Ra oN ASSSASES \\ SS LYS = wets WS, ‘Ss SUED LL , WIDLIEL EEL ETOP eles IOAIL ereSeryy evel Jo deyr o1Zojoan : RK HE STATE OF NEW yY\ STATE MUSEUM. NIAGARA RIVER LEGEND BY AMADEUS W. GRABAU Maid me, ae University of the State of New York | ee ‘ Y NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 54TH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE oe Ge Bode d 1900 VOL. 4 _ MUSEUM BULLETINS 45-48 TRANSMITTED TO THE LEGISLATURE 2 JAN. 1901 ALBANY UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 1go2 1874 1892 1873 1877 1877 1878 1881 1881 1883 1885 1888 1890 1890 1893 1895 1895 1897 1897 1899 1900 IQOI 1QOI 1902 1888 1890 1890 University of the State of New York REGENTS With years of election Anson Jupp Upson L.H.D. D.D. LL.D. Chancellor, Glens Falls WILLIAM CROSWELL Doane D.D. LL.D. Vice-Chancellor, Albany Martin I. Townsend M.A. LL.D. _ ~ Troy Cuauncey M. Depew LL.D. a 3 — New York CHargrps Bo brrer LB): MOx. ooceer. D. a Rochester WHITELAW Rerp M.A. LL.D. = be New York WILLIAM H. Watson M.A. LL.D. M.D. = re Of at 2) Henry E. Turner LL.D. ae be = 2 Lowville St CLrair McKetway M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. D.C.L. Brooklyn DaNIEL BEacH Ph.D. LL.D. 2 a = — Watkins CARROLL E. SmitH LL.D. ~ ~ - — Syracuse Puiny T. S—Exton LL.D. - _ - = — Palmyra IT. GUILFORD) SMITH VFA (CHE. SUED ae — “ Buffale Lewis A. Stimson B.A. LL:D. M.D. — ve — New York ALBERT VANDER VEER Ph.D. M.D. ~— ~ =) Allpainy, CHARLES R. SKINNER M.A. LL.D. Superintendent of Public Instruction, ex officio CHESTER 5. LorpD MAY ELD. = _ _ - Brooklyn TimotHy L. WooprurF M.A. Lieutenant-Governor, ex officio Joun T. McDonoucu LL.B. LL.D. Secretary of State, ex officio Tuomas A. Henprick M.A. LL.D. — = — Rochester BENJAMIN B. ODELL jr LL.D. Governor, ex officio Ropert C. PRuyn M.A. ~ - ~ — Albany Wittiam NottincHam M.A. Ph.D. = — Syracuse SECRETARY Hlected by regents 1900 JAMES RUSSELL Parsons JR M.A. DIRECTORS OF DEPARTMENTS Metvit Dewey M.A. State hbrary and Home education JAMES RUSSELL PARSONS JR M.A. Administrative, College and High school dep’ts FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL Ph.D. State museum STATE MUSEUM COMMITTEE 1900 Regent T. GUILFORD SMITH Chairman Regent CARROLL E. SMITH Sup’T oF Pusiic INSTRUCTION 45 46 47 48 CON TENTS MUSEUM BULLETINS Grabau, A. W. Geology and paleontology of Niagara CE TIS! SLT G TCM NG a RE Oo a Se LN AO 1 Felt, E. P. Scale insects of importance and list of the pueeres im New York»... 05205... ee. eek ve Ss NE dO 287 Needham, J.G. Aquatic insects in the Adirondacks... 381 Woodworth, J.B. Pleistocene geology of portions of Nassau county and the Borough of Queens.......... 615 ETM MRME eS ye Ne aie sia eee OME coin eae aed behe 671 Re : r ei is} ater nity bis “panty LOWED, . ite: apne r me cy ne: 108 fn At " Wo visor s 7) ‘Piva Se ae FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL Director No. 45 Vol. 9 : April 1901 GUIDE, TO “PHE GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY BY AMADEUS W. GRABAU 5.D. Tufts college WITH A CHAPTER ON POST-PLIOCENE FOSSILS OF NIAGARA BY *. . HEIZADE VE J. LETSON | Dee of the museum, Buffalo society of natural sciences ALBANY UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK IQOI University of the State of New York REGENTS . With years of election 1874 ANSON Jupp Upson L.H.D. D.D. LL.D. Chancellor, Glens Falls 1892 WILLIAM CROSWELL Doane D.D. LL.D. Vice-Chancellor, Albany 1873 MarTIN I. Townsend M.A. LL.D. - - — Troy 1877 CHauncEY M. Depew LL.D. _ - = New York 1877 CHARLES BE. Hiren iB. ow Ae ED — Rochester 1877 OrrRIs H. Warren D.D. - _ - = Syracuse ro7e \WHIrELaw Rep dD a ~ - = — New York 1881 Witiiam H. Warson M.A. M.D. — - _ Utica 1881 Henry E. TURNER — ~ = — = — Lowville 1883 St Crair McKetway M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. DC... Breokign 1885 DanieEL Beacu Ph.D. LL.D. _ SS Watkins 1688 CARROLL E. Smiru LL.D: = - — - = Syracuse 1890 Puiny T. Sexton LL.D. — - - - Palmyra 1690-1, GuILEORD oMinn MEA Con. Iie: - — Buffalo 1693 LEWIS A’ STIMSON” BaAz does. Db. - — New York 1895 ALBERT VANDER VEER Ph.D. M.D. - _ — Albany 1895 CHARLES R. SKINNER M.A. LL.D. Superintendent of Public Instruction, ex officio 1697 ‘CHESTER’ S. LORD MUA; ELD. = - = — Brooklyn 1897 TimotHy L. Wooprurr M.A. Lieutenant-Governor, ex officio — 1899 JoHN T. McDonoucH LL.B. LL.D. Secretary of State, ex officio 1900 THomas A. Henprick M.A. LL.D. - - — Rochester 1901 BENJAMIN B. ODELL jr Governor, ex officio 1901 Ropert C. PRuyn M.A. — = - = — Albany SECRETARY Elected by regents 1900 JAMES RUSSELL PARSONS JR M.A. DIRECTORS OF DEPARTMENTS 1888 Metvi, Dewey M.A. State library and Home education 1890 JAMES RUSSELL PARSONS JR M.A. Administrative, College and High school dep'ts 1890 FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL Ph.D. State museum SX CONTENTS PAGE MERE sep ea EIR ig ole ame gels Goce vies wee va ee: ntroduction—Niagara falls and how to see them............ 7 eewcavom tice New York-side. 3.0500. .....0 ec eee eet 9 Mem tewe irom the Canadian side... 2... ee ee eee 12 Bitereoree below the falls... 0... 2... eee eee 14 Pee MeHOUMSNSeCHIOMS. 655.5 wos gp ticltw sic ele oes se ale ne #5 16 aI Physical geography ot the Niagara regions... ....-: 25 ~ Development of the Paleozoic coastal plain...°......... 31 Weyelopment of the drainage features... ...-.-.:.---.,- 27 Emmemeietie History of Niagara falls... 2.2... oe a 55 Eg chall “mA Gia eyelet oar ar 55 Lu DUIS BT IA, Sj DSI. C Gs ae ag eer ae de MME OC cee Meni oe Rs ee i ek alhie sk ew ace ys 66, (gEE DI INS ah TE eid Se ee rere rea 82: 3 Bee sitatioraphiy of the Niagara region................- 86 LS 8256) PGiehiatG| Ste soles ae elegant 87 Meiteaina canastomnes and Shales: . 2.00... ccc. eee ee ee (87 Clinton beds. Le Bie tec ain Nee tis Seechs 2 ee MOE IE 95 Maire petioles e506 hs st hes rece et cee or acls we ates OZ Mmerior ( Nideata) limestone {6.5.2 <6. 60s wee vs ri ee 105 Pears pees Cotas Moye Se. 5. Soha Gera Mea hasan ie wa Gove a deere ew eas 114 Seite) doec kA rn Poets ore oa WOES 2 ae ee ee ee 114 Rendout. waterlime...... Be ee Tee Mics) One ee ee 115 OPE Merwe StONGs 88.5 2). 3c .din cece bade Pa wisiac sn ae cuts Pee TRO Sire eSilnro-Devonic contact 2). eS,0) ces sc ova ucea 77 LL EVPOUOUIC SS Scr SRE a ah tn ar Or 120 _ History of the Niagara region during Siluric time....... I2I . 4 Fossils of the INiaeaibas ROOTOM in phen te tae Sars bees 130 a Fee ces ee en ke alee wie San gars Pee G vae eal 130 ELEGANS Ca eps ee ME PO) Gh eee nae iisimbution of fossils in the Siluric beds................ 232, Ch. 5 Post-pliocene fossils of the Niagara river gravels, by ae elizabeth J. etsom. wu... ... =. RED GS 2 Wee er ements 238 _ Appendix : ___ Bibliography of the geology of Niagara and the Great BREE ke soe eae ae Reet gee ee omaha ae 253 SDs cic lay PEN ee A scoig8 ald 0s coo id @ mpohons WARE wd», X blo eeyabell 263 i Arg Index a OS e 8) e. @) (8) se) 818% 0) ee) 0) 6, 6: 2) (8) 0: 0) eo e) © @, 6 6 6: ee ere eo 8 @ 0 © ceoeeeeeee @ 8 276 PREFACE With the support and cooperation of the Buffalo society of natural sciences and the department of paleontology of the state museum, Dr Grabau has prepared this guide to the geology and paleontology of Niagara falls and vicinity with the special purpose of affording to visitors to Buffalo during the season of the Pan-American expo- sition inIgOla viaticum in their tours through this region renowned for its scenic features and classic in its geology. The ground has been the subject of a multitude of scientific treatises concerned now with the succession of events in the upbuilding of the rock strata along the canyon of the river; again with the nature of the organic remains inclosed in these strata; sometimes with the changes which the falls have undergone in historic times, but for the most part with the perplexing problems of the origin of the present drainage over the great escarpment and through the gorge, the raison d’etre of the falls, the various changes in the course and work of the Niagara river since its birth and the significance of the present topo- graphy of the region. These scientific investigations began with the careful surveys instituted by the late Prof. James Hall, state geologist and paleontologist, during the years of his explorations in the ath geologic district of this state from 1837-43, who, in addi- tion to his record of the work done by this tremendous agent, de- rived from this region an important term in the New York series of rock formations, the Niagara group, and portrayed the organisms; of the various strata which are so superbly exposed along its great channel. Lyell and Bigsby, Logan, Gilbert, Upham, Spencer, Ley- erett and Taylor are among the names of others who have contrib- uted, from various points of view, facts and hypotheses relating to the geologic history of the river. In no one place however has the general purport of all these various studies been brought together so that the intelligent traveler or student can acquire them in con-_ venient form. It is for this reason that Dr Grabau’s work in bring- ing together in concise form the essence of these investigations, tempered and proved by his own review of them in the field, will not fail to prove serviceable to a large element of the public. Joun M. CLARKE State paleontologist Niagara falls from Father Hennepin’s view point New York State Museum INTRODUCTION —NIAGARA FALEIS AND Hen EO: SEE THEM n a cas The falls of Niagara have been known to the world for more than Cas _ 200 years. Who the first white man was that saw the great catar- acts is not known, but the first to leave a description was the French missionary, Father Louis Hennepin, who, in company with aS La Salle, visited the falls in 1678. He was the first white man to . ise the name, Niagara, for the river and the falls, a name which iad been applied by the Neuter Indians, who occupied the territory m both sides of the river prior to the year 1651, when they were nquered by the Senecas, who after that occupied and possessed = territory.2 In the native language the name is said to signify he thunder of the waters”. The first sight of the great cataracts must have made a powerful ' pression on Father Hennepin, unprepared as he was by previous scriptions save those given him by his Indian allies and guides. e speaks of the falls as “a vast and prodigious Cadence of Water vhich falls down after a surprizing and astonishing manner, inso- much that the Universe does not afford its Parallel”.2 He con- lered the falls “above Six hundred foot high”, and adds that che Waters which fall from this horrible Precipice, do foam and yl after the most hideous manner imaginable, making an out- eeous Noise, more terrible than that of Thunder, for when the ‘Niagara falls are reached from Buffalo by train or electric cars, both which run at frequent intervals. A direct line of railway runs from hester to the falls by way of Lockport. Direct railway connection | western cities is obtained by way of Suspension bridge, while from nto and other cities north of Lake Ontario the falls may be reached rain direct, or by boat to Lewiston or Queenston, and thence by train electric road to Niagara. All electric cars on the New York side run or past Prospect park, and most of them pass the railway stations. ie railway stations are within walking distance of the falls. : Porter, Peter A. Goat island. 16th an. rep’t comr’s state reservation, ae new discovery of a vast country in America. 1698. p. 29. Reprinted in part in special report N. Y. state survey for 1879. 8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Wind blows out of the South, their dismal roaring may be heard more than Fifteen Leagues off.’ If today, from our vantage ground of precise knowledge, we smile on the extravagant estimates of Father Hennepin, it may be asked, who among us, that is capable of admiration and enthusiasm at the sight of nature’s grand spectacles, would, on coming unpre- pared on these great cataracts, be able to form a calm and just esti- mate of hight and breadth and volume of sound? Since the time of La Salle and Hennepin, the falls have been . viewed by a constantly increasing number of visitors. For Ameri- cans of the present generation and for people of other lands as well, Niagara has become a sort of Mecca, to which they hope once in their life time to journey. With many this is a hope long deferred in realization, with most perhaps it is a dream never realized, but those who do go and see, come away with their conceptions of nature much enlarged and with memories which cling to the end of life. Fully to appreciate Niagara, one must give it more than a passing - glance from the carriage of an impatient driver, who is anxious to have you “do” Niagara in as short time as possible, that he may secure another “fare’’. Learn to linger at Niagara, and give nature time to impress you with her beauty and her majesty. “Time and close acquaintanceship,’ says Tyndall, “the gradual interweaving of mind and nature, must powerfully influence any final estimate of the scene”. And the growing impression which this incompar- (a3 able scene produced on him, served to strengthen the desire “to see and know Niagara falls as far as it is possible for them to be seen and known’? ; It is surprising that many of the visitors to the falls allow them- selves to be hurried past some of its most beautiful spots and to bestow on others only casual attention, and then waste a wholly disproportionate amount of time in the museums and curio stores looking for souvenirs purporting to come from Niagara but gen- erally manufactured elsewhere. Real and valuable Niagara souvenirs may be had for the trouble of picking them up, in the minerals, fossils and shells which abound in the vicinity of the falls. SLOG, cht: “Tyndall. Fragments ‘ot science, ~~ Niacara NIAGARA FALLS AND. VICINITY -9 And, while one gathers these, one’s knowledge of Niagara becomes broadened, and the perception grows that there are other lessons to be learned in this region, lessons of even more tremendous im- port than those taught by the cataracts. The pedestrian has by far the best opportunity to see and enjoy nature as she is only to be seen and enjoyed at Niagara. The stately forest beauty of Goat island, unequaled in the estimation of those competent to judge, by that of any other wooded spot of similar size; the constantly changing views of gorge and falls and rapids which are obtained from nearly every path on the islands and the mainland on both sides of the river; the magnificence of the turbulent waters as they rush toward you, wave piling on wave, till it seems as if the frail-looking structure on which you stand must inevitably be carried away by them—none can enjoy these to their full extent while sitting in a carriage, though it move never so slowly, or while being compelled to listen to the descriptions and explanations of an unsympathetic and unappreciative driver. Ifyou must ride, patronize the reservation carriages, which leave you wher- ever you wish to stop and take you on again at your own pleasure.! Views from the New York side The first view of the falls which the visitor on the New York side enjoys is generally from Prospect point, or some of the more elevated view points along the brink of the gorge in Prospect park _ (see frontispiece, pl. 1). While impressive, this view by no means reveals to its full extent the matchless grandeur of the cataracts, and in this respect the visitor on the Canadian side has the advantage. However, the views from Prospect point and Father Hennepin’s view point should be obtained by every one, and it may be that some will find greater attraction in these than in the more comprehensive views obtained from the other side. While in Prospect park, it is well to descend to the foot of the inclined railway, and get the views 'These carriages are run at intervals of 15 minutes, starting from Pros- pect park, and making the circuit of Goat island. The fare is 15c for the round trip, and stop-overs at all places, and for any length of time on the ' game day, are allowed. oe ee IO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of the falls from below. The ride on the Maid of the Mist will be found an interesting and novel experience, besides affording views of the cataracts obtainable in no other way; but most people will defer this till they have seen more of the cataracts and rapids from above. In visiting the foot of the falls, an umbrella should be taken, while a waterproof cloak will be found of great advantage, for the visitor is apt to be drenched by the spray which will be blown on him unawares. Caution is necessaryhere, as everywhere at Niagara, to avoid accidents. In the talus heaps:of limestone fragments, min- erals and occasionally fossils may be found. From Prospect point the visitor should next turn his attention to — Goat island, “the most interesting spot in all America 7% asw@ape Basil Hall called it. The unpoetic name of this island is, as Mr Porter tells us!, commemorative of the power of endurance of a male goat, which, in company with a number of other animals, had been left on this island uncared for during the severe winter of 1770-71, and proved the only survivor. From the bridges which cross to Green, and thence to Goat island, memorable views of the rapids above the falls may be ob- tained; and the visitor will do well to pause, that he may become impressed by the magnificence of the spectacle. Perhaps he will feel as did Margaret Fuller, who said: “ This was the climax of the effect which the falls produced upon me—neither the American nor British fall moved me as did these rapids.” The naturalist will be interested to note that, in spite of the fearful rush of water, fresh- water mussels have found a lodging place among the more pro- tected rocks, where they seem to thrive well. Along the shores of _ the islands, in places where other animals would find it hard to gain a foothold, numerous small gastropods may be found clinging to the slippery rock surfaces. On Goat island, despite the so-called “improvements” for the convenience of visitors, nature still reigns supreme. The virgin character of the forest is almost undisturbed, as it was when the' red man regarded this as the sacred abode of the Great Spirit of *Porter. Goat island. She Plate 2 Luna falls, and the limestone fragments at its base (Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, New York) ‘ + x ee NIAGARA PALES: AND VICINITY II Niagara. The botanist will here find a greater variety of plants within a given space than in almost any other district. But it is in the wonderful views of the falls and the rapids and the gorge which can be obtained from this island, that its chief at- traction lies. The various view points are easily found, and the stroller about Goat island would best come on them unawares. Mention may be made of the glimpses of the American falls ob- tained from the head of the stairway leading to Luna island, as well as from the island itself, and the panorama of rapids, falls and gorge from the Terrapin rocks at the edge of the Horseshoe falls. Every visitor is advised to descend the Biddle stairway and view the falls from below. No charge is made unless one wishes to enter the Cave of the winds, a most thrilling experience for a person of nerve and one unparalleled by any other which may legitimately be ob- famed at Niagara. ‘But, even if one does not care to go behind the falls, a visit to the foot of the stairway, and a walk along the path at the base of the vertical cliff of limestone will well repay the exertion of the climb. Many noble views of the gorge and the falls may be obtained from the stairway, while from certain points below, impressive sights of the small central fall are to be had. Here too can be seen the undermining action of the spray, which removes the soft shale, leaving the limestone ledges projecting till in the course of time they fall for want of support. On the talus slopes at the foot of the cliff good specimens of minerals and oc- casional fossils may generally be obtained. After leaving the Biddle stairway, and the Terrapin rocks, the visitor will proceed southward along the river bank to the bridge leading to the Three Sister islands. On the way the geologist will pause where a wood-road leads off to the left into the famous gravel pit of Goat island, since there the shell-bearing gravels are ex- posed.” *A catalogue of the flowering and fern-like plants growing without culti- vation in the vicinity of the falls of Niagara, by David F. Day, is pub- lished in the 14th annual report of the commissioners of the state reservation. In this a total of 909 species are recorded, a large proportion of which are credited to Goat island. *These shells are described in chapter 5. 12 ~NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM A small fall known as “ The Hermit’s cascade ”’ lies between Goat island and the First Sister. In the pool at the foot of this fall Fran- cis Abbot, the Hermit of Niagara, was wont to take his daily bath. From the bridges and from the islands unsurpassed views of the upper rapids are obtained. ‘These are particularly impressive when seen from the rocks of the Third’ Sister. Of these rapids asmeeeu from the Terrapin rocks, the Duke of Argyle wrote: When we stand at any point near the edge of the falls, and look up the course of the stream, the foaming waters of the rapids con- stitute the sky line. No indication of land is visible—nothing to ex-. press the fact that we are looking at a river. The crests of the breakers, the leaping and the rushing of the waters, are still seen against the clouds as they are seen in the ocean, when the ship from which we look is in the trough of the sea. It is impossible to resist the effect of the imagination. It is as if the fountains of the great deep were being broken up, and that a new deluge were coming on the world. The impression is rather increased than diminished by the perspective of the low wooded banks on either shore, running down to a vanishing point and seeming to be lost in the advancing waters. An apparently shoreless sea tumbling toward one is a very grand and a very awful sight. Forgetting, then, what one knows, and giving oneself to what one only sees, I do not know that there is anything in nature more majestic than the view of the rapids _ above the falls of the Niagara. On returning to Goat island the visitor may take the reservation carriage for a return to Prospect park, or he may continue his walks around or across Goat island. In front of Prospect park the electric cars may be taken to cross the river, the bridge-toll which every foot passenger has to pay, being included in the car fare. Views from the Canadian side The Canadian side is reached either by bridge or by the steamer Maid of the Mist. Every visitor to the falls should obtain the views from the Canadian side, which are in many respects superior to any obtainable on the New York side. Several rustic arbors have been constructed along the brink of the gorge in Queen Victoria park, and here the visitor may tarry for hours and not weary of *Ii the visitor plans to take the belt line ride—Niagara, Queenston, Lewiston—he will have opportunity to stop off in Queen Victoria park, and need not make a special crossing. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY se the sights he beholds. The remarkable vivid green of the water oi the Horseshoe falls will excite the observer’s interest, and question. Tyndall observes that, while the water of the falls as a whole “bends solidly over and falls in a continuous layer. . . close to the ledge over which the water rolls, foam is generated, the light falling upon which, and flashing back from it, is sifted in its passage to and fro, and changed from white to emerald-green.’”? Near the edge of the Horseshoe falls are the remains of Table rock, formerly a projecting limestone shelf of considerable extent, and a favorite view point. Huge portions of this rock have fallen into the gorge at various times, the most extensive falls occurring in 1818 and 1850, with minor ones between and since. On one oc- casion some forty or fifty persons had barely left the rock before it fell. From the remaining portion of this rocky platform a good near view of the Horseshoe falls is obtained, though the visitor is apt to find himself in a drenching shower of spray at almost all times. Beyond Table rock, in the upper end of the park, and on the Duf- ferin islands many attractive walks are to be met with. These are generally little visited and afford an opportunity for solitude and escape from the crowds of sightseers. Some of the best views of the rapids above the falls are to be obtained here. A wooded clay cliff bounds the park on the landward side, generally rising steeply to the upland plateau. Here on July 25, 1814, the memorable battle of Lundy’s Lane was fought between the British and the Americans; “within sight of the falls, in the glory of the light of a full moon, the opposing armies engaged in hand-to-hand conflict, from sun- down to midnight, when both sides, exhausted by their efforts, with- drew from the field ”.? At the head of the park, a road leads to the upland, where is situated the famous burning spring. The inflammable gas which here bubbles through the water of the spring is chiefly sulfureted hydrogen, but the quantity is such as to produce a flame of con- _ siderable magnitude, and it is asserted that the supply has not di- -minished for the hundred years or more that the spring has been known to exist.’ LOG. CUE: 7 Porter. *An admission fee is charged here. 14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The gorge below the falls The gorge of the Niagara river should be seen from both sides. Here as elsewhere the pedestrian with abundant time has the best opportunity to see the numerous interesting and attractive features; but, since distances here are considerable, it is perhaps more ad- visable to avail one’s self of the conveyances afforded.t The best view of the gorge is afforded by going down the river en the Canadian side and returning by the gorge road) inwenee way the passenger on the cars gets nearest to the river, particularly if the right hand seats are selected. If the visitor however prefers to go down the river on the gorge road, and return by the Canadian line, let him choose the left side of the cars as nearest to the Gives in both cases. , | After passing Clifton on the Canadian side, and the last of the bridges which here span the gorge, the observer begins to have a view of the whirlpool rapids, which even from this elevation have a threatening aspect. It was through these rapids and through the whirlpool below, that the first Waid of the Mist was safely navigated in 1861, having at the time three men on board—a feat which has never been repeated. Through this same stretch of rapids Capt. Webb made his fatal swim, paying for the foolhardy attempt with his life. After passing the rapids we reach the whirlpool, of which good views are afforded from many places along the top of the bank. After ‘crossing several small ravines, that of Bowmans creek is reached. This ravine is a partial reexcavation of the old drift that filled St Davids channel.?- From the upper end of the bridge which crosses the ravine, a path leads down to the water’s edge, the ravine being one of singular attractiveness to the lover of wild woodland scenery.. A short distance beyond the bridge is the Whirlpool station of the electric road. Here, from a little shelter built on the extreme point, fine views of the whirlpool and the river above and below it are obtained. The river here makes a right-angled bend, the whirlpool forming the swollen elbow. In the rocky point projecting from the ‘The visitor will do well to purchase a belt line ticket, which entitles him to make the circuit in either direction and to stop at all important points. The Canadian scenic route will take him along the top of the bank, while the gorge road, on the New York side, takes him close to the edge of the water. "See map, and chapter I. * NEAGAR AS EAS -AN Dy TCINITY LIS bank on the New York side the succession of strata is finely shown!; and from this point northward the New York bank exposes a nearly continuous section as far as the mouth of the gorge at Lewiston. A short distance below the whirlpool we reach Foster’s flats, or Niagara glen, as it is more appropriately called. This is visited by comparatively few tourists, though it is one of the most attractive spots along the gorge.? It marks the site of a former fall, and, besides its interest on that account deserves to be visited for its silvan beauty and its wild and picturesque scenery of frowning cliff, huge moss-covered boulders and dark cool dells, where rare flowers and ferns are among the attractions which delight the naturalist. Many good views of the river and the opposite banks may here be obtained, and the student of geology will find no end to instructive features eloquent of the time when the falling waters were dashed into spray on the boulders among which he now wanders. After leaving Niagara glen the visitor should stop at Queenston hights and obtain the view which is here afforded.? If possible the more comprehensive views from the summit of Brock’s monument should be obtained.* After descending and crossing to the New York side, one may return directly by the gorge road, leaving the inspection of the fossiliferous strata for another day, or one may, after a rest at the hotel, or on the river bank, spend some hours in studying the sec- tions exposed along the New York Central railroad cut.5 The return journey by the gorge road is one of great interest, as it carries the visitor close to the rushing waters of the river. Walk- ing along the roadbed is forbidden, and stops are made only at the regular stations.® The first of these is the Devil’s hole, a cavern in the rock, of the type described in chapter 3 and supposed to have figured in Indian lore. The ravine of Bloody run, a small stream generally dry during the summer season, was the scene of a fearful massacre of the English soldiers by the Seneca Indians in 1763, the *For a description of these, see chapter 3. *See chapter 2. *See chapter I. - *An admission fee is charged here. *Waggoner’s hotel near the Lewiston suspension bridge makes a con- venient stopping place, specially if one desires to visit the fossiliferous sec- tions. The Cornell, at the ferry landing, opposite the Lewiston railroad station, is also recommended. *In stopping off, be sure to obtain stop-over checks from the conductor. 10 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM whole party with the exception of two, with wagons and horses, being driven over the cliff by the savages, and dashed to pieces on the rocks below. ‘Next above the Devil’s hole is Ongiara! park, a © picturesque wooded slope opposite the southern end of Foster’s flats, and like parts of that region are dotted with eno1mous. blocks of limestone, which have fallen from the bank above. A short distance above this we come to the whirlpool, where a stop of some time can profitably be made. But by far the most attractive place at which to stop is the whirlpool rapids. The water which here rushes through a narrow and comparatively shallow channel, makes a descent of nearly 50 feet in the space of less than a mile, and its turbulence and magnificence are indescribable. Seen at night by moonlight, or when illuminated by the light from a strong reflector, the spectacle is beyond portrayal. We may perhaps not inaptly apply Schiller’s description of the Charybdis to these waters: Und es wallet und siedet und brauset und zischt, Wie wenn Wasser mit Feur sich menegt. Bis zum Himmel spritzet der dampfende Gischt, Und Well’ auf Well’ sich ohn’ Ende drangt, Und wie mit des fernen Donner’s Getose, Entsttirzt es brillend dem finstern Schosse. Fossiliferous sections These sections are to be seen on the cut of the New York Central and Hudson river railroad, Lewiston branch, and along cuts of the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg railroad at Lewiston hights. The former are approachable from Lewiston on the north or the Devil’s hole station on the south. The approach from Lewiston is the more natural, as it will give the strata in ascending order. Waggoner’s hotel makes a convenient starting point. Follow the car tracks southward to where a road leads off on the left. Entering this, a wood-road is found to lead off on the right, which when fol- lowed will bring you on the terrace formed by the quartzose sand- stone bed, and on which the bridge towers stand. A quarry in the white sandstone by the roadside gives an opportunity to study this rock, which is practically barren of fossils. Beyond this the tracks of the New York Central railroad are reached, which, after traversing a short tunnel hewn out of the Medina sandstone, bring you to the sections in the gorge (plate 12). Care must be exercised in exploring Pare a nS eae) 1One of the 40 ways of spelling Niagara. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY I? these sections, as trains are frequent, and rockfalls from the cliffs are among the daily occurrences. With a little caution however the sections may be studied without danger. The total amount of walk- ing necessary from Waggoner’s hotel to the Devil’s hole is about 3 miles. Near the upper end of the section, where the track enters a rock cutting, a steep path along the river bank leads to the top of the rocky plateau, and a short walk along the top of the bank will pemesyou to the Devil's hole station. One may also climb the bank in the quarry at the head of the section, and, passing along the top, reach the Devil’s hole station by crossing the bridge over the rock-cut before mentioned. At the Devil’s hole station’ one may either take the surface car, which runs to Niagara falls at fre- quent intervals (5c fare), or, by paying the admission to the Devil’s hole, descend to the gorge road and continue the journey to the falleee (2s ticket or 50c fare is required here.) Ii the sections are approached from the upper end, the Devil’s hole station may be reached by the surface electrics? or the visitor may leave the cars of the gorge road at the lower Devil’s hole station, and, paying the admission fee, ascend the banks by the stairs and paths. The path from the Devil’s hole station to the sections leads close along the brink of the gorge. If the sections are visited in the forenoon, the investigator will find himself in the shadow of the cliffs, which is most grateful on a warm summer day. _ The sections on the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg railroad are reached from Waggoner’s hotel by paths leading up “ the moun- tain”’ one of which begins on the New York Central tracks not far north of the tunnel. Geologic nomenclature Geologic time is divided into five great divisions, based on the progress of life during the continuance of each. These are: 5 Cenozoic time, or time of “ modern life”’ 4 Mesozoic time, or time of “ medieval life ” 3 Paleozoic time, or time of “ ancient life ” 2 Proterozoic time, or time of “ first life”’ Mew Zoie time, Or time of no life” *Refreshments may be obtained here. *These electrics run from near Prospect park to the Devil’s hole and re- turn, at short intervals. 18 NEW YORK STATE, MUSEUM Each of these time divisions is farther divided into great eras, those of Paleozoic time being given in the annexed table. Each era is in general divisible into three periods of time, the early, mid- dle, and later, for which the prefixes paleo (or co), meso and neo are used. The farther division of the periods is into epochs. During the continuance of each great time division of the geo- logic history of the earth, more or less extensive rock systems were deposited, wherever the conditions were favorable. Thus the Paleo- zoic rock system is that deposited during Paleozoic time. That part of the Paleozoic rock system which was deposited during the Siluric era, is called the Siluric rock series, and similarly, the name of each of the other great eras is also applied to the rock series deposited during its continuance. In like manner each geologic period has its corresponding group of rocks deposited during its con- tinuance. These rock groups and their farther subdivision into stages have, in New York, received local names, the name of the locality where the rocks are best developed being selected. The rocks formed during Proterozoic and Azoic time are generally spoken of-as pre-Cambric. The following table embodies the result of the latest studies.t The thicknesses are chiefly obtained from well records published by | Prof. I. P. Bishop. The relations of these strata to cachwepacmem this region are shown in the north and south section from Canada to the New York-Pennsylvania line, presented in fig. 1. Ever since the days of Lyell and Hall the life history of Niagara and the origin of the Great lakes has engaged the attention of geologists the world over. Among the names prominent in con- nection with studies of the geology of Niagara in one or more of its aspects, may be mentioned those of Bishop, Clarke, Claypole, Davis, Fairchild, Gilbert, Hall, Hitchcock, Lesley, Lyell, Newberry, Pohlman, Ringueberg, Shaler, Spencer, Tarr, Taylor, Upham and Wright, besides a host of others.? “Clarke and Schuchert. ‘Science. n. s. Dec. 15, 1800, 10:3. tpaalliie found to differ in some respects from the table published in the author’s Geology of Eighteen Mile creek, etc. 7In the field work I have had the efficient assistance of my friend Mr R. F. Morgan of Buffalo. 1g PALES AND= VICINITY NIAGARA "o0J 00S = OUT [ ‘eTVOS [VOTJOA “SOTIU Sg= YOU! |T o[VOS [eJUOZTIOH “OLezUO OAV T="O “IT ‘olIg OYe'T= "a “TI ‘TeAet -vas="[ 's ‘doejs 009 yonut savodde eyv.144s oy} Jo dip oy} ‘o[eos [kJ UOZIIOY OY} 1dA0 [VOT}19A OY} FO UOMNe1IIssexe 7Yeo9IS VY 0} SUIMO “9[Qe) SUIPsoDONS 94 JO 7ey4 OF spuods -91109 Spoq oy} JO Sulzequinu oy, “eyes JO UOTSsedoNS oY} SULMOYS ‘oUTT VIUBA[ASUUO 94} 0} YIOK MON UW.iojS9M SSO1OV SpWkel[|s!y UVIpeueD oY} WLOAF WOT}OIS T “Sha e-poOl It &4cl yo 2a0]d tAyinui tay uopugy ey, x 9626 9h 8 BG VEL IST OFT 1 Feit atti eaten FT g Leg 2S Z Z LE Z A @ po A Z > porsad s1iquivsoayeg 2 Hes /ciew o's 2 dnois s11quieD aIppIN @ ©) «| -7 7” "*pojied atiquiwoosay] 7 seeees seers + dnosd oriquieg saddq 2 sees" s*norad o11quivo0oN 7 solios S1Iquivy I B19 WIQUIe, I se220-------dnoid S1IAOpIO JaMOT V "77" *° poriad s1sTAOpsosjeg 2 vereseseses dnoid S1IAOpIO eIPPI poriad sforAopr0sayy 9 2. === cnoid OMtAOpl@ teadljn ~--- ****norrod SINIAOPIODNY 7 SOII9S DIDIAOPIQ, Z B19 NDIAOPIQ, Z BI SCOR HS dnois s1mnjIS 1aMOT V --=*""--porad o1mqisoaed 2 sees eres e22---dnos3 o1nIS 2[PPIN 9 ss2ee-s* pnoriod o1mnypisosayy 7 SOOO rahivehysh ayeainpiey werd lal ny 2 seeeeess- norrad oLn[IsoaN 7 Somes ohn encn| acer pao ocincses Gio OLInIG.e 22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Geologic map A few words, descriptive of the accompanying geologic map may be added. The topography is indicated chiefly by contour lines. These lines are 20 feet apart, and each connects the points which have the same elevation above sealevel. Thus wherever the 300 foot con- tour line occurs, every point along that line is supposed to be 300 feet above sealevel. The level of Lake Ontario is 247 feet above the sea; therefore the hight of any point above Lake Ontario can be calculated from the contours. Where the contours are close together, the slope of the country is steep; where far apart, it is © gentle. ; The various color patterns indicate what geologic formations would be shown on the surface of any given area, if the drift cover- ing were removed. The beds of this region all dip gently south- ward; and, as we proceed northward, the lower beds rise from beneath the covering of the higher. Where steep cliffs occur, as in the gorge of the river or at Lewiston or Queenston, the lower beds crop out beneath the upper ones for only a very short space; hence they appear on the map as narrow color bands only. The ‘character of the outcrops in the buried St Davids channel is only approximately delineated, to the extent indicated by well borings. It is probably much more irregular than is shown. 7 The outlines of the edges of the various beds from Lewiston east- ward are taken from a map by G. K. Gilbert, the man who more than any other is identified with geologic studies at Niagara. The outcrops of the Onondaga and waterlime beds are taken from a map by Prof. I. P. Bishop. For the other outlines the author is responsi- ble. A few statisticst Hight of American falls, Oct. 4, 1842 NO7-7 tect “Horseshoe falls, te : 2758.5 ‘4 Mean total recession of American falls between 1842 and 1890 30.75 “i *Chiefly from the annual reports of the commissioners of the state reservation. *The hights vary from 4 to 20 feet with the elevation of the water in the river below the falls. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 23 Mean annual recession of American falls between 1842 and 1890 [04 ee aeee Mean total recession of Horseshoe falls between 1842 and 1890 | 104.51 e Mean annual recession of Horseshoe falls between 1842 and 1890 2 lis pe Length of crest line of American falls in 1842 FOSO <=, = in 1890 LOGO! 42s ss Horseshoe falls | in 1842 22002082 in 1890 BOOM as Total area of rock surface which has disappeared at the American falls between 1842 and 1890 32,900 sq. ft Or: .755 acres Total area of rock surface which has disappeared at Horseshoe falls between 1842 and 1890 275,400 sq. ft or | 6232 acies These changes are graphically shown in the successive crest lines of the Horseshoe falls, given in fig. 19, p. 81. Volume of water passing over the falls each minute! | 22,440,000 cu. ft or 1,402,500,000 pounds or more than 7,000,000 tons Depth of water in the channel of Niagara river below the falls?: _ (see fig. 18) At foot of Horseshoe falls (center) I50 to 200 feet Upper Great gorge, from the falls to the beginning of the Whirlpool rapids (from soundings) FOO: tO 1900. > Whirlpool rapids pies Whirlpool ; lone ose Outlet of whirlpool 50S Opposite Wintergreen flat 2bee Below Foster’s flats On. *Blackwell, Am. jour. sci. 1844, 46 : 67. "Estimated by Gilbert. Am. geol. 1896, 18 : 232-33 and elsewhere. 24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Width of Niagara gorge! (approximate): Opposite the extreme west end of Goat island, and just in front of the Horseshoe falls 1250 feet Opposite the center of the American fall 170018 Opposite inclined railway | 13500 Between carriage and railroad bridges, narrowest point midway between the two 1000-1350 “ Just south of railroad bridges "\ .O5@msem Gorge of the whirlpool rapids 700-750 “ 100 rods south of south side of whirlpool 1200 * Same at water line Sloss Inlet to whirlpool 100i 2 Same at water line . 55000 Outlet of whirlpool OCOas Same at water line ASO South of Ongiara park 1300 -4re Just south of Wintergreen flat 16005 River opposite Foster’s flats (bottom) 200 as Just south of Foster’s flats (top) 170007 North of Devil’s hole LOOGe At the tunnel on the New York Central railroad (plate 12) £300 (ee Average width below Lewiston 2O0ORtas *Chiefly after Taylor. Bul. geol. soc. Am. 9: 61-65. Top width is given unless otherwise stated. punosZ0e10J OY} Ul Yous} pBol[rel ‘O FM “WU “WMOYS OSTe st Yoveq stonbo1] oy} Jo yIdspues oU,L ‘qJo] OY} WO WOES SI WOJS|MOTT YUM (PUL[MO] O1e}UO) UrTe[d JeMOT OY “(VPSEND CIBSVIN OY} JO QOVJUl) UOJSIME'T GOAOGE JUSTAdIVOSS BIVSVIN OTL © O1Vid z NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 25 Chapter I Pi yoiCAlL GEOGRAPHY OF THE NIAGARA REGION The physical geography of the Niagara region is of a relatively simple type, its main topographic features being readily interpreted. Unfortunately no very satisfactory birdseye view of the entire Fig. 2 Birdseye view of the Niagara region. (After Gilbert) The Niagara escarpment is shown in the foreground, with the lower plain sloping to Lake Ontario. The third upland belt is shown in the distance beyond Lake Erie. The second escarpment immediately north of Lake Erie, is nov shown. region can be obtained from any of the elevated points of the dis- trict; for the chief features are delineated on a scale too vast to be visible from a single vantage point. The best available spot from which a comprehensive view may be obtained is the summit of 26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Brock’s monument, which commands the hights above Queenston, on the Canadian side of the river. Looking northward from this elevation, the observer sees an almost level plain, cut only by the winding lower Niagara, stretching from the foot of a pronounced and often precipitous escarpment to the shores of Lake Ontario, 7 miles away. Ordinarily the distant northern shore of the lake is not readily recognized by the unaided eye, though on clear days a faint streak of land may be seen between sky and water on the dis- tant horizon. A good field glass however will generally disclose — the opposite shore, and the much eroded cliffs of Scarborough. Far beyond these, fully a hundred miles to the north of the observer, the crystalline rocks of the Laurentide mountains rise from beneath their covering of Paleozoic strata, as formerly they rose above. the waters of the Paleozoic sea. These ancient Canadian highlands, together with the Adirondack mountains of New York, and the old crystal- line regions of the Appalachians, constitute the chief visible rem- nants of the old pre-Cambric North American continent. The erosion of these ancient lands has furnished much of the material from which beds of later date in this region were derived. Some of these beds may be seen in the sections cut by the rivers through the deposits in comparatively recent times, and no more instruc- tive example than the gorge of the Niagara need be cited. In the banks of the lower. Niagara gorge may be seen the cut edges of the red shales and sandstones of the Medina group, the bril- liant color of which is in striking contrast with the greenish blue of the water, and the darker green of the foliage which fringes its borders. The plain above is dotted with farms, orchards and ham- lets, and is one of the richest agricultural and fruit districts of the country. In the foreground, on opposite banks of the river, lie the sister towns of Queenston and Lewiston, former rival guardians of the head of navigation of the lower Niagara, but now for the second time joined by bands of steel across the intervening gulf. Farther down the stream Niagara-on-the-Lake and Youngstown crown respectively the left and right bank of the river. These four towns of the lower Niagara, hold daily communication by ferry, steamboat or electric railway; the last and the steam railway keep- NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 27 ing them in touch with the cities of the upper Niagara and the world at large. This office is also performed by the well appointed steam- boats which ply the lower Niagara, and carry passengers across Lake Ontario, to and from Toronto, the capital and metropolis of the province of Ontario. As these steamers enter or leave the Niagara river, they pass Forts Massassauga and Niagara which stand guard on opposite shores at the mouth of the river. The latter fort was established in 1678, and is rich in historic associations, while the Canadian fort is the modern successor of old Fort George, which was destroyed during the war of 1812. . When the observer on the Brock monument turns to the west or to the east, he sees the escarpment on which he stands, and the plain at its foot stretching in either direction beyond his field of view. The continuity of the escarpment is broken at intervals by ravines or gorges which dissect it, the most pronounced of these being the Niagara gorge in the immediate foreground. Westward from Queenston the escarpment is practically continuous for more than 3 miles, when, at the little town of St Davids, it is seen to recede abruptly, and a gap over a mile in width intervenes, beyond which it continues in force, with only minor interruptions, to Hamil- ton (Ont.), 40 miles west of the Niagara river. The gap at St Davids marks an ancient valley or gorge cut into the upland plateau which terminates at the escarpment. This old valley is traceable southeastward as far as the whirlpool, in the formation of which it has played a prominent part. It is filled throughout its greater extent by sand and clay, into which modern streams have cut gullies of greater or less magnitude. Beyond St Davids, the escarpment, though indented by numerous streams, is as stated, continuous to Hamilton (Ont.). Here a larger and more pronounced interruption occurs, the escarpment being breached by a broad and deep channel, locally known as the Dundas valley. This ancient channel, with an average width of 2 miles or more, is traceable westward for a number of miles, when it becomes obliterated by drift deposits. Beyond the breach made bythe Dundas valley, the escarpment continues in force, its direction however hav- ing changed to west of north, or nearly at right angles to its direc- 28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM tion south of Lake Ontario. The eastern face of the Indian penin- sula between Georgian bay and Lake Huron and the bold bluff of Cabot’s head mark the northward extent of this escarpment, which, after an interruption by a broad transverse channel, is farther trace- able in the northern slope of the Manitoulin islands. Eastward the escarpment continues to the vicinity of Lockport, where its con- tinuity is interrupted by two pronounced gulfs, through one of which the Erie canal descends to the lowland of Lake Ontario. Beyond Lockport the escarpment becomes less pronounced; at first it sep- arates into several minor steps or terraces and later it is replaced by a more or less continuous and gentle slope. Beyond the, Gemesec river it is no longer distinguishable, the surface of the country as- cending gently and uniformly from Lake Ontario southward. Turning now toward the south, the observer sees a second plain extending from the edge of the Niagara escarpment to where its continuity is blended with the horizon. This plain is not as uni- form as the Ontario plain, which is fully 200 feet below it, and it is sharply divided by the Niagara gorge, from its northern edge at the escarpment to where, in the distance, a cloud of spray marks the location of the great cataracts. In the walls of the gorge can be seen the cut edges of the strata which enter into the structure of this higher plain, and attentive observation will reveal the fact, that the uppermost of these is a firm-looking limestone bed, which in- creases perceptibly in thickness toward the north. This thickening of the capping limestone bed, whose upper surface is essentially — level, brings out a fact not otherwise readily noticed, namely that the strata all have a gentle inclination or dip to the south. The surface - of the upper plain, aside from minor, mainly local irregularities, is essentially level, scarcely rising above the 600 foot contour line. This is the elevation, above the sea, of the base of Brock’s monu- ment, and it is the average elevation of the plain in the vicinity of Buffalo, the location of which, 20 miles to the south, is indicated by a perpetual cloud of smoke above the horizon.! *A very satisfactory view of the level character of this plain is obtained during a ride by rail from Niagara Falls to Lockport, and thence by train or electric car to Buffalo. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 29 For many miles to the east and west of the Niagara river the plain does not change perceptibly in elevation. Nevertheless, there is a gradual eastward descent, till, on the Genesee river, the surface of the plain, where not modified by superficial deposits, is fully a hundred feet lower than at Niagara. Westward the plain rises gradually, its elevation near Hamilton averaging 500 feet above Lake Ontario, or considerably more than 700 feet above the sea. Owing to the southward inclination of the strata of this region, the limestone bed which forms the capping rock at the escarpment, eventually passes below the level of the plain, having previously in- creased in thickness to over 200 feet. The disappearance of the - limestone as a surface rock occurs near the northern end of Grand island, as shown by the accompanying geologic map, and from this point southward the surface rock is formed by the soft gypsiferous and salt-bearing shales of the Salina group, which overlie the lime- stone and in turn pass below the higher strata in Buffalo, where beds of limestone again become the surface rock. Throughout the area where the shales form the surface rock, the plain is deeply ex- cavated on both sides of the Niagara river, a longitudinal east and west valley, now largely filled by surface accumulations of sand and gravel, being revealed by borings. Tonawanda creek occupies this valley on the east, though flowing on drift, considerably above its floor, and Chippewa creek occupies it in part on the west of the Ni- agara river. This valley, as will be shown later, can be traced west- ward into Canada and eastward to where it joins the Mohawk valley, with which it forms the great avenue of communication across the state oi New York. The northern boundary of the Tonawanda and Chippewa valleys is formed by a limestone cliff similar to, though less pronounced than, the Niagara escarpment. This cliff, gen- erally known as the second limestone terrace of western New York (the Niagara escarpment being the first), is formed by the upper Siluric limestones (Waterlime and Manlius limestone) and the Onon- daga limestone of the Devonic series. The latter is a very durable rock and hence it forms a very resistant capping stone. This es- carpment is scarcely visible at Black Rock, where it is crossed by the Niagara river, for here it is low, and, in addition, extensive drift 30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM accumulations have obliterated its topographic relief. Eastward and westward however it becomes prominent. A drive along Main street from Buffalo to Akron at the Erie county line will reveal the fact that it gradually increases in hight and boldness, till at the latter place it rises nearly a hundred feet above the Tonawanda val- ley, which itself is drift filled to a not inconsiderable extent. If we trace this escarpment into eastern New York, we find it progress- ively increasing in hight, owing to the interpolation, between the Manlius and Onondaga limestones, of the thick beds of the Helder- bergian series, which, with the other lower Devonic beds, are entirely absent in the Niagara region, where their place is marked by an unconformity. (See figs.1 and 21-24) If the observer changes his position to some elevated point near Buffalo, he may note that the plain which extends southward from the edge of the second escarpment, presents again a scarcely modi- fied and almost level surface, which south of Buffalo gently de- scends to a third lowland, that of Buffalo creek and Lake Erie. Like the other lowlands, this one is carved out of soft rocks (Mar- cellus and Hamilton shales) and has subsequently been filled to some extent by drift deposits. This has been proved by borings which show that the bedrock in the valley of Buffalo creek is 83 feet below the surface of Lake Erie There are other excellent reasons for believing that the western end of this lowland, now occu- pied by Lake Erie, was once considerably lower than at present. On the south the Erie lowland is defined by a range of hills, the northern edge of the great Allegany plateau, which forms the high- lands of southern New York and northern Pennsylvania. There are no very pronounced declivities in the northern edge of this plateau in the Lake Erie region, owing no doubt to the relatively ‘uniform character of the rocks composing it, there being no re- sistant capping bed of sufficient magnitude to produce an escarp- ment. Farther east, however, owing to the increasing thickness of the beds and their more resistant character, a prominent escarp- ment is developed, which near the Hudson unites with the escarp- ment of the lower series, and with it constitutes the prominent Hel- *Pohlman. Life history of Niagara. 1888. p. 4. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 31 derberg range, which culminates in southeastern New York in the high plateau of the Catskills. The Allegany plateau is everywhere much dissected by streams whose gorges have made the scenery of southern New York famous. We have now seen that the topographic features of the Niagara district are arranged in a series of six east and west extending belts of alternating lowlands and terraciform elevations. The lowlands are the Ontario, Tonawanda-Chippewa, and Erie, the uplands are defined by the Niagara escarpment, the Onondaga escarpment and the hills of southern New York which constitute the northern edge of the Allegany plateau. The northern boundary of this belted country is formed by the old Canadian highlands. We must now briefly consider the various strata of which the area under consideration is constructed, their origin, and the man- ner in which the topographic features of this region were produced. A brief review of the table of Paleozoic strata, given on pages 20 and 21, will be helpful to an understanding of the succeeding pages. Development of the Paleozoic coastal plain The Laurentian old-land is composed of rocks older than the Cambric period of the earth’s history. These are largely. of igneous origin, and such as were originally sediments have generally suf- fered much alteration through heat, pressure and other causes, and in most cases have assumed a more or less crystalline character. Though many of these pre-Cambric rocks may show apparent stratification, the present attitude of the beds does not often bear a close relation to their original condition. Indeed, these ancient rocks are generally much disturbed, their beds folded and flexed, and their laminae much contorted. Nor do the layers of the pre- Cambric rocks bear any normal relation to those of later date, the two series being wholly discordant with each other. The older beds are much worn, vast portions of the ancient folds having been swept away by erosion, and on the truncated edges of the remaining por- tions the newer strata were deposited in an essentially horizontal position. This wnconformity of relation between the newer and older strata is a marked feature wherever the two series are ex- 32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM hibited in contact with each other. Generally the older rocks have been worn down to an undulating plain (or peneplain), and the succeeding beds made from the fragments which were worn from the old land. In the area under consideration, the ancient erosion surface of pre-Cambric rocks was overspread by a deposit of sand and occas- ionally gravel, which commonly possesses characteristics pointing to a very local origin. Thus the pebbles found in the lowest layers of the covering sands, i. e. the Potsdam sandstone, are sometimes of the same lithic character as the crystalline rocks near by. The Potsdam sandstone is a shallow-water rock, and during its accumulation a progressive subsidence of the sea floor took place, thus allowing the deposition of beds of considerable thickness. This subsidence brought with it a northward migration of the shore line of the sea, so that the region of the former coast line gradually became more remote from the shore. As a consequence, land- derived material became less abundant in this off-shore district, being deposited mainly along the new coast line, while farther out to sea calcareous deposits, resulting in part from the shells of organ- isms, became relatively more abundant. A profile through the strata of this region, such as would be obtained in a well or shaft sunk to the crystalline floor, would show a progressive decrease in the land-derived, or terrigenous material from the Potsdam sand- stone upward to the top of the Trenton limestone, and a correspond- ingly progressive increase in the amount of calcareous matter. This indicates a sustained subsidence of the sea floor, and hence a migration of the shore with its attendant terrigenous deposit. It will also be seen that the lithic character of any particular formation is not the same throughout its extent, but that the local characteris- _ tics, or facies, show considerable variation. Close to the shore each formation would present a terrigenous character, i. e. would show gravelly, sandy or clayey facies, while away from shore each forma-_ tion would pass into its calcareous facies, which would increase in purity with the increase in distance from the source of supply of terrigenous sediment. Thus the Potsdam formation has calcareous. as well as sandy facies, with facies of intermediate type connecting them. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 33 The Utica shales and the arenaceous Lorraine shales which fol- low on the Trenton limestones show a return of land-derived de- posits due probably to a shoaling of the water. This may have been caused by an upward movement of the sea bottom or by a partial withdrawal of the water into deepening oceanic basins. Some abrupt change is indicated by the sudden transition from limestone to black shale. Another abrupt change occurred at the close of the Ordovicic era, as indicated by the marked contrast between the Lorraine shales and the Oneida and Medina beds which immedia‘e'y succeed them. The Siluric deposits of this region began as shallow water accumu- lations, the lowest bed being the Oswego sandstone, which farther east, is replaced by the conglomerates of Oneida county and the Shawangunk range. The marls and shales of the Medina series succeed these sandstones with an aggregate thickness exceeding 1100 feet. A heavy stratum of gray quartzose sandstone, varying in thickness up to 25 or 30 feet, separates, in the Niagara region, the lower from the upper Medina shales and sandstones, which have an approximate thickness of 1Ioo feet. The Clinton shales and heavy limestones follow on the Medina, with a thickness averaging 30 feet. The Rochester shales, with a thickness of 60 to 70 feet, follow the Clinton limestones and are in turn succeeded by the Lock- port limestone, whose average thickness, obtained from well records, approximates 250 feet in this region. The Salina shales succeeding the Niagara beds (Rochester shales and Lockport limestone) have an aggregate thickness of less than 400 feet, and are followed by the Waterlime and the Manlius limestone, the former averaging 50 feet in thickness, the latter from 7 to 8 feet. The lowest Devonic beds are absent in this region, the Onondaga limestone resting directly on the Manlius beds, there being, as before noted, an important though not very pronounced unconformity between the two. A glance at the geologic map of this region will reveal the fact that the lower strata rise from under the covering newer beds on the north, and occupy a belt of country of greater or less width according to the thickness of the beds. Where they come to an end, the next lower beds make their appearance. The discontinuation of the higher 34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM beds northward is due to a thinning out of the exposed portion of the strata, as can be readily seen in the Lockport limestone bed, which is less than 30 feet thick at Lewiston, but more than &o feet at the falls, increasing in thickness southward to 250 feet or more. Where, however, the strata are not exposed on the surface, i. e. where they are only shown in sections under cover of the overlying rock, no such thinning is seen. This may be observed in the case of the Clinton beds and the upper Medina sandstones. In some cases these beds are seen to even thin southward, as proved by bor- ings. The thinning of these strata does not, as is often assumed, mark the original thinning of the beds toward the shore on the north, but is evidently due to erosion. A brief résumé of the origin of the various strata will make this clear. The Medina sandstone is an ancient shore and shallow water de- posit, as will be more fully pointed out in chapter 3. The sands and gravels, which with some finer muds, make up this rock, are all derived irom’ some preexisting land.” (Dine Som source of supply was the old Laurentian land on’ the menu and the Appalachian old-land on the south. It is true that, owing to the elevation at the beginning of Siluric time, some of the pre-Siluric stratified rocks may have been raised above the sealevel and added to the old-land, and that part of the Medina sands may have been derived from these. Even then the largest amount of detritus was probably derived from the crystalline old- lands, the progressive accumulation of 1200 feet of Medina rock marking a corresponding subsidence and a concomitant encroach- ment of the seashore of the Medina sea on the old-land. Thus the Medina deposits gradually overlapped the Ordovicic and Cam- bric deposits and probably eventually came to rest entirely on the crystalline pre-Cambric rocks. Continued subsidence, at least in the Niagara region, produced the purification of the water, so that eventually the limestones of the Clinton epoch could be formed in a region remote from that in which terrigenous material was ac- cumulating. This was likewise true of the Lockport limestone, which was deposited after an interval, during which the calcareous shales separating the two limestone series accumulated. While NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 35 these deposits, particularly the limestones, point to a considerable distance from the shore line, we are by no means at liberty to as- sume that no shore formations accumulated during this period. In fact, it would be difficult to understand the non-accumulation of ter- rigenous material along the shores of any land during any period of _ the earth’s history unless such land was without even moderate relief. As will be shown in chapter 3 there are reasons for suppos- ing that a considerable land barrier existed in the north as well as the east and southeast, and thus we may assume that shore de- posits of terrigenous material were formed while the limestones were accumulating in the clearer waters. That the shores of this period did not consist of Medina sandstone is indicated by the absence of any such material in the shales of either the Clinton or Niagara series. It is highly probable that the shore was still formed by the old crystalline highlands, and that the accumulating Clinton and Niagara sediments overlapped and completely buried the Medina beds. The limesfones are chiefly fragmental in origin, being com- posed of calcareous and magnesian sands. These, as will be shown later, were largely derived from the destruction of coral reefs and shells growing in the immediate neighborhood. They indicate shal- low water, a conclusion emphasized by the occurrence of well marked cross-bedding structure in some of the beds of limestone. We may assume a gradual passage from pure calcareous beds to beds consisting more and more of terrigenous detritus as we ap- proach the old shore line, where quartz sands probably constituted the chief material of the deposits. We may obtain an approximate indication of the former extent of these strata if an attempt be made to restore the portions which must have been removed by erosion. We may consider the Clinton and Niagara as a unit, assuming that near the old shore their beds were practicably indistinguishable. The average dip of the strata of this region is 25 feet to the mile (a moderate estimate, as the dip ranges up to 40 feet), and the base of the Clinton-Niagara is ap- proximately 400 feet above sea level. Continuing this dip north- ward for a hundred miles to where the present borders of the old- land are exposed, the base of this group would have risen 2900 feet 36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM above the sea, an elevation sufficient to overtop the highest peak of the present Laurentides; for, according to Logan, “in the country between the Ottawa and Lake Huron the highest summits do not appear to exceed 1500 or 1700 feet, though one . . . probably attains 2300 feet’’.t We assume of course with good reason that the Laurentides at that period were much higher than now, for they must have suffered enormous erosion during the long interval since the close of Siluric time.? Since the deposition of these Siluric strata the region under con- sideration has suffered an enormous amount of denudation, having been brought to the condition of a low nearly level tract or pene- plain, but little above sea level, not once, but probably a number of times, separated by periods of elevation and at least one of sub- © *Logan. Geol. Canada. 1863. p. 5. *The Niagara beds of Lake Temiscaming, in the great pre-Cambric area of Canada and 150 miles distant from the nearest beds of the same age, are of interest in this connection. They occupy an area about 300 miles due north of Lewiston and on the north side of the present Laurentide chain. According to Logan they do not properly belong to the former extension of the Niagara beds of the region under consideration, but rather to the Hudson bay area on the north. They are of interest however as showing the great former extent of these formations. They lie uncon- formably on the pre-Cambric rocks, and the basal members are generally sandstones and often conglomerates “containing large pebbles, fragments, and frequently huge boulders of the subjacent rock” (Logan, p. 335). The thickness of the formation here is estimated at between 300 and 500 feet. The Ordovicic and Cambric strata are absent, showing a progressive encroachment of the sea on the old-land, and a consequent overlapping of the strata. Outliers of earlier strata are found in more southern por- tions of Canada, resting on the pre-Cambric-surface, and many of these indicate a progressive overlapping of later over earlier beds. Lawson holds that this indicates, that most of the Canadian old-land was covered by the early Paleozoic strata, and that erosion since Paleozoic time has resulted in simply removing these overlying rocks. (Bul. geol. soc. Am. I :169 et seq.) He holds that comparatively little erosion of the old-land has occurred since Paleozoic time, the present surface being essentially pre-Cambric and only revealed by stripping of the overlying rocks. It is not improbable however that some of these distant outliers may have been preserved during the extensive denudation of the old-land, by having been faulted down previously in a manner well known to have occurred in the Scandinavian old-lands, a solution suggested to me by my friend, A. W. G. Wilson, of Harvard university. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY ay" sidence. The present surface of the Niagara plateau is therefore not to be considered as identical with the old surface of deposition, but as due to prolonged peneplanation, or erosion to near sealevel, completed probably toward the close of Mesozoic or the beginning of Cenozoic time. The following diagram (fig. 3) will illustrate the relation between the strata and the surface of the land at 1) the close of Siluric time, 2) late Mesozoic or early Cenozoic time, after the completion of the last cycle of erosion and the reduction of the land to peneplain condition, and 3) the present surface. Fig. 3 Diagram of ancient Paleozoic coastal plain, and its relation to the Mesozoic peneplain sur- face and the present land surface. The numbering of the beds corresponds to that of the table. Between the close of the Siluric and beginning of Mesozoic time a long period intervened, during which this region was at first a land surface, suffering considerable erosion, but later was resub- merged, and covered with extensive deposits of Devonic limestones, shales and sandstones. The final emergence took place at the close of Paleozoic time, the succeeding Mesozoic time being in this region probably an uninterrupted period of erosion, during which the land suffered the combined attacks of the atmosphere and of running water. Development of the drainage features . The water which falls as rain or snow on the land either evapor- ates, runs off on the surface, or sinks into the ground, where it con- stitutes the ground water. That which evaporates, accomplishes lit- tle or no direct geologic work, but both the surface and under- ground waters are important geologic agents. If the surface on which the water falls is a perfectly smooth but inclined plain, the water will run off in the form of a thin sheet. A perfectly smooth 38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM land surface is however unknown, and the run-off of the surface waters is always concentrated along certain lowest lines, thus con- stituting brooks, streams and rivers. While there may be numer- ous drainage lines of this type, they generally unite into a few mas- ter streams, the direction of whose flow is down the inclination of the surface of the land. Such streams are known as consequent streams, their direction of flow being consequent on the original slope of the surface. When the strata of the Niagara region became a part of the dry land, from the relative lowering of the water level (which may have been due to rise of the land or to drawing off of water by the deepen- ing of the oceanic basins), they formed a broad, essentially monotonous belt of country fringing the old-land on the north, i. e. a marginal coastal plain. The strata of this plain had a gentle southward inclination, a feature shared by the surface of the plain. Consequent streams quickly made their appearance on this plain, a number of them probably coming into existence almost simul- taneously and running essentially parallel from the old-land, across | the new coastal plain into the sea. These streams soon cut down into the coastal plain, carving channels for themselves and thus es- tablishing definite lines of drainage. As the streams at first con- sisted entirely of the run-off of the moisture which fell on the plain and in the higher old-land portion, it is evident that, unless the rainfall was continuous, or unless extensive snow fields were present to supply water, these young streams must have fluctuated greatly in volume of water, and at intervals become entirely dry. This con- dition continued till the valleys, cut by these streams of run-off water, had become sufficiently deep to reach the level of the under- ground water, when the supply, augmented by springs, became much more constant. Thus in course of time large valleys, supplied with large rivers, came into existence. Meanwhile the sides of the river valleys were attacked by the atmosphere, and degradation of the cliffs cut by the stream resulted. ae As long as a river is narrow and vigorously undercuts its banks, the latter will be steep, and the river channel will have the character of a gorge. This generally continues as long as the river is cutting Plate 4 American and Luna falls from below, with limestone fragments fallen from the cliff above (Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, New York) NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 39 downward, i. e. till the grade of the river bottom is a very gentle one, when lateral swinging widens the gorge by undercutting the banks, and atmospheric degradation quickly destroys the steep cliffs which the river does not keep perpendicular. During the process of drainage development, numerous side streams come into existence, which join the main stream as branches. These begin as gullies formed by the rainwater running over the sides of the banks into the main stream. A slight depression in the surface, or a difference in the character of the material composing the banks, may determine the location of such a gully, but, once determined, it will become the cause of its own farther growth. For the existence of this gully will determine the direction of flow of succeeding surface waters, and so in the course of time the gully will become longer and longer by headward gnawing, till finally a channel of considerable magni~ tude is produced. Streams of this type are known as subsequent streams, and they very generally have a direction varying from a moderately acute to nearly a right angle with reference to the main or consequent stream. _ As the dissection of the Niagara coastal plain continued, the higher portions of the strata, i. e. those nearer the old-land, were slowly re- moved, and the beds lying beneath these were thus exposed. The latter strata were generally of a more destructible character than the overlying ones, and on this account great lowlands, parallel to the old shore line, or the line of strike of the strata, were worn Mpetmem by subsequent streams. “The more resistant beds, meanwhile, favored the formation of more or less prominent cliffs or escarpments which faced the lowlands, and being undermined slowly retreated southward, thus increasing the width of the low- lands. These features are today repeated in the Niagara escarp- ment which faces the Ontario and Georgian bay lowlands, and the escarpments formed by the outcrops of the Ordovicic limestones farther north. The diagram, fig. 4, illustrates the probable con- dition during early Mesozoic time. The great master consequent streams indicated are: the Saginaw, the Dundas and the Genesee, flowing from the old-land on the northeast, southward or southwest- 40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ward into the Mesozoic interior sea. There were probably other consequent rivers, whose location may be in part indicated by some of the valleys now occupied by the Finger lakes of New York. Subsequent streams, flowing along the strike of the beds and capa- ble of accomplishing much erosion by undermining the resistant capping beds of the escarpments, continued to widen the longi- tudinal (1. e. eastwest) lowland areas, while the transverse valleys of the consequent streams remained relatively narrow. The topographic relief feature produced by this normal develop- ment of drainage on a young coastal plain consisting of alternating harder and soiter strata, has been namied a “ cuesta’’} and may be briefly defined as an upland belt of slightly inclined coastal plain strata, with a surface gently sloping toward the newer shore, and a steep escarpment, or inface, fronting a low belt, or inner low- land, which separates the cuesta from the old-land upon which its strata formerly lapped. The existence of the cuesta form is usually due to a more or less resistant stratum overlying a less resistant one, as, for example, the limestones overlying the upper Medina shales. The inface of the cuesta is continually pushed back by the undermining subsequent streams, aided by atmospheric attack, and thus the belt of low country, lying between the cuesta and the old- land, is continually widened, while during the same time the valley of the transverse consequent stream which carries out the drainage increases comparatively little in width. It must be remembered however that the lowland can never be deepened below the depth of the valley of the consequent stream which carries its waters through the ‘breach in the cuesta. While the main drainage of this region was undoubtedly Ree fe: westward by consequent streams, which flowed through the cuesta in gorges, and by sttbsequent streams flowing into the former, and occupying the inner lowlands, short streams, flowing toward the old-land, down the inface of the cuesta, were probably not uncom- mon. These streams began to gnaw gullies back from the inface Davis, W. M. Science. 1897. New series. 5:362; also Textbook of physical geography. 1899. p. 133. Pronounced kwesta, a word of Spanish origin “ used in New Mexico for low ridges of steep descent on one side and gentle slope on the other ”. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 4I of the cuesta, and ultimately prolonged these gullies into gorges, and carried the drainage into the subsequent streams. Streams of this type, which have their representatives in all coastal plain regions, have been called obsequent streams, their direction of flow being opposite to that of the consequent streams. The following diagram (fig. 4) illustrates this type of a stream and its relation to the subsequent and consequent streams. To this type of stream belongs the ancient St Davids gorge, as will be shown more fully, in subse- quent pages. Fig. 4 Diagram of a portion of a dissected coastal plain, showing old-land on the left, and two euestas with their accompanying inner lowlands. Three consequent streams have breached the cuestas, and subsequent streams from the lowlands join them. An obsequent stream is shown in the center of the outer cuesta. If we assume that during the greater part of the Mesozoic era, the land in this region remained in a constant relation to the sea- level, it becomes apparent that the southward retreating infaces of the cuestas formed by the resistant members of the Paleozoic rocks, became lower and lower, as the southward inclination of the strata carried the resistant beds nearer and nearer to sealevel. Eventually the escarpment character of the infaces must have become obsolete, from the disappearance, beneath the erosion level, of the weaker lower strata, which permitted the undermining of the capping beds. When this occurred, the capping strata alone continued ex- posed to the action of the atmosphere, and, from a cliff char- acter, their exposed ends were planed off to a wedge shape, thin- = We M. Davis 42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ning northward at a rate proportional to the dip of the beds. The ultimate result of all this erosion was the reduction of the land to a low peneplain, which did not rise much above the sealevel. Por- tions of this peneplain are today preserved in a scarcely altered con- dition, in the Niagara upland, the region about Buffalo and other localities. The slight change which these regions have subse- quently undergone leads to the supposition that the peneplain was completed in comparatively recent geologic time, possibly at the beginning of the Tertiary era, or even more recently. This is also shown by the comparative narrowness of the valleys cut into the peneplain surface in preglacial times. The present altitude of this peneplain in the vicinity of the Niagara river is approximately 600 feet above sealevel, while southward it rises. There is however good presumptive evidence, some of which will be detailed later, that, during a period preceding the glacial epoch, the land in the north stood much higher than at present, so that the slope of the surface was southward. An accentuation of slope would cause a rejuvenation of the consequent streams, which, in the later stages of peneplanation, had practically ceased their work of erosion on ac- count of the low gradient of the land. As a result of the renewal of erosive activity the early Mesozoic topography was in a large measure restored, but the inface of the Niagara cuesta, the top of which is now found in the Niagara escarpment, occupied in the re- stored topography a position considerably farther to the south than that characteristic of early Mesozoic time. We may now examine more in detail the channels of the conse- quent streams which dissected this ancient coastal plain, and the ex-. tent of the inner lowlands drained by the subsequent streams tribu- tary to them. Dundas valley. The Dundas valley appears to have been the out- let for the master consequent stream of this region, the Dundas river. This valley, as before noted, breaches the escarpment at Hamilton (Ont.), near the extreme western end of Lake Ontario. The valley has been carefully described by Spencer, who considered it the pathway of the preglacial outlet of Lake Erie into Lake On- tario, the drainage of the Erie valley being in his opinion by a NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 43 river which followed the present course of the Grand river, above Cayuga, past Seneca and Ancaster into the western end of the Ontario valley. It is extremely doubtful that such a stream ever existed, certainly it is highly improbable that the Dundas valley owes its existence to any stream which flowed eastward or toward the old-land, for it is altogether too broad, and continues too uniformly to permit its being regarded as the val- ley of an obsequent stream. Moreover, its peculiar position at the elbow of the escarpment is most suggestive of a consequent origin, for we would expect the face of the cuesta to make a reentrant where the master stream gathers its converging tributaries and flows out through a great breach in the cuesta. - The Dundas valley is 5 miles wide at Hamilton but rapidly de- creases in width to 2 or 24 miles at the top, where the limestone forms decidedly sharp summit angles (Spencer). Its northern wall has been traced westward for 6 miles to Copetown, and its southern for 34 miles.to Ancaster. Beyond these points the valley is filled with drift which has been much dissected by modern streams. The axis of the gorge is about n 70° e, and the glacial scratches observed on the rock surfaces at its summit, with few exceptions, make angles of 30° or more with it (Spencer). At Hamilton the bedrock was found to be absent to a depth of 227 feet below the surface of Lake Ontario. The well from which this record was obtained is about I mile distant from the southern side of the Dundas valley, which is here 5 miles wide. The total known depth of the canyon is, according to Spencer, 743 feet, but he calculates that it reaches 1000 feet near the center. Along the northern shore of Lake Erie well records have shown the absence of drift to a considerable depth. Thus, according to Spencer, at Vienna, 100 miles due west of Buffalo, the drift is absent to a depth of 200 feet below the surface of Lake Erie, while at Port Stanley, 20 miles farther west, it is absent to a depth of 150 feet below the lake. At Detroit the drift is 130 feet deep. At St Marys on the northwest and Tilsonburg on the southeast of a line connecting *Spencer. Pa. geol. sur. Q 4. p. 384-85. 