Fig. 6. An enlargement from another specimen, showing the denticu-
lated cell apertures. x6.
Fig. 7. A transverse section, showing one of the elevations, a a
characteristic of this genus, natural size.
Upper Helderberg group. Falls of the Ohio.

COSCINIUM.
(Page 537.)
CoscINIuM sTRIATUM, Hall.

Fig. 8. A specimen, natural size.

Fig. 9. An enlargement of a portion of fig. 8.

Fig. 10. A still further enlargement, showing the denticulated cell
apertures. x18.

Fig. 11. A transverse section of the portion of the frond between the
fenestrules. x6.

Fig. 12. One of the cell apertures. x72.

Hamilton group. Widder, Ontario.

€44

BRYOZOA.

es

Generic Illustrations.

Plate 13.

Report State Geologist, 1894.

i

James B.Lyon, State Printer.

G.BSimpson ,del

Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Pig

. A specimen, natural size.

. A weathered specimen, natural size.
. An enlargement from the preceding. x6.

PLATE XIV:

COSCINIUM.
(Page 537.)

CoscINIuM sTRIATURUM, Hall.

Upper Helderberg group. Stafford, N. Y.

CERAMELLA.
(Page 527.)

CERaMELLA scripackKa, Hall.

A fragment of a well-preserved specimen, natural size.

. An enlargement from the preceding. x6.
. A vertical section, showing the form of the cell tubes and

their manner of growth. x6.
Hamilton group. New York.

COSCINELLA.
(Page 534.)
CoScINELLA ELEGANTULA, Hall.

. A frond, natural size: .
8. A portion of the preceding figure. x6.
. A transverse section of the portion of the frond between

adjacent cell apertures. x6.

. A vertical section, showing’ the form and manner of growth

of the cell tubes and the intercellular vesiculose tissue. x6.

. An enlargement of the mesotheca. x6. =
. An enlargement of one of the cell apertures. x72,

Hamilton group. Widder, Ontario.

646

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

14.

Plate

Report State Geologist,1894.

James Blyon, State Printer.

GBSimpson , de]

Big: /1.
Bigs 2
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4,
Fig. 5
Bis yc.
Fig. 7
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9

. A portion of the preceding. x6.

PLATE ZW:
PTILOCELLA.

PTILOCELLA PARALLELA, Hall.

A specimen, natural size.

A transverse section of a frond. x6.
Hamilton group. Ontario county, N. Y.

PTILODICTYA.
(Page 541.)

Pritopicrya PLUMEA, Hall.

A specimen, natural size.

. An enlargement of a portion of the surface. x6.

An enlargement of the base of Fig. 4. x6. .
Hamilton group. West Hamburgh, N. Y.

PTILODICTYA KETIFORMIS, Hall.

. An enlargement of the surface, showing the form and dispo-

sition of the cell apertures and the vestibular areas. x6.
Hamilton group. Alden, NV. Y.

PHANOPORA.
(Page 541.)
PHANOPORA LIBATA, Hall.

A portion of a specimen. x6. |
Lower Helderberg group. Clarksville, N. Y.

PHAZNOPORA TENUIS, Hall.

. A specimen, natural size.
. An enlargement of the preceding. x6.

Lower Helderberg group. Albany county, N. Y.

ACROGENIA..
(Page 544.)
ACROGENIA PROLIFERA, Hall.

Figs. 11, 12. Segments, natural size.
Fig. 18. A perfect specimen, natural size.
Fig. 14. An enlargement of the roots of the preceding specimen. x6.

648

4Ey;

~

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

Plate

Report State Geologist, 1894.

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Fig. 15. An enlargement from the central portion of a segment. x6.
Fig. 16. An enlargement from another segment, showing angular form
and median carination. x6. :
Fig. 17. An enlargement from the base of a segment. x6.
Figs. 18-20. Transverse sections from different portions of a seg-
ment. x6.
Hamilton group. ew York.

649

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

11.

12.