44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Port Stanley with Dundas, Devonic limestones occur at a consider- able elevation above Lake Erie (Spencer). Hence the southwest- ward continuation of the Dundas channel must be placed between Ne COND IR IRCOIN UHI LRT NUN LLL IR m mtu SCALE OF STATUTE MILES 4 4 . Fig. 5 Diagram showing type of drainage existing in Tertiary times in the Laurentian region. 1 “These maps are intended merely to illustrate the kind of drainage, which it is believed existed in preglacial times in the Laurentian region. The ancient consequent streams are probably correctly located; yet it must be stated that the region between Hamilton and Port Stanley has not been sufficiently explored to make the course indicated certain. These consequents may have had a more indirect course, for if the country was worn down to peneplain condition, as appears to have been the case, these streams may have learned NEAGARAY FALLS: AND: VICINITY 45 these two points. On the southern shore of Lake Erie borings have revealed numerous deep channels. Thus the bottom of the ancient channel of the Cuyahoga river is reached, according to Little Falls HMMA Stn wl), Ma AM, re {Ulli nity UU ) Wil. a aM Mtn, i ale Par i SA - PT iS Cig aca Ail \ we a wenn wiitin’ lsonl --" - ‘ $ =orRn < 9) ovat my) Dv denna ~ ais ee OS Marys oa rT Stanleg & Port ney . . bX) Cleveland. s . Gee os ory Crannel Detroit q-~ paneer , woe to meander on this surface, the meandering course being retained on re- elevation. The depth of the bed rock at Port Stanley and Vienna, however suggests that a direct channel exists as shown on the map. The principal subsequents are probably located with approximate correctness, but the smaller branches are added without attempt at correctness. They were probably much more numerous than here shown. Fig. 6 A hypothetic later stage, showing adjustments which are suggested by existing relief features. 46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Upham! at a depth of more than 400 feet below Lake Erie. Whether this marks the former southward continuation of the preglacial Dundas river or whether that river turned more to the west, follow- ing in general the course of the present Maumee, must for the pres- ent remain unsettled. The Dundas undoubtedly became eventually tributary to the Mississipp1. Preglacial Saginaw river. The existence of an ancient river, flowing southwestward from the Canadian old-land across the valley of Lake Huron and the lower peninsula of Michigan, and finally becoming tributary to the ancient Mississippi, is indicated by the present character of the topography of that region. The Niagara cuesta is breached by a deep channel which now connects Georgian bay with Lake Huron, and which, north of Cove island, an outlier from the Indian peninsula, has been sounded to a depth of over 300 © feet. This channel is in direct line with that of Saginaw bay, and, though this latter is at present very shallow, borings at Bay City show an absence of rock to a depth of at least 200 feet below the surface of the bay. At Alma (Mich.) the rock was shown to be absent to a depth of 350 feet below Lake Huron (Spencer); and, as this locality lies to the southwest of Saginaw bay and in line with the trend of its axis, we may assume that our preglacial Saginaw river was located here. Our limited knowledge of the preglacial topography of this region forbids tracing this channel beyond this point. Dr Spencer many years ago traced out this line of drainage, but he assumed that the river which occupied this channel, and which he has named Huronian, flowed northeastward to join that part of the ancient St Lawrence, or Laurentian river, which he sup- posed to have occupied Georgian bay. Preglacial consequent Genesee river. Ainong the numerous con- sequent streams which flowed from the old-land southward or southwestward and which eventually became tributary to the pre- glacial Mississippi, probably through the ancient Ohio,? the pre- “Bul. geol; soc. Am) 827. *Westgate, Lewis. Geographical development of the eastern part of the Mississippi drainage system. Am. geol. 1893. 11:245-60. The Ohio, ac- cording to Newberry, flows nearly throughout its entire course in a channel, the rock bottom of which is nowhere less than 150 feet below the present river. The rocks at the “falls of the Ohio” show that at that point the river is not following the ancient course. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY AT glacial Genesee river is the only other that can be mentioned here. Though now flowing northward on account of the tilting of the land, we may assume that much of its valley was carved by a south- ward flowing stream, the bottom of which, as shown by borings, was considerably below the floor of the present river. Whether Irondequoit bay is a part of this ancient channel, or whether it marks the position of an obsequent stream, must remain for the present an open question. Soundings in Irondequoit bay show a depth of 70 feet, though the rock bottom is probably much deeper. As soon as the consequent streams began cutting down their valleys again after the continental uplift which followed the period of peneplanation, the lateral subsequent streams began once more to open out broad lowlands in the weaker beds which now had become extensively exposed. These lowlands, in part now filled by drift deposits, are the Ontario and Georgian bay valleys, the latter con- tinued in the North Passage, all carved out of the weak Medina and Lorraine shales; the Tonawanda-Chippewa valley, with the deeper portion of the Huron valley farther west, carved out of the soft shales of the Salina group; and the valley of Lake Erie cut out of the softer middle and upper Devonic shales. A few of these may be considered in greater detail. Ontario valley. It is a well known fact that Lake Ontario is deeper in its eastern than its western part. In the following six cross- sections (fig.7),constructed from the lake survey charts,the greatest _ depths from west to east are 456, 528, 570, 738, 684 and 576 feet. The section showing the greatest depth is that from Pultneyville to Point Peter light, in the eastern third of the lake. As the present level of Lake Ontario is 247 feet above the sea, the deepest sounding tecorded in these sections is 491 feet below present sealevel. From this point of greatest depth, the floor of the lake rises eastward, at first at the rate of 3 feet in the mile, and later at an average rate of 9 feet a mile. The valley appears to be continued south of the Adirondacks in New York along the present course of the Mohawk Tiver, which flows at present several hundred feet above the rocky floor of the valley.1 This floor ascends eastward, till at Littlefalls aCarilis ta ceol sum 1° 736, 48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM SSASESES Fig. 7 Six cross-sections of Lake Ontario showing topography and geology. Vertical scale 1 inch= 1280 feet; horizontal scale 1 inch=153%4 miles. Numbering of beds as in table; location of sections indicated in fig.5. Section 1) E. of Niagara to E.of Pickering light. 2) Lockport to Darlington light. 3) West of Genesee to Presque Isle light. 4) Pultneyville to Point Peter. 5) West of Fair Haven light to False Buck light. 6) Oswego to Kingston. : NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 49 the preglacial divide has an elevation of 440 feet above sealevel. The following diagram (fig. 8) shows the present relation of the deepest part of the channel of Lake Ontario to sealevel, and the relation which would result by a tilting of the land back to its probable position in preglacial times. The last profile shows a con- tinuous westward slope of the floor of the valley, steeper in the eastern portion, where the rocks are harder and the valley narrower, and more gentle in the western portion, where the softer rocks have allowed the opening of a broad lowland. Fig. 8 Diagram showing the present deepest e—-w channel of Lake Ontario along line i-1, and its re- lation to sealevel s. 1. and the level of Lake Ontariol.o. At1, leftside of diagram is represented the bottom of the channel at Vienna, 200 ft below level of Lake Erie or 370 ft above sealevel. Atl, right side, is the divide at Littlefalls 440 ft A. T. The line 1-2, is the line 1-1, but elevated on the east (right) so as to give a continuous westward drainage. Horizontal scale 1 inch=100 miles. Ver- tical scale 1 inch =4000 feet. Numerous theories have been advanced to account for the deep basin of Lake Ontario. Spencer believed it to have been formed by an eastward flowing stream, the ancient Laurentian river, which re- ceived the Erian river as a tributary through the Dundas valley. The eastward continuation of this river Spencer believed to have been essentially along the course of the modern St Lawrence, the present great elevation of the rocky bed of this stream, above that of Lake Ontario, being explained by a warping of the land. Up- ham also believes that the basin is in part due to warping, but he considers it the valley of a westward flowing stream. Russell also holds this latter view; for he says? that, “ previous to the glacial epoch, the greater part of the Laurentian basin discharged its waters southward to the Mississippi and. . . during the first advance of the ice from the north the drainage was not obstructed so as to form important lakes”. Westgate’, in tracing out the de- *Bigelow. Bul. geol. soc. Am. 9:183. *Lakes of North America, p. 97. *Loc. cit. p. 92. 50 NEW YORK. STATE. MUSEUM velopment of the Mississippi drainage system, considers that the flow of the Laurentian drainage system was southward into the pre- decessor of the Ohio river. As has already been shown, Spencer’s eastward flowing river system can be originated only by a com- plete readjustment of the drainage, resulting from a great relative depression of the eastern uplands. Such a system could only come into existence after the valleys had been formed for it, and hence, as far as the history of the lake basins is considered, no such river system is required, and, unless positive proof of its former existence is forthcoming, it may be dismissed as hypothetic. One of the most important theories of the origin of the Ontario and other lake basins, and one which has had, and still has many prominent advocates, is that of glacial erosion, either entire or preceded by river erosion. This explanation was first most strongly urged by Prof. Newberry, and it has found its most recent able supporter in Prof. Tarr. It is impossible to do full justice to this view in the present limited space. Ice erosion is a factor the potency of which has often been over- looked, but of the importance of which there can be no question. We may however question whether a valley which, like that of On- tario, lies transverse to the general direction of ice movement in this region, can owe much of its depth to this agent. The following considerations will be helpful in understanding the influence of glacial erosion on preexisting topography. If a valley like that of Lake Ontario is occupied by a glacier the motion of which is parallel _ to the trend of the valley, the topographic relief is likely to be accentuated by ice erosion. [i the motion of the ice is transverse to the direction of the valley, the erosion tends to obliterate or at least reduce the relief features. If, however, a mass of ice remains stagnant in the valley, the upper strata of ice may override it, and the amount of glacial erosion is reduced to a minimum. The striae in this region, together with the direction of slopes from the old- land, point to a southward movement of the ice, and Gilbert has shown that the amount of erosion on the edge of the escarpment in western New York is comparatively slight. Hence we may assume that the basin of Ontario was mainly occupied by ice during the *Bul. geol. soc. Am. I1:121. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 5! glacial period, but that comparatively little erosion was accom- plished. This is farther borne out by minor relief features, such as the benches shown in sections 4, 5 and 6, in the southern wall of the basin, and which probably consist of harder beds which erosion has left standing out in relief. On the theory of glacial erosion, we might expect these to be absent, or at least much less prominent, since ice would hardly show such selective power as is attributable to running water and atmospheric agents. With the failures of the theories that an eastward flowing stream or glacial ice produced the Ontario valley, we are forced, with Upham, Russell and others, to look on a westward flowing stream as the most probable agent in the production of this valley. As has before been shown, such a stream would be the normal result of a gradual development of a drainage system on an ancient coastal plain of the type here considered. | Ancient St Davids gorge. Since the time of Lyell, the old buried channel from the whirlpool to St Davids has played a prominent part in the discussion of the life history of Niagara. For a long time it was considered to be the preglacial channel of Niagara, or its predecessor, the Tonawanda. More recently it has been considered of interglacial age, eroded by an interglacial Niagara, during a tem- porary recession of the ice sheet from this region, and filled with drift during a readvance of the glacier. The most satisfactory inter- pretation of this channel however makes it independent of the - Niagara, and considers it one of many preglacial or interglacial channels which were formed by streams flowing over the edge of the escarpment and which increased in length by headward gnawing of their waters. This type of stream we have learned to call obse- quent, its direction of flow being contrary to that of the master stream to which its waters eventually become tributary. An illustra- tion of channel-cutting by streams flowing over the edge of a cliff, may be seen today in the chasm near the Devil’s hole, on the Ameri- can side of the gorge below the whirlpool. This gulch was cut by the little stream known as the Bloody run, which during the sum- mer season dries away entirely. The St Davids gorge has a width of nearly 2 miles at the edge of the escarpment. As will be seen by a glance at the map, it nar- 52 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM - rows perceptibly southward, till at the whirlpool its width is less. than the average width of the Niagara gorge. What the depth of the gorge is has not been determined, though from the depth of the whirlpool, we may assume that its floor is 200 feet or more be- low the level of Lake Ontario. At, and to the north of the escarp- ment it probably equals in depth Lake Ontario, opposite to it. The channel is undoubtedly much more irregular than is shown on the map, the sides being probably much diversified by lateral gullies. The great width of the channel at St Davids may perhaps be due in some small degree to widening by glacial erosion; for we know that the channel was occupied by ice, from the glacial scratches which are preserved on its walls, where these are exposed in the present ravine of Bowman’s creek near the whirlpool. The influence of this buried channel on the direction and width of the Niagara gorge will be discussed later. | Valley of Georgian bay. Georgian bay is in many respects the analogue of Lake Ontario. Like the latter, it also occupies a valley lying between the Niagara escarpment and the crystalline old-land on the northeast. As has previously been shown, the Niagara es- carpment extends northward from Hamilton into the Indian penin- sula between Georgian bay and Lake Huron, and, after passing the Cove island channel, it reappears in the northwestern face of Grand Manitoulin island. At Cabot’s head, on the Indian peninsula, the escarpment rises to 324 feet above the surface of the water, while just off the promontory soundings show a depth of 510 feet, thus making the total hight of the escarpment at this point 834 feet. In some places the summit of the escarpment rises to an elevation of 1700 feet above tide, or more than 1100 feet above Georgian bay (Spencer). The depth of the transverse channel connecting Georgian bay and Lake Huron has been found to be 306 feet, which is more than 200 feet less than the depth of the channel of Georgian bay. It is possible however that the soundings do not show the absolute depth of the rock bottom in the channel; for there may be a filling of drift which raised the bottom of the channel above that of the bay. , NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 53 ' The valley of Georgian bay is continued northwestward in the channel known as North passage, a narrow body of water lying between the Manitoulin islands and the Canadian old-land. The southward continuation of the lowland is blocked by drift; but a number of borings, between the southern end of Georgian bay and Lake Ontario, east of Toronto, have developed the existence of a buried channel, which connects these two valleys. This channel is considered by Spencer to mark the pathway of his former Laure.- tian river. It is clear however that this valley is merely the buried connecting part of the inner lowland which extends along the base of the entire Niagara escarpment. This portion of the lowland was originally occupied by two streams flowing, the one northwest- erly into the ancient Saginaw, the other southeasterly into the Dun- das. The divide between the two may have been in the neighbor- hood of Lake Simcoe. It is however not at all improbable that .. the tributary of the Dundas may have, owing to favorable condi- tions, gained an advantage over that of the Saginaw, and pushed the divide northward. Such a migration of the divide might have resulted in the diversion of the upper waters of the Saginaw by cap- ture, so that they eventually became tributary to the Dundas. This would account for the greater depth of the Georgian bay lowland, which, after the capture of the upper Saginaw waters, could be deepened independently of the notch in the cuesta through which . 1ts watcrs were formerly carried out. This of course is merely sup- positional, and the truth can be established only by more detailed study of the ground. It is however what we might expect to hap- pen in the normal adjustment of a coastal plain drainage. This hypothetic relation is illustrated in-fig. 6. The Huron lowland and the Chippewa and Tonawanda valleys. On the yielding strata of the Salina group a second lowland was carved out by subsequent streams, leaving an escarpment capped by the Devonic limestones on the south. This, as we have seen, becomes prominent eastward in the Helderberg range, where the third upper Devonic escarpment unites with it. In the Niagara region it faces the Tonawanda and Chippewa lowlands, which were probably opened out by a subsequent stream tributary to the an- 54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cient Dundas river. Throughout western Ontario this escarpment is buried by drift, but its presence is indicated by borings, which also prove the continuance of the lowland accompanying it. This escarpment, the inface of the second cuesta, becomes a very promi- nent feature in Lake Huron, where it is entirely submerged. It is however perfectly traceable from north of Goderich in Canada to the island of Mackinaw. ‘Soundings prove it to have a hight of from 350 to 5co feet or more above the lowland which it faces. This lowland constitutes the deeper portions of Lake Huron, the shal- lower southwestern area being a part of the upland drowned by the backward setting of the water over the top of the escarpment. The following cross-section (fig. 9) from Point au Sable, north of Saginaw bay, to Cape Hurd, the northern extremity of the Indian peninsula, passes across the highest portion of this escarpment at the 9 fathom ledge and diagonally across the deepest portion of the Huron lowland, where the soundings reach a depth of 750 feet. This apparently marks the location of the preglacial Saginaw river, which probably breached the second cuesta to the south of the 9 fathom ledge, though no channel is indicated by the soundings. or Fig. 9 Section across Lake Huron from Point au Sable, a) across 9 fathom ledge, b) to Cape Hurd, c) (For location of section see fig. 6). We have now traced the development of the topographic features - of the Niagara district, and have found this to be in conformity with the laws governing the normal development of drainage systems on an ancient coastal plain. The only abnormal features which need to be considered now are the tilting of the land and the filling of most of the old channels by drift, converting the lowlands into lake basins and reversing the drainage of the unfilled channels. These were the catastrophes which immediately preceded the birth of Niagara and which were directly responsible for its existence. To these and the life history of Niagara, attention will now be invited. “Rock of Ages ”’, the largest of the fallen limestone fragments at the foot of Luna falls, on the American side (Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, New York) NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 55 Chapter 2 Pine S TORY OF NEAGARA FALLS Glacial period Two important events immediately preceded the birth of Niagara. The first was the formation of a series of great lowlands and cuestas by stream and atmospheric erosion during a period of time when, according to all indications, the land stood from 2000 to 5000 feet higher than it does now. This was outlined in the preceding chap- ter. The second event was the accumulation of a great mantle of. glacial ice over most of northeastern North America, and the modi- fications of the previously formed erosion topography, either by the erosive action of the ice or by deposits left on its melting. The time equivalent of the latter event is commonly known as_ the glacial period of the earth’s history, a remote period as time is ordinarily counted, but a very recent one in the chronometry of the geologist. Contemporaneous with this great accumulation of ice was probably the subsidence of the northern part of this region, thus changing the slope of the land surface from a south- ward to a northward one. The greatest accumulation of ice during the glacial period appears to have been in the region to the north and northeast of the great lakes, or in general over the area of the Laurentian old-land. The immediate causes which brought about such accumulation, were the extensive refrigeration of the climate and the increased precipitation of moisture, so that a greater amount of snow fell during the winter seasons than could be removed by melting during the succeeding summers. The partial melting and refreezing of the snow, which continued over a long period of time, eventually resulted in pro- ducing glacier ice, after the manner of the formation of glaciers at the present time. The thickness of the great Laurentian glacier, which eventually covered all the land of this region, including even the highest moun- tains, must be estimated at thousands of feet in its central part with a progressive diminution of thi¢kness toward the margin. The ice 56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of glaciers, as is well known, has a certain amount of plasticity and will flow under the pressure of its own weight, somewhat after the manner ofa mass of pitch. The flow of the great Laurentian glacier was outward in all directions from the center of accumulation, local topographic features exerting a deflecting influence only in the more attenuated marginal portions. In its basal portions, the ice was well supplied with rock debris, from the finest rock flour and clay to boulders often of very great size. This material was derived from the surface over which the ice flowed, and it measured in part the amount of erosive work which the ice had accomplished. The rock fragments frozen into the bottom of the moving ice mass, served as efficient tools for grooving and scratching the bedrock over which the ice flowed, while at the same time the finer material smoothed and polished the rock surfaces. The direction of the grooves and striae on the rock surfaces in general indicate the direction of the ‘movement of the ice which produced them, but this may not always represent the direction of general ice movement for the region, since, at the time of making the striae, the ice may have been thin enough to be influenced by the local topographic features of the region. Inthe Niagara district the striae have a direction extending about 30° west of south (Gilbert) which direction, being inhar- monious with the trend of the lowlands, indicates that these striae were formed by the general movement of the ice, rather than by local movements, controlled by topography.t While the surface rocks of this region were everywhere scratched and polished by the ice, these markings are only exhibited where the protecting mantle of loose surface material or drift has been recently removed. For where the polished rock surfaces are ex- posed for any considerable period of time, weathering usually obliterates these superficial markings. The best place in which the striae of the region about Niagara river may be studied is near the quarries on the edge of the escarpment, a mile or more west of Brock’s monument, where the ledges are progressively uncovered previous to quarrying. —_ —==> 1For an account of the glacial sculpture in this region, see Gilbert. Bul. geol. soc. Am. 1899. 10:121. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY a7 Throughout the greater part of the district, the polished rock sur- faces are covered by a coating of drift of very varying character and thickness. This was the ground moraine or till of the Lauren- tian glacier, and represents the rock debris which was frozen into the bottom of the ice, and carried along in its motion, till liberated by the melting of the ice. This ground moraine, either in its original heterogeneous character or modified by the agency of running water, filled most of the old river gorges through which the drainage of preglacial times found its exit. Some of the shallower 3 lowlands, like that of the Tonawanda, were also filled with drift, while the more profound ones, like the Erie and Ontario lowlands, received only a partial drift filling. The partial obliteration of the old drainage channels, which was thus brought about, together with a depression of the land on the northeast to a depth below that at which it now stands, converted the unfilled lowlands into lake basins, apparently reversed the drain- age of many streams, forcing them to cut gorges where their old channels were drift-filled, and finally became the immediate factors in the formation of Niagara. Lacustrine period! During the slow melting of the glaciers in the Laurentian region, and the resultant northward retreat of the front of the ice, large bodies of water, of varying depth and extent, were held in front of the ice sheet, which formed a dam across the northeastern part of the lowland country, the general slope of which was now toward the ice instead of away from it. The elevations of these glacial lakes were determined by the lowest uncovered passes in the margins of the lake basins across which the discharge took place, and, as during the continued melting of the ice dam, lower passes were progressively uncovered, the outlets were successively trans- ferred to them and the levels of the lakes sank correspondingly. ‘For a detailed account of the successive stages in the development of the great lakes, the shore lines, outlets and extent of each, the reader is referred to the papers by Gilbert, Spencer, Taylor, Leverett, Fairchild and others, cited in the appendix. 58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Though of a temporary nature, these bodies of water endured suffi- ciently long to permit the formation of well marked beaches with their accompaniment of bars, sand-spits and other wave-formed features. These have been carefully studied and mapped by a num- ber of observers, and the general extent and outline of these lakes is today pretty accurately determined. The largest of these glacial lakes, though not the first to come into existence, was glacial Lake Warren. “At its maximum extent Lake Warren covered the south half of Lake Huron, including Saginaw bay, the whole of Lake Erie and the low ground between it and Lake Huron; extended eastward to within twenty or thirty miles of Syracuse, N. Y. and probably covered some of the western end of Lake Ontario.”* The retaining ice wall on the east ex- tended in a northwesterly direction, across western New York, Lake Ontario and the northeastern end of Lake Huron. This position of the ice front is in part inferred from the existence of moraines of sand and gravel along a portion of that line. The total area of this ancient lake has been variously estimated as in- cluding from one hundred thousand to two hundred thousand square miles of surface but this estimate is based on the assump- tion that the lake occupied the greater part of the area of the present upper Great lakes, with the intervening land, a supposition which Taylor holds to be incorrect. The area of Lake Warren was probably less than 50,000 square miles, or approximately half that of the state of Kansas. The extent and level of this lake was not constant, there being many oscillations, due chiefly to warpings of the land surface. These oscillations are recorded in the various beaches which have remained to the present time. The chief outlet of Lake Warren was by way of the Grand river valley into the valley of Lake Michigan, the southern end of which was then much expanded and occupied by the waters of “Lake Chicago.” The outflow of this lake was to the Mississippi by way of the Illinois river, across the divide near where Chicago now stands, thus tem- porarily reestablishing the southward drainage of this region. *Taylor. A short history of the Great lakes, p. 101. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 59 As the ice front continued to melt away, retreating northeastward, drainage at a lower level was permitted along the ice front to the Hudson valley, and the sea. As a result, the water level sank, the Chicago outlet was abandoned, and Lake Warren became much contracted and in part cut up and merged into new bodies of water. The largest of these was glacial Lake Algonquin, which occupied the basins of the three upper Great lakes, and seems to have been for a long time independent of Lake Erie, which after the division of Lake Warren was for a time much smaller than it now is. (Fig. II and 13) The critical period in the development of the lakes, with reference to the birth of Niagara, was the uncovering of the divide at Rome (N. Y.) and the consequent diversion of the drainage into the present Mohawk valley. This brought with it a subsidence of the waters north of the Niagara escarpment to the level of this outlet, which was considerably below that to which the other lakes could subside, owing to the rocky barriers which kept them at greater altitudes. Asaresult Niagara river came into existence, though at first it was only a connecting strait between Lake Erie and the subsiding predecessor of Lake Ontario. The overflow from Lake Erie occurred at the present site of Blackrock, because there hap- pened to be the lowest point in the margin of the lake. It is not improbable that a small preglacial stream had predetermined this point, either flowing southward into the river occupying the Erie basin, or northward as an obsequent stream into the Tonawanda. The course of the river below Blackrock was determined by the directions of steepest descent of the land surface, which was prob- ably predetermined to some extent by preglacial streams. As soon, however, as the level of the waters of the Ontario valley sank below the edge of the Niagara escarpment at Lewiston, a fall came into existence, which daily increased in hight as the level of the northern lake was lowered. From that time to the present, Niagara has worked at its task of gorge-cutting, the present length of the gorge, from Lewiston to the falls, marking the amount of work accom- plished. 60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM When the waters north of the escarpment had subsided to the level of the outlet at Rome, a long period of stability ensued, during which extensive and well marked beaches were formed by the waves. This comparatively long-lived body of water has been named Lake Troquois, and its outline is shown in the accompanying map (fig. 10) reproduced from Gilbert’s History of the Niagara river. The Iroquois shore lines in this region may be seen in the ridge road which extends eastward from Lewiston, and westward from Queenston, closely skirting the foot of the escarpment. Fy ADIRONDACK MTS. oo™~. . Fig. 10 Map of Lake Iroquois; the modern hydrography shown in dotted lines. (After Gilbert) A fine section of this old beach is seen just behind the railroad station at Lewiston. Here the layers of sand and gravel slope steeply toward the southeast, and many of them are irregular and wedge-shaped. Some of the beds, a foot or more in thickness, con- sist entirely of rounded pebbles, with little or no sand between, form- ing a porous mass of “loose gravel’. The prevailing rock of the pebbles is the Medina sandstone, derived from the neighborhood, and the pebbles are always well waterworn, and commonly of the flattened type characteristic of thin bedded rocks. Mingled with ‘the beds of coarse material are layers of fine sand, the structure of which is well brought out by exposure to wind and weather. Not NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 61 infrequently masses of sand and pebbles are cemented into a con- glomerate by calcite or other cementing agents. The terminal portion of the beach at the Lewiston station is rather exceptional. It has here the character of a sand spit, extend- ing toward the Niagara river. Between this spit and the escarp- ment there is a low area of irregular outline, something over half a mile in width along the river and extending perhaps three fourths of a mile eastward from it. This area is bounded by steep erosion cliffs of unconsolidated material, and is from 30 to 50 or more feet lower than the level of the ridge road. ‘The suggestion presents itself, that these features may be due to the current of the Niagara at its embouchure into Lake Iroquois, at a time when the falls were probably not far distant. (See plate 3 and map) There is evidence that the level of Lake Ontario at one time stood much lower than it does at present; for the bottom of the lower Niagara, from Lewiston to the lake, is from 100 to 200 feet below ' ws a) ’ ae L.St Claér: w > Fig. 11 Gilbert’s map of the Great lakes at the time of the Trent river outlet. Modern hydro- graphy dotted. the present water level. In fact, the old beaches about Lake On- tario indicate a number of oscillations of level, similar to those recorded in the other glacial lakes, and due chiefly to crust warpings. 62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Lakes Algonquin and Iroquois were probably contemporaneous, and it is believed that for a time the former discharged its waters to the latter by way of Balsam lake and along the course of the Trent river. This discharge by way of the Algonquin river, as this old outlet of Lake Algonquin has been called, robbed the Niagara river of seven eighths of its water supply, which up to then had reached it by the present course through the Detroit river. As a result, the volume and erosive power of the river were for a time enormously diminished.. (Fig. 11 and 13) GEe-o4,- Fig. 12 Gilbert’s map of the Great lakes at the time of the Nipissing outlet. Modern hydrography dotted. During the farther retreat of the ice front, a still lower pass was opened by way of Lake Nipissing and the Mattawa river into the Ottawa. By the time this outlet was opened, the ice had also dis- appeared from the St Lawrence valley, and the outlet of the waters of the great lakes was transferred from the Rome channel to the one at the Thousand islands, Lake Iroquois at the same time subsiding to lake: Ontario, (Hie. 12:and 14) The successor of Lake Algonquin, after the change from the Balsam lake to the Nipissing lake outlet, has been named by Taylor, Nipissing great lakes, while the river which carried its discharge to the Ottawa was called by him the Nipissing-Mattawa (fig. 14). NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 63 With the gradual melting away of the great ice sheet, the land on the northeast. began to recover from its last great depression, Miles. 0 25 30 75 «0 SE...) (Se ee Zoe eu F td ae ao ee ‘a = \ wa : Se ares Se a =e eG os j g pe. fd 93 aed AKE IPISSING \N ii? 2 jr bend ' ae | = @S >PHL ws See: BUFFALO ee) Ae S es Miles. : FT WAYNE es Daten ZONIES 10) WV YORKs a\\ ~ SC Fig. 14 Taylor’s map of Nipissing great lakes and the Champlain submergence. ae ‘ad NOsSahH ae Gey Ya and, though there had been many oscillations, the balance of change was toward a slow but steady elevation of the Laurentian region. As a consequence the beaches of the old glacial lakes, which of 64 NEW YORK STATE MUSSUM course had a uniform elevation while forming, are no longer of uni- form hight above sealevel, but rise progressively toward the north- east. This slow rising of the land caused a gradual canting of the basins, which brought with it a relative fall of the waters along the northeastern shores and a corresponding relative rise of the waters along the southwestern shores. Such a progressive change event- ually carried the Nipissing and Balsam lake outlets above the level of the outlet at Port Huron, and the present drainage was reestab- lished. As the canting affected the Erie basin as well as the others, it caused a progressive elongation of that lake toward the south- west, thus finally giving it its present size and shape. ‘This same canting also resulted in the farther separation of the upper lakes into their present divisions. While this general outline of the lake history is held by many geologists, others, notably Upham, combat it strongly. Mr Upham holds that the elevation of the land in the northeast had progressed to such an extent by the time the ice had uncovered the northern outlets. of Lakes Algonquin and Nipissing, that these passes had been raised above the altitude of the outlet at Port Huron, and that hence these passes never, or bit for a brie period Of time msenjem as outlets for the waters of the upper lakes. If this is the case, Niagara always carried the drainage of the upper great lakes as well as Lake Erie, and its volume was approximately uniform throughout its history. The strong erosion features, however, which are found in the Mattawa valley indicate that a large stream discharged here for a considerable period of time; and, if such was the case, it is highly probable that the present Port Huron outlet was not then utilized, and that consequently the Niagara was robbed of the discharge of the upper lake area. The influence on the erosion of the gorge by such a withdrawal of the water must have been a pronounced one, and we shall see later that certain portions of the gorge may well be explained by this hypothesis. During the time of the overflow of the upper waters by way of the Nipissing-Mattawa river it is not improbable that, as held by Taylor and others, the sea had access to the St Lawrence and Ontario basins and possibly to the basins of the upper lakes. This would account for the occurrence of marine types of organisms in the deeper portions of some of the present NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 65 great lakes as well as for the maritime species of plants found in the lake district. It must however be borne in mind that this marine invasion was not till after the time of Lake Iroquois, for fresh-water fossils have been found in the beaches of this lake. The tilting of the land, which is recorded in the deformed beaches, has not yet ceased, as recent investigations in the lake regions clearly prove. Mr Gilbert has made an extended study of this prob- lem; and he has been led to the assumption “that the whole lake region is being lifted on one side or depressed on the other, so that its plane is bodily canted toward the southsouthwest, and that the rate of change is such that the two ends of a line 100 miles long and lying in a southsouthwest direction are relatively displaced .4 of a foot in 100 years”. From this it follows that “the waters of each lake are gradually rising on the southern and western shores or falling on the northern or eastern shores, or both”. This implies of course a drowning of the lower courses of all streams entering these lakes from the southwest and an extension of those entering im@mmetie, northeast: Assuming that the rate and character of change will be constant in the future, the following interesting re- sults have been predicted by Mr Gilbert. The waters of Lake Michi- gan at Chicago are rising at the rate of 9 or 10 inches a century; and “eventually, unless a dam is erected to prevent, Lake Michigan will again overflow to the Illinois river, its discharge occupying the channel carved by the outlet of a Pleistocene glacial lake. Evidently the first water to overflow will be that of some high stage of the lake and the discharge may at first be intermittent. Such high water discharge will occur in five hundred or six hundred years. For a mean lake stage such a discharge will begin in about one. thousand years, and after one thousand five hundred years there will be no interruption. In about two thousand years the Illinois river and the Niagara will carry equal portions of the surplus water of the great lakes. In two thousand five hundred years the discharge of the Niagara will be intermittent, falling at low stages of the lake, and in three thousand five hundred years there will be no Niagara. The basin of Lake Erie will then be tributary to Lake Huron, the current being reversed in the Detroit and St Clair channels.”? *Gilbert, G. K. Recent earth movements in the great lake region. 18th di fepit WL Sy SiO Stites 1606-07. = pt 2. 66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fluvial period : Qs, Niagara falls came into existence when the waters of Lake Iro- quois, the predecessor of Lake Ontario, fell beneath the level of the escarpment at Lewiston. At first it was only a small cataract, but day by day, as the lake subsided, it gained in hight and consequently in force of fall, as well as efficiency in cutting its channel. That the entire gorge from Lewiston to the present falls is the product of river erosion is scarcely questioned by any one today, but there are excellent reasons which lead some to believe that this cutting was not wholly the work of the Niagara. When the falls were at Lewis- ton, the Niagara was a placid stream from Lake Erie to near the falls, much as it is today from Buffalo to the northern end of Grand island. Its banks consisted chiefly of glacial till, into which terraces were cut by the stream, most of which are visible at the present day. The lower ones are well marked in Prospect park, though there they have been grassed over and modified to a considerable extent. From Niagara falls to the railroad bridges at Suspension Bridge, on the New York side of the river, the old bank runs parallel to the edge of the gorge and at a short distance inland from this. From Suspension Bridge to the whirlpool it makes a curve somewhat more crescentic than that of the margin of the gorge, and a similar curve from the whirlpool to Bloody run at the Devil’s hole. On the Can- adian side these ‘old river banks can be traced from above the falls almost to Brock’s monument, and in some cases two or three suc- cessive terraces are recognizable. In Queen Victoria park they constitute the steep slope which bounds the park on the west, and parts of which are still actively eroded. Less than a mile below the carriage bridge, the old banks approach close to the modern one and continue, almost coincident with it, to the railway bridges at Clifton. From here to the whirlpool the old river margin has a nearly straight course, while the modern one is curved, and a similar relation holds below the whirlpool, though here, from the great curvature of the modern channel, the old banks are in places nearly a mile distant.t (Plate 6) *These old river banks are indicated on the geologic map by dotted lines; the localities where shells have been found are shown by crosses. ot (AdAINS [BOIsO[OES “Ss “p) Sespliq PvOJ[I¥1 9} MOTEq ‘apis WIOX MON OF} UO VIVSPIN 94} Jo syueq PIO cee 9 9481d preree ryt 1A ear at oi me i peat RCS ee NR STL as y 5 eee é ¥ gi oy Lae Oe a?) , ; r J pawns oo Ne - aie i ye NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 67 Within the old channel thus outlined, which was much broader than the modern channel below the falls, accumulations of stratified sands and gravels were formed in the more protected places, much as such deposits are formed in streams today, where sands are swept into protected areas. With these sands and gravels were swept to- gether the shells of those mollusks which lived in the river water, and many of which were of the species now found living in the upper Niagara.t. Most of the shells thus swept together were prob- ably of dead individuals, though living ones may also have been carried into these growing deposits. Many excavations have been made in these ancient deposits, fragments of which are preserved in various places between the former and present banks of the river. The most notable of these and the one longest known is on Goat island, perhaps a quarter of a mile inland from the edge of the cliff, at the Biddle stairway. In the section opened here, most of the material is seen to be coarse and rudely stratified. The pebbles are subangular, often quite angular, while some appear to be scarcely worn at all. Blocks a foot or more in diameter are not infrequent, the material being generally limestone from adjoining ledges, though fragments of sandstone and of crystalline rocks are not un- common. (Occasionally a lens of fine sand occurs which shows cross-bedding structure, the laminae pointing in a northwesterly di- tection. The shells are found on the cross-bedding planes, con- forming with them, and indicating that they were spread there by the current which moved the sand grains. Among the coarse ma- terial the shells are mixed indiscriminately. In many cases the gravels are of the loose type, with scarcely any sand between them, indicating deposition by a powerful current. Along these zones air and water have most readily penetrated, and a deposition of iron oxid has been formed which stains both pebbles and shells. The shells are generally very fragile, and commonly show signs of wear. Gastropods are most abundant in the Goat island gravels. _In Prospect park several excavations formerly exposed these gravels, The deposit here consists of sand and gravel with the pebbles moderately rounded, though occasionally subangular, and _*For descriptions and illustrations of these shells, see chapter 5. 68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM varying in diameter up to 6 inches or a foot. The stratification is rude, and shells are abundant. These are mostly fresh-water mus- sels (Unie, Alas im odie nt a, etc.) and the valves are generally found in conjunction, a fact which may indicate that these shells lived here. Small gastropod and pelecypod shells are plentifully mingled with the pebbles and sands. Below this are coarser de- posits where boulders up to several feet in diameter occur, and below this occurs a bluish clay. In all of these beds shells have been sparingly found. Rear Several excavations have been made in Queen Victoria park, and here shells are common. The Unionidae appear to be most abund- ant, though small gastropods are not uncommon. All appear to have been more or less waterworn. The mussel shells are gen- erally decayed, owing no doubt to percolating waters. Below Clif- ton, the lower of two terraces is of a somewhat sandy character, though many boulders occur in it. Shells of unios occur sparingly in these deposits, and a few small gastropods were found in the lowest terrace. Farther north several excavations in the lower ter- races of the old river show loose gravels alternating with a sort of till, afew Goniobasis and other gastropod shells being found here. In some cases the gravels have become cemented into a con- glomerate by a deposit of calcite between them, often of consider- able thickness. Boulders of similarly cemented gravels are found in the gorge below, at the whirlpool. It will thus be seen that, throughout the greater part of the young Niagara, deposition was going on as well as erosion. The amount of erosion of the river bed was probably very slight, that of the banks being much more pronounced. The chief part in the cutting of the gorge was enacted by the cataract, which cut backward from Lewiston, the amount of downward cutting by the river being insignificant. The manner in which the cata- ract performed its work of cutting may today be cbserved in both the American and Canadian falls, as well as in water- falls of other streams falling over strata, the arrangement of which is similar to that obtaining at Niagara. The essentials are a re- sistant stratum overlying a weak one, the latter being constantly Plate 7 Cliff on the Canadian side of the gorge. showing the receding base. The giant icicle marks the edge of the overhanging ledge (Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, New York) i eee em we eu BO Ursin NIAGARA FALLS. AND VICINITY 69 worn away by the spray generated by the falling water, thus under- mining the resistant layer. Such undermining may be seen in the Gave orthe Winds: In course of time this undermining progresses so far that the projecting portion of the capping stratum breaks down for want of support, and the crest line of the fall becomes abruptly altered. The fallen fragments accumulate at the foot of the fall, where they will remain if the force of the water is unable to move them, as illustrated by the rock masses lying at the foot of the American fall. If, however, the force of the falling water is great as at the Horseshoe falls, these blocks will be moved about, perhaps even spun about, and so made to dig a deep channel below the falls. In the soft rocks which lie at the foot of the Horseshoe falls a channel probably not less than 200 feet in depth has been dug in this manner. (Fig. 15) 4 (e. Ayn’ ) i SSS — Fig. 15 Sectional view of the Horseshoe falls showing arrangement of strata, and depth of water below falls. (After Gilbert) The numbering of b2ds corresponds with that of table. When we consider the Niagara gorge in detail we find it to be much more complex than would at first appear. The first ab- normal feature which presents itself in a map view of the entire gorge is the bi-crescentic character of its course, with the rectan- gular turn at the whirlpool, a course very different from that which we are accustomed to find in large rivers whose direction of flow FORE NEW YORK STATE -MUSEUM has been uninfluenced by preexisting relief features. (Fig. 10 Another feature of importance is the varying width of different parts of the gorge, and the corresponding increase in velocity oi current in the narrower parts. The depth of the channel also varies in different portions of the gorge, being in general greater in the wider and less in the narrower parts. (Fig. 18) EZ = Se - 2 2 = ——— Fig. 16 Birdseye view of Niagara gorge showing the course of the river; the falls, the railroad bridges, whirlpool, location of Fosters flats, escarpment at Queenston and flaring mouth of old St Davids gorge. (After Gilbert) The first mile and three fourths of the gorge, or that portion marking the retreat from the escarpment to the Devil’s hole, extends nearly due south, and is fairly uniform in width, comparatively nar- | row, and with a current of great velocity. The narrowness of this stretch, when compared with the channel made by the present cataract from the railroad bridges southward, seems to indicate a smaller volume of water during its formation than that now passing over the falls. ‘An alternative hypothesis accounts.for the narrow- ness of this section of the gorge by assuming it to be a preglacial drift-filled channel, made by an obsequent stream flowing north- ward to the Ontario lowland, similar to that which made the old St Davids channel, but reexcavated by the Niagara. It is highly probable that there was at least a shallow channel which served as , NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 7 i a guide to the young Niagara. The southward continuation of this channel beyond the Devil’s hole, is found in the valley of Bloody run, a shallow but distinct depression now followed in part by the Lewiston branch of the New York Central railroad and evidently-of preglacial origin, as its floor is covered with till. Next above this lowest section of the gorge is one, in general much broader, and extending in a southwest direction from the Devil’s hole to the whirlpool, a distance of a little less than two miles. This section is contracted near its middle by the projection from the Canadian bank, known as Fosters flats, or Niagara glen. The river is here scarcely 300 feet wide, though the tops of the banks are in places over 1700 feet apart. Above Fosters flats and almost as far as the whirlpool, the river is very calm, and apparently deep, while at the point of contraction at the southern end of Fos- ters flats, the waters suddenly become tumultuous and rush through the narrow channel with great velocity. This sudden change ‘has been attributed to a sudden decrease in depth of the river at this point, but it is evident that, even if the channel had the same depth as above, the sudden contraction would produce a similar effect, for the waters, spread out over a broad and deep channel, on being suddenly forced to pass through a narrow one, would from mere crowding into a smaller space assume a violent aspect. as Niagara glen, or Foster’s flats PLATE 8 This is one of the most interesting places along the whole Niagara river, though generally little visited by tourists. From the Canadian: side a platform of limestone projects, whose surface is a little below that of the general level of the upland plain, from which it is separated by a steep bluff. The platform is known as Winter- green flat, and, though sparingly wooded, is very deficient in soil. The bluff which bounds it on the west is a part of the old river bank. On the remaining sides this platform is limited by abruptly ~ descending . cliffs, at the base of which are extensive talus slopes descending to a lowland of considerable extent. This low- land, which is known as Fosters flats, has its surface well strewn ; * 72 NEW YORK STATE -MUSEUM with huge boulders of limestone. The cliff which limits Winter- green flat on the northern or downstream side is the highest and most precipitous, and from its base a well marked, dry channei leads northward for a third of a mile to the river’s edge. ‘This chan- nel is separated from the present river channel on the right by a ridge which appears tu consist of huge limestone blocks, though its base is probably formed by undisturbed remnants of the lower strata of the region. ‘The floor of this old channel is strewn with huge limestone boulders, such as are found at the foot of the American falls today, and its -left bank is the precipitous west wall of the Niagara gorge. (Fig. 17) i, Fig. 17 View of Niagara glen or Foster’s flats, looking south. Forests omitted. (After Gilbert) These various features have been well explained by Mr Gilbert,! who holds that a narrow island comparable to Goat island; divided the fall in two, when it had receded to the northern end of Fosters flats. The foundations of this island, which has since crumbled _ away, are seen in the ridge which divides the old dry channel on the left from the main bed of the river. The eastern or American fall at that time was the larger of the two, and it receded more ‘Nat. geog. monographs. Niagara falls and their history. showing the platform which was formerly the river-bed, and the cliff in the center which was once the site of a fall . ’ Wintergreen Flat looking south NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 73 rapidly. ‘‘ When the Canadian fall reached the head of the island, the American had just passed it, and part of the sheet of water on Wintergreen flat was drained eastward into the gorge opened by the American iall. The Canadian fall, through the loss of this water, became less active, and soon fell out of the race.’ By the final re- treat of the American fall beyond the southern end of Wintergreen flat, the latter was left as a dry platform with precipitous sides, over which once poured a portion of Niagara’s torrent. While the occurrence of an island in the position pointed out by Gilbert was undoubtedly the immediate cause of the division of the falls, the more fundamental cause, and the one to which the island itself owed its existence, is to be sought elsewhere. From an in- spection of the map the suggestion presents itself that there may be a vital connection between the abandoned falls at Fosters flats and the great bend of the river at the whirlpool. When a great river runs for a mile or more in a straight line, as the Niagara does above the whirlpool, and then abruptly turns to the right, the cur- rent is deflected by this sudden change in direction to the right bank of the river below the bend, which it continues to hug till again de- flected. It is thus that the greatest amount of water will be carried along the right bank of the river, causing a deeper channeling there. When Niagara falls had receded to the present northern end of Foster's flats, the greatest amount of water was carried over its tight side. The resulting deepening of the channel on the right, and the consequent drawing off of the water toward that side, was the cause of the appearance of the island (if such existed, as seems probable from the remaining foundation) above the water and the consequent division of the falls. A precisely analogous feature oc- curs in the lower falls of the Genesee river below Portage. Here, however, no island was formed, though in other respects the two Bee are tleatly alike. In the Gemesee the change has occurred in comparatively recent times, and records of earlier conditions have been preserved. An abrupt bend of the river to the right, deflected the current to the right bank below the bend, and thus caused the deepening of the river bed on that side, as well as the more rapid *Gilbert. Nat. geog. monographs. Niagara falls and their history. 74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM recession of the right hand portion of the falls. In the course of a comparatively short time the channel became so deep on the right, and the falls receded so fast on that side, that all the water was drawn off from the larger portion of the river bed on the left, which today remains as a triangular platform comparable to Wintergreen. flat, with steep sides, and several hundred feet wide, at its down- stream end. The river now flows in a channel, in places less than 10 feet wide, and 100 feet below the level of the platform which was its bed less than 100 years ago. The present lower fall, having mostly receded beyond the upstream end of the platform, again extends across the entire bed of the river. The water in the river has not, as far as known, changed in average volume, though above and below the narrow part the gorge is many times as wide. All the water which passes in a thin sheet over a broad fall above the narrow gorge is forced to pass through this contracted portion, and presents a rushing current, though the bed is deeper here than where the gorge is broader. The time required for the recession of the fall over the space of the 2000 feet of narrow gorge, must have been much shorter than that required for the recession through a similar length in the broader portion of the gorge, for the con- centration of the waters here enabled it to do much more effective work. | Judging by analogy, we may assume that the narrow channel op- posite Foster’s flats was cut by a stream of the full power of the © present Niagara, but whose main mass of waters was carried over the right side of the fall on account of the bend in the stream above. The present Horseshoe falls is cutting a much narrower gorge than that to the north of it, owing to its peculiar position at the angle of a second great bend. (Fig. 19) From the fact that the cutting was most profound on the eastern or right bank of the river at Foster’s flats, this bank has received the precipitous character which it has retained to the present day. An interesting fact bearing on the interpretation of the history of Foster’s flats, is the occurrence in the sands among the huge boulders near the foot of the ancient falls, of shells of the small fresh-water gastropod, Pomatiopsis lapidaria Say, URE a I eee Se *See chapter 5. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY Fas a which is found living in the Niagara river today, but only on the rocks and boulders lying in the constant spray of the modern cataract. After passing Foster’s flats, the scene of greatest erosive activity seems to have been transferred to the left bank of the river. This is indicated by the verticality of this side of the gorge south of Fos- ter’s flats, which suggests active erosion, while the lowland known as Ongiara park opposite to this on the New York side of the river, with its enormous boulders scattered about, recalls the dry chan- ‘nel on Fosters flats or the foot of the present American fall, and suggests an amount of water insufficient to remove them. This may be accounted for by assuming that the nearness of the fall had = Fig 18 Longitudinal section of the Niagara gorge from the falls F to Queenston hights E, show- ing strata of west bank and depth of channel. (After Gilbert) R railway bridges. W whirlpool: Foster =Foster’s flats. Figures indicate miles. given the river itself greater momentum above the fall, and that hence it dug deeper into the old drift-filled valley of the St Davids at the whirlpool. As a result, the deflection of the current to the right bank became more abrupt, striking the New York bank im- mediately south of where Ongiara park now is, and, being again de- flected toward the Canadian side, it reached this just at the southern end of Foster’s flats, thenceforth for a time causing the most active erosion on that side. The washing out of the drift from the old St David’s channel furnished the river with tools with which it was able to cut down into its bed, so that in this portion erosion was probably both by backward cutting of the falls and downward cut- ting of the river above the falls. ¢ We have so far considered the falls as of simple type, but it is by no means certain that such was the case. If we judged from analogy with other streams which have cut gorges in the same strata as those found at Niagara, we should suppose that, as in the case of these streams, a separate fall was caused at Niagara by each re- sistant layer. Thus in the lower Genesee river, at Rochester, one fall is caused by the upper hard bed of the Medina formation, an- 70 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM other by the limestone of the Clinton group, and a third by the Lockport limestone. In the Niagara river we might suppose that at least three, and possibly four, falls had existed at one time. The lowest of these would have been over a hard bed of sandstone, about 25 feet thick, and about 100 feet below the top of the Medina group. Another might have been caused by the hard capping stratum of Medina sandstone, Io feet thick. A third over the 30 feet of Clinton limestone; while a fourth would have been formed over the Lockport limestone. The second and third would: per- haps unite in one, as the shale bed between the two resistant layers is only 6 feet thick. It may however be objected that in a great cataract the force of the falling water is such as to cause uniform recession of all the layers, and that hence only one great fall existed. The whirlpool PLATE 9 Perhaps the most remarkable part of the entire gorge is its great swollen elbow, the whirlpool. Here the current rushing in from the southeast with great velocity, circles around the basin and finally escapes, by passing under the incoming current, through the com- paratively narrow outlet, in a northeasterly direction. The waters in the whirlpool have probably a depth of 150 or 200 feet, but both the outlet and the inlet are shallow, for here ledges ‘of the hard quartzose bed of the Medina formation project into the river, extending in the latter case probably across the channel. An ex- amination of the walls of the whirlpool basin shows that rock is absent on its northwestern side, the wall here being formed of un- consolidated material or drift. This is best seen on descending to- the edge of the whirlpool on the Canadian side, through the ravine “of Bowmans creek. It will be observed that the Niagara has here exposed a cross-section of the ancient drift-filled channel which ex- tends southeastward from St Davids. This channel appears to have been that of a preglacial stream of the obsequent type,’ which was tributary to the streams of the Ontario lowland. Some geologists however, notably Mr Taylor, believe that this old channel may have *See chapter 1. VUIpIW 9} Ul pueq AvIZ 9Y} 9B “JoT}nNO 94} ye ‘espa S,10J@M 94} Je suosford saespel oq, “Opis URIPeUeD ey} WOIJ [ood[IIWM oT], 6 21a “pope hr ee vaca a, ae? a J NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY Ta been formed by a river and cataract similar to the Niagara of today, during interglacial time. That this old channel was once occupied by ice is shown by the glacial scratches on the limestone ledges ex- posed in the western wall of the old gorge, where this has been cleared of drift by Bowmans creek, and it is apparent that the filling in by drift must have occurred after the ice occupation. An in- spection of the map will show that a part of the present Niagara gorge, that containing the whirlpool rapids, is in direct continuation of the old St Davids channel, and that, a little above the railroad bridges, the Niagara makes a pronounced bend, which brings it in conformity with the direction of this channel. This suggests that there was at least a shallow depression, the insignificant southeast- ward continuation of the St Davids channel, which guided the waters of the Niagara in this direction. Here a question of great importance in the history of the Niagara presents itself. Did the ancient St Davids gorge end where is now the south side of the whirlpool, with only a shallow surface channel extending beyond this point, or was the gorge of the whirlpool rapids a part of the old St Davids channel, which was merely cleared by the Niagara of the drift that filled it? The latter condition was assumed to. be the true one by Dr Julius Pohlman of Buffalo, a pioneer in the study of the Niagara gorge and the first to recognize the complexity of the channel and attempt to account for its varying character. The theory is still held by many geologists. On the other hand, Taylor and others think it more likely that the ancient gorge stopped where is now the inlet to the whirlpool, and that the gorge above it is the product of post-glacial erosion. If this view be accepted, the narrowness and shallowness of the gorge of the whirlpool rapids must be accounted for by some change in the volume of water dur- ing its formation. Taylor, who has studied this problem, has come to the conclusion that, during the time that the gorge of the whirl- pool rapids was being excavated, the upper great lakes (then united into Lake Nipissing) discharged by way of the Nipissing-Mattawa river as already outlined, and that therefore Niagara drained only the shallow Lake Erie, the amount of water in the river being only one eighth its present volume. It is easy to see that such a reduc- 78 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM tion in volume would lead to a great decrease in cutting power, and that the resultant gorge would hence be much narrower and shal- lower than the one cut when the water supply was as large as at. present. The Nipissing-Mattawa outlet was finally closed, as we have seen, by the elevation of the land on the north, and the upper lakes assumed their modern outlet by way of Port Huron. As a result the water supply of Niagara was greatly increased, and the broad and deep gorge, which extends from south of the railway bridges to the present falls, was cut by a cataract of the size of the present Horseshoe falls, which in addition carried the water now passing over the American falls. This correlation between change in drainage of the upper lakes and change in size of the gorge of Niagara is certainly very suggestive, and seems admirably to ac- count for many features observed in the gorge. For example, it .explains satisfactorily the sudden widening of the gorge just before reaching the whirlpool, forming what Taylor has called the Eddy basin, from the strong eddy which characterizes this portion of the river. This wider part of the gorge Taylor believes was formed by the same large-volume river which cut out the broad channel north of the whirlpool, and he farther thinks, that the sudden change from. this broad channel to the narrow one of the whirlpool rapids marks. the reduction in volume of water on the opening of the Nipissing- Mattawa channel, which had hitherto been blocked -by the remnant of the Laurentian glacier. There are however several features. which must be satisfactorily explained before this theory (which Upham rejects on grounds already stated) can be accepted. It is highly probable that the gorge of St Davids was worn back beyond the whirlpool. From the great depth of the whirlpool basin, and the presence of the quartzose sandstone bed at the inlet to it, it seems probable that a fall existed here in the ancient stream which | carved the St Davids channel. That channel has probably a depth similar to or greater than that of the part now constituting the whirlpool basin. Now, if, as we have reason to believe, this old channel was formed by an obsequent stream of moderate volum » flowing northward to the Ontario lowland, it can hardly be assumed that there was but one continuous fall of from four hundred to five Plate 10 The Whirlpool rapids and American bank, looking north. The talus above the gorge road covers the upper Medina sandstones and shales. The lowest projecting ledge consists of the two Clinton lime- stones; the talus above that covers the Rochester shales, and the upper cliff is of Lockport limestone. The upper gray Medina projects in one place. and shows the Clinton shale above it. NIAGARA FALLS: AND) VICINITY 79 hundred feet in hight, with such a pronounced alternation of hard and soft layers. We must rather assume that a separate fall existed over each hard layer, and that, as in the other streams flowing north- ward over these same strata, these falls were separated from one another by considerable distances. If then, as is clearly indicated by the quartzose sandstone ledge at the inlet to the whirlpool, the lowest of these falls was at that place. the other two or three must have been at some distances up stream, and in that case it is not too much to assume with Pohlman, that the upper old falls over the Lockport limestone were somewhere near where the gorge is now spanned by the railway bridges. Taylor, however, does not en- counter this difficulty, for he assumes that the St Davids gorge was formed by an interglacial Niagara, the great cataract of which, just before its cessation (probably through a southward diversion of the drainage) plunged as a single fall over the cliff into the basin now holding the whirlpool. To this view it may be objected that the old St Davids gorge is not such as would be formed by a single great cataract, since it flares out northward, having a width at St Davids of perhaps two miles. Such a form is more readily ac- counted for if one assumes that the valley was made by the headward gnawing of an obsequent stream and its various branches. ‘Taylor meets this objection by invoking the action of readvancing ice to broaden the gorge, but, unless the last ice advance was from a very different direction from that indicated by the_striae of this region, this hypothesis will scarcely hold. That direction, as already noted, is 30° west of south, while the direction of the old gorge is almost due northwest. Why may we not assume that only a portion, the southern one of the gorge of the whirlpool rapids, was carved by the Niagara during the time that its volume was diminished, and that the greater portion of this gorge was preglacial? This would greatly reduce the length of time during which the upper lakes dis- charged by way of the Nipissing-Mattawa river, though probably leaving time enough for the waters from these lakes to produce all the erosion features found in this ancient stream channel. This would still leave the Eddy basin to be accounted for, a difficulty which may perhaps be diminished by assuming that the second of rye) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the ancient falls was situated at the point where the gorge contracts to the width of the narrower channel of the whirlpool rapids. It will thus be seen that this interesting problem of the origin of the gorge of the whirlpool rapids, propounded nearly 20 years ago by Dr Pohlman, is by no means wholly solved. We may re- turn to the original solution of the propounder of the question or we may find new evidence which will corroborate Taylor’s explana- tion. And who shall say that still other explanations of these fea- tures may not be forthcoming in the future, when those now de- manding attention will be no longer regarded as plausible or suffi- cient? The upper gorge and the falls PLATES 1,257 4es5eei Whatever may be believed with reference to the narrow gorge of the whirlpool rapids, most observers agree that the broad and deep gorge from Clifton to the present falls was made by a cataract carry- ing the full supply of water. This, the latest and most readily in- terpreted part of the gorge, has come to an end at the Horseshoe falls of today, and the character of the channel hereafter to be made can only be conjectured. The river has reached another of its critical points, where a rectangular turn is made, and it is not im- probable that, as at the other turns, so here the character of the gorge will change. Already a short channel, considerably narrower than that of the last preceding portion, has been cut by the Horse- shoe falls. (Fig. 19) This narrowness of the channel is due to the concentration of the water at the center of the stream. It is easy to. see that Goat island and the other islands owe their existence to this concentration of the water; for at one time, as shown by the shell- bearing gravels, these islands were under water. The channel above the Horseshoe falls has been cut more than 50 feet below the summit of Goat island at the falls, while the upper end of the island is still at the level of the water in the river. Goat island lies on one side of the main mass of forward rushing water, which passes it and strikes the Canadian bank, from which it is deflected toward the center of the cataract, which portion is thus deepened and worn back most rapidly. The directions of the cur- MOU 93103 94} JO SSOUMOIIVU 94} SoJeIISNI[I MOIA SIU, “apis UBIPVULY) OY} WO1J Us9S SB S19}SIS oo1Y,L 94} PUL PULIS] }VOH YIM S|[VJ VOYSesI0F{ oy, NIAGARA FALLS. AND VICINITY ol rents may be seen from the upper walks in the Canadian park, and the effectual erosion of the banks may also be observed. In many cases the shores have been ballasted and otherwise protected against the current. During an earlier period, when the falls were situated farther north, and before the central part of the stream had been = deepened to its present extent, the water, then at the level of the es river above Goat island, flooded what is now the Queen Victoria art" edd =I ll OAT ISLAND i} uw : Fig. 19 Crest lines of Horseshoe falls. From the original tracing of the surveys by courtesy of _ the New York state engineer and surveyor. 1 Terrapin rocks. 2 Former Table rock. park, and carved from the till the pronounced concave wall which now bounds the park on the west. A local eddy, probably during "very recent times, carved the steep and still fresh semicircular cliff which incloses the Dufferin islands. The fate of Goat island is not difficult to foresee. In a thousand years from now, at the present rate of recession, the Horseshoe falls 82 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM will have reached the upper end of the island and will draw off all the waters from the American falls, which by that time will have receded only about half way to the Goat island bridge. All the islands will then be joined by a dry channel to the mainland, an event which was anticipated in the year 1848, when, owing to an ice blockade in the Niagara river near Buffalo, the American fall was — deprived of all its waters for a day. As already indicated by Gil- bert’s forecast, in from two to three thousand years from now, or long before the falls have even reached the head of Grand island, the drainage of the great lakes will be reversed, provided the land continues to rise northward as it has in the past, and Niagara will carry only the drainage of the immediate neighborhood. From a majestic cataract it will.dwindle to a few threads of water falling over the great precipice, such as may be seen during the summer season in the upper falls of the Genesee at Rochester. Age of Niagara Speculations as to the age of Niagara have been indulged in ever since men began to. recognize that the river had carved its own channel. The length of time required for the excavation of Niagara gorge is not merely of local interest but serves as a basis for esti- mating the length of time since the disappearance of the Laurentian glaciers from this region, and incidentally it has served as a chro- nometer for approximately measuring the age of the human race on this continent. From insufficient data Sir Charles Lyell esti- mated the age of Niagara at 36,000 years, while others have assumed an age as high as 100,000 years or more. No reliable basis for estimating the age of the gorge was known till a series of surveys were made to determine the actual recession of the cataracts. From these the following variable rates of reces- sion of the two falls have been obtained.t *Report N. Y. state engineer. 1890. a NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 83 The American falls Feet a year Brom 1842 to 1875 yan BoZs | 2 lSSO igh 1886 “ 1890 1.65 averaging ‘From 1842 to 1890 64 The Horseshoe falls From 1842 to 1875 2501 MO75 1 | 1eo0 1.86 1886 “ 1890 FOr averaging . From 1842 to 1890 Be This shows a most rapid increase in the rate of recession during the four years between the last two surveys. From this we may assume that the mean recession of a cataract combining the volumes of both American and Horseshoe falls, such as existed throughout the greater period of gorge excavation, is at least three feet a year and may be as high as four or even five feet a year. The first to make use of this known rate of recession in estimat- ing the age of the gorge was Dr Julius Pohlman. He considered that the gorge of the whirlpool rapids and other portions of the present gorge were of preglacial origin, and so reduced the length of post-glacial time to 3500 years. Since that time numerous esti- mates of the age of the gorge have been made, the results often varying widely, owing to different interpretations given to the nar- row portions of the gorge. It is perfectly evident that, if Niagara was deprived of seven eighths of its water supply, for the period of time during which the gorge of the whirlpool rapids was excavated a very slow rate of recession must have obtained, and hence the age of the gorge is greatly increased. Upham, who does not believe in the withdrawal of the waters, makes the age of the gorge be- tween 5000 and 10,000 years. Spencer and Taylor are ardent ad- vocates of the reduction of the volume of water during a prolonged period, when the supply from the upper Great lakes was cut off. 84 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The former makes the age of the gorge in round numbers 32,000 years, the latter places it tentatively at 50,000 years, though recog- nizing the uncertainty of many of the elements which enter into his calculations. Prof. G. F. Wright has recently applied a most in- genious method to the solution of this question, and one which seems to eliminate the doubtful factors! This method is based on the measured rate of enlargement of the oldest part of the gorge by atmospheric action. The present width of the river at the mouth of the gorge is 770 feet, and Prof. Wright thinks that it was probably not less at the time when the formation of the gorge began. Assuming that the bank at that time was vertical, he finds that since then the stratum of Lockport limestone at the top has retreated 388 feet. Careful measurements show that the total amount of work accomplished here by the atmosphere since the beginning of gorge formation, was the removal from the side of the gorge of a mass of rock constituting in section an inverted triangle 340 feet high and with a base of 388 feet. This would be-similar to a mass with a rectangular section of the same hight but with a base 194 feet wide. The rate of waste of the banks was measured by Prof. Wright as accurately as possible and found to be over one fourth of an inch a year, or a total amount of 610 cubic yards of rock from one mile of the gorge wall. From this he finds that 10,000 years is the maximum amount of time required for the entire change which has occurred in the bank since it was left exposed by the recession of the cataract. The most recent and most detailed estimates of the age of the gorge have been made by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock. He assumes that the present rate of recession is four feet annually, and finds accordingly that the last formed section of the gorge, from the present falls to the point where it suddenly contracts above the railroad _bridges, was formed during 2962 years, which closely agrees with Pohlman’s estimate. Thus the beginning of the great cataract at the northern end of the upper great gorge “ dates back to 1062 B:C., 300 years- before the time Jol@iRomulusimier *Pop. sci. monthly. 1899. 55:145-55. 2AM. antig. jane koor NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 85 to the reign of King David at Jerusalem.” Prof. Hitchcock be- lieves that the gorge of the whirlpool rapids was formed while Niagara drained only the diminished Lake Erie, and he allows a period of 7800 years for the accomplishment of this task. For the erosion of the remaining portion of the Niagara gorge Prof. Hitch- cock allows 8156 years. Thus the total length of time required to carve out the Niagara gorge is considered by Hitchcock to be 18,918 years. : The reader should here be reminded that all such estimates are little more than personal opinions, and that they necessarily vary according to the individual predilections as to greater or less power of erosion possessed by the cataract under the given circumstances. The leading questions concerning the extent of the preglacial erosion in this region, and the changes in volume of water during the lifetime of the Niagara, which are of such vital importance in the solution of this problem, are by no means satisfactorily answered. Nor can we assume that we are familiar with all the factors which enter into the equation. There may be still undiscovered causes which may have operated to lengthen or shorten the lifetime of this great river, just as there may be, and probably are, factors which make any estimates of the future history of the river and cataract little more than a mere speculation. We may perhaps say that our present knowledge leads us to believe that the age of the cataract is probably not less than 10,000 nor more than 50,000 years. 86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Chapter 3 STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NIAGARA REGION The stratigraphy of the Niagara region, or the succession of fos- siliferous beds, their origin, characteristics and fossil contents, has since the time of Hall’s investigations barely received cursory attention from American geologists, whose interest has chiefly centered in the problem of the physical development of the gorge and cataract. A careful examination of the (strata of this region and of their fossils reveals problems as_ in- teresting and profound as those furnished by the gorge and cataract, and many of them are of far more funda- mental and far-reaching significance. Profoundly interesting and instructive as is the “ Story of Niagara” and of the physical develop- ment of the present surface features, it becomes insignificant when placed by the side of that great history of the rise, development and decline of vast mlutitudes of organic beings which inhabited the ancient seas of this region and whose former existence is scarcely dreamt of by the average visitor to the falls. These ancient hosts left their remains embedded in the rocks of this region; and from the record thus preserved the careful student is able to read at least in outline the successive events in the great drama which was enacted here, in an antiquity so remote that it baffles the imagination which would grasp it. But he who would decipher these records must bear in mind the maxim of La Rochefoucauld: “ Pour bien savoir une chose, il faut en savoir les détails.’ A knowledge of de-— tails is necessary to an understanding of the stratigraphic and paleontologic history of this region, and there is no better way of obtaining this knowledge than by a close study of the various sec- tions which expose the strata here described. The strata of the Niagara region belong to the Siluric series of deposits, which accumulated during the Siluric era of the earth’s history. Rocks of Devonic age occupy the southern portion of the district, resting on and concealing the Siluric strata which dip beneath them. (See fig. 1, p. 19) As has already been noted, all * See table in chapter 2. a == ST STARS SOCRREN = ——- — SS Serene “mM MOUS ‘GWOU SUIYOOL ‘yno peorjier perjueD “A ‘N ‘{euojspues PUIPSW Ysno1q} jeuuny, GT 948Id a NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 87 the rocks of this region have a gentle southward dip, which permits the lower members to appear progressively as we proceed north- ward over the surface of the old erosion plane. We may now pro- ceed to describe the various members of this series in ascending order. Oswego sandstone This, the lowest member of the Siluric, is not. exposed in the Niagara region, as its point of outcrop is now covered by the waters @iveake Ontario. (See sections 1 and 2, fig. 7) From, borings, however, we know its character and thickness, which in this region i775 tect. Medina sandstones and shales Only the upper portion of this formation is exposed in the Niagara district, where the total thickness is more than 1200 feet. Red Medina shales. The upper beds of this division are the lowest exposed beds in this region. They are bright red sandy shales, generally of a very uniform character, though occasionally a bed which might almost be called a sandstone occurs. Wherever this rock is exposed to the atmosphere, it rapidly breaks down into small angular fragments, which quickly form a debris slope or talus at the foot of every cliff. In the faces of the older cliffs this rock is so friable, that it can readily be removed by the hand, the frag- ments themselves being easily crushed between the fingers. In the course of time these fragments disintegrate into a fine reddish clay soil, which when wet has a rather tenacious character. As the lower part of the Niagara river from Lewiston to Lake Ontario is wholly excavated in this rock, it may be seen wherever — the banks are kept fresh by the river, or where small lateral streams enter the Niagara. Where erosion is not active, the shale bank is soon reduced to a slope of red clayey soil, which generally becomes covered with vegetation. A good place for the study of this shale is on the New York side of the Lewiston suspension bridge, where a fresh cut reveals about 50 feet of the rock. The bridge is 65 feet above the river, and the total thickness of red shale above the water at this point is therefore 115 feet. The shale here as elsewhere will be found to be seamed 88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM by whitish or greenish bands, both parallel with and at right angles to the stratification plane.. In the latter case they are seen to lie on both sides of a joint fissure, which indicates that the discoloration of ~ the rock, often extending to an inch on either side of the joint, is due to percolating air and water, the latter probably carrying or- ganic acids in solution. The horizontal bands, often several inches in thickness, are probably similarly discolored portions along lines of greater permeability. No fossils have been found in these shales. Gray quartzose sandstone. ‘The red shales terminate abruptly and are succeeded by a stratum of gray quartzose sandstone, which is very resistant, and wherever exposed, produces a prominent shelf. This rock varies somewhat in different portions of its exposure, but it averages perhaps 25 feet in thickness. This bed is exposed along the gorge from its mouth to the whirlpool, where it forms a ledge at the water’s edge, beyond which it passes below the water level. It is well shown at Niagara glen, where a spring of cool water issues | from beneath it, near the water’s edge. In the bank on the opposite side, where a fine section of the rocks of the gorge is shown, this quartzose bed is seen in its full thickness, lying between the red shale below and the shales and sandstones above. The red shale at the water’s edge has crumbled away, leaving the quartzose bed projecting from the wall in some cases to a considerable extent. The quartzose sandstone usually forms beds of considerable thick- ness in this region, though near the top of the stratum a number of thin beds generally occur. The best exposure for the examination of this rock is in the quarries opened up in the terrace on which the Lewiston tower of the suspension bridge stands. In these quar- ries the sandstone slabs often show smooth surfaces, which generally bear markings similar to those formed by waves on a surface of fine sand. These wave marks are found in most of the sandstones of the Medina group, but they are nowhere in this region so well de- veloped as in the upper thin bedded layers of the quartzose sand- stone. No fossils have as yet been found in the gray sandstone on the Niagara river, though farther east a similar quartzose rock shows ‘shells of the Medina Lingula on the surfaces of the lay- ers, which also show wave marks. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 89 The succeeding beds of the Medina as well as the Clinton, Roches- ter and Lockport beds, are best exposed along the railroad cut of the Lewiston branch of the New York Central and Hudson River Failroad. This cut is reached from the Lewiston end through a short tunnel cut in the Medina sandstone (plate 12). As the beds dip southward, and the roadbed rises in the same direction, we pass rapidly across all the formations from the lowest to the highest ‘exposed. | Upper shales and sandstones. The contact between the quartzose sandstone and the overlying Medina shales is not generally well ex- posed, except in one place. This is in Evan’s gully, the first of the small excavations in the roadbed, made by the streams of water - which in the spring time cascade from the banks. The quartzose sandstone forms the bed of the gully below the bridge on which the railroad crosses it, and it also forms the capping rock over which the stream cascades to a lower level. 1 The lowest beds of this division of the Medina are gray shales, 25 feet in thickness and readily splitting into thin layers and gen- erally smooth to the touch, indicating the absence of sand. There are however beds of a more sandy character, even to fair sandstones, interbedded with the shales, and this is particularly the case near the middle cf this shale mass. These sandstone beds are similar in character to the quartzose sandstone below the shales, but they occur in thin layers, separated by shaly masses. These same beds are ex- posed in the cutting which leads to the tunnel on the north, where they are shown near the base of the section. They vary in thick- ness up to 8 inches, and in some cases contain a few fossils, notably the shells of Lingula cuneata (fig. 81). The shales below the sandstone layers are mostly below the level of the roadbed, the greatest thickness exposed above that, being about 6 feet. The upper 13 or 14 feet of this shaly series are well shown in the cutting north of the tunnel, where they may be seen above the sand- stones just alluded to. These rocks present in places an almost per- pendicular wall, where the overlying sandstones have not been re- moved, while from the rapid weathering of the shale, the capping stone generally projects beyond the face of the shale cliff. The un- go NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM dermining of the upper layers thus results in their ultimate breaking down from non-support, and the resulting fall of rocks may be of a dangerous character. Care is therefore necessary in the examina- tion of these sections, and the warnings of the section guards should always be heeded. These men patrol the tracks continually from early morning till after the last train has passed at night. This is necessary, as the fall of rocks is continuous, and often of such amount as to obstruct traffic for some time. Any one who will watch these cliffs for a time from one of the projecting points where a comprehensive view may be obtained, and note the almost in- cessant fall of rock particles, will receive an impressive object lesson in the processes by which cliff retreat is effected. In many cases the shale banks are covered with a coating of red mud carried by rains from the red soil above them. This creates the impression that the color of these lower shales is red like that of the shales higher up in the series, and only after breaking off fresh particles can the true color be seen. 2 These gray shales are succeeded by sandstones and sandy shales, some of the former massive, quartzose and in beds 6 or 7 inches in thickness, separated by shaly layers. The sandstone is gray and often porous, as if it had undergone some internal solu- tion, which suggests that fossils may have been present which were dissolved by percolating waters. Fragments of fossils are occasion- ally found, but mostly in an unidentifiable condition. Many of the thinner and more clayey beds have raised markings on their under side, which may be indicative of the former presence of seaweeds in the muddy beds of this period. Small black phosphatic pebbles, often very smooth, are not uncommon in some of the layers, and larger masses of black, apparently carbonaceous shale are occasion- ally found mixed with the sand. In the gray shaly sandstone beds the Medina gastropods and bivalves (pelecypods) occur sparingly, and usually in a poor state of preservation. Some of the thin layers are calcareous, though still containing a large proportion of argil- laceous matter. These are generally fossiliferous, the most common organism being a small cylindric bryozoan.1 Fragments of these *Identified provisionally as Helopora fragilis (fig. 74). NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY gli beds with the bryozoan weathered out in relief on their surfaces, may be found at the base of the cliff in the cut north of the tunnel. 3 In the northern end of the section the sandstones and sandy shales have a thickness of about 5 feet, and are in turn succeeded by 6 feet of shale, weathering readily into a clayey earth, which ac- cumulates, as a talus on the underlying sandstone ledges. As in the other shale cliffs, so here weathering causes a more rapid retreat of the shale than of the overlying sandstone, which therefore projects beyond the shale cliff till it breaks down. These shales are mostly gray, sometimes greenish gray, with oc- casional sandstone bands. Toward the top they become intercalated with reddish bands, and finally the prevailing color of the shale be- comes red. 4 Following these shales is a mass of sandstone from 35 to 40 feet thick and consisting mostly of beds which vary from 4 to 6 inches in thickness. The sandstone is compact and solid, reddish in color or gray mottled with red. The beds are separated by red shaly partings, with occasional beds of red shale 2 to 4 feet thick. About 20 feet above the base of this sandstone mass is a concretionary layer from 1 to 2 feet thick, which appears not unlike a bed of large rounded boulders. These concretions vary in size up to 3 or 4 feet in greatest diameter, and they lie in close juxta- position, not infrequently piled on each other, thus still more simulating the blocks of a boulder bed. This sandstone cliff is in general quite perpendicular, and the thin and comparatively uniform layers, which are regularly divided by vertical joint fissures, produce the appearance of a vertical wall of masonry, for which many people, seeing it only from the rapidly mevine train, have no doubt mistaken it. The regularity of these successive beds is at times interrupted by a heavier layer, either red or gray and mottled, which may be traced for some dis- tance, after which it thins out and disappears. This thinning out of the layers in one or another direction is a common and charac- teristic feature of these sandstones, and is a direct result of the ir- regularities of current action during the deposition of the sands. We may trace a sandstone mass for some distance, and then find —— O92 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM that it disappears by thinning, either bringing the layers above and below it in contact or giving way to a bed of shale. A careful examination of these individual beds will show the pres- ence of ripple marks in many of them. This indicates moderately shallow water during the accumulation of these sands; for ripple marks are found only down to the depth to which wave action pene- trates. ‘These ripples vary greatly in size, a bed about 10 feet above the concretionary layer showing examples in which the crests are from one to one and a half or more feet apart. The fossils found in these sandstones are the characteristic Medina pelecypods, and the common Medina Lingula cuneata. 5 The thin bedded sandstone layers are followed by 12 or 15 feet of massive sandstones in beds from one to several feet in thickness, and varying in color from reddish to grayish. This rock generally shows strongly marked cross-bedding structure on those faces 7 444 AAs \ \\ ow as \N \ =~ May iy, / ‘ hi 4 Fig. 20a Cross-bedding in Medina sandstone, Niagara gorge. which have been exposed for some time. This structure illustrated in figure 20a, copied from a ledge of this rock, indicates diverse cur- rent and wave action in the shallow water in which this rock was forming. While the deposition of the strata was essentially hori- zontal, the minute layers made up of the sand grains were for a time deposited at a high angle, much after the manner of deposition of the layers in a delta. After a while the activity of the current changed to another direction, and the layers already deposited were in part eroded, or beveled across the top, and new layers, inhar- Soleys UOJUIIN :vUIpewW seddn jo pueq Avis :OSeq 38 9u0Isp ‘uMoys 818 SOUOISOULI] UOWI[O pure ues BUIPSW “YINos Suryoo, ‘AiueyYs Sug JO YINos 3nd prourer [817090 ST 978Id & N Uo worMoeg NIAGARA FALLS AND» VICINITY 93 monious with the preceding ones, were laid down on the eroded surface. This was repeated a number of times, as is shown by the succession of changes in the sandstone layers.! This structure is . sometimes shown on a large scale, as in the case of a bed shown about 200 feet north of “ Milk cave ravine ”’, the second of the small Tavines met with in coming from the north. Here some of the lay- ers are very gently inclined, and may be traced for some distance. They are obliquely truncated, other horizontal beds resting on the truncated edges (fig. 20b). (See also plate 14) Fig. 20b Contemporaneous erosion and deposition in Medina sandstone, Niagara gorge. The Medina Lingula (L. cuneata) is found in these sand- stones as in the lower ones, but other fossils are rare. Occasionally on the sections the hollows left by the removal of the shells may be seen, while similar cavities, caused by the removal of small black peb- bles like those found in the lower layers, also occur. In the upper portions of this mass,on the under side of some thin sandstone lenses resting on and separated by shaly partings, occurs the so-called “jointed seaweed ” of the Medina formation, known as Arthro- phycus harlani, and illustrated on plate 16. This is a char- acteristic Medina sandstone fossil, but in this region it has not been found in any of the other sandstone strata. Specimens of this fossil were obtained in digging the great power tunnel at Niagara, but only from the sandstone layers near the bottom of the tunnel, which is about the horizon in which they are found in the gorge section.’ 6 The highest member of the Medina in this region is a hard, massive bedded and compact quartzose sandstone similar to the *Compare with this the cross-bedding structure shown in the uncon- solidated sands.and gravels in the Goat island gravel pit, and in the section of the old Iroquois beach at Lewiston. *The restriction of this characteristic Medina fossil to these upper layers of sandstone at Niagara was pointed out to me by John MacCormick, the watchman of this part of the road, who collects these specimens and keeps them for sale. As he is continually handling these rocks and has handled them for years, he has become familiar with their characters, and is there- fore in a position to obtain knowledge of such facts. 94 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM quartzose bed terminating the lower shales. While nearly white when fresh, this rock generally weathers to a grayish yellow color and often exhibits yellow iron stains. On the weathered edges cross-bedding structure is well brought out. When separated from the rocks below by a shaly bed, this rock generally projects from the bank for a sufficient distance to form a shelter for the watchman in case of a sudden shower. Where this sandstone comes down to the level of the roadbed, at a projecting cusp of the cliff, it has been cut through and a.portion of it left between the track and the gorge. In the shadow of this rock mass stands the second of the watch- men’s shanties which we meet with in approaching from the mouth of the gorge’ The upper quartzose bed has here a thickness of 74 feet. Several hundred feet south of this point, where the top of this sandstone is level with the roadbed, a huge ripple, 15 feet from crest to crest, and nearly 2 feet deep, is shown on the river side of the track. This “giant ripple” was described and illustrated by Gilbert,? who found other ripples of similar size in the Medina sand- stone at Lockport, as well as in the quartzose sandstone near Lewis- ton. On the surfaces of the flagging stones which are derived from the Medina sandstones, ripple marks of small size are not uncom- mon, and the sidewalks of Buffalo and other cities where this rock is utilized, often exhibit fine examples of such rippled rock sur- faces. In the cliff of Milk cave falls (or St Patrick’s falls), which is the second lateral fall below the mouth of the gorge, the upper beds of the Medina formation are well shown. The concretionary layer is near the level of the roadbed, and has a thickness. of 3 feet. 29 feet above it is the base of the upper gray quartzose sandstone, before reaching which we find that the red sandstone gradually loses its bright color, at first being mottled, and then at times losing its red color altogether, though the thin partings of shale still retain *This is occupied by John Garlow, on whose beat most of the “ Niagara cfinoids”” (Caryocrinus ornatwus) aresto be found: © Specimens may generally be obtained from him at a small price. *Bul) geol! soc) Ant — 1013540; pir igs ‘ NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 95 it. The quartzose capping rock consists at the base of a white bed, from 14 to 2 feet thick and showing cross-bedding structure, followed by shale.1 to 14 feet thick and of a reddish color in places, and finally by a solid bed of white quartzose sandstone 5 feet in thickness, and like the lower bed, showing cross-bedding structure on the weathered sections. A few thin layers of sandstone overlie this bed, having a total thickness of less than half a foot. On these follow the shales of the Clinton formation. | The upper Medina sandstones and shales may be traced in both walls of the gorge nearly to the falls. From the southward dip, the beds progressively pass below the water level, till near the falls only a small portion of the upper beds remains. These may be-seen at the river margin in the bottom of the gorge, between the Maid of the Mist landing and the carriage bridge on both sides of the river. On the New York side only a few feet of the red sandstones are ex- _ posed, the remainder being covered by talus. During high stages of the river these exposed beds are covered by the water. On the Canadian side an extensive ledge of the red Medina sandstone is exposed opposite the inclined railway on the New York side. In the banks behind this ledge the white quartzose sandstone which forms the top of the Medina occurs, its top being at least 25 feet above the water level. It here forms a projecting shelf on which rest huge blocks of limestone broken from the cliff above. From this we may judge that at the foot of the Horseshoe falls the upper layers of the Medina may still be above the water level. Clinton beds: The Clinton beds at Niagara aggregate about 32 feet in thick- ness and consist of a stratum of shale at the base and two distinct strata of limestone above this. (See Plate 14) Clinton shale. Resting immediately on the quartzose layers which terminate the Medina formation, is a bed of olive green to grayish or sometimes purplish gray shale, which readily splits into very thin layers with smooth surfaces, and is quite soft enough to be easily crumbled between the fingers. Fossils are rare in it, but occasionally layers are found which have their surfaces covered with g6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM crushed valves of small plicated brachiopods, among which Ano- plotheca hemispherica and A> plicatwla= mage mentioned. Other fossils are rarely found except reed-like impres- sions which are not uncommon. Some impressions have been found which probably belong to Pterinaea emacerata, a pelecy- pod occurring higher in the Clinton and also in the Rochester shales. The total thickness of these shales is 6 feet. Clinton lower limestone. On the shale rests a stratum of lime- stone 144 or 15 feet in thickness. The lower three or four feet of this rock are compact to granular or finely crystalline, having a sugary texture. Small masses of iron pyrites are not uncommon in this rock, this being the only representative of the ferruginous matter so characteristic of this part of the Clinton beds monmame Genesee river and eastward, where a well marked bed of iron ore succeeds the shale. Hall! states that “the lower part of the lime- stone, as it appears on the Niagara river, is highly magnesian, and from the presence of iron pyrites rapidly decomposes, giving rise to: the production of sulfate of magnesia, which at favorable points. along the overhanging mass upon the river bank, may be collected in quantities of several pounds.” Fossils are not uncommon in this division of the Clinton lime- stone, though the variety is not very great. The most abundant species are a small brachiopod, Anoplotiteca ip lreamnmrs (fig. 133) with a strongly plicated surface, and a larger flat brachiopod, Stropheodonta profunda, which at times seems scarcely more than an impression on the rock surface. The remaining part of this stratum is a massive dark gray limestone with occasional thin bands of a shaly character separating the in- dividual beds. Recognizable fossils are not very abundant in this. rock. Many of the thin bedded portions of the lower Clinton lime- stone contain numerous shining black phosphatic nodules, very smooth and resembling small black pebbles. ‘These are probably concretionary masses, though some have the aspect of being water- worn organic remains. Where the thin limestone layers are covered: with a shaly or sandy coating, impressions of the beautiful, little *Rep’t 4th dist. 1842, p. 63. 9UOSeUT, JZodyoor7 ‘pue ‘oTeys 1aIseqooy -9UO0}SetT] Ieddn puv JMO] UOJUITO -e7BYs woIUIID 92 ‘ode UMOYS SUOTIEUIIOT OT, ‘SOUBISIP OY} Ul UMOYS SI Ply oy} {AJURYS puoods 9} JO YInos ysnl 24} ‘PIO JUeISIp oY} UI Yi :BUIpey{ eq1 jo pueq Avis taddn oy} Jo do} oq} “Wjnos SuTyoor. ‘yno PVOIpIeL [er UL orld :SpleMdn MOfeq woz WU9OD “A “N 94} WO MoTA fy R al” et , ~ [i : - # "G —- ami 9 Ne aT nan OM Na » ve . os =] foRk - EF + (OEpIEY Hex ag) a i "ile f 4 i 1s 7 Pe eer ees NIAGARA PALES AND VICINITY Q7 branching seaweed, Bythotrephis gracilis, may be found. This occurs also on some of the shaly partings of the limestones. The impressions vary from the slender variety of great delicacy to a coarse one in which tke frond consists of broad irregular lobes. This stratum generally forms a vertical wall with the next over- lying stratum projecting beyond it. Clinton upper limestone. In the region of the Genesee river the lower limestone is succeeded by a mass of shale which is generally fossiliferous, and on which lies the upper limestone. Inthe Niagara region this shale is wholly wanting, the upper limestone resting directly on the lower. The line of separation is however: well marked, both by the diverse characters of the two rocks and by the different way in which each resists destruction by atmospheric agencies. The upper stratum is a crystalline and highly fossiliferous limestone, often pinkish in color, though chiefly light gray with yellowish or brownish particles where oxidation has occurred. Portions of the beds consist almost wholly of crinoid stems or joints, which give the rock a coarsely crystalline and sometimes porous aspect. Fossils are abundant in this rock, though the variety is generally not large. The most common species is a rOrumed yatiety of the brachiopod, Atrypa reticularis (fig. 112), which is generally very robust and sometimes almost globular in form. Of the other fossils in this rock several Stropheadontas fiieec mentioned, among them Stropheodonta pro- funda. ‘A number of rhynchonelloid shells occur, readily recog- nized by their pointed beaks and strong plications. Among these are some small specimens of Camarotoechia Ae hms ya species characteristic of the Niagara beds of the west. It is readily recognized by its smooth umbonal area, and its single plication in the mesial depression or sinus, corresponding to which, on the opposite valve occur two plications. Among the more abundant fossils of this rock are smooth elongate and rather strongly biconvex brachiopods of the genus Whitfieldella. The most common is W. intermedia, but other species occur as well. The thick- ness of this stratum is 11 feet. The upper beds of this series con- tain species which on the whole are of a strongly marked Niagaran 98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM type, such as Spirifer niagarensis and others. 2a ecome mon brachiopod is Strophonella patenta, a flat, thin, sub- semicircular shell with a straight hinge line and fine surface striations. A characteristic feature of this upper limestone stratum is the strong development of stylolite structures. These stylolites are vertically striated columns, from a fragment of an inch to several inches in length, and ranged on either side of a horizontal suture or fissure plane in the limestone bed. Projecting from both upper and lower beds, they interlock with each other and so produce a strongly marked irregular suture. This structure is characteristic of limestone beds of this type, but its origin is still obscure. Pressure of superincumbent layers of rock seems to have been the chief cause of their production, this pressure acting unequally on the rock mass, from the presence of fossils or from other causes. A characteristic feature is the open suture at the ends of the columns, which gives the layers the aspect of having separated by shrinkage along an irregular plane. The vertical striations indicate motion either upward or downward. The Clinton limestones may be seen in both banks of the river where not covered by vegetation, from the mouth of the gorge to within a short distance of the falls, near which they are covered by talus. They always form a cliff in the profile of the gorge, the 6 feet of shale below them forming a sloping talus-covered bank, below which there is another cliff formed by the hard upper Medina sandstone, the lower members forming one or more talus-covered slopes down to the quartzose bed of the Medina. This latter-is again a cliff-maker, and generally projects from the bank, while the soft red shale below invariably produces a sloping talus-covered bank. Above the Clinton limestones is another slope and talus formed by the soft Rochester shale, above which a precipitous cliff is formed by the Lockport limestone. At the base of the cliffs, fallen rocks of the Clinton limestones are mingled with those from the overlying Lockport limestones, and care must be exercised in discriminating between these when col- lecting fossils. Halfway between the third and fourth watchman’s ret yoo NEAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY. . 99 shanties on the railroad, where the top of the Clinton limestone is on a level with the roadbed, this rock was formerly quarried on the river side, and here a good opportunity is afforded to collect fossils from the limestone fragments. Blocks of the various limestones are also seen by the side of the track between the second and third shanties. At the whirlpool on the Canadian side the Clinton limestones are seen in both banks of the old St Davids gorge, the section on the west showing glacial striae. Near the foot of the eastern wall of this old gorge and on the-talus heaps which flank it, are large masses of calcareous tufa often inclosing leaves, moss or other vege- table structures. These masses appear to come from the horizon of the Clinton limestone, though they have not been seen in place, and it is not improbable that a “petrifying spring” carrying a strong solution of carbonate of lime issues from this rock. Springs issue abundantly from between the two members of the Clinton limestone, and they carry lime in solution, as is indicated by the deposit of soft calcareous ooze on the rocks and other substances over which this water flows. On exposure to the atmosphere this ooze will dry and harden. The joint faces of the Clinton limestone are everywhere veneered over with a thin deposit of calcium car- bonate. Limestone lenses of the Clinton. At intervals in the upper Clinton limestone may be seen large lenticular masses of a compact, hard and apparently structureless limestone, often concretionary and not infrequently showing numerous smooth and striated surfaces of the ce type known as “ slickensides ”’ and which are indicative of shearing movements. One of these masses -is visible in the bank opposite the third watchman’s hut. Its greatest thickness is about 8 feet, and it lies between the upper limestone and the overlying shale, being partly embedded in both. The rock is often cavernous or geodiferous, the cavities when freshly broken being filled by snowy gypsum or grayish anhydrite. Fossils are abundant in this rock. Several other lenses of this type are visible in the upper Clinton limestone where it is crossed by the Rome, Watertown and Ogdens- burg railroad below Lewiston hights. These masses are however I0O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM entirely inclosed by the limestone, from which they are differen- - tiated by their structureless character. The lenses exposed on the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg road are rich in shells of orthoceratites and shields of trilobites (Illaenus ioxus), while the lens in the gorge yields chiefly brachiopods, the most abundant of which are the smooth Whitfieldellas, the small W. nitida and the larger W. oblata being the most common. The following species have been obtained from the lens in the gorge: Brachiopoda i Wola tieive Idee Isha) eats abundant 2 Wei it tue ane Opel ar bra: abundant 3 WW. tate miueidtiva common 4 Atrypa reticularis; specimens with strong, rounded bifurcating striae, noded at intervals by strong concentric striae, and apparently intermediate between the typical form of the species as it occurs in the Clinton and upper lime- stone and A. nodostriata, the most abundant form of the Rochester shales. 5 Atrypa nodostriata; rather common, convex ane more elongate than in the shale above, with the plications generally sharper and bifurcating near the front. The pedicle valve has a distinct sinus bordered by strong plica- tions, the corresponding fold being marked merely by strong plications. Anterior margin distinctly sinuate. The nodulations are not well preserved except in specimens from the shaly portions. 6 Atrypa rugosa; several small specimens, both valves very convex, with strongly defined sinus in pedicle valve, in the center of which is a small plication. Plications bifur- cate and also increase by intercalation; crossed by strong rugose lines. 7 Rhynchotreta cuneata americana rare 8 Camar erocehia neo hemi rare oA niaistrophianotier pl neare rare 10 Spirifer niagarensis; common, large and robust, with long hinge line and moderately high area, and strongly incurved beak. The sinus is flanked by two stronger plica- tions and extends to the beak. The plications are flattened on top. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY IOL Pontier radiatus; common but generally crushed; with an extended hinge line and form and proportions similar to the preceding species. The striae are fine and flat on top with very narrow interspaces altogether very similar to those covering the plications of S. niagaren- sis. A scarcely defined plication appears on each side of the sinus in some specimens, and in these the sinus is rather sharply defined and angular at the bottom. In others the sinus is shallow rounded and not definitely outlined by incipient plications. In the more elongated specimens the cardinal angle is well defined, but in the shorter specimens it is rounded. i(eopiriter crisp us rare ig@spiriter sulcatus fake imeeeaimanetla elecantula ; rare and with greater con- vexity than that of the specimens in the overlying shale. fie ctLambonites transv.ersalis rare iweeptaena rhomboidalis rare Wester opheodonta corrugata rare toeOrthnothetes subplanus rare Mmesttophonella patenta rare Gastropoda 20 Platyostoma niagarensis rare Trilobites 21 Illaenus ioxus; fragments of caudal and cephalic shields crowded together into masses sometimes of cousiderable size. w2e@atymene blumenbachi rare Bryozoa 23 Lichenalia concentrica ; common in very irregular and much distorted masses. Corals wim meerolasina caliculus common Crinoids 25 Eucalyptocrinus; fragments of root stem and calyx. In the lenses below Lewiston hights the same species ex- CepmMmMOsun2. 9 ..0, 10, 14, 15. 17 10 20 and 25 have been opie kMVvMeh Orme ta Cuneata americatma has more the features of the same species from the western Niagara than those of the Rochester shale species. 102 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Spirifer crispus is commonly deficient in plications approaching in this respect and in the character of the sinus, S. eriensis from the Manlins. limestone. “Ateype nodostriata is robust, convex, with coarse rounded plications and rather faint concentric striations, characters intermediate between. A. reticularis of the Climten and A.nodostriata of the Rochester shale. Besides these species and some not yet identified, the following | occur. Cephalopoda 20 Orttocerascan i ml aia 274). mve ducati e 1s) hare 28 /O. sp.- Pelecypoda 5 29 Mrordi0 Fo p sas che sit bia Vathuis 2 The origin of these lenses is still obscure. Many of the fossils found in them are characteristic of the Niagara group of the west, but are rare or wanting in the Niagaran of New York. This is specially the case with the trilobites (Iilaenms 10xWs))ame the cephalopoda. Dr E. N.S. Ringueberg many years ago studied these limestone masses as exposed at Lockport and other more eastern localities, and he termed them the “ Niagara transition group,”’.1: He found in this rock 32 Niagara species, “himspeetes common to the Clinton and Niagara, two species found otherwise only in the Clinton, and two species not found outside of this rock. The origin and significance of these unique deposits are being care- fully studied by the state paleontologist. Rochester shale The Rochester (Niagara) shale has a total thickness of about 68 feet in the gorge of the Niagara. It is here divisible into a lower and an upper half. The lower portion is a highly fossiliferous shale with numerous limestone bands, and terminates in a series of thin calcareous beds with shaly partings in all about 4 feet thick, and extremely rich in bryozoa. The upper 34 feet are quite barren and have few limestone layers. ‘Am, nat! 1882. 6271115; ‘aSpliq eq} JO (q10U) Je], 9G} 0} BdUBISIP JOYS BV WMOYS si AJUBYS YANO oYL AON OY} PUB ‘MOOG UMOTS SI PvOl-aS10s5 oy ‘a[OT S,[IA0q 94} JO JOU soURISIP JAOYS BV YULq YIOX MON 9} JO GT 948Id ‘o[PPIUL 9} IVSOU IND PvOATIBI [VI}JUDD YIOg ab MOLA NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 103 Lower shales. The beds immediately succeeding the Clinton lime- stone are calcareous shales with frequent thin limestone layers. The latter are the most fossiliferous, being in general entirely made up of organic remains. The calcareous beds of the lower 5 or Io feet are particularly rich in crinoid remains. Chief among these or- -ganisms, on account of its abundance and perfection, is the little mien otephanocrinus ornatus, which may be found in most of the calcareous layers. Fragmentsof Eucalyp- tocrinus are always common, while the characteristic Niagara cystoid Caryocrinus ornatus is also found; though not so abundantly as in the upper part of the lower division. The most abundant brachiopod of the lower shales is Whitfieldella nitida oblata, similar to the specimens found in the lime- Stone lenses, Ihe little Orthis, Dalmanella elegantula, is also common, ranging throughout the lower division of the shales. Spirifer niagarensis is common above the lowest 3 or 4 icerorgue shale. Orthothetes subplanus, a large, sub- semicircular and nearly flat brachiopod, is abundant in some of the calcareous layers, which at times seem to be composed of it, so thickly are these shells piled one on the other. Atrypa nodo- striata is the commonest representative of the genus, the larger A. reticularis, so abundant in the upper Clinton, being com- paratively rare and subordinate in development. In the limestone bands A. nodostriata is usually rotund, but in the shaly beds it is most commonly compressed. Trilobites are comparatively rare in these lower shales, though representatives of all the species found in this region have been obtained from them. Bivalve molluscan shells are also uncommon, but the gastropods, Diaphor- Srotmnd —tiagarense and Platyceras ate not inire- quent. Some of the calcareous bands are almost barren of organic re- mains, but in most cases these beds will be found to constitute the chief repositories of the fossils. Bryozoa beds. A short distance south of the third watchman’s hut, the section comes to an end, being for some distance replaced by a soil-covered and more or less wooded bank. Where the section 1O4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ends the upper Clinton limestone is only a few feet above the road- bed, and the shale above it is accessible. 29 to 30 feet above the top of the limestone, a group of calcareous beds rich in bryozoa project from the bank, being readily traceable for some distance on account of their compact nature. Their total thickness is about 4 feet, and they consist of numerous thin limestone layers with shale part- ings of greater or less thickness. On the weathered surfaces of the limestone layers, the bryozoans stand out in relief, and such surfaces will often be found completely covered with these delicate organ- isms. The cylindric types prevail, but the frondose forms are also common. With them occur brachiopods and other organisms. Slabs of this rock are often found on the talus slopes, and they are among the most attractive objects that meet the collector’s eye. The section begins again, after an interruption of perhaps a quarter of a mile, near the old quarry in the Clinton limestone. (Plateaus Between the river and the railroad are several mounds of shale, which were left in place when the railroad cut was made. These are subject to disintegration, and the fossils in consequence weather out. “They may be picked up on these mounds completely weathered out, and often in perfect condition. The best of these mounds is about halfway between the old Clinton limestone quarry and the fourth ‘watchman’s hut. Here the top of the mound is on the level of the top of the Bryozoa beds, the whole thickness of which is therefore in- cluded in this remaining mass. As these beds are extremely fossili- ferous, this mound is a productive hunting ground.t ; An equally productive locality for weathered-out fossils is the slope of disintegrated shale rising from the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg railroad tracks above Lewiston hights. The best hunt- ing ground is in the little gullies made by the rivulets of rain water in the bank. Some glacial till is here mingled with the clay from the decomposed shales, and it requires a little attention to dis- tinguish the two. *The fossils here obtained are extremely delicate and brittle. They should be placed at once on layers of cotton batting, in a small box and covered with similar material, the box being completely filled. This is the only way in which many of these delicate fossils can be carried away with- out breaking. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 105 Upper shales. Above the Bryozoan beds the shale is soft, and more evenly and finely laminated, splitting often into thin slabs of moderate size. Hard calcareous beds are generally absent, though occasionally found near the top. The stratification and lamination is much more strongly marked in this than in any other division of this rock. When freshly broken, the shale has a brownish earthy color, which changes to grayish when the rock decomposes to clay. Fossils are rare, those found being seldom well preserved. In most cases the shells are dissolved away, leaving only the impressions of the fossil, which from compression become faint, and are not readily tecognized without careful scrutiny. The most common remains found in these rocks are bivalve mollusks (pelecypods) and tri- lobites. Among the former Pterinaea emacerata is memest abundant, while Dalmanites limulurwus is the chief among the trilobites of these beds. Other trilobites also occur in these shales, notably Homalonotus delphinocepha- lus, as well as a number of brachiopods. Toward the top fossils become rarer, and finally are wanting al- together. The shale becomes more heavy bedded, and calcareous layers begin to increase. The last 10 feet or more are quite calcare- ous and compact, and have an irregular fracture. They grade up- ward into the basal layers of the Lockport (Niagara) limestone. Lockport (Niagara) limestone The limestone which succeeds the Rochester or Niagara shales forms the summit rock of the series from the edge of the Niagara escarpment to south of the falls. It consists of a number of dis- tinct strata, of varying characters, most of them very poor in organic remains. The total thickness exposed in the Niagara region is not over 130 feet, but borings show that the thickness of the limestone lying between the Rochester shale and the Salina shales is from 200 to nearly 250 feet. Some of the upper beds of this limestone mass may represent the Guelph dolomite and others may belong to the base of the Salina beds. Nevertheless we may confidently assume that the thickness of the Lockport limestone in this region, is at least 150 feet. 106 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Hydraulic cement beds. 1) The lowest stratum of the series is a hard, compact, bluish gray silicious limestone, weathering whitish on the exposed faces, and breaking into numerous irregular frag- ments larger near the bottom of the stratum but becoming small, angular and subcubical near the top, where the weathering is similar to that obtaining in the upper parts of the shales. This stratum varies from 7 to 8 feet in thickness being in places divided into two tiers, the upper one, 4 feet thick, appearing as a distinct bed. This weathers to a creamy gray color, and breaks into small angular fragments with no regularity of fracture, and independent of the plane of stratification. On some of the weathered edges of this rock irregular stratification lines are visible, giving the beds the appearance ofa fine grained sandstone. Occasionally small geoditic cavities occur lined with dolomite or gypsum. The line of contact between this stratum and the underlying shale is an irregular one, the shale surface having a wavy character. 2) This rock is succeeded by a 4 foot stratum of arenaceous lime- stone which shows no well marked stratification lines on the weathered surfaces, though in places a distinct cross-bedding struc- ture appears. It peels off in irregular slabs parallel to the cross- section, 1. e. at right angles to the stratification plane. Near the top of this stratum are a few thin beds which show the finer stratification structure on the weathered edges, the character of this structure being such as is found in fine grained sandstones. Both these strata appear to be wholly destitute of fossils. It is not improbable however that the scattered geodes represent the places where corals or crinoids occurred, which have subsequently been altered or dissolved out. Aside from this, there is no evidence that this rock ever was fossiliferous, and it is most probable that it represents the accumulation of fine calcareous mud or sand. Crinoidal limestone. 3) The compact hydraulic rock is abruptly succeeded by a stratum of highly crystalline limestone, on the weathered surfaces of which joints of crinoid stems and other organ- isms stand out in relief, particularly in the lower part of the stratum. The rock is entirely composed of fragments of organisms which were ground up and mingled together in great profusion. Oblique ee a Te ee a NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 107 bedding lines may be observed occasionally, indicating that the fragments were subject to wave .action. The stratum varies in thickness from 5 to 6 feet, and is occasionally divided by horizontal sutures which show a marked stylolitic structure similar to that found in the crystalline upper Clinton limestone. The contact be- tween this and the underlying stratum is wavy. This rock has been quarried at Lockport under the name of Lockport marble. Geodiferous limestones. The crinoidal limestone is succeeded by strata all of which are more or less geodiferous, though varying con- siderably in composition and structure. 4) The rock immediately following on the crinoidal bed is a 4 foot stratum of compact, gray fossiliferous limestone, the fossils being of a fragmentary character. Stratification struc- ture is well marked on the weathered surfaces, specially in some of the lower beds of the stratum. Sometimes there is only one thick bed, at others the stratum consists of a number of thin beds with a heavy one near the center. The thin beds show the stratification structure best, having at the same time a strongly granular character. As the fossils are fragmentary, and only ac- cessible on the weathered surfaces, little is known of the organisms that constitute it. Crinoid joints occur, but they are less character- istic of this than of the lower stratum. Geodes however are not uncommon, the cavities being lined with crystals of pearl spar (dolo- mite) or filled with masses of snowy gypsum. 5) The fifth stratum of limestone in this series is a finely crystal- line magnesian rock, like the others destitute of fossils except in so far as these are represented by geodes. The latter are common and filled with alabaster, or sometimes with massive or crystallized anhydrite. The latter is distinguished from the crystallized gypsum or selenite, which it closely resembles, and which occasionally occurs in the same beds, by the cleavage, which is rectangular and nearly equally perfect in three directions in anhydrite, while it is perfect in one direction only in the selenite. 6) A finely crystalline, somewhat concretionary dolomitic lime- stone, 3 feet thick, next succeeds, the weathered sectional surfaces of which, buff in color, show the fine stratification structure, which 108" NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM is of the type of the cross-bedding structure in sandstone. Such structure indicates that the bed possessing it was a fine calcareous sand, subject to shifting movements by waves and deposited in moderately shallow water. We need look for organic remains in such a rock with no more assurance of finding them than we bring to the examination of uniform bedded shales. They may be abun- dant or they may be rare or absent altogether. Thus a limestone need not be necessarily a fossiliferous rock. Geodes of the usual type are common, the dolomitic lining pre- dominating. : 7) On the preceding thin stratum follows a limestone mass of very uniform character, hardly separable into district strata, though con- sisting of numerous beds.t 27 feet of this stratum are shown at the quarry near the northern end of the section, where the upper ex- posed bed forms the surface rock of the plateau above. The beds are generally of considerable thickness, but the fine stratification structure is not so well marked as in the strata below. The rock may be considered a compact granular dolomite, in which consider- able change has taken place since its original deposition. It is ofa grayish color but weathers to a lighter tint. Geodes are plentiful, often quite large, and in these, minerals of great beauty are not infre- quently found. The most common are the snowy variety of gyp- sum or alabaster, the darker gray, massive, fine anhydrite and the uniform, fine, dolomite rhombohedra with curved faces, generally of a pinkish tint and familiarly known as pearl spar. Long slender crystals of calcite, generally in the form known as scalenohedra, or dogtooth spar, are not uncommon. These are commonly ofa golden color, and large enough to show well their crystal faces. In the new power tunnel which was excavated in the neighborhood of the falls, large masses of transparent gypsum of the selenite variety were found in cavities in this rock. Some of these pieces were 6 inches in length. Masses of limestone lined with pinkish dolomite crystals and occasional large masses of silvery selenite, and set with 1The distinction between stratum and bed is an important one. A stratum is a rock mass having throughout the same lithic character, and may be thick or thin. A bed, on the other hand, is that portion of a stratum limited by horizontal separation planes. See Geology and paleontology of Eighteen Mile creek pt 1. Introduction. . . ee — NIAGARAY PALUS AND* VICINITY ele) amber crystals of calcite, were also found in these cavities, the com- bination being such as to produce specimens of great beauty. Among the rarer minerals found in this rock is the crystallized and cleavable anhydrite, which like gypsum is a sulfate of calcium, but without the water which is characteristic of that mineral. Anhydrite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, and its cleavage is in three directions, at right angles to each other (pinacoidal), thus yielding rectangular fragments and enabling one to distinguish it from selenite with little difficulty. It is also a trifle harder than selenite which is easily scratched with the finger nail. This form of anhy- drite is rather rare, the principal localities for it being foreign. Masses of considerable size have been found in the limestone of this quarry, and small pieces are not uncommon in the geodes of these strata. Both selenite and the cleavable anhydrite are commonly called “ mica” by the uninitiated; that mineral however does not occur at Niagara. Small masses of fibrous gypsum or satin spar have been found, but these are very rare. The satin spar of which the cheap jewelry sold in the curiosity shops is made is not from Niagara. Among the metallic minerals found in this rock, zinc blende or sphalerite is most common. It is generally of a yellowish or light brownish color and brilliant resinous luster. Large masses how- ever are rare. Galenite or lead sulfid crystals are also occasionally found, but this mineral is comparatively rare. In addition to these, iron pyrite, iron-copper pyrite (chalcopyrite), green copper carbonate {malachite), fluor spar (fluorite), iron carbonate or brown spar (siderite, generally ferruginous dolomite), strontium sulfate (celes- tite) and native sulfur as well as other minerals are met with. The total thickness of the limestone exposed in this section is thus somewhat more than 55 feet. At Lewiston hights, on the edge of the escarpment, only about 20 feet are exposed. This includes the two lower strata of hydraulic limestone, the crinoidal limestone and a few feet of the lowest geodiferous beds (stratum 4). Over this lie some two or three feet of glacial till. The distance between the edge of the escarpment and the quarry at the end of the section. is a little over a mile and a half, the increase in thickness of the IIO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM limestone and the rate of dip (since the surface is about level) is therefore a trifle less than 25 feet in the mile. The crinoidal limestone is the most prominent stratum on the edge of the escarpment. From its base springs of cold and clear water issue at numerous places along the outcrops, both on the edge of the escarpment and in the gorge. The most prominent of these is at the head of “ Milk cave” or St Patrick’s falls, and here as almost everywhere at the base of the crinoidal limestone, shallow caverns abound. One of these caverns near the head of the falls, has a depth of 35 or 40 feet and is high enough to permit one to walk upright. No stalactites are found in these caverns, but the walls are much disintegrated and in places covered with a fine residual sand. In the fields above this cavern are several sink holes of moderate depth, which serve as catchment basins for the waters of the sur- rounding country, which issue from these caverns during the wet seasons. The cavern known as the Devil’s hole belongs to this category. As in the other caverns, the roof is formed by the crystalline crin- oidal limestone (stratum 3), the cavern itself being hollowed out in the hydraulic cement rock. This cavern is deeper than most others, and at the end a spring of deliciously cool water issues from between. ‘ b) the two beds, the upper “spring line” of this region. There is no evidence that the cavern extended any deeper than it does at present, nevertheless the spot is worth visiting, as it is the only accessible one of the numerous springs and caverns. The fall of the Bloody run at this place is over a thickness of almost 60 feet of limestone, and the chasm which this stream has worn is interesting both from its historic and scenic points of view.! i West of the Niagara river on Queenston hights several quarries have been opened in these limestones, some distance south of the edge of the escarpment. The rock quarried is the crinoidal lime- stone and overlying beds. The total depth of rock in the quarry is 27 feet, of which the lower 14 or 15 feet are bluish gray and the upper of a lighter gray color. The limestone is here much more uniform, crystalline throughout and more fossiliferous. This may 1See brief mention of- Bloody run massacre in Introduction. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY EGE indicate a nearness to the reef of growing organisms which supplied the material for these beds. Geodes lined with dolomite crystals occur in this rock, though not so plentifully as at the quarry in the gorge. Below the crystalline limestone is found the cement rock, which is from 4 to Io feet thick and is quarried in a tunnel under the limestone quarry. Owing to the resistant character, the limestone is everywhere ex- posed in the gorge, forming cliffs which are almost invariably per- pendicular. Large blocks of this rock cover the talus everywhere, one of the largest of these being “ Giant rock” along the gorge road. ‘This isa block of the upper geodiferous limestone which has fallen from above, and now lies with its stratification planes at an angle of about 45°. The limestones are well exposed along the gorge road, south of the railroad bridges, but without a special permit no one is allowed to walk on this roadbed. The contact between the limestone and the shale is here very irregular, indications of erosion of the shale prior to the deposition of the limestone occurring. The limestone ts also somewhat concretionary, rounded masses projecting down into the shales. The succession of strata is here as follows: - I Concretionary, irregularly bedded gypsiferous limestone, often earthy and with occasional thin, shaly layers; it splits readily into slabs perpendicular to the stratification. Thickness 6,8 feet. 2 Fine grained limestone with sandy feel, sometimes massive, sometimes in shattered layers with earthy or shaly partings, and Separated irom the underlying rock by an earthy layer. It weathers to an ashy or sometimes an ochery color, and varies some- what in thickness. The upper layer is however a solid and fine grained limestone. ‘Thickness 4-4.5 feet. Strata 1 and 2 are the equivalent of the cement beds. 3 Crystalline and crinoidal limestone abruptly succeeding the lower bed. It is massive though somewhat thin bedded and con- tains geoditic cavities filled with gypsum. This continues uniform for a thickness of about 19 feet. | 4 Compact limestone; concretionary with cavities containing gyp- sum and other minerals, and with sphalerite embedded in the rock. I12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The bedding and upper contact lines are irregular. Thick- ness 14-15 feet. | 5 Compact, finely crystalline and homogeneous dolomitic rock, showing traces of fossils and slickensides. Beds showing Stro- matopora common. In places the rock has a porous appear- ance and is rich in geoditic cavities, which are lined with dolomite and calcite crystals. Thickness 109 feet. This stratum forms the lower portion of the cliff at the first cut on the gorge road, and the basal part of the mass left standing on the river side. Heads of Stromatopora may be seen in this rock, some of the geoditic cavities having replaced this fossil. This is about the summit of the beds exposed in the quarry at the end ot the railroad section. 6 Earthy, compact dolomite in thin layers, which give the cliff the appearance of a stone wall. Toward the top the rock becomes more compact and heavy bedded, this giving the appearance of an overlying stratum. This rock is full of geodes lined with pearl spar or dolomite, the cavities ranging in size up to that of a fist or larger. The beds are generally less than a foot in thickness, the average being from 3 to 6 inches. Toward the top of the cut, the rock becomes more compact and finely crystalline, but otherwise remains similar. Pearl spar geodes remain common to the top. The thick- ness of this mass, at the beginning of the gorge road, is about 45 feet: The total thickness of the limestone exposed on the gorge road is in the neighborhood of 110 feet. This is double the thickness found at the quarry, the distance between the two points in a straight line being about three miles or nearly four following the curvature of the river. The rate of increase in thickness, or the amount of dip of the strata is therefore about 20 feet to the mile. | Almost the only recognizable fossils found in these limestones, excepting the crinoid fragments, are the hydro-coralline St roma- topora (concentrica Mall) and the coral Fa yositiece Both occur in the middle and upper portions of the exposed mass, and may generally be seen in the weathered upper surfaces of the limestone beds. Thus wherever these beds are exposed on the sur- NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY EES face, as at the whirlpool on the Canadian side, at the fall of Muddy brook, and near Clifton, these fossils are generally weathered out in relief. They are however not readily separated from the rock. Many of the geodes still show traces of coral structure, which is sometimes shown in the included gypsum. The limestone is well exposed in the cliff at Goat island, where it has a total thickness of about 110 feet. The contact between the shale and limestone can be seen near the entrance to the Cave of the Winds, where it is about a foot above the top of the stairs. The roof of the Cave of the Winds is formed by the crystalline crinoidal lime- stone, the same bed which forms the roofs of all the minor caverns along the gorge. The cement beds, about 10 feet thick, together with the 70 feet of Rochester shale, are removed by the spray to a depth of perhaps 30 or 40 feet, the floor of the cave being probably on the upper Clinton limestone, thus making the hight of the cavern 80 feet. Floored and roofed by resisting beds of crystalline limestone, this great cavern is a fit illustration of selective erosion by falling water on rocks of unequal hardness. The massive limestone which forms the vertical cliff of Goat island is 68 feet thick, its base being on a level with the foot of the Biddle stairway. The top of this cliff marks approximately the level of the falls on either side of Goat island, which therefore have a total thickness of nearly 80 feet of limestone, of which however the lowest 10 feet yield to erosion as does the underlying shale. We may thus say that at the falls there are 70 feet of resistant limestone on top, and 80 feet of yielding shales and limestones below. As the crest of the falls approximates 160 feet above the river below, at least Io feet of Clinton limestone are found above the water level. From the top of the vertical cliff at Goat island a sloping bank exposing thin bedded limestones, overlaid by about 10 feet of shell- bearing gravels, rises to a hight of about 4o feet, while on either side of Goat island these thin bedded. limestones form the rapids above the two falls. As the total hight of the rapids is about 50 feet, and, as they are formed along the strike of the beds owing to the right-angled turn in the river at this point, the thickness to be added to the known limestone mass is not over 50 feet, giving a total thickness of 130 feet of limestone exposed within this region. II4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Guelph dolomite This rock, named from its occurrence at Guelph (Ont.) about 75 miles northwest of Niagara falls, is, so far as known, absent from the Niagara district. As before noted, it may however be repre- sented in the buried hundred feet of limestone (more or less) which lie above the 130 feet of known rock, as shown by the borings in this region. Salina beds The basal beds of the Upper Siluric are the saliferous shales and calcareous beds of the Salina stage, so named from the salt-produc- ing village of Salina in Onondaga county. This is the horizon which furnishes all the salt, as well as the gypsum of New York state and the adjoining territory. In the Niagara region this forma- tion is not well exposed, owing to the soft character of the rock which has permitted deep erosion in preglacial times, and to the extensive drift deposits which cover it. The only known ex- posures on the Niagara are on Grand island and on the Canadian side of the river opposite North Buffalo. On Grand island the Salina rocks may be seen at Edgewater about 200 yards below the boat landing. Here the following section is exposed.t 3 Light colored, soft, friable gypseous shales, 5 feet 2 Greenish shales containing nodules of gypsum, 14 feet 1 Black shale in the river bed The exposure extends 300 yards down the river bank. At the extreme northern end of the island, where it divides the river, an impure, thin bedded limestone of this series is exposed. The exposures on the Canadian bank begin a short distance south of this, and extend to the International bridge, the rock here being a more or less gypsiferous shale. From the numerous borings in this region we have however gained a fair knowledge of the character and thickness of this rock, the latter averaging, according to Bishop, 386 feet. The best avail- able record of the rocks lying between the Waterlime and the Ni- agara series of limestones is the core of a well drilled on the land of the Buffalo cement co. in North Buffalo. This core, which has a *Bishop. 15th an. rep’t N. Y. state geologist. 1895. p. 311. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY bie GS length of 1305 feet, is now preserved in the museum of the Buffalo society of natural sciences, and from it the following succession of , strata can be demonstrated.1 { Waterlime above the mouth of the well, about ae Rondout | Shale and cement rock in thin streaks 25 waterlime | Tolerably pure cement rock 5 | Shale and cement rock in thin streaks 13 { Pure white gypsum 7 4 | Shale 2 | White gypsum 12 | Shale I | White gypsum 4 ie | Shale and gypsum mottled 7 Salina | Drab colored shale with several thin layers of | white gypsuin 58 Dark colored limestone 2 | Shale and limestone | Compact shale 3 | Gypsum and shale mottled and in streaks ap- ( proximating 290+ The gypsum of this formation has never been mined in this dis- trict, owing to the strong flow of water through these strata. No salt beds are found in the Salina of this region, though they are characteristic of the formation farther east. Salt water is however obtained. Fossils are very rare throughout these beds; none have been found in the exposures on the Niagara river. Rondout waterlime The Salina beds of this region grade upward into a magnesian limestone which contains a considerable amount of aluminium sili- cate. ‘The upper portion of this series, which in the Niagara region has a thickness of about 50 feet, is very uniform in character and suitable for the manufacture of hydraulic cement. In North Buf- falo, extensive quarries have been opened in this rock by the Buffalo *Pohlman. Cement and gypsum deposits in Buffalo. Am. inst. min. eng. Trans. Oct. 1888. 116 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cement co., and here a stratum nearly 6 feet thick is quarried and converted into cement. As the quarries are opened south of the second escarpment (inface of the Onondaga cuesta!), the surface rock of Onondaga limestone and the Manlius limestone have to be stripped off before the cement rock is reached. | The characters of the several strata have been briefly enumerated in the section derived from the gas well core. The upper beds, which are alone accessible in this region, may generally be seen in the escarpment, specially where it is crossed by streams, as at Will- iamsville, or where quarries have been opened. The rock is fine grained, often showing a marked banding or lamination, and breaks with a conchoidal fracture, producing rounded surfaces. In this rock we find entombed the remains of those remarkable crustacea, the Eurypterids, whose bizarre form, remotely fish-like, has excited more interest than any other fossil found in this region. These Crustacea have made the Waterlime of Buffalo famous, and the Buffalo society of natural sciences, whose collections embrace a magnificent series of these fossils, has fittingly adopted it as chief among its insignia. : Besides these crustacea several other organisms have been found in the Waterlime strata of north Buffalo. Among these are a num- ber of undescribed brachiopods, including at least one species of Pineau lar Manlius limestone The waterlime of north Buffalo is succeeded by a stratum of im- pure limestone from 7 to 8 feet in thickness and known locally by the name of “ bullhead”’ rock. The line of demarkation between the two formations is not a very pronounced one, for the inferior rock grades upward into the superior one. ‘The rock is a dolomitic lime- stone of a very compact semicrystalline character, with a high per- cent of argillaceous material, and not infrequently a strong petrol- eum odor. It is mottled, having frequently the appearance of a limestone breccia, and consists of purplish gray, angular or rec- tangular pieces and similar light colored and more yellowish ones. The latter appear to be more argillaceous than the former. There *See chapter I. en ee ee ee a NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 117 is no conclusive evidence that the rock is brecciated, nevertheless the coloration strongly suggests it. This rock is commonly very porous in its upper portion, the cavities being often lined with crystals of calcite or other minerals. The smaller of the cavities are due to the dissolving out of the small Pome yathophyllum hydraulicum, which was ex- ceedingly abundant in the upper part of the stratum. This coral is generally found in a prostrate position, with the mold perfectly pre- served in the inclosing rock matrix, so that a perfect cast of the coral can be obtained by the use of gutta percha or dentist’s wax. The best exposure of this rock is in the walls of the quarries of the Buffalo cement co. It may also be seen in the face of the Onon- daga escarpment at Williamsville and eastward. In many places in the cement quarries, the upper part of this limestone is rich in iron pyrites, which commonly occurs in small cubes, not infrequently oxidized to limonite. Green stains of hydrous carbonate of copper, or malachite, are not uncommon, these resulting probably from the decomposition of chalcopyrite, which is disseminated in minute grains through portions of the rock. Many of the geode cavities contain scalenohedra or acute rhombohedra of calcite, as well as sul- fate of strontian. A remarkable feature of the Manlius limestone of the Niagara re- gion is the nature of the fossil fauna which it contains. This fauna shows an intimate relation to the Corallire limestone fauna of Scho- harie county (N. Y.) a rock which is regarded the eastern equiva- lent of the Lockport (Niagara) limestone of this region. Several of the species found in the Manlius limestone of this region are identical with those of the Coralline limestone, while between other representative species of the two formations there exists a very close relationship. It is difficult to escape the conclusion that the Man- lius limestone fauna of the Niagara region is a late return of the Coralline limestone fauna, at the close of the long interval during which the Salina shales were deposited in the Siluric seas of this region. The Siluro-Devonic contact The Manlius limestone of the Niagara region is succeeded by the Onondaga limestone of Devonic age. The latter rests unconform- 118 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ably on the former, this unconformity being emphasized by the absence of all Lower Devonic strata in this region, with the excep- tion of thin lenses of sandstone which may be correlated with the Oriskany. The upper surface of the Manlius limestone is knotty and concretionary, producing minor irregularities, but in addition to these there are well marked traces of the erosion of these strata, prior to the deposition of the overlying beds. These traces are of the nature of channels and irregular truncations of the strata, the former in some cases assuming considerable importance. (Fig. 21-23) In the east wall of the quarry, not far from the stamp mill, the’ surface. of thre” MMiaialiiis limestone is strongly ex- arf, 31 Unconfommable contest between Mentlts Cavated, the excavation Delma mainly filled by beds of the Onondaga limestone. Be- tween the two limestones oc- curs a mass of shale and Fig. 22 Erosion of Manlius limestone prior to deposi- conglomerate having d, total tion of Onondaga limestone, Buffalo cement quarry. 5 ; om" thickness, in the central por- tion, of something over a foot. The lower 6 or 8 inches are a lime- stone conglomerate, the pebbles of which are fragments of the underlying limestones. These pebbles are flat, but well rounded on the margins, showing evidence of protracted wear. They are firmly embedded in a matrix of indurated quartz sand, which surrounds them and fills in all the interstices. This bed thins out toward the sides of the channel. On the con. glomerate lie about 6 inches of shale and shaly limestone, and these are succeeded by the Onondaga limestone. The width of the channel, which is clearly an erosion channel, is about 18 feet, and its depth is, about 34 feet.” (Fig. 23) From the point where this channel is seen, the contact can be traced continuously for a thousand feet or more eastward, along the quarry wall. It frequently shows a thin shaly bed, often containing quartz grains, lying between the two limestones. Not very far from the channel just described, a remarkable “sand- stone Uike ” penetrates the Siluric limestones of the quarry wall. Ne a NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY IIlg This dike, which can be clearly traced in the wall of the quarry for a distance of perhaps 30 feet in an east and west direction, was Fig. 23 Channel in Manlius limestone with Oriskany sandstone and conglomerate layers, capped by Onondaga limestone, Buffalo cement quarry. caused by the filling of an ancient fissure in the Siluric strata, by sands forcibly injected from above. The fissure had a total depth: of about 10 teet; its walls were very irregular, and at intervals lateral fissures extended in both directions. (See Fig. 24) All of these are now filled with pure quartz sand, firmly united into a quartzose sandstone by the deposition of additional silica in the interstices be- tween the sand grains. ONONPAGA ’ = Sea eee 4 ree Z = SS eS d Z — a ee ee ee a ee ———=. —— SBE =a ‘Fig. 24 Sandstone dike in the Siluric strata of the Buffalo cement quarries. (After Clarke) The dike penetrates the “bullhead” rock and enters the water- lime to a depth of from 2 to 3 feet. It is squarely cut off at the top, where the Onondaga limestone rests on its truncated end and on the limestone flanking it. The Onondaga limestone is entirely unaffected by the dike, being evidently deposited after the formation and truncation of this remarkable mass of sandstone. The width of I20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the filled fissure is scarcely anywhere over 2 feet, but the lateral offshoots extend many feet into the walls of Manlius limestone. These offshoots or rootlets of the dike are irregular, commonly nar- row, and often appear as isolated quartz masses in the Manlius or the waterlime rock, the connection with the main dike not being always discernible. Such masses of quartz sandstone have been traced for more than 30 feet from the dike. The irregularity of the walls of the fissure is very pronounced. Angular masses of lime- stone project into the quartz rock, while narrow tongues of sand- stone everywhere enter the limestone. Extensive brecciation of the limestone has occurred along the margin, and the sandstone there is filled with angular fragments of the limestone, which show no traces of solution or wear by running water. ‘These limestone frag- ments are themselves frequently injected with tongues of the quartz sand. Microscopic examination shows evidence of a certain amount of shearing along the margin of the dike, accompanied by a pul- yerizing or trituration of the limestone, and followed by reconsoli- dation. These and other features point to a cataclysmic origin of the fissure which contains the dike and a more or less violent in- jection of the sand. The fissure must have been formed and filled before the deposition of the Onondaga limestone and while the Man- lius limestone was covered by a stratum of unconsolidated sand. The formation of the fissure and the injection of the sand into it from above must have occurred simultaneously; for this appears the only way to account for the inclusion of large fragments, or “horses”, of the wall rock in the loose sand, and the injection of the sand into all the cracks and crevices. It seems probable that the fissure records an earthquake shock during the period interven- ing between the close of the Siluric age and the deposition of the Devonic limestones. This is borne out by the occurrence of numer- ous small faults or displacements in the underlying strata of water- lime. Devonic strata The Lower Devonic is represented in the Niagara region by the thin beds of shale and sandstone before mentioned as occupying erosion hollows in the Manlius limestone. These are perhaps the NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY I2ZI equivalent of the Oriskany sandstone of eastern New York, though no fossils have been found in them. With the exception of these layers the Lower Devonic strata are wanting in this region. The Middle Devonic is however well represented in the Niagara. region by the Onondaga limestone. ‘This rock, which, as has been shown, rests in most cases directly on the Manlius limestone, con- sists of a lower crystalline and highly fossiliferous portion, and an upper mass full of layers of hornstone or chert which on weathered surfaces stand out in relief. This part of the formation is generally known as the Corniferous limestone, in reference to the layers of chert which make the rock unfit for other use than rough building. Owing to the presence of the hornstone, this rock effectually re- sists the attacks of the atmosphere, and hence its line of out- crop is generally marked by a prominent topographic relief feature, the second escarpment of western New York i. e. the inface of the Onondaga cuesta. The chert-free lower member of this formation varies greatly in thickness even within a limited territory. It is in places extremely rich in corals, and outcrops of this rock show all the characteristics of an ancient coral reef. History of the Niagara region during Siluric time We have now gathered data for a brief synopsis of the history of this region during Siluric time. Much still remains to be learned, but from what is known we can trace at least in outline the sequence of geologic events which characterized that ancient era of the earth’s history in this vicinity. When the Siluric era opened, New York, with portions of Penn- sylvania and southern Ontario, was covered by the shallow Medina eee is sea appears to have been of the nature of a mediter- _ ranean body of water, which later changed to a bay opening toward the southwest. This “Bay of New York”, as we shall call it, came into existence by the orogenic disturbances which marked the transi- tion from the Ordovicic to the Siluric era, and as a result of which the Taconic mountain range, with the Green mountains and the corresponding Canadian ranges, were elevated. This cut off the 122 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM : communication between the open Atlantic and the interior Paleozoic sea which existed during Ordovicic time. ‘This bay was thus sur- rounded by old-lands on the north, east and southeast, and its waters appear to have been very shallow. We do not know just what the conditions were under which the early Siluric deposits of this region were made; for the lower beds are so barren of organic remains, that we are forced to look for evidences other than that furnished by fossils, of the physical conditions during this period. It.is not improbable that the waters of the early Medina sea were cut off from the ocean at large, at least sufficiently to prevent a free communication. This may not have been the case at first; for Ar- throphycus harlani flourished in these waters during the deposition of the Oswego beds,! and this species characterizes the rocks of late Medina age, during the deposition of which we have reason to suppose that a junction of the Medina sea with the ocean at large had been effected. Along the eastern and southeastern margin of this interior water body were deposited the thick beds of conglomerate, which now constitute the capping rock of the Shawangunk and other ranges of hills, while farther west, at a distance from the source of supply, the Oswego sandstone was accumulating. Later the character of the deposit changed in this region, from the gray silicious sands to the impalpable muds and fine sands of the lower Medina. What- ever the source of these sands, ferruginous matter was plentiful, as shown by the red color of the deposits, and this leads to the sup- position that they were derived from the crystalline rocks of the Adirondacks and the Canadian highlands and not from Ordovicic or Cambric deposits. | ae It is not improbable that, during the early Medina epoch, the waters of this basin were of a highly saline character. No deposits _ of salt were formed, or if these existed, they were subsequently leached out. The Medina beds are however rich in saline waters, _ salt springs being common throughout this region,? and this may *This species is found in the eastern part of the district, at the base of the Oneida conglomerate. 