13.
14,

PLATE vi:
TROPIDOPORA.
(Page 553.)
TROPIDOPORA NANA, Hall.

. A fragment, natural size, with Aulopora.
. A portion of the preceding specimen. x18.

Upper Helderberg group. Onondaga Valley, N. Y.

DIAMESOPORA.
(Page 566.)
DIAMESOPORA CAMERATA, Hall.

. Several fragments of this species, natural size. :
. A portion of a branch x6, showing the appearance and arrange-

ment of the cell apertures and one of the macule.

. A section showing the cell tubes and epitheca. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. Caledonia, N. Y.

ACANTHOCLEMA.
(Page 552).

ACANTHOCLEMA ALTERNATUM, Hall.

. A specimen, natural size.
. A portion of the preceding specimen. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. Onondaga Valley, N, Y.

ACANTHOCLEMA scuToLaTuM, Hall.

. A portion of a branch. x6.
. An enlargement showing the usual appearance and arrange-

ment of the cell apertures. x18.

An enlargement of a specimen having a pit at the base of
each cell aperture in addition to the usual node. —

A vertical section. x18.

Hamilton group. Canandaigua Lake, N. Y.

BACTROPORA.
(Page 558).
BacTRopora cuRVATA, Hall.

A specimen. x6.
A portion of the preceding specimen. x18.
Hamilton group. rie county, N. Y.

«50

BRYOZOA.

ions.

Generic Illustrat

Report State Geologist

Plate 16.

1894.

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NEMATAXIS,
(Page 552).
NEMATAXIS FIBROSUS, Hall.

Fig. 15. A specimen imbedded in the rock and fractured so as to
show the internal structure, natural size.

Fig. 16. A part of the same. x6.

Fig. 17. A portion of a specimen showing the oval cell apertures dis-
posed in regular longitudinal rows and macule destitute of
cell apertures.

Fig. 18. A portion of a specimen having the cell apertures obliterated
by a calcareous deposit.

Hamilton group. rie county, NV. Y.

651

PLATE. XVII.
MONTICULIPORA.
(Page 577.)
MontTIcuLipoRa MAMMILLOSA, Hall.

Fig. 1. Zoarium, natural size. ;
Fig. 2. A vertical section. x6.

Fig. 3. A transverse section. x6.

These two sections show the generic characters.
Hudson River group. ear Cincinnati, Ohio.

PRASOPORA. |
. (Page 586).

Figs. 4, 5. A vertical and transverse section. x6.
Illustrating the characters of the genus.

AMPLEXOPORA.
(Page 577.) -
Figs. 6, 7. A transverse and vertical section; illustrating the internal
structure of the genus.

MONOTRYPELLA.
(Page 581.) 4

Fig. 8, An enlargement of the surface. x6.
Lower Helderberg group. Wear Schoharie, N. Y.

PTYCHONEMA.
(Page 583.)
PTYcHONEMA TABULATUM, Hall. -
Fig. 9. An enlargement of.a portion, showing the peculiar corruga-
tions of the cell tubes. x6.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Schoharie, NV. Y,

652

Plate iz

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

Report State Geologist,1894.

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PLATE XVIII.
CALLOPORA.

(Page 588.)
CALLOPORA ELEGANTULA, Hall.

Figs. 1, 2. Specimens, natural size.

Fig. 3. A fragment of a specimen fractured so as to show the cell
tubes. x6.

Fig. 4. An enlargement of the surface, showing the form and arrange-
ment of the cell apertures and interapertural openings.
Several of the apertures on the lower portion of the figure
have opercula.

Fig. 5. An enlargement of one of the apertures, showing the oper- _

culum. x100.
Figs. 6, 7. These sections show the tabulated cell tubes and the
tabulated mesopores. x18.
Niagara group. Lockport, N. Y.

CALLOTRYPA.
(Page 551.)
CALLOTRYPA UNISPiNA, Hall.

Fig. 8. A specimen, natural size.

Fig. 9. An enlargement showing the form and arrangement of the
cell apertures and interapertural pits, and the prone
node at the base of each aperture. x18.

Fig. 10. An enlargement of one of the cell apertures and its accom-
panying node, x54. :

Fig. 11. A thin vertical section, showing the internal structure. x18.

Lower Helderberg group. ew York. :

CALLOTRYPA MACROPORA, Hall.
Figs. 12, 18. Groups of Bryozoa, among which are several of this
species.
Fig. 14, A portion of a branch. x18. _
Lower Helderberg group. New York.

654

BRYOZOA.

Generic IJlustrations.

Plate 18.

Report State Geologist,1894.

James Blyon, State Printer.

G.B.Simpson, del

a wh

Bios “bib “

PLATE ese
TREMATOPORA.
(Page 591.)
TREMATOPORA TUBERCULOSA, Hall.

Figs. 1, 2, 3. Fragments of this species, natural size.

Fig. 4. A portion of a branch showing the form and arrangement
of the cell apertures, and the monticules destitute of cell
apertures. x18.

Fig. 5. An enlargement of a thin section showing the cell tubes and ~
the tabulated mesopores. x18.

Niagara group. Lockport, NV. Y.

TREMATELLA.
(Page 550.)
TREMATELLA ANNULATA, Hall.
Figs. 6, 7. Specimens, natural size.
Fig. 8. A portion of abranch. x6.
Fig. 9. An enlargement of a thin section showing the el

structure.
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.
RHOMBOPORA.
(Page 550.)

RHOMBOPORA REGULARIS, Hall.
Fig. 10. A group of specimens, natural size.
Fig. 11. A portion of a branch. x18.
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

ReomBorora TRANSVERSA, Hall.

Fig. 12. A portion of a branch of this species. x6.
Fig. 13. An enlargement of a pin section showing the internal
structure. x6.
Hamilton group. Hamburgh, N. Y.

STREBLOTRY PA. 3
(Page 551.)
STREBLOTRYPA Hamitronense#, Hall.

Fig. 14. An enlargement showing the regular arrangement of the
cell apertures, the interapertural pits, and the sinuous ~
ridges. x6. } |

Fig. 15. An enlargement from a specimen having unusually large
cell apertures, and without the prominent longitudinal
ridges.

Hamilton group. West Williams, Ontario.

656

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

Report State Geologist,1894. Plate 19.

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PLATE XxX.

PALESCHARA.
PaLESCHARA INCRUSTANS, Hall.

Fig. 1. A zoarium incrusting Streptelasma strictwm, natural size.
Fig. 2. An enlargement from the preceding, showing form and
arrangement of the cells. x6.
Lower Helderberg group. ear Clarksville, N. Y.

PALESCHARA RADIATA, Hall.

Fig. 8. An enlargement, showing the form and arrangement of the

cells. x6.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.

SAGENELLA.
(Page 597.)
SaGENELLA ELEGANS, Hall.
Fig. 4. An enlargement, sbowing the form of the cells. x6.
Niagara group.
CERAMOPORA.
(Page 563.)
CERAMOPORA MAcULATA, Hall.

Figs. 5, 6, 7. The under side of three specimens, natural size.
Fig. 8. The upper surface of a specimen, natural size.
Fig. 9. An enlargement from the preceding figure, showing the form
and arrangement of the cell apertures. x6.
Niagara group.
CERAMOPORA LABECULOIDEA, Hall.

Fig. 10. An enlargement of a zoarium. x6.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, VN. Y.

CERAMOPORA LABECULA, Hall. ES

Fig. 11. A fragment of a FENESTELLA, upon which are two separate
colonies of this species. x6.
Niagara group.

CERAMOPORA PARVICELLA, Hall.

Fig. 12. A zoarium incrusting a Merisrrita, natural size.
Fig. 18. An enlargement from the surface of the preceding, showing
the form and arrangement of the cell apertures.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.

658

BRYOZOA.

Generic Illustrations.