2In the early part of the century salt was not infrequently manufactured from these springs. Pau NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 123 indicate a high degree of salinity of the waters of the early Medina sea. If such was the case, it may liave been accompanied by a more or less arid climate, which favored the concentration of the sea , water. Thick beds of terrigenous material accumulated in the cen- ter of the Medina basin reaching in the Niagara region a thickness of over a thousand feet. These early deposits probably did not ex- tend far west for, though in northern Ohio and Michigan, Medina beds from 50 to 100 feet or more in thickness are known, these are probably to be correlated with the upper Medina of the Niagara region. Toward the close of the Medina epoch, the Siluric sea had en- croached on the lands to such an extent as to effect a junction with the Medina basin, whereupon normal marine conditions were again | established. This is indicated by the marine fauna and flora which characterize the upper Medina beds. The first deposit in this re- _gion, on the reestablishment of normal marine conditions, was the white quartzose sandstone which caps the red shale of the lower series. Mud and sand now alternated, indicating an oscilla- tion of conditions with numerous changes in the currents which distributed the detrital material. Thin beds of limestones also formed at rare intervals, chiefly from the growth of bryozoans in favorable localities. In the Bay of New York the waters continued moderately shallow, as shown by the well developed cross-bedding structure in the sandstones. At intervals large tracts seem to have been laid bare on the retreat of the tide, as indicated by the wave marks and other shore features which give the surfaces of some Medina sandstone slabs such a remarkable resemblance to a modern sand beach exposed by the ebbing tide. In fact, we may not in- aptly compare this stage of the Siluric bay of New York with the upper end of the modern bay of Fundy, where the red sands and muds are laid bare for miles on the retreat of the tide. After the last sandstone bed of the Medina stage had been de- posited, the water probably became purer and deeper, and the 6 feet of Clinton shales were laid down in the Niagara region. In the eastern part of the Bay of New York, sandstones were deposited even during the Clinton epoch, while the conditions favoring the deposition of limestone existed only during the short interval in I24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Niagara period, when the Coralline limestone of Schoharie was laid down. Westward, however, the adjustment of conditions went on more rapidly, and the Clinton limestones, with the calcareous shales and limestones of the upper Niagaran, became the charac- teristic deposits. During nearly the entire Niagara period life was abundant in the Siluric sea, and the Bay of New York had its mar- velous succession of faunas, which have made these strata the stand- ard for the Siluric beds of this continent. All the Siluric limestones of the Niagara section show characters pointing to a fragmental origin, and in this respect they contrast — strongly with the Devonic limestones in the southern part of the district. The latter, as before mentioned, show the characteristics of an ancient coral reef, and we may therefore assume that they were built up in situ by the polyps and other lime-secreting or- ganisms. Not so with the Siluric limestones. These, to be sure, were derived from similar deposits by lime-secreting organisms, but these deposits were originally made in a different place from that in which we find the limestones today. A sedimentary limestone or lime-sandstone is similar to a quartz sandstone or a shale, in that the material of which it is formed is the product of erosion of pre- existing rocks. In the case of the quartz sandstone, this is gen- erally an inorganically formed rock, while the sedimentary lime- stones are most usually derived from organically formed rocks. In the former case, the source of the material is often a distant one, while in the latter it is generally, though not necessarily always, close at hand. A coral reef growing in moderately shallow water is attacked by the waves, as are all rocks which come within their reach. Erosion results, and the product of this activity is carried away and deposited on the ocean floor as a calcareous sand. Thus stratified deposits-of limestones are formed, whereas in the original organic reef, no stratification is to be expected. In the immediate neighborhood of the growing reef, the beds of calcareous sand will slowly envelop the original deposit from which they were derived, and thus the source of supply is chiefly the upper growing portion of the reef. On the lime-sandstone strata which flank the reef, in- dependent masses of coral may at times grow, while other or- NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 125 ganisms, such as mollusks and brachiopods, will also find this a convenient resting place. Thus the organically formed limestone masses and the fragmental limestones will interlock and overlap each other around the borders of a growing reef. It follows then that in the neighborhood of the growing coral masses the sands derived from their destruction will be coarser, the finer material being carried farther out to sea, and deposited at a distance from the source. Thus an approximate criterion for the determination of the distance of any given bed of calcareous sand from its place of origin is furnished. If deposits of such calcareous sand are made in shallow water, cross-bedding and ripple marks will be found just as in the quartz sands, and, as we have seen, the former structure is characteristic of most of the strata of Lockport limestone exposed in the gorge section at Niagara. It may be added that, as the organic limestone will continue to form as long as the conditions are favorable, the supply of calcareous sand is practically inex- haustible. Hence thick beds of such lime-sandstones may form. In the Niagaran seas the chief reef-building corals were Favo- sities, Halysites and Heliolites, together with the hy- dro-coralliine Stromatopora. Bryozoans also added largely to the supply of organically formed limestone of the various reefs. But perhaps the most important contributors in this connection were the crinoids and related organisms, which may at times have constituted reefs of their own. Their abundance is testified to by the frequent thick beds of limestone, which are almost wholly made up of broken and worn crinoid fragments. The crinoids fell an easy prey to the waves, for, on the death of the animal, the calyx, arms and stem would quickly fall apart into their component sections, and hence yield fragments readily transported by the waves. In the case of the corals and the shells, which latter probably formed no unimportant part of the organic contributions to the reefs, the work of grinding the solid limestone masses into a sand probably required the aid of tools, such as large blocks that could be rolled about by the waves, or it may have been aided by the omnipresent reef-de- stroying organisms. The infrequency of exposure of the fossil reefs, which furnished the calcareous sand, need not disturb us. We must remember that 126 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the actually exposed sections of these limestone strata are very few when compared with the great extent of the beds themselves. It must also be borne in mind, that vast portions of these limestone beds have been removed by erosion during the long post-Siluric time. When we realize that the actual reefs must have been widely scattered in the Niagara sea, and that our sections through these strata are random sections, we need feel no surprise at the unsatis- factory character of these exposures. It must however be added that sections farther east, as at Lockport or other localities, gen- erally show much more of the reef character of the deposit, the corals in these being correspondingly abundant. The upper geodiferous beds of the limestone at Niagara were probably much more fossiliferous than the lower. As before mentioned, the geode cavities most likely are the result of alteration or solution of some fossil body, probably a coral. Though fossils may have been plenti- ful, none of these beds, so far as examined, show the characteristics of true reefs. They have more the aspect of beds of coral sand, on which isolated heads of corals and other organisms grew rather plentifully. During the dolomitization of these limestone beds, which was probably brought about by chemical substitution before the con- solidation of the coral sand, many of the fossils which were included in these sands probably suffered alteration and more or less com- plete destruction. Thus it will be seen that even the few organisms which were embedded in these coral sands, did not survive the sub- sequent changes, and thus the barrenness of these great limestone masses appears to be fully accounted for. The fossiliferous char- acter of the upper Clinton limestone, as well as the coarseness of the calcareous fragments of which it is composed, points to a near- ness of this rock to the source of the material; for in the vicinity of the coral and crinoid reefs the food supply for other organisms would be most abundant, and hence these would develop most pro- lifically in such a neighborhood. A careful comparative study of the Niagaran deposits of New York and those of the middle states has brought out some im- portant and interesting facts. These may be summed up in the NIAGARA FALLS, AND “VICINITY hy statement, that the New York fauna is more individualized, show- ing,characteristics stamping it in some degree as a provincial fauna. The Niagaran fauna of the central states however is more closely allied to the European Mid-Siluric fauna than to that of New York state, from which we may conclude that the pathway of communi- cation between the American and European Siluric seas was not by way of New York, a conclusion which is in entire harmony with those derived from the physical development of this region and the characteristics of the strata. : | Weller! has collected data which indicate that the pathway of migration of faunas between the two continents was by way of the arctic region. According to Weller’s interpretation of the facts, there é existed in North America during Siluric time a north polar sea with a great tongue stretching southward through Hudson bay to about latitude 33°. There were doubtless islands standing above sealevel within this great epicontinental sea; and at the latitude of New York there was a bay reaching to the eastward, in which the Siluric sediments of the New York system were deposited. Labra- dor, Greenland and Scandinavia were in a measure joined into one great land area, though perhaps with its continuity broken, with a sea shelf lying to the north of it and another to the south. An- other epicontinental tongue of this northern sea extended south into Europe, bending to the west around the southern part of the Scan- dinavian land and connecting with a Silurian Atlantic ocean. The sea shelf to the north of the Labrador-Scandinavian land was a means of intercommunication between northern Europe and the in- terior of North America, and the sea shelf to the south of this land was a pathway between England and eastern Canada.” That por- tion of North America lying to the west of a line drawn from the Mississippi to the Mackenzie appears to have been dry land during the Niagara period, and connected with the Appalachian land on the east by the westward trending axis of the latter in the southern United States. At the close of the Niagara period, there appears to have been an elevation of the continent which converted the Bay of New York oNat inst ssuc. Chicaso acad. sci. bul, 4 and jour. geol.. 4:692-703: 128 NEW YCRK STATE MUSEUM and the greater part of the interior Siluric sea into a vast partially or entirely inclosed basin. This elevation appears to have been accompanied by climatic desiccation which brought about. a rapid evaporation of the waters and a consequent increase in salinity. Thus this great interior water body was changed from a richly peopled mediterranean, to a lifeless body of intensely saline water, a veritable Dead sea. As the concentration of the brine con- tinued, deposition of gypsum began, and later on the extensive beds. of rock salt of this formation were laid down. Some of these salt beds in Michigan are reported to be a thousand) deer memos but none of the New York beds approach this thickness. The clas- tic strata of the Salina series were probably derived from the de- struction of the sediments which were formed during the early periods of the Siluric and during preceding periods. This would account for the presence of limestone beds in deposits formed in a lifeless sea. All these limestones were more or less mixed with clayey sediments; they may in fact be regarded as consolidated ar- gillo-calcareous muds derived from older limestones and shales. This is the character of the Waterlime and Manlius limestone which succeed the Salina beds, and which, though fossiliferous, could have: no other source of origin than preexisting limestone beds. The Waterlime has been regarded as a fresh-water formation. It is more likely however that it represents a return of marine condi- tions through the opening of channels between this interior basin and the ocean at large. This is indicated by the fauna, which in- cludes undoubted marine forms. Whether this connection was through the old northern channel, or whether a new channel toward. the east was opened is not apparent. The former is indicated by the character of the Manlius limestone which succeeds the Waterlime,. and which in the Niagara region has features associating it with the corresponding deposits of Ohio, Michigan and Ontario, rather than its eastern equivalents. Whatever the nature of the transgres- sion of the sea which took place in the late Siluric, it was not of long duration. The epoch of the Manlius limestone and with it the Siluric era were brought to a close with the withdrawal of all the waters from this portion of the continent, which thereafter for caer. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY I29 a long period of time remained above the sea. During this time, the Helderbergian and other Lower Devonic strata were deposited in the Appalachian region, which by that time had established a southern connection with the open Atlantic. Finally, toward the middle of the Devonic era, the sea once more transgressed on the abandoned continent, and again all this region was covered byoceanic waters. On the land surface of early Devonic times, now grew corals in great luxuriance; and reefs of great ex- tent, with their accompanying deposits of coral sands, and their wealth of new life, again characterized the interior Paleozoic sea. It was not till long ages after, that this portion of the continent was again raised above the sea. This last elevation, which took place toward the close of Paleozoic time, was a permanent one, with the ex- ception of a possible slight resubmergence of some parts of thisregion after the close of the glacial period. With the last great emergence of the land were inaugurated those long cycles of erosion outlined in chapter I, which resulted in the formation of the great topo- graphic features of this region, and which came to a close only with the envelopment of this region in the snow and ice of the great glacial winter. 1 Be 0 es NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Chapter 4 FOSSILS OF THE NIAGARA REGION! PLANTS The Paleozoic marine plants or seaweeds are generally classed together as “ fucoids ”, a term denoting a relation of these organisms to the modern rockweed, Fucus, which fringes the rocks of our seacoast. These plants were probably algae, but it is impossible in most cases to make a more precise classification. The condition in which these remains are found today—-as a rule mere impressions or casts of the original—generally renders the determination of their affinities a hopeless task. In some remains the plant nature of the organism is even questionable. : ‘Genus BYTHOTREPHIS Hall [Ety.: Svdotpeg7s, growing in the deep] (Saja eal Nye S) Plant consisting of subcylindric or compressed stems, usually flat- tened on the rock surfaces and having numerous spreading branches, which in some species are leaf-like. Bythotrephis gracilis Hall (Fig. 25) (1852) Pal WS za pl. 5) 7 Distinguishing characters. Slender branches diverging at varying angles from a central stipe which not infrequently bifurcates. Ter- minations of branches round to pointed. "In this chapter only the Siluric fossils of the Niagara region will be considered, those of the Devonic limestones, which border this region on the south being so numerous that they must be reserved for a future pub- lication. No attempt is made to add to the number of known species of Siluric fossils of the Niagara region. Of described species those only which have been found in this region or recorded in the literature as coming from it have been included, with the addition of such species from neighboring localities as occur there abundantly, and may reasonably be expected to occur in the Niagara sections. An exhaustive study of the Niagara fauna of western New York has still to be made. In chapter 5 a complete account of all the post-Pliocene shells so far found in the Niagara gravels is given, this being the first time that these shells are described and illustrated. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY eee These organisms occur as mere impressions on the rock surfaces, ." varying in slenderness of branches from less than I mm to 5 mm (varieties intermedia and crassa). Fig. 25 Bythotrephis gracilis; showing varieties. a B. gracilis; b B. gracilis var. intermedia; ~ cB. gracilis var. crassa - Found in the shaly partings separating the thin beds of the lower Clinton limestone at Niagara. Bythotrephis lesquereuxi (rote « Pitt (Fig. 26) (1876. Buifalo soc. nat. be Bul. 3:38, 4:20, fig. 6) Distinguishing characters. Flattened, erect stem; sim- ple, sparingly dichotomous branches, 3-4 mm_ thick, gradually widening to near- ly I cm at the very obtuse or round truncate point; Fig. 96 Tythotrephis lesquereuxi 132 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM smooth surface; branches mostly simple from the base 13-14 cm long. | Found in the cement beds of the Waterlime, Buffalo (N. Y.) (Grote & Pitt) Genus ARTHROPHYcus Hall [Ety.: a0pov, a joint; goxos, a seaweed] (@S52e5* Pal. a2) Stems simple or dividing at the beginning and remaining simple thereafter ; rounded or subangular, flexuous, transversely marked by ridges or articulations. Arthrophycus harlani (Conrad) (Plate 16) (1852. Pal. N..Y. 245, apie 1 aid 2) Distinguishing characters. Strong, rounded articulated stems, di- viding near the base into numerous elongated branches; simple, flexible, articulated branches which diminish in size very gradually. Found on the under side of certain sandstone beds in the upper part of the Medina in the Niagara section. Genus NEMATOPHYCcus Carruthers [Ety.: vaua, thread; gox0s , seaweed] (1872. Month. micro. jour.) Considered a gigantic alga, with cylindric branching stems, and a peculiar structure which led Dawson to refer it to the Coniferae under the name Prototaxites. ‘What resemble concenmic rings of growth and medullary rays appear; cells irregular, cylindric, thick walled. The specimens are generally silicified. Nematophycus crassus (Penhallow) (1896. Nematophyton crassum Penhallow. Can. record of science. July 1896, 7:151-56, pl} Distinguishing characters. Section showing numerous irregular round or oval medullary spots; large cells in groups, thick walled. The specimen is the basal portion of a stock showing root pro- cesses; length 56 cm, diameter at upper end 7.5 cm, widening toward base to 16.5 cm. ; Found in the Manlius limestone of North Buffalo. (F. K. Mixer) ({BUlSs110) paonper A[IYSITS ‘OUOSpUvS KUIpsyw Jeddn ‘peiu0op iuepaey snoAydoiyyary NTA eet NIAGARA crAL ILS AND * VICINITY 135 ANIMALS Class HYDROZOA Owen This class includes the simplest polyps, of which the fresh-water Hydra is an example. The body consists of a hollow tube, the walls of which are composed of two cellular layers, ectoderm and endoderm, with a non-cellular layer, the mesogloca, between them. These lay- ers meet at the mouth, which is the only opening into the gastric space inclosed by the body wall. Tentacles, furnished with nettle cells, surround the mouth. A few hydroids are simple forms, but the majority are united into colonies, which frequently assume a branching or tree-like char- acter, a polyp occupying the end of each branch. Reproduction is usually carried on by specially modified polyps, the gonopolyps, which produce jellyfish or medusae. These may remain attached to the colony or become free-swimming. Some hydroids are entirely unprotected, no hard structures being developed, and these consequently leave no remains. The majority of species, however, secrete a horny or chitinous covering, the peri- derm, which invests the whole stock, and in one group is expanded at the ends of the branches into cups or hydrothecae, into which the polyps can withdraw. This chitinous periderm may be preserved iiceiori Of a carbonaceous film (e.g. Dictyonema and iConmag t.© lites). Some hydroid colonies, i. e. the hydrocorallines, secrete at the base a dense calcareous covering, which has much the aspect of coral, and is irequently mistaken for that (ec. g. Millepora, Stromatopora). Most hydroid colonies are permanently at- tached to rocks, seaweeds, or other objects of support. Genus DICTYONEMA Hall [Ety.: dt&rvov, net; viva, thread] Cusseta NY 2 1774) Colony forming a network of anastomosing branches, the whole commonly flattened on the rock surface, but originally forming a funnel or fan-shaped expansion. The branches proceed from a common acute base, divide frequently, and are at intervals united again by transverse dissepiments. The outer surfaces of the branches are striated; the inner bear hydrothecae, though these are seldom seen in the flattened specimens. Dietyonema retiforme Hall. (Fig. 27) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:174, pl. 40F) = 134 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Distinguishing characters. Form circular or cup-shaped in grow- ing state; thin, flat, frequently bifurcating branches, united laterally by obliquely transverse filaments, leaving oblong quadrangular in- terstices; indented or obliauely and intermittently striated surfaces. Fig. 27 Dictyonema retiforme Found rarely in the lower part of the Rochester shales in the Niagara section; usually fragmentary. Abundant at Lockport and elsewhere. (Hall) Genus sTtRoMATOPORA Goldfuss [Ety.: orpd@pa, a covering; zdpos, a pore] (1826. -Petrefacta Germamae, p. 22) Skeleton forming hemispheric, globular or expanded masses com- posed of numerous concentric, undulating calcareous laminae, separ- ated by interspaces, and connected by radial pillars which unite with the thick concentric laminae and form a finely reticulate tissue, visible in cross-section. ‘Traversing the entire mass are sparsely scattered tubes which are divided by numerous tabulae or horizontal floors, and were occupied by the larger polyps of the colony. Base of entire skeleton covered by a wrinkled “ epitheca”’. Stromatopora concentrica Goldfuss Hall (Fig. 28) (1852, Pal. V2 126 ples) Distingmshing characters. Hemispheric or spheroidal form some- times irregular; thin concentric laminae, readily visible in weathered specimens, and scarcely of the thickness of writing paper; surface of laminae marked by. fine pores. -. fs t 1 NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY ie This coralline is generally very massive and may attain a diameter of 2 feet. Probably includes a number of distinct species. Fig. 28 Stromatopora concentrica Hall with an enlargement of a cross-section Found at Niagara in the Lockport limestone, particularly the geodiferous beds, and generally common throughout the middle limestones. Also at Lockport and elsewhere. Class ANTHOZOA Ehrenberg The Anthozoa, or coral polyps, are marine animals ranging from low water to 300 and sometimes even 1500 fathoms (Zittel). The reef-building types however do not flourish in depths greater than 50 fathoms, and are generally restricted to 20 fathoms or less. Both simple and colonial forms occur, the latter predominating at the present time, while the former were abundant in the Paleozoic. The two important types of Paleozoic corals are the “rugose corals” or Tetracoralla, and the tabulate corals, the former generally simple, the latter colonial types.t The simple rugose corallum is well represented by Entero- lasma. It consists of numerous radiating septa, disposed in several cycles, and united round their outer margins by a wall or theca (pseudotheca). This is formed by the lateral expansion or thickening of the septa in that region. The exothecal prolongations of the septa are visible on the exterior of the corrallum as costae, which are frequently represented by grooves instead of ridges. These, in the genus referred to, as well as in others, commonly show the peculiar tetrameral arrangement characteristic of the septa of this group. On or near the convex longitudinal surface of the corallum a median, or “ cardinal”, septum appears, from which the *As no true Hexacoralla occur in the formations treated of in these pages, an account of their structure is omitted. 130 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM secondary septa pass off in a pinnate manner (fig. 29). 90° toward either side occur the alar” septa. Nese are parallel iiomnume secondary septa which branch off from the cardinal septum. They have a single series of secondary septa branching off from them on the side away from the cardinal quadrants. The two remaining, or counter quadrants, are filled with parallel septa, which branch off, in a pinnate manner, from the alar septa, and are completed in front by the counter septum to which they are all parallel. One of the four “ primary septa’”—commonly the cardinal sep- tum—may be aborted, leaving a groove or fossula. Between the septa various endothecal tissues may be developed, such as cross plates, or dissepiments connecting adjoining septa; tabulae, or floors more or less completely dividing the whole inner space, irrespective of the septa; and cysts, which form a vesicular tissue more or less regularly disposed (Cystiphyllum). The cup or calyx may be limited below by a continuous floor, by dissepiments or otherwise, or it may be limited only by the margins of the septa, the spaces between the septa being open to the bottom of the corallum. The costae are commonly covered by a concentrically wrinkled epitheca, which forms the outermost -wall of the corallum. In colonial forms the adjacent corallites commonly become pris- matic from crowding. The separate thecae may be retained, or they may become obsolete, the corallites becoming confluent. The epithecal covering in these forms is commonly confined to the free margins of the outer corallites, and surrounds the whole colony as . a peritheca. The tabulate corals are invariably compound, either loosely or compactly, and consist of tubular or prismatic corallites com- monly with thick walls, which in certain groups are perforated by mural pores. Septa are absent or but slightly developed, sometimes being represented merely by vertical ridges or rows of spines. The number is usually six or 12. The corallites are crossed by numer- ous tabulae which cut off the empty portion of the tube below the polypite. Other endothecal structures are absent. The reproduction of the Anthozoa is both sexual and asexual, the latter by lateral or calycinal budding, or by fission. Genus ENTEROLASMA Simpson [Ety.: @vrepov, intestine; ¢Aacpva, lamella] (1900. ‘Ni. state mus. Bills 20, p. 203) Corallum simple, turbinate and usually straight. Septa numer- ous, those of the earlier cycles reaching nearly to the center, where they have projections which reach to the center, becoming much involved and forming a pseudocolumella of very pe appear- *Parallel as seen in the costae. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 137 ance, somewhat resembling the convolutions of the intestine; those of the last cycles short; all with papillate elevations or carinae on the sides, giving in section a crenulate or echinate appearance. Dis- sepiments present. Epitheca well developed. Enterolasma caliculus (Hall) (Fig. 29) Streptelasma meeecwens Fall (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:111, pl. 32) Distinguishing characters. Turbinate, oblique or curved, more or less rapidly expanding form; moderately deep cup; septa 20 to 50, separated by a space of twice their width; well marked costal grooves which lie opposite both long and short septa; relatively thin Fig. 29 Enterolasma caliculus and smooth epitheca. Found rarely in the upper Clinton beds, and abundantly in the lenses of limestone in the Clinton, the lower part of the Rochester shales and the Bryozoan beds of these shales. Also in the same shales at Lockport and farther east. Genus ZAPHRENTIS Rafinesque [Ety.: €a, many; gp7v, diaphragm | (1820.5 Asin. des ‘scr. piys. Brux.95:234) -Corallum simple, conic or turbinate, or conico-cylindric, with a deep calyx, and well developed septa, the primary ones reaching to the center. Dissepiments and tabulae occur, the latter usually well developed. A deep fossula marks the abortion of one of the four primary septa. Costae and a thin epitheca occur. Zaphrentis turbinata (Hall) (Fig. 30), Polydilasma tur- Mote tall (“8s2.. Pal. N. Y. 2:112, pl. 32) Distinguishing characters. Form variable, usually short and tur- binate; calyx gradually deepening from margin halfway to the center and then abruptly descending, almost vertically to a moderate depth; alternate septa terminating at point of sudden deepening of calyx, others reaching to center; dissepiments slightly developed. Found in the Lockport limestone at Niagara(?) and Lockport, where it occurs a few feet above the shale. | 138 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fig. 31 Cyathophyllum Fig. 30 Zaphrentis turbinata hydraulicum Genus cyaTHopHYLLUM Goldfuss [Ety.: x5a00s, a cup; gdddov, a leaf (septum) | (1826. Petrefacta Germamniae, p. 54) Corallum normally simple, the individuals conic, or conico-cylin- dric. Septa well developed, radially arranged, the larger extending to the center, where they are twisted into a pseudocolumella. Cos- tae usually obsolete. Tabulae present but only in the center of the visceral chamber, the outer area being filled with vesicular dissepi- ments. Exterior covered wile amy epitieca: Cyathophyllum hydraulicum Simpson. (Fig. 31) Grabau. Geol. soc. Am), Bulyir:364. pl. 21) we. sla-ae Distinguishing characters. Simple, conico-cylindric, slender, sometimes curved; growth irregular with abrupt changes in direc- tion; strongly costate adult portion; non-costate young; well de- veloped epitheca, which often shows coarse wrinkles; calyx some- what less deep than its diameter; numerous strong thin and rather widely separated septa, meeting in center where they are slightly twisted, and not infrequently uniting before they reach the center; well developed dissepimental structures. Found abundantly in the upper Manlius limestone of the Niagara region, but only as external molds in the limestone. Gutta percha casts however show the characters well. a x , eas aa ee NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 139 Genus CHONOPHYLLUM Edwards & Haime [Ety.: xdvos, a funnel; giddov, a leaf (septum) | (1850. British fossil corals, p. 69) Corallum simple, chiefly consisting of a series of funnel-shaped tabulae, set one into the other. On the surfaces of these, equally developed septal radii extend from center to circumference; no walls or columella. Chonophyllum niagarense Hall (Fig. 32) G@epzeeeea. N.Y. 2:114, pl. 32) Distinguishing characters. Irregularly cylindric, elongated or subturbinate form, more or less expanding above; deep and regularly concave calyx; thin denticulate septal ridges, which are separated by a space equal to their width; rough external ; it surface of weathered specimens. Deuter t inasinitaouecice 1 : with enlargement of interior of Titherto found only in the lower part of eayx i the Lockport limestone at Lockport, but probably also occuring at Niagara. Genus DIPLOPHYLLUM Hall [Ety.: dezAdos, double; gdAdov, septum ] hOGA). PON a2 Tee) Corallum simple and branching, or forming compound masses of loosely aggregated corallites which are cylindric, consisting of two distinct parts separated by an accessory wall, the inner transversely septate, the outer with fine transverse dissepiments uniting the septa which are continuous to the center. Calyxes deeply concave in the center, and separated from the outer portion by a distinct rim. Diplophyllum caespitosum Hall (Fig. 33) (1852. Pal. N.Y. PUG, pl: 33) Distingmshing characters. Subturbinate young, and cylindric adult corallites, which coalesce at intervals and increase by lateral budding; cespitose or aggregated into large masses which often grow from a single base; strongly costate exterior; numerous thin septa, all of which reach the center. T40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fig. 33 Diplophyllum caespitosum with longitudinal and transverse sections ‘Found in the lower part of the Lockport limestone series at Lock- port, and may also occur at Niagara. Genus FAvosiITEs Lamarck [Ety.: favus, honeycomb | (1816. Hist. des amm. sans vert. 2 :204) Corallum massive, more rarely branching, commonly forming heads which may be a foot or more in diameter. Corallites pris- matic, thin, in contact but not amalgamated by their walls, which are perforated by equidistant mural pores in one or more rows. Septa rudimentary or obsolete. Numerous more or less regular tabulae divide the intrathecal space. Peritheca present on the under side of the colony, and usually strongly wrinkled. Favosites venustus (Hall)! (Fig. 34). Astrocerium venus- t iim > Halls Shaan ale 220, elena) Distinguishing characters. Hemispheric or spheroidal form, be- ginning growth on other bodies; small corallites increasing in num- ber by interstitial addition; 12 ascending septal spines between tabulae; corallites from .9 to I mm in diameter; heads often up to 2 ot 3) feet in diameter: — ‘These species are regarded by Whiteaves and Lambe as synonyms of Favosites hisimcie tT tks amd NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY Iq! ie Peg Fe fe ec s sos , ee yer 4 AF 7 1 ep a Cre Coe KA ae OS Ral \GuX : Fig 34 Favosites venustus with longitudinal and transverse sections Found in the Lockport limestone at Lockport and Niagara, often replaced by anhydrite or other materials. Favosites parasiticus (Hall)! (Fig. 35). Astrocerium par- emmonemi chalk (652. Pal. N. Y..2:122, pl. 34) -Not. F. parasiticus Phillips. Distinguishing characters. | Hemispheric or spheroidal coralla, independent or at- tached to, or enveloping other bodies; un- equal size of calyxes, which are stellate from septal spines, of which there are from 12 to 24; subcircular outline of some of the Fig. 35 Favosites parasiticus larger calyxes, the majority being angular. Found in the Bryozoan bed of the Rochester shales in the Niagara sections. Also in the lower part of the limestone at Lockport (Hall). Favosites pyriformis (Hall)! (Mieco) Aust hOceri tlm: py fi- Horguiuem ital a(1852- al Noy. 22123, pl 34) Distinguishing characters. Irregularly subturbinate, pyriform or spheroidal form of corallum; corallites radiating from a more or less extended base, spreading out above and rapidly increasing in number by interstitial addition; calyxes varying from triangular to "These species are regarded by Whiteaves and Lambe as synonyms of iavogites Mistmeecna FE. and EH 142 ; NEW: YORIS) STATE MUSEUM hexagonal, not rounded and varying in size according to age of individual; septal spines in one or more rows. Fig. 36 Favosites pyriformis Found in the Rochester shale and Lockport limestone at Lock- port (Hall). Probably occurs also at Niagara. Favosites constrictus (Hall) (Fig. 37). As- trocerium constrictum Hales PG) Nie 21 22 cap) eeouns) Distinguishing characters. Small size; hemispheric form; minute corallites which appear constricted at intervals; calyxes ap- Fig. 87 Favosites constrictus; pear stellate. a ErOup on gorallives enlanee@: : Sie Mae co oho Found in the Rochester shale at Lock- port and other places (Hall). Probably also at Niagara. Favosites niagarensis Hall (Fig. 38) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:125, pl. 34A) Distinguishing characters. Spheroidal to irregular form, rapidly increasing in size by interstitial addition of corallites; thin walled corallites with mural pores in double rows; tabulae often oblique or bent downward; calyxes varying in size with varying age of in- dividual; septal spines obsolete. Found in the Lockport limestone at Niagara and Lockport. a ik inte NIAGARA PALI AND!" VICINITY 143 Fig. 33 Favosites niagarensis Genus HALYSITES Fischer [Ety.: ddoots, a chain] (eis. Zoognosa. 3d éd; \t. 1, p, 387) Corallum forming a clustered and reticulated mass, composed of long tubular, cylindric or compressed corallites, which are placed side by side in intersecting and anastomosing laminae or lines, any given corallite being united along its whole length with its neigh- ereeto the tight and left, and each lamina of the corallum con- sisting of no more than a single linear series of tubes. Walls of the corallites strong and without pores, the free portions covered by a continuous thick epitheca showing lines of growth. Small coral- lites often alternate with the larger ones. Septa obsolete or repre- sented by vertical rows of spines in cycles of 12. Tabulae well developed, complete and simple, more numerous in the smaller corallites. Halysites catenulatus (Linn.) (Fig. 39). Catenipora es- meee rdes (lamarck)) Hall (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:127, pl. 35) Fig. 39 Halysites catenulatus I44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Distinguishing characters. Corailites in juxtaposition or separated by cellular interspaces; large meshes of the network irregular, greatly varying in size; corallites oval in cross-section, united by their narrower sides; epitheca with fine lines of growth and occa- sionally strong wrinkles. Found in the Lockport limestone at Lockpore (lal) ame Niagara. When silicified, the coral may be well preserved, but otherwise it is usually almost destroyed or replaced by various minerals. Genus HELIOLITES Guettard [Ety.: feos, the sun; Addos, a stone] (1770. Mem. 3:454) Corallum spheroidal, pyriform, hemispheric, or rarely ramose. Corallites (macrocorallites) cylindric, comparatively few in number Fig. 40 Heliolites elegans with enlargement of calyxes and longitudinal section and furnished with 12 lamellar infoldings of the wall, or pseudo- septa. Smaller corallites (microcorallites) completely investing the larger ones, more or less regularly polygonal in form, with distinct walls, completely amalgamated with one another and with the walls of the larger corallites. Mural pores absent. Both kinds of coral- lites with tabulae, most numerous in the smaller corallites. Base of corallum covered by a peritheca showing lines of growth. ah a i i wa ee ee ee ee eo a ee, Se + t j NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 145 Heliolites elegans Hall (Fig. 40) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:130, pl. 36) Distinguishing characters. Hemispheric form of corallum, which increases in size by lateral rather than interstitial addition; from 16 to 18 larger calyxes to the inch; pseudosepta reaching halfway to the center; microcorallites generally appearing solid; macrocorallites often standing out in relief in weathered specimens and having a stellate appearance. Found in the lower part of the Lockport limestone at Lockport (Hall). May occur also at Niagara. elope: spiniporus Elall (Hig. 41) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:131, pl. 34) Distinguishing characters. Turbinate, pyriform, hemispheric or spheroidal form of corallum; divergent corallites, increasing in Fig. 41 Heliolites spiniporus with longitudinal and transverse sections enlarged number by interstitial addition; circular macrocorallites with 12 pseudosepta, which extend only part way to the center; irregular or interrupted tabulae which often appear spiniform in section; microcorallites in one or more series, angular and tabulate. Found in the lower part of the Lockport limestone at Lockport (Hall). Probably also at Niagara. 146 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Heliolites pyriformis Guettard (Fig. 42) (Hall. 1852. Pal. Ne V2? ol zore) Distinguishing characters. Macrocorallites larger than preceding, and generally more widely separated; mostly several series of micro- Fig. 42 Heliolites pyriformis corallites, though they may sometimes be absent when macro- corallites are in contact; short pseudosepta. see Found commonly in the lower Lockport limestone at Lockport (Hall). Probably also at Niagara. Genus cLtapopora Hall [Ety.: zAddos, twig; zdépos, pore] (TS52r eiaaineNe 2 eae) i Corallum branching or reticulate; branches cylindric or slightly compressed with terete terminations. Corallites small, radiating equally on all sides from the axis, and opening on the surface in rounded or subangular expanded calyxes, which are generally con- tiguous, and apparently destitute of septa. Cladopora seriata Hall (Fig. 43) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:137, pl. 38) Distinguishing characters. Nearly parallel, rather closely crowded branches, forming a glomerate mass, the branches sometimes Pa NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 147 bifurcating; closely arranged corallites, gradually enlarging toward the surface of the branches. Calyxes in alternating series each mar- gined on the lower side by a projecting circular lip. 3 ; ; j je p § A . f 4 h 4 . | - Fig. 43 Cladopora seriata with enlargement of a single branch showing the calyxes, and a section of same showing position of corallites | Found in the lower part of the Lockport limestone at Lockport | (Hall), and in the Bryozoan bed of the Rochester shale at Niagara. Cladopora multipora Hall (Fig. 44) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:140, pl. 39) | Distinguishing characters. Ra- mose or irregularly reticulate form, with the branches often extending beyond the last point of junction and ending in terete ss ay extremities; numerous closely ar- Fig. 44 Cladopora multipora, with enlargements ranged corallites, which are slightly oblique to the axis; calyxes subangular or circular, from 48 to 60 in the space of an inch. Found in the lower part of the Lockport limestone. at Lockport (Hall). Probably occurs also at Niagara. Genus sTRIATOPORA Hall [Ety.: striatus, striated; porus, pore] : (1852, Pal. N. Y. 2:156) Corallum dendroid, forming simple dividing, cylindric stems. Corallites essentially polygonal, diverging from an imaginary central axis, their walls greatly thickened by a secondary deposit of cal- 148 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM careous material or sclerenchyma, which increases in amount toward the calyxes. Calyxes in the form of circular apertures sur- rounded by a cup-shaped, thickened margin, the floor of which is striated by rudimentary septal ridges. Septal spines in vertical rows occasionally present. Tabulae few, widely separated, but ex- tending completely across. Mural pores comparatively numerous, circular, and irregularly distributed. Striatopora flexuosa Hall (Fig. 45) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:156, pl. 40B) Distingushing characters. Bifurcating or irregularly ramose stems with teretely terminating branches; calyxes circular, sur- rounded by large depressed cells, polygonal in outline and bounded by angular ridges; calycinal orifice in lower part of polygonal cell, vertically striate, the stria continuing upward in the surrounding cell. Fig. 45 Striatopora flexuosa with an enlargement of several calyxes Found not uncommonly in the Bryozoan bed of the Rochester shale at Niagara, generally well weathered out. Also in the same - shale at Lockport (Hall). Class CYSTOIDEA von Buch The cystoids are entirely extinct marine invertebrates which flourished only during Paleozoic time. Most of them lived during the Ordovicic or Siluric eras, but Cambric and Carbonic forms. are also known. They were mostly stemmed organisms with a calyx and imperfect arms like the crinoids, but a few of them were stemless. The calyx, which varies in form, is composed of poly- gonal plates which are united by close sutures. The plates vary in number in different species, from 13 to several hundred, and only exceptionally exhibit a regular arrangement. A radial arrange- ment of plates, like that of the Crinoidea occurs rarely, and the gkee NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 149 side plates pass insensibly into the plates of the ventral (upper) side- In the center of the dorsal side, however, a regular ‘series of basal plates exists, which rest on the stem or column. The mouth is indicated by a central or subcentral aperture on the upper (ventral) surface, and is sometimes covered by small plates. From it radiate from two to five simple or branching ambulacral grooves, which are also frequently roofed over by plates. The anal opening is situated eccentrically and frequently closed by a valvular pyramid. The calyx plates in most cystoids are perforated by pores or fis- sures. These are often arranged to form lozenge-shaped or rhombic figures, the pore rhombs, which are disposed one half on each of two adjoining plates, while the line of suture between the plates forms either the longer or the shorter diagonal of the rhomb. The pores of opposite sides of the rhomb are united by perfectly closed, straight ducts, which pass horizontally across the line of suture, aadeeproduce a transversely striated appearance (Caryo- crinus, fig. 46). These striate rhombs are generally visible only in weathered specimens. They may be present on all plates or only Goaiemws in Callocystites and other related genera, the pore rhombs are reduced to pectinated rhombs, which are few in number, and each separated into two distinct parts, lying on con- tiguous plates (fig. 47). These structures have probably a respir- atory function. The arms are feebly developed in the cystoids and often but few . in number. They are simple, consisting of a single (uniserial) or _a double (biserial) row of plates, and possess a ventral groove, protected by covering plates. Genus CARYOCRINUS Say [Ety.: zdpvov, a nut; xptvoy, lily] (1825. Acad. nat. sci. Phil. Jour. 4:280) Calyx composed of a moderate number of plates arranged in a hexamerous manner, and with the base composed of two cycles of plates (dicyclic). Lowest (infrabasals) four, unequal; followed by a second row of six basals, which alternate in position with those of the preceding and succeeding cycles. Third cycle of eight plates of which six are regarded as radials, the others as interradials (Carpenter). Ventral surface formed of six or more small pieces. All plates of the calyx furnished with pore-rhombs; the summit plates without perforations. Mouth and ambulacral grooves below the ventral plates or tegmen. Anal opening protected by a valvular pyramid, and situated on the outer margin of the ventral surface. Arms, 6 to 13 in number, situated on the ventral margin, and relatively feeble. Stem long, composed of cylindric segments. 150 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Caryocrinus crnatus Say (Fig. 46) (Hall. 1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:216, pl. 49 and 49A) Distinguishing characters. Stem of larger and smaller joints alter- nating near the calyx; edges of joints thin and sharp, sometimes slightly crenulated or denticulated; articulating surface radiately striate halfway to the center; canal round; calyx ovoid to sub- globose, the greatest diameter usually below the middle; summit Fig. 46 Caryocrinus ornatus slightly convex with arms sometimes several inches long; upper margins of radial and interradial plates indented for the arm plates. Mural pores represented on the exterior of the plates by single or double rows of tubercles radiating from the centers of the plates to their angles; between these are numerous rows of smaller tubercles parallel to the sides of the plates. TA nl PPLE ee ee ee eee. ee SS ee NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY I5I Found in the Rochester shale at Niagara, Lockport and other places. Often very abundant. At Niagara it has been found as low as 4 feet above the Clinton limestone, and from that upward as far as the Bryozoa beds, in which it occurs in moderate abun- dance. It has not been found above these beds. It occurs chiefly in the calcareous layers of the shale, from which it weathers out, the nut-like calyxes rolling to the bottom of the section where they can be picked up by the side of the railroad track." Genus CALLocysTITES Hall [Ety.: zdddos, beauty; zdozs, bladder] Gres. ane Ne 1422228) Calyx composed of large plates arranged in three or four cycles and having four pectinated rhombs, the component halves of which stand on contiguous plates and are separated by an _ interval. Mouth slit-like, and forming the center of radiation for two to five pinnulated arms, which some- times bifurcate, and are pro- fected. by COvering pieces, and either repose on the calyx or are sunk below the surface in grooves. Stem well developed. tapering down to a point. -Callocystites jewetti Hall (Fig. maeeras?, Fal, N.. VY. 2:230, pl. 50) Distinguishing characters. Ob- long ovoid, nearly symmetric form; base of four plates, one bearing part of pectinated rhomb; eight plates in second cycle; anal Fig. 47 Callocystites jewetti with the armgrooves eperture between second ard sreatout third cycle, excavated in two plates of the former and one of the latter; surface of plates ornamented by polygonal depressions, having a more or less defined border and granulose surface. *Specimens of this “crinoid” may be purchased from John Garlow, the watchman on the middle section of the New York Central railroad cut in the gorge, at a moderate price. ’ 152 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall). Isolated frag- ments of plates have been obtained from the weathered lower Rochester shale in the Niagara gorge. Class CRINOIDEA Miller The crinoids, or sea lilies, are marine invertebrates, represented - in the modern seas by a number of genera and species which range from shallow water to a maximum depth of about 3000 fathoms. They are gregarious in habit, and usually of very local distribution. A typical crinoid consists of a dorsal cup or calyx, placed on a stalk or stem, by means of which it is attached, and bears a fringe of arms, variously divided and furnished with jointed appendages, or pin- nules. Vhe calyx is composed of a number of plates, which have a definite arrangement, in horizontally disposed series (fig. 50). The lowest of these are the basals, though in many forms an additional ‘series, the mfrabasals, may underlie and alternate with the basals. Next above the basals, and alternating with them in position, are the radials, five in number, so called because they are in line with the rays or arms. Referring the position of the inferior plates to that of the radials, we find that the basals are always situated iter- radially, while the infrabasal are situated radially. Above the radials lie the bracials. ‘These vary greatly in number and kind, — sometimes articulating directly with the radials, in which case all the brachials are free, and sometimes having their lower series fixed and immovable, thus forming a part of the calyx. The brachials lying directly on the radials are the costals; of these there may be One or more series, when they are distinguished from below as primary (cost.1), secondary (cost.”), etc. The uppermost costal of each ray is commonly axillary, i. e. pentagonal in outline, with two tipper joint edges inclined from each other. On these rest the distichals, of which there are 10 in each series. Secondary distichals (dist.2) may rest on the primary ones (dist.1), and may in turn sup- port the palmars, of which there would be 20 in a normal series. Above these, on farther division, are the post-palmars, which are often very numerous. Two types of arms can be distinguished, those composed throughout of one series of plates (uniserial), and those made up of a double series (biserial), the plates of the latter usually interlocking to a greater or less extent. The latter are the more specialized, always beginning uniserially. Between the radials are often found additional plates, the inter- yvadials, which may vary in number. | Between the distichals of one ray may occur the imterdistichals, which are situated radially. Between the distichals of adjacent rays may occur the interbrachials, and these will be situated interradially. = i i ee 6 ee ee ee al a ee eee ee Oe eee ee ee NIAGARA FALLS AND. VICINITY 153 An anal interradius is present in unsymmetric forms. The tegmen forms the cover, or ventral part of the calyx, and is composed of plates either closely ankylosed, or held together by a leathery membrane. In the Paleozoic Camerata the plates of the ventral disk fit closely and they are considerably thickened, forming a very rigid, more or less convex vault, from which may rise the plated anal proboscis. The mouth of Paleozoic camerate crinoids lies beneath the teg- men, the only external opening being that of the anus. From the mouth, radiating grooves or canals commonly pass outward to the ermis, in which they are continued. These are the ambulacral grooves, along which the food, caught on the arms, is conveyed to the central mouth. These grooves may be open or covered by Pilates. Within the cavity of the calyx are the viscera. The stalk, or stem, is composed of a varying number of joints, which are circular, elliptic or angular in cross-section (fig. 52). Mie joint nearest to the calyx is the last formed except in the Flexibilia. Frequently a certain number of the joints bear root- like extensions or cirvi. The stem and cirri are pierced by an axial canal, round or pentagonal in cross-section. The stem was in most cases attached by a root. Some crinoids were without a stem, hav- ing been attached by the base directly or more rarely being free- swimming organisms. Order LARVIFORMIA Wachsmuth & Springer Genus STEPHANOCRINUS Conrad [Ety. orégavos, a crown; zptvoy, a lily] (mé425- Acad.nat. sci. Pia. Jour. 8:278). Calyx cup-shaped, composed of three elongate basals, five radials, and five interradials. Radials deeply forked; the prongs formed by the margins of two continuous radials extending upward between the arms, and building, together with the interradials, a row of five pyramids, near the summit of one of which is situated the anal aperture. Radial incisions occupied by the ambulacral grooves, which are roofed over by two rows of covering pieces; those of the same row closely ankylosed. First costals semilunate, and resting within a horseshoe-like concavity near the outer end of the radial incisions. Tegmen constituted of five large triangular oral plates. Arms very short,! composed of about 10 pieces, all of which are axillary and give off side arms. The latter are biserial, non-pinnu- *Generally wanting in the weathered-out specimens. 154 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM late, and are made up of long, strongly cuneiform joints. Stem consisting of circular joints pierced by a circular axial canal. Stephanocrinus angulatus Conrad (Fig. 48) (Hall. 1852. Fal. NOY © 2:212, Wl Aeo2) Distinguishing characters. Thick, equal stem joints, with crenu- lated, articulating margins, and minute round canal; form of calyx Fig. 48 Stephanocrinus angulatus with an enlargement of the stem and an analysis of the calyx reverse pyramidal, gradually spreading from a triangular base up- ward; sutures scarcely visible; three basals, one pentagonal and two heptagonal; radials hexagonal with short excavated upper side; in- terradials broad below, contracting upward to form the coronal points; strong and angular carinae, six of which alternately con- verge upward and downward, while two others, somewhat stronger, extend from the bases of the heptagonal basals to the summit of the radials immediately succeeding; elevated tuberculated striae of the plates which extend transversely, vertically or obliquely on different parts of the calyx; surface sometimes merely tuberculated. Found in certain thin calcareous layers-of the lower Rochester shale at Niagara, sometimes quite abundantly. Also in the same shale at Lockport (Hall). The crinoid is generally much lighter in color than the inclosing rock, and is easily distinguished. Associated NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 155 with Eucalyptocrinus fragments and other crinoids, as well as other fossils. Stephanocrinus gemmiformis Hall (Fig. 49) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:215, pl. 48) Distinguishing characters. Sharply triangular base; rapidly enlarging calyx, which is rotund in the middle and slightly contracted toward the sum-_ mit. Upper margin of radials scarcely depressed or excavated; granular non- ee rinas cemmitormis CAtinate surface of plates; slightly con- with analysis of calyx : j Masi gee hass coronal processes. Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall). Probably also at Niagara. Order CAMERATA Wachsmuth & Springer Genus THYSANocRINUS Hall [Ety.: @scavos, fringe; zptvov, lily] (io528 dl Ne 286) Calyx deep, with a dicyclic base. Infrabasals and basals five each, the former pentagonal, the latter generally hexagonal. Radials werigittoan a Fig. 50 Thysanocrinus liliiformis with analysis of calyx five, hexagonal, laterally in contact, except at the azygous side, where they are separated by an anal plate which is succeeded by three in- 156 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM terradial plates. Lower brachials forming a part of the calyx; cost.! hexagonal, cost.2 pentagonal, axillary bearing the distichals. In- terradials lying chiefly between the costals. Arms Io to 20, biserial. Stem round. . ; Thysanocrinus liliformis Hall (Fig. 50) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:188, pl. 42) se ) : Distinguishing characters. Surface of plates ornamented by verti- cal or radiating, interrupted or crenulated, sharp, elevated striae; small infrabasals, large basals and still larger radials; three distichals in each of the 10 arms, the lowest large and hexagonal, the others cuneiform, followed by the biserial upper arm plates; stem joints round and alternatingly thin and thick, most irregular near the base of the calyx. Found so far only im the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall), but se also occur at Niagara. Genus Lyriocrinus Hall [Ety : Adpcov, small lyre; zptvoy, lily] 2 (1852.. Pal. NAYozenoy Calyx depressed, with a dicy- clic base. Infrabasals five; ba- sals five, pentagonal, truncated at the upper end. Radials sepa- rated all around by large inter- radials, which scarcely défer from the anal interradius. Anal aperture eccentric. Plates of the calyx smooth or finely granu-— lose. Tegmen almost flat, com- Fig. 51 Lyriocrinus dactylus posed of a large number of small plates. Arms 10, strong, simple and biserial. Stem round. Lyriocrinus dactylus Hall (Fig. 51) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:197, pl. 44) ) Distinguishing characters. Stem near the calyx of alternating larger and smaller joints, the larger projecting much beyond the NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 157 smaller ones; calyx plates finely ornamented by granules, which become elongated near the margins of the plates; two simple disti- chals in each arm, abruptly followed by Be sy ett 8.5) thas / o the biserial arm plates. SS : Found in the talus of the weathered SS oe Ce Rochester shale above Lewiston, prob- ably from the thin calcareous beds "4 en SO of Pg f Cl & QA Uh eet von ia gy Sigs ee gf 77 Af, IA of the lower part of the shale. Also el ‘ We we in the same shale at Lockport (Hall). \ \\\ Glyptocrinus plumosus Hall (Tig. \ Ee) 852, Pal. N. Y.2:180, pl. Agt) \\ Under this name Hall has figured a - o es LL GQ ae , 5 A Fay i EP as a Ses See te | 4 : a : . a ‘ Naa a Ne OO eC a a, ie SA and described fragments of the stem : : : Fig. 52 Glyptocrinus plumosus the arm ane athas Ol .a crinoid from the Clin- pinmules And stem with anenlarcoment of stem joints ton beds of western New York, which he states is extremely rare at Niagara, but often common farther east. The characteristics of these fragments are shown in the illus- trations here reproduced. Genus EucaLyptocrinus Goldfuss [Ety.: 2d, well; xakdatew, cover; zptvoy, lily] (1826. - Petrefacta Germaniae, p. 212) Calyx with a deep concavity at the lower end, of which the monocyclic base forms the bottom. Calycinal plates having throughout a pentameral arrangement, except the basals, which are only four in number. Radials in contact all around, costals 2 x 5, distichals 2 x 10, and above these the palmars in cycles of 20, and of small size. There are 1 x 5 large interradials, above which are two narrow and elongate interbrachials placed side by side. Between the distichals is in each ray one interdistichal, which has nearly the form and size of the two interbrachials combined. On the inter- brachials and interdistichals and the tegmen rest Io partitions, which extend upward and form compartments which contain two arms each. Arms biserial, composed of very narrow pieces. A proboscis - surmounts the tegmen and projects above the arms. Stem round. Eucalyptocrinus decorus (Phillips) (Fig. 53) (Hall. 1852. Pal. Het 2-207, pl. 47) , Distinguishing characters. Stem consisting of alternating thicker and thinner joints, the former wider than the latter, with rounded 158 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM edges; two or three thin joints between thick ones; articulating sur- faces of joints deeply striated radially from’ margin nearly to the canal; canal pentapetalous; calyx subcylindric or ovoid, gradually enlarging from base upward to commencement of arms, then dimin- ishing; summit contracted; surface of plates generally smooth. Fig. 53 Eucalyptocrinus decorus Found in the lenses of limestone in the upper Clinton and in the calcareous beds of the lower Rochester shale, as well as the Bryo- zoan bed at Niagara. Often plentiful but generally in dissociated plates, of which the interbrachial partition plates are most readily recognized. The “roots” are occasionally found attached to corals, etc. Also represented in the middle and upper limestones at Ni- agara, but generally replaced. Also in the shale at Lockport and other localities (Hall). Py dels ay =?) oe oe Fee Tee eee 2 ” eee I ee a ee ee ee eee ee NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 159 Order FLEXIBILIA Zittel Genus IcHTHYOCRINUS Conrad [Ety.: ix0ds, fish; zotvoy, lily] (7842. Acad. nat. sci. Phil. Jour. 8:279) Calyx with all plates above the radials united by loose suture or by muscular articulation. Base dicyclic; infrabasals three, unequal, very small, rarely extending beyond the top stem joint with which they are fused. Basals five, small. -Radials and lower brachials laterally in contact on all sides; no interradials or anals. Brachials united by more or less wavy sutures and their lower edges furnished with tooth-like projections which fit into depressions on the sub- jacent plates. Tegmen squamous, composed of five orals and numerous, very small, movable plates. Arms non-pinnulate, with a wide, shallow ventral groove. ‘When the arms are folded, the crown appears like a perfectly solid body. Stem round, the upper joints extremely short, and generally wider than the others. Ichthyocrinus laevis Conrad (Fig. 54) (Hall. 1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:195, pl. 43) Distinguishing characters. Stem slender, round and smooth, grad- ually enlarging to the base of the calyx and composed of alternate thick and thin joints; radials five, succeeded by two to four costals in each radius; 10 columns of distichals, from six to nine plates in each, an unequal number in the two columns of each radius; 20 columns of palmars, and 40 of post-palmars, the number of plates varying in the columns of the same individual; plates with lower margins ob- tusely triangular and upper margins with i a = a corresponding reentrant angle; axillary Fig. 54 Ichthyocrinus laevis with plates angular above and below. stem enlarged Found in certain calcareous layers near the middle of the lower Rochester shales at Niagara. Also in the same shales at Lockport (Hall). 160 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genus LEcANocrRINus Hall [Ety.: Aexavy, basin; zpivov, lily] (18526 Jal. 2) Og) This genus differs from Ichthyocrinus only in having a rhomboidal anal plate separating the two posterior radials, and fol- lowed by a somewhat larger anal interradial. Lecanocrinus macropetalus Hall (Fig. 55) (1852. Fal. N. Y. 2:199, pl. 45) 3 Distinguishing characters. Subglobose calyx; three large infra- basals, the two larger truncated on top; larger basals, two pen- PEN NSS we Fig. 55 Lecanocrinus macropetalus with analysis of calyx tagonal, one hexagonal and two heptagonal; subquadrangular anal plate following on heptagonal basals and succeeded by large inter- radial plate; large radials, two pentagonal and three with a short sixth side; costals 2 x 5, short, succeeded by distichals and palmars similar-to dchthyocrinus laecyise b slender stem; smooth, thick joints alternating at irregular intervals with thin ones, and having slightly rounded edges and a round canal. Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall). May also occur at Niagara. paae, . a ee a a a NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 161 Class ANNELIDA Macleay The annelids, or typical worms, are soft-bodied, marine, fresh- water or terrestrial animals, whose remains can seldom be preserved in a fossil state. It is only the tube-building order (Tubicola) that leaves any satisfactory remains. In these the tube is either a cal- careous secretion of the animal or is composed of agglutinated sand and other foreign particles, being, in each case, wholly external. Worm burrows are often preserved by sand or mud infiltration, a cast of the burrow appearing in the strata, Genus cornu.ites Schlotheim [Ety.: cornu, horn; 4¢0os, stone] (1820. Schlotheim. Petrefactenkunde, p. 328) Tube gently tapering, flexuous, the small end usually bent. The tube is either wholly or in part adherent to other objects. Walls thick, cellular, composed of imbricating rings. Surface ornamented by annulations and longitudinal striae. Interior presenting a suc- cession of annular constrictions, giv- 3 ing a scalariform character to the p< — cast. = Cornulites bellistriatus Hall (Fig. Boeeses al. N,V. 2:353, pl. 85, fig. 13-17, and v. 7, supplement, p.: 20.0 ThOA, fis. 12, 13) Distinguishing characters. Wall thick; annulations slightly marked - Fig. 56 C lites bellistriat at base, less strongly and irregularly DEO a taigr oe ee marked in upper portion; fine longitudinal striae well marked throughout. | Found in the talus of Rochester shale, along the Rome, Water- town and Ogdensburg railroad above Lewiston hights. Class BRYOZOA Ehrenberg The Bryozoa, or Polyzoa, are marine or fresh-water invertebrates, almost always occurring in colonies or zoaria which increase by gemmation. Each zooid of the colony is inclosed in a membranace- ous, or calcareous, double-walled sac, the zooeciwm, into which, it can withdraw. The animal possesses a mouth, an alimentary canal and an anal opening, and, in addition to these, a fringe of respiratory 162 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM tentacles—the lophophore. The colony is commonly attached to foreign bodies, which it either incrusts or from which it arises as an independent frond. In the Paleozoic genera the cell apertures are often surrounded by elevated rims, or peristomes. In many forms a portion of the pos- terior wall of the tube is more or less thickened, and curved to a shorter radius, often projecting above the plane of the aperture. This forms the /unaria, and their ends may project into the tubes as pseudosepta. In the interapertural space may occur angular or ir- regular cells, the mesopores, while on many portions of the surface, tubular spines (acanthopores), or nodes (rounded, knob-like eleva- tions), may occur. At intervals, in many genera, rounded eleva- tions, or monticules, are found, which may, or may not, be destitute of cells. Maculae or irregular blotches, destitute of cells, also occur in many forms. Some species bear a superficial resemblance to cer- tain corals, particularly the monticuliporoids. Genus DIPLocLEMA Ulrich [Ety.: drddog, double; ~jya, twig] (1890. Geol. sur. Illinois, 8:368) Zoarium dendroid, branches slightly compressed, spreading in the same plane; zooecia tubular, diverging from a wavy mesial mesotheca; apertures circular; hee | prominent. Gg 1&8 Diploclema sparsa (Hall) (Fig. 57). Tre- us § matopota spatsa Hall (1852) ae a a 2:155, pl. 40A, fig. 12a-d) Distinguishing characters. Slender, cylindric << enlebencnte of tok na bifurcating stems; idistant “cells,4 openers eet liquely upward; elongated nariform calicles.. Found abundantly in the Rochester shale at Oa (Hall) probably also at Niagara. Genus cERAMOPORA Hall [Ety.: zéeapos, a tile; zdoos, pore] (S52. Pal Nie tos) Zoarium disk-like, free or attached by the center of the base; under surface with one or more layers of small, irregular cells; zooe- *The generic descriptions of the Bryozoa are adapted or transcribed from Nickles & Bassler; Synopsis of American fossil Bryozoa. U.S. geol. sur. Bul. 173. I have also followed these authors in the synonomy of the species. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 163 cia tubular, radiating on the upper surface from a depressed center; apertures oblique, imbricating, provided with a lunarium; mesopores short, irregular, decreasing in number from center to margin; large maculae or clusters of mesopores or of zooecia at regular intervals. Ceramopora imbricata Hall (Fig. 58) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:169, pl. 40E, fig. 1a-1) Distinguishing characters. Depressed hemispheric form, flattened or convex on the lower side; composed of cylindric or subcylindric tubes slightly diverging from the cen- ter, rectangular to plane of upper sur- face; arched or triangular aperture, opening on all sides toward the outer margin, arranged in alternating and imbricating series. Found in the Rochester shale at Largeivent of surface sn SHB em Lockport (Hall) and probably also at Niagara. Ceramopora incrustans tall (Fig. 59) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:1609, pl. 40E, fig. 2a-d) Distinguishing characters. Incrusting habit; cells increasing unequally from a center or point of growth, short, minute, opening obliquely outward and arranged Fig. 59 Ceramopora incrustans with IM quincunx order. enlargement of surface = Found in the Rochester shale at Lock- port (Hall); may also occur at Niagara. Genus cHILoTRYpa Ulrich [Ety.: zztdos, lip; rpdza, perforation] (1884. Cin. soc. nat. mst. Jour. 7:49) Zoarium small, branching, with a narrow, irregularly contracting and expanding tube; zooecial tubes cylindric or somewhat com- pressed, thin walled, with or without diaphragms; walls minutely porous; apertures elliptic, oblique, the lower margin thickened and elevated; at irregular intervals maculae or monticules, composed of clusters of vesicles and of zooecia slightly larger than the average occur; interzooecial spaces occupied by vesicular tissue, which is commonly filled by a dense calcareous deposit near the surface. 164. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Chilotrypa ostiolata (Hall) (Fig. 60). Trematopora os- tiolata Hall (852. “Palen 32 2152, pl, sor tie. sam) Distinguishing characters. Irregularly branching cylindric stems gradually tapering toward the extremities, which are obtuse; aper- Fig. 60 Chilotrypa ostiolata; branch natural size and two enlargements tures about their diameter apart, arranged in spirally ascending lines or irregularly; strong peristomes; interapertural spaces smooth; stems solid or incrusting crinoids. Found abundantly in the Bryozoa beds of the Rochester shale and in some of the calcareous layers below it in the Niagara sections. Also at Lockport, etc. (Hall). Genus BATOSTOMELLA Ulrich [Ety.: fdros, bramble; ozépa, mouth] (1882. Cin. soc. nat. hist. Jour. 5 :154) Fig 61 Batostomella granulifera with en- Zoarium ramose, branches slen- largement of part of surface ; : : der; zooecia with thick walls in the mature region and with few diaphragms in the peripheral region, often centrally perforated; apertures small, circular or oval; inter- spaces rounded or canaliculate, spinulose; acanthopores small and usually very numerous; mesopores small, with subcircular openings. Batostomella granulifera (Hall) (Fig. 61). Trematopora granulifera Hall (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:154, pl. 40A, fig. ga-e) Distinguishing characters. Slender branches; oval to elongate apertures, margined by wavy, raised, granulose lines, which are double between the cells. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 165 Found rarely in the lower Rochester shale, associated with Ich- thyocrinus and other rare fossils. Niagara sections. Also in the same shale at Lockport (Hall). Genus iocLEma Ulrich [Ety.: Aetos, smooth; zAjya, twig] (1882. Cm. soc. nat. hist. Jour. 5 :141, 154) Zoarium ramose, lamellar, subglobose or incrusting; surface frequently exhibiting distinct monticules or maculae; zooecia with subcircular or irregularly petaloid apertures, separated by abundant angular mesopores, which in some species are open at the surface, in others closed; diaphragms few in the zooecia, abundant, sometimes crowded in the mesopores; acanthopores numerous and strong in the typical species, small and inconspicuous in others. Lioclema florida (Hall) (Fig. Parpeecalilopora florida ittenes52. Pal. N. Y.. 2:146, pl. 40, fig. 2a-f) Distinguishing characters. Ex- planate or incrusting habit; tubu- lar cells; floriform apertures the margins of which appear as if formed of segments of Ss Fig. 62 Lioclema florida with side and summit cal . y 1 g d, f seven smaller curves; each angle views enlarged, and two calyxes much enlarged of aperture furnished with spine (acanthopore); mesopores angular in perfect specimens. Found in the Bryozoa beds of the Rochester shales at Niagara, rare. Also at Lockport (Hall). Lioclema aspera (Hall) (Fig. 63). Cathoporavaspera Hall (1852. Pak oN Yo 2-1A7. pl: 40, fie. aa) Distinguishing characters. Stems solid or hollow cylinders, often also incrusting other bodies in bragd, explanate or foliate expansions; surface ne AsPerawithenlargementsoF 1avate or thickened extremities of stems; circular or slightly oval apertures; finely reticulated inter- spaces; margins of apertures surrounded by minute points (acantho- 166. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM pores) which give the entire surface an asperato-granular appearance. Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall), and probably also at Niagara. Genus ByTHopora Miller & Dyer [Ety.: 76069, depth; zéovs, pore] (1878. Contrib. to paleontology no. 2, p. 6) Zoarium usually with s!ender branches, sometimes of considerable size; diaphragms obsolete; apertures oblique, narrowing above; interspaces canaliculate; mesopores few; acanthopores strong, rarely more than one to each zoarium, sometimes wanting. Bythopora spinulosa (Hall) (Fig. 64). Trematopora spmulosa Wall (Pal. N. V. 2:55, pl aod) Distinguishing characters. Oval apertures; cylindri- cal branches; strong spines (acanthopores) arranged at nearly regular intervals. Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport. (Hall) Fig. 64. Bytho- pora spinulosa 14 palaeeee Probably occurs also at Niagara. Genus TREMATOPORA Hall [Ety.: tequa, foramen; zdpos, pore] (1852. S Pal aN 214g) Zoarium ramose; surface smooth or with monticules; zooecia thin- walled, the contact lines of walls of adjoining zooecia distinct; dia- phragms few, in the proximal ends of the zooecia; apertures circular or oval, with a more or less well marked peristome; interspaces sold; mesopores irregularly angular, often : obscurely moniliform, with diaphragms at the constricted parts; acanthopores | OF of medium or small size usually present. Cli _ Trematopora tuberculosa Hall (Fig. eae 65) (1852. Pal Nea 2:149, pl. 4oA, CEng? fig. Ia-g) Distinguishing characters. Irregularly Fig. 65 Trematopora tuberculosa with ramose and stout branches: tuberculous ne monticules; tubular cells with oval apertures and thin elevated cali- cle or margin which is spinulose (bearing acanthopores); inter- apertural spaces solid, but septate below. ee ee ee ee ee eee Te ee Le SS! Cee _— ma’. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 167 Found abundantly in the Bryozoa beds of the Rochester shales, at Niagara, also at Lockport (Hall). Trematopora (7%) striata Hall fie woo) (1s52. Pal. N.Y. 2:153, pl. 40A, fig. 7a-d and 8a-b) Distinguishing characters. Expanded at the base; strongly eimared;s ‘slender, cylindric, scarcely tapering branches; ob- long oval apertures distant imemeeeach other about the width of the aperture; intera- Fig. 66 Tre matopora (?) striata much enlarged ») pertural space with continuous groove. Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall), probably also at Niagara. Genus cALLopora Hall (emend. Ulrich) . [Ety.: zddhos, beauty; zdpos, pore] (uss2iaeal Nic 2 LAA) | Zoarium usually ramose, the branches frequently anastomosing and forming bushy clumps; zooecia at first prismatic, four to eight sided, gradually becoming cylindric in most cases; at first with closely set diaphragms, becoming more distant, finally in the mature region usually closely set; apertures closed at times by perforated, often ornamental covers; mesopores more or less numerous, angular, crowded with diaphragms. No acanthopores. Callopora elegantula Ha‘l (Fig. 67) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:144, pl. 40, fig. 1a-m) Distinguishing characters. Cespitose or fruticulose groups of small stems frequently branching; branches bifurcating or variously diverging from the stem; solid; extremities often hollow or cup-like indentations, also blunt; apertures circular, the opercula or covers 168 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM with a central perforation from which radiate a number of ridges, giving the cells often a radiately septate appearance; mesopores single, in groups or encircling the apertures. OP By. Cf ae OK A; See Be Oh act me, eS See ee t ip Fig. 67 Callopora elegantula with enlargements of surface, and individual tubes Found abundantly in the Bryozoa beds of the Rochester shale at Niagara. Also common at Lockport (Hall). Genus PHYLLOPORINA Ulrich [Ety.: gdddov, leaf; zdp0s, pore] - (1890. Geol. sur. Illinois, 8:399, 639) Zoarium branching, with branches irregularly anastomosing, with two to eight rows of apertures on one side, longitudinally striated Fig. 68 Phylloporina asperato-striata with enlargement of celluliferous and non-celluliferous fzces, , the latter showing the asperate-striate character on the other; zooecia more or less tubular, often with diaphragms, and generally separated by tabulated interstitial spaces, which are closed at the surface; acanthopores often present. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 169 Phylloporina asperato-striata (Hall) (Fig. 68). Retepora mem@ematve-striata Hall (1852. Pal. N.Y. 2:161, pl. 40C, fig. 2a-h) Distinguishing characters. Network of anastomosing branches, with oval interstices which are somewhat unequal; outer face roughly striate; inner face poriferous; three, four or more rows of oval or subangular cells arranged somewhat in oblique parallel lines Or in quincunx order; apertures in perfect specimens probably with peristomes. _ Found abundantly in the Bryozoa beds of the Rochester shale at Niagara. Generally adhering to the shale laminae by the cellulifer- ous face. Also at Lockport (Hall). Genus DRYMOTRYPA Ulrich [Ety.: dpdpés, coppice; redza, perforation | (1890. Geol. sur. Illinois. 8 :399) Zoarium branching dichotomously at frequent intervals; zooecia in several ranges, tubular, opening on one side only and springing from a thin double plate, beneath which a number of vesicles are Fig. 69 Drymotrypa diffusa with celluliferous and non-celluliferous sides enlarged present; reverse side longitudinally striated; vestibules expanding from the orifices to the angular apertures. Drymotrypa diffusa (Hall) (Fig. 69) Retepora diffusa Ble (1852: Pal. N.Y. 2':160; pl; 40C, fig. 1a-f) | Distinguishing characters. Shrubby form, several stems originat- ing from a common base; stems frequently bifurcating and spread- ing laterally, forming a broad frond; stems and branches cellulifer- 170 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ous on one side only, deeply striated longitudinally on the other; quadrangular or subrhomboidal apertures; branches often thickened or clavate, always obtuse. Found in the upper part of the lower Rochester shale and the Bryozoa beds at Niagara. Rare. Also at Lockport (Hall). Genus FENESTELLA Lonsdale [Ety.: fenestella, a little window] (1839. Murchison. Silurian system, p. 677) Zoarium consisting of a calcareous branching frond, forming cup- shaped or funnel-shaped expansions. ‘The branches fork, and are connected by transverse bars or dissepiments, thus inclosing spaces or fenestrules. The cell apertures occur only on the inner side of Fig. 70 Fene stella elegans with enlargements the branches. They are surrounded by rims or peristomes and are arranged in two parallel rows, while between them occurs a ridge (carina) or a row of nodes. Fenestella elegans Hall (Fig. 70) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:164, pl. 40D, fig. 1a-g) Distinguishing characters. Carina subdued; apertures with their longer diameter oblique to the direction of the branches; branches slender, frequently bifurcating; thin and slender dissepiments scarcely enlarging at the junction with the branches; fenestrules on | 2 eS ee ee ee See he ee Oe, NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY EL non-celluliferous side oblong, quadrangular, rarely oval; branches finely striate. Found in the Bryozoa bed of the Rochester shale at Niagara. Also in the same rock at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). Genus SEMICOSCINIUM Prout [Ety.: semi, half (somewhat like); xdaxivov, sieve; Coscin- ium, a genus of Bryozoa] Wisso. St Loms acad.sct..Trans.. 1443) Zoarium funnel-shaped, celluliferous on the outer side; dissepi- ments wide, very short, the branches appearing to anastomose on the non-poriferous face, where the fenestrules are subrhomboidal or rounded. Apertures in two rows, with a very high median keel, which is expanded at the summit. Semicoscinium tenuiceps (Hall) (Fig. 71, 72). Fenestella mone cps fall (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:165, pl. 40D, fig. 2a-h) Mmomtecrella priscar Hall (1852. Fal. N.Y. 2:50, pl. 19, fig. 4a-m) Distinguishing characters. Carina sharp and thin; transverse dis- sepiments not extending as high as the branches, sometimes scarcely i 63 peaite a aighae es) Fig. 72 Semicoscinium tenuiceps. Niag- Seite i ara. Enlargements of celluliferous and - non-celluliferous faces Fig. 71 Semicoscinium tenuiceps, Clinton. With enlargements visible; round large apertures opening laterally so as to be scarcely visible when looking down on the frond; non-celluliferous side with oval fenestrules, branches on non-celluliferous side striate, appear- ing granular when worn. Found in the Bryozoa beds of the Rochester shales at Niagara; also at Lockport (Hall) (7). It also occurs in the Clinton beds at Lockport, and probably also at Niagara. 172 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genus potypora McCoy [Ety.: zodos, many; zdpos, pore] (1845. Synopsis Carbon. foss. Ireland, p. 206) Zoarium asin Fenestella, but with from two to eight rows of zooecia on a branch, and without median keel, but sometimes with a row of strong nodes or tubercles. Polypora incepta Hall (Fig. 73) (1852. Pal. N. Ve 27a 4oD, fig. sa-f) : Distinguishing characters. Funnel-shaped, but generally compressed form; branches dividing somewhat regularly, sometimes anastomosing; dis- sepiments at regular intervals, slender, scarcely thickened at their junction with branches; fenestrules oblong, quadran- gular, rarely oval; non-celluli- ferous face longitudinally striate; three or four rows of cell apertures, oval and alter- nating; dissepiments thinner on celluliferous than on non- celluliferous face; sometimes expanding at the junction with the .branches; non-cel- luliferous face indistinguish- Fig. 73 Polypora incepta with non-celluliferous and celluliferous faces enlarged able from Fenestella. Found abundantly in the Bryozoa beds of the Rochester shale at Niagara, and the talus of the cliff above Lewiston hights. Also in the shale at Lockport (Hall). Genus HELOPORA Hall [Ety.: fdos, nail; zdoes, pore] (TO525 0 eae 2-44) Zoarium bushy, dichotomously branching, the whole consisting of numerous slender, equal segments, united by terminal articula- NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 173 tions: zooecia subtubular, more or less oblique, radially arranged about a central axis and opening on all sides of the segments. _ ‘Helopora fragilis Hall (Fig. 74) Mesa Po N.Y. 2:44, pl. 18, fig. 3a-f) Distinguishing characters. Minute cylindric or clavate zoarium swollen at one end; oval or subangular pores, ee ae re _having a spiral direction around the = stipe and arranged between longi- tudinal elevated lines. Pp eas aaah fragilis natural size | Found in the Clinton beds at Lock- port etc. (Hall). Probably occurs also at Niagara. Also abundant in the thin calcareous upper Medina layers at Niagara (?). Genus CLATHROPORA Hall [Ety.: clathri, a lattice; porus, a pore | Zoarium composed of anastomosing branches, forming a regular network with round cr oval spaces or fenestrules, with a pointed, Fig. 75 Clathropora frondosa with portions of celluliferous face enlarged articulating base; the branches are made up of two layers grown to- gether back to back, and with the zooecial tubes opening on both sides of the frond; apertures usually subquadrate, arranged longi- tudinally. 174 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Clathropora frondosa Hall (Fig. 75) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:160, pl. 40B, fig. 5a-e) Distinguishing characters. Reticulate, expanded, flabellate or fun- nel-shaped frond, both surfaces regularly and equally celluliferous; apertures rhomboidal or oblong quadrangular, opening obliquely upward. Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall) and probably also at Niagara. Clathropora alcicornis Hall (Fig. 76) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:159, pl. 40B, fig. 4a-c) Distinguishing characters. Cylindric branches, bifurcating and variously branched; entire surface celluliferous ; apertures quad- Fig. 76 Clathropora alcicornis with enlargement rangular, rhomboidal or oblong and variable in form at the division of the stem. Found in the lower Rochester shale up to and in the Bryozoa bed at Niagara. Rare. Also at Lockport (Hall). Genus RHINOPORA Hall [Ety.: prvds, hide; zdpos, pore] (S52 alee 2-18) Zoarium forming large, undulating bifoliate expansions, cellu- liferous on both sides; surface usually smooth, rarely with solid ee eS NIAGARA FAELS AND: VICINITY 175 monticules, and traversed by siender, rounded, bifurcating ridges, which appear as shallow grooves when the surface is worn; aper- tures nearly circular, occupying the summits of prominent papillae; mesopores present, but closed at the surface: large median tubuli in the middle layer or mesotheca. Rhinopora tuberculosa Hall (Fig. 77) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:170, pl. 40EF, fig. 4a-c) : Distinguishing characters. Lamellose or explanate palmate fronds; asperate and _ tubercu- , "aan +23 cove . fee* R lous surface; tubercles mostly destitute of cells at the sum- mit; cells rising in pustules on the surface and opening by roundish oval or tripetalous Fig. 7 Rhinopora tubercolosa with enlargement apertures. Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall) and probably also at Niagara. Genus pDIAMESOPORA Hall ‘ [Ety.: dc4, through; péovs, middle; zdpos, pore] (pSeo. Pal NO. 29258), © Zoarium ramose, of hollow stems lined internally by an epitheca; zooecia simple, hexagonal, or rhomboidal, with an oval orifice in the anterior half, which, with growth, forms a tubular vestibule; aperture with peristomes equally elevated or highest posteriorly; intervestibular spaces compact or horizontally laminated. Diamesopora dichotoma Hall Giger (Tease al Noy, Z2enSo; pl 40, fiey 3a=d) Distinguishing characters. Cy- lindric, hollow, regularly bifurcat- ing stems (a thin crust inclosing ee inorganic matter); interior of hol- ee 78 Diamesopora dichotoma with enlarge- E low branches transversely striate; cells opening upward in regular ascending or spiral lines; promi- nent nariform peristomes; stems usually flattened. Found in the Bryozoa beds of the Rochester shales at Niagara, usually in a crushed condition. Also at Lockport (Halli). . 