Plate 20.

Report State Geologist, 1894.

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Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.
Fig. 17.

CERAMOPORA.
(Page 563.)
CERAMOPORA CONFLUENS, Hall.
A zoarium entirely incrusting a specimen of Platyostoma

niagarense, natural size.
An enlargement, showing the character of the cells and the

monticules. x6.
Niagara group. Waldron, Indiana.

BOTRYLLOPORA.
(Page 592.)
BoTRYLLOPORA socraLis, Nicholson.

An enlargement of aportion of a colony of this species. x6.

An enlargement of a thin section showing the cell tubes and
the intercellular vesicle. x6.

Hamilton group. Mew York.

659

PLATE, ROC:
CHILOTRYPA.
(Page 554.)
CHILOTRYPA OSTIOLATA, Hall.

Fig. 1. Fragments of zoaria, natural size.

Fig. 2. An enlargement of a thin section showing the axial tube,
the cell tubes and the intercellular vesicles. x9. |

Niagara group. Lockport, V. Y.

bo

CaELOCAULIS.
(Page 554.)
C@LocauLis vENuSTA, Hall.
Fig. 38. A fragment, natural size.
Hig. 4. An enlargement of the preceding. x6.
Fig. 5. An enlargement of a specimen fractured so as to show the

cells, the intercellular vesicles and the epitheca, x9.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.

FISTULIPORINA.
(Page 555.)
FIsTULIPORINA MICROPORA, Hall.

Fig. 6. An enlargement showing the manner of growth of the
frond, the form and arrangement of the cell apertures and
mesopores. :

Hamilton group. rie county, NV. Y.

Figs. 7-10. Enlargements showing the internal structure of the fol-
lowing species:

Fig. 9. & stellata ; Fig. 10. & variopora.

FIsTULIPORINA DiIGITATA, Hall.

Fig. 11. An enlargement of a frond incrusting a Cyathophylloid
coral, showing the manner of growth and the form and
arrangement of the cell apertures and mesopores. x6.

Hamilton group. West Hamburgh, N. Y.

FIsTULIPORINA MULTICULEATA, Hall.

Fig. 12. An enlargement showing the form and disposition of the
cell apertures and the numerous nodes on the peristomes
and walls of mesopores. x18.

Hamilton group. Darien Center, V. Y.

660

BRYOZOA.

ions.

ic Illustrat

Gener

Plate 21.

1894.

,

1St

Report State Geolog

Aisthig 3

baat]

James Blyon, State Printer.

6.B.Simpson , del

FISTULIPORINA CONFERTIPORA, Hall.

Fig. 13. An enlargement showing the circular cell apertures and
nodose peristomes.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.

FISTULIPORINA PONDEROSA, Hall.
Fig. 14. An enlargement, showing the circular cell apertures, the
mesopores and the prominent, conieal, interapertural nodes.

eux S.
Lower Helderberg group. Near Clarksville, N. Y.

FIsTULIPORINA SERRULATA, Hall.

Fig. 15. An enlargement, showing the cell apertures and mesopores,
the serrulated peristomes and the characters of the opercula.
Hamilton group. West Bloomfield, N. Y.

661

PLATE: XxX.

FISTULIPORIDRA.
(Page 606.)
FIsTULIPORIDRA TESSELATA, Hall.

Fig. 1. An enlargement, showing the circular cell apertures and the

polygonal vestibular areas. x18.
Fig. 9. An enlargement of a transverse section, showing the internal

structure, the same as in FisTULIPORINA.
Fig. 3. An enlargement of a vertical section, showing the eal tubes

and the intercellular structure. x6.

Hamilton group. Western New York.

FISTULICELLA.

(Page 606.)
FIsTULICELLA PLANA, Hall.

Fig. 4. An enlargement of the surface. x12.

~ FISTULIPORELLA.
_ (Page 560.) |

FIsTULIPORELLA CONSTRICTA, Hall.