176 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genus LICHENALIA Halli [Ety.: Azcxyy, lichen] (18525 — Palais Ve 2 ae) Zoarium a subcircular expansion, consisting of a single lamina, but often growing in successive layers, the one over the other; zooecia prostrate, elongate subrhomboidal, with a direct, subtubular, outward prolongation or vestibule; apertures rounded, with the peristome much elevated on the posterior side; interspaces de- pressed. Lichenalia concentrica Hall (Fig. 79) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:171, DERE ee, 22 |8)) Distinguishing characters. Circular frond, slightly cup-form in the young state, flattened at maturity; generally variously contorted from irregular growth or accident, and thick at intervals; concen- Fig. 79 Lichenalia concentrica trically striate and rugose surface, strongest on non-celluliferous side; apertures in concentric lines, narrow, opening on the summit of an elevated pustule. | Found rarely in the lower Clinton limestone; abundantly in the Clinton lenses; and again rarely in the lower Rochester shale and the Bryozoa bed. Niagara sections. Also at Lockport and else- where (Hall). NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 17g. Class BRACHIOPODA Cuvier The Brachiopoda are marine animals, sparingly represented in modern seas, but most prolific in the Paleozoic and early Mesozoic waters. The valves of the brachiopod shell are dorsal and ventral, and not right and left as in the lamellibranch Mollusca; they are unequal, and each is symmetric with reference to a median line (longitudinal axis) drawn through its apex. The larger valve may have its beak truncated or furnished with an opening or foramen, for the emission of the fleshy pedicle, by means of which the animal fixes itself to rocks, shells or other substances. Certain genera, such as Crania, do not conform to this mode of fixation, but cement their shell directly to the foreign object, while others, e. g. Pholidops, appear to have led a free exist- ence. In many of the discinoid genera, such as Orbicu- loidea, the pedicle passed through an opening in the lower valve; while in Ling ula it protruded between the two very nearly equal valves. In all cases the valve giving emission to the pedicle is spoken of as the pedicle valve. The opposite valve in the more specialized genera bears on its interior two short processes, or cruwra, which arise from the hinge Fig. 80 Diagram of Spirifer. (AB) Longitudinal axis marking the hight; (CD) Transverse axis marking the width ; (a) Anterior (front) end; (B) posterior (beak) end; (h) hinge line; (ca) cardina ar a; (€) cardinal extremities; (dt) deltidium; (u) umbo; (a) apex or beak plate. To these may be attached a calcareous brachidium, which functions as a support for the delicate fleshy “arms”. In a large number of forms this brachidium is absent, and the fleshy arms are directly supported by the crura, but their relation to the valve in question is similar to that obtaining in the brachidium-bearing forms. This valve is designated the brachial valve. In all the forms in which the «valves are articulated with each other (Brachiopoda articulata) such articulation is produced by teeth arising from the pedicle valve and lodged in sockets in the brachial valve. The beak of the brachial valve is commonly fur- nished with a more or less pronounced cardinal process, which, at its 78) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM free end, presents a surface for the attachment of the diductor, or opening muscles, the opposite ends of which are attached near the center of the pedicle valve, where they often leave pronounced scars. A contraction of these muscles pulls on the cardinal process, and draws the beak of the brachial valve toward the interior of the pedi- cle valve, and thus opens the valves. Adductor muscles passing from valve to valve and also commonly leaving scars, close the valves again. Below the cardinal process and often merged with it, is an elevated hinge plate whose surface often serves for muscu- lar attachment. ; Beneath the beak of each valve frequently occurs a flat “ cardinal area’, bounded above by the cardial slopes and below by the ar- ticulating margin or jinge line. This area is commonly divided in the center by a triangular fissure (delthyrium). It may be covered either by a single plate (deltidiwm) or by two plates which join in the center (deltidial plates). The important surface features of the shell are: the lines of growth, the radiating plications or striations, the fold or medial elevation, and the sinus or medial depression, the fold commonly occurring on the brachial, and the sinus on the pedicle valve. Genus LincuLa Bruguiere [Ety.: lingula, little tongue] (1780. Hist. nat. des vers tesiaces; 1892. Ral, No ye 3) pees) Shell with the valves nearly equal and varying in outline from elongate ovate to subtriangular, always longer than wide; va-ves urched. Animal attached by ~a deme muscular pedicle which protrude. from between the beaks of the two valves. Lingula cuneata Conrad (Fig. &:) (ila 1852) 2G) iN V2 28, me Zz) Distinguishing characters. Acutely cuneate form; very acute beak with Fig. 81 Lingula cuneataenlargedx2 nearly rectilinear margins; slightly curved base; valves convex near the beak, flatter toward front; fine longitudinal striae. Found in the upper Medina sandstones at Niagara. Also at Lockport etc. (Hall). NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 179 Genus pHoLipops Hall [Ety.: godés, a scale] fieseeeea). Vv. Y. 3-489; 1802. Pal. N. Y. v. 8, pt 1, p. 155) Shells small, with equal valves, patella-like in outline; inarticulate and unattached, without pedicle opening; position of apex variable; edges of valves flattened where they meet, and on the interior are elevated areas for attachment of muscles, etc. In molds of the in- terior, a strongly marked impression of this callosity appears. ' Pholidops squamiformis Hall (Fig. 82). Or- mecca. squamiformis Hall (1852. @ gi. Y. 2-250, pl. 53, fig. 4a-b) Distinguishing characters. Depressed oval ‘ z Fig. 82 Pholidops squam- form; squamous concentric striae, most marked iformis natural size and - enlarged on anterior slope. Found near the middle of the lower Rochester shales at Niagara. Also at Lockport (Hall). Genus DIcTYONELLA Hall [Ety.: dcxrdov, net] tices ie) > state cab. nct. hist. 20th an. rept; p. 274; 1893. atta Nev y.. 8; pt 2, p. 307) | Shell subtriangular in outline with biconvex valves, pedicle valve having a broad median sinus, and brachial valve a corresponding : fold; beak of pedicle vaive acute and arched over that of brachial valve, though not closely appressed against it; a short, triangular deltidium depressed within the cavity of the pedicle valve; teeth long, marginal and ridge-like on the diverging cardinal slopes and fitting into narrow marginal grooves on the brachial valve; brachial valve _ with a strong median septum. Exterior covered by a coarse net- work of superficial cells, usually hexagonal, sometimes circular in outline. A triangular area at the umbo of the pedicle valve is destitute of this reticulation. Dictyonella corallifera Hall (Fig. 83). Atrypa coralli- ee beta clalle KaS52. Pale Ne Y 22812 pl. 58, fig. 5a-t) Distinguishing characters. Form rhom- boidal to subtriangular, base often nearly straight; broad and strong sinus and fold; reticulated or pitted surface, the space be- Fig. 83 Dictyonella corallifera with surface enlarged tween the pits often punctate. Found in the Bryozoa beds of the Rochester shale at Niagara. Also at Lockport (Hall). 180 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genus LEPTAENA Dalman [ Ety:: Aexrds, thin | (1828. Kongl. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl. p. 93,94) Shells concavo-convex; surface covered by conspicuous concen- tric corrugations or wrinkles over the flatter portions of the valves. Where these cease, the surface is more or less abruptly deflected, forming a conspicuous anterior slope. Whole exterior covered with fine, radiating, tubular striae, which in well preserved specimens are crenulated by finer concentric striae. Hinge line straight; cardinal area narrow. A convex deltidium present, perforated at the apex by a foramen, which often en- croaches on the apex of the valve. A trilobed cardinal process and well defined muscular impressions dare present: Leptaena rhomboidalis (Wah- lenbere) (Pig. 64). 1 eipiiarenana depressa Hall” (aShzimea N.Y. 2:257, pl. 53, fig. 6a-1) Nstinguishing characters. Cor- igs BE RE DIET E) FE OREISO EIS rugated part gently convex to slightly concave; abrupt anterior deflection; strong concentric cor- rugations and fine striae. Narrow hinge area. Found in the upper Clinton limestone, the Clinton lenses, and the lower Rochester shale up to and in the Bryozoa bed. Rarely above this. Also at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). Genus stropHEoDONTA Hall [Ety.: otpogy, bend; ddods, tooth | (1852... ‘Pal, Nov. 2:63. “Hall -& Clarke, 1802; Pal. No eee pt 1, p. 284) Shell normally concavo-convex; hinge line usually equal to*or grcater than the greatest width of the shell. Area of the pedicle valve higher than that of the brachial valve, both furnished with projecting denticulations, which interlock and form articulations. Muscular areas well marked and variously bounded. A strongly marked bifid cardinal process occurs in the brachial valve. | NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY I8I Stropheodonta corrugata (Conrad) (Fig. 85) (Hall. 1852. Pm oN 22-50, pl. 21) Distinguishing characters. Semioval, nearly flat; small, acute lateral extensions of hinge; fine, prominent striae sometimes bifur- Fig. 85 Stropheodonta corrugata; with surface enlarged cating or alternating with finer ones; oblique folds on hinge margin. Found in the Clinton limestone (?) and the Clinton lenses at Ni- agara. Rare. Stropheodonta profunda Hall (Fig. 86) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:61, pl 21) Distingumshing characters. Large, semioval, much wider than high; auriculate hinge; profoundly concave brachial valve; abruptly Fig. 86 Stropheodonta profunda with enlargement of striae deflected margins; fine, unequal surface striae; papillose or punctate interior. | Found in the lower and upper Clinton limestone at Niagara. Also in the latter bed at Lockport (Hall). . 182 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genus STROPHONELLA [all [Ety.: ozpégos, turned around] en N.Y. state mus. nat. hist., 26th an. rep’t, p. 153; Hall & Clarke! 18092." Pal, 7 Vesye 8) pr pace) Shells with the form and structure of Stro pheodontayipnt with the relative convexity of the valves reversed. Strophonella striata Hall (Fig. 87) Leptaena striata Halls (1852. Role 7) 22-00 la 53: teem) Distinguishing characters. | Semielliptic, almost flat, hinge line equal to or a little longer than width of shell; fine, rounded, radiating Suriacesmaae which increase by implantation; fine concentric ie 87 Strophonella 2 stria striae. Found in the middle and upper Rochester shale at Niagara. Strophonella (?) patenta Hall (Fig. 88). Leptaena pat- enta Halle ashe Baie Ne) a2 Oo. pike Zay) Distinguishing characters. Wider than high; hinge not auriculate; Fig. 88 Strophonella (?, patenta with enlarged surface features fine unequal radii crossed by finer concentric striae; inner surfaces of valves thickly covered with sharp points. Found in the Clinton limestones and lenses and doubtfully in the middle Rochester shales at Niagara. Genus PLECTAMBONITES Pander [Ety.: ztexrds, piaited; aufov, beak] (1830. Beitrage cur Geognosie des Russ. Retches. p. 90. Hall & Clarke, 1892; Pal No V. vy. Sippy e2g6,) 205) - Shells small, concavo-convex; surface striae very fine, often alter- nating in size; hinge line making greatest width, extremities often « Tee eT ee ae or © NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 183 subauriculate; cardinal areas narrow, sometimes obscurely crenu- lated on the margins. Delthyrium partially closed by convex plate, but mostly occupied by cardinal process of opposite valve. Car- dinal process appears trilobate. Muscular areas moderately well defined. Plectambonites sericea (Sowerby) (Fig. 89). Leptaena eee wall (1852.. Pal. N.Y. 2250) pl. 27) Distinguishing characters. Outline semicircular to semioval; hinge line ex- tended, ending in acute points; striae Be Ee lectamibouikes perices strong, elevated, alternating with finer ones. Found in the lower Clinton limestone at Niagara. Rare. Plectambonites transversalis (\Wahlenberg) (Fig. 90). Lep- Petit edisyetrsalis Hall (1852 Pal. N. Y: 2:256, pl. 53) fig. 5a-b) Distinguishing characters. Out- line semicircular; strongly convex pedicle, and extremely concave bra- chial valve, conforming to each other; strongly incurved beak of pedicle valve, which causes an inflection of the hinge line; hinge line produced; Fig. 90 Plectambonites transversalis fine distant elevated striae with ex- tremely fine striae between; strongly punctate character of ex- foliated portions. | Found in the Clinton lenses, and abundantly in the lower Roches- ter shale at Niagara. ‘Also at Lockport (Hall). Genus oRTHOTHETES Fischer de Waldheim [Ety.: éo0ds, straight] (1830. Soc. imp. natural. d. Moscow: Bul. 1:375. Hall & Clarke, megs di. Na Yo wi8, pt I, pr 253) Shell varying from plano-convex to biconvex, sometimes becom- ing concavo-convex with age. Pedicle valve most convex about the beak, which often tends toward irregular growth; cardinal area well developed, with a thick, more or less convex deltidium. Teeth not supported by dental plates, Brachial valve most convex near 184 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the middle, with a narrow hinge area; cardinal process quadrilobate as seen from above. Surface covered by slender radiating striae, which are crenulated by concentric lines. | Orthothetes subplanus (Conrad) (Fig.91). Leptaena sub- plana Hall. @852) Pal NZ Yo 2-250, pl. 53, fic. e168) Distinguishing characters. Pedicle valve at first convex, later be- coming concave; valves nearly equal in length and width; extended hinge line, sometimes projecting into points; sharp angular or sub- angular to rounded striae, sometimes bifurcating before reaching Fig. 91 Orthothetes subplanus margin, separated by wider interspaces; the usual method of increase is by intercalation of fine striae, which soon grow to strength of the chief ones; fine concentric and occasionally coarser lines of growth. 3 Found at Niagara in the upper Clinton beds and the Clinton lenses; also abundantly in certain thin calcareous layers of the lower Rochester shale, less common in the middle and upper shale. Also at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). Orthothetes hydraulicus (Whit- field) (Fig. 92) (Grabau. Geoi. soc Ain, Bue tar 305. plaz22) Fig. 92 Orthothetes hydraulicus bg Distinguishing characters. Small size; obtuse cardinal margins with hinge line shorter than greatest width of shell; uniformly rounded front; strong rounded, sharply de- Sebi a 7 * -NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 185 * fined radiating striae, which curve slightly upward on the lateral “margins near the cardinal area; strongest striae reaching to beak; increase by repeated intercalation; fine concentric striae. Found in great abundance in the Manlius limestone of North | Buffalo, etc., usually in the condition of molds. Genus cHONETES [Fischer de Waldheim » tive: xOrN, funnel ] (1837. Oryctographie du gouv. de Moscow, pt 2, p. 134; 1892. PIN VV. 8, pt I, p. 303) Shells concavo-convex (in our species), with the pedicle valve convex; hinge line straight, making the greatest diameter cf the shell; areas narrow; the triangular opening (delthyrium) in the area of the pedicle valve covered by a convex deltidium. Upper margin of area bears a single row of hollow spines. Area of brachial valve without spines; cardinal process appearing quadrilobate. | Interior of shell strongly papillose in the pallial region. A low median ridge divides the muscular area of the pedicle valve. A similar ridge oc- curs in the brachial valve. External surface usually covered by radiating striae. Chonetes cornutus (Hall) (Fig. 93) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:64, pl 21) Distinguishing characters. Semi- circular; fine equal striae, round, | straight and bifurcating with similar interspaces ; three cardinal spines on Fig. 93 Chonetes cornutus natural size and each side of beak, obliquely diverg- SRD ing below, curving inward at middle and upper parts; outer one longest. Found (doubtfully) in the Lockport limestone at Niagara. Genus ortu1s Dalman (sensu strictu) i[Ety.: dp06s, straight; in allusion to hinge line] (1828. Kongl. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl. p. 93, 96. Hall & lackeree2z.eaal iN WV on’ 8. pt 1, -p. 192) _ Shells plano-convex in contour; costae strong, sharp and com- paratively few, rarely if ever bifurcating; cardinal area of pedicle 186 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM valve elevated and somewhat incurved; dental lamellae slightly de- veloped, not extending the entire length of the umbonal cavity. Car- dinal process an elongate vertical plate, logitudinally dividing the deep deltidial cavity. Orthis flabellites Foerste (Fig.. 94). - O24 Talse eater Pal. N. VY. 2-254 cnleee) Distinguishing characters. Long hinge line; semioval form; coarse, simple rounded plications, equal to spaces between them; marked con- centric growth lines. Fig. 94 Orthis flabellites Found in the upper Clinton limestone and the lower Rochester shale at Niagara. Rare. Also in the shale at: Wockpert VICINITY 189 Distinguishing characters. Nearly circular and equivalve; finely striated surface; dichotomous striae running upward and outward on the hinge line; narrow short hinge area; slightly sinuous front. Found in the lower Clinton limestone (7). Also east of Lockport (Hall). Genus scENIDIuMm Hall [Ety.: exnyidov, little tent] (1860. N.Y. state cab. nat. hist. 13th rep’t, p. 70; 1892. Pal. N.Y. v. 8, pt I, p. 241) Shells subpyramidal, somewhat semicircular; with or without median sinus or elevation; pedicle valve elevated, subpyramidal; beak straight or slightly arched; cardinal area large, triangular, di- vided by a narrow fissure, sometimes closed at the summit by a con- cave plate. Brachial valve depressed convex to concave; cardinal line usually equal to width’ of shell; cardinal process simple or divided, and extending as a median septum through the length of the shell. Spondylium in the pedicle valve. Scenidium pyramidale Hall (Fig. 100). Or- fimewepyramidale Hall (1852. _ Pal. N. sf 2 251, pl. 52, fig. 2a-Z) Fig. 100 Scenidium pyramid- ale enlarged Distinguishing characters. Minute, subpyra- midal; flat semicircular brachial valve, centrally depressed; ex- tremely elevated pedicle valve with large triangular area; strong radiating striae, sometimes dichotomous; lamellose concentric striae. % Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall) and may also occur at Niagara. Genus ANASTROPHIa Hall [Ety.: ava, back; osrpog7, a turning | (1867. N.Y. state cab. nat. hist. 20th an. rep’t, Ma 203 -skSO3, 4 lal. Wee. 8; pt 2, p. 224) Pentameroid shells with a spoon-shaped cavity (spondylium) under the beak of the pedicle valve and with a moderate cardinal line but no hinge area; surface with numerous sharp plications ex- tending to the beak. Igo. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Anastrophia interplicata (Hall) (Fig. ror). Atrypa inter- plicata Hall (852) Pal. N. Y.2:275 >i) Distinguishing characters. Extremely con- vex; brachial valve the deepest; moderate sinus and fold; from two to three plications in the former and three to four on the latter; lateral * plications increase by implantation. La Oke eRe Found in the Clinton lenses, and in the lower and middle Rochester shale at Niagara. Also in the shale at Lockport (Hall). Anastrophia brevirostris Hall (Fig. 102)" Atty pa... Ut ev ie Om tins Hall G8s27. Pal Wea 2-27S.ipless) Distinguishing characters. Wider than high; strongly convex; brachial valve deepest; short nearly equal beaks; Fig. 102 Anastrophia brevirostris sharp bifurcating or interpolated plica- tions, from five to six in the sinus and fold, which are broad and ill defined. Found in the lower Rochester shale at Niagara (?). Also in the shale at Lockport (Hall). Genus PENTAMERUS Sowerby [Ety.: zére, five; péoos, part] (1813. Sowerby. Mineral conchélogy, 1:76; Hall & Clarke, 1ée2% Pal. N. Y.y. 8, pt 2, p. 236) Shell strongly inequivalve, biconvex with highly arched pedicle valve; surface smooth, or with a few broad and obscure radiating undulations. Under the beak of the pedicle valve is a deep and narrow spondylium, or plate with an excavated spoon-shaped cavity, supported by a high vertical septum of variable length; brachial valve with a pair of septa, the interior of the shell being thus di- vided into five compartments. Pentamerus oblongus Sowerby (Fig. 103) (Hall. 1852. Pal. NEW E276 pl. 25) Distinguishing characters. Very large and oblong, varying in out- line with age; wider in anterior part; valves strongly convex at beaks; beak of pedicle valve overarching; subtrilobate division of NIAGARA FADES“ AND VICINITY IOI valves in some specimens; surface marked only by concentric lines of growth, which are strongest in old shells. Fig. 103 Pentamerus oblongus Found in the upper crystalline Clinton limestone at Niagara (1 specimen). The species is characteristic of the lower Clinton limestone, east of Lockport. Genus BARRANDELLA Hall & Clarke [Bty: proper namie | erate Clarke. 1804. Pal. N. Y.v. 8 pt 2, p. 241, 243) Small pentameroid shells, of a galeate form or helmet-shaped con- tour, with a smooth, or rarely plicated surface. A spondylium is present, but is not supported by a septum. Barrandella fornicata (Hall) (Fig. t0o4). Pentamerus fomiancatts iHall (Pal..N. Y. 2:81, pl. 24) Distinguishing characters. Helmet- shaped contour, very convex pedicle valve, with overarching beak; sur- face obscurely plicate longitudinally. Fig. 104 Barrandella fornicata Mound)? any, .the upper crystalline Clinton limestone at Niagara. Also in the same limestone at Lockport (Hall). 192 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genus RHYNCHOTRETA Hall [Ety.: pdyx0s, beak; toyrd, with a hole] (187q N. Y. state mus. nat. hist. 28th an. rept, p. 166; 1803: Pal. NOV. ve Sh pt 2 aoe hes) | Shell triangular; surface with angular plications. Beak of pedicle valve straight, produced beyond that of the opposite valve, extremity perforate, the foramen with an elevated margin. Two longitudinally striated deltidial plates fill the delthyrium. Teeth slender, curving, proceeding from a broad curving hinge plate in the pedicle valve. Brachidium a slightly modified loop. | Rhynchotreta cuneata var. americana Hall (Fig. 105). Atrypa .cuneata Hall- (1852." Pol.cNeey2 2-270p lee fig. 4a-r) Mstinguishing characters. Triangu- lar and cuneiform outline; longer than wide; elongate angular beak of pedicle valve with compressed, flat or concave sides; wide, deep sinus in adult, extending two thirds to the beak; profound frontal emargination; strong angular plications, three in Fig. 105 Rhynchotreta cuneata var. americana sinus, four on fold, the two central ones most prominent; numerous regular, fine thread-like conccntric striae; minutely papillose surface. Found in the Clinton lenses and the lower Rochester shale and particularly in the Bryozoa beds, where it is abundant; rarely above this. Niagara sections. Also at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). Genus camaroToecuia Hall & Clarke [Ety.: zapdpa, arched chamber; rotzos, partition ] (18034) al Ne Ewes, pi 2apa miso) Shell rhynchonelloid, trihedral in contour, with shallow pedicle and convex brachial valve; no hinge area; beak of pedicle valve projecting and incurved. Surface radially plicate, sinus and fold in pedicle and brachial valves respectively. Distinctive internal char- acters (separating this genus from other “ Rhynchonellas”’) are: a : | : | sloping abruptly to the beak; strongly NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 193 median septum in the brachial valve, which divides posteriorly, so far as to form an elongate cavity, which does not extend to the bot- tom of the valve. No cardinal process. In the pedicle valve slen- der vertical lamellae support the teeth. Camarotoechia obtusiplicata Hall (Fig. 106). Atrypa oab- fie mpltcata-tiall (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:270, pl. 58, fig. 2a-h) Distinguishing characters. Gibbous, subspheroidal form; strongly convex brachial, and flatter pedicle valve; deep sinus of pedicle Fig. 106 Camarotoechia obtusipiicata valve with three plications (rarely four); depressed incurved beak of pedicle valve; simple, obtusely rounded or flattened plications; faint concentric striae; strongly emarginate front. ~ Found in the lower part of the lower Rochester shales at Niagara. Also in the shales and limestones at Lockport (Hall). Camaroteechia (?) neglecta Hall (Fig. 107). Atrypa Mmerowreretia fall (1852. Pal. N.Y. 2:70, 274, pi. 23 and 57) Distinguishing characters. Convex valves, brachial valve deepest, sides defined sinus and foid, in adult individ- ual, the former with three, the latter with four plications; profound frontal emargination; plications rounded. Found in the lower Clinton limestone ; in the Clinton lenses and in the upper Seleeoer sa part of the lower and the middle Rochester shales at Niagara. Also more rarely in the upper shales. Found also at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). . Camarotoechia acinus Hall (Fig. 108). Rhynchonella Semi seal CN Vs state nis. nat.. hist. 28th an. rept, p. 163, pl. 26) Distinguishing characters. Small size; longitudinally ovate form, narrowing toward beak, truncate in front; subequally convex valves; I1QO4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a single plication in sinus of pedicle valve and two on fold of brachial valve; few plications on either side of fold or sinus. Fig 108 Camarotoechia acinus. A specimen in which the fold and sinus are not developed. En- larged x 4 Found in the crystalline upper Clinton limestone at Niagara. The species was originally described from the western Niagara. Genus RHYNCHONELLA Fischer de Waldheim Pty: PUOLROS, beak] (1809. Notice des fos. gouv. Moscow. p. 35; Hall & Clarke, 1893. Poli Mv 8) pt 2npael 775 178) Subpyramidal plicated shells with a prominent anterior linguiform extension. Dental lamellae and a dorsal median septum occur, but no cardinal process; crura are present, but other arm supports are wanting. | Rhynchonella robusta Hall (Fig. 109). Atrypa robusta+ Hall @ésamaeue NGO Vi 2egiap ll. 3233) Distinguishing characters. Large size; ro- bust character; brachial valve most convex; broad, ill defined fold and sinus; coarse Fig. 109 Rhynchonella robusta rounded plications. Found in the uppermost beds of the Clinton series at Niagara. Also east of Lockport (Hall). Rhynchonella (?) bidens Hall (Fig. 110). Atrypa bidens Hall (18529 Pai 2:60; pl. 23) p . Distinguishing characters. Much smaller than < preceding; strong convexity of valves; deep sinus vig nang _ with one plication; fold consisting of two rounded ‘P's plications; rather broad, rounded lateral plicae; strongly emarginate front. Found in the lower Clinton beds at Lockport (Hall). ‘Probably also at Niagara. = NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 195 Rhynchonella (?) bidentata (Hisinger) (Fig. 111) Atrypa miercareata- tall (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:276, pl. 57) aD Distinguishing characters. Triangular form; acute, extended beak of pedicle valve; stronger convexity of brachial valve; less convex and more triangularly acute than preceding; very slight ‘ ‘ - S ‘ Fig. 111 Rhynchonel- frontal emargination; shallow sinus with one pli-1a (7) bidentata with . surface enlarged cation, and corresponding fold with two. Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). Probably also at Niagara. Genus atrypa Dalman [Ety.: a, without; cpdza, foramen (erroneous) | (1828. Kongl. Vetenskaps Akad. Handlingar, p. 127; 1894. Fal. ieee wee, pt 2, p. 163) Shell varying in outline from nearly circular to longitudinally suboval; valves very unequal, brachial valve being strongly convex or gibbous, while the pedicle valve is gently convex or almost flat ‘or sometimes slightly concave from the strongly marked sinus; beak of the pedicle valve small and incurved over that of the brachial. Large widely separated and doubly grooved teeth are present, unsupported by lamellae. Strong muscular impressions. Spirals of the brachidium with their bases parallel to the inner sur- face of the pedicle valve, and the apexes directed toward the deepest point of the opposite valve. Surface radially plicate. Binypa. reticularis (Linndeus). (Fig. 112) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:272, pl. 23, p. 270, pl. 55) Fig. 112 Atrypa reticularis Distinguishing characters. Convex brachial and flat pedicle valves; small deeply incurved beaks; radiating and concentric striae forming reticulated surface. 196 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Found in all the beds from the upper Clinton limestones to the Bryozoa beds. Most abundant in the Clinton. In the light colored crystalline upper Clinton limestone this species is very abundant, but also very variable. Strong robust and very rotund specimens occur, with brachial valve excessively bulg- ing, and with narrow simple rounded striae, increasing by implan- tation, and cancelated by concentric striae of moderate strength, and stronger undulations on the mature portions. Other specimens, less rotund and with bifurcating striae occur. When bifurcation of striae occurs, this is usually found on the pedicle valve, those of the brachial valve increasing only by intercalation. The pedicle valve usually has a sinus near the front, and the striae and concentric lines increase in strength, approaching the characters of the next species. In the Clinton lenses this character becomes still more pronounced, the shells at the same time decreasing in size and rotundity. In the Rochester shales the species is generally much less abundant, A. nodostriata being the prominent:form. A. fete meamee is represented by small and generally flattened specimens, in which the radiating striae are usually fine, and the concentric striae lamellose, specially in the adult por- tions. Increase of striae occurs by both intercalation and_ bifurcation, the former on the brachial, the lat- ter on the pedicle yalve. - In ‘seme specimens the bifurcation occurs close to the beak. Atrypa nodostriata Hall (Fig. 113) (1852. Pal NEW 32-272, pl. 56) Distinguishing characters. | Sub- equal valves, nearly equally convex in © young, pedicle valve more convex with age; small slightly elevated beak Fig. 115 Atrypa nodostriata, with striae i : . ae Bees of pedicle valve; mesial sinus in adult shells, broad and undefined; strong rounded bifurcating plications; lamellose growth lines which give nodulose appearance to surface. Found in the Clinton lenses, and the lower and middle Rochester shale at Niagara. Specially abundant in the Bryozoa beds. Also found at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). Atrypa rugosa Hall (Fig. 114) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:271, pl. 56) Distinguishing characters. Generally smaller than preceding; equally convex valves in adult, unequal in young, the brachial valve et ae Oe NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY LO7 being almost flat. Strong sinus and fold in adult, with minor plica- tions on each; strong concentric rugose lamellae; plications less rounded than preceding. Pound in the Clinton and Rochester beds at Niagara, gen- erally associated with the preced- ing but much less common. Also at Lockport, etc. (Hall). Fig. 114 Atrypa rugosa with striae enlarged Genus cyrTINA Davidson [Ety.: zvetéa, a wicker shield] (1858. British Carbon. Brachiopoda. Monograph, p. 66; 1893. iia av. Spt 2, p. 43) Shells Spirifer-like; usually small; valves very unequal; pedicle valve elevated, with a high cardinal area, the delthyrium of which is covered by an elorigate, convex pseudodeltidium, which is perforated below the apex; surface plicate. Dental lamellae strong, converging rapidly, and meeting a median septum. Cardinal pro- cess a double apophysis. - Brachidium an extroverted spire. Cyrtina pyramidalis (Hall) (Fig. 115). ODiriier pyramidalts. Hall (“8sz2. edi el 2200. pl. 54) Distinguishing — characters. Pyramidal form; vertical or slightly bent area; nearly flat brachial valve; extremely convex ped- Fig. 115 Cyrtina pyramidalis with 1¢le valve; subangular plications, about striae enlarged E 4 five on each side of mesial fold and sinus. Found “near the top and just below the edge of the cliff on the Niagara river above Lewiston ”’ (Hall). Genus SPIRIFER Sowerby ty: spira. spire; tera, to bear (1815. Mineral conchology, 2:42; 1894. Hall & Clarke. Pal. Hee. VO, Pt 2, py 1) Shell variously shaped, commonly very much wider than long, radially plicated or striated, crossed by concentric growth lines, which in some forms are lamellose or even marked by spines. 198 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Hinge line generally long and straight; pedicle valve usually with moderately high area, with an open delthyrium, the margins of which are prolonged into stout simple teeth, supported by dental lamellae. Area of the brachial valve the lower. A calcareous brachidium in the form of a double spire, whose apexes are directed toward the cardinal angles, nearly fills the cavity of the shell. Spirifer radiatus Sowerby (Fig. 116)” (iall. 1852) 2G 266) plo 22, p. 205, plus) Distinguishing characters. Moderately large size; pedicle valve with strongly incurved beak, moderate area, and broad shallow Fig. 116 Spirifer radiatus showing variation mesial sinus; flattened median fold; fine uniform radiating striae covering all parts of the shell. Found in the Clinton limestones and lenses and in the lower and middle Rochester shales at Niagara; sometimes abundant. Also at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). The shell varies greatly in form and proportions; sometimes the hinge area is much extended or the hinge extremities are rounded and the hinge line shorter than the shell below. Faint plications near the fold and sinus also occur in some specimens, connecting this species with the next. Spirifer niagarensis Conrad (Fig. 117) (Hall. 1852. Pal. INCU: 2OAR la 54)) Distinguishing — characters. Moderately large size; convex, with nearly equal valves; strongly incurved beak of pedicle valve; moderate area; numerous fine, rounded, de- pressed plications, which become obsolete Hig. 117 Spirifer niagarensis’ toward the extremities, and sometimes: ap- pear quite flattened out on the surface; fine thread-like radiating striae covering plications and interspaces alike. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 7 199 Found in the upper Clinton limestone and the Clinton lenses and abundantly throughout the lower and middle Rochester shale at Niagara. Also at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). | epirifer crispus (Hisinger) (Fig. 118) (Hall. 1852. Pal. N.Y. 2262 pi: 54) Distinguishing characters. Small size; very convex pedicle valve with incurved beak and high area, which does not extend to car- Fig. 118 Spirifer crispus dinal extremities; broad rounded plications, from six to eight on each valve, strongest near the fold and sinus; fine, elevated, thread- like concentric striae. Found in the Clinton lenses and the lower and particularly the middle Rochester shale (Bryozoa beds) at Niagara. Also at Lock- port and elsewhere (Hall). Spirifer crispus var corallinensis Grabau. (Geol. soc. Am. Bul. Giese setiall. 1852.° Pal, N.Y. 2:328, pl. 74, fig. ga-h) Distinguishing characters. Uniformly obsolescent plications, an- gular mesiai sinus; otherwise like preceding. Found in the Clinton lower limestone, the lenses, and the lower Rochester shale. Not abundant. This variety connects S. cris- Pismniia (S; eriensis: ~It is characteristic of the Coralline limestone of eastern New York. Spirifer eriensis Grabau (Fig. 119) (Geol. soc. Am. Bul. 2:366, pl. 21) Distinguishing characters. |Ventricose pedicle valve, of subrhomboidal outline, ater eeees high area, pronounced angular mesial sinus uniformly increasing in width forward, strong frontal emargination; sinus bounded by strong rounded prominent plications, with fainter 2CO } NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ones on either side; linear interspaces; sharply defined fold of brachial valve, with plications almost obsolete. Found only in the Manlius limestone of North Buffalo and Will- iamsville. Not common. Spirifer (Delthyris) sulcatus Hall (Fig.120) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:261, pl. 54) Distinguishing characters. Near- ly equal valves; deep mesial sinus; four or more plications on either side, with wide inter- spaces; fine radiating striae crossing plications and _ inter- Fig. 120 Spirifer (Delthyris) sulcatus with striae Spaces 5. Very COarse, lamellose, enl 5 a subequally spaced concentric growth lines which interrupt the radiating striae. Found rarely in the Clinton lenses and the lower Rochester shale; more common in the Bryozoa beds at Niagara. Also at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). RY Genus HomoEospira Hall & Clarke [Ety.: duotos, like; oxzetpa, spire | (1893 “Pal, NOY v8, pt2, pe ee) Shell rostrate, radially plicate, and with a short curved hinge line; apex truncated by a circular pedicle opening. Spirals spiriferoid, with from six to nine volutions and a V-shaped jugum. A linear cardinal process separates the crural plates. Homoeospira apriniformis Hall (Fig. 121). Atty pasvapreim sal’ (iss2.c) ssn eee 2 :280, pl. 57) pote, 121 Homoeospira aprini- . . . . . ormis Distinguishing characters. Small, roundish, oval, scarcely longer than wide; nearly equally convex valves: non- sinuate front, numerous simple rounded plications; fine concentric striae. Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall). Probably also at Niagara. : . 2 : : NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 201 Genus TREMATOsPIRA Hall [Ety.: ceqva, foramen; ozetpa, spire] (1859. N.Y. state mus. nat. hist. 12th an. rep’t, p. 27; 1893. Pal. Reeve o, pt 2, p. 124) : Shells transverse, with subequally convex valves; surface radially plicate; hinge line straight, cardinal extremities abruptly rounded; anterior margin sinuate. Pedicle valve with a median sinus and an incurved beak, truncated by a circular foramen. MDelthyrium cov- ered by two short incurved plates, which are usually closely an- kylosed, and appear continuous, with a narrow, flattened area on either side; lower half of the delthyrium open, for the reception of the beak of the brachial valve. Teeth prominent, arising from the bottom of the valve; above the hinge line they curve backward and toward each other, thus making a very firm articulation. Muscular area well defined. Brachial valve with median fold, and minute beak. Hinge plate greatly elevated, with a small chilidium resting against it; upper face of plate deeply divided by median longitudinal groove, and more faintly by transverse groove. Dental sockets small and deep, crura broad, thin and comparatively short. Brachi- dium of two spiral cones set base to base, as in Spirifer. Trematospira camura Hall (Fig. Weeetrypa camura Hall (1852. Mate ey. 2:273, pl. 56) Distinguishing characters. Small; subrhomboidal to transversely elon- gate; nearly equally convex valves. Small, acute, projecting and slightly in- Fig. 122 Trematospira camura curved beak of pedicle valve, showing in young shells the ankylosed deltidial plates; strong, distant, simple subangular plications, one or two fine ones in the center; fine, thread-like concentric striae and coarse lamellae. . Found in the Bryozoa beds of the Rochester shale at Niagara, rather common. Also at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). about four, gradually enlarging; large um- bilicus extending to the apex. Found in the upper Medina sandstones (ij > : of the Niagara sections. Also at Lockport (Hall). Genus Bucania_ Hall | [Ety.: bucina, a trumpet] (ae47. Pal. N.Y. 32) Shells coiled, a single plane, with the spire equally concave on either side and all the volutions visible; outer whorl ven- tricose; all whorls embracing to some extent, having an inner con- cavity; aperture rounded, oval, somewhat compressed on the inner side from contact with preceding whorl. Bucania trilobata (Conrad) (Fig. 144) (Hall. 1852. i) Pediat = 2-13) pl..4. (bis) ) ie Distinguishing characters. Suborbicular form; three- Fig. 143 Pleurotomaria pervetusta rit: iit Bucania lobed volutions, all of which are visible; last whorl rilobata _ greatly expanded; aperture wider than long. Found at Medina and Lockport and fragments in the upper Medina of Niagara indicate its presence there. Class CONULARIDA Paleozoic mollusks of doubtful systematic position, resembling some modern Pteropoda, but only distantly and ancestrally related to them. Shells conic or tubular, elongate, septate and variously ornamented. Genus conuraria Miller [Ety.: diminutive of conus, a cone] (1821. Sowerby. Mineral conchology, 3:107) Shell elongated, pyramidal, with the transverse section varying from quadrangular to octagonal; angles indented by longitudinal grooves. The surface is variously ornamented by transverse or 214 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM reticulated striae. Near the apex the shell is furnished with a trans- Verse Sepettiin: ; Conularia niagarensis Hall (Fig. 145) (1852. Pal, NoVe2268 pl. 65) Distinguishing characters. Broad, pyramidal, tapering abruptly; deep abrupt channels of the angles; shallow, scarcely defined de- pression of centers of faces; fine and closely arranged transverse striae, which extend from the angles obliquely to the center, and Fig. 145 Conularia niagarensis with several striae enlarged bend more abruptly in crossing the central depression; granulate character of striae; intermediate spaces with longitudinal striae. Found in the Rochester shale at Lockport (Hall). Probably - occurs also at Niagara. Class CEPHALOPODA Cuvier The cephalopods are the most highly developed mollusks, possess- ing a distinct, well defined head, a circle of eight or more arms sur- rounding the mouth and generally furnished with suckers or hooks, a funnel-like hyponome, or swimming organ, and a highly developed nervous system. The majority of modern genera are naked, or with only a rudimentary internal shell (squids, cuttlefish, etc.). Nauti- lus is the only modern genus with a typical external shell. The shells of cephalopods are chambered, i. e. divided, by a series of transverse floors or septa, into air chambers. The last or living Ss = Pw ee ere NIAGARA FALLS. AND VICINITY 215 chamber lodges the animal. The septa are pierced by a correspond- ing series of holes, the walls of which are often prolonged backward or forward into siphonal funnels, the whole constituting the siphuncle. Piette. Nartiloidea, the sutures are, as a rule, simple or but slightly lobed, and the siphuncle is commonly central or eccentric, but seldom marginal, with the funnels generally di- rected backward. The embryonic shell, or proto- conch, is rarely retained. The shells of cephalopods are either straight (more or less conic) or variously curved and coiled to close involution. NAUTIEOIDEA Genus ortHocErRas Breyn [Ety.: opéds, straight; xépas, horn] (1732. Dissertatio physica de polythalamiis) Shell a straight conic tube, with a large body Fig. 146 Orthoceras F eee rieepoum chamber and numerous air chambers, separated by convex septa. Sutures simple, at right angles to the long axis of the shell; siphuncle central, sub- central, or eccentric, cylindric or sometimes widening in the chambers. Surface smooth or variously ornamented by transverse or longitud- inal striae, or by annulations. Orthoceras multiseptum Hall (Fig. 146) (1852. Peay. 2:14, pl. 4 (bis) ) Distinguishing characters. Cylindric, gradually tapering; septa distant one sixth to one seventh the diameter. Found in the upper Medina sandstone at Lock- port, etc. (Hall). Probably also at Niagara. Orthoceras annulatum Sowerby (Fig. 147). Saimoceras’ undulatum: Hall * (1852. adie. Y 222-203, pl. 64, 65) Distinguishing characters. Strong annulations; moderately strong longitudinal lines which node , Mis. 147 Qrthoreras an- : : : - tion showing shell of liv- the annulations, fine transverse striae; elliptic ingchamberand section- ed camerae (after Bar- cross-section; subcentral siphuncle. rande) Found in the Clinton limestone lenses in the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg railroad cut above Lewiston. Also in the Roches- 216 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ter shale and Lockport limestone at Lockport (Hall), and probably also at Niagara. Orthoceras medullare Hall (1860. Geol. sur. Wis. Rep’t prog. p. 4) Distinguishing characters. Cylindric, gradually tapering form; septa distant nearly half the diameter; large siphuncle, slightly ex- panded between septa; strong sharp subequal longitudinal striae, with often alternating finer striae; smooth cast. Found in the Clinton limestone lenses in the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg railroad section above Lewiston. Rare. The species is normally a western one. Genus cyrtocEeras Goldfuss [Ety.: zvptés, curved; zépas, horn] (1837. De la’ Beche,’ Hotabad Geogn. bearb. von v. Dechen. p. 536) Shell conic and gently curved, with a depressed elliptic to trigonal cross- section, the aperture in old shells con- tracted to a T-shaped opening; si- phuncle large, eccentric. Cyrtoceras subcancellatum Hall (Fic. 148). > Cyrrocet as mes cancellatwm- Hall’ Gé52neieme ’ Fig. 148 Cyrtoceras subcancellatum NSA 2-200) pil: 20s) Distinguishing characters. Arcuate; transversely oval section; transversely striated surface, and faint longitudinal striae; siphuncle submarginal. i Found in the “ limestone below the cliff at Niagara Falls ’’ (Hall). Genus GOMPHOCERAS Sowerby [Ety.: yvdueos, a pin, bolt, or club; zépas, a horn] (1839. Murchison. Silurian system, p. 620) Shell straight or curved, pear-shaped, greatest diameter in front of the middle; cross-section circular; mouth contraeted, opening by a T-shaped aperture; siphuncle central or eccentric, subcylindric or expanding between the septa (moniliform). NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 217 Gomphoceras ? sp. (Hall. 1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:290, pl. 61) Distinguishing characters. Subfusiform aperture narrowed, grad- ually tapering to the extremity; surface striated transversely. This fossil has the general form and appearance of Gompho- ceras, though I am unable to discover any marks of septa. The greatest expansion appears to be at about one third of the distance from the aperture to the apex. Found “in a fragment of limestone below the cliff at Niagara Falls” (Hall). Fig. 149 Trochoceras gebhardi, two thirds natural size Genus TRocHocERAS Hall [Ety.: cpoxés, a wheel; zéoas, a horn (named from its trochus or top-like shape) ] GOS 2a ie di NG V9 22335) Shells turbinate or trochiform; spire elevated as in Gastropoda, ‘more or less ventricose and umbilicated; aperture rounded or round oval; volutions above the outer one with septa; siphuncle sub- marginal or dorsal. Trochoceras gebhardi Hall (Fig.149) (1852. .Pal. N. Y. 2:335, Be 77) 77s: orapaus Geol soc. Am. Bul. 1%:377, pl: 21) Distinguishing characters. Deep and wide umbilicus with angular margins; cross-section of body whorl irregularly subhemispheric; 218 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM apical angle of spire about 60°; fine crowded surface striae. In the specimens so far obtained from the Manlius limestone, no septa have been preserved. Found in the Manlius limestone of North Buffalo (Vogt & Piper, fig. 149) and Williamsville. The species was originally described from the Coralline limestone (Niagara) of Schoharie county (N. Y.) Class - CRUSTACEA leamarek Order oSTRACODA Latr. The ostracods are small crustacea, with a bivalve, calcareous or horny shell covering the entire body. The valves are joined dorsally by a membrane, and open along the ventral side. The body is in- distinctly segmented, and bears seven pairs of appendages, two pairs of which represent the trunk limbs. The shell corresponds to the carapace of the higher crustaceans. ‘These organisms are ~ minute and will ordinarily be overlooked unless search is made for them with a lens on the surfaces of the shale laminae. They are specially abundant in the finer grained shales. Genus IsocHILINa jones - [Ety. 2 %oos, equal to; zeros, lip (1858. Can. organic remains, Decade 3, p. 197) Carapace with equal valves, whose margins meet uniformly and do not overlap; greatest convexity central, or toward the anterior end; anterior tubercle present. Isochilina cylindrica (Hall). Cytherina cylindrica Hall Giese, Pal: NG Ve 254 emilee) Distinguishing characters. Oval, elongate form; great convexity, “which, when both valves are joined, would give an almost cylin- drical form to the shell”. Found in the upper Medina sandstones at Medina (Hall), but probably also at Niagara and other places. Genus LEPERDITIA Rouault [Ety.: Leperdit, proper name] (1851. Soc. geol. France. Bul. ser. 2, 8:377) Carapace with unequal valves, the right valve the larger and over- lapping the left valve, along the ventral and, to some extent, along the anterior and posterior ends; valves smooth, oblong and horny. Ee ure Te eee ee a, a Ne ote aE Pe eee ee ee NIAGARA’ FALLS AND VICINITY 219 Leperditia scalaris Jones (Fig. 150) (Grabau. Geol. soc. Am. Bul. G28 70. pl. 22) Distinguishing characters. Bean-shaped outline; straight hinge line with salient angles; uniformly curved basal margin; an- terior and posterior marginal borders; ocular tubercle about aeigimd the length of the shell from the anterior end; strong, eausared fold or ©“ dorsal hump ” below the hinge line, in the posterior half of the left See valve. Fig. 150 Leperditia scalaris (enlarged) Found in the Manlius limestone of North Buffalo and elsewhere in Erie county. It is a common species. Genus Botiia Jones & Holl [Ety.: Boll, proper name] (1886. An. and mag. nat. hist., ser. 5, 17:360) Valves oblong, with rounded and nearly equal ends; hinge line straight, ventral margin curved; surface punctate and bearing a rudely horseshoe-shaped ridge, with a central depression within, and without a semilunar ridge on each side and parallel to the outer margins of the shell, which are slightly rimmed. Bollia symmetrica (Hall) (Fig. 151), Beyrichia sym- mucumtemced Elall, (1852: ~ Pal. N. Ys 2:357, pl. 67) Distinguishing characters. Extremely small size; thin horseshoe ridge, dividing shell into three nearly equal parts; ridges and inter- en BD spaces about equal; outer ridges not continued ventrally. Found in a fragment of weathered Rochester shale, on the talus along the Rome, Watertown and “Fig. 151 Bolliasym- Ogdensburg railroad cut above Lewiston. As- metrica natural size : ¢ ; emenlarged sociated with the next. (One specimen found was larger than the normal, and the horseshoe curve rather thick ven- trally, but not as thick as in B. lata of the Clinton group. This appears intermediate between the two species.) Also found at Lockport (Hall). 220 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genus arcHmina Jones & Holl [Ety.: deyp7, point of a spear | (An. and mag. nat. hist. ser. 4. 3:217) Carapace with thick valves, straight at hinge line, rounded at the ends, and convex at the ventral border. Surface drawn out into a broad-based and sharp pointed hollow cone, which either involves the whole surface, or rises from the postero-dorsal or centro-dorsal region. : Aechmina spinosa (Hall) (Fig.152), Cytherina spinosa Halle (iS52.5 eal IN ee or Ie lao) Distinguishing characters. Strong oblique spine, thick and hollow at the base, either elongate or short; pointed upward, outward and forward, and sometimes slightly bent; valves thickened on the free border by a raised, rounded but irregular mar- gin; area at base of spine hollow and smooth; y A raised margin sometimes punctate; spine often long ; and projecting beyond the upper margin of the valve. Found in weathered Rochester shale on the talus Fig. 152 Aechmina Of the Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg railroad spinosa much enlarged . . After Jones. SO Cut. above Lewiston. The valves are often im- bedded in the shale with the inner concave surfaces exposed. Also found at Lockport (Hall). Order TRILOBITA Burmeister The trilobites are extinct Crustacea, wholly confined to the Paleo- zoic seas. The body was covered with a carapace longitudinally divisible into three parts. The anterior portion comprises the head- shield, or cephalon, which is usually semicircular, with a straight pos- terior border. The central of the three cephalic lobes is the glabella, which is the most prominent part of the cephalon. It is of varying outline, and more or less divided by transverse furrows or pairs of furrows. The last furrow is the occipital furrow, and delimits the occipital ring, which is just anterior to the first segment cf the thorax. On either side of the glabella is a pair of cheeks, divided by the facial suture into fixed cheeks (those next to the glabella) and free cheeks (the outermost portion). The latter are often prolonged into ee a ee ae ed NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY Z22L geal spines. Vhe compound eyes are situated on the free cheeks, and they are overshadowed by more or less prominent eyelids or palpebral lobes, which are lateral lobes from the fixed cheeks. The facial suture thus passes between the eyes and the palpebral lobes, and when, as is often the case, the free cheeks become separated after the death of the animal, only the palpebral lobes remain on the central portion of the cephalon. The border of the cephalon is. often distinctly marked, and is spoken of as the cephalic imb. At the margin it is folded down and under, making the doublure, which, continued backward, often produces hollow or solid genal spines. Near the anterior lower portion of the doublure lies the lower lip, or hypostoma, which is usually found separate. The thorax consists of a varying number of segments or rings, - articulated with each other, and commonly permitting enrolment. Each consists of a central annulus and lateral pleurae. The tail, or pygidiwm, consists of a single piece, comprising a cen- tral avis and lateral lobes. The axis and the lobes commonly show transverse furrows, corresponding to the divisions of the thorax, and they are often so strongly marked that a line of division between thorax and pygidium is difficult to determine. Great advances have recently been made in our knowledge of the ventral side of trilobites. Probably all of them had jointed appen- dages, which included antennae, mouth parts and legs, comparable in a general way to those of modern Crustacea. Genus HOMALoNoTUs Koenig [Ety.: dpadés, on the same level; vdros, back] (1825. Icones foss. sectiles, p. 4) Body usually large, depressed above, with abruptly sloping sides. The axial furrows are indistinct or obsolete. Cephalon depressed convex, wider than long, with rounded genal angles, and somewhat produced anterior margin; glabella almost rectangular, smooth, or with faint lateral furrows. Small eyes situated behind the middle, and converging facial sutures are characteristic. Thorax of 13 deeply grooved segments. Pygidium smaller than the cephalon, elongate triangular, rounded or produced posteriorly; axis with Io to 14 annulations; lateral lobes smooth or with posteriorly sloping ribs. Homalonotus delphinocephalus (Green) (Fig. 153) (Hall. 1852. fede 31422200, pl. 68) Distinguishing characters. Subtriangular cephalon; subquadrate glabella, widening a little posteriorly; small lateral eyes; acute anter- ior termination of cephalon; non-trilobate character of thorax, nar- rowing rapidly toward the posterior end; abruptly triangular pygid- 222 NEW YORK STALE MUSEUM ium ending acutely, faintly trilobate, and strongly ringed both on the axial and lateral portions; granulose surface. Fig. 153 Homalonotus delphinocephalus, % natural size Found rarely in the lower Rochester shale at Niagara, but com- mon in the upper shales. Also found at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). Genus 1LLAENUS Dalman [Ety.: tdatvw, to squint] (1828. Ueber die Palaeaden, p. 51) Cephalon and pygidium of about the same size, large and convex, smooth, semicircular in outline, with the trilobations faintly or not NIAGARA FALES AND > VICINITY 223 at all marked in either. Glabella smooth, indistinct, eyes large, round, lateral cheeks small. Thorax usually consisting of 10 seg- ments, with smooth pleurae. Iflaenus ioxus Hall (Fig. 154). Bu- Mince Darriensis Hall (1852. ams. 2':202, pl. 66) Distinguishing characters. Elongate elliptic form; rounded, nearly equal cephalon and pygidium, with the triloba- tion scarcely marked; large eyes near the posterior lateral border of the cephalon; faint trilobation of thorax with very a broad central lobe; granulose or punc- | tate surface. | : Found in the Clinton limestone lenses in great abundance, usually represented These Fig. 154 Ilaenus loxus only by cephala and pygidia. are often crowded together in great profusion to the exclusion of ; nearly every other fossil. Also found rarely in the lower and middle Roches- ter shale at Niagara. Also found at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). Genus paLtmanitTEs Barrande [Ety.: proper name] (1852. Systeme silurien Boh. v. 1) Cephalon distinctly trilobate, with a large glabella and prolonged lateral or genal spines; glabella tumid, widest in iront, and divided by three well marked lateral furrows; facial suture extending from in front of the genal angles in- ward to the eyes and thence forward around the glabella; eyes large, with numerous distinct lenses. Thorax of II segments with grooved pleurae. Pygidium large, of many segments, triangular and often pointed or extended into a mucronate termination. | Fig. 155 Dalmanites limulurus 224 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM = Dalmanites limulurus (Green) (Fig. 155). Phacops limu- burs “lal Gss2 4 seal) Nae 202- ple G7) Distinguishing characters. Sublunate form of cephalon, pointed anteriorly; large slender genal spines; broad anterior and narrow posterior lobes of glabella; pygidium with 15 axial rings, and a long, strong mucronate spine. Found rarely in the lower and middle but abundantly in the upper Rochester shales at Niagara. Also at Lockport and elsewhere (GEM): Genus CALYMMENE Bronet. [Ety.: zexasvppévos, concealed | (1822." Fst, Wat. COrush Oss. De 7) Body oval in outline, readily enrolled; cephalon wider than long; glabella narrowing anteriorly, conic, strongly convex, divided by three pairs of deep glabellar furrows. Facial sutures extending from just in front of the genal angles, converging forward around the eyes and reaching the anterior margin separately. Eyes small; thorax of 13 segments, with deep axial furrows; pygidium from six to 11 segments not distinctly marked off from the thorax. Calymmene blumenbachi niagarensis Hali (Fig. 156) > (1852, SPal Nas 2-207 aolee) Distinguishing characters. Semicircular out- line of cephalon; glabellar lobes tuberculiform; general tapering form of thorax; axis of pygi- dium with about eight rings; limb grooved nearly Fig. 156 Calymmene ; : : blumenbachi niagarensls tg margin, which is thickened and rounded posteriorly. Found rarely in the Clinton limestone lenses, and the lower Rochester shale at Niagara. Also at Lockport (Hall). Genus ticHas Dalman [Ety.: mythologic name | (1826. Ueber die Palaeaden, p. 71) Trilobites with large and flat granulated shell. Cephalon small, with spinous genal angles; glabella broad, with a large, tumid an- terior lobe, which dominates the smaller reniform lateral lobes on each side; eyes small; facial suture extending from the posterior c ~ ‘ ee Fly i k ‘ rh “J Le ea y “y + 3 os ‘ 1 i Da ; a * vi - a : had > oe GaP ai < bcp oh Ree : Lichas boltoni Bigsby; Rochester shale (After Hall) NIAGARA SFALLS AND? VICINITY 225 margin cbliquely inward to the eyes, and thence almost directly for- ward, cutting the margin separately. Thorax with nine or 10 seg- ments and grooved and falcate pleurae. Pygidium large and flat, the segments commonly ending in spinous prolongations. Doub- lure very broad. iitvelas boltoni (Bigsby) (Plate 17) (Hall. 1852. Pal.-N. Y. 2201, pl 60, 70) Distingumshing characters. Large size; nasute anterior end; large central and oblique lateral lobes of glabella; scabrous surface with backward directed acute pustules; strongly striated doublure; three broad lateral lobes of pygidium, contracting to angular ter- . minations. Found in the lower Rochester shale at Niagara. Rare and in fragments. Common at Lockport and elsewhere (Hall). Genus ENCRINURUS Emmrich [Ety.: encrinus; odpd==tail (from the resemblance of the py- gidium to a crinoid stem) | (1845. Neues Jahrb. p. 42) Cephaion narrow, wider than long, tuberculated; glabella pyri- form, prominent; free cheeks narrow, separated in front; eyes small, elevated, on conic prominences. Thoracic segments 11. Pygidium triangular, with numerous segments. Encrinurus ornatus Hall & Whitfield Seieeees7), Cybele punctata Pall(1s52: Pal. N. Y.2:297, pl. A66) Distinguishing characters. Strongly pustulose surface of cephalon; pyriform glabella; elongate triangular pygidium, Fig. 157 Encrinurus ornatus with concavity along the center of the axis, tuberculated at intervals; slender curving ridges of pygidial limb, tuberculated at intervals. Found in the lower Clinton limestone at Niagara. Rare. Also at Lockport (Hall). 226 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genus BronTeus Goldfuss [Ety.: mythologic name] (1839. Nova act. phys. med. caes. Leop. Carol. Nat. curios. 19 :360) Dorsal shield broadly elliptic, with the cephalon less than one third the entire length; glabella rapidly expanding in front, with faint lobations. Thorax of Io segments. Pygidium longer than cephalon or thorax, with a short axis and radiating furrows extend- ing from it across the broad limb. ‘Margin generally entire. Fig. 153 Bronteus niagarensis; pygidium Bronteus niagarensis Hall (Fig. 158) (1852. Pal. N. Y. 2:314, plo). Distinguishing characters. Pygidium only known; broad and somewhat semicircular; short axis and from six to nine long curv- ing furrows or sulcations on either side of the center. Found in “a large fragment of limestone in che Niagara river below the Canada fall” (Hall). Order PHYLLOCARIDA Packard! Crustacea with the body composed of five cephalic, eight thoracic, | and two to eight abdominal segments. Head and thorax covered by a thin chitinous or semicalcareous single or bivalved shell or carapace. A narrow movable plate or rostrum lies in front of the caparace. Two pairs of antennae and stalked compound eyes present. Thoracic segments with soft leaf-like legs. Abdomen often ending in spiniform telson, provided with lateral spines. *This section was revised by Prof. John M. Clarke, who also prepared the synopsis of species and synonymy. Tae =f By ee ae eer le, | _ NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 227 Genus ceraTiocaris McCoy [Ety.: zepareov, pod; xapis, shrimp] (1849. Aun. mag. nat. hist. ser. 2, 4:412) Carapace consisting of a smooth, pod-shaped bivalved shell, with- out eye nodes. Valves of carapace elongate, subovate, or subquadrate, truncated be- hind. A free lanceolate ros- trum occurs. Body of 14 or more segments, of which from four to seven extend beyond bie wcarapace. Some of these have obscure branchial ap- pendages. -Telson a long, pointed spine, with two smaller lateral spines (cercopods) ar- ticulated to it. gments and of the long central or y of natural Near the anterior extremity are shown a Ceratiocaris acuminata Hall (ie. 150) (1859. Pal. N.Y. 3 :422, pl. 84) Distinguishing characters. The large bivalved carapace is folded along the back and From a specimen in the Museum of the Buffalo societ Garapace large, tapering in front, broad medially and rather abruptly truncated on posterior margin. Surface with very fine, raised longitudinal lines. Penultimate segment long; telson and cercopods short. Found in the Waterlime beds of North Buffalo. Ceratiocaris (Phasganoca- ris?) deweyi Hall (Fig. 160) Of the caudal spines, three in number, but two are here shown, Fig. 159 Ceratiocaris acuminata, Hall “stomach-teeth.’’ The posterior portion of the carapace is seen to inclose several of the abdominal se Twothirds natural size. y the breaking away of a portion of the nearer or right side the margin of the other is exposed. An essentially entire specimen with the various parts in their normal position. Sms dewe ya . Hall 6 (iSs>. 2Pal NY. 2 “a2o; pl. : 71) E Distinguishing characters. i A Large spine of telson only. b those which project, the last is very much the longest. telson and one of the lateral or cercopods. sciences. BI) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM known; longitudinally grooved; periodic depressions or large pits in the grooves; shown as blunt spines on the rock mold. Fig. 160 Ceratiocaris (Phasganocaris ?) deweyi. Telson (reduced) Found in the Lockport limestone at Niagara; also in the shale at Lockport (Hall). Order BURYPTERIDA Burmeister The eurypterids are large Crustacea, with an elongate body com- posed of cephalothorax, a ringed abdomen, and a tail piece or telson. The body is covered by a chitinous epidermal skeleton, and could be cast off as in the modern horseshoe crab (oiniiliis) ee cephalothorax is usually furnished dorsally with two large, facetted lateral eyes, and a pair of median ocelli; and ventrally with six pairs of legs. The anterior joints or rings of the abdomen bear on their under side five pairs of broad, leaf-like appendages, which are com- parable to the gills and operculum of the horseshoe crab. The posterior six segments are without appendages. ‘The legs are com- parable to those of Limulus and, like them, their inner margins are furnished with stout spines which serve as teeth. The last pair of legs is generally large, and usually somewhat flattened, and ends in an oval plate. This “paddle”? may have been used for swimming purposes or for purposes of anchoring. On the under or ventral surfaces of the first two abdominal segments is the genital oper- culum, a pair of plates meeting medially, with a median lobe at- tached which differs in the two sexes. Genus EURYPTERUS DeKay [Ety.: ededs, broad; zrepdv, wing | (1826... Wycernat. hist. N= iM. dn. 1:375) Body elongate and narrow, often of great size. Cephalothorax one fifth or one sixth of the whole length, depressed convex, of a subquadrate outline with the anterior angles rounded, and the pos- terior margin slightly concave; entire margin bordered by a narrow marginal furrow. Eyes reniform, situated somewhat in front of the middle; ocelli close to the axial line. Mouth a ventral cleft. Legs NIAGARA’ FALLS AND VICINITY 229 progressively increasing in length backward, the anterior pair with pincers or chelae; second, third and fourth pair six to seven-jointed, and covered with fine spines; fifth pair eight-jointed; posterior pair consisting of eight segments, large and powerful, with a large, sub- quadrate basal joint in each, and a broad terminal “ paddle”. An- terior six abdominal segments occupying together about one fourth of the entire body length, short, broad and nearly uniform in shape. Succeeding six segments are ring-like, progressively decreasing in diameter, thus causing a tapering of the body. Telson long and slender. | Puryrterts: lacustris Harlan (Hall. 1859. Pal. N. Y. 3:407*, pilot, orl, 1B, 83B) Distinguishing characters. Animal stout; anterior portion of the abdomen very broad, abruptly tapering beyond the sixth segment; penultimate segment quadrate, without lateral flanges. Very abundant in the Waterlime of North Buffalo. Rerypterus. remipes De Kay (Plate. 18) (Hall. 18509. Pal. Nee 3-404, pl. 80, SoA, 83B) Distinguishing characters. Animal small, with lateral body mar- gins making broad outward curves and tapering very gradually backward. Penultimate segment slightly if at all flanged. Occasionally in the Waterlime of North Buffalo. Kurypterus pustulosus Hall (1859. Pal. N. Y. 3:413*, pl. 83B), Eurypterus giganteus Pohlman (Buffalo soc. nat. sci. Bul. 4:41) Distinguishing characters. Cephalothorax large, short and very broad; eyes on the median transverse line; surface strongly pus- tulose. A single specimen has been recorded from the Waterlime of North Buffalo. Kurypterus robustus Hall, Eurypterus lacustis var.ro- bustus Hall eso ea Na 27410". pl. SEC) Distinguishing characters. Like E.lacustris, but larger and more robust, and proportionately narrower over the anterior ab- dominal region. Common in the Waterlime at North Buffalo. 230 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Eurypterus pachychirus Hall (1859. Pal. N. Y. 3:412*, pl. 82) Distinguishing characters. Similar to E.robustus; may prove identical. Terminal joints of the sixth pair of legs very broad. Rare in the Waterlime at North Buffalo. Eurypterus dekayi Hall (1859. Pal. N. Y. 3:411%, pl. 82) Distinguishing characters. Proportionally short body; short broad carapace; anterior part of the abdomen very broad, posterior part much contracted. Penultimate segment with elongate lateral flanges. 3 Occasionally in the Waterlime at North Buffalo. Genus DoLICHOPTERUuS Hall [Ety.: dodcxés, long; zzepdv, wing] (1850;-. Pal Ni, 3245 4g) Distinguished from Eurypterus by having the sixth pair of cephalothoracic legs long and narrow, with the last two joints of subequal size. Metastoma elongate heart-shaped, as in Ptery- PIO S=. Dolichopterus macrochirus Hall (1859. Fal. N. Y. 3:414*, pl. 83, 83A) | Distinguishing characters. Robust, elongated body, long, straight- sided carapace, very anterior eyes; strong end thick jointed anterior appendages; extremely long sixth pair of legs. Found in the Waterlime beds of North Buffalo. Genus Eusarcus Grote & Pitt [Ety.: «3, well; odp&, flesh (well-fleshed) ] (1875;" Buiralo. soc: nai sc. Dulao a) Eurypterids with the anterior six abdominal segments greatly expanded, and the succeeding ones abruptly contracted. The ter-. minal joint of the sixth pair of legs is not expanded. Eusarcus grandis Grote & Pitt (Buffalo soc. nat. sci. Bul. 3:17) Distinguishing characters. Large size, attaining a length of 2 or 3 feet. Subcylindric posterior abdominal segments. In the Waterlime at North Buffalo. Plate 18 1) igina EKurypterus remipes DeKay; Rondout Waterlime, Buffalo (or NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY ; 231 Eusarcus scorpionis Grote & Pitt (Buffalo soc. nat. sci. Bul. 3 1) Distinguishing characters. Smaller than the foregoing; average length about 1 foot. Appearance strikingly scorpioid. Telson strongly curved. In the Waterlime at North Buffalo. Genus pTERYGoTUS Agassiz [Ety.: zrepdywrds, winged] (1839. Murchison. Silurian system, p. 605) Large, often gigantic eurypterids, with a semiovate cephalothorax, anterior marginal eyes and central ocelli. The first pair of cephalo- thoracic legs (pre-oral) very long, slender, terminating in large pin- cers or chelae, and probably prehensile in function. Behind the mouth are four pairs of slender walking legs, and behind these are the large swimming feet, which differ from those of Eurypterus in being less broadly expanded at the ends. Telson an oval plate, either terminating in a short projecting point or bilobed. Pterygotus macrophthalmus Hall (1859. Pal. N. Y. 3:418*), Muemyeotis butialoensis Pohlman (Buffalo soc. nat. sct. Bul. 4:17) and Pterygotus acuticaudatus Pohlman (Buffalo soc. nat. sct. Bul. 4:42) Distinguishing characters. Cephalothorax subquadrate or taper- ing anteriorly; eyes very large and high, with circular base. Chelae (pincers) with angular front end; posterior denticles on larger ramus inclined and serrate. In the Waterlime at North Buffalo. Ereryecotus cobbi Hall (18590. Pal. N. Y.3:417*, pl. 83B, fig. 4), ReemmeeoOotis cummingesi Grote & Pitt (Buffalo soc. nat. sect. Bul. 4:18) Distinguishing characters. Animal large; chelae (pincers) with curved front ends and erect non-serrate denticles. Rare in the Waterlime at North Buffalo. Pterygotus globicaudatus Pohlman (Buffalo soc. nat. sci. Bul. 4:42) Distinguishing characters. Animal rather small; surface coarsely tubercled; telson circular without median keel. A single specimen from the Waterlime of North Buffalo. 222 Rochester shales NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM DISTRIBUTION OF FOSSILS IN THE SILURIC BEDS Synopsis of strata: Medina I pa FE Clinton beds 4 | s | 6 7; ( a8 bey Lo | | IO ii | Lower shale : 12 | | 13 | [4 | (15 | Upper shale 16 17 Upper Medina sandstones and shales Clinton lower shale Clinton lower limestone (mainly lowest 4 feet) Clinton upper limestone (crystalline) Top beds of Clinton limestone Clinton lens. Niagara gorge Clinton lens. R. W. & O. railroad Lowest foot of shale Shale 3 feet above Clinton limestone Shale 4 feet above Clinton limestene Shale 5 feet above Clinton limestone Shale 6' to 8 feet above Clinton lime- stone Shale 19 feet above Clinton limestone Shale 25 feet above Clinton limestone Bryozoa beds Upper shales Lockport limestones 18 Waterlime, Buffalo 19 Manlius limestone NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY ‘uommos AiaA 99 ‘ UOWMIOD 9 § UOWUIOD AJayVIapoM 91! Q1eI IS aIvA AIDA Jy eecceelfeoem we ce eefenm e2, cee of ce eef[inewe f= e-l/er ee few --Jow2 ce es ee fee wae! ae cel eer ee ee ee eee n pon «+, ee ean sees eeese scoce er eeoeeeen "77>" " STULIOJIUIUIAS “S esses eefes=r[---=| y | 9 |eeecl-=--|----| 4 |----| cas Siete ter ile cic poe fees] | Soo a ate "*-""-snjensue snutoouvyda3g . LEE) Seas soar ee sos s sso" = * => Si PiOsniMoanieg) DIplojsa gD fie Girini>) Reise mc) eo sis =" e>)-GS0NKo[, PlOGOIEING Peininis spnaie gins Scie - oS Ses ns ASG er OU Oy TILA) SECrPOOLD ROC Oto "sre cees-eieiias viodopr) FEGer gear ts: eens eh 9SSn err eSiimra tannery Pee Ape NS Mew meets es ee Seles prod tardshaial BSS Tigers oto es" Supp oTosso li Onary PCN SII COST nil] Licpiea) Semis Gqejay se ee[----]----]eee-]---- = “a i Ce ee O1 st et leweece{[ es melee ee | ee cee loo ee | oe colee =| we oe PDICPOOSIOP OOOD OO OO OI0C Pon ah aaa spt a RE Ba a oe SNJOIISUOD "A J Said (sie dl ce esa peers |e VE | inl ain pee | Re NG ens] Sie (ap ce oe emacs ro Soe allan pee eR carter ee nee MSe RrS eee sr A oss SUTTON Adee, ceded Nerenial| ocrae ie egal Od is oe Rao we ley se aa ee mene Aa OTe Sele ee Cee eRe es errr ee ce eae SAO reso Pam pesin sas. oie asoMieuMediarl) eres eaten Raleerei|ae cil, On Sn eee ee eis i ae ee er Are eae il eal ere sce ess een eae Sere Oooo ene secon consul Bataan aaller wear Se ear Rolo nc lise lene lee se a NE Se eS ee Pear ee cate eae g iran = avers Sains oe US OM Sor ORT [AO Tal mee marlraer (eta ale ely Malo els ee [oe Tee ol. ea [ae alien, Cee ewes core me son (Ce nee eer Pcaiine aoe SStrere oe IUAUn A OUOte) 5 ieceeates | ten ea eee dpe Seon eet ear Seg) er aligned | eae ee er | eee re Comrade pelle eg eal ee tle oc Sqnse eee -* wnolynespéy wnqpfydoyyeha PIES | ea Mg ee a lem Ack aaa a iiss (eae fart gee Been aka bt aaa eget ar (hb Lece sa Coal a teehee peg a ear ae gia ENTOMOL LNRM 7/ Fae So" lea ea amie} | ga | an nara (a ae (pa Samia || LS ea OU é 4) i Fie Dead | ae eal | |i eae Nitta oa Ue ak ca ag! lark SN[NOT]O BUISB[OII} UT DOZOYZU FE PoE Re eae Re mh meno fe arta fae ee aah esd gi om fm oad alia ty a ala (CI ee Fatal PMO ISOM) PCO GOUECLOLES eed [age alta fase Fe S'S ASG YIN I wey PS wll agree nN ral oe nace ge cheaters oe yi as | energie cic bce tee cles sTUIOFIJOI vUIMOAJIIC] DOZOApA ET Til oR ee ak ae sta ae cae ic ae | Pollet cea S| WR I SA SR I Mesa a ag ne hi A sorcessceees -cnssvis snodydojews Nn eS PPS oe aig Vn ee | ea ahr el en a El OEP TA aM Fo a et srrcceseees----Tuvey snotydoury eoece I wm wmf em wef mm mm fP et wel mm eel ee om fee me ml ee eel ewe wel ew etl ee eeolew -- | eee2|eeeer|e eee |eeealeses| .seaeve esreeere sceeese eee = cee cee Ixnoranbsaq "A See lay Salo me ei | pe al | eae | ieee Peer (is) Ge Oye WSs cna s eniateninin cs Se Serious esi Comoulicn sqUD —— ee — ee SS | OS OS OO SO OS Oe | S SO | SE OS I NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cece o1 o1 I I Se ee OF ie seeped 99 9 |---- I ewes ence I O1 ) eeee é eeceelecaee cee ee I ecee e2 we I ercece|seee c2 22 ew eceleeee Ge sete aaa e en eran STUMO TUE nD SaSdoOploucy is ee ae ip SP aeR rece ilo afiteiig| DpogoryIvr¢gq 82 SS OSE o PSE SO CSS BOSON aS GOSO Ee Aral Chion mq cwet wa, Bats=)| Sami se Se sibine ates SVC |OUOpP ULOdSaniuElGay Sle |e mgier es eer > ESO MalaqnvEocOlnuny 9 ono ee ee] ee ee [== cefleoe ee leer ecm lee o Bereta em se eA) MR SAS NRO PIS Lae Rare hes (ee See iNT ea oe sis Senne mis 555° S eStUTOaIOen ss) piperegl ae iar) Pisa sice mirage (rp Sicea ie nacle SUE S688 rise a Re Sian --*"esopuody eiodoiyie[D eSivin| eRe Te nee sic cine eee ea dagur EROU ANTON 22 SS ao aa sdooinuay UMlUlsontulas SUBDOIA VI[O]SOUD TF esnyip edArjow Aq wo reprosers sss ses" -pierys—ojeiodse vurrodoysyg ee ce | 2222282 ee# ee ee ee wee ew ee ew rere "> vinjuesajo vlodol[ey Pinar [pS RIe Saeko. Sicwrs Sininigisik Sieieante POO aa ETE) 130m (ey) eae wees ees’ esopnoi1eqny elodo}ewoad y, sh cigs |f cumin.) aim miniales siajele eitei=/ a sale alo Sole aE TOU, aa | Melee 0 ft a ele oe CDI LOMB Ta Olan = Lae Alea eRe OO! 2 oh Aa sia aire GLSe Sh Ep viodojayy Fo es cae | Paw acl hapa rag ie Gi) eae | RL LET er gure © BlojI[NULIS Bl[[PULOJSOJCA SS rl og aay | ako | amen | Mae bere | | dy pa OS iin 2 eee OlISO edArjo]1yD Bats Tings | cia ae ala | eae a el a | acer an ia gin IC. IO SUBISNAIDUL (2) ae) "eyeotiquir e1odowe1ad PS | Seta | a ainig mien sinisisiaiein (ss) = rie enn GuEC se UO [OO [Gh DOZONLT Sf Sista siniain im in asa se Se SMB ST Ode sod Ut Os) pau P79) 02 eis) Sassen sinnais ee ene) oCodoeul Sm UMlOOULOo | SSAA RSS SS Sia SIAdv] SnuTID0AYIYOT Dyas [Sona PeRiene sens nse scnrooop ShUMOOIaMmeonny ol 22 sll | Ras = |osiicic seine sia)s/<9)-'s see SnSOUIN |G SNUlINOTCATS) Ss a CP (Ee Sl (cereal ecg fet se | ace Cie oe UG DC oc sn{Aqoep snuts901A'T ite Sn erie) e rime See STULIOID Ky snur0uescy ], (panurjuoo) vaproursy eevee _—___—_- eo ”:_— SOO OO | — — — hs ee -S- S -Sn" SOE OC | — SS | SS OS ee; OO SC S| 235 NEAGARA CPALLS AND: VICINITY o1 0) eoece ee ee es ee “see eereo;,ee eese/-- 22 hot yp) Gc e2rceleorn ee --2ee|l-- ce ecoee |e eee a ee ee | oe ele fale | o'= ce od ecee Pie Sail ve or or Peedcied | Noel roy 99 0) oI ot 99 o1 oI 99 o1 I é I -- ee oI eoes 4) 1 me ol i o1 I 4) eeece cc ee or oI é é I ee ce --=ec8 ecco J pret A I eo ts qojecr oI m oI I cece I die Peele easee eocee eoce pf i I JI mf i I o1 wooo 2ceoe weece secs oI ot J jase eeoce ol ai o1 ot ot II Ob bb) se beoy Sh S4, eee BOs ESE ENED shyeorns (staAyajaq) xs are lll Seas el aes ee er ie ie ge acini eaaate UN) ITT rar hacen | Wapaati | eotee iene fityesrtvet 2 Silene os cerry See a pas eaeeo le snds119 KS Gag itty face CIC SOB i(al 6) sc Se aren eae "==" sisuoieSuIu 3 ct R a S258 sa Solo oe Sniper ora Bog Teo oo S758 2 75> ISTEP Ulead melas IOSD DOR SIO BAG SG oo Sree See sOn Mma, eR SSSR eS SSS SSeS SSE EE Sop Olmany CSaetome oe Fone a 7 Sinema omeEO Ane, Se ease loo Bye UepicE Cd) maar Sade aa nae ape 2) ES) POST ehe saa acter ey kU SECO e][auoyouAY YT eseeceleecere|eeece | sceeceeces SMe cae apeesespes [ac a was neg a a ee pg a yt tee =a ee STULT OY ne) | Og ie SaaS Sl ee sere ae Raa ee Si a aoa eee ooeau ne) cone +2 = enee o--- Byeordisnyqo BIYIIOJOIVUIB) roccjeccccecoes=*BUBILIOUIB B}YIUND BJoIJOYyOUAYY Te is BI SSIS BO eat yMOUO)( AH AOOALTAS SII BSG LOSI vrs i0 co) (Gee Mui iGr| on SiS cc 26 Renin cis £6 pice Cet elec enas OMIA SICA I SII SII SIDI SES HO VAEHEN ION (AAI GlONIIS ATES) ae “-=5 == -o[epirmeiAd wmipmosss tenees eens “SN[NOND “yy a [ooo- Fel |edit Nic fot | alll ter ead (era CSI LC IM TAO NOU. LIEN NON] o1 o) o1 scot secs =o -EImMlURdale B[OURUIECG sere |---| ----|----]--2-]----]----] eee freee ee ee | ---- | --- 2 ee eee - rooeesuierosey (2) erqdosoyO é SP ee) A) I eoe- i eecece eece eece ol oI i I ot 0) i +2. eyersjsojound (¢) °O Fn ein Sin qi lof yy SIP) Sona Malte ae ipe een hee snjnu.tod sajauoyy PS OVO Cee acs |r oto) SY GRC NOOO Caer EIT | cB EEC ES COC CCC | FCS) CII [OEE CNS, HOON lal lig abet ion mar cde Pol) (Yo) i alee jovS EG) emealeeen| ene -| -eeree2- se ee ee ~--- -"""-snuefdqns sajyayjoyUO 5 oa a ape Oe ite ST[BSIOASUBI] * I [5998 | Paes igeor sees IS Sasso SS Sno oMas SOMO quie loop Ol egos see" eyuajed (2) °S Ro sole gata Nata elk) (ea oda | dies Pace TNT ae Rd (Og COC ha ete 6a AT eel folon(S 0) ot eawee i +? ) | eeoe B J B | sees I ol Cc Cp been: epunjoid *s Sees onl aaa ena eens sake EV ONUIOON ETO pOaldome Sree) tua ap ialaeen tors tak soe eSITEDIOC OYA euoe)day > Blopl][V109 v]jauO AAI, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Ba SS sci raise ee STS OU OBI Bliy[nuo) DPtAvj nud) 2 TESS Ss = ° 92 BEG Og -BIUeOnc, See sat E Seaside en sc.csee'ss yeni ah odes worsen eres = Bolo] BIIVWOJOINITg ne bite e ese tire SS "*"" > gsualvsulu vuUojsoloydei Foe | aie Rie een ae ae ee wWnjepnsue *g apy tere Se Eheim noressssecss = gsuaiwselu selgoAje[g Dpogosjsn+y seresecccse---* ds stsdojorpoy BIS: GE SE SS ODay hnevey(eoitol (i Ot Meera ss r55""""*-e19UOYIIO sIsdoforpoy sete ee eee eee eee saplornoiqio (¢) uajoadorah 7 "77" wuerdqns (¢) vr1aydory soo 7 ">" BI BIDDVUD BIULIII J vpog ara Sa Sa.deas eeeescinaneiiiencs eer eincmapordt ay, cree conn cece enone -vorraydstwmay vooyjo;douy o5(s0|(Ssich eriseusnirinc Aner eeeeycammoome jeter cigs) einain ce niaialhig nieiney be sis 2 Sininyan ee aera enor HN WYS CI SOF ScRIRRR SS SM ciginS Sislcias Seer ee EE UM GOLeU NAG ee aa le ere LCi a ee ByeOTNS “AA a re oN a ng ot gs in BOLIPUTTAD * AA SSP T) SS etcle ss he SSS 8S S85 sees BIPOWIAJUL * AA OE SES ss eines as Shee ias Stoke aR T=="""'BIZTQO “AN RSTSh2 SA Sigs Sesame IU IGOREPIITU s \\ DS Seep) UIE] MAIL LAG Sooo Sooo bogs SSac BINUIGO eitdsoyeulad fy, SOC II) ISAC) heomroy geen eget ss galore sowiioy a (panutjuos) wpogoryrn1g a | | | ee eee || | | — | | | | ao/ FALLS AND VICINITY NIAGARA -~--ee/-+=-= e--lee eo] -- -- -- ee l/ewmeeleou eel ee ee ----+l/ee eelec ce ° Fab Rn lena Fes I Ke Ot ocho) Solio oe é eo eel e- eel -- eel ee ee few ee | oe -- | ee oe lee --| oe oe} eee d --2-- : -- eclee oo /-- --|e2e e2 | -- -- - --|ee ce leooewe 2 erce|-- ee] ee --|-- --| ee -- | -- ee] ee wel eo -- | oe -- | ee wel ee eel ee oe | - = oe | woe I lesee ests =) (ee es) |= 2 = aes | ee Se as ee ele 2 =|) = ee) = me |e ~ ee |e oe | se 2 e)|\2 2 o= I eece I co ccloecel|esee ee ee lee --/ ee = [ee = -] ee = - --e2] 7 co --| og 1----]---- BP Oe | ecclll sorole ae elise ee piaaaet abel coe a hn G1 Foal 9) (0(0) (sh 2 Sere} (crayons, Petes [Re chores [INS atevere cece eee eee eee Som Maa ea OD EAT SC I rs en terres s-- snueyyydorsvul snjo3419}q Gare arte eal ceo Ne Ree OT Tn OVGLNOAS, Cy wore [eeee| eens]... [+ --- eee ---- ---- so" ">" * stpueis Snolesng oo 22 | rere eees| eens |---- 20+ - e+e ee snaryooi1seu sniajdoyorjoq ae tl Cae eon Ci alse oe ie Sted Rear ae Ee Re Ae CSO) “aL mse tek > | at nea calor | ee aces Rage ote ime cee shee SES TT ILO EG “a woo r feces | eces | cece] eee ees ~~ cee cece cone one ---- snjsnqol “iy sareral ere ia feteisial ra-ayet timreteinis eye acetesiee cecceeee "--""" snsojnisnd “a Risininl ialelSiot oii ste aera ieee" 2 Sod hulolenrh Scie si eeecie cage emits ie = SISK OU SM Tov AaniGy opisaggnaniy aes ital lacie Sa Oe aS Se ee BA IS yINGY0) 05) Spies othe se TOSS ii sloaluadn ois tyiaaxo ake G)9) wprsorojyhyd ee See es SSISUO IU GEN en SpUOT seieie rich sie Oy Soteaa > Son elO SUM LIOUG Sg jee el ere Sn) S| pine ie sis cee ae in Ot OGESCUOUm Tess | aSSo | a- = === | e=-- = Sistiodvaell ToequoWIn| qd) SusulUIAT Es) Toe eee ss eee esses §< SINT NUIT], SOPIUBUTTBC e@w@eeaeeoeseeeeesenerte Seem ter OL OL Snusel[] I SC i I IOS HIGDON IID SOO LALO) A MOE ee at te aa ia | eo eae te ay aig Se esourds eurmiypoay Sie ise Slee a peries: orice i ie oct erie ein ---* -goraqauwAS BIT]Oog er ce| enna | on n- |---| cn ee eons ---- ---- ---- eee SIIB[BOS elyipioda'y gets GAS ayo ioioii ae) 2voqw orl DpoIvsJSC) BIS OSG) (cea Cat or OSCE SOG a OE Ihe Gerd SHE DOU OUT anae| (Pee ace. [5ace |b sce cane nacanaee --------ds seras0yduiox) wene|eece [eres |enee|e----+ cece --2--+- urnzeyjaouvogns sz199031475) eee elo eee | ewee | saee| eres ---- --- = SS ee ee aie eee °° ** “918 [pour ‘O PaO ae - uInje[nuUe “GC Pee gee ere TAG asi) [MU SeLOIOU IAG) vpogojny gap 238 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Chapter 5 POST-PLIOCENE FOSSILS: OF THE NIAGARA Rina GRAVELS BY ELIZAB EE ji. LETSON DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM OF THE BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES The post-Pliocene shells in the gravel beds of the Niagara river have long been known, but never before been fully described. The localities at which shell-bearing gravels have thus far been found are Goat island, Prospect park, Queen Victoria park, Muddy creek, whirlpool (both sides of the river), and at Foster’s flats. The sheils occur, generally, intimately mixed with the sand and gravel, show- ing that they were transported to the present localities by currents and eddies. The same action, taking place in recent times, may be witnessed at the lower end of Goat island, where the dividing water washes the shells into the pockets and. crevasses in the rock.? The following table shows the distribution of these shells in the various deposits, and also where these forms may be found living today. fe a £ vo “4 a I 5 cB) ar 3 a | 2 fp 9 ORS a ae 5 ue) a, 3} o Pac Ai a Aas o NAME OF SPECIES = 2 Soe 5 3 a el 5 sb & BS) ol gh) oe | ke | BS se ieee en Pa iD o uo) 2 roi) oO rel c SA oat wae ae ee fe 2/5 = OU Ps Oe walter 5 fre is Gastropoda I Pleurocera subulare Lea....| X |----|------|----|------|------|---- x Allee 2 Goniobasis livescens(Menke)| x | x x x x 30° Te eas ae 3 G. livescens niagarensis(Lea)| x: |.---|------|----|------|------|---- xe 4 G. haldemani Tryon....-...- > ral Oe (Seo se a lesno|Ldaccst| dec $53 | ele c 5 Amnicola limosa (Say) .---- Pate 5] Sees oosa ace sc | Seccc - 4 lee os eee OvA-letsoni Walker .c--. 2-2. eh eee lseeree tessa ksee oo ooooa ects tecooos |= =: : 7 Bythinella obtusa (Lea) ....| xX |----|------|----|------|------|----|-----: b 8 Pomatiopsis lapidaria (Say) -.|----|----|------|----|------| x %)" Sales g Valvata tricarinata Say ..... BESS se Secic ea) oSee ce || Scteee x x ee IO Vz sincera Saye nena = Kae alle ss pe eel ae rel oe oe ell ortote cl opera eee a 11 Campeloma decisa Say...-.. ea hec eon | soocl|ss code oaeeG- X.,. iateow eee 12 Limnaea columella Say ..... ak AR sh ccigl| oSoasey Ecce feos aicoosec a ¥2 1. desidiosa;saye o= seer =-5 Kap ics oral cre ms tem elena eect x SA ere tle 14 L. catascopium Say...-..--. Se lpomslonseaa |= Ee a8 i age oo » a Oo uU Le rec) 5) c <¢ Sine ce vies a | 5 $ Se eewsiaws | ier js = ae ee a Pelecypoda 18 Sphaerium striatinum (Lam.)| x | x Meroe mS, else ee as XS Se se I9 S. stamineum (Conrad)..... SOM oe ie oe ae Meo Hee Sel) eon eee el eee Bie ein Vireo imicwimn BOUT. .=| X | cose] coset loses | aoe |---| esa |oee aes. b 21 P. compressum Prime ...... Roe eee erateie ll mn Soli ae Reese mle owe cies hee 22 P. abditum Haldeman...-... PN Ae teeta ck ellie as ciate liters wae Wate wtllacraalan a Zee uiira-imontanum Prime...| X |<..<|.-<---|e-.:|-s-0c- Lee rei abe latent ee SE enn aL iT LOOK ¢-.. o ¥o5) Kh VSe owe wae ao [ce x Sten cede |'s a wace oe aeliccc ee. a ecmatits mectis: (Mam) S05) XR |e se | ce weit lees scmeums [seer --]---+ peg ea mopberelipsitormis (Conrad) . 2.||--:-| x, |..ss.«|.---|..---. SSeS ease ee ee eee e7easmicdonta calceola (Lea) -|'X |-...|..c... |... thatat ches arena yatt leciesl AG rol eee 28 A. truncata (Wright)....... a SpISE 2 AI ak a re a a xe Tales 29 Unio gibbosus Barnes ...... Be |e AX se aM pt x x Sct gees aoe uadrula solida (Lea) -....-. |---|. X |sn-00. os Es EOS ee eee [ene 3G Stee ane@. coccinea (Conrad)....... x Be x ee x x Ke eee a Lime lake. 6 Chippewa creek. ¢ Living, but not within a radius of 50 miles. Class GASTROPODA Cuvier Genus pLeurocEeRA Rafinesque. 1819 Shell lengthened and conical, aperture moderately prolonged into a short spout or canal in front. The columella is not thickened. Pleurocera subulare Lea (Fig. 161) (Philos. soc. Trans. 4:100) Shell large and heavy, elevated and turreted, having an acute apex; nine to II whorls, flat, shouldered at the su- ture, which is impressed; body whorl surrounded by three tidges, the middle being the most prominent; aperture small, lip thin, folding back over the columella and cover- ing the umbilical tract. Locality. Goat island. Fig. 161 Pleu- rocera subu- le Genus GONIOBASIS Lea. 1862 eet Shell heavy, elongated or ovate, aperture plain, slightly angulated in front. Goniobasis livescens (Menke) Tyron 1873 (Fig. 162). Me- oniiates by ese eiisee. Wiemike ) (163900 5.) S yn meths p.. -135) 240 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Goniobasis livescens Tryon (1873. Smith. Misc. coll. no. 253, Pp. 248) Shell oblong and ovate; six or seven whorls; early volu- tions slightly keeled; spire acute; sutures impressed; whorls convex and crossed by plainly marked growth lines; lip moderately thin, and thin callous on the colum- ella. Fig.162Gon. Lhis is the most common of all the shells occurring in lobasis _ live- i x 4 sb hes 4 scens these deposits along the Niagara river; it is subject to great variation. Localities. Goat island, Prospect park, Whirlpool, etc. Goniobasis livescens var. niagarensis (Lea) Tryon 1873 (Fig. 163). Melania niagarensis Lea (8417 Philos socemaa Proc: 2:12).. Goniobasis liveseenis yat. vac aime mumee Tryon (Smith. Misc. coll. no. 253, p. 248) Shell conic, obtuse, thick and smooth; spire short, whorls five or six, surrounded by a sharp keel, which clearly marks the suture; aperture elliptic; lip thin; columella slightly calloused. Prof. H. A. Pilsbry, who examined these shells, writes: “ This remarkable torm: ditters- trom (Ge iat yee aie emise aud var. Diag arensis, ansihe per sistence of ‘the peripheral: keel to the 457s aon meee eee adult stave, producing a shell comtottss 25 — similar to Anculosa carinata; it has not hitherto been de- scribed or noticed in conchological literature, and would be entitled to specific rank were it not connected by intermediate forms with. Vas Wn oa esi Sie. Locality. Goat island. a Goniobasis haldemani Tryon 1865 (Fig. 164). G. a haldemani Tryon. (1865. Am. jour. conch. 1:38) ra Shell elongated, narrow and rather thin; eight or nine whorls, which are flat, smooth and separated by a slightly impressed suture; aperture small, subrhomboidal; lip thin, Fig. 164 moderately incurved on the columellar side. Goniobasis haldemani = This graceful shell is very scarce and is not represented in the recent fauna. Locality. Goat island. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 241 Genus amnicota Gould & Haldeman. 1841 Shell small, short, subglobular, and ovate; spire obtuse; shell smooth, thin and perforate; aperture ovate; lip thin; operculum corneous. Amnicola limosa (Say) Hald. 1844. Paludina limosa Say isu... Acad. not. sc Phil. four. 1:125).., Amnicola limosa Haldeman (1844. Monograph pl. 1, fig. 5, 6) Shell small and conic; whorls four, rapidly diminishing; apex acute, suture deep; umbilicus narrow and deep; surface smooth; re- cent specimens show growth lines; aperture oval, slightly angulated at the junction of the body whorl; lip simple. Found in the gravel pit on Goat island. Amnicola letsoni Walker igor (Fig. 165) A. letsoni Walker.(Feb. 1901. Nautilus) Shell small, elevated and thick; whorls four or five, more or less flattened, and inclined to be shouldered; suture deep; spire short, iess than one third the entire length; apex obtuse; aperture small and oval, angled above, rounded below, flattened on the parietal margin; lip thick and free | from contact with the body whorl. (ge ae Peas Locality. Goat island. a iteits totes Mr Walkersays: “Amnicola sheldoni Pils. is the only species with which this can be compared. ‘The present species is to be distinguished by its flattened, shouldered whorls, Geepen sutute and more acuminate spire. Six mature examples were found, which, though differing somewhat in the relative pro- portions of length and width, are as a whole quite uniform. In four of them the peristome is distinctly separated from the body whorl; in one, while continuous, it is so close as to be almost adnate, while in the remaining specimens the parietal margin, although somewhat broken, seems to have been appressed to the body whorl for a short distance. Associated with these specimens were two other ex- amples quite similar, but much more cylindrical in the outline, less solid, and with the aperture less angled posteriorly. Neither is quite mature, judging from the thinness of the lip. In view of the considerable variation in these particulars in other well-known species of the genus, such as Amnicola lustrica Pils., and of the few specimens now at hand, it is not deemed advisable at the present time to do more than call attention to the fact.” _ What may prove to be other species of Amnicola has been found, but too badly worn to justify description. 242 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Genus BYTHINELLA Moquin-Tandon. 1855 Shell elongated and pyriform; imperforate; apex obtuse; aper-— ture oval; lip simple; operculum corneous. Bythinella obtusa (Lea) Binney 1865 (Fig. 166). Paludina obtusa Lea (1844... Philos. soc. Plul.. Trans: 013)) by ee ella obtusa Binney (1865. Smith. Misc. coll. no. 144, p. 70) Shell small, subcylindric, comparatively thin; five whorls; spire very short, giving the shell a truncated ap- tts, 188 Be: pearance; apex obtuse;. sutures well defined; delicate musa, x8 growth lines may be seen with a lens; the aperture is small and round; the umbilicus narrow and deep. Found in the Goat island gravel pits. Genus pomatiopsis Tryon. 1862 Animal with a broad, short foot, and short pointed tentacles. Shell thin and smooth, having a produced spire; aperture oval, and provided with an operculum. Pomatiopsis lapidaria (Say) Tryon 1862 (Fig. 167). Cyclos- toma lapidaria Say (1817. Acad. nat. sc. Pile Jour eee Pomatiopsis lapidarta Tryon. (862. Acad. wales jul: Proc: p. 452) Shell conic; spire high, seven whorls, well rounded and trans- versely wrinkled; sutures impressed; aperture rounded and about one third the length of the shell; subumbilicate. Found at Foster’s flats. This species is not found in any of the other deposits. The locality at Foster’s flats, where this little shell is found, is just below the old fall. At the present time, the pip y67 po. . d 3 ; tiopsis lapi- only locality for P. lapidaria thus far discovered daria. x3. along the river is on the rocks in the constant rain of spray, betow the present fall. Genus vatvaTa Muller. 1842 Animal with a bilobed foot, simple mantle and feather-like gills, protected by a long, slender respiratory lobe. The shell is discoidal, has a deep umbilicus and is provided NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 259 Spencer, J. W. High-level shores in the region of the Great lakes and their deformation. Am. jour. sci. 41:20I-12. 1891. Prof. W. M. Davis on the Iroquois beach. Am. geol. 7:68, 266. 1891. Origin of the basins of the Great lakes of America. Am. geol. 7:86-97. 1801. Channels over divides not evidence per se of glacial lakes. Geol. soc. Am. Bul.. 3:491-92; Abstract, Am.-geol. 11:58. 1892. Review of the history of the Great lakes. Am. geol. 14:289-301, Diy G.- 1604: Drainage of the Great lakes in the Mississippi by way of Chicago. Abstract, Am. nat. 28:884. 1894. Deformation of the Lundy Beach and birth of Lake Erie. Am. jour. sci. 3d ser. 47:207-12. 1804. Niagara falls as a chronometer of geological time. Abstract, Roy. soc) London. Proc. 1:145-48. . 1804. Weerot Niagara fails. Am: geol. 14:135, 136. 1804. Duration of Niagara falls. Am. jour. sci. 3d ser. 48:455-72: Ab- stract, Am. geol. 14:204 (71.); Abstract, Am. nat. 28:859-62. 1894. [Lake Newberry as the probable successor of Lake Warren]. Geol. soce Am. Bul. 6:466.. 1805. Duration of Niagara falls. Abstract, Am. ass’n adv. sci. 43:244-46. 1895. . Geological survey of the Great lakes. Am. ass’n adv. sci. Proc. 43 237-43. 1895. Niagara as a time piece. Pop: sci. mo. > 40:1-10, fig. 1-17. 1806. How the Great lakes were built. Pop. sci. mo. 49:157-72, fig. I-15. 1806. . On the continental elevation of the glacial epoch. Brit. ass’n adv. Hen Rep t 1807. p. 661, 662. £808. On Mr Frank Leverett’s “ Correlation of moraines with beaches on the border of Lake Erie.” Am. geol. 21:393-96, fig. 1. 1808. Another episode in the history of Niagara river. Abstract, Am. Aesmeady. Sel. Proc,. 47:200; Science. mn. s. 8:501, 502; Am. geol. ' 22:259-60; Am. jour. sci. 4th ser. 6:439-50, 2 fig. 1808. Niacardwas autime piece: (Can. inst) Proc. n. s.-1:101-3, 1808. Stose, George W. A specimen of Ceratiocaris acuminata Hall from tne Weteritime of Biuttalo, N.Y. Bost. soc. nat. hist. Proc. 26:369-71. 1894. Tarr, Ralph S. Physical geography of New York state. pt 7. The Great lakes and Niagara. Am. geog. soc. Bul. 31:101-17 (]@ fig.), 217-35 (10 fig.), 315-43 (21 fig.) 1899. Taylor, F. B. The highest old shore-line on Mackinac island. Am. jour. sci. 3d ser. 43:210-18; Abstract, Am. ass’n adv. sci. Proc. 40:260-61. 1892. 260 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Taylor, F. B. The limit of post-Glacial submergence in the highlands east of Georgian Bay [Ontario]. Am. geol. 14:273-89, with map. 1894. The ancient strait at Nipissing [Ontario]. Geol*-soc. Am) Bull 5:620-26, pl. 20; Abstract, Am. geol. 13:220-21. 1804. A reconnaissance of the abandoned shore lines cf Green bay [Michigan and Wisconsin]. Am. geol. 13:316-27, with a map. 1894. A reconnaissance of the abandoned shore lines of the south coast of Lake Superior. Am. geol. 13:365-83, with map. 1894. The Nippissing beach on the north Superior shore. Am. geol.- 15:304-14. 1805. Niagara and the Great lakes. Am. jour. sci. 3d ser. 49:249-70. 1895. The Munuscong islands [Michigan]. Am. geol. 15:24-33. 1895. The second Lake Algonquin. Am. geol. 15:100-20 and 162-79. 1805. Changes of level in the region of the Great lakes in recent geological time. . [Letter to J. D. Dana] Am. jour. sci 3d ‘sen, f4o-6e—0 1895. [On the use of the term “ Erigan”]. Am. geol. 15:394-95. 1895. Preliminary notes on studies of the Great iakes made in 18095. Am. geol. 17:253-57. 18606. The Algonquin and Nipissing beaches. Am. geol. 17:397-400. 1890. - Notes on the Quaternary geology of the Mattawa and Ottawa val- leys [Ontario]. Am. geol. 18:108-20. 18906. Correlation of Erie Huron beaches with outlets and moraines in southeastern Michigan. Geol. soc. Am. Bul. 8:31-58, pl. 2. 1897. Scoured boulders of the Mattawa valley [Ontario]. Am. jour. sci. 4th ser. 3:208-18. 1897. The Nipissing-Mattawa river the outlet of the Nipissing great lakes. Am. geol. 20:65-66. 1897. Short history of the Great lakes. Studies in Indiana geography, ed. by ‘C. Ro Dryer 100-110, tg. 1-4. 18077 The Champlain submergence and uplift, and their relation to the Great lakes and Niagara falls. Brit. ass’n adv. sci. Rep’t 18907. p. 652-. 53. 1808. } Origin of the gorge of the whirlpool rapids at Niagara. Geol. soc. Am, “Bula @250-84, fig. 1, 2. 1808: The great ice dams of Lakes Maumee, Whittlesey and Warren. Am.” seols 2426-38) pl. 3. ASoo: Tyndall, John. Some observations on Niagara. Pop. sci. mo. 3:210-26. 1873. Upham, Warren. Relationship of the Glacial lakes Warren, Algonquin, Iroquois and Hudson-Champlain. Abstract, Geol. soc. Am. Bul. 3:484-87; Abstract, Am. geol. 11:59. 1892. The Champlain submergence. Abstract, Geol. soc. Am. Bul. 3:508-11; Abstract, Am. geol. I1r:119. 1892. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 261 Upham, Warren. The fjords and Great lakes basins of North America considered as evidence of pre-glacial continental elevation and of depres- sion during the glacial period. Geol. soc. Am. Bul. 1:563-67. 1890. Altitude as the cause of the glacial period. Science. 22:75, 76. 1893. Estimates of geologic time. Am. jour. sci. 3d ser. 45:209-20; Sci. maiesitp. 25:14, 403-5. 1803. Epeirogenic movements associated with glaciation. Am. jour. scl. 3d ser. 46:114-a1. 18093. Wave-like progress of an epeirogenic uplift. Jour. of geol. 2:283-95. 1894. The Niagara gorge as a measure of the post-glacial period. Am. geol. 14:62-64. 1804. Stages of recession of the North American ice sheet, shown by glacial lakes. Am. geol. 15:396-99. 1805. Departure of the ice sheet from the Laurentian lakes. Abstract, Geol} soc. am. Bul. 6:21-27.. 1895. Late glacial or Champlain subsidence and reelevation of the St Eaywrence river basin. Am. jour. sci.=.3d ser. 49:1-18, with map. 1895; Minn. geol. and nat. hist. sur. 23d an. rep’t, p. 156-93. 1805. Beaches of Lakes Warren and Algonquin. Am. geol. 17:400-2. 18995. Origin and age of the Laurentian lakes and of Niagara falls. Am. Seol. 18:169-77, fig. 1. 1896. Niagara gorge and Saint Davids channel. Geol. soc. Am Bul. Q:I0I-10. 1808. _ Walker, A. E. Hamilton sponges [Ontario]. Hamilton ass’n. Jour. and PROG! 10, 11, p. 85-87. 1805. Weller, Stuart. The Silurian fauna interpreted on the epicontinental basis. Jour. geol. 6:692-703, 2 fig. 1808. Paleontology of the Niagaran limestone in the Chicago area. The Giinoimdea, —Chicaco acad. of sci. The natural history survey. . . But. A pt ft. ° 1900. Westgate, Lewis G. Geographic development of the eastern part cf the Mississippi drainage system. Am. geol. 11:245-€0; Abstract, Jouz. of geol. 1:420, 421. 1893. Winchell, Alexander N. Age of the Great lakes of North America. Am. geol. 109:336-390. 1807. Woodward, R. S. On the rate of recession of the Niagara falls, as shown Dyetae fesults oi a recent survey. Am. ass’n adv. sci. Proc. 35;422. 1886. Worthen, A. H. Remarks on the relative age of the Niagara and so-called Mower Elelderbers-eroups. Am. assn adv. sci. Proc. 109:172-75. 1870. Wright, G. F. Niagara river and the glacial period. Aza. jour. sci. 28 :33-35. 1884. The ice age in North America. Appleton. 1880. ti ek & i aid es : opt ce re ae soe ae ; E ah yer = i Y : aa | . ‘ Ma : 5 ET Mi ci 262 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Wright, G. F. The supposed post-glacial outlet of the Great la. s throt Lake Nipissing and the Mattawa river. Geol. soc)-Am,— Bul. 4:4 1893. ; oh | at Age of Niagara falls as indicated by the erosion at the mouth the gorge. Abstract, Am. ass’n adv. sci. Proc. 47:299-300; Ab: Science. n.s. 8:502; Abstract, Am. geol. 22:260, 261. 1898. ——— New method of estimating the age of Niagara falls. Pop. 55:145-54, 6 fig. 1899. | ; Lateral erosion at the mouth of the Niagara gorge. Science. n. s. 10:488. 1899. ; aE x s ~ ~ ~ AE eS - < J + a rere x 7 4 4 © ae i Ss ee 1 Oe ay a . . meh ¥ ae caine i ° ct 7 : > eo i « - ay i ar) ae 4 3 ‘oe ae 5 - ly : a’ 4 he, Ry _ a “ NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 263 i} , Glossary aberrant—differing from the type acanthopores—hollow spines occurring between the apertures, on the frond of a bryozoan ¢ acinus—a berry adductor muscles—closing muscles in bivalve shells agglutinate—firmly united _air-chambers—chambers below the living chamber in the shells of cephalopods alar—pertaining to wings; the lateral primary septa of the tetracoralla alate—having wing-like expansions ambulacral areas—perforated areas in the test of an echinoderm, through which the tubed feet project anastomosing—uniting to form a net work angulated—with angles or corners ankylosed—firmly united; grown together annulations—rings, or ring-like segments annulus—a ring; a segment of the thorax of a trilobite antennae—paired articulated appendages of head of arthropod—trilobite anterior—front aperture—opening of shells, cells, etc. apex—terminal or first-formed portion of gastropod shells apophysis—a calcareous process (in interior of shells, etc.) appressed—pressed closely against arcuate—arched; bent like a bow articulated—joined by interlocking processes,’ or by teeth and sockets asperate—rough attenuated—tapering; or thinning auricle—ear, or anterior projection of the hinge of many pelecypods auriculate—eared aviculoid—resembling Avicula, winged axial canal—central canal of crinoid stem axial furrows—{furrows or depressions delimiting the axis in trilobites axis—central longitudinal division of the body of a trilobite azygous—unpaired; the azygous side of the calyx of a crinoid has plates differing from those of the regular sides basals—lowest cycle or cycles (in forms with dicyclic base) of plates in the crinoidea beak—area of the apex or initial point of a shell biconvex—both valves convex, as in most brachiopods bifid—split in two bifoliate—two-leaved bifurcating—dividing in two, forking 264 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM biserial—with double series or rows - brachial—pertaining to the brach‘a or arms of brachiopods or crinoids; one of the arm plates of crinoids 4 brachidium—calcareous support of the arms in brachiopods branchiae— gills bryozoum—whole compound colony of the bryozoa bulbiform—bulb-shaped byssal notch—notch or opening for the emission of the byssus (supporting- threads spun by the foot) in the pelecypoda calicinal—pertaining to the calyx or cup callosity—hardened spot or area callus—thickened part of the inner lip of gastropods, which usually covers portions of the preceding volutions calyx—1) cup of corals, limited below by the septa; 2) body, exclusive of the arms, of crino.ds, cystoids and blastoids camerate—chambered; an order of crinoidea camerae—air-chambers of a cephalopod shell canaliculate—channeled; having a canal cancellated—marked by lines crossing each other; lattice-like carapace—hard shell or shield of crustacea cardinal—pertaining to the area of the beak in brachiopods and pe‘ecypocs cardinal process—process from under the beak of the brachial valve cf brachiopods, to which the diductor (opening) muscles are attached cardinal quadrants—two quadrants of a Tetracorallum which bound tue main, or cardinal, septum cardinal septum—first or main of the four primary septa of a Tetracorallum; the cardinal septum has the pinnate arrangement of the secondary septa on both sides cardinal teeth—teeth under the beak in the pelecypods; teeth in the pedice valve of the brachiopods carina—projecting ridge running down the center of the branches in some fenestelloid and other bryozoa; the projecting ridges on the septa oi Heliophyllum and other corals carinated—having a ridge or keel cartilage—compressible, elastic substance between the hinge-margins of the valves of pelecypods. The cartilage is the internal, as the ligament is the external medium for opening the valves cast—the impression taken from a mold caudal—pertaining to the tail celluliferous—cell bearing (bryozoa commonly have a celluliferous and a non-celluliferous side) cephalic limb—anterior border of the cephalon of a trilobite cephalon—head-shield of trilobites cephalothorax—combined head and thorax of crustacea cercopods—lateral tail spines in the ceratiocarida NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 265 cespitose—matted, tangled or growing in low tufts cheeks—lateral portions of the cephalon, divided into fixed and free cheeks, of a trilobite chelae—pincer-like claw terminating some of the legs of crustacea chilidium—covering for the chilyrium chilyrium—triangular opening under the beak of the brachial valve in those brachiopods in which that valve is furnished with a hinge area chitinous—composed of chitin, the substance forming the horny wings or elytra of beetles, and the carapaces of crustacea cicatrix—a scar cincture—depression anterior to the beak in the shell of some pelecypods cirri—root-like appendages to the stem of crinoids clastic—consisting of fragments, i. e. rocks made of fragments of older rocks clavate—club-shaped clavicle—heavy internal ridge running downward from the beak in some pelecypods - columella—central or axillary rod compound corallum—made up of corallites, either separate or closely joined by their walls (ex. Favosites) composite corallum—compound cora:lum with coenenchyma or extrathecal calcareous tissue connecting the corallites (ex. Galaxia and many other recent forms) concavo-convex—shells of brachiopods are normally concavo-convex, when . the brachial valve is concave, and the pedicle valve convex; reversed or resupinate, when the reverse condition obtains confluent—blended so that the line of demarcation is not visible coniferae—order of arborescent plants to which the pines, firs, etc. belong consequent stream—type of stream which flows down the original con- structional slope of the land’ corallites—individual tubes of a compound corallum corallum—calcareous skeleton of a single, or of a colonial, coral stock corneous—horny coronal—crown-like costae—extrathecal extensions of the septa of the corals costals—first brachial or arm-plates of the crinoids lying between the radials and the first bifurcation of the arms counter quadrants—quadrants bounding the counter septum of a Tetra- corallum counter septum—front primary septum of the Tetracoralla, opposite the cardinal septum; the secondary septa are parallel to it crenulated—notched to produce series of teeth crura—apophyses to which the brachidium of the brachiopods is attached cuesta—topographic relief element, resulting from the normal dissection of a coastal plain composed of alternating harder and softer strata (see Pp. 40) 266 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cuneate—wedge-shaped cuneiform—wedge-shaped cyathophylloid—in form like Cyathophyllum; one of the Tetracoralla cyst—a closed cavity cystoid—most primitive class of Pelmatozoa or stemmed echinoderms _delthyrium—triangular fissure under the beak of the pedicle valve of the brachiopoda delt:dium—sing‘e covering plate of the delthyrium (also called pedicle plate) de‘ticial p’ates—two plates which close the delthyrium in the higher brachiopoda (Telotremata) dendroid—branching after the manner of a tree dental plates—internal plates below the teeth in pedicle valve of the brachiopoda denticles—small teeth, or tooth-like ridges dent-.cu!ate—toothed denticulation—set of denticles or small teeth depressed—on a level with, or below the general suriace dextral (right handed)—the normal method of coiling in the gastropoda diaphragm—transverse partitioning plate | dicyclic—with two cycles of basals; applied to crinoids diductor muscles—opening muscles of the brachiopoda discinoid—resembling Discina discoid—disk-like dissepiments—partitions; the intrathecal connecting plates between the septa of the corals; the connecting bars between the branches of a fenestelloid bryozoum distal—situated away from the center of the body distichals—second series of arm plates or brachials of crinoids, situated above the axillary costals P divaricators—opening muscles of brachiopoda; also called diductors dorsal—pertaining to the back , doublure—infolded margin of a trilobite ear—anterior cardinal expansion of the pelecypod shell, usually smaller and ; more distinctly defined than the posterior expansion or wing echinate—spinous eridoderm—inner cellular body layer emarginate—with a notched margin endoderm—inner cellular body layer endothecal—within the theca; intrathecal; used for corals epicontinental—encroaching on the continent epidermal—pertaining to the skin epitheca—outer calcareous coyering of a corallum or bryozoan equilateral—with similar sides equivalve—with similar valves escharoides—like Eschara (a bryozoan) NEAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 267 escutcheon—depression behind the beak of the pelecypod shell exfoliate—peeling off exothecal—outside of the theca of corals explanate—spread out in a fiat surface extrathecal—outside of the theca of corals extroverted—turned base to base; applied to spirals of brachiopods facetted—having facets or numerous faces as the eye of an insect, etc. facial sutures—sutures in the cephalon of trilobites which separate the free from the fixed cheeks facies—local characteristics falcate—curved like a scythe or sickle fasciculate—clustered fathom—a measure of length equaling 6 feet used chiefly for depths of the sea fenestrule—open spaces between the branches and dissepiments of a fene- stella frond filament—a fine thread or fiber fimbriae—a fringe fixed cheek—that part of the cephalon of a trilobite which lies between the glabella and the facial suture fission—the act of splitting or cleaving into parts flabellate—fan-shaped flange—a projecting rim flexibilia—an order of crinoids characterized by the loose jointing of the plates of the calyx fold—the central elevation of the valve, usually ‘the brachial of a brachiopod foliate—leaf-like; in the form of a thin leaf-like expansion foramen—an opening or pore; specifically the opening for the pedicle in the pedicle valve of the brachiopoda fossula—groove in the calyx of a coral, usually due to the abortion of a septum free cheeks—lateral portions of the cephalon of trilabites separated off by the- facial sutures frond—foliaceous or leaf-like expansion of the skeleton of bryozoa and other organisms fruticulose—resembling a small shrub fucoid—a seaweed, particularly of the type similar to the modern Fucus, or rockweed galeate—with a helmet-like covering gastric—pertaining to the stomach genal angles—posterior lateral angles of the free cheeks of trilobites genal spines—posterior prolongations, or spines, of the free cheeks of trilobites geode—a hollow concretion usually lined with crystals, but also filled com- pletely with foreign mineral matter 2OSs NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM geodiferous—containing or.abounding in geodes geodetic—geode-bearing, pertaining to geodes gibbous—swollen or humped glabella—central, most prominent portion of the trilobite cephalon, bounded by the fixed cheeks glomerate—growing in dense heads or clusters, generally of an irregular character gonopolyp—reproductive polyp of Hydrozoa granulated—having small and even elevations resembling grains granulose—bearing or resembling grains or granules hexacoralla—class of corals built on the plan.of six hinge area—flat area bordering the hinge line of many brachiopods hinge line—line of articulation hydrocoralline—order of Hydrozoa which bui!d calcareous skeletal structures hydroid—animal belonging to the class of Hydrozoa hydrotheca—cup inclosing the nutritive polyp in thecaphore Hydrozoa hyponome—water tube, or squirting organ, of squids, cuttiefish, and other cephalopods hypostoma—underlip of the trilobites, usually found detached imbricate—overlapping serially implantation—planting between,.as a new plication suddenty appearing be- tween two older ones inarticulate—not articulating by teeth and sockets; of brachiopoda incised—cut into incrusting—covering as with a crust inequilateral—having unequal sides inface—steep face or escarpment.of a cuesta, facing toward the old-land inferior—lower in position inflated—distended in every direction and hollow within inflected—bent or turned inward or downward infrabasals—lower cycle of basal plates in the crinoids with dicyclic base infundibuliform—funnel-shaped inosculating—connecting, so as to have intercommunication interambulacral—between the ambulacra interapertural—between the apertures interbrachials—plates in the calyx of a crinoid, lying between the brachials intercalation—irregular interposition intercellular—between the cells or meshes interdistichals—plates in the calyx of a crinoid, lying between the distichals interradials—plates in the calyx of a crinoid, lying between the radials interstitial—pertaining to an intervening space; between lines, plications, Cle; intervestibular—between the vestibules or circumscribed areas interzooecial—between the zooecial tubes in bryozoa, etc. NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 269 intrathecal—within the theca; endothecal introverted—turned apex to apex; applied to the spirals of brachiopods irvolute—rolled up, as a Nautilus shell joints—component segments of the stem of a crinoid jugum—yoke-like connection between the two parts of the brachidium of a brachiopod keel—strong central carina or ridge (Taeniopora) lacrymiform—tear-form; drop shaped—pear shaped, but without the lateral contractions lamellar—disposed in lamellae or layers lamellibranch—leaf-gilled, the class of molluska with bivalved shell, to which the oyster and clam belong; pelecypod lamelliform—having the form of a leaf or lamella lamellose—-made up of lamellae lamina—a thin plate or scale lateral gemmation—a budding from the sides, as in some corals lateral teeth—ridge-like projections on either side of the beak, in the in- terior of lamellibranch shells laviformia—primitive order of crinoids ligament—external structure for opening the valves in the pelecypoda limb—lateral area or marginal band of the cephalon of trilobites on either side of the glabella, corresponding to a pleuron of the thoracic region lines of growth—lines marking the periodic increase in size, in shells linguiform—tongue-shaped linguloid—tongue-shaped; like Lingula lip—maregins of the aperture of univalve shell listrium—depressed area surrounding the pedicle opening in the pedicle valve of Orbiculoidea and other discinoid brachiopods lithic—pertaining to stone living chamber—the last chamber in tae shell of a cephalopod, which is occupied by the animal lobes—backward bending portions of the suture of cephalopod shells lophophore—ciliated or tentaculated, oral disk of bryozoa; the oral disk and brachia of brachiopods lunarium—more or less thickened portion of the posterior wall of the cell in many paleozoic bryozoa, which is lunate or curved to a shorter radius, and usually projects above the plane of the cell aperture lunule—depression in front of the beak of pelecypod shells macerate—softening and disintegrating by immersion in water macrocorallites—the larger corallites in a compound corallum maculae—irregular, usually depressed, areas on the celluliferous face of a bryozoan frond, which are free from cells. or otherwise differentiated mandibles—first upper or outer pair of jaws of crustacea and insects 270 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM mantle—fleshy membrane infolding the soft parts of mollusks and brachio- pods and building the shell medullary rays—the “silver grain” or radiating vertical bands or plates of parenchyma in the stems of exogenous plants medusa—a jelly fish membranaceous—pertaining to a membrane mesial—central mesogloea—central, non-cellular layer in the body of coelenterates meso-pores—irregular meshes or cysts on the intercellular spaces of certain bryozoa mesotheca—median wall separating opposed cells in certain bryozoan fronds metastonia—underlip of crustacea, composed of small pieces immediately below and behind the mouth microcorallites—smaller corallites of a compound €orallum mold—any impression of a fossil, in rock matrix, external or internal moniliform—resembling a necklace or string of beads monocyclic—of a single cycle monticuliporoids—corals belonging to the order Monticuliporidae having many points of resemblance with the bryozoa monticules—elevated areas on the surface of certain coral and bryozoan colonies, commonly carrying larger apertures mucronate—produced into a long pointed extension mural pores—pores in the walls of the corallites of the Favositidae muscle scar—scar in a shell marking the former attachment of a muscle nacreous—pearly; the nacreous layer of shells is the inner smooth pearly layer nariform—shaped like a nostril nasute—projecting, nose-like nettlecell—one of the nematocysts or stinging cells found covering the tentacles and other body parts of most Coelenterata node—knob; usually considered as ornamental nodose—bearing nodes or tubercles nodulose—knotty, or having nodes obconical—inversely conical oblate—flattened at the poles obovate—inversely ovate or egg-shaped obsequent stream—a stream flowing down the inface of a cuesta, or toward the old-land, tributary to the subsequent stream which in turn flows into the consequent occipital—applied to the posterior part of the cephalon of a trilobite occipital furrow—transverse groove on the cephalon of trilobites, which separates the last or occipital ring from the rest of the cephalon occipital ring—posterior division of the glabella of a trilobite cephalon operculiform—resembling an operculum operculum—lid or cover NTAGARA -FALES: AND VICINITY 271 paddles—large or last pair of thoracic legs of the eurypterids pallial line—line on the interior of the shell of mollusks marking the at- tachment of the mantle pallial sinus—reentrant angle in the pallial line usually at the posterior end of the shell of pelecypods; it marks the attachment of the siphon muscles palmars—third series of brachial plates of the Crinoidea, lying above the axillary distichals palmate—palm-shaped palpebral lobes—supra-orbital extensions from the fixed cheeks of trilo- bites papilla—a small nipple-shaped protuberance papillose—covered with papillae or fine projections parabasals—second cycle of basal plates in crinoids pectinated rhombs—paired pore clusters in the calyx of certain cystoids (Callocystites) pedicle—fleshy peduncle or stem used for attachment in the brachiopoda pedicle valve—valve which gives emission to the pedicle in the brachiopoda. Ventral of most authors. Usually the larger valve pentameroid—five chambered, similar to Pentamerus pentapetalous—resembling a five-petaled flower penultimate—next to the last periderm—outer chitinous covering of Hydrozoa periostracum—epidermis or outer organic coating of shells peripheral—pertaining to the circumference peristome—margin of an aperture, i. e. the mouth of a univalve molluscan shell, the mouth of a bryozoan cell, etc. peritheca—epithecal covering which surrounds a colony of corallites, i. e. a compound corallum petaloid—resembling a leaf or petal pinnate—shaped like a feather pinnulate—provided with pinnules pinnules—finest divisions of the arms of crinoids plano-convex—normally in brachiopods, with the pedicle valve convex and the brachial valve flat pleura—lateral portions of the thoracic rings of trilobites plicate—plaited or folded plications—folds or rib-like plaits of a brachiopod shell polyp—animal of a simple coelenterate or bryozoan _polypite—individual polyp of a colony pore-rhombs—pore clusters, arranged in rhombic manner in the calyx of cystoids poriferous—pore-bearing, corals which like Favosites are furnished with several pores posterior—situated behind 272 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM post-palmars—all the plates, superior to the axillary palmars in the arms of crinoids prehensile—adapted for seizing preoral—situated in front of the mouth produced—drawii out, elongated proliferous—reproducing buds from the calyx protoconch—embryonic shell of a cephalous molluscan proximal—nearest or basal portion pseudocolumella—false columella in corals, formed by a twisting of the septa pseudodeltidium—false deltidium (Spirifer), formed by union of the two deltidial plates pseudosepta—septa-like ridges of Chaetetes, etc., the projecting ends of the lunaria in the cells of certain bryozoa pseudotheca—false wall or theca in some corals, formed by the expansion of the outer margins of the septa punctate—dotted, with scattered dots or pits pustule—small blister-like elevation pustulose—bearing pustules or projections pygidium—posterior or tail portion of the carapace of trilobites pyramidal—having the form of a pyramid pyriform—pear-shaped pyriformis—pear-shaped quadrangular—four angled quadrate—with four equal and parallel sides quadrifid—cut into four points quadrilobate—bearing four lobes quadriplicate—with four folds quincunx—five objects arranged in a square with one in the middle rachis—central stem of a frond in bryozoa, etc. radials—main plates of the calyx of a crinoid, resting on the parabasals, and alternating with them radii—ribs or striations diverging from the beak of a shell ramose—branching ramus—branch of a skeletal structure reniform—kidney form resilium—internal cartilage or compressible substance in the hinge of pelecy- pods reticulated—like a network retractile—capable of being withdrawn retral—backward rhynchonelloid—resembling Rhynchonella root—expanded basal portion of a crinoid stem, used for fixation rostrum—a beak or snout rugosa—an old name for the Tetracoralla NEAGARA FALES AND VICINITY 273, saddles—forward bending portions of the suture in the shells of cephalopods. salient—standing out prominently scabrous—rough or harsh with little projecting points scalae—small transverse plates in the genus Unitrypa of the bryozoa scalariform—stair or ladder-shaped sclerenchyma—calcareous tissue deposited by the coral polyps scorpioid—scorpion-like, coiled like the tail of a scorpion semilunar—crescentic, or resembling a half moon semiovate—half egg-shaped senile—pertaining to old age septal radii—radiating ridges taking the place of septa in certain corals septate—with partitions or septa septum—partition; in corals, the radiating calcareous plates; in cephalopods, the transverse partitions between the chambers serrate—notched like a saw setiferous—bristle-bearing sigmoid—curved like the Greek letter Y (sigma) sinistral—left handed, reversed coiling of some gastropod shells sinuate—wavy, winding sinuosity—notch or incision forming a wavy outline sinus—impression in the surface or margin of a shell siphonal funnel—siphonal projection from the septum of a cephalopod shell siphonal lobe—lobe in the suture of an ammonoid shell, corresponding in position to the siphuncle siphuncle—tubular canal passing through the air chambers in the shells of cephalopods slickensides—polished or striated surfaces on rock due to motion under great pressure sockets—hollows in the brachial valve of brachiopods for the recep.ioa of the teeth of the opposite valve spatulate—shaped like a spatula; spoon-shaped spheroidal—globose, of the form of a spheroid spiniform—spine-like spinulose—spine bearing spondylium—spoon-shaped cavity under the beak of pentameroid brachio- pods squamous—scaly, covered with scales stalk—stem of crinoids stellate—star-shaped; arranged in star-like manner stipe—stalk or stem in plants stock—main stem or trunk striae—fine radiating surface lines of shells stylolites—peculiar columnar and striated rock form seen in limestones at the junction of two layers sub—in composition indicates a low degree: sub-angular—rather angular; sub-carinate—somewhat toothed, etc. 274 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM subfusiform—more or less spindle-shaped subglobose—more or less globose sublunate—approaching the form of a crescent suborbicular—nearly circular subpentahedral—irregularly five-sided subpyramidal—approximately pyramid-shaped subquadrangular—between quadrangular and oval subquadrate—nearly but not quite square subspheroidal—imperfectly spheroidal subtruncate—irregularly cut off subturbinate—approaching top shape sulcation—a furrow or channel sulcus—a furrow superior—higher in position : suture—in cephalopods, the line of junction between shell and septum, seen on breaking away the former; in gastropods, the external line of junc- tion between the several whorls; in trilobites, the dividing line between fixed and free cheks, commonly called facial suture; in crinoids, the line of junction between adjacent plates tabulae—transverse, continuous partitions or floors in corals, etc. tabulate corals—group of corals in which the tabulae cross plates are promi-- nent, while the septa are faintly or not at all developed e. g. Favosites, Aulopora, etc. talus—the mass of rocky debris which lies at the base of a cliff, having fal en from the face of the cliff above ceeth—articulating projections on the margins of the valves of bivalve shells tegmen—vault or cover of the calyx in crinoids terebratuloid—like the recent genus Terebratula terete—cylindric or slightly tapering terrigenous—derived from the land test-shell tetracoralla—the old group of rugose corals, built on the plan of four tetrameral—on the plan of four theca—the proper wall of the individual corals thoracic—pertaining to the thorax thorax—central part of the body of the trilobites trabeculae—projecting bars trigonal—three-angled trihedral—with three equal faces tripartite—divided into three parts tripetalous—three leaved or petaled trochiform—in form like a Trochus or top shell tubercle—small swollen projection tuberculiform—in form like a tubercle tuberculous—having or resembling tubercles tubicola—an order of marine worms which build calcareous or other tubes tumid—swollen, inflated turbinate—top-shaped NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 275 um bilicus—external opening of the hollow axis of a loose coiled shell umbo—area about and including the beak in pelecypods and brachiopods unconformity—irregularity in the succession of rock beds indicating an in- tervening period of erosion valvular—pertaining to a valve varix—row of spines, a ridge or other mark, denoting the former position of the lip on the shell of a gastropod (plural varices) vaulted—arched ventral—pertaining to the lower side, or venter ventricose—strongly swollen, or bulging vesicular—bearing vesicles, or hollow cavities vestibular area—area surrounding the cell apertures of some bryozoa; often depressed viscera—the internal organs of the body -whorl—single volution of a coiled shell wing—posterior larger expansion along the hinge-line of a pelecypod zoarilum—agegregates of the polypites of a bryozoan colony zooecium—the bryozoan cell zooid—one of the ‘“‘ persons’ bf or individuals of a zoarium lL Nobex The superior figures tell the exact place on the page in ninths; e. g. 190° means page 190, beginning in the third ninth of the page, i. e. about one third of the way down. Abbot, Francis, hermit of Niagara, 122 Acroculia angulata, 211°. niagarensis, 211°. Aechmina, 220’. spinosa, 220°, Age of Niagara, 82°-85°. Alasmidonta, 250°-51°. calceola, 250°. truncata, 250°-51°. Algonquin lake, 59°, 62°; map, 63. river, 62°. American falls, rate of recession, 83°; illus. facing p. 38. Amnicola, 241’. letsoni, 241°. limosa, 241°. Anastrophia, 189-90". brevirostris, 190°. interplicata, 100°, 190°. Annelida, 161’. Anoplotheca, 205°-6°. hemispherica, 96’, 205". plicatula, 96°, 96°, 205°-6*. Anthozoa, 135°-48". Argyle, duke of, quoted, 12’. Arthrophycus, 132°. ; Harlanin oe) 122°. 132°? illusedac- ing p, 132: Ashburner, C. A., cited, 253”. Astrocerium constrictum, 142”. parasiticum, I41°. pyriforme, 141°-42°. venustum, 140°-41°. Atrypa, 195*-97°. aprinis, 200’. bidens, 194°. bidentata, 195°. brevirostris, 190°. camura, 201°. Atrypa, congesta, 204°-5*, corallifera, 179°. cuneata, 192°. cylindrica, 203'-4’. hemispherica, 205". intermedia, 203°. interplicata, 190°. meclectay mos. nitida, 202°, var. oblata, 202°. | nodostriata, 100°, 102*, 102”, 103°, 196°. oblata, 203°: obtusiplicata, 193”. plicatula, 205°-6°. quadricostata, 204°-5°. reticularis, 97+ 4-100, 195-90". robusta, 194°. rugosa, 100", 196°-97°. Avicula emacerata, 207’. orbiculata, 208°-9°. subplara, 208". 2 102, 103°, Bakewell, R., cited, 253”. Ballou, H. W., cited, 253°. Barrandella, 191°. fornicata, IQ1’. Batostomella, 164°-65°. granulifera, 164°-65°. Bed and stratum, distinction between, 108”. Beyrichia symmetrica, 219°. Bibliography of geology of Niagara and Great lakes, 253-62. Biddle stairway, I1°. Bigelow, cited, 49°. Bigsby, mentioned, 6’. Birdseye view of Niagara region, 2 25°, ie i INDEX TO NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY -277 Bishop, I. P.. cited, 253°, 114°; well records published by, 18°; men- tioned, 18°; map by; 22’. Blackwell!, cited, 23°. Bloody run, 15’. Bollia) 210°. symmetrica, 219°. Bowmans creek, 14°. Brachiopoda, 100°-1°, 77 200°. Brock’s monument, 15’, 20". Bronteus, 226’. niagarensis, 226°. Bryozoa, 101", 103°-4°, 161°-76". Bucania, 213°. talobata, 213°. Buffalo, elevation of rae in vicinity of, 28°. Buffalo creek, bedrock lower than surface of Lake Erie, 30°. Bul head rock, 116’. Bumastis barriensis, 223”. Burning spring, 13°. Bythinel’a, 242". obtusa, 242”. Bythopora, 165. spinulosa, 166°. Bythotrephis, 130°-32’. etacilis, O7 , ie =31°, lesquereuxi, 131’-32'. Callocystites, 151°-52°. jewetti, 151°-52°. Callopora, 167°-68’. aspera, 165'-66°. elegantula, 167°-68°. florida, 165°. Calymmene, 224’. blumenbachii, 101°. niagarens:s, 224°. Camarotoechia, 192'-94°. Beis. O7 = <93°: neglecta, 100°, 193”. obtusiplicata, 193°. Camerata, 155-58. Campeloma, 243°. decisa, 2437. 3 Canadian side, views from, 12°-13’. Carll, cited, 47°. Caryocrinus, 149°-51’. OrNatus, 1035. 150-51. Catenipora escharoides, 143'-44°. Cave of the winds, 11°, 69°, 113°. Cephalopoda, 102°, 214°-18". Cetamopora, 162°-63°. imbricata, 163°. incrustans, 163%. Ceratiocaris 227-26 acuminata, 227%. deweyi, 227°-28°. Chalmers, Robert, cited, 253%. Chilotrypa, 163‘-64°. ostiolata, 164°. _Chippewa creek, 29°, 537-54". Chonetes, 185°. cornutus, 185°. Chonophyllum, 130’. niagarense, 139°. Cladopora, 146'-47°. multipora, 147°. seriata, 146°-47°. Clarke, J. M., mentioned, 18’; studies ‘on limestone lenses of the Clinton, 102"; section revised by, 229’; cited, Te 253s Clathropora, 173*-74’. aleicornis, 174 . frondosa, 174’. Claypole, E. W., cited, 253°; men- tioned, 18’. Cliff on Canadian side of gorge, illus. facing p. 68. Clintom, beds, “33°, 34°..95)-1027123., 124; illus. facing p. 92, 94; fossils, 232-37. Coleman, ActP., ‘cited= 2537, Consequent streams, 38°, 42°, 44°, 46°, 46°. Conularia, 213°-14". niazarensis, 214’. Conularida, 213'-14". Coral reefs, 124*-26°, 120°. Cora‘line limestone, 124’. Corals, 101°. Cornell hotel, 15°. Corniferous limestone, 121°. Cernulites, 161°. bellistriatus, 161°. i Crinoida! limestone, 106°-77. Crinoidea, 101°-2°, 1527-61°. 278 Crustacea, 116°, 218°-31°. Cuesta, 40°, 557; illus. facing p. 25. Cyathophyllum, 138°. hydraulicum, 117°, 138°. Cybele pumctata, 225°. Cyclas staminea, 246°-47’'. striatina, 246°. Cyclostoma lapidaria, 242°. tricarinata, 243°. Cyrtina, 197°. pyramidalis, 197°. Cyrtoceras, 216°. cancellatum, 216°. subcancellatum, 216°. Cystoidea, 148'-52°. Cytherina cylindrica, 218°. spinosa, 220°. Dalmanella, 187°. elegantula, ro1*, 103*, 187°. Dalmanites, 223°-24°. limulurus, 105%, 224’. Davis, W.-M cited, 253- 40, Ar ; mentioned, 18’. . Dawson, G. M., cited, 254’. Day, D. F., catalogue of plants, 11°. Delthyris sulcatus, 2007. Desor, E., cited, 254’. Devil’s hole, 15’, 17°, 110°; view near, facing p. 104. Devonic series, 33°, 120°-21°; Siluro- Devonic contact, 117°-20°. Diamesopora, 175°. dichotoma, 175’. Diaphorostoma, 211°-12°. niagarense, 103", 212”. Dictyonella, 179°. corallifera, 179°. Dictyonema, 133'-34’. retiforme, 133-34’. Dip of strata, 35°-26°. Diploclema, 162%. sparsa, 162°. Diplophyllum, 139°-40’. caespitosum, 139-40’. Dolichopterus, 230°. macrochirus, 230°. Drainage features, development of, 37°-54.. Drymotrypa, 169*-70". diffusa, 169°-70°. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Dufferin islands, 13°, Dundas valley, 27°, 42°-46*. Eddy basin, 78*, 79°. Encrinurus, 225%. ornatus, 225°. Enterolasimay 136-47) caliculus, 101°, 137°. Eucalyptocrinus, 101°, 103°, 157°-58. decorus, 157°-58°. Burypterida. 116, 228-31 Eurypterus, 228°-30°. dekayi, 230°. giganteus, 220°. lacustris, 229°. var. robustus, 229°. pachychirus, 230°. pustulosus, 229°. remipes, 229°; illus. facing p. 220. robustus, 229°. Eusarcus, 230". grandis, 230°. scorpionis, 231°. Fairchild, H. L., cited, 254°, 57°; mentioned, 18’. Favosites, 112°, 125°, 140°-42”. constrictus, 142”. niagarensis, 142°-43°. parasiticus, I41°. pyriformis, 141°-42”. venustus, 140-41. Featherstonaugh, G. W., cited, 254°. Fenestella, 170°-71’. elegans, 170°-71°. puiscar I7te tenuiceps, I7I°. oe Fleming, M. A., cited, 254’. Flexibilia, 159°-60”. Fiuvial period, 66°-82°. Foerste, A. F., cited, 254°. Foot, Lyman, cited, 254°. Fort Massassauga, 27°. Fort Niaeara. 27- Fossiliferous sections, 16°-21. Fossils, 130'-46°; in Siluric beds, dis- tribution, 232-37. Foster’s flats, 15°, 71°-76°; illus. fac- ing p. 72; shel!-bearing gravels, 238°. INDEX TO NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY Fucoids, 130°. Fuller, Margaret, quoted, 10°. Gastropoda, 10°, 67°, 68°, 74°, IOI’, 2107-13, 230°-45- Gebhard, John, cited, 254°. Geer, Gerard de, cited, 254’. Genesee river, preglacial, 46'-47°. Geodiferous limestones, 107°-13’. Geologic map, 22’. Geologic nomenclature, 17’-2I. Georgian bay, valley, 52°-53’. Gibbes, L. R., cited, 255°. Gilbert. G. K., cited, 255°, 23°, 50°, 56°, 57°, 65”, 72°, 73°, 94°; mentioned, 67, 18’; identified with geologic studies at Niagara, 22°; map of - Great lakes, 61, 62. Glacial erosion, influence on topog- raphy, 50°. Glacial lakes, 58°. Glacial period, 55°-57°. Glossary, 263-75. Glyptocrinus plumosus, 157°. Goat island, 9, 10-12", 80°; name, 10°; shell-bearing gravels, 11°, 67°, 238°; future of, 81°-82°; illus. fac- ing p. 80. Gomphoceras, 216°-17’. Sp. 217. Goniobasis, 68°, 239°-40”. haldemani, 240°. livescens, 239°-40°. var. niagarensis, 240°. Gordon, C. H., cited, 255’. Gorge of Niagara, 69°-71°; age, 82°- 85°: St Davids, 27°, 51°-52', 77*-80'; upper, 80°-82'; illus. facing p. &; of whirlpool rapids, 76°-80°, 85°; below the falls: 14'-16°; product of river erosion, 66°; cutting by the cataract, 68’. Grabau, A. W., cited, 255°. Grant, C. C., cited, 255°. Gray quartzose sandstone, 88'-89". Great lakes, maps, 61, 62. Great lakes and Niagara, graphy, 253-62. Grote, A. R., cited, 255°. Guelph dolomite, 114°. biblio- 279 Gunning, W. D., cited, 255”. Gypsum, deposition of, 128°, Hall, Basil, quoted, 10°. Hall, James, surveys instituted by, 6°; mentioned, 18'; cited, 256°, 96°. Hallett, P., cited, 256°. Halysites, 125°, 143*-44°. catenulatus, 143’-44°. Hamilton shale, 30’. Helepora fragilis, go’. Heliolites, 125°, 144°-46°. elegans, 145°. pyriformis, 146’. spiniporus, 145°. Helopora, 172°-73. - fragilis, 173°. Hennepin, Father Louis, first to leave description of falls, 7°; quoted, 7°-&. Hermit’s cascade, 12”. Hight of falls, 22’. Hitchcock, C. H., c:ted, 253°, 84°; mentioned, 18’. Holley, G. W., cited, 256’. Homalonotus, 221°-22°. delphinocephalus, 105°, 221°-22°. Homoeospira, 200°. apriniformis, 200’. Horseshoe falls, vivid green of water, 13'; sectional view, €9; crest lines, 81; rate of recession, 83°; illus. facing p. &o. Hovey, B C..'c ted, 2567; Huron lowland, 53'-54’. Hyatt, Alpheus, cited, 256°. Hyattella, 204°-5°. congesta, 204°-5°. Hydraulic cement, manufacture of, Teese Hydraulic cement beds, 106’. Hydrozoa, 133-35. Ichthyocrinus, 159". laevis, 150°. Illaenus, 222°-23°. ioxus, 100°, 101°, 102°, 223°. Illinois river, outlet of Lake Michi- gan, 65°. Irondequoit bay. 47’. Iroquois lake, 60°, 62°, 62°; map, 63. 280 Isochilina, 218’. cylindrica, 218°. Lacustrins period, 57°-65°. Lake ‘basi=s,* orig n, Fo" Lake iegion, tilting of the land, 65°. Lakes, maps of Great lakes, 61, 62. See also names of lakes, as Iroquois, Ontario. Lameiiibranch ata, 206°-107. Lampsilis, 248’-40°. eluipsiformis, 249°. rectus, 248°-49°. atvitorneia, 153-55 Laurentian glacier, thickness, 55°-56°. Laurentian old-land, compos:tion, Sai Laurentian region, diagrams show- ing type of drainage existing in, 44, 45. Laurentian river, 49°. Laurentide mountains, 26°, 36. Lawson, cited, 36°. IGECAMOCEINTHS-. [OO macropetalus, 160°. Leperditia, 218*-19*. scalaris, 210°. Leptaena, 18o0°.- depressa, 180%. patenta, 1é2". rhomboidalis, 101*, 180°. sericea, 183°. SiGiata, toe subplana, 184°. transversalis, 183°. Lesley, J. P., cited, 257°; mentioned, 18". Letson, E. J., Post-pliocene fossils of Niagara river gravels, 238-52. leeverett,- Franks “cited, 25655257 ; mentioned, 6’. icas 224-25, boltomt+225;4 illus facie p25 Lichenalia, 176°. concentrica, 101", 176°. Life history of Niagara Falls, 55’- 85°. Limestone beds, 28°, 29°. Limestone cliff, 297. Limestone lenses of the g9’- 102". Clinton, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Limestones, formation, 124°-26°, Limnaea, 243°-44°. catascopium, 244°. columella, 244°. decisa, 243’. desidiosa, 244°. heterostropha, 245°. Lingula, 88’, 116°, 178°. cuneata, So) 92 1760 Lioclema, 1657-66’. aspera, 165'-65°. florida, 165°. Liopteria, 208°. subplana, zo3°. Lockport limestone, 33°, 13); tlus. facing 3ps-04. Logan, cited, 36°, 36°; mentioned, 6”. Lorraine shales, 33°. Lowlands, formation, 55°. Luna falls, illus: “facing “pasionese: 54. Etnanislanciann: Lundy’s Lane, battle of, 13°. Lyell, Charles, cited, 257°, 82‘; men- tioned, 6°, 18". Lyriocemus. 150-57. dactylus, 156°-57°. Lyriopecten, 208°-9’. orbiculoides, 208°-9’. 34°, 105°- Maid of the mist, 10) 1'sew4 Manlius limestone, 29°, 33’, I16'-17’, 128°; and Onondaga limestone, unconformab!e contact, 118°. Map, geologic, 22’. Marcellus shale, 30’. Marcou, Jules, cited, 257°. Margaritana marginata var. trenca_a, 250-51. Marine crganisms, in Great lakes, 64°. Mattawa river, 62’. Maw, George, cited, 257°. Medina sandstones and shales, 26’, 33°, 34,60, 87-95 ° illus. ftacine =p: 86; 02, 04: fossils# 123°" 282-377 Me ina livescens, 239°-40°. niagarensis, 240°. Merril B. Job seiteds sre Michigan, lake, rising of waters, 65°. INDEX TO NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY Minerals in geodiferous limestone, 108°-9°. Modiolopsis, 209°-10°. Sp., 209°-10'. orthonota, 200°. primigenia, 209”. subalatus, 209’-10'. cf. subalatus?, 102* Morgan, R. F., assistance from, 18’. Muddy creek, shell-bearing gravels, 238°. Wamdee EF. H., cited, 257°. Mussels, fresh water, 10’. Nautiloidea, 215°-18. Nematophycus, 132’. Crassus, 132°. Nematophyton crassum, 132". New York side, views from, 9°-12". Mewperry, J. S., cited, 257°, 46", 50°; mentioned, 18’. Niagara, first use of name, 7°; mean- ing of name, 7*. Niagara and Great ography, 253-62. Niagara beds, 24'; of Lake Temis- caming, 30. See also Lockport limestone; Rochester shales. Niagara cuesta, see Cuesta. Niagara escarpment, 390°; illus. fac- ime Pp. 25. Niagara falls, age, 82°-85°; cutting of sosee, 68’: abandoned fal’s at Hesters, fats, 71°-76': ilus. facing Meg2eewiture of, 82°; from Father Hennepin’s view point, piece; hight, 22°; how reached, 7’; how to see them, 7*-17°; illus. fac- inep. 10, 38, 54, So; life history, 55 -85°: origin, 66°; possible exist- ence of three or four falls, 75°-76°; upper gorge and falls, 80°-82°*. Niagara elen, 1 71-70; illus. fac- ime p. 72. Niagara Niagara. Niagara group, term, 6°. Niagara limestone, see limestone. Niagara region, history of during Siluric time, 121°-20°. lakes, bibli- gorge, see Gorge of Lockport N lagara frontis-_ 281 river, accumulations of stratified sands and gravels, 67’; age, 82°-85°; eroczion of r.ver bed, 68'; future of, 65°; old banks, 66°; illus. facing p. 66: ozigin, 59°; water supply diminished by Algonquin fiver -out.et, 62-65”. Niagara river gravels, Post-pliocene foss-Is, 238-52. Niagara shale, see Rochester shale. Niagara transition group, 102°. Niagaran deposits, of New York compared with those of the Middle States 126-27" Nicholson, EH. “A., cited, 257°. Nipissing, lake, 62", 77°. Nipissing great lakes, 62°; map, 63. Nipissing-Mattawa river, 62°, 77°, Obsequent streams, 41°, 477, 51’. Onchus deweyi, 227°-28°. Oneida conglomerates, 33°. Onerara, pate, 10. 75. Onondaga fimestone, 29°, 33", 117’; and Manlius limestone, uncon- formable contact, 118. Ontario, lake, depth, 47°, 49°; level, 61°; topography and geologv, 47° Br Ontario valley, 47°-51%. Orbicula? squamiformis, 179%, Orthis, 185°-86". circulus, 188'-89’. elegantula, 187°. fasciata, 187°. flabellites, 186°, flabellulum, 186°. hybrida, 188°. (?) punctostriata, 186°. pyramidale, 189’. Orthoceras, 215°-16°. Sp., 102°. annulatum, 102°, 215°-16". medullare (?), 102°, 216°. multiseptum, 215°. undu'atum, 215°-16°. Orthostrophia, 186°-87°. (*) tasciata, 187 - Orthothetes, 1837-85”. hydraulicus, 184°-857. , subplanus, 101°, 103°, 1847 282 Ostracoda,’ 218°-20°. Oswego sandstone, 33°, 87’. Paleontologic 86°- 120°. Paleontology, 130°-46". | Paleozoic coastal plain, development of, 31°-37’. Paleozoic rock system, 18”. Paleozoic subdivisions, table, 20-21. Paludina limosa, 241°. obtusa, 242°. Pelecypoda, 102* Bon Peneplain, 36°, 42”. Pentamerus, 190°-91”. fornicatus, 191’. oblongus, 190°-91”. Phacops limulurus, 224. Phasganocaris? deweyi, 227°-28°. Pholidops, 179’. squamiformis, 179°. Phyllocarida, 226'-28°. Phylloporina, 168°-69°. asperato-striata, I€9°. Physa, 244°-45°. heterostropha, 245°. Physical geography of Niagara re- sion, 25-54. Bilsbicy, etl eA tO; 238: Pisidium, 2477-48. abditum, 247°. compressum, 247°. scutellatum, 248’. ultramontanum, 248’. virginicum, 247°. Patt. We Ebewetted) 255. Planorbis, 245°. bicarinatus, 245°. parvus, 245°. Plants, I, 130°-32.. Platyceras, 103", 211°. angulatum, 211°. niagarense, 2117. Platystoma, 211°. niagarensis, IOI’. Plectambonites, 182°-837. sericea, 183°. transversalis, 101*, 183°. history of region, , 105°, 206°-10", 245°- acknowledgments NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Pleurocera, 230°. subulare, 239°. Pleurotomaria, 212°-13". littorea, 212". pervetusta, 213°. Pohlman, Julius, cited, 257°, 30°, 77°, 79°, 83°, 115°; mentioned, 18°. Polydilasma turbinatum, 1377. Polypore. i772 {iCeptariz2s Pomatiopsis, 242". lapidariaw74en 212. Porter, P. A., cited, 77> quoted aoe Post-pliocene fossils of Niagara river gravels, 238-52. Potsdam formation, facies, 32”. Potsdam sandstone, 32°. Pre-Cambric rocks, 18°, 31’. Pre-Cambric North American con- tinent, visible remnants, 26°. Preglacial Genesee river, 46'-47°. Preglacial Saginaw river, 46’. Prospect park, gravel beds, 67°, 238°. Prospect point, views from, 9°. Pterinea, 207%. emacerata, 96°, 105% 207". ° Pterygotus, 231°. acuticaudatus, 231°. buffaloensis, 231°. cobbi, 231°. cummingsi, 231’. globicaudatus, 231°. macrophthalmus, 231°. Quadrula, 251°-<2°. coccinea, 252°. Solidas 251-527 Queen Victoria park, posits, 68°, 238°. Queenston hights, 15%. Quereau, E. C., cited, 257°. gravel de- Rapids above falls, view of, 12”. Recession of falls, 22°-23”. Retepora asperatostriata, 169°. diffusa, 169°-70°. Rhinopora, 174°-75°. tuberculosa, 175°. Rhipidomella, 188’. circulus, 1887-897. hybrida, 188". oe INDEX TO NIAGARA FALLS AND VICINITY 283 Rhynchonella, 194°-95°. acinus, 193°. (?) bidens, 194". (?) bidentata, 195°. robus‘a, 194’. Rhynchotreta, 192’. cuneata americana, I00°, IOI’. var. americana, 192°. Ridge road, 60°. Ringueberg, E. N. S., cited, 257°-58’, 102°; mentioned, 18°. Rochester shales, 33°, 102'-5°; illus. facing p. 94; fossils, 232-37. Rock of ages, illus. facing p. 54. Rogers, H. D., cited, 258°. Rondout waterlime, 115°, 115’-16°. fgissellel.C., cited, 49’, 258". Saginaw river, pre-glacial, 46°. St Davids gorge, 27°, 51*-52*, 77°- 80’. Salina beds, 20°, 33°, 114°-15", 128°. Saline character of waters during early Medina epoch, 122°. Scenidium, 189”. pyramidale, 189°. Schiller, quoted, 16°. Mochmidt, Fr. cited, 258°. Schuchert, cited, 18°. Scovell, J. T., cited, 258°. Sea, access to St Lawrence and Ontario basins, 64°. Semicoscinium, 171°. tenuiceps, I7I°. Seneca Indians, massacre of English soldiers by, 15°. Shaler, N. S., cited, 258°; mentioned, 18. Shawangunk conglomerates, 33°. Shells of Niagara river gravels, 67’, 238-52. Siluric deposits, 29°, 33°. Siluric fossi's, 130°-46°; distribution, 232-37. Siluric rock series, 18°. Siluric time, history of Niagara re- gion during, 121°-29’. Siluro-Devonic contact, 117°-20°. Slickensides, 99". Souvenirs; of Niagara, 8°. Spencers Joa sctbed: 258-50 0e42: an AS 743544, AOt AO 2.535057) 83s mentioned, 6’, 18°. Sphaerium, 245°-47’. stamineum, 246°-47’. striatinum, 246°. Spirifer, 197°-200°. ChISpUS, 10k, 102% 1097 var. corallinensis, 199°. eriensis, 102°, 199°-200°. niagarensis, 98', 100° 99". pyramidalis, 197°. radiatus, Io1*, 198. sulcatus, 101, 200: Statistics, 22‘-24. Stephanocrinus, 153°-55*. angulatus, 154°-55. gemmiformis, 155° ornatus, 103°. Sterki, V., acknowledgments to, 238’. Stose, G. W., cited, 259°. Strata, dip, 28'; succession of, figure showing, 19; origin and e‘fe:t on topographic features, 31°-37'. Stratigraphy of the Niagara region, 86°- 129”. Stratum and bed, distinction be- tween, 108’. Streptelasma caliculus, 137”. Striatopora, 147°-48". flexuosa, 148”. Stromatopora, 112. 125, 134-35 concentrica, 112°, 134°-35°. Stropheodonta, 180'-81°. Cormedtar tor. 18t. profunda, 96", 97°, 181°. Strophonella, 182’. patenta, 98", ror’, 182°. Stitata 4162: Subsequent streams, 39*, 47°, 53°. 4 7 , 102°, 198'- Table of Paleozoic subdivisions, 20- 21: Table rock, 13’. Tarte Reso), cited, 2507, S50); .eimen— tioned, 18°. Taylor, KF: B., cited, 250'-00.57 . 58% 62-64 762. 77". 70. 83s anapsy OL Great lakes, 63; mentioned, 6’, 18". —————— EE 284 Tellina virginica, 247°. Temiscaming, lake, 30". herrapin- rocks at s2. Three Sister islands, 11’; illus. facing p. 8o. Thysanocrinus, 155*-56°. liliiformis, 155°, 156°. Tilting of the land, 65°. Tonawanda creek, zo’. Tonawanda valley, 53'-54’. Trematopora, 166°-67°. granulifera, 164°-65°. ostiolata, 164°. Spatsay 102 —- spinulosa, 166’. (rstuata woe, tuberculosa, 166°-67”. Trematospira, 201°. camura, 201°. Trent river, 62°. Trilobita, 101°, 2207-26". Trochoceras, 217'-18. gebhardi, 217°-18°. Tyndall, John, cited, 260°; quoted, S613). Niagara _ beds, Unconformity of relation between newer and older strata, 31°-32°. Waloe25ir; calceolus. 250°. coccineus, 252°. ellipsiformis, 249°. gibbosus, 251°. fasita, 251. recta, 248-49". solidus, 251-52". spathulatus. 249°. ° Unionidae, 68’. : Upham, Warren, cited, 260°-61°, 46°, 49", 64°, 83°; mentioned, 6", 18°. Utica shales, 33°. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Valvata, 242°-43°. sincera, 243°. tricarinata, 243. Views, from New York side, 9°-12'; from Canadian side, 12"-13°. Waggoner’s hotel, 15°. Walker An Ey citediion Walker, Bryant, acknowledgments tO, (2387, Warren, lake, glacial, 58°. Water, a geologic agent, 37°. Waterlime, 29°, 33", 115°, 115'-16°, 128 Webb, Capt., fatal swim, 14’. Weller, Stuart, cited, 261°, 127°. Westgate, L. G., cited, 261", 46°, 49°. Whirlpool, 14°, 76'-80°; illus. facing p. 76; shell-bearing gravels, 228’. Whirlpool rapids, 14*, 16°, 85°; illus. facing p. 78. Whitfieldella, 97°; 201°-4". cylindrica, 203'-4°. intermedia, 97°, 100°, 203°. laevis, 204”. Hitica OG, 2100 1202. oblata, 100*, 103%, 202°. oblata, 100°, 203°. rotundata, 204’. sulcata, 204°. Wilson, A. W. G.,, cited, 36°. Winchell, A. N., cited, 261°. Wintergreen flat, 71°, 73°; illus. fac- ime 72: Woodward, R. S., cited, 261°. Worthen, A. H., cited, 261°. Wright, G. F., cited, 262°, 847; men- tioned, 18°. Zaphrentis, 137°-38°. tuGbimetay 137. Zoognosia, 143°. University of the State of New York DLE LLN OF THE — New York state Museum FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL Director No. 46 Vol. 9 June Igor SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE AND LIST OF THE SPECIES IN NEW YORK STATE BY EPHRAIM. PORTER, FELD) D.Se3 }- | State entomologist ALBANY UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Igo! CON TaN Vi PAGE Dmiroduchion? J. eee. cae sae 291 Characteristics’ -_- See Pees. - Stipe: Number "or ‘Species 2-2 asce. See 292 (njuUmMes? wo a cee ee eee Ree 293 Means of dispersal (22-2222: -.2<\-<208 Certain’ ‘species ioivalue'fee.. ee 204 Recognition of scale insects. .--..- 295 Key based on superficial characters ot specieswtreated or: fa. Bees 205 Appletree bark louse, M ytilaspis pomorwmlllisid AASL. REE 207 Scurfy bark louse, Chionaspis a ed ee eee oe ee 300 Pernicious or San José scale insect, Aspidiotus perniciosus.. 304 European fruit scale insect, Aspid- LoTUss, Os treaeciormi sy ie: 323 En ge WNL te ci tee ee ee Seis 326 Cherry scale insect, Aspidiotus Pore Sagiowe epee se Ue 330 White scale insect of theivy, As pid- WO asp tae wie Pale. Lees eee Remedialtimeastires 0 2. oes eee 336 Only contact insecticides of value-. 336 . PAGE Remedial measures (continued) Whale! dil’seapt?.. -2.s 2. 22 eee Whale oil soap and crude petroleum | combination, Joo. 2. cesses eee 337 Crude petroleum emulsion...-..-- 237 Crude petroleum undiluted....--. 338 K Grosene’. .. css oe 339 Kerosene, emulsion. ..2-. ---s eee 339 Other summer sprays ---.neseeeee 339 Fumigation in orchards....--.---- 339 Fumigation of nursery stock.....- 341 Technical study of four species of Aspidiotus, by Miss M. F. “Boynton co Fe anaes 343 Preface. f= ance = 45j2 > ee 343 ey 2d “427. BES bo eee 347 Aspidiot us\fomrjbesi.cs-eaeee 347 Asp#diotus perniciosus.. 349 Aspidiotus ancylus....... 351 Aspidiotus ostreaefor- md Sudse tse eles eee 352 Scale insects, Coccidae, in New York SEES E ie a 2 cia aw afeaor el 354 Explanation of plates.--. 2-2 -eeeeee 361 Grd a eee oe ee cc ataeeeee ee 367 1A general account and bibliography of eachis given. New York State Museum SCALE INSECTS (DIASPINAE) OF IMPORTANCE Ord. Hemiptera: Fam. Coccidae INTRODUCTION “There is no group of insects which is of greater interest to horticul- turists today than that family which includes the creatures popularly known as ‘scale insects’ and ‘ mealy bugs.’” These words, written 20 years ago by Prof. Comstock, the first American to make a close study of the characters presented by the female scale insect, are still true. These Insignificant animals attack almost every tree and shrub and many herbaceous plants, and certain species have caused serious injuries and, under favoring conditions, are capable of inflicting enormous losses on our nursery, orchard and greenhouse interests. ‘Their minute size, resis- tance to insecticides and marvelous prolificacy render them formidable pests. Scientific men have awakened to the importance of this group, and scale insects are being studied as never before. Large numbers of new species have been characterized within the last five years, and-many important biologic facts relating to this family have been ascertained. Characteristics. The popular name, “scale insects,” is truly de- scriptive of the species belonging to one subfamily, the Diaspinae, or armored scales, since the insects themselves are covered with a scale, a secretion usually beginning on the recently hatched young as a mass of white, cotton-like threads (pl. 1, fig. 3), which mats down and extends to form a shield-like covering for the tender insect (pl. 1, fig. 4). These forms are frequently known as bark lice, because most of the species are found on the bark of trees or shrubs, and itis a very good descriptive name. ‘The scale insects, like all others belonging to the same class, originate from eggs. Sometimes the eggs are deposited under the scale (pl. 1, fig. 8) and remain unhatched over winter, or they may develop into young within the body ofthe female (pl. 3, fig. ro), and then the insect is called viviparous, or more strictly, ovoviviparous. The young in either case are minute creatures possessing six true legs, with good locomotive powers for such small beings, and provided with eyes and a pair of antennae or feelers. That is, they have the normal characteristics of very young insects. The secretion of the scale, which usually begins within a few days after the young hatch, is followed by remarkable changes. The eyes, antennae and legs disappear, and there results an animated, sucking, sac-like creature (pl. 1, fig. 10) with apparently no 2G2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM other aim or power than the perpetuation of the species. This, in briet is the story of the female scale. It is different with the opposite sex. The scale, usually of a different form, is secreted by the young (pl. 2, fig. 6), and the same process goes on till the second molt, and then rudi- ments of limbs, antennae and wings are developed, and later appears the minute two-winged creature (pl. 3, fig. 12), which forsakes its sheltering scale and looks for a mate. This tiny insect lost its appendages while living under the protecting scale, and in time developed others much more delicate and refined. Other scale insects are not protected by a shield of excreted matter and cast skins as are those mentioned above. ‘They vary much in general appearance and habits. Some live in galls, others, like Kermes, re- semble and are frequently taken for galls, while still others may be found in ants nests. The soft, brown Lecaniums are among the most common unarmored scale insects, and they can usually be distinguished by their oval, somewhat hemispheric bodies. ‘The more typical Coccidae are represented by the “mealy bug,” Dactylopius longispinus Targ., andthe elm bark louse, Gossyparia ulmi Geoff. The former is common in greenhouses and the latter is found in considerable numbers on elms in many cities and villages. Neither of these lose their appendages with the first molt, as do the armored scales, and they retain the power of locomotion to a certain extent, at least. Coccidae belonging to this group are usually covered with a whitish, protective excretion, which is, for example, cotton-like in Gossyparia and granular in the “ mealy bug.” Number of species. The number of described species of scale in- sects is very large. A checklist of the Coccidae of the world’, pub- lished by Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell in 1896, lists over 800 species, and a supplement? to this adds over 300, making a total of about 1100. Some of these will doubtless prove to be varieties, but new species are con- stantly being added to the list. A most interesting study of the forms occurring in the state of Massachusetts has been prosecuted by George B. King, of Lawrence (Mass.), who has succeeded, by collecting and compiling, in bringing together a list of 110, aside from several unidenti- fied, species of scale insects known to occur in that commonwealth. Compilation of earlier records and the aid generously given by other entomologists have made it possible to. prepare a list of 78 species of scale insects known to occur in New York state (see p. 354). Many additions will doubtless be made to this list by farther collecting. 1 Illinois state laboratory of natural history. Bul. 1896, v. 4, art. 9. 2 Hf 1899, v. 5, art. 7. SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 293 Injuries. The harm done by scale insects is seldom appreciated till it is too late. The scales may be noticed on the bark in considerable numbers, but solong as the tree shows no marked injury, the majority of people are inclined to believe that but little harm has been done. They appear to overlook the fact that a tree, like a man, may put forth every possible effort to sustain itself and apparently succeed in doing so, only to collapse suddenly at theend. Every living scale insect, after it has become established, is an automatic pump drawing the vital fluids from the host plant through a slender, hair-like beak or proboscis (pl. 3, fig. 10). The amount insects are capable of abstracting in this way from a tree is truly surprising. Ihave repeatedly seen showers of honeydew falling from elms badly infested with the elm bark louse, the excretion being so copious as to keep the walk beneath wet even on good drying days. This abundant excretion is‘not seen in the case of the armored scales, like the species to be considered later, but the production of their firm, protective coverings, as well as the nutrition of the thousands of insects, must make an enormous draft on the infested tree. This is proved by the fact that not infrequently trees are unable to withstand the drain and succumb. The injury these species can inflict is ina measure directly _ proportional to their productivity. A moderately prolific species pos- sessing the ability to develop several generations in a season is one to be feared, because under favoring conditions a much larger number of in- dividuals might be produced than would be possible fora much more prolific species which was limited by nature to one generation annually. It is the same for one year as the relation existing between arithmetical and geometric progression. ‘This is why the San José scale is so danger- ous. Itis not only moderately prolific, but it develops a number of gen- erations in a season. It has been estimated that in one year in the lati- tude of Washington (D. C.) a single female might produce, all condi- tions such as food supply, etc. being favorable, the enormous number of 3,216,080,400 descendants. Means of dispersal. This is an extremely important matter, par- | ticularly to the man .whose trees are free from these pests. The period when any of the scale insects to be considered below can travel of their own free will is very limited and, excluding the males, which may be dis- regarded in this connection, they are wingless and their crawling powers by no means great. These scale insects depend almost entirely on some external agency to transport them even from tree to tree, unless the limbs interlock. It has been demonstrated by Prof. W. G. Johnson that the 294 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM young of the San José scale are carried short distances by a strong wind, and there is no reason why those of other species might not be conveyed ‘In the same manner. Evidence of one kind and another has been accumulating to show that active young of the scale insects are carried by other insects, birds and animals from tree to tree. It is also well known that these forms are most readily transported long distances on young trees and plants. This means is by far the most important, and fortunately is the one most readily controlled. Methods of preventing this dissemination will be considered under an appropriate head after the discussion of several injurious forms, Certain species of value. Some Coccidae, or scale insects, are of economic importance on account of their products. The well-known cochineal is derived from the dried bodies of a scale insect, Coccus cacti Linn., which, as is well known, lives on several species of Cac- taceae'in Mexico. Prof. Comstock states that this insect is also reared in India, Spain and other countries. ‘Thisspecies or a closely allied form is found on wild cactus in Ceylon, as stated by Mr Green.’ Another species, Tachardia lacca Ker., excretes the substance from which is made the “lac,” or shellac, of commerce, and from the insect itself a crimson pigment known as ‘‘lake” is obtained. This insect lives on species of Ficus andon Croton lacciferum, Prof. Comstock has described two American species belonging to this. genus, Tachardia larreae and,l.mexicamna, ‘Phe tormeroccurssen the creosote plant, Larrea mexicana, a plant growing in the south- western part of the United States and in Mexico, and in Prof, Comstock’s opinion this ‘“‘lac”’ insect might prove of economic importance. The latter species was found on a twig of mimosa from Tampico (Mex.) It is interesting to record that Prof. Cockerell has subsequently described four other American species of this genus. The waxy excretion of a Chinese scale insect, Ericerus pela Westw. is used in the manufac- ture of candles in that country. A near relative of our Gossyparia ulmi Geoff.,the Gossyparia mannifera Hardw., “is found upon Tamarix mannifera Ehr., a large tree growing upon Mt Sinai, the young shoots of which are covered with the females, which, puncturing them with their proboscis, cause them to discharge a great quantity of a gummy secretion, which quickly hardens and drops from the tree, when it is collected by the natives, who regard it as the real manna of the Israelites.”’ 2 1 Green, E. E. Coccidae of Ceylon. 1899. p.3. 2 Westwood, J.O. Introduction to the modern classification of insects. 2:449. SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 295 Recognition of scale insects. The majority of farmers and fruit- growers experience great difficulty in distinguishing between the various forms, and such will continue to be the case for some time to come; but. it is hoped that the illustrations accompanying this account will enable the non-scientific man to identify certain of these vexatious forms with some approach to accuracy. It must ever be borne in mind, however, that, in attempting to identify an armored scale insect by external appear- ances, we are not studying the insect itself but a secretion subject to con- _ siderable variation as a result of climatic and other external Influences. Scale insects occurring on trees near a railroad or in a smoky locality may have their characteristic appearance much obscured by particles of soot and dirt, and those living on trees infested to a considerable extent with plant lice or other honeydew-excreting forms, may be more or less covered witha sticky layer of dirt. These variations in appearance and the minuteness of scale insects render their correct determination very difficult for one who has not given the group special study. Key based on superficial characters of species treated. The above statement regarding the variability in the appearance of the scales of these insects must be constantly borne in mind, and identifications made in this manner, unless by an expert, should be regarded as provisional. An effort should be made to secure both young and full-grown speci- mens and, if possible, on different pieces of bark,some having few and others having numerous individuals, as this will give.a better idea of the characteristics of the insect. A good magnifying glass or lens should be used in examining the scales, A very serviceable,one can be obtained for from one to several dollars, and it is invaluable to the nurseryman and fruit-grower in enabling him to examine suspicious appearances _more closely. The characters given below do not apply to any of the oval, usually somewhat hemispheric brown species of Lecanium, but only to the species of armored scale insects treated of in detail. The species briefly characterized below are arranged in the order of their present abundance in New York state; and, if the description in the first paragraph does not apply, pass to the second and so continue. It may frequently happen that the specimen does not agree with the descrip- tions given in any of the paragraphs, and in that case it is most probably one of the species not treated, of which there are many; and the way to ascertain the identity of such an insect is to send specimens to an ento- mologist. 1 Adult female scales elongated, slender, pear-shaped, usually slightly curved, almost 4 inch long and brown. Numerous white eggs may be 206 . «NEW, XORK STATE, MUSEDat found beneath the scales in winter. Occurs on many trees and shrubs, (pl. 1) Appletree bark louse, Mytilaspis pomorum 2 Adult female scales irregularly expanding from a slender tip, about 4, inch long and white or a dirty white. Purplish eggs may be found under the scales in winter. Male scales slender, white, with three ribs. Common on fruit trees and shrubs. (pl. 2) : } Scurfy bark louse, CC hionaspis furfura 3 Adult female scales circular or oval, usually a dark gray to black, about 7/5 inch in diameter, and with the brick red cast skin or exuviae to one side of the center. Margin-of the scale usually well defined. ‘The young scales remain white or pink for a considerable time and usually have a well developed nipple and an inconspicuous ring. Very common in New York state. On fruit and other trees, specially maple and elm. (pl. 5) Putnam’s scale insect, Aspidiotus ancylus 4 Adult female scales circular, gray or yellowish gray, about =, inch in diameter and with the yellowish cast skin or exuviae central. Young scales dark gray, sometimes almost black, with a distinct central nipple and a grayish ring. Green tissues are frequently stained purplish by this insect. Mayoccur on many trees and shrubs. (pl. 3) San José scale insect, Aspidiotus perniciosus s Adult female scales nearly circular, usually a gray or a dark gray, with a diameter of 4 inch and with the yellowish or red cast skin or exuviae a little to one side of the center. The gray, dirt-spotted, outer portion of the scale is usually continuous with the outer layer of rough bark, but this does not hold on smooth bark. The young scales are white or brownish and have a distinct nipple but almost no ring. They are sometimes arranged very prettily at almost equal distances. Occurs on fruit trees, specially plums. (pl. 4) European fruit scale insect, Aspidiotus ostreaeformis © 6 Adult female scales nearly circular, usually a yellowish gray, about y= inch in diameter and with the yellowish larval skin or exuviae a little to one side of the middle. Young scales white or pinkish, with the nip- ple and ring, specially the latter, not well marked. Occurs on fruit trees. (pl. 6) Cherry scale insect, Aspidiotus forbesi 7 Adult female scales nearly circular, almost white, about 5 inch in diameter and with the yellowish larval skin or exuviae a little to one side of the center. Young scales yellowish or white. Confined in New York state to greenhouse plants, common on ivy. (pl. 7) | White scale insect, Aspidiotus hederae SCALE: INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 297 Appletree bark louse Mytilaspis pomorum Bouché , PLATE I This is the most common scale insect found on fruit trees in New York, and in some localities it is very abundant and destructive, particularly to poplars and ash in the vicinity of Albany. This pest has been repeatedly noticed in agricultural and entomologic journals, and it is a frequent source of complaint at the present time. A few of the more important articles treating of this insect are given in the brief bibliography below. This European species was probably brought to America on early impor- tations of fruit trees, and now it is known to occur all over the world, as stated by Dr L. O. Howard. It has been described scientifically several — times, on each occasion receiving a different name, and it also passes under the common name of oyster shell bark louse. The popular desig- nation given above is extensively used, and it is preferable on account of its being more characteristic of the species. Description. The adult female scales can easily be recognized by a comparison with the greatly enlarged figure 7 or with figure g, which lat- ter represents a number in natural sizeon poplar bark. The adult scale is about 3 mm, or ¢ inch long, usually slightly curved and widening from a slender tip to a broad, rounded posterior end. The scale has at its pointed or anterior end a usually yellowish, very small pellicle, the first cast skin of the young, and a small scale three times its size attached to it. There is also a larger or second cast skin, and to it is attached the larger or chief part of the scale, which is a variable brown and marked with curved transverse lines or wrinkles. The first cast skin can be detected only on microscopic examination. The female insect found underneath the covering scale is represented in figure 10. The male scale is smaller, and is shown in figure 6. A female scale turned over in winter presents the appearance represented in figure 8. The shriveled, yellowish’ or brown body of the female occupies the anterior portion of the scale cavity, while in the posterior part are numerous oval, white eggs, shown greatly enlarged in figure 1. ‘The minute, yellow, recently hatched scale insect is represented in figure 2, and the condition of a number shortly after establishing themselves on a twig, in figure 3. The appearance of the young after it has secreted a protecting scale is repre- sented in figure 4, a few being shown much enlarged in figure 5. Lite history. This insect completes the round of life once a year in this latitude, though in the southern states two generations may be pro- ago | |. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM duced. ‘The winter is passed in the egg under the protecting scale of the female, the young appearing from the middle of May to early June, and in the case of badly infested trees parts of the twigs may be literally yellow on account of the abundant crawling specks. Prof. Lowe has observed them as early as May 7 at Geneva (N.Y.) They soon settle in a place and begin sucking nourishment from the underlying bark tissues, and in about two days long, white, waxy filaments extend from the back of the young, and, where they are numerous, the infested branch is adorned with patches of woolly-appearing matter, as shown in figure 3. This excre- tion mats down and soon forms a protective covering. Close inspection shows this to be composed of a cast skin and a larger scale formed by the ‘matted filaments adhering to it. Such half-grown insects, represented in figures 4 and 5, are about six weeksold. Another molt occurs later, and to this second cast skin a much larger scale is attached. The first cast skin and its scale are on top of the anterior part of the second, but are easily dislodged and therefore may not be observed. The fully developed female may be found beneath the larger scale about the first of August, egg-laying beginning soon and being completed by the latter part of the month or early September. One female deposits from about 50 to, roo eggs. Prof. Comstock states that, while he found the male scale rare on appletrees at Washington, it was abundant on other kinds of trees. The attacks of this insect are confined almost wholly to the bark, though there are a few records of the species occurring on fruit. Food plants. This species is of greatest importance on account of its depredations on fruit trees, but it also occurs ona large number of other plants. The brief list of food plants brought together by Dr Lint- ner in his r1th report includes most of the more important species. It is as follows: apple, plum, pear, raspberry, wild cherry, wild gooseberry, red currant, sugar and swamp maples, white and black ash, birch, poplar, willows, linden, horse-chestnut, elm, etc. Dr L. O. Howard, writing of this insect in 1895, gives two lists of food plants, a number of which are not represented in the above enumeration, and he proceeds to state that, though no structural differences have been found between the forms on these varied food plants, he can hardly avoid the strong suspicion that certain of these will not interbreed, and that eventually distinguishing characteristics will be found to exist. Natural enemies. A small hymenopterous maggot was observed by Dr Fitch to live on the eggs of this pest. What was in all probability the same parasite was described by Dr Le Baron some years later as A pheli- SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 299 nus mytilaspidis, which he found had destroyed from about 50% to 60% of thescales’. Aphelinus fuscipennis How. is recorded as a most efficient parasite of thisscalein California. Aspidjotipha- gus citrinus Craw. has been reared from this pest in that state. The accompanying figure will give a good idea of the appearance of these tiny Chalcids. The best evidence of their work is the small circular holes in the dead scales, orifices by which these little friends have escaped. Aphelinus abnormis How. is another parasite of this bark louse. Anaphes gracilis How. and Chiloneurus diaspidin- arum How. have also been reared from this insect. SAWS =< “AY MMS =< WS \ mi Fig.l] Aspidiotiphagus citrinus Craw., greatly enlarged (After Howard. Insect life. 1894. 