Fig. 5. An enlargement of the surface showing the denticulated
cell apertures, the interapertural pores and the vestibular
polygonal areas. x18.

Fig. 6. An enlargement of a tranverse section. x18.

Fig. 7 An enlargement of a vertical section, showing the cell tubes
and the intercellular structure. x6.

Hamilton group. Western New York.

ee ee

LICHENALIA. Es
(Page 559.)
The following figures are given to show the character of the cell
apertures :
Figs. 8, 9. Lichenalia colliculata.

Fig. 10. Lachenalia interaspera.
Hamilton group. New York.

662

BRYOZOA.

10Nns.

ic Illustrat

Gener

Plate 22.

1894.

1St

Report State Geolog

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Be @:

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C8 aye]

James B Lyon, State Printer.

G.B.Simpson, del

FISTULIPORA.,
(Page 559.)
The following figures are given to show the character of the cell

apertures :
Fig. 11. Mstulipora triloba.

Lower Helderberg group. Mew York.
Fig. 12. Mstulipora pustulosa.
Fig. 13. Fistulipora operculata.

Hamilton group. New York.

663

Bigs,
Bie, 2.
Big. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Hig,

PLATE XXIII.
LICHENALIA.
(Page 559.)

LIcHENALIA SUBSTELLATA, Hall.

A frond, natural size.
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

LicHENALIA OvaATA, Hall.

A frond, natural size.
Upper Helderberg group. Hills of the Ohio.

LIcHENALIA VEsicuLaTa, Hall.

A frond incrusting a Cyathophylloidicoral, natural size.
Hamilton group. Western New York.

LICHENALIA SUBTRIGONA, Hall.

An enlargement of a vertical section, showing the internal

structure of the family Fisruniporipz. x6.
Hamilton group. West Williams, Ontario.

LicHENALIA LuNATA, Hall.

An enlargement of the surface, showing the form and
arrangement of the denticulated cell apertures and monti-
cules.) x6: \,

A specimen fractured so as to aoe the internal structure.
The pseudo-septa and tabule of the cell tubes showing very
plainly. x6.

Upper Helderberg group.. Falls of the Ohio.

LICHENOTRYPA. ;
(Page 556.)
LIcHENOTRYPA LONGISPINA, Hall.

An enlargement, showing the form and arrangement of the ~
cell apertures, the interapertural elevations, and the spines
at the angles. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

664

BRYOZOA.

10NnSs.

ic Ijlustrat

Gener

Plate 23

1894.

1St

‘Report State Geolog

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James BLyon, State Printer.

6.B.Simpson, del

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

12.

13.

14,

15.

PILEOTRYPA.
(Page 562.)
PILEOTRYPA CLIVULATA, Hall.

. Anenlargement of a vertical section, showing the oblique cell

tubes and intercellular vesicles.-
Upper Helderberg group. Falls of the Ohio.

PILEOTRYPA PYRIFORMIS, Hall.

. An enlargement of the surface. x6.
10.

A still further enlargement, showing more distinctly the
character of the cell apertures. x18.

. An oblique view of a portion of the surface. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

PILEOTRYPA DENTICULATA, Hall.

An enlargement of the surface, showing the form and
arrangement of the cell apertures and the macule of larger
cells. x6.

Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

PILEOTRYPA GRANIFERA, Hall.

An enlargement of the surface. x18.
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

PILEOTRYPA BISTRIATA, Hall.

An enlargement of the surface, showing the form and
arrangement of the cell apertures, and one of the macule.
x6. 3

Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

PILEOTRYPA GEOMETEICA, Hall.

An enlargement, showing the form and arrangement of the
cell apertures and one of the macule. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

84
665

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
. Fig.

A frond, natural size, incrusting a Fennec ¥
. An enlargement of a portion of the surface, showing dhs a

. A still further enlargement. x18.

. A frond incrusting a FenEsTELLA, natural size. 3
. An enlargement of the surface, showing the form ‘ead

. A still further enlargement, showing more distinctly the

. An enlargement of the surface.

. Fragment, natural size.
9. The same. x6.
10.

PLATE XXIV. : oe
ODONTOTRYPA. 3 a
(Page 561.) | lea "f ’

_ ODONTOTRYPA ALVEATA, Hall.

form aud arrangement of the cell apertures and one oe the
macule,, x6. ra tie OEE ;

Upper Helderberg group. Fails of the ' Ohion ae rs by 2 .

SELENOPORA. th an
(Page 557.)

: SELENOPORA ciRcINCTA, Hall.

arrangement of the cell apertures and one of the macule, a
x6.

denticulated cell apertures and the interapeaia eleva-
tions. x18.
Upper Helderberg group. Falls of the Ohio.

SELENOPORA COMPLEXATA, Hall.
Upper Helderberg group.: Falls of the Ones

GLOSSOTRYPA. "ofA Tae
(Page 562.)

GLOSSOTRYPA PALIFORMIS, Hall.

Section showing cell tubes and thickness of zoarium. x6,
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

666

BRYOZOA.

10ns.

ic Illustrati

.

Gener

Plate 24.

1894.

Report State Geologist

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PHRACTOPORA.
| (Page 539.)
-PHRACTOPORA CRISTATA, Hall.
Fig. 11. Zoarium, natural size.
Fig. 12. A portion of the surface. x6.

Fig. 13. Vertical section. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. alls of the Ohio.

PHRACTOPORA LINEATA, Hall.

Fig. 14. Surface x6.
Hamilton group. York, V. Y.

FAVICELLA.

(Page 556.)
FavicELLa IncLusa, Hall.
. Fig. 15. A portion of the surface. x6.
Fig. 16. A still further enlargement, showing more distinctly the sur-

face characters. x18. - :

Fig. 17. A vertical section, showing internal structure. x6,

Hamilton group. York, NV. Y.

667

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

Fig.
Fig.

PLATE XXV.
HERNODIA.
(Page 596.)
HERNODIA HUMIFUSA, Hall.

. A colony incrusting Gomphoceras abruptum, natural size.
2. An enlargement from the preceding, showing more distinctly —

the form of the cells and their mode of growth. x6.
Hamilton group. Cazenovia, N. Y. 3

CYSTOPORA.
‘(Page 598.)

CysToPoRA GENICULATA, Hall.

. A fragment, natural size.
. An enlargement, showing the ampulliform cell tubes and the

constricted apertures. x6.

. A still further enlargement, showing more distinctly the

features illustrated in fig. 4. x18.
Upper Helderberg group. Manlius, N. Y.

CLONOPORA.
(Page 598.)
CLoNoPoRA INCURVA, Hall.

. An enlargement, showing the form and arrangement of the

cell tubes. x6.
Upper Helderberg group. Manlius, N. Y.

CLONOPORA SEMIREDUCTUS, Hall.

. An enlargement, showing the form of the cell tubes and their

mode of growth. x6.
Upper Helderberg group.. Fails of the Ohio.

REPTARIA.
(Page 599.)
REPTARIA STOLONIFERA, Rolle.

8. Colonies incrusting Orthoceras constrictum, natural size.
. Anu enlargement, showing more distinctly the et of the

cells and their mode of growth. x6.
Hamilton group. Cazenovia, NV. Y.

668

BRYOZOA.

10NnSs.

ic lllustrat

Gener

Plate 25.

1894.

.)

t

Report State Geologis

James B Lyon, State Printer.

6.B.Simpson, de]

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

Fig.

10.
Er.

12.

13.

HEDERELLA.
(Page 599.)
HEDERELLA CIRRHOSA, Hall.
A colony, natural size.

A portion of the preceding. x6.
Hamilton group. York, N. Y.

HEDERELLA CANADENSIS, Billings.
An enlargement of a colony, showing an unusually compact
growth. x6.
An enlargement showing more distinctly the form of the cel
apertures. x12.
Hamilton group. New York.

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