6 : 229) Coccinellid or lady bug larvae prey on this species, and certain mites, Tyroglyphus malus Shimer, are also credited with this habit. A French investigator has apparently shown that this Tyroglyphus does not feed on the eggs, but a species is described, under the name of Hemisarcoptes coccisugus Lign., which does valiant service in destroying them. 7 Three European birds, the blue tit, the long-tailed tit and the tree creeper are known to feed on this insect. Remedies. The hatching of the young the latter part of May or in early June renders it practicable to control this insect by applying a con- tact insecticide June 1 or later in order to kill the young scale insects before they are protected by a thick scale. Bibliography Fiteh; Asa. ‘N.Y. state agric: soc. | ‘Trans. 1854. 14: 735-42 (gen- eral account of injuries and distribution, as Aspidiotus conchi- 300 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM formis Gmel.); Noxious, beneficial and other insects of New York state... astiand,2d rep’ts. 1856., 1p. 31-38. Walsh, B. D. Ill. state hortic. soc. Trans. 1868. Separate as report of acting state entomologist. p. 34-53 (general account, as Aspidiotus conchiformis). Le Baron, William. Chalcideous parasite of the appletree bark louse. Am. ent. and bot. 1870. 2:360-62 (parasites, description and habits of Aphelinus mytilaspidis). Osborn, Herbert. Entomological notes for the year 1882. Ia. state hortic..soc. , Trans. 1882. .1882.) p, 212-13 | (brick momee), Riley, C. V. Insects of Missouri. sth rep’t. 1873. p. 73-96 (gen- eral account, described as Mytilaspis pomicorticis). Comstock, J. H. U.S.dep’tagric. Rep’tofent. 1880. p. 325-26 (synonymy, characters, life history). Lintner, J. A. Injurious and other insects of New York. ath rep’'t. 1888. p. 114-20 (general account). Howard, L. O. Some scale insects ofthe orchard. U.S. dep’t agric. Yearbook. 1894. p. 254-59 (general account). Lowe, V. H. Inspection of nurseries and treatment of infested nursery stock.* N. Y. agric’expt. sta. “Bull136)"" 2807.) spy eee (general account). . Lochhead, William. San José and other scale insects. Ont. dep’t agric. Toronto. 1go00. p. 40-41 (brief account). Scurfy bark louse Chionaspis furfura Fitch PLATE 2 This common and destructive species is not an imported insect, like the preceding form, but the two occupy in New York state nearly the same rank as pests of considerable economic importance. The scurfy bark louse frequently appears in large numbers, specially on recently set fruit trees, which occasionally become so covered with the pest as to look at a little distanct as if they had been whitewashed, Closer inspec- tion shows the infested trees to be nearly covered with dirty white, scurf- like patches, and it is from this that the popular name of the insect has been derived. } SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 301 Description. Sometimes this insect occurs in thick, matted, dirty masses, and then the form of the individuals is much obscured. There is usually some place on the infested plant where the females are some- what isolated and have the general appearance represented in figure 7, which shows a group of females with two males in the lower right hand corner. A closer examination of one scale will reveal the details illus- trated in figure 4. The female scale consists of a very small yellowish pellicle (usually two are present), a larger dark scale and a very much larger, irregularly shaped, whitish scale. Figure 1 shows this structure in greater detail. ‘The male scales are elongated, with a small yellowish pellicle and a much larger, tricarinate white scale, as represented some- what enlarged in figure 8 and much more so in figure 6. A rupture ofa female scale in the fall or winter reveals the purplish eggs beneath (fig. 1), and, when one is turned over, the shrunken body of the parent and the mass of eggs is exposed (fig. 5). The active, reddish young is represented in figure 2, and the partly grown individuals, showing the yellowish pelli- cle and the dark smaller scale, in figure 3. The full-grown female, as she appears under the scale before egg deposition begins, is represented in figure g. The male was not reared, and, asa matter of fact, it is rarely ob- served. Prof. Comstock’s description of this form is as follows : Yellow marked, with irregular reddish-brown spots; thoracic band reddish brown, sometimes darker than the other markings. Length of body including style,.62 mm (.02 inch); length of style, .18 mm (.006 inch). On each side of the anterior part of the thorax there is a black spot which resembles an eye. The accompanying illustration of the male and its pupa will aid greatly in its recognition. Life history. The development of this species is very nearly the same as thatof the preceding form. The winter is passed in the egg underneath the protecting scale of the female. The young appear in this latitude about the same time as dothose of Mytilaspis pomorum, viz from about the middle to the last of May. They soon establish themselves at favorable points on the bark of the trunk and branches and begin drawing sustenance from the underlying tissues through the deli- cate, thread-like haustellum or beak. Occasionally the young may estab- lish themselves in some numbers on fruit. Such a case was brought to notice this season. The insects were at the blossom and stem ends of the apples and each was surrounded by an irregular, reddish area. A considerable proportion of the fruit was infested in one orchard in 302 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Greene county. The appearance of the insect about six weeks from birth is well shown in piate 2, figure 3. Then there are yellowish exuviae and a dark grayish scale about 1 mm or 3; inch long. Later the con- spicuous larger, white portion of the scale is excreted, and the eggs may Fig.2 Chionaspis furfura: Adult male above; b foot; h tip of antenna of same; clarva; dantenna; eleg of same; fpupa;'g adult female removed from scale—all enlarged, b, da, e, h muchmore than the others. (After Howard. U.S. dep’t agric. Yearbook. 1894) be found the latter part of August or in early September to the number of 30-75 under one scale, where they remain dormant till the following spring. It is stated that two and possibly three generations may develop in one season in the southern states. Food plants. This scale insect is specially abundant in New York on apple, pear, Japan quince and blackcap raspberry bushes. Dr How- ard found it so numerous on mountain ash in the Catskill mountains, that hardly a twig or branchwas uninfested. _It has also been recorded on the following: crab apple, peach, quince, black cherry, choke cherry, wild red cherry, shad bush, cherry currant, wild flowering currant, black walnut and black alder (Clethra alnifolia). The identity of the insect on all these food plants has not been established beyond question. I have since learned that Mr King has succeeded in bringing the list up — to 23 food plants; so this species can be classed as a general feeder. SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 303 Distribution. This insect is well distributed over New York state and is present in many other states, as shown by the following compiled list: Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, District of Columbia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Kansas, Mississippi, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Utah, South Dakota and California. It has also been recorded from Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. The absence of record by no means implies that the scale is not known in the omitted states. It has also been recorded from England, having been carried there on Ribes sanguineum. Dr Howard, in his account of this insect, alludes to Fig. 3. Ablerus clisiocampae, female greatly enlarged. (After Howard. Insect life. 1894. 7:7) an early record where it is stated that the appletree bark louse is gradu- ally supplanting this pest, and proceeds to state that the former is appar- ently the hardiér, and that he believes that it will in time take the place of Chionaspis furfura. Both species have been in New York state for about 50 years at least, and it does not appear that the native form has been materially checked by the presence of a more hardy rival. Natural enemies. One hymenopterous parasite, Ablerus clis- iocampae Ashm., has been bred from this scale insect by Dr How- ard. Two Coccinellids, Hyperaspidius species and Chiloc- orus bivulnerus Muls., the twice stabbed lady bug, prey on this pest. The latter is stated to be a specially valuable enemy. | 304. ; NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Remedies. The recommendations for controlling this insect are the same as those advised for the preceding form, to which the reader is referred. Bibliography Fitch, Asa. N. Y. state agric. soc. Trans. 1856. 16: 352-53 (orig- inal description as Aspidiotus furfurus); Noxious, beneficiai and “@ther insects of New York. | 3d-sth rep’ts. "| 1850" p, 34-35 1Mlaae Walsh, B. D. Ill. statehortic.soc. Trans. 1868. Separate as rep’t of acting state ent. p. 53-55 (general account). | Comstock, J. H. U-.S.dep’t agric. Rep’tofent. 1880. p. 315-16 (synonymy and description). Osborn, Herbert. Entomological notes for the year 1882. Ia. state hortic. soc. Trans. 1882. 1883. p. 291-92 (brief general account). Howard, L: O. U. Swdep’t jagric. Yearbook) 1594.’ p.e5ge=es (general account). Cooley, R. A. Coccid genera Chionaspis and Hemichion- aspis. Mass. agric. expt. sta. Special bul. Aug. 10, 1899. p. 23-29 (synonymy, bibliography and general account). King, G. B. A new variety of Chionaspis furfura Fitch and notes on other species. Psyche. 1899. 8: 334-36 (a variety described, food plants and distribution given). Cockerell, T. D. A. Note on the pigments of the coccid, C hi 0 n- aspis furfura Fitch, ~ Science.| Ap. 27,\1900. \11: 670 (Were som color and changes obtained by potassium hydrate). . Lochhead, William. San José and other scale insects. Ont. dep’t agric. Toronto. rg00. p. 42-43 (brief notice). 3 Pernicious or San José scale insect A spidiotus perniciosus Comstock PLATE 3 This insect is known by hearsay, at least, to almost every fruit-grower and farmer in the eastern United States. It has recently become estab- lished in a number of widely separated localities in New York state, and is now the object of considerable anxiety to both horticulturists and nurserymen. ‘This pest is very destructive in some of the more southern states, and even in New York, when allowed to increase without restric- tion, it causes considerable damage. Its ability to inflict so much injury SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 305 depends largely on its inconspicuousness and great prolificacy. So marked are these that several trees may be literally covered with the pest before the owner is aware of its presence, and this in spite of his being on the watch for the enemy. : Those who unfortunately have the insect on their ‘premises find that it is a difficult pest to combat, and that only the most thorough work will .? produce the desired results. Carefulness to avoid this scale insect and a strong desire to learn about its appearance and life history, are ordinary precautions every fruit-grower should take, and this spirit should be en- couraged wherever found. Ridiculing such precautions in an attempt to make light of the danger, and sensational statements regarding the destructiveness of the insect, are both to be deprecated. Neither the nursery nor the horticultural interests of New York state will be ruined by this pest, but those who neglect the proper precautions may suffer considerable loss. The ultimate result will be better care of many orchards and a more just appreciation of the powers for good or evil possessed by insects, Destructiveness in New York state. Continuous fighting, even in this latitude, is the price’of practical immunity from danger in places where the scale has become established. There are several orchards within 20 miles vf Albany where this pest has been for the past eight to 10 years. Some trees have been killed outright, others ruined and many seriously dwarfed and stunted. The record would have been worse, had the pest not been fought, and, on the other hand, it might have been much better if recently discovered facts had been accessible earlier. I allude in particular to the value of petroleum, specially of the mechanical emulsion. There are a number of records of this pest doing little damage in a locality till some eight years after its establishment, and then suddenly with favoring conditions it may become very abundant and injurious, ‘The possible rapidity with which this scale insect may increase in this state is strikingly shown by an apple twig 15 inches long of 1898 growth which on receipt at the end of that season was nearly covered with half-grown scales. That is, the pest was able to keep up with the rapidly growing tree, and at the end of the season a large proportion of the new wood was nearly covered with half-grown scale insects. G. G. Atwood, now in charge of the inspection work in the state informs me that he has repeatedly noticed that this pest thrives best on vigorous trees. Indications of the presence of the scale. This scale insect is so minute that it has usually escaped the observation of any but specially trained eyes till it had become quite abundant. People are learning what 300° - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to look for now, and the pest is usually discovered earlier. Trees which have been badly infested for some time have a rough bark covered with dark gray, scurfy patches, and, if this be scratched with a knife or finger nail, an oily, yellowish substance will be crushed from the living insects under the scales. This insect breeds so rapidly that it is not uncommon to find large numbers on a tree previously comparatively free.- In that event the bark may be literally covered with recently established scales and not appear very rough. There is, however, a peculiar, granular look, and those familiar with the bark of a rapidly growing tree are aware that some change has taken place. ‘There is nothing like a good magnifier in these cases, and, if this shows hundreds of circular, black or dark gray objects, with dot and ring, or lighter gray, yellowish marked scales, send a sample of the bark to somebody competent to identify the trouble. Cutting into the bark under a San José scale is almost sure to reveal a reddish discoloration of the green tissues beneath. Lenticels occasionally deceive people, and I have seen fungous growths which at a little distance looked much like masses of young pernicious or San José scale. An infestation of any extent on fruiting trees is almost sure to show itself on the leaves and fruit, the reddish blotches being more conspicuous than the insects (fig. 3). The reddening of the fruit is not absolute proof that San José scale is present, because I have seen nearly the same effects produced by Chionaspis furfura Fitch. The pear illustrated shows a condition which obtains in badly infested orchards in July. Late in August the blossom end and sometimes the other may be literally incrusted with patches of young and old scales like the one represented in figure 7. A close examination of a slightly infested tree may result in finding a very few scales somewhere on the bark, most frequently near a bud or some protecting elevation, and, in these cases, the piece of infested bark should be cut away and sent to-an entomologist for identification. Description. ‘This scale insect is so minute that a superficial descrip- tion must be drawn in most general terms. The twig, fruit and leaf shown in figures 3, 4 and 5 of plate 3 represent a very characteristic appearance in ~ July in a pear orchard badly infested by this pest. A dark grayish or yel- lowish area on the bark may be caused bya mass of these scales. Anenlarge- ment of the darker patches will show a condition much like that repre- sented in figure 7. Adult, yellowish gray scales may be found surrounded by hundreds of tiny black ones. The form of the larger scales is modified somewhat by the degree of crowding, and it is common to find a num- ber of them adhering in a patch; but aclose examination of the well SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 307 marked adult female scale reveals the following characteristics. It is al- most 2 mm, or =}, inch, in diameter, nearly circular, grayish, witha cen- tral darker nipple surrounded by one or more rather well-defined yellowish rings (fig. 9). The smaller scales are nearly black, with a central nipple, and one or two grayish rings as represented in figure 1 3. Pherlarsest scales are just about the size of the head of an ordinary pin, while the smaller ones are mere dots, as represented by the black specks on the twig, figure 5. Sometimes the female scales have a distinct yellowish shade, as shown in figure 6. The yellow, usually somewhat kidney- shaped female insects may be found under the scales. A gravid female is shown much enlarged in figure 10. Note the oval young within her body and the slender proboscis apparently composed of two filaments but in reality of four. The yellow, active young is shown much enlarged in figure 11. The antennae, six legs and slender proboscis are all pres- ent. The young appear as minute specks when on the trees. They | soon cover themselves with a white excretion, and then they appear like white dots surrounded by red, whenever they establish themselves on green fruit or bark (fig. 2). The form of the white scale and the colored area around it are represented in detail in figure 1. The male scale may be easily recognized by its elongated shape with the nipple near one end (fig. 8). The delicate, two-winged male is rep- resented much enlarged in figure 12. Life history. The winter is passed by this insect in a partly grown, dormant condition. Vital activities are resumed with the approach of warm weather, and the first outward indications of life are seen in the appearance of winged males and later of the crawling young, the latter of which appear in this latitude toward the last of June. The life his- tory of this insect has been studied in detail at Washington (D. C.) under the direction of Dr L. O. Howard; and from his account most of the following details are taken. The females continue to produce young for a period of about six weeks, each averaging about 400, or from nine to to every 24 hours. This is an ovoviviparous species. That is the eggs develop within the mother and the young are born alive. They may be seen as tiny yellow specks escaping from under the maternal scale, from which they wander in search of a favorable place to establish themselves. This pilgrimage occupies relatively few hours (an average of a little over 27% hours, according to Prof. Lowe), and the young soon establishes itself, works its slender proboscis through the bark and begins to draw nourishment from the plant. The development of the 308 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM scale begins, even before the young has selected its feeding place, as very minute, white, waxy filaments, which spring from all parts of the body, rapidly become thicker and slowly mat down to form the circular, white scale with a depressed ring and central elevation (pl. 3, fig 5). This white scale gradually becomes darker, and in a few days it has assumed a black or dark gray color, with one or more lighter rings, as repre- sented in plate 3, figure 13. The skin is cast for the first time 12 days after the young appear. The molt, as is true of all species of Aspidiotus, consists of a splitting of the old skin around the outer edge of the flat- tened insect, the upper part being attached to the scale and the lower portion forming a ventral scale next the bark. Prior to this molt the sexes are indistinguishable, and both lose legs and antennae at this time. The males may now be recognized by the large purple eyes and the elon- gate, pyriform body, while the females are eyeless, and are practically flat- tened sacs with only the slender, central sucking bristle. Six days later, or when the insect is 18 days old, the male molts to the pro-pupa (fig. 4), and the male scale becomes an elongated ovalin form. The antennae, oy Fig. 4 Development of male insect, a ventral view of young after first molt, b same after second molt (pro-pupa stage), ec and d, ventral and dorsal views of true pupa. (After Howard U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 3, n. s. 1896) legs and wings now appear in a very rudimentary condition and in two days become much better shaped, when the change to the true pupa (fig. c,@) takes place. Four to six days later, or from 24 to 26 days from birth, the mature, two-winged males back out from under their protecting scales. The female undergoes a second molt about 8 days after the first, or when she is about 20 days old, and ro days later she is full-grown and within her transparent body (pl. 3, fig. 10) are seen partly developed young, which begin to appear in from three to ro days later. ‘Thus the round of life may be completed, as determined from a study of the SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 309 female, in from 33 to 40 days. The detailed studies made at Washing- | ton show that four full generations are developed normally in that lati- tude and that there may be a partial fitthh The production of a few young each day for some six weeks leads to a confusion of broods toward the end of the season, and their exact number can not be determined’ without special study. This insect breeds in the vicinity of Albany from the latter part of June through October. After making due allowance for the difference in latitude and the slower development in cooler weather, we can hardly expect more than three full generations normally, with a possibility of: a fourth under exceptionally favorable conditions. This is confirmed by the studies of Prof. V. H. Lowe at Geneva.. He found the average duration of the period of growth to be 494 days, which gives just about time enough for three full generations during the growing season. Food plants. ‘This insect has been recorded ona considerable num- ber of food plants, and its ability to live on so many varieties adds very much to the difficulty of exterminating or controlling it. is a list of food plants, as compiled by Dr Lintner, with a few additions by Dr Howard and from office records. Talna ce ae Saxifragaceae (continued) Linden Currant Pelast ra c'eae Flowering currant Euonymus Ebenaceae Kosaceae Persimmon Almond Leguminoseae Peach Acacia Apricot Ole'a €e’are Plum Lilac Cherry Urticaceae Spiraea Elm Raspberry Osage orange Rose Juglandaceae Hawthorn English walnut Cotoneaster Pecan Pear Betulaceae Apple Alder ? Quince Salicaceae Flowering quince Saxifragaceae Gooseberry Weeping willow Laurel-leaved willow Asia) The following (from 310 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The state of New York has for the last three years maintained a corps of inspectors for the purpose of examining all nursery stock for the pres- ence of this and other injurious pests. Many exceedingly valuable facts have been gained in this manner, and the following comments on the food plants of the San José scale in New York state by G. G. Atwood, now in immediate charge of this work, are based on considerable experi- ence. The plants are grouped in three sections. t This list of plants on which this scale is not found, although in proximity to infested plants, includes all evergreens and as follows, viz: ailanthus, althea, amaryllis, American ivy, anemone, aspen, azalea, bar- berry, Boston ivy, buckthorn, beech, butternut, buttonwood, catalpa, chestnut, cherry (black tartarian), chionanthus, clethra, corylus, currant (black), cranberry, deutzia, elder, elm (American), euonymus, exochorda, forsythia, ginkgo, hydrangea, Judas tree, halesia, hickory, Kentucky coffee tree, laburnum, larch, liquidambar, locust, magnolia, maples (sugar, Norway, ash leaf and Japan), matrimony vine, mulberry, oak, paeonia tree, philadelphus (mock orange), plum (wild goose), privet, rhododendron, silver thorn, snowball, spiraeas (some species), sycamore (plane tree), tamarix, tulip tree, viburnum, weigela, wistaria, xanthoceras and yellowwood, _ 2 The following is a list of plants on which the San José scale has been found, though in very small quantity, and no injury has resulted from its presence, and it is probable that it will not live over winter on them in this state, and it is not likely to breed freely on them: alder, amalanchier, ash, birch, blackberry, chestnut, dewberry, dogwood (flow- ering), elaeagnus, eucalyptus, fig, grape, honeysuckle, horse-chestnut, kerria, maples (silver and wiers), milkweed, mountain laurel, pepper- grass, poplars (except aspen), quack grass, quince (edible), raspberry, rhus, spiraeas (some species), strawberries, walnut (English), and to this list I would add cherry commonly called “sour,” including such varieties as Richmond, Morello, etc. 3 The following is a list of plants on which the San José scale finds suitable food, and therefore spreads rapidly, causing serious injury: acacia, akebia, apple, peach, pear, plum, cherry (sweet), apricot, necta- rine, almond (flowering), cherry (flowering, Rocky mountain dwarf and Japan), cotoneaster, crataegus, currants (red, white and flowering), elm (English), gooseberry, Japan quince, mountain ash, peach (flowering), prunes (flowering and pissardi), Osage orange, snowberry and willow (many species). : It is noticed that this latter list is not very long, but unfortunately it in- cludes the principal orchard trees and currants. In some sections it looks as if the San José would not thrive on Kieffer pears, while else- where it proves very destructive to this variety. Distribution. This pest is widely distributed in the United States, having been recorded from 36 states and territories, besides the District of Columbia. It has also been found in a number of localities in Ontario (Can.) SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 311 This insect has gained a secure footing in New York state, as is shown _ by its having been found at one time or another in 29 of the 61 counties. The known infested localities are limited in many cases to one or two in a county. There has been no thorough survey of the bearing trees of the state; and, when that is made, many other infested orchards may be discovered, though it is hoped that such may not prove to be the case. It is quite important for the owner to know if his trees be infested with this pest; and therefore every fruit-grower is urged to send any twigs or fruit, which present a suspicious appearance, to an entomologist for examination. Original home. There has been considerable written regarding this: matter; and it now looks as if proof would shortly be forthcoming to show that this species is a native of Japan, a country considered by sev- eral who have given the subject attention, to be most probably its home. The evidence brought forward up to’ August 1899 failed to convince either Dr Howard or his colaborer, Dr Marlatt, that the pernicious or San José scale is a native of Japan, they holding that, so far as evidence is concerned, there was nothing to prove that the insect did not come to us from China, from some other portion of eastern Asia or possibly from some of the islands in the Pacific or from Australia. A recent note by Prof. V. L. Kellogg states that S. I: Kuwana, assistant in entomology at Stanford university, spent last summer in a systematic investigation of Japanese Coccidae and in the course of his work he found that the San José scale was distributed over the whole Japanese empire, it being in certain regions a serious pest. The note also states that Mr Kuwana “finds much evidence to uphold the belief that the insect is native to Japan.’’ This announcement does not settle the question, but it looks as if Japan might prove to be the original home of the pest. ' fr Natural enemies. A number of true parasites have been reared from this scale insect. Anaphes gracilis How. was obtained from infested twigs taken in Charles county (Md.) and Aspid iotiphagus citrinus Craw. was reared from the San José scale in California. Aphelinus mytilaspidis Le Baron and A. fus cipennis How. have been reared from scales taken in a number of localities in Maryland by Prof. W. G. Johnson. The latter species was bred in large numbers by Prof. Johnson and promises to. become an important aid in controlling this pest. A very small black lady bug, Pentilia misella Lec., an Ameri- can species which feeds on the San José scale, was found by mein con-. 312 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM siderable numbers in an infested orchard near Albany. The beetle, in its various stages,is represented in the accompanying figure. It is quite convex in shape and only i of aninch long. The twice stabbed lady bug, Chilocorus bivulnerus Muls., is another native form known to feed on this pest. The beetle may be recognized by its jet black color relieved by two red spots on its wing covers. Several lady Cc Fig.5 Pentilia miselia a beetle; blarva; c pupa; d blossom end of pear showing scales with larvae of Pentilia feeding on them, and pupae of Pentilia attached within the calyx—all greatly exlarged. (After Howard, U.S. dep’t. agric. div. ent. Bul. 3, n. s. 1896) bugs introduced into California were colonized on trees infested with San José scale, and of these, three have since been discovered feeding on the- pest." They aré Orcus chalybeus, O. australasiae.and Scymnus lophanthae. | A tungus disease, Sphaerostilbe coccophila Tul., attacks this pest, and in some localities it has killed a considerable number of the scales. Prof. P. H. Rolfs credits this organism with practically exter- minating the pernicious scale in one Florida orchard and with reducing by considerable the numbers of the pest in others. It is undoubtedly a native of Florida, as it is very common on Aspidiotus obscurus Comst. This fungus was cultivated, and new colonies of scales infested, but unfortunately, like other fungi it is very dependent on favorable / SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 313 é climatic conditions, and this limits its usefulness seriously. | Fungus-in- fested scales were sent to other states, and the disease was at least tem- porarily established in several places. After the fungus has consumed the insect, an orange colored protuberance forms at the base of the scale or breaks through it, but, as this is only from zg to $ of an inch in hight, it is not very apparent. : Necessity and value of certificates of inspection. ‘The pres- ent New York state law compels the inspection of all nursery stock by the commissioner of agriculture or his agents at least once a year prior to September 1; and, if the stock is found to be apparently free from dangerously injurious insects and from contagious diseases, the commis- sioner 1s required to issue a certificate stating the facts: A nursery found infested must be cleared of the scale before a certificate of freedom from pests can be granted. It is unlawful to ship any nursery stock by public carriers unless each car, box, bale or package be accompanied by such a certificate dated within a year. All transportation companies are now required by law to notify the state commissioner of agriculture whenever any nursery stock is received from any point without the state. This provision was made to aid in preventing the introduction of infested -nursery stock from other states. The value of a certificate depends much on the manner in which the inspection is conducted. That issued by our state department of agri- culture represents faithful, close work, and it may be accepted as con- clusive evidence that the trees are apparently free from this pest. Occa- sionally a few trees with the scale on them and accompanied by the com- ,missioner’s certificate have been received in other states; but I am not aware that any proof has ever been advanced to show that the infested trees were actually inspected in New York state, and in one or two instances it does not appear that the nursery stock was even sent from a point in this state. A certificate from a reliable party may be accepted aS presumptive evidence of the freedom of the stock from this scale insect. It should not, however, prevent the buyer from scrutinizing the trees most closely and fumigating them, if they have not already been so treated. Means of dispersal. These are limited, as pointed out in the gen- eral introduction, very largely to conveyance by other animals or by the elements. The young may crawl from tree to tree where branches inter- lock, they are blown some distance by prevailing winds, and the insect is also carried on young trees. Prof. Webster, in Ohio agricultural 314 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM experiment station bulletin 81, records an instance where this insect spread from an infested tree up a gully with the prevailing winds, while it made no progress in the opposite direction. This insect, in badly infested orchards, is frequently found in considerable numbers on the fruit, and in such cases the adult females may be producing numbers of young daily in the early fall. ‘There is no record known to me of dis- tribution of the San José scale by means of infested fruit, but such is a source of danger to adjacent orchards, where it may be carried or thrown by careless boys or men; and, if it is put on the market and sold in an uninfested locality, it may result in the introduction of the scale there. All that is necessary is that such fruit with bearing females be left close to a suitable food plant. This danger should be guarded against so far as practicable. Careful investigations by the officials connected with the United States department of agriculture at Washington have shown that there is not the slightest danger of living San José scales being carried on dried fruits, as the drying is fatal to the insects. Preventives of attack. The most effectual and in most cases the most practical method of preventing injury by this insect lies in excluding it from the orchard. ‘There are even now localities in Long Island where the infestation of adjacent trees is bound to nullify any attempt to exclude this pest. Exclusion is possible, however, in most places in the state. A fruit-grower’s first care should be to admit to his premises no trees or shrubs of any kind that may harbor this or other dangerous insects. The inspection of nurseries of New York state has done much to render difficult the sale of stock infested with this scale insect; but there — is always a chance that some infested trees may be received by a . dealer from outside, become mixed with that pronounced clean by the ~ inspector and sold as such, and there is also a small possibility that once in a while a few infested trees may escape the inspector’s eye. ‘There have been several cases in this state where a very few of these scale in- sects must have lived on trees supposed to be clean for three to five years, at the end of which time it was suddenly found that they were badly infested with the pest. These facts are exceedingly strong argu- ments in favor of buying only stock that has been thoroughly fumigated by hydrocyanic acid gas, as this treatment is the best safeguard against thexoccasional scale insect. . Not only is it necessary to prevent the actual introduction of scale-in_ tested stock in the orchard or on the farm, but the fruit-grower will soon SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 315 find it of advantage, so far as possible, so to locate his orchards as to re- duce to a minimum the danger of this and other insect pests being con- veyed by natural agents from adjacent orchards to his own. A man can never tell what pests a neighbor may unfortunately have in his or- chard, or in a long series of years just how much care that orchard may receive. It is therefore good business to have valuable orchards some- what isolated ; and, if one man be fortunate enough to possess several, it would be well to have them somewhat separated and thus offer a seri- ous obstacle to the spread of this or other pests from one orchard to an- other. A row of evergreen trees between adjacent orchards would prob- ably prove of considerable service in preventing the carriage of scale and other insects from one orchard to another. Possibility of extermination. ‘There is no one at all familiar with the conditions, who expects to see New York state eventually freed from this pest. It is beyond the possibilities. The insect may be eradi- cated from certain places where it has not gained much of a foothold, but, as a general rule, it is very doubtful that the pest will be cleared from any locality where it has become even fairly established, because people will not ordinarily adopt the radical measures necessary to exter- minate it. There are records of the insect having been exterminated from limited localities, but this line of work is advisable only where the infestation is comparatively recent, the area where the pest occurs sharply defined and distant from other infested trees or shrubs. Exclusion is the most promising method of protecting an orchard and next to that the adoption of methods for keeping the insect within moderate bounds. Because there has been difficulty in controlling this pest, it need not be assumed that such will always be the case. ‘This insect is no longer greatly feared in certain parts of California, and the indications are most _ favorable for the finding of a practicable method of controlling the insect in the eastern United States. Method of extermination. Dig up by the roots every infested tree and others at all likely to have this scale insect on them and burn them at once, unless this work be done in the late fall, when 1t may be advis- able to allow the uprooted trees to lie in a pile till about June 1 before burning, in order to permit the escape of any beneficial parasites which may be present. Digging up by the roots is quite important because a few scale insects may be found on portions of the tree below the surface of the ground. A less radical method would be to destroy the infested trees as described above and to treat the suspected ones most thoroughly a 316 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in early spring with whale oil soap, mechanical petroleum emulsion or with hydrocyanic acid gas, the latter being the most efficient. Remedial measures. These will be considered in detail under a separate head, special attention being given to the pernicious, or San José scale. Bibliography This scale insect has attracted more attention than any other injurious insect; and in these days of easy and rapid publication the notices regarding it have accumulated at a remarkable rate. The attention of the student is called particularly to the accounts and bibliographies by Dr Lintner, Dr Howard and his associate, Dr Marlatt, to which the appended bibliography is largely supplemental. A few of the most important notices cited by the above named writers have been repeated, and special attention has been given to the more important articles con- cerning this insect in New York state. No attempt has been made to include a mass of minor notices relating to this pest in other parts of the country or in other countries. Comstock, J. H. U.S. dep’t agric. Rep’t of ent. 1880. 1881. p. 304-5 (original description). Lintner, J. A. San’ José scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus and some other destructive scale insects of the state of New York. N.Y. statemus. Bul. 13. 1895. v. 3. p. 263-320 (general account of the scale with brief notices of other destructive species); Injurious and other in- sects of the state of New York. tithrep’t, 1895. 1896. p. 200-33, pl. 9-14 (the preceding reprinted with bibliography brought down to date) ; t2th rep’t. 1896. p. 316 (infested localities) ; San José scale. Country gentleman. July 8,1897. 62: 533 (general article). Howard, L. O. & Marlatt, C..L.. San José scale, |U. 3 dems agric. div. ent. Bul. 3, n. s..1896. p. 1-80. 1 pl. (a very,full aceoumg of the insect); Original home of the San José scale. Bul. 20, n.s. 1899. p. 36-39 (a critical examination of the evidence respecting its origin). Marlatt, C. L. Insect control in California. U.S. dep’t agric. Yearbook. 1896. p. 221-22 (parasites and resin wash); Temperature control of scale insects. Bul..20, n..S., £899... Poyg—7o (elects of cold on various species); How to control the San José scale. Circular 42. 2d ser. 1900. p. 1-6 (brief synopsis of remedies). Alwood, W. B. Inspection and remedial treatment of San José scale. Va. agric. expt.sta. Bul. 79. 1897. . p. 73-94 (account of SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 317 work done); San José scale question. Rural New Yorker. 1898. 57:127, 167 (proposed national legislation, value of inspection); State (Va.) inspector for the San José scale. 2d rep’t.. -1898—g9. , p..1-34 (results and work of two years). Britton, W. E. Insect notes of the season. Ct. agric. expt. sta. ersrrep't.. 1897. p. 314-15 (brief notice); Entomological notes. 22d rep’t. 1898. p. 272—73 (results obtained with kerosene) ; San José scale in Connecticut. U.S. dep’tagric.div.ent. Bul.17, n.s. 1898. p. 81—84 (distribution and treatment); Inspection and care of Munsery stock, Ct. agric. expt. sta. pol et2 9 a VOgo. 4. Dit sho (general account with reference to local conditions). Lowe, V.H._ Inspection of nurseries and treatment of nursery seep N, Y. agric, expt. sta. Bul. 136. 1897. p. 571-602 (treats of some other pests also but bears specially on this insect and methods of controlling it); Three important insects injurious to nursery stock. MvestemyeN. Y. hortic. soc. Proc. 1897. p. 71-74 (brief general Beeount),; came in N. Y. state agrtic. soc.. Trans. 1896. 1898 p. 654-58; Some investigations and experiments with the San José scale. Western N. Y. hortic. soc. Proc. t1gor. p 36-47 (results obtained at Geneva). Rolfs, P. H. Fungous disease of the San José scale. Fla. agric. Pxpteta, Bul. 41.1897. p.513-44 .(an accountofSphaerostilbe coccophila Tul, and its effects on the San José scale). Webster, F. M. San José scale in Ohio. O. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 81. 1897. p 177-212 (general account with brief notices of other destructive scale insects); Importation of the San José scale from Japan. Can. ent. 1898. 30: 169-72 (infested stock received from Japan, importation of parasites advised) ; Odour of San José scale. 31:4 (notes odor of this scale); San José scale problem in Ohio in 1899. O. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 103. 1899. p. 185-99 (distribution in state, effects of insecticides) ; Some economic features of ‘international entomology. Ent. soc. of Ont. 29th rep’t, 1898. 1899. 'p. 30-31, 34 +=(legislation relating to San José scale) p. 104 (odor) ; Native home of the San José scale. Pp. 55, 56 (Japan probably the original home). goth rep’t,. 1899. ‘19a0; Bogue, E. E. San José scale in Oklahoma. Okl. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 34. 1898. p. 1-8 (brief, general account). Cockerell, T. D. A. San José scale. Entomological news. 1898. Pp. 95 96 (Japan probably original home); Kieffer pear and the San José a —<= Bio)” NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM scale. Science. Sep. 28, 1900. p. 488-89 (note on resistance of this variety to scale attack). | Cooley, R. A. Notes on some Massachusetts Coccidae. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 17, n.s. 1898. p. 63-64 (additional infested locali- ties). Felt, E.P. Two bad insects. Country gentleman. 1898. 63:206 (distribution in state); Certain destructive scale insects. 63:453-54 (brief general account); Nursery and orchard inspection. 63: 586 (suggestions for guidance of inspectors); Everlasting ~ 63:993 (fruit and plants from United States San José scale. excluded by certain countries); Notes on some of the insects of the year in the state of New York. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 17, n.s. 1898. p. 22-23 (injuries, distribution, etc.); Injurious and other insects of the state of New York. 14th rep’t, N. Y. state mus. Bul. 23. 1898. v.5. p. 154, 240-42 (same); Controlling insect pests. Country gentleman. 1899. 64:767 (repressive measures of value); Illustrated descriptive catalogue of some of the more important injurious and bene- ficial insects of New York state. N.Y.statemus. Bul.37. 1g00. v. 8. p. 12-13 (brief description and remedies); Remedies for San José scale. Country gentleman. iIgo0o. 65 965 (results obtained with kerosene, crude petroleum, whale oil soap and hydrocyanic acid gas); Some effects of early spring applications of insecticides on fruit trees. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul’ 26° ns. rqo00.’" p. 22-25 (results Obtaimed swim crude petroleum); Scale on Japan plum. American gardening. 1go00. 21:811 (treatment) Insect lessons of the year. Country gentleman. Ig01. 66:192 (summary of experiments against San José scale); In- jurious and other insects of the state of New York. 16threp’t. N.Y. state mus. Bul. 36. 1901, v7 p. 967-88 (details of experiments with insecticides) ; N. Y. state agric. soc. Trans. 1899. Igot. p. 280-82, 284 (brief notice); Recent problems in the control of insects depredating on fruit trees. Mass. fruit growers ass’n. Rep’t. «gor. p. 38-45 (injuries, remedial measures). Gillette, C. P. Colorado’s worst insect pests and their remedies. Col. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 47. 1898. p. 14~15 (brief notice). Gould, H. P. Notes on spraying and on the San José scale. Cornell univ. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 144. 1898. p.575-92 (Spraying and its effect on this pest); 2d rep’t onthe San José scale with remarks on the effects of kerosene on the foliage. Bul. 155. 1898. p. 159-71 (results of experiments). SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 319 Hallock, Nicholas. San José scale on Long Island. Rural New Yorker. 1898. 57: 688 (infested fruit shown at fair). _ Howard, L. O. San José scale in 1896-97. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul..12,n.s. 1898. p. 1-32 (history of the insect 1896-97, bib- liography brought down to date); Recent laws against injurious insects in North America. Bul. 13, n.s. 1898. p.1-68 (compilation of Jaws, many of which relate to the San José scale); San José scale on dried fruit. Bul. 18, n.s. 1898. p. 7-13 (experiments proving that living scales can not exist on dried fruit); Regulations of foreign governments regarding importation of American plants, trees and fruits. Pa Oiculard4i. 2d ser. 1900. .p.1—4 (brief synopsis of rules). Hopkins, A..D. Some notes on observations in West Virginia. U. S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 18, n.s. 1898. p. 44-45 (effects of kerosene). ‘ Johnson, W.G. MHydrocyanic acid gas as a remedy for the San imiereedie.) U..5: dept of agric. diy. ent... Buliy17,,.n.s. 1898... p,.39- 43 (results of experiments); Report on the San José scale in Mary- land, and remedies for its suppression and control. Md. agric. expt. pean 57. 1698..\p. 1-116 (an exhaustive account); Notes on the external characteristics of the San José scale, cherry scale and Putnam’s scale. Can. ent. 1898. 30: 82-83 (grosser characteristics) ; Nursery fumigation and the construction and management of the fumi- gating house. Pa. dep’tagric. Bul.56. 1899. p.1-24 (directions for fumigation); Miscellaneous entomological notes. U.S. dep’tagric div. ent. Bul. 20, n. s. 1899. p. 66 (new infested localities found, effects of cold weather) ; Some physiological effects of hydrocyanic acid gas upon plants. Sci. American, suppl. no. 1249. Dec. 1899. p. 20,026—27 (details of effects on various trees and shrubs); Aphelinus fusci- pennis an important parasite of the San José scale in the eastern Mined otates. U. S. dept agric. div. ent. Bul. 26, n. s. r1goo. p- 73-74 (observations on parasites); Use of hydrocyanic acid gas. Rural New Yorker. 1900. 59: 1-2, 33, 65, 82-83 (application and methods); Fumigating nursery trees. 59:495 (summary account); Points about winter spraying. American agriculturist. 1900. 66:677-78 (directions for winter work) ; Fumigation of nursery Ig0o1. 67: 236-38 (directions for fumigating) ; Effects 67: 362 (gives amounts dif- stock. of gas on nursery stock. ferent kinds of nursery stock will stand); Important enemy of the San José scale. 67: 398 (notice of Aphelinus fusci- 320 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 67 : 432 (descrip- 67: 470 (additional pennis); Emory fumigator for fruit trees. tion and use); More about fumigation. notes), Kirkland, A.H. San José scale in Massachusetts. Mass. bd agric. Bul. 2, ser. 1898. p. 24-38 (general account); same in Rep’t. 1898. Be 205n325; Page, F.H. Test and treatment for San José scale. Rural New Yorker. 1898. 57:218 (experience with several insecticides). Pettit, R. H- Some insects of the year 1897. \ Mich. apne expr sta. Bul. 160. 1898. p. 410-13 (brief account). Sanderson, E. D. Attacking the San José scale. Country gentle- man. 1898. 63: 753-54 (abstract of Prof. Johnson’s report). Slingerland, M. V. Dip for the San José scale. Rural New Yorker. 1898. 57: 180-81 (treatment of infested nursery stock); Cold and San José scale. - 1899. 58: 544 (scale resistant to cold im the north); Western N. Y.- hortic.’ soc. ‘Proc. 1900," piven (firmly established in New York); Eastern N. Y. hortic. soc. Proc. 1900. p.57 (widely distributed in state); San José scale on pears. Rural New Yorker. 1900. 59:672 (badly infested trees should be Be oe: destroyed); Crude petroleum for San José scale. (results in Hudson valley). Symposium. Spreading the San José scale. Rural New Yorker, 1898. 57:17-18 (articles on value of certificates, etc. by several ento- mologists and horticulturists). Smith, J. B. Distribution of the San José, or pernicious scale in New Jersey. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 17, n.s. 1693.. pi32= 39. (record of distribution and observations) ; Regulating the San José scale by law. Rural New Yorker. 1898. 57: 341, 373, 383-84 (condi- tions in New Jersey, value of certificates); San José scale at home. 1899. 58:597 (remedies); N.J.agric. expt.sta. Rep’t. 1898. p- 396-447 (records and results obtained with insecticides in experi- mental orchard, natural enemies, distribution) ; Rep’t. 1899, P- 434-35, 456-512 (distribution, results in experimental orchard, reme- Bul. 138. 1899. p. 1-22 (results of experiments on trees infested with San José scale); Rep’t of state ent. N. J. state bd of agric. 26th rep’t, dies, notes, etc.); Crude petroleum as an insecticide. 1898. 1899. p. 69-89 (summary of work against San José scale, con- ditions, etc.); Three common orchard scales. N. J. agric. expt. sta. J SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE | 321 Bul. 140. 1899. p. 7-16 (general account) ; San José scale and other insects. Rural New Yorker. 1900. 59:686-87 (natural enemies, Memiedies);.. Rep’t of state ent... N..J. state bd. of agric., 27th: rep’t, 1899. 1900. p. 23-28 (summary of work for the year); Crude petro- leum versus the San José or pernicious scale. N. J. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 146. 1900. p. 1-20 (results obtained with crude oil, general dis- cussion of the subject) ; San José scale and crude petroleum. Rural New Yorker. 1901. 60: 121-22 (summary of results); N.J. agric. expt. sta, Rep’t, 1900. Igor. p. 508-48 (experiments with crude petroleum). Stedman, J. M. San José scale in Missouri. Mo. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 41. 1898. p. 15-35 (general account). Taft, L. R. & Trine, D. W. Legislation relating to insects and diseases of fruit trees, and preliminary report of the state inspector of nurseries and orchards. Mich.agric,expt.sta. Bul. 156. 1898. p. 311- 20 (digest and text of Jaw with list of licensed nurserymen). Aldrich, J. M. San José scale in Idaho. Univ. of Idaho agric. expt. sta. Bul. 16. 1899. p. 1-16 (life history and conditions in the state). | Beach, S. A., Lowe, V. H. & Stewart, F. C. Common diseases and insects injurious to fruits. N. Y. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 170. 1899. Pp. 428-29 (description, treatment). | Carnochan, James. San José scale. Rural New Yorker. 1899. 58:495 (conditions in Canada). Collingwood, H. W. How Maryland fights San José scale. Rural New Yorker. 1899. 58:259,277-78, 299 (general account of methods in vogue in that state). Fernald, H. T. San José scale, and other scale insects. Pa. dep’t agric. Bul.43. 1899. p. 5-16 (general account). Fletcher, James. Injurious insects in 1898. Ent. soc. of Ont. 29th rep’t, 1898. 1899. p.86 (notes on work against) ; Injurious insects in Ontario during 1899. 30th rep’t, 1899. 1900. p. 106 (note on conditions in Canada). . Forbes, S. A. Recent work on the San José scale in Illinois. Univ. of Ill. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 56. 1899. p. 241-87 (present condition of state and results of experiments); Ill. state ent. Report concerning operations under the horticultural inspection act. 1900, p. 1-30 (re- view of the work of the year against the San José scale). 322 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Hunter, 5. J. Coccidae of Kansas. Kan. univ. quarterly, 1899. 8:10-11 (technical characters). Kelsey, F. W. San José scale scare. Country gentleman. 1899. 64: 917 (scare overdone). Newell, Wilmon. On the North American species of the subgenera Diaspidiotus and Hemiberlesia of the genus Aspidiotus. Ia. state coll. of agric. and mechanic arts. Contributions from the dep’t of zoology and entomology. no. 3. 1899. p. 16-17 (description, distribution, affinities) ; Some injurious scale insects. Ia. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 43.) 1899.9 pr 163265) | Scott, W.M. Fatal temperature for some Coccids in Georgia. UsS.:dep’t agric. div. ent!) Bul! 20,/n:'s. 1899,")" pi’ 82284) siieeaies killed in southern Georgia by freezing). | Sirrine, F. A. Report of committee on insects. Eastern N. Y. hortic. soc. Ap.—Jl. 1899. p. 2 (brief account of local conditions). Troop, James. San Joséand other scale insects and the Indiana nursery inspection law. Ind. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 78. 1899. p. 45-52 (brief account of this and other scale insects and the text of the law). Waugh, F. A. San José scale. Country gentleman. 1899. 64: 853 (summary of situation). : Atwood, G. G. Food plants of the San José scale. Country gentle- rd man. 1900. 65:885 (food plants). Beach, S. A. Fumigation of nursery stock. N. Y. agric, expt. sta. Bul.174. 1900. p.1-8 (directions for fumigation); San José scale question from a horticultural standpoint. Western N. Y. hortic. soc. Proc. 1900. p. 19-24 (brief résumé of the situation) ; San José scale in New York. Rural New Yorker. 1go0o. 59:155 (abstract of general paper ; see preceding). Bethune, C. J. S. Some recent work in economic entomology. Royal soc. of Can. Trans. v.6, § 4,separate. p. 3-9 (résumé of work in Canada). Card, F. W. San José scale in Rhode Island. Country gentleman. x1g00. 65: 829 (well scattered over state). Corbett, L.C. W. Va.agric. expt.sta. Bul.7o. 1900. p. 365-76 (experiments with crude oil and other insecticides). Davis, G. Petroleum as an insecticide. Rural New Yorker. 1900, 59: 542 (75% of treated trees killed). SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE “4328 Kellogg, V.L. Stanford university’s collection of Japanese scale insects. Psyche. 1900. 9:144 (San José scale probably native of Japan, as it is well distributed over that empire), Lochhead, William. San José and other scale insects. Ont. dep’t agric. Toronto. Mar. 1g00. p. 1-48 (general account with briet notices of other destructive scale insects). Lyman, H. H. President’s annual address. Ent. soc. of Ont. 30th rep’t, 1899. 1900. p. 26-27 (résumé of situation in Canada), Reh, L. Scale insects on American fruit imported into Germany. [English abstract] U. S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 22, n. s. 1900, p- 79-83 (mature females render importation very possible). Wiley, H. S. Fumigation of nursery stock. Rural New Yorker. 1900. 59: 235 (demand for fumigation). Willard, S. D. San José scale legislation. Western N. Y. hortic. SOG Foe, 1699. p. 125-27 (rep’t of committee, discussion).; San José scale. 1900. p.go-g6 (report of committee on legislation followed by an extended discussion). ; Woodward, J.S. Why oppose the San José scale law? Rural New Yorker. 1900. 59:183 (urges support of proposed fumigation amendment) ; -Conference on the San José scale. Ent. socy of Ont. oth rep’t, 1899. 1900. p. 3-20, 57 (details of a conference held at London (Ont.) Oct. 11, in which a number of entomologists and other interested persons took part). European fruit scale insect Aspidiotus ostreaeformis Curtis PLATE 4 This species has been in New York state probably much longer than the pernicious, or San José scale and yet it is a comparatively unknown insect to farmers and fruit-growers. This form was first received at the United States department of agriculture in 1895 from Dr Peter Collier, then director of the experiment station at Geneva. It was erroneously re- ferred to one ofthe allied species, no one at the time suspecting its foreign origin. ‘The systematic inspection of nurseries in the state, begun in 1898, resulted in finding much more of this scale insect. G. G, Atwood, then of Geneva, and a nursery inspector, had the fullest oppor- 324 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM tunity for learning of the distribution of this species. The original infes- tation was probably in an orchard in Geneva propagated from cuttings im- ported some 30 years ago. All other places in the state, so far as was ascertained by Mr Atwood, had received buds or cuttings from this or- chard. So it seems most probable that this insect has been established in the state about 30 years. A European pest. This species is stated by Dr Marlatt to bea well-known pest on various fruit trees in Europe.. He is of the opinion that, were it as actively exploited in this country as has been its close relative, the pernicious or San José scale, it would assume a similar im- portance. It is undoubtedly a species which should be carefully watched, but its behavior in the state of New York up to the present does not justify the expectation that it will ever in this latitude rank in import- ance with the closely allied Aspidiotus perniciosus. Mr At- wood in a letter dated Ap. 4, 1899, states thatin no case was serious in- jury evident. I have received some pieces of bark pretty badly infested with this species, but the average shows fewer insects than is the case with trees infested with the pernicious scale insect. This form seems to be more injurious in Pennsylvania, as some nursery stock badly infested with this species has been received from there. Description. The general appearance of this species is similar to that of the pernicious, or San José scale. The white stage is shown in figure 1. A quite characteristic appearance of the young of this species is shown natural size in figure 2 and enlarged in figure 3. The sides of — the scale are dark gray, while the center which is nearly white, may be grayish or brown. ‘The young appear to have quite a habit of arranging themselves at nearly equal distances from one another. The white or brown portion of the adult scale may break away and expose the yellowish cast skin or exuviae, as is shown in figures 4 and 5. A number of scales are represented natural size in figure 6 and a. portion enlarged in figure 7. Some of the young are always found among a mass of old scales, and, when they are white, the gray of the old scales is lightened considerably. Sometimes masses of this scale insect are a dark gray, and then the young are usually grayish or brownish. The individual adult female scale may attain a diameter of nearly 4 inch. Ithasa yellowish or orange nipple a little to one side of the center, and the gray part of the scale is normally marked with black specks (see fig. 9g), and, when on a rough tree, the edge of the scale is usually continuous with the outer layer of the bark. The male scale (fig. 8) is somewhat oval in outline. SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 325 The female insect as removed from under a scale is represented in fig. ro, and one of her yellowish progeny in fig. 11. Life history. The winter is passed by partly grown individuals which become mature toward the last of June. This insect, like the per- nicious scale, is Ovoviviparous, that is, gives birth to living young, which begin to appear about the last of the month and continue to emerge for several weeks. ‘This species produces but one generation in this latitude, - and this restriction alone makes it much less dangerous than the preced- ing form. | Food plants. This insect appears to have a decided preference for plum in New York state, since it is most frequently found on this fruit tree. It has also been found on apple, pear, cherry, prune, currant, | purple-leaved plum, mountain ash, elm, linden, Carolina poplar and willow. Distribution. This insect has become established in widely sepa- rated localitiesin America. It has been reported from the following states: Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, Idaho, Kansas, and it has been received from Pennsylvania. Dr Marlatt records its presence at several Ontario (Can.) localities, and in British Columbia. _ This species is now widely distributed in the state, having been received from Fredonia, Chautauqua co., Lewiston and Youngstown, Niagara co., Brighton, Penfield and Rochester, Monroe co., Geneva and Stanley, ‘Ontario co., Williamson, Wayne co., near Kinderhook, Columbia co. and Millbrook, Dutchess co. It has been received by Dr Howard from ‘Trumansburg, Tompkins co., Grooms, Saratoga co., Troy, Rensselaer co., Fishkill, Dutchess co. and Blauvelt, Rockland co. Remedies. Methods of value against the pernicious or San José ‘scale should prove equally effective with this species, and as a rule it will probably be found much easier to control. Libliozraphy The following records are confined almost entirely to the American history of this species. Curtis, John. Gardener’s chronicle. 1843. p. 830 (original de- scription). 7 Lintner, J. A. Injurious and other insects of the state of New York. Erith rept.) 1995. 1896., p,271,(on apple). _Marlatt, C. L. A dangerous European scale insect not. hitherto reported but already well established in this country. Science. July 7, 326 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1899. 10: 18—20 (record of introduction, distribution, food plants); An account of Aspidiotus ostreaeformis. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 20,n.s. 1899. p. 76-82 (detailed account). Newell, Wilmon. On the North American species of the subgenera Diaspidiotus and Hemiberlesia, of the genus Aspidiotus. Ta. state coll. of agric. and mechanic arts. Contributions from the dep’t of zoology and entomology. no. 3. 1899. p. 10 (form described as A. hunteri) p. 17-18 (synonymy, description). Parrott, P. J. Kan. state hortic. soc. Trans.” 1898)" tegas p. 108 (mention). Felt, E. P. Injurious and other insects of the state of New York. roth rep’t.” 'N. Y.' state mus. ° Bull gx. ‘1900. v.'6:'" pror7_1e6 4 leemm ties and food plants noted during the year); Illustrated descriptive cata- logue of some of the more important injurious and beneficial insects of New York state. istics and remedies). Bul. 27. 1900. v.-.8.,,/p., 13 (chamcter- Lochhead, William. San José and other scale insects. Ont. dep’t agric. 1goo. Toronto. p. 33-35 (brief account of it in Canada). Pettit, R.H. Some insects of the year 1899. Mich. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 180. 1g00. p. 120-24 (brief general account). Putnam’s scale insect Aspitiotus ancylus Putnam PUATE 35 This is the most common native species of Aspidiotus found on fruit trees and shrubs in New York state. Occasionally it may occur in such large numbers as to be somewhat destructive, but ordinarily natural agents of one kind or another keep it in check. Mr Cooley records a case in Massachusetts where nearly every tree in a young apple orchard was infested, some abundantly, and one was dying from the attacks of this species. This record is very exceptional, at least for New York state, though I have seen it very abundant on currant. Description. This species is of importance largely because of the liability of its being mistaken for the much more dangerous, pernicious, or San José scale. It is distinguished with difficulty by external char- acters from the preceding species. A twig badly infested with Put- nam/’s scale has a dark gray or almost black color relieved here and there by the reddish, eccentric larval skins or exuviae. There are few or none of SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 327 the whitish remnants of young scales, as frequently seen in the European fruit scale befcre the insects are disturbed by abrasion of any kind. The young scales of this species may be almost white or pinkish, as shown in figures 1-4, their edges are sharply defined, the dot and ring are present, but there is rarely the oval, white nipple surrounded by a grayish, specked scale almost continuous with the bark, as in the European fruit scale; neither are the young as dark, nor as flattened as are those of the pernicious scale. The half-grown young have the appearance repre- sented in figure 5. The adult female scales, which are about -4; inch in diameter, are shown natural size in a mass in figure 6 and more enlarged in figure 7, which latter also represents a rather characteristic shape of this scale when it occurs in masses. Figure g illustrates a female scale as it may develop when comparatively isolated. A rather irregular male scale is represented in figure 8. The adult female and the active young are shown very much enlarged in figures ro and 11. Life history. This insect, like the preceding, passes the winter in a partly grown, though usually more mature, condition. There is but a single generation. The studies of Mr Putnam, in Iowa, show that the males appear there the latter part of April, and that the female deposits. from 30 to 40 eggs in the late spring or early summer. ‘The crawling young of this species may be seen during most of July, in the lati- tude of Albany, indicating that the hatching of the eggs extends over a considerable period. Prof. Johnson states that this species may cause a purplish tinge in green tissue, but itis not so marked as with the San José scale. I have not observed this discoloration in New York state. Food plants. This species has been recorded on a number of plants. Erot. Comstock has found it on ash, beech, bladdernut, hackberry, linden, maple, oak, Osage orange, peach, and water locust. Dr Lintner has re- ceived it on apple and red currant—on the latter it is sometimes very abundant, and he has also seen it on olive, evidently from a greenhouse at Jamaica (L. I.) It has also been recorded on cherry, plum, elm and willow. Prof. Johnson attributes the killing of an English oak in Illinois to this scale insect. It has been received from this state by Dr Howard on pin oak and hemlock. It also occurs on mountain ash, pear, nectar- ime, tlex*verticillata, Ilex laevilgata, white birch, Prunws, American elm and on hawthorn in West Virginia. Distribution. This insect has been recorded from the following states, Kansas, Iowa, Michigan, and New York, and from Washington (D. C.) R.A.Cooley found it to be one of the most common species in 328 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Massachusetts, which is also true of it in this state. That it is one of our commonest species of Aspidiotus on fruit trees is shown by its being the most numerous of those found by Dr Reh. on fruit imported into Germany from America (see Bibliography). It has been received from the following localities, a portion of which were kindly communicated by Dr » Howard: Palmyra, Wayne co., Brighton, Monroe co., Medina, Orleans o., Geneva and Stanley, Ontario co., Waterloo, Seneca co., Ithaca, Tompkins co., Benton, Yates co., Germantown, Columbia co., Ellenville, Ulster co., Glen Cove, Nassau co., Blauvelt, Rockland co., Flushing, Far Rockaway and Jamaica, Queens co., and Brooklyn. It occurs’ com- monly about Albany. Natural enemies. A minute chalcid parasite, Coccophagus varicornis How., was reared from this species by Prof. Comstock. Remedies. This insect can be checked, when necessary, by spray- ing with the insecticides and in the manner recommended for the San José scale. Bibliography Putnam, J. D. Ia. state hortic. soc. Trans. 1877, 1878, (L25 aam (original description, as Dias pis); Davenport acad. of natural sciences. Proc. 1877. 2: 346-447 (notes on life history, synonymy). Comstock, J. “Hie "UN'S! dept Pagric” Rept of ent! Gace 1881. p. 292-93 (synonymy, description) ; Cornell univ. expt. sta. dep’t ent. 2drep’t. 1883. p. 58-59 (synonymy, food plants). Packard, A. S. U, S:-ent..com, sth rept. 1600.) (p- fecwagems 553-54 (on linden, beech and ash; Comstock’s description quoted). Lintner, J. A. Badscaleon currant bushes. Gardening. May 1s, 1895. 3: 263 (on currant); [njurious and other insects of New York. rith rep’t, 1895. 1896. p. 213, 271, 275, 287 (mention, on apple and red currant). Lugger, Otto. Minn. state expt. sta. ist rep’tent. 1895. 1696. Dp; 129-30. (Onjelm), Cockerell, T. D. A. N. M. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 19. 1896. p. 104, 106, 107 (mention, on apricot and plum); The San José scale and its, nearest ‘allies. UW, 5.; dep’t gmc. div. ent. , Technical, sem, | rog7e no. 6, p. 5,7, 8,9, 17, 20 (technical characters, affinities). Johnson, W. G. Notes on new and old scale insects. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 6, n. s. 1896. p. 76 (on English oak); Notes on the external character of the San José scale, cherry scale and Put- nam’s scale. Can.ent. 1898. 30: 82~83 (superficial characters). SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE ‘ 329 Gillette, C. P. A few insect eremies of the orchard. Col. agric. expt. sta. Bul. 38. 1897. p. 36-37 (brief notice); .Colorado’s worst insect pests and their remedies. Bal 47.. ) 2898," Gaia (mention). ewe; Vi. Hi N. Ws agric., expt. sta.. Bul. i136. 1897.) pi 593 (mention, food plants) ; math nep't,| r8g6) rS9%i pa s3> (brief notice). | Aldrich, J. M. Report of the dep’t of ent. Id. agric. expt. sta. Burs. 269c. p. 175-76 (brief notice). Forbes, S. A. Noxious and beneficial insects of Illinois. 2oth rep’t Oisiter ent): 1895-96. 1898. p. 15, 16, 17 (economic importance, characteristics). Cooley, R.A. Notes on some Massachusetts Coccidae. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 17, n.s. 1898. p.64 (common in Massachusetts). Felt, E. P. Injurious and other insects of the state of New York. fierep tN. Y. state mus. Bul. 23, 1898. v..5. ,p. 261 (localities and food plants noted during the year) ; EStin, rep’t,. Dogg. | Bul. 31. 1900. v.6. p.s79 (mention), p.617 (localities and food plants noted during the year); Illustrated descriptive catalogue of some of the more important injurious and beneficial insects of New York Bul. 37. 1900. v. 8 p.13 (characteristics, remedies). state. Pectit, ui. ..Mich. agric, expt..sta.:/. Bul, r60.,,, 1898... p.414 (brief notice). Hunter, S. J. Coccidae of Kansas. Kan. univ. quarterly. Jan. 1899. 8:4 (critical notes, food plants). King, G.B. Contributions to the knowledge of Massachusetts Cocci- dae. Can. ent. 1899. 31: 226 (distribution in state, food plants). Marlatt,C.L. Aspidiotus convexus, Comst. A correction. (anwent. 1699. 31: 209-11 (A. CONVEXUS, a synonym in part). Newell, Wilmon. ‘On the North American species of the sub- genera. Diaspidiotus and Hemiberlesia, ofthe genus As- pidiotus. Ia. state coll. of agric. and mechanic arts. Contributions from the dep’t of zoology and entomology. 1899. no. 3, p. 7-10 . (description of species and varieties) ; some injurious scale insects, Ia. agric. coll. expt. sta. Bul. 43. 1899. p. 160-62 (brief technical account). . Parrott,.b.:)..j;so0me ;scales of the orchard. Kan. hortic. soc. Trans. 1898. 1899. p. 108 (brief notice). , Seo 9). NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Lochhead, William. San José and other scale insects. Ont. dep’t agric. Toronto. 1900. p. 37-38 (typical form not in Ontario, brief notice). Reh, L. Scale insects on American fruit imported into Germany [English abstracts] U. S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 22, n.s. 1900. p. 79, 80 (common on fruit, but immature). Cherry scale insect Aspidiotus forbest Johnson PLATE 6 This species is the rarest in New York state of those noticed in detail in this bulletin. It has been known to science but five years, having been described by Prof. W.-G. Johnson in 1896. Previous history. Prof. Johnson characterized this species as the most dangerous scale insect then established in Illinois. It was first dis- covered on Morello cherry, and later he found that it was generally dis- tributed over thestate. It also occurred on wild cherry, and, on account of its apparent partiality for that tree, the above common name was pro- posed. -Prof. Johnson states that it was not uncommon in 1896 to find seven and eight year old cherry trees literally covered with the pest, and that a number were killed by it. Prof. Forbes, state entomologist of Illinois, writing of this and allied species in 1898, states that ‘they are of no extraordinary interest to the fruit growers, none of them being either as abundant or as destructive when present as the commonest of the na- tive orchard scales, the so called scurfy scale ofthe apple, Chionaspis furfura”. It will probably prove no more injurious in this state than in Illinois. Description. This scale insect is closely allied to the three preced- ing forms. Its rarity in the state has prevented a thorough study of its. external characteristics. A mass of the adult scales, so faras observed by me, is much lighter in color than that of either of the two preceding species and usually lighter than a similar mass of San José scale, because the latter is almost sure to include a number of the dark gray or nearly black young. The general appearance of an infested twig is shown in figure 6, and a group from this is enlarged in figure 7. The adult female scales are rather flat, yellowish gray, and about ;4; inch in diameter and with a reddish, eccentric larval skin or exuviae. The color and general appearance is well shown in figure 7 and in greater detail in figure 8, SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 33F which represents the scale of a fully developed female. The form and orange red exuviae of the male scales are illustrated in figure 9. The varying appearance of the young is shown in figures 32, 4 and 5. Life history. This species, as determined by Prof. Johnson, winters. partly grown in Illinois, the males appearing about the middle of April and the young beginning to emerge early in May, eggs and young being found as late as June 20. This insect, in the latitude of Springfield (Ill.) produces two generations annually, the males of the second brood appearing from July 10 to August 1, and the young of this generation from the first week in August till late in September. Distribution. Prof. Johnson states that this insect is common in Illinois and neighboring states. It is apparently very rare in New York state, having been received from Manchester, Cornwall and Kinderhook © and by Dr Howard from Geneva. So far as known, it has been found in but two localities in Massachusetts. Prof. Hunter records it from Kansas and New Mexico. It also occurs in Maryland, Georgia and West Virginia. Natural enemies. The following seven parasites were reared by Prof. Johnson from this scale insect: Prospalta murtfeldti How., Erospalta) aurantii How. Perrisopterus. pulchellus. How., Signiphora nigrita How. MS., Arrhenophagus chionaspidis Aur., Ablerus clisiocampae Ashm., and a species belonging to the genus Encyrtus. He also observed whitish mites under the scales. The twice stabbed lady bug, Chilocorus bivulnerus Muls., in both adult and larval stages, feeds on this insect. Food plants. This insect has been recorded on the following: apple, apricot, cherry, pear, plum, quince, currant and honey locust. Remedies. Thorough spraying with insecticides, as recommended for the San José scale, should prove equally effective with this species. Bibliography Johnson, W. G. Descriptions of five new species of scale insects, with notes. Ill. state laboratory of natural hist. v. 4. art. 13. 1896. p. 380-83 (original description) ; Notes on new and old scale insects. Wis: dept “agric. div. ent: Bul. 6)" n.'s. * 1896: ° p. 74-75 (notes on life history, food plants, habits and parasites); Preliminary notes on five new species of scale insects. Ent. news. 1896. 7: 151 (notes); Notes on some little known insects of economic importance. U.S. dep’t agric. 332 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM div. ent. Bul.g,n.s. 1897. p. 85 (widely distributed) ; Notes on the external characters of the San José scale, cherry scale and Putnam’s scale..\Can.jent., 1898:,480762—82. Lintner, J. A. Injurious and other insects of New York. 11th repit, 18954. 1896) 4p. 27a en, apple). Cockerell, T. D. A. San José scale and its nearest allies. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Technical ser, no.6. 1897. p. 5, 7, 9,16, 17, 21 (technical characters, affinities). ; . Cooley, R. A. Notes on some Massachusetts Coccidae. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 17, n.s. 1898. p.64 (found in Massa- . chusetts). Forbes, S. A. Noxious and beneficial insects of the state of Illi- nois. 20th rep’t state ent. 1895-96. 1898. p.15, 16, 17 (economic importance, characteristics). | : Hopkins, A.D. Some notes on observationsin West Virginia. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 17, n. s. 1898. p. 45 (widely distributed in state). “ Hunter, S. J. Scale insects injurious to orchards, Univ. of Kansas, dep’t ent. Bulletin. 1898. p. 24-25 (brief. account); Coccidae of Kansas. Kan.univ. quarterly. Jan. 1899. 8:3-4 (critical notes, food plants). Newell, Wilmon. Onthe North American species of the sub- genera Diaspidiotus and Hemiberlesia of the genus As- pidiotus. Ja. state coll. of agric. and mechanic arts. Contributions from the dep’t of zoology and entomology. 1899..”') NO. 92) 7 p. FAS Ts (description and distribution) ; Some injurious scale insects. Ia. agric. coll. expt. sta. Bul. 43. 1899. p. 162 (technical characters). King, G. B. Contributions to the knowledge of Massachusetts Coc- cidae. Can.ent. 1899. 31: 226 (distribution in state, food plants). Parrott, P. J. Some scales of the orchard. Kan. state hortic. soc. Trans. 1898. 1899. p. 108-9 (widely distributed). Popenoe, E. A. Some insects of the year. Kan. state hortic. soc, « Trans. 1898. 1899. p. 42-43 (general account). Lochhead, William. San José and other scale insects. Ont. dep’t agric. Toronto. 1900. p. 35-37 (brief general account). Reh, L. Scale insects on American fruit imported into Germany. {English abstract] U. S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 22, n. s.: 1900. Pp. 79, 80 (but few specimens found). SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 283 White scale insect of the ivy Aspidiotus hederae Vallot PLATE 7 This species is rather common in greenhouses in the state, and not in- frequently it causes considerable damage, specially to ivy, its favorite food plant. The ivy is not always killed, but the white scales on the dark green leaves render it unsalable. Large quantities of this foliage plant have been rendered worthless in this manner. Description. Infested plants may be recognized by the white, irreg- ular patches of scale insects. An examination of one of these under a lens will show it to be composed of a number of yellowish-white, circular scales, each with a deeper yellow cast skin, or exuviae, a little to one side of the center. The appearance of an infested spray ofivy is well shown in figure 7. The large, yellowish-white scales are usually surrounded by a number of small white ones. Such a group is represented much en- larged in figure 6, and a full-grown female scale, which is about -*; inch in diameter, more enlarged in figure 4, whilea young white scale is shown very greatly enlarged in figure 3. Some of the yellowish, active young can usually be found on an infested leaf. One is shown much enlarged in figure 2. The removal of an adult scale may uncover a yellowish female, represented in figure 1, or there may be found only her shriveled remains, shown greatly magnified in figure 5, and possibly a few very minute yellowish eggs and one or two active young (fig. 8). Life history. The conditions in the greenhouse usually permit this. insect to breed continuously, so that there is no demarcation of broods.. Adult females, half-grown individuals and crawling young can usually be found at almost any time. ‘This insect lives outdoors in the southern states, and, under these conditions, Prof. Comstock is of the opinion that there-are at least two generations annually. He bred adult males in April from specimens received both from California and Florida, but I have been unable to find a sign of this sex on a badly infested ivy plant kept under observation for some months. This species 1s apparently both Oviparous and ovoviviparous. I have observed eggs and living young besides empty egg shells under female scales, and Mr Coquillett states. that he has witnessed the birth of living young. 3 Distribution. This is a well-known European species which has a wide distribution, having been recorded from such distant places as Australia, Chile and Cuba. It has attained a general distribution in the 334 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM United States. It is known to be present in a number of widely sepa- rated localities in New York state, and it will probably be found in greater or less numbers wherever greenhouse plants have been grown for some years. Food plants. This pest is able to subsist on a number of different plants. Prof. Comstock has studied it on acacia, magnolia, oleander, maple, yucca, plum, cherry, currant and the china-tree, Melia azed- arach, in California and on ivy at Ithaca (N. Y.) He also found it on grass and clover growing in pots with infested trees and on lemons from the Mediterranean and from California. Prof. Morgan states that it is very abundant on the “ china-tree” in Louisiana. It is recorded as a pest of the olive in countries where that tree grows. Prof. Johnson states that it is particularly destructive in Maryland to Asparagus plumosus, the so-called lace fern. D. W. Coquillett records it in ‘California on the following additional plants: lilac, arbor.vitae, century plant or aloe, oak, Quercus agrifolia, and nightshade, Solanum douglasii. It has also been collected in Albany greenhouses on Areca lutescens,. Cyperus, Ken tia - be lim ore amen Senet 41 ay a.c eC 1a te. Natural enemies. Prof. Morgan reports rearing a hymenopterous ‘parasite from this scale insect, and Mr Coquillett states that the imported Australian lady bug, Rhizobius debilis Blackb., feeds on this species in California. Preventives and remedies. It is comparatively easy to control this insect in New York state, since it can not live outdoors. It can be kept in check by spraying or washing the infested plants with whale oil soap solution (1 pound to about 5 gallons), kerosene emulsion (diluted with 12 parts of water, see p. 339) or an ivory soap solution (a 5 cent cake of the latter to 8 gallons of water). These substances will hardly do more than keep this insect in check, and repeated applications will be necessary. It will be much more satisfactory, as a rule, to clean the greenhouse thoroughly in the summer and then. stock up with clean plants. Bibliography The more important articles treating of this species in America are listed below. No attempt has been made to look up references in foreign publications, as the list, at best, would be very incomplete. Signoret, Victor. Essai sur les Cochenilles ou Gallinsectes. 1868. p. 96-97 (description) 100-3 (food plants, description, as A. neri}). SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 335 Comstock, J. H. U.S. dep’t agric. Rep’t of ent. 1880. 1881. Pp. 301-3 (description, life history and habits); Cornell univ. expt. sta. “dep t ent... .2d:rep’t. 1883. p. ro (brief notice, bothas A. nerii). Osborn, Herbert. Entomological notes for the year 1882. Ia. state hortic. soc. Trans. 1882. 1883. 17:213 (a serious greenhouse Petjas A. nerii). Lintner, J. A. Scale insect attack on ivy. Country gentleman. 1885. 50: 169 (brief notice, giving remedies) ; same in Rep’t state ento- mologist to the regents of the University of the Stateof New York. 1885. p. 113-14; Injurious and other insects of the state of New York. 5th. Oth Tep/t,. rep’t, 1888. 1889. p. 278-79 (brief general account) ; 1Sgt. 1893. p- 214-15 (on oleander); San José scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus, and some other destructive scale insects of the state of Rec ON, Y. state mus, Bul. 13. 1395. v.3. p..271-72 (brief notice) ; Injurious and other insects of the state of New York. 11th rep’t, Bose rogo. p. 203-4 (allas A. neriiy. Piatvey, ©. 1, Me. agric. expt. sta. Rep’t,1888. 1889. p. 184— 85 (on ivy, remedy, as A. nerii). Riley, C. V. & Howard, L. O. Insects introduced into Chili. Insect life. 1888. 1:154 (acclimated) ; 1890. 2:252 (identifica- tion) ; 1892. 4:347 (established in America) ; $8932,; 05/50 (in Australia) ; 1894. 6:327 (A. nerii possibly a synonym of Demme erxae, all preceding as, A. ner). Coquillett, D.W. Report on the scale insects of California, U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 26. 1892. p. 20-21 (food plants, notes as A. nerii); Present status of recent Australian importations. Insect Wier rogs. 629 (Rhizobiuws ' debilis feeding on As nérii). Morgan, H. A. Scale insects of the orange. La. agric. expt. sta. Special bul. 1893. p. 75-77 (on china-tree, description); Rep’t of the ent, Bul. 28. 1894. p. 996 (on lemons, both as A. nerii). Cockerell, T. D. A. Aspidiotus nerii. Ent. news. 1894. 5:79 (aotes on food plants and distribution); San José scale and its nearest allies U.S. dep’t agric. div.ent. Technical ser. no.6. 1897. p. 18, 30 (characters, food plants, latteras A. nerii). Johnson, W. G. Notes on new and old scale insects. U. S. dep’t agric, div. ent. Bul. 6, n.s. 1896. p. 76 (destructive to Aspara- aus prumosuss°as A. neni), 336 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Hunter, ‘S.J. Coccidae) of: Kansas. > Kan. univ! quarteryaaene 1899. 8: 11-12 (critical notes). | King, G. B. Two new coccids from Bermuda. Psyche. 8: 350. (in Massachusetts greenhouses); Bibliography of Massachusetts Cocci- dae.)/Canyent,,;:1900) 321.12 (Same); \Coecidae ofjthe tvay: 1900. 32: 214-15 (list of species, synonymy). Remedial measures against armored scale insects The recommendations on the following pages are based very largely on experiences with the pernicious, or San José scale, and ina number of cases they are advised only for that insect. Measures found effective against this pest can hardly fail to give satisfactory results when used under similar conditions against the other species treated. The ex- perience of the last few years has demonstrated that in certain sections of this state nothing but continuous fighting will prevent serious damage to orchards infested by the pernicious, or San José scale. Only contact insecticides of value. It hardly seems necessary to dwell on this subject. It is quite well understood that scale insects draw their sustenance from the underlying plant tissues through a slender proboscis or haustellum. This method of feeding renders it impossible to kill the pests by using paris green or other stomach or internal poisons. The only way to get at these creatures is to apply to them some substance which will kill by contact, and even this, in the case of the armored scales and some others, is difficult on account of the protective covering which may shield the insect to a considerable extent. There are plenty of substances which will kill these pests, but the difficulty is to find some- thing which will not at the same time injure the tree. The cost of material and its effect on the apparatus employed must also be considered. Whale oil soap. The winter or early spring treatment for the per- nicious, or San José scale appears to be the most effectual and satis- factory. The infested trees should first of all be trimmed back severely. This not only economizes in the amount of material necessary, but ren- ders it possible to give more effectual treatment. Thorough spraying with a potash whale oil soap solution, using 2 pounds to a gallon of water and applying it just before the buds open, will check this pest severely and will not injure the trees. This treatment is perfectly safe, and, if thoroughly carried out, quite satisfactory, but, judging from our experi- ence, it can not be relied on to kill all the scales. It should prove equally effective against the allied species of Aspidiotus. It is SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE Sie quite essential to have a potash soap that does not contain more than 30% of water. Such a soap can be secured in large quantities at from 3%c to 4c a pound, thus making the mixture cost 7 to 8c a gallon. Soda soaps are difficult to apply in winter on account of the solution being gelatinous when cold. Experiments with both Good’s and Leg- gett’s whale oil soaps gave little or no difference in their insecticidal value. Good’s soap dissolved much easier and was less difficult to spray. Whale oil soap and crude petroleum combination. Experi- ments with a combination of whale oil soap and crude petroleum, did not give as good results as were obtained with a plain 20% crude petroleum emulsion. This compound was obtained by dissolving a pound of whale oil soap in each 4 gallons of water and putting the mixture in the barrel of a “kerowater” sprayer! Crude petroleum was placed in a tank and the pump set to deliver 10% oil, thus obtaining a whale oil, petroleum emulsion. Crude petroleum emulsion. Treatment of the pernicious or San José scale in early spring with a 20% mechanical emulsion of crude petroleum, using a ‘‘kerowater” sprayer, was found even more -satis- - factory than the whale oil soap solutions, and so far it appears not to have injured the trees in the slightest degree. The petroleum used was the blended product sold by the Standard oil co. as crude petroleum. It issaid to run about 44° on the Beaumé oil scale, but a sample of the oil used gave a reading of but 37° while some purchased in December 1g00 stood at 41.5°. It was tested in rgoo both in an experimental and in a practical way with most excellent results. There is less danger of injuring the trees if a lighter oil is used and it is apparently just as effect- ive as an insecticide. W.H. Hart of Poughkeepsie (N. Y.) obtained most excellent results on a large scale with a mechanical dilution of crude petroleum purchased of the Frank oil co., Titusville (Pa.). This oil runs from a little above 43° to nearly 45° on the Beaumé oil scale. The mechanical emulsion does not change the nature of the oil, but it enables the operator to cover a tree thoroughly with a minimum amount, and thus there is not only a saving of material but there is less danger of injuring the tree ‘The crude petroleum spreads readily, adheres to the bark in spite of repeated rains, leaving a glossy coat of the heavier oils, which remains 1Made by the Gould manufacturing co., Senaca Falls N. Y. Mechanical Sprayers are also made by other manufacturers. It is well to test them when working from time to time by turning the spray into a jar, allowing the oil and © water to separate and then to measure the amounts of each. 338 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM moist and distinctly visible for several months, and this residuum undoubt- edly interferes with the establishment of young scale insects. The spray- ing should be done when the bark is dry. _ It must be very thorough, and, in places where the scales have formed incrustations, it is quite difficult to kill all the insects even with this substance. The best method ina large orchard is to spray at two different times, working always on the windward of the trees and spraying the second half when the wind is from the opposite direction to that from which it was when the first half was sprayed, A 10 foot brass extension with two to four cyclone nozzles is almost necessary for the best results. W.H. Hart, of Poughkeepsie, prefers to have the nozzles connected with the extension by a small piece of pipe bent at an angle of about 45° from the line of the extension. Some prefer the nozzles set at a right angle to the extension. It is better to have them turned somewhat, and the precise angle is apt to vary with individual preferences. ‘Trees sprayed with crude petroleum or kerosene should not be trimmed previous to the application as the cuts afford an opportunity for the oil to enter and kill the twig for a short distance. Experiments with this mechanical emulsion on the allied species of Aspidiotus are advised. Crude petroleum undiluted. Experiments with this undiluted crude oil showed it to be very injurious to plant life, killing two out of four trees and seriously injuring the others. The effects of an application of this undiluted crude petroleum to plumtrees is strikingly shown on plate 8. The lombard plumtree 93 was sprayed with this substance April 11. Compare its appearance on July 2 with that of tree 8, one of the same variety, which was sprayed April 11 with a 20% mechanical kerosene emulsion. A little later in the season tree 93 died. Plate g shows the effect of crude petroleum on seckel peartree 101. Note the dead limbs and contrast this with the illustration of the Kieffer peartree 110, which was sprayed on the same date as the others but with Good’s whale oil soap no. 3. It is a pleasure to record that this latter tree fulfilled the promise of its bloom, The photograph taken at Kinderhook May 21 of a King apple- tree, which was painted with crude petroleum Dec. 1, 1899, apparently shows that this substance is more deadly if the application be made in early winter. This tree died during the summer. At present the use of the undiluted article can not be recommended as safe in New York state. Dr Smith states in a recent bulletin that he has found that crude petroleum which ran above 43° on the Beaumé oil scale did not injure the trees, that below 40° was liable to cause serious injury, while the oil giving a reading of SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 339 35° was almost uniformly fatal. A safe petroleum, he states, must be either a green or an amber colored paraffin oil, not an asphaltum oil. There is still need of more experiments along this line and of a clearer understanding of just what is meant by crude oil before the use of undi- luted petroleum can be advised in this state. Kerosene. Spraying trees in early spring with ordinary undiluted kerosene did not result in nearly so thorough work as a 20% crude petroleum emulsion, and it was much more injurious to the trees. Its use can not be advised. Kerosene emulsion. A mechanical 10% kerosene emulsion is a most excellent summer spray to be applied when the young scale insects are numerous, and it has proved harmless to the trees. H. P. Gould has used a 20% mechanical emulsion in summer without harming the trees to an appreciable extent, but as the lower per cent of oil gives very satisfac- tory results, there is no necessity of using more. Early June appli- cations would probably prove very effective against appletree and scurfy bark lice. The 20% and 25% mechanical emulsions applied in early spring just before the buds started, failed to kill many scale insects, and its use is not recommended at this time. Other summer sprays. ‘The ordinary kerosene emulsion may be prepared by taking 114 pounds of hard soap, 1 gallon of boiling water and 2 gallons of kerosene. Dissolve the soap in the water, add the kerosene and then agitate the mixture vigorously by stirring or by repeat- edly passing it through a force pump with a nozzle attached, till an emulsion of creamy consistency is obtained, and oil does not rise to the surface. For summer work against the San José scale this may be diluted with 9 parts of water. 1 pound of whale oil soap dissolved in 5 gallons of water may be used in a similar manner without injury to the trees. The sour milk emulsion, which is simply 2 gallons of kerosene and t gallon of sour milk, emulsified and diluted as described above, is pref- erable for limestone regions or where soft water can not be obtained readily. These summer sprays are of service only in checking the San José scale, if previous applications have for some reason proven unsatis- factory. ‘They are very efficient when used against appletree and scurfy bark lice. Fumigation in orchards. Treatment of pernicious, or San José scale with hydrocyanic acid gas gave most excellent results on small trees in an orchard. Unfortunately it involves the use of costly tents, specially for large trees. It is admirably adapted for large orchards of 340 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM small trees, and, where such are reasonably distant from other infested trees, an attempt might be made to exterminate the pernicious scale by fumigation. A box tent 6x6 and 8 feet high, with a hood 7 feet high and a sod cloth some 6 inches wide, was made of 8 ounce duck which was thoroughly painted with boiled linseed oil. Rings for guy ropes were provided at the upper corners, and the tent was lifted by a rope attached to the extremity of the hood. The form of the tent was kept rather con- stant by using a light frame composed of four side pieces and slender posts at each corner (see pl.1o). The tent was handled with the aid of a 35 foot mast and an 8 foot gaff and tackling, and was raised bodily and dropped over the tree. The mast could be fixed to a heavy wagon when used on level ground where the trees are some distance apart. ‘This tent and outfit cost $38, but. as only one was made, much better terms could be. secured if several were ordered. The cost of treatment, aside from apparatus, is comparatively little. The secret of doing this work economically consists in having enough tents, so that the men will not have to wait but will be kept busy changing one after another. A little experience will enable those handling the tent to raise it from one tree, swing it over another, lower it, fix it in position; place the chemicals and have the fumigation started within a short time. Five to 10 or more tents could be used in a large orchard to advantage. ‘The economical use of a small number of tents would necessitate some employment near | at hand to occupy spare minutes. Dormant trees can be fumigated in this latitude, even when the sun shines, without any apparent injury to the trees. The gas should be allowed to act for 35 minutes or a little longer, and 1 ounce of potassium cyanid (98% pure) to each 75 cubic feet of space, with an equal amount by liquid measure of the best grade of commercial sulfuric acid (specific gravity 1.83) and thrice that amount of water, did not appear to injure the trees in the least, while every scale insect was apparently killed. The above amounts for 100 cubic feet of space gave equally good results. A better proportion, according to Prof. Johnson, is 1 ounce cyanid, 114 ounces acid and 24% ounces water. The cyanid and acid are both very dangerous substances, and should be handled with the greatest care. The cyanid should be conspicuously labeled, kept in a tight, covered can and not taken therefrom till it is to be used. The sulfuric acid is capable of producing horrible burns, and it should be guarded most carefully. The acidshould be turned into the water slowly, the mixture being constantly stirred. A glazed earthenware crock is one of the best vessels for the chemicals, and it should be placed under the tent near its middle but not close to the trunk of the tree. SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 341 Sometimes the acid spatters a little during the reaction, and this precaution is to prevent injury either to the tree or to the tent. If the tent is already over the tree, look to see that it is properly secured and all of the sod cloth covered, except on the windward side where the chemicals are to be inserted. Then take the cyanid, previously weighed out and placed in athin paper bag, reach under the tent, carefully drop it into the acid and water and at once draw down the side of the tent and cover the remainder of the sod cloth. The contents of the earthenware ves- sel, after the tent has been removed, should be carefully buried near the tree. Take special pains to see that none of it comes in contact with a tent. Some preliminary figuring and a little experience will soon make one quite expert in estimating the contents of a box tent’ above de- scribed. Other forms of tents are in use, but the above is probably the best for young trees, though it can not be handled well in a stiff breeze. A bell-shaped tent with its lower edge attached to a large hoop is used considerably in California, and this can be handled in treating small trees without the aid ofa mast. The sheet tent, which is nothing more than a square of properly treated canvas of sufficient size, is also much used in that state, specially on large trees. Fumigation of nursery stock. THe mere possibility of the introduction of the San José scale or some other insect pest should be a sufficient reason for the careful fruit-grower to prefer fumigated stock, and the advisability of this treatment in the case of trees Open to the slightest suspicion of harboring such an insect is con- ceded by every careful fruit-grower and nurseryman. The methods of doing this are essentially the same as those mentioned above for orchard fumigation except that it is much more convenient to treat nursery stock in a special building or room, and allowance must be ‘made for the more tender varieties. The essentials of a fumigating chamber are that it must be gas-tight, easily closed and opened from the outside, readily ventilated and so arranged that there will be no difficulty in placing the chemicals where a practically uniform distribu- tion of the gas will be insured. A slat floor, eight or more inches from the ground, under which the gas may be generated, is a decided advan- tage as it gives a more uniform distribution of the insecticide. The room may be only a few feet square or large enough to contain a load of trees on a wagon, according to the needs of the firm or individual. Small lots of trees can be fumigated in a box, but as arule this is not advisable. The materials necessary to make a gas-tight house, as worked out by 342 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Prof, W. G. Johnson in Maryland, are substantially as follows: A good frame, covered outside with 14%x12 inch Virginia pine boards and 144x4 inch batting. The interior, including the floor, was lined with two-ply cyclone paper, over which four inch flooring was laid. The. doors should be made double, refrigerator style, hung with heavy hinges and with bolts at top and bottom anda lockin the middle. There should be a second opening either on the sideor roof so as to permit ready ventila- tion. Trees fumigated in a freight car are very liable to serious injury, and it should not be attempted. A second fumigation should be avoided as the trees may be much damaged. A small room about 4x5x7 is ex- ceedingly convenient, even when there is a large one, as it economizes chemicals in the fumigation of small lots of trees. The cubic contents of a room should be carefully calculated and the necessary chemicals measured out. Ordinary dormant nursery stock will stand 1g ounces (avoirdupois) of potassium cyanid (98% pure) to 100 cubic feet of space, according to Mr Sirrine, while for immature stock, bud sticks, etc. but 3 ounce should be used. Prof. Sirrine recom- mends the following proportion: 14 ounces cyanid, 12-14 fluid ounces sulfuric acid and 44 fluid ounces water for matured stock, and § ounce cyanid, # fluid ounce acjd and 2% fluid ounces water for immature stock. Allow the gas to act from 4o to 60 minutes. I have obtained very satisfactory results with the formula given under orchard fumiga- tion ; but this latter is undoubtedly good and possibly more economical. Trees in leaf or those with buds started can not be fumigated with safety. The cost of fumigating nursery stock is very slight, One man constructed a house large enough to accommodate 8000 trees of first class size at an expense not to exceed $30. A person with considerable experience in this line finds that’ trees can be fumigated in quantity at less than aC apiece. Great care should be exercised in this work as well as when treating orchard trees. Special pains should be taken to air the fumigating room thoroughly before allowing any person to enter, The doors should be open at least 10 minutes. This gas is very deadly, nearly odorless and too much care can not be exercised, SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 343 PeeaNiCAaAl STUDY OF FOUR SPECIES ‘OF ASPIDIOTUS BY MARGARET FURSMAN BOYNTON | PREFACE Whenfour species of Aspidiotus, Av ancylus,' A. forb esi, A. ostreaeformis and A. perniciosus, are those most com- monly found on fruit trees in New York state. They are closely related, © and all pass the winter as immature individuals, Much of the inspection of nursery stock is done either in the fall or in the early spring, and it fre- quently happens that we are called on to identify a species from immature specimens, It is very true that adults should be somewhere in the vicin- ity of the young, but, as a matter of fact, it is frequently difficult to obtain a satisfactory amount of adult material for study; consequently it is quite important that we be able to separate these species by characters found in immature as well as adult specimens. A study of these species, with directions to give special attention to the immature stages, was assigned to my second assistant, Miss Boynton. ‘The results are given in the fol- lowing paper. Baye) Feuer Explanation of terms. In the study of scale insects the final appeal for the determination of species is, of course, to the microscopic detail of the anal plate, made up of the terminal segments, of the adult female. Here peculiar organs appear which are designated by distinctive names, and must be recognized by the terms so used in order to under- stand any technical description of species. ol may be well to illustrate with a diagram ,pl.11) and to explain those which occur in the following characterizations, specially as the usage of these terms varies somewhat with different writers. The margin of the anal plate is irregular, usually showing broad and somewhat thickened prolongations of the body wall. These are called lobes (pl. rr, fig. ra). In the following species there are two or four, paired bilaterally, as are most of the important organs on this segment, and some times there are the rudiments of a third pair, It is supposed that they are used in shifting the position of the insect under the scale. Spines and plates also ornament the margin. The spines appear under the micro- scope like short, stiff hairs with bulbous bases. They are likely to extend more or less nearly at right angles to the general line of the margin, are similarly arranged on the two sides of the median line, andare usually on the two surfaces, the dorsal and the ventral. That is, when the focus is fixed 344 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM on the spine of one surface, a spine of the other surface may usually be detected close by, though somewhat out of focus (pl. 11, fig. 1 4, d). This fact will be taken for granted in the following description, and no farther mention of it will be made. The plates, which are called also gland hairs, or, by Green, squames, extend, in general, nearly parallel to the main axis of the body, and appear soft and for the most part clearer and broader than the spines, and lack the bulbous base, but they assume various forms and may be either. simple and hair-like, or forked or fringed at the tip. Varying out- lines are shown in figure 1 at ¢,¢,c,¢c. They are often hard to detect definitely, as they are transparent and sometimes disappear in clearing, either through actual dissolution or by attaining the same refractive index as the mounting medium. ‘Their function is probably connected with the excretion of the scale. The margin is often cut in or incised. In the following species two pairs of incisions can usually be detected, the second being Compas BME inconspicuous (pl. 11, fig. 1 d, @). Beside the incisions are heavily chitinized places which appear dase in the cleared specimens. ‘These have been spoken of by Prof. Com- stock as the “ thickened margin of the incisions,” but by later writers are more frequently termed “ chitinous processes ” ; and this phrase I shall use, applying it also to the thickenings which sometimes appear on the inner margins of the median lobes. ‘These last have been spoken of as “‘club-shaped processes ’”’; but, as this term has also been applied to other organs, it seems wiser to discard it, simply giving definiteness to the term ‘“ chitinous processes’ by some phrase of location. Different forms of these processes are shown in plate 11, figure 1 ¢,¢,¢,e. A gen- eral thickening of the body wall inward from the lobes frequently occurs, but is usually rather indefinite in appearance (fig. 1f). As the insect is so much flattened, there are practically but two aspects, the dorsal and the ventral. Ina well cleared specimen the organs of both ~ sides are visible at once, yet by careful focusing can be distinguished. In plate 11, figure 1, the superficial organs of the ventral side are represented in the left half of the figure; those of the dorsal side on the right. Perhaps the most important of these superficial organs are those which appear on the ventral side of the body as groups of distinct circu- lar organs with several tiny perforations in the middle of each. They are the openings of glands which presumably secrete the covering of the eggs, and have been variously named the spinnerets, the paragenital glands, the circumgenital glands and the ventral grouped glands. I shall SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 345 speak of them simply as the ventral glands. They appear only inthe adult female and not in all species. They are of rather special interest in economic study because their presence at once proves the specimen to be something other than the pernicious or San José scale, though their absence does not necessarily indicate the contrary. Once seen they are easily recognized, for no other organ resembles them in their definite circular outline and in the manner of grouping (pl. 11, fig. 1 g, g). In the genus Aspidiotus there are usually four or five groups when pres- ent at all. The groups are then spoken of as the anterior or cephalo- laterals, and the posterior, or caudo-laterals, while the fifth group when present is anterior and median and is called by the one or the other of these terms. In the region of the lateral ventral glands the body wall is thickened (pl. 11, fig. 1%). These are the ventral chitinous thickenings, and are to gueeriain. degree characteristic, In, A. ancy Jlus.and. A. ostreae- formis they are somewhat indefinite and appear as if folded or crum- pled, in A. forbesi they are nearly straight, narrow and definite, being spoken of in the original description as “‘ club-shaped organs about which the spinnerets are grouped.” In A. perniciosus also they are more definite than in A. ancylus and A. ostreaeformis, though not so straight nor so narrow as in A. forbes1i, and they appear distinct and dark in the adult female even when the eggs or young are not present to prove the species. ‘This distinguishes the adult but not yet gravid A. perniciosus from the immature specimens of the four species, because in the first and second stages of all four these thickenings, though indi- cated, are small and indefinite, practically parenthesis-shaped and quite different from the third stage appearance. Reference to the figures will make these statements perfectly clear, I think. The vagina may sometimes be detected as a tranverse opening about the middle of the plate on the ventral side (pl. 11, fig. 17), It does not in general serve in classification, and I have not figured it under the different species. The dorsal aspect is marked near the base of the segment in the following species by four, transverse chitinous thickenings, two lateral and two median (pl. 11, fig. 1 &, 2). Occasionally there are two fainter longi- tudinal markings of chitin parallel and near the middle of the segment. There are also on the dorsal aspect oval openings of more or less prominence in different species, which are perhaps most simply designated the dorsal pores. I have shown different appearances of these seen in focusing in plate 11, figure 17,7. In some species they are numerous and 346 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM prominent, in others not nearly so much so. They are perhaps openings of glands which assist in the formation of the scale. Among these are seen curious organs which may seem to be on the surface of the body but are proved by focusing to occur within it in connection with external openings. These have been denominated by Prof. Comstock the wax ducts. In the explanatory figure a few are represented at m, m, but not in later figures, as they have not been shown to have definiteness ot arrangement or classificatory value. The large circular opening on the dorsal side is the anus (pl. 11, fig. 12). Like the other dorsal organs it is visible from the ventral side also, appearing as a clear area. I think no other organs of importance are present in the four species here mentioned, There are sometimes visible a few minute round pores and some small superficial spines, or hairs, but they may be disregarded. Distinguishing species. It is of course a commonplace in many divisions of science, but perhaps in none more than in the study of the Coccidae, that familiarity with forms is necessary for any great degree © of certainty in determining species. Descriptions of two or three different species read marvelously alike, and even figures are not absolutely dis- tinctive, because of the great variability in species. Moreover, the untrained eye does not quickly recognize differences, specially where dis- tinctions must be largely comparative. Hence any key to species must in the nature of things be unsatisfactory, for it must be relative in its terms and so can not be used with large degree of certainty in each step till familiarity with the species renders it unnecessary. However, it is sometimes an aid in earlier studies through its emphasis of the more dis- tinctive features, and the following is submitted with that end in view. It applies only to the four species here farther characterized, and per- haps may not exclude other species, which have not fallen under my ken, so that it will be useful only when the student finds it probable that he has one of these four, but is not sure which one. ‘They are the four species of Aspidiotus most frequently brought to the attention of horticulturists in this state, a fact which may justify this limitation of my study. | This key will apply, I think, to the second stages as well as to the » mature females, though with hardly as much positiveness. I have been unable to detect constant specific differences in forms before the first molt. Sometimes the question may arise as to whether the form pre- sented is adult or not. This occurs when neither ventral glands nor eggs nor young are present. In this case if the ventral thickenings are SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 347 definite and well marked and of considerable size, the specimen is a third stage, female A. perniciosus, though not yet gravid. The second stage of these four species shows only the vague, somewhat parenthesis- shaped thickenings mentioned above and seen in the second stage illustra- tions. Ofcourse the third stage of the other three species is marked by the ventral glands even before the young appear within the body. In addi- tion, the occasional difficulty in detecting the arrangement of the plates must always be remembered. Key A Incisions wide and not very deep. Second pair of lobes small when present. Median lobes rather broad. B With fringing plates. Second pair of lobes rudimentary or want- ii 2", cls hel Saige tate tla ae ape es iat RRS 5 Te ar Pn mM. a Cy lias BB Plates inconspicuous or wanting. Second pair of lobes usually eieninen, cough smalls. 5... wc swa se oA ny Om tle 2 ef OF nvins AA Incisions narrow. Lobes distinctly two pairs, of good size. Median lobes rather narrow. B Lobes nearly parallel. Fringing plates. Thickenings on either side of the first incision subequal. No ventral glands even in Pee CG Oe bella ie ieee soa eka y wie o 9 iu. DCL UVC NO Shs BB Lobes usually strongly approximating at tips. Plates incon- spicuous or wanting, Thickenings on either side of first incisions distinctly unequal. Ventral glands presentinadult.A.forbesi Aspidiotus forbesi /oizs PLATES 12. AND 13, FIGURES I This species appears to approach A. perniciosus most closely in general outline. (Compare each figure with the second figure of the same plate, A. perniciosus.) It has four distinct lobes: the median ones are notched on the outer margins and approximate at the tips, the second ones are about half the size of the first and usually notched on the outer margin. ‘They also slant slightly inward, giving the species in generala decidedly pigeon-toed appearance. The lobes are close together, because the incisions (two pairs) are narrow. The first incisions are quite deep. The second are not so much so. Prof. Johnson in the original description and figure located four spines on each side of the median line; these are quite prominent. ‘There is a fifth pair often visible near the union of the terminal and the penultimate segments. In general the spines do not 348 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM differ from the allied species. The plates when present are few and small; occasionally one or two may be detected between or beside the lobes. The chitinous processes are very characteristic, though hard to describe. The tips of the lobes are quite heavily chitinized, and the proc- esses extending cephalad along the inner margins of the median lobes are usually comparatively large and distinct. Newell, in his Iowa bul- letinno..43:cp. 161, speaks of these as sharp pointed and curved in con- tradistinction to the almost straight onesof A. ancylus. This difference, if constant, takes very careful focusing to determine, and is not striking, as is proven by the fact that other illustrators of the species have not brought it out. Indeed, the original figure represents these processes as straight and quite different in shape from Newell’s figure. This point is probably good additional evidence of the identity of the species when it can be definitely ascertained, but is not the most obvious and easiest criterion. There is also an extension of chitin cephalad near the outer margin of the median lobes. The chitinous processes on the inner margin of the first incision are large, much larger than those opposite. They are almost pear-shaped with a compound curve on the side toward the median line. That is, they are often abruptly narrowed toward the tip and outer margin of the lobe with a full curve to the very broad and plump cephalic part. This may seem a hazy description till somewhat cleared by study of the figures and by familiarity with the forms. As a matter of fact these chitinous processes are quite distinctive in A. forbesi being easily dis- tinguished from the more indefinite and irregular ones of A. ostreae- formis and A. ancylus and somewhat less certainly from A. per - niciosus by the narrower distal part, and specially by the usually marked ° superiority in size to the opposite process, while in A. perniciosus the two processes are subequal. The chitinous processes about the small second incision vary more than in the case of the first incision. The adult female shows ventral glands in 5 groups. Johnson gives 1-3 for the anterior group, 3-7 for the anterior laterals and 3-5 for the posterior laterals. The general arrangement of these is somewhat linear. The ventral chitinous thickenings within the posterior lateral groups are nearly straight and club-shaped and are usually narrow and definite, as stated above. Sometimes a fainter, less heavily chitinized fold or fork appears, but the main and obvious process is more or less nearly as illus- trated and is usually in line with.a small, straight, more heavily chitinized portion of the general thickening inward from the base of the lobes men- tioned in the paragraph for the explanation of terms. SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE | 349 On the dorsal side the anus is easily detected. The dorsal pores are small and clean-cut and usually run in two rows, on either side of the median line, one from the second incision toward the lateral transverse chitinous thickening and the second row laterad of that and running clear to the outer end of the same thickening, one pore usually being against the thickening. The number of these pores is variable but I have several times counted six or eight in each row. At the first incision there are two or three pores. The second stage of A. forbesi (pl. 13, fig. 1) resembles the third in general, though, of course, itis smaller in size. At this stage, the second lobes seem somewhat smaller comparatively and are more often rounded thannotched. The characteristic approximation at the tips usually occurs, and aids in distinguishing this form from the second stage of A. per- niciosus which usually shows nearly parallel lobes. The chitinous processes are usually of the characteristic shape, but sometimes are not so marked in disparity of size as in the adult. ‘The spines and plates are asin the adult, The ventral glands are of course wanting, and the ventral thickenings are faint and indefinite, as in the others of these four species, The dorsal pores are fewer than in the adult but represent in scattering lines the arrangement of the later stage. Quite often one may be observed even beyond the lateral chitinous thickenings. Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst. PLATES I2 AND 13, FIGURES 2 The adult female of the pernicious or San José scale shows two distinct pairs of lobes, which, while approximating somewhat at the tip, do not usually come so close together as in A. forbesi. The median lobes are rather long and narrow in appearance, are deeply notched on the outer margin and often on the inner margin nearer the tip than is the outer notch. The second lobes are distinct, well marked, about half the size of the first, rounded at the tips and notched on the outer margin. The spines are as in allied species, one on each lobe, one beyond the second incision and the fourth about halfway from the lobes to the penulti- mate segment, The plates are quite numerous and easily distin guishable, giving a somewhat fringed appearance that helps to differentiate this species from A. forbesi. ‘There are usually two inconspicuous plates between the median lobes, and two or three long and slender ones at the first incision, three or two often somewhat serrate ones at the second incision and three broad, often two-pointed ones, between the third and 350 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM fourth spines. My figure shows that considerable variation occurs even in a single specimen. ‘There are two pairs of incisions, the first between the first and second lobes and the second outside the latter lobe. The first incisions are usually very deep, while both pairs are narrow. The ends of the lobes are heavily chitinized. The chitinous processes extending along the mesal margins of the median lobes I have not found large and definite so frequently asin A. forbesi. Those on the inner margin of the first incision are of the general type of the latter species and are strongly curved toward the lobe, but are more usually broader at the base of the process, that is, toward the tip and outer edge of the lobe. - This is not, however, a very positive difference. The opposite processes , nearly equal these in size, which is not the case in A. forbesi. Some. -times I have not distinguished the process of the outer edge of the second incision, but it is often present of about the same size as that of the inner edge. | Ventral glands are wanting even in the adult. The chitinous thick- enings of this region are present however as definite and narrow dark areas in well cleared specimens. ‘They are twice bent and of the shape shown in the figure. These will serve to differentiate the adult A. per- niciosus from the immature forms of any of these species, even though eggs and young are not present to certify to the maturity of the form. The anus is of medium size, and is about as far from the ends of the chitinous processes as these are from the tips of the lobes. The transverse chitinous processes are frequently broad and some- what irregular. They are not so usually prominent and definite as in A. ostreaeformis. The dorsal pores are comparatively few, small and inconspicuous. They are usually present in traces of three short lines; the first runs from the second incision; the second just laterad of this and the third, consisting of only a few scattering pores, is still farther laterad. Quite frequently a single pore is to be seen anterior to the lateral transverse thickening. The second stage (pl. 12, fig. 2) is much the same in general arrange- ment and in the outline of parts except that the ventral chitinous thicken- ings are parenthesis-shaped and lack definiteness, the dorsal pores are fewer and more scattering, and the plates are not always so easily detected. It may be most easily confounded in this stage with A. forbesi, but it usually displays plates enough in carefully prepared specimens to sepas rate it from that form, and will show also, on greater familiarity, the same difference in relative size of the chitinous processes and in relative posi- tion of the lobes which is to be marked in the adult forms. SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 351 Aspidiotus ancylus Putnam PLATE I1, FIGURE 2 AND PLATE 15, FIGURE I This species possesses in general but a single pair of lobes, the median ones, which vary considerably in length and outline, but in a fresh adult female they are usually quite long and nearly straight on the inner and outer margins, with the tips rounded and notched on the outer edge, and often also on the inner edge near the tip. Reference to the figures will explain this statement. When worn by long and rough use, the lobes may be much shorter and worn to an oblique curve instead of the form above described. They sometimes approximate slightly at the tips. Occasionally rudiments of other lobes can be made out. Spines are as usual. Plates are quite numerous fringing the segment; two or three occur at each incision. Comstock speaks of them as usually simple, but they are at least frequently toothed in the mounts I have examined. There are three to four or five irregular and usually simple and slender plates between the third and fourth pairs of spines. The incisions are wide and not deep. The chitinous processes at the incisions are variable, being often quite | large. ‘The one on the inner margin of the first incision is frequently much larger than the opposite one, but they may be subequal. They are of the straighter type, resembling A. ostreaeformis in this rather Mies perniciosus and A. forbesi, The median ones are usually quite large and prominent, but straight. The ventral glands are in four or five groups: the anterior ones are @-oysine anterior. laterals 6-14, the posterior laterals, 5-8... These numbers are on Comstock’s authority. The glands show usually a some- what linear or scattering arrangement not the compact circular appear- ance of typical A. ostreaeformis. ‘The ventral thickenings are usually vague and irregular. The anus does not differ strikingly from A. ostreaeformis. 7 The dorsal pores present quite a range of variation. Dr Marlatt informs me that they are typically much fewer thanin A ostreaeformis or A.juglans-regiae. The office collection shows many specimens, however, where they are abundant, appearing usually in three or even four well defined rows. On each side of the median line one row ex- tends from the second incision toward the lateral transverse thickening; another laterad of this extends clear to the outer margin of the same | thickening and there is still another, though shorter one, outside, of this, while a group of three or a line of four or five appears at the first incision, 352 3 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Where the pores are fewer the two lines first mentioned can usually be distinguished, but are less crowded than in the extreme form, while the third row is represented by two or three scattering pores or not at all, and the pores at the first incision are two or three in a group close to the ends of the chitinous processes. The second stage of A.ancylus seems not always definitively differ- ent from the same stage of A. ostreaeformis, J have seen in mounts from undoubted A.ancylus material one or two second stage speci- mens, which had the small, narrow yet distinct second lobes together with absence of the plates that characterize A. ostreaeformis. Similarly, I have seen in A. ostreaeformis mounts second stage specimens that suggest A. ancylus. Of course, it is always possible that the two species are breeding side by side and may be taken at the same time in the younger forms, even if they have not been so taken in the adult stage. It seems to me that, in distinction between the two species, if fringing plates are present, whether or not rudimentary lobes appear, it is pretty surely zot A. ostreaeformis but is presumably A. ancylus. Ifplates are not discernible, and a second pair of lobes appears, it is pretty safely the former species. But, where there are neither plates nor second lobes to be discovered, additional evidence should be sought. In any case an identification from second stage material may safely be modified with “probably.” Aspidiotus ostreaeformis Curtis PLATE 14 AND PLATE 15, FIGURE 2 A. ostreaeformis is one of the large species, the adult female often attaining a diameter of 13 mm according to Dr Marlatt. He gives an extended description and a beautiful figure on page 81 of the Proceedings of the 11th annual meeting of the association of economic ento- mologists (U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 20, n.s.). The median lobes of this species vary somewhat in shape, but are in gen- eral broad with a distinct though shallow notch on the outer margin. The second pair are much smaller but usually easy to distinguish and quite characteristic in shape. They are at least often considerably narrower in proportion than in the specimen represented in my figure. Both pairs are usually heavily chitinized, and sometimes a rudimentary third pair seems to be indicated by the arrangement of chitin beyond the second incision. The spines are as in allied species; the plates are inconspicuous, but two short stout ones are usually to be discerned at each incision. SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 353 The chitinous processes are subequal on the two sides of each incision. They are quite large beside the first incision but are somewhat irregular in shape and usually not so strongly curved on the inner side as is the case in A. perniciosus, and those on the inner edges of the median lobes are variable, sometimes easily detected and in other cases vague and indefinite. The ventral glands in the adult female are quite numerous and are usually in compact, nearly circular groups, while those of A. ancylus are more likely to be linearly arranged. Dr Marlatt gives the numbers as averaging six for the anterior group, which is usually much the smaller, and 10 or 12 for each of the lateral groups, but the numbers vary quite considerably. : The thickenings in the region of the ventral glands are indefinite and look somewhat like crumplings or foldings of the body wall. The anus is small and quite distant from the median lobes. The margins, however, run up to embrace it. Dr Marlatt says: The dorsal pores are quite characteristic. There are usually two between the first pair of processes and a row of five or six extending from the second pair of processes and after a considerable interval, con- tinued near the lower group of paragenital glands in one or two addi- tional pores. A lateral row of about 1o or 11 pores extends from near the base of the first pair of spines to the lateral chitinous thickenings. Differing from most of its near allies, it has a group of six or seven pores near the basal angles of this segment. In the next to the last sentence ‘first pair of spines” means the first spines beyond those associated with lobes, as I think will be seen on study of this figure. The number of these pores varies somewhat, yet there is a certain characteristic general appearance in this arrangement that becomes familiar and at sight suggests A. ostreaeformis toa student of these forms. I have often found three pores in a group at the first incision, and sometimes there are many more in each of the groups than the numbers given above. I have found two lots on willow in our collection where the number and closeness of arrangement of these pores suggest A. juglans-regiae, sothat Dr Marlatt, to whom the speci- mens were submitted, advances interbreeding as a possible explanation of the phenomena. The lobes are three on each side of the median line in this willow form, and the ventral glands are more numerous than in typical A. o streaeformi s, while the specimens are larger in size. In the second stage the two pairs of lobes are usually distinctly present, though the second are minute. Sometimes a hint of the rudi- mentary third ones can be discerned. The incisions are wide and not 354 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM deep. ‘The plates and spines are as in the adult; the chitinous processes are subequal and similar to those in the adult though of course smaller; the ventral glands wanting, ventral thickenings parenthesis-shaped ; anus and transverse thickenings as in the adult. The dorsal pores are fewer than in the adult but are plainly of the same general arrangement, With two or three at the first incision, a row from the second incision consisting usually of three pores and the lateral row with about six running up to the lateral transverse thickening. There are usually one or two pores still laterad of this and generally two or more to represent the basal angle group. This is closely similar to the second stage of A. ancylus, but may be distinguished in carefuily prepared specimens by the absence of the fringing plates which characterize the latter. Usually the difference in the general shape of the lobes and the deeper, narrower incisions of A,perniciosus and A. forbesi will dis- tinguish the second stages of these two species from those of A. ostreaeformis to one at all familiar with these forms. | SCALE INSECTS, COCCIDAE, IN NEW YORK STATE This list of 78 species gives some idea of the number of scale insects farmers, horticulturists, nurserymen and those interested in greenhouses have to contend with. It also has value in that it indicates about what forms may be found on certain plants in the state, though the list of food plants of a number of species could undoubtedly be considerably increased by farther collecting. ‘Those occurring on any one plant can easily be ascertained by referring to the index, where the species are listed under the names of the plants on which they may be found. Many of these scale insects are not injurious, but there are also a number of pests of considerable importance. This list is largely based on pre- vious records, and many additions would undoubtedly result from special collecting, An effort has been made to exclude unreliable records. Some of the earlier determinations on which records depend may be erroneous, but it is almost impossible to eliminate this source of error. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of several coworkers in the preparation of this list. Messrs Comstock, Howard, King, Lowe, Parrott, Pettit and Slingerland have very kindly called my attention to overlooked records, given suggestions as to the synonymy, and also placed at my disposal their own unpublished notes. SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE : 355 Coccinae Eriococcus azaleae Comst., on azalea ina greenhouse, Geneva. Comstock, 2d Cornell rep’t. p. 132; on wild azalea (Azalea nudi- imenma), Coy sien, ithaca. Insectiife. 3: 23 Gossyparia ulmi Geoff., elm bark louse, on English, Scotch, Camperdown, American and slippery elm. It is known to occur at the following places: Albany, Catskill, Delmar, Flushing, Ghent, Marlboro, Ogdensburg and Rochester. See rep’ts N.Y. state ent. Also Chatham and Loudonville. Howard in letter. Ripersia mari tima Ckll., on roots of Spartina, Hempstead Parner. Cockerell, Insect life. 7:42. Dactylopius citri Risso, in greenhouses, New York. Howard in letter. Dactylopius longispinus Targ. (D.adonidum in error) common ‘“‘mealy bug.’’ This insect is probably present in most green- houses in the state. Dactylopius trifolii Forbes, on red clover, Ithaca. R. H. Pettit in letter. Dactylopius sp. on quince. Lowe, Geneva Bul. 180. p, 128. Dactylopius sp. (D. ?cockerelli) on grass roots beneath a flat stone and attended by Lasius flavus, Geneva, May 30, 1901. Parrott in letter. Pivenacoccus aceris Sign. (syn. Pseudoeoecus aceris Geoff.), on maple leaves, Athens, N. Y. state ent. Rep’t.15:616. At Brooklyn and Middletown on maple. Howard in letter. Asterolecaniinae msoterolecanium variolosttm Ratz. (syn. A. queérs cicola Auctt.) oak scale insect on English oak, Newburgh, N. Y. state ent. Rep’t. ro: 519. Geneva and Cortland. 5: ony. On oak, Cortland and golden oak at New York. Howard in letter. At Rochester. Slingerland in letter. Ortheziinae Orthezia americana Walk., on burdock, Ithaca. Comstock, Agric. rep’t. 1880. p. 349. Orthezia insignis Doug., greenhouse Orthezia, probably a very common greenhouse pest, on coleus, Rye and Ithaca, Lounsbury, Mass. Agric. coll. Rep’t. 1895. p..112—13. 356 ‘ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Lecaniinae Kermes galliformis Riley, oak Kermes, on oak, Middletown. N. Y. state ent. Rep’t. 12: 317. Several species have passed under this name, but the true K. galliformis probably occurs in this state. Oak at Brooklyn. Howard in letter. Kermes pettiti:Ehrh.,.on oak, Ithaca. King, Psyche. 9281; Kermes trinotatus Bogue, on oak, Albany. Can. ent. 32: 205. Lecanium antennatum Sign. onoak. Signoret, Essai sur les cochenilles. 1873. p.413; Comstock, 2d Cornell rep’t. p. 132. Lecanium armeniacum Craw, on grdpe, Erie county. N. Y. state ent. Rep’t. 14:260; on English gooseberry, Geneva, Brighton. 15:617; on Prunus simoni, Defreestville, state collection. Lecanium cCaryae ‘Fitch,’ on ‘hickory. Fitch Tep’t eager Comstock,.2d Cornell rep’t. p. 133. . At Geneva. . Lowe, in letter. Lecanium, cenasifex Fitch,on “chesty. - Fitch (rept) oe Comstock, 2d Cornell rep’t. p. 133; on maple, oak, Menands, Geneva. N; Y.sstate ent: Rep’t..14: 261; on peach, Geneva. apple, Union Springs. 15: 6175700 16:1044; on white ash, Stanley, state collection. On plum, Geneva. Lowe in letter. Lecanium corylifex Fitch, on hazelnut. Fitch rep’t. 3: 158 ; Comstock, 2d-Cornell rep'tap. nee. Lecanium cynosbati Fitch, on wild gooseberry. Fitch rep’t. Biwhas > Comstock,.2d Comell rep’t. pis 32: Lecanium fitchii Sign., on raspberry or blackberry. Signoret,. Essai sur les cochenilles. 1873. p. 404; Comstock, 2d Cornell rep’t. P 133. be 7 Lecanium fletcheaipCklh >cKing;Qan. ent. 31: 141. At itiacay Hettit in letter. ; Lecanium hemisphericum Targ., common in greenhouses. Comstock in letter; at Brighton. Howard in letter. Lecanium hesperidum Linn., common in greenhouses and on house plants. On sweet bay, fern and lemon, Buffalo, Alden and Nyack. Howard in letter. Lecanium juglandis Bouché, on butternut. Fitch rep’t. 3: 145, (as L. juglandifex);. Comstock, 2d Cornell rep’t. (as L. yu- glandifex Fitch) p.134; on plum, Rochester, Menands. N. Y. state ent. Rep’t. 10: 518. ; Lecanium lintneri Ckll. & Bennett, on sassafras, Lake Mohonk Cockerell, Am. naturalist. 29: 381. 1 Species described by Dr Fitch or received from him by others are probably New York species and are therefore included in this list. ~ s - SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 357 Lecanium nigrofasciatum Perg,, peach Lecanium, on sugar maple, Poughkeepsie, Ithaca. Pergande, ue Ssdepiticagric,|: div.ient. Bul. 18, n.s. p. 27. At Brooklyn. Howard in letter. On soft maple, Albany, state collection. Wecian ime! pews vcyaie.) Fabrejon peach. Comstock, 2d Cornell rep’t. p. 1343 at Jamaica. Howard in letter. 1Lecanium prunastri Fonsc., New York plum'scale insect, on cherry, Ardisia crenulata, Albany, Flushing. N. Y. state ent: Rep’t. 14: 261. A serious enemy of the plum in western New York; many localities have been recorded. See Cornell Bul. 83, 108, rep’t ’95, Geneva Bul. 136. Lecanium pruinosum Cogq,, on grapevine, Brighton, N. Y. ‘state ent. Rep’t. mgm ji. Lecanium quercifex Fitch, on white oaky\ Hitehjrep’t: a5) 9i267; ‘Comstock, 2d Cornell rep’t. p. 135. Decanium quercitronis. Fitch-en | black. oak. Fitch jrep’t. 5 :)25.;):Comstock; 2d Cornell rep’t. p. 135. Lecanium ribis Fitch, on currant. Fitch rep’t. 3: 109; Com- Peimgeas ed eCornell rep’t: p. 135; On Ostrya and Carpinmuws, Albany. Howard in letter. Becani um ptwlipite rae Cook; tulip tree scale insect, Rochester. MeaMostatesentRep’t. ro: 508; on*tulip tree, Somers. Lewis on Magnolia soulangea, Fishkill, at Highland Falls. — PAraao 15:617; Mount Vernon. —16: 1044; at Watkins and Nyack. Howard in letter. At Poughkeepsie, Slingerland in letter. Lecanium n.sp.on Pinus rigida, Karner, state collection. Lecanium n.sp.on maple, Albany. Howard in letter. Pulvinaria acericola Walsh and Riley, maple leaf Pul- vinaria, on maple, Ithaca. Howard. U.S. dep’t agric. div. ent. Bul. 22, ie St ps 17. Pulvinariainnumerabilis Rathv., cottony maple tree scale insect, on soft maple, sugar maple, elm and grape, numerous localities recorded. See rep’ts N. Y. state ent. Pulvanaria mratcilwride) Kenne! King, Can) ,eat.ogr » 143.1): This record is open to question, though this species may occur in the state. Diaspinae Aspidiotus abietis Schr,, on pitch pine, Ithaca. Comstock, Agric. rep’t. 1880, p. 306; (syn. A. pini) on under surface of hemlock 1 Mr King has found in material sent from New York state as this species L. juglanis Bouché and L.rotundum Sign. 358 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM leaves, Ithaca. Comstock, 2d Cornell rep’t. p. 57; on pitch pine, Karner, state collection. Aspidiotus. aurantii Mask., in greenhouses, New York Howard in letter. : Aspidiotus ancylus, Putn., Putnam’s scale insect. It occurs. on many food plants and has been recorded from numerous localities. See p. 327. ; Aspidiotus betu la é¢. Baer, on horse-chestnut, Buffalo, state col- _ lection. Aspidiotus comstocki Johns., on sugar maple, Ithaca. Ill. state lab. nat. hist. Bul, 1896. 4: 385. Aspidiotus forbesi Johns., cherry scale insect, on apple, Man- chester. N. Y. state ent. Rep't. 16:1044; on plum, Geneva. Howard. in letter; on pear, Geneva, state collection. See also p. 331. Aspidiotus juglans-regiae Comst., English walnut scale insect, on locust, pear and cherry, N ew York state. Comstock, 2d Cor- nell rep’t. p. 61. Probably on maple, Albany, state collection. On willow, Fredonia, Slingerland in letter. At Brighton. Howard in letter. Aspidiotus hederae Vall. (syn. A. nerii Bouché), white scale insect of ivy, common in greenhouses... See p. 334. Aspidiotus lataniae Sign. (syn. A. cydoniae Comst.), on palm in greenhouse, Cobleskill. On Areca lutescens, Kentia fosteriana, Albany, state collection. Aspidiotus ostreaeformis Curtis, European fruit scale insect, occurs in many localities. See notice on p. 325. Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst., pernicious, or San 7 scale, occurs on many food plants and has a wide distribution. See notice on Pp. 300411: Aspidiotus punicae Ckll., Seward. Howard in letter. Aspidiotus ulmi Johns., on catalpa, Buffalo, on elm, Le Roy, Albany, state collection. | Aspidiotus uvae Comst., possibly in the state, as a specimen without locality label occurs in the state collection. Pseudaonidia species on Camellia japonica at New York. N. Y. state ent.) Rep’t.) 15 2 616. Chrysomphalus aoni@ume Linn. (syn. C. ficus Ashm.)) on palm in greenhouse at Gloversville. Insect life. 7:360; on Ficus ?carica, Strelitzia reginae, Kentia belmoreana, Coe- SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 359 hogyne cristata, :Monstera , deliciosa, Phoenix. re- clivata, P. dactylineata, ivy, Chinese dwarf orange, Albany, state collection. Chrysomphalus dictyospermi Morg.,on ivy, Coelogyne eristata, ‘Kentia, belmoreania, K. fosteriana, Areca lutescens, in Albany greenhouses, state collection. Diaspis calyptroides Costa (syn. D. cacti Comst.), cactus scale insect, on cactus, Ithaca. Comstock, 2d Cornell rep’t. p. 91; on Cereus grandiflora, New York, on Epiphyllum truncatum, Albany, state collection. Diaspis carueli Targ., juniper scale insect, on Irish juniper, Sing simi. JIN, ¥. state ent. Rep’t,.. 14: 262. Diaspis ostreaeformis Sign., imported from France on nursery stock in 1898, but it was probably exterminated; letter from M. V. Slingerland. There is danger of importing this insect in the future, even if it is not established here at present. De ulacaspis; bronbeliae Kern. on) Corypha,.australis, Albany greenhouse, state collection. mewaeaspis boisduvalti Sign. a greenhouse, ,.or , house species on orchid, Gouverneur. N. Y. state ent. Rep’t. 14: 262. On pedmorthnia elegans, Phoenix reclivata, P., dactylin- Site Picananlensis,strelitzia reginae, Livistonia ro- tundifolia, orchid, variegated pineapple, palms, Albany, state col- lection. Aulacaspis rosae Sandb., rose scale, on rose, Brooklyn. N., Y. state ent. Rep’t. 7 : 384; on blackberry, Brighton.— 16,9 104.5. On blackberry, Geneva, Lebanon Springs; on raspberry, Onteora Mts, Greene co., and at Geneva. Howard in letter; At Ithaca, Slingerland inletter. On blackberry, Stanley, on raspberry, Hudson, state col- lection. © Howardia elegans Leon., ina greenhouse on Cycas revo- Leta, Altamont. N.Y. state ent. Rep’t. 16: 1045; on Zamia in- Beerifo lia and C ycas revoluta, Albany, state collection. Parlatoria pergandii Comst. orange chaff scale insect, on orange, Sing Sing. N. Y. state ent. Rep’t. 14 : 262; on tangerine, New Nork =~ in) fetter. 15:618. A greenhouse species. Geneva on orange. Howard Parlatoria proteus Curtis on Vanda suava in green- house at Ithaca. R. H. Pettit in letter. 360 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Parlatoria theae CkIl. (syn. P. viridis Ckll.) on imported ‘Japanese maples. N.Y. state ent. Rep’t. 15: 618. The lot was seized and fumigated. This species was subsequently imported on another lot, which was also treated. It is very probable that this insect has been imported before, and it may prove hardy in our climate. Mytilaspis ‘ertri cola” Packs “orange! Scale insect.” M@ceuns on oranges in the markets and probably on orange trees in greenhouses. On lemon at Geneva. Howard in letter. Mytilaspis gloverii Pack., a greenhouse species. King, Can. enue P31.) 2'20 i Mytilaspis pomorum Bouché, the appletree bark louse, a common, widespread species with a large number of food plants. See pi 297}; 298: | Pinnaspis pandani Comst., palm scale, in greenhouses, New York, state collection. Chionaspis americana Johns, “elm 'Chionaspis, en elm, Brooklyn. Cooley. Mass. expt. sta. Special bul. 1899. p. 43. At Cohoes, Geneva. Howard in letter. On American elm, Albany, state collection. Chionaspis euonymi Comst., Euonymus scale insect, on Euonymus, lilac, Prunus pissardi at Fishkill, Greatneck and Irvington. N.Y. state ent. Rep’t. 15: 618; on Celastrus scan- dens, Blauvelt, state collection. At Brooklyn. Howard in letter. At Tarrytown, Slingerland in letter. Chionaspis furfura Fitch, scurfy bark louse, a very common species. Seé p. 302-3 for food plants and distribution. Chironaspis lintneri Comst; ‘Comstock’on aldernr VY 1b ur num lantanoides. 2d Cornell rep’t. p. 103% om Cornus, Nochester, state collection. Chionaspis pinifoliae Fitch, pine leaf scale insect, on pines, Matteawan.. N. Y.state ent. Rep’t. 7: 384; at Albany, Geneva. — 15: 618; at Saratoga, state collection. At Newburgh, . Fayetteville. Howard in letter. At West Somerset. Slingerland in letter A com- mon species with a wide distribution. Chionaspis salicis-nigrae Walsh, on willow, Ithaca. Com- stock, Agric. rep’t. 1880 (C. salicis in error) p. 320. On Cornus alternifolia, Kashong glen near Geneva, Parrott in letter. Hemichionaspis aspidistrae Sign. on fern in greenhouse, Ithaca. R. H. Pettit in letter, on ASplenium viviparum, and sago palm or Cycas revoluta, Albany, state collection. SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 361 EXPLANATION OF PLATES Plates 1-7 were executed from nature, under the author’s direction, by L. H. Joutel of New York. | = Q Cc sy Gy Orb Gr ah eg ) e) FiG. ti = G@ NS A Voy ee (on PLATE 1 Appletree bark louse Mytilaspis pomorum Bouché Eggs and two empty, shriveled shells, very much enlarged Active young, very much enlarged Young just after they have settled on the bark, very much enlarged Partly grown scales with an old one, much enlarged Partly grown young still more enlarged Male scale, much enlarged Female scale, much enlarged Female scale reversed, showing shriveled parent and eggs, much enlarged Female scales on poplar bark, natural size Female, very much enlarged PLATE 2 Scurfy bark louse Chionaspis furfura Fitch Female scale broken open to reveal the purplish eggs within, very much enlarged Active young, very much enlarged Partly grown scales, much enlarged Adult female and two male scales, much enlarged Female scale reversed, showing egg and shrunken body of mother, very much enlarged Male scale, very much enlarged Scales on twig, natural size Male scales on bark, much enlarged ‘Adult female just before oviposition, much enlarged 362 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM PLATE 3 Pernicious or San José scale insect Aspidiotus perniciosus Comstock Recently established scale in white stage on green twig, very much enlarged. (Note red coloring around it) Recently established young on green twig natural size. (Note red coloring around scales) Pear showing young scales and the red discoloration, natural size. (Same is shown on the leaf) Young scales in white stage on twig, natural size Mass of old scales, some young black ones and some in white stage on a twig, natural size 6 Group of yellowish adult scales, enlarged Group of dark adult scales surrounded by many young black ones, enlarged 8 Adult male scale, very much enlarged by 0 OM AN AW DHS 4 O La | — Adult female scale, very much enlarged Adult female, very much enlarged Active young, very much enlarged Perfect male, very much enlarged Young in black stage, very much enlarged PLATE 4 European fruit scale insect Aspidiotus ostreaeformis Curtis Recently established young, greatly enlarged Young in white stage, natural size Portion of above, much enlarged Half grown scales, much enlarged Half grown scales, somewhat enlarged Piece of badly infested bark, natural size Portion of twig showing mass of scales, much enlarged Male scale, very much enlarged Female scale, very much enlarged Female as removed from under a scale, very much enlarged Active young, very much enlarged ot Ss Oo | = Q OO ON AN AW DW HF La FIG. wm -& WwW N ~ Oo Or AM AW N AS SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 363, PLATE 5 Putnam’s scale insect Aspidiotus ancylus Putnam Group of young scales on pear, enlarged Several young scales, greatly enlarged Portion of currant twig with young scales, natural size Same much enlarged Half-grown scales on white birch, enlarged Badly infested twig of Ilex verticillata, enlarged Portion of above, greatly enlarged ' Male scale, very much enlarged Female scale, very much enlarged Female as removed from under a scale, very greatly enlarged Young scale insect, very greatly enlarged PLATE 6 Cherry scale insect Aspidiotus forbesit Johnson Dorsal view of white scale, very much enlarged Same from a nearly side view, very much enlarged Group of young scales, much enlarged One scale from the above, still more enlarged Two half-grown scales, very much enlarged Twig infested with full-grown scales, natural size A group of scales from the above, more enlarged Feinale scale, very much enlarged Two male scales, very much enlarged Female as removed from under a scale, very much enlarged | PLATE 7 White scale insect of the ivy Aspidiotus hederae Vallot Female as removed from under her scale, very much enlarged Active young, very much enlarged Young scale, very much enlarged Adult female scale, very much enlarged Shriveled female as found under the scale after all her eggs are laid, very much enlarged 364. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM FIG. 6 Group of female and half-grown scales, much enlarged 7 Spray of ivy showing scales on upper and under surface of the leaves and on the stem, natural sizé 8 Yellowish eggs and young found under a scale, very much enlarged PLATE 8 Effects of undiluted crude petroleum Tree 93, lombard plum, was sprayed with crude petroleum April 11, and the tree photographed July 2. Tree 8, one of the same variety, was similarly sprayed with a 20% mechanical emulsion of crude petroleum, and the tree photographed July 2. Compare the two in order to gain an idea of the effect of crude petroleum. PLATE’ 9 Effects of undiluted crude petroleum Tree ror, a seckel pear, was sprayed with undiluted crude petroleum, April 11, and photographed July 2. | The king appletree was painted with crude petroleum Dec. 1, 1899, and photographed May 21. This tree died during the summer, throw- ing out scarcely a leaf. Tree 110, a Kieffer pear sprayed with Good’s whale oil soap April 11, is represented by way of contrast. PLATE to Fumigating tent in operation. The tent is lifted bodily from the tree with the aid of the tackle and pole. The hood was kept distended in this instance in order to make the cubic contents more constant. PATE 1 FIG. ; 1 Diagrammatic representation of anal plate of adult female scale insect, showing peculiar organs. Those belonging specially to the ventral surface are represented on the left half of the Beate those of the dorsal surface on the right. a, a lobes, heavily chitinized at tip 6, 6, 6,6 spines, on ventral and on dorsal surfaces, the latter slightly out of focus ¢,¢,¢,¢ plates, of varying forms d@,d,d,d incisions in margin of anal segment SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 365, FIG. €, €, €, €, €, €é,é,e Chitinous processes, or thickened margins of incisions. Jf general thickening inward of body wall £, 8, ventral grouped glands, or spinnerets A ventral chitinous thickening z vagina k, & transverse chitinous thickenings of dorsal wall f, 7, 1,2 dorsal pores, showing different appearances seen in focusing m,m wax ducts, within body m anus 2 Aspidiotus ancylus Putnam, adult female. Note fringing plates, the single pair of lobes, and the linear arrangement of ventral glands. Compare with A. ostreaeformis, plate 14. PLATE 12 FIG. 1 Aspidiotus forbesi Johnson, adult female. Note chitinous thickenings and form of lobes. Compare with figure 2. 2 AXspidiotus perniciosus Comstock, adult female. Ventral glands are absent. Note plates. PLATE 13 HIG. ~. 1 Aspidiotus forbesi Johnsopr, second stage. Compare with adult, plate 12, figure 1, and with A. perniciosus, second stage, on plate with it. 2 Aspidiotus perniciosus Comstock, second stage. Com- pare with adult, plate 12, figure 2. PLATE 14 Mspidiotus ostreaeformis Curtis, adult female. Note form of second lobes and grouping of ventral glands. Compare with A. ancylus, plate rt, figure 2, and with the other species figured. PLATE 15 FIG. 1. Aspidiotus ancylus Putnam, second stage. Note plates in comparison with A. ostreaeformis at figure 2. Compare also with adult, plate 11, figure 2. 2 Aspidiotus ostreaeformis Curtis, second stage. Com- pare with adult, plate 14. ital ing “ke Vi} ey Plate i L. H, Joutel, 1900 James B. Lyon, State Printef Appletree bark louse LL. H. Joutel, 1900 Seurfy bark louse } | J ames B, Lyon, State Printer L. H. Joutel, Pernicious or San José seale insect james 8B. Lyon, State Printer “ xX belul tah 4 " ‘ + WA . att 7 : ' i ¢ , . ’ . i | ‘ s r ‘ 1 ‘ i y i ; . . a yl bait . y . f ¥ j at + Plate 5 L. H. Joutel, 1900 James ‘B. Lyon, State Printer Putnam’s seale insect Plate 6 L. H. Joutel, 1900 James B. Lyon, State Printer Cherry scale insect fp sity Me ‘ feat * Di vele ee Ree Jeo ps rn ie ony Plate L. H. Joutel, 1900 White sca] € insect of the ivy James B. Lyon, State Printer =~ I - ae ie y ’ ny ¥, * % WOAATIOULEd ACN (S901} OM 04} 91BdTI0D) ANASOUNA 4OST z Ainge 010qq rinjd pavquio’y GG VOLT, @ A[ng 0100g wn,{d paequio'y 8 991], ees oe 8 9}8Id WOHWTOULEAd AGCNYO dVOS TIO WIVHM WOHTIOULHd AdNHO Ic Av ojoud = vx[fdde sur [~.eq poyuleg Fl ABW OJOYA Avoed JOH OLT vel, g A[ng¢ ojoyg vod [ayoog TOTectt, 6 ed | 7 | WARS at Plate 10 Photo April 21 Fumigating tent in operation oe ia Pert y pa % Plate 11 2 1 Diagrammatic figure of anal plate of scale insect showing peculiar organs 2 Aspidiotus ancylus, adult female Be do ae een SOs aoe oe © == . = : ¥ . ¥ ’ . © od ‘ ae \ ; Pe 4 é f WV r ; ae & “ ; - i ; A t 40. : 7h, t. ; Ve eet , ax: ‘= ¥~ i, OG * 4 < 7 Pays hee 1 a : . ¥ re ’ Se t pe z “ ey a 4 s LE Sg SD Fee ee ee . rj ‘4. 3 é, ; u ir . Plate 12 oi. Ose ~ eels 1 Aspidiotus forbesi, adult female 2 Aspidiotus per , adult female nic1iosus i iY er eh Gt Ly Prk rae Plate 13 (ae! 4 i . hs ao ’ e , . . ’ 2 Wa ap . 3" gpa acer 5 ; p oad . Say: Arcata e ee tee ASKIN Co CCE DON asia a RT , 1 Agpidiotus forbesi, second stage ' 2 Aspidiotus perniciosus, second stage ves a tosPigot pr Sa ate EPA Plate 14 Aspidiotus ostreaeformis O A & ‘ (nu i Ase : st _ 3 eet ( x p QO QO, F peace! ope ‘J : , 4 ea? Cuca fe @) : 3 ‘ . ' a Yan | | ¢ %. & : ye” Rie Ye, é no NY SESS iy oti, i : Me FEST sotto eey! = 4 ETN, Sp yveyees, ‘ tw Deer Teh SL Sad 1 Aspidiotus ancylus, second stage 2 Aspidiotus ostreaeformis, second stage Plate 15 ¥ a « Persie, % > Bi BIN JD EX The superior figure points to the exact place on the page in ninths; e. g. at the bottom. abietis, Aspidiotus, 357°-58', Ablerus clisiocampae, 303°, 331°. abnormis, Aphelinus, 299. Acacia, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus hederae, 334’. perniciosus, 309’, 310’. acericola, Pulvinaria, 357". aceris, Phenacoccus, 355°. Pseudococcus, 355°. adonidum, Dactylopius, 355%. Ailanthus, 310°. Akebia, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 310". Alder, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus perniciosus, 309°, 310°. Chionaspis Jintneri, 360°. Almond, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 309%. flowering, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310’. Aloe, see Century plant. Althea, 310%. Amaryllis, 310°. Amelanchier, see Shadbush. American ivy, 310°. americana, Chionaspis, 360°. Orthezia, 355°. Anaphes gracilis, 299*, 3117. ancylus, Aspidiotus, 296+, 3474, 3511-52%, 3587. Anemone, 310%. antennatum, Lecanium, 356%. aonidum, Chrysomphalus, 358°. Aphelinus abnormis, 299%. fuscipennis, 2997, 311°. mytilaspidis, 298°, 300°, 311°. Appletree, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327". forbesi, 3317, 358°. ostreaeformis, 325*. perniciosus, 309°, 310’. 326*-30’, 357 means page 357 beginning in the ninth ninth of the page, i. e. almost Appletree, scale insects (cont'd): Chionaspis furfura, 302°. Lecanium cerasifex, 356'. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298". crab, Chionaspis furfura recorded on, 302°. ( Appletree or oyster shell bark louse, bibliography, 299°-300%; descrip- tion, 297°; enemies, 298°-99'; food plants, 297°; life history, 297°-98°; reference, 296', 360°; remedies, 299°, Apricot, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus forbesi, 3317. perniciosus, 309’, 310’. Arbor vitae, Aspidiotus hederae re- corded on, 334%. Ardisia crenulata, Lecanium prun- astri recorded on, 357°. Areca lutescens, scale insects re- corded on: Aspidiotus hederae, 334°. lataniae, 358°, Chrysomphalus . 3597. . armeniacum, Lecanium, 356%. Arrhenophagus chionaspidis, 331°. Ash, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327’. perniciosus, 310°. Mytilaspis pomorum, 297’. black, Mytilaspis pomorum re- corded on: white, scale insects recorded on: Lecanium cerasifex, 356*. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298". Asparagus plumosus, see Lace fern. Aspen, 310°. Aspidiotiphagus citrinus, 299’, 311’. Aspidiotus abietis, 357°-58". ancylus, 296*, 326°-307, 347*, 351’- 52°, 3587. aurantii, 358". dictyospermi, 368 Aspidiotus betulae, 358%. comstocki, 358°. cydoniae, 358°. forbesi, 2965, 358". hederae, 296°, 3331-367, 358’. juglans-regiae, 358'. lataniae, 358°. nerii, 334°-35°, 358°. obseurus, 312°. ostreaeformis, 2967, 323'-26°, 347°, 852%-54°, 358°. perniciosus, 296°, 3048-23° 347°, 349°-50°, 3587. pini, 358". punicae, 358’. ulmi, 358’. uvae, 358°. aspidistrae, Hemichionaspis, 860°. Asplenium viviparum, Hemichion- aspis aspidistrae recorded on, 360”. Asterolecaniinae, 355". Asterolecanium quercicola, 355‘. variolosum, 355’. Atwood, G. G., quoted on food plants of San José scale, 310°. Aulaecaspis boisduvalii, 359°. ; bromeliae, 359°. rosae, 359°. aurantii, Aspidiotus, 358". Prospalta, 331°. australasiae, Orcus, 312’. Azalea, 310°. greenhouse, Eriococcus azaleae re corded on, 355*. wild, Eriococcus azaleae recorded on, 355+. Azalea nudiflora, see Azalea, wild. azaleae, Eriococecus, 355". 330°-32°, 347°-49%, Barberry, 310°. Beech, Aspidiotus ancylus recorded on, 327’; reference, 310%. Betulaceae, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 309%. betulae, Aspidiotus, 358°. Bibliographies, 299°-306°, 3047, 316°- 23°, 325°-26°, 328°-307, 331°-32°, 334°- 36’. —— eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeEEeEeEeEeEeEeEeeESFSFSSsseFe NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Birch, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus perniciosus, 310°. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298’. white, Aspidiotus ancylus record- ed on, 327°. bivulnerus, Chilocorus, 303°, 331°. “B.ack alder,” see Clethra alnifolia. Blackberry, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus perniciosus, 310°. Aulacaspis rosae, 359°. Lecanium fitchii, 356°. Bladdernut, Aspidiotus aneylus re- corded on, 3277. boisduvalii, Aulacaspis, 359°. Boston ivy, 310°. Boynton, M. F., on technical study of scale insects, 343°-54+, bromeliae, Aulacaspis, 359°. Buckthorn, 310°. Burdock, Orthezia americana re- corded on, 355°. Butternut, Lecanium juglandis re- corded on, 356°; reference, 310°, Buttonwood, 310%. Cactaceae, Coccus cacti recorded on, 2944. cacti, Coccus, 294+, | Diaspis, 359%. Cactus, Diaspis calyptroides record- ed on, 359°. Cactus scale insect, 359°. calyptroides, Diaspis, 359%. Camellia japonica, Pseudaonidia species recorded on, 358°. Candle wax, 294". Carpinus, Lecanium ribis recorded on, 357°. carueli, Diaspis, 359%. caryae, Lecanium, 356%. Catalpa, Aspidiotus ulmi recorded on, 358"; reference, 310°. Celastraceae, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 309°. Celastrus scandens, Chionaspis eu- onymi recorded on, 360°. Century plant (aloe), Aspidiotus hederae recorded on, 334*. cerasifex, Lecanium, 356%. INDEX TO SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE Cereus grandiflora, Diaspis calyp- troides recorded on, 359°. Certification of nursery stock, 313°. chalybeus, Orcus, 312*. Cherry, seale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°. forbesi, 330°, 331%. hederae, 334?. juglans-regiae, 358*. ostreaeformis, 325%. perniciosus, 309". Lecanium cerasifex, 356°. prunastri, 357°. black, Chionaspis furfura record- ed on, 302°. black tartarian, 310*. choke, Chionaspis furfura record- ed on, 302°. flowering, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310". Japan, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 310". Rocky Mountain dwarf, Aspidio- tus perniciosus recorded on, 310". sour (Richmond, Morello, ete.), As- pidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310°. sweet, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 310’. wild, Mytilaspis pomorum record- ed on, 2987. wild red, Chionaspis furfura re- corded on, 302°. Cherry scale insect, bibliography, 331°-32°; description, 330'-31'; dis- tribution, 331°; enemies, 331°; food plants, 331’; history, 330‘; life his- tory, 3317; reference, 296%, 358%; remedies, 331°; technical descrip- Son, 347°-49°. Chestnut, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 310°; reference, 310°. Chilocorus bivulnerus, 303°, 331°. Chiloneurus diaspidinarum, 299°. China-tree (Melia azedarach), Aspid- iotus hederae recorded on, 334’, 334°. Chionanthus, 310°. chionaspidis, Arrhenophagus, 331°. 369 Chionaspis americana, 360+. enonymi, 360°. furfura, 296°, 3007-4’, 360°. lintneri, 360%. pinifoliae, 360". salicis, 360%. salicis-nigrae, 360%. Chrysomphalus aonidum, 358°. dictyospermi, 3597. ficus, 358°. citri, Dactylopius, 355+. citricola, Mytilaspis, 360°. citrinus, Aspidiotiphagus, 299°, 3117. Clethra or “ black alder,’ Chionas- - pis furfura recorded on, 302°; ref- erence, 310°. clisiocampae, Ablerus, 303°, 331°. Clover, Aspidiotus hederae recorded on, 334°. red, Dactylopius trifolii recorded - on, 355°. Coccinae, 355'. ; Coccinellids, 299°, 308°, 311°-12", 3315, 334°. coccisugus, Hemisarcoptes, 2997. Coecophagus varicornis, 328%. Coccus cacti, 294*. Cochineal, 294+. cockerelli, Dactylopius, 355°. Coelogyne cristata, scale insects re- corded on: Chrysomphalus aonidum, 358°. dictyospermi, 3597. Coffee tree, Kentucky, 310+. Coleus, Orthezia insignis recorded on, 355°. comstocki, Aspidiotus, 358°. conchiformis, Aspidiotus, 299°, 300°. Cornus, scale insects recorded on: Chionaspis lintneri, 360’. salicis-nigrae, 360°. eorylifex, Lecanium, 356°. Corylus, 310%. Corypha australis, Aulacaspis bro- meliae recorded on, 359°. Cotoneaster, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 309%, 3107. Cranberry, 310°. Crataegus, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310", 370 Croton lacciferum, Tachardia lacca recorded on, 294°. Crude petroleum, crude. Currant, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus forbesi, 33:1’. hederae 334?. ostreaeformis, 325*. perniciosus, 809°. Lecanium ribis, 357°. black, reference, 310°. cherry, Chionaspis furfura record- ed on, 302°. flowering, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 309°, 310°, red, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 3277. perniciosus, 810’. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298". white, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 810". wild flowering, Chionaspis furfu- ra recorded on, 302’. Cycas revoluta, scale corded on: see Petroleum, insects re- Hemichionaspis aspidistrae,360°, Howardia elegans, 359°. eydoniae, Aspidiotus, 858°. cynosbati, Lecanium, 356°. Cyperus, Aspidiotus hederae record- ed on, 334°. | Dactylopius adonidum, 355", eitri, 355+. ? cockerelli, 355°. longispinus, 355%. species, 355°. trifolii, 355°. debilis, Rhizobius, 334°. Deutzia, 310°. Dewberry, Aspidiotus recorded on, 310°. diaspidinarum, Chiloneurus, 299". Diaspinae, 357°-60°. Diaspis cacti, 359%. calyptroides, 359°. carueli, 359°. ostreaeformis, 359+. dictyospermi, Chrysomphalus, 3597. Dogwood, flowering, Aspidjotus per- niciosus recorded on, 310°, perniciosus i eee ————————————————————————— NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Ebenaceae, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 309°. Klaeagnus, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310°. typ Hider, 310°. elegans, Howardia, 359%. Eln, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327%. ostreaeformis, 325*. perniciosus, 3097. ulmi, 358". Chionaspis americana, 360%. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298’. Pulvinaria innumerabilis, 857°. American, reference, 3810'; scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°, Chionaspis americana, 360*. Gossyparia ulmi, 3557, Camperdown, Gossyparia ulmi re- eorded on, 3557. English, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus perniciosus, 310°. Gossyparia ulmi, 355.? Scotch, Gossyparia ulmi recorded on, 355’. slippery, Gossyparia ulmi record- ed on, 355’. KHJlm bark louse, 3557. Hlim Chionaspis, 360+. Hneyrtus species, 331°. Huglish walnut scale, 358". Hpiphyllum truneatum, Diaspis ca- lyptroides recorded on, 359°. liricerus pela, 294", Hriococeus azaleae, 355*. Huealyptus, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310°. ; euonymi, Chionaspis, 360°. Kuonymus, reference, 310*; scaie in- sects recorded on: Aspidiotus perniciosus, 309°. Chionaspis euonymi, 360°. Kuonymus scale insect, 360°. Huropean fruit scale insect, Fruit scale insect, Huropean. Evergreens, 310°. Exochorda, 310%. SEC Fern, scale insects recorded on: Hemichionaspis aspidistrae,360° Lecanium hesperidum, 356", INDEX TO SCALE INSECTS ‘OF IMPORTANCE ficus, Chrysomphalus, 358°. | Ficus, scale insects recorded on: Chrysomphalus aonidum, 358’. Tachardia lacca, 294°. Fig, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310°. fitchii, Lecanium, 356°. flavus, Lasius, 355°. -fletcheri, Lecanium, 356’. Food plants, lists of, 298°, 302°, 300°- 10°, 325°, 331", 3347, 355'-60°. forbesi, Aspidiotus, 296°, 330°-32°, 347°-49°, 358". Forsythia, 310*. Fruit scale insect, Huropean, biblio- graphy, 325°-26°; description, 324°- 25’; distribution, 325*; food plants, 325°; introduction into New York, 323'-24*; life history, 325°; origin, o22: reference, 296", 3475, 358°; remedies, 325’; technical charac- | ters, 347°, 352°-54°. Fumigating chamber, 341’. Fumigating tent, 3401. Fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas, 314°, 389°-42°. furfura, 860%. furfurus, Aspidiotus, 304’. fuscipennis, Aphelinus, 299’, 311°. Chionaspis, 296°, 3007-4’, galliformis, Kermes, 356°. Ginkgo, 310*. gloverii, Mytilaspis, 360°. Gooseberry, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 309°, 310%. English, Lecanium armeniacum recorded on, 356°. wild, scale insects recorded on:: Lecanium cynosbati, 356°. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298". Gossyparia mannifera, 294°. ulmi, 3557. gracilis, Anaphes, 299°, 311°. Grape vines, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus perniciosus, 310°. Lecanium armeniacum, 356%. pruinosum, 857°. Pulvinaria innumerabilis, 357°. 371 Grass, scale inseets recorded on: Aspidiotus hederae, 334°. Dactylopius ? eockerelli, 355°. Greenhouse, Orthezia, 355°. Greenhouses, scale insects occurring in: Aspidiotus aurantii, 358". hederae, 358°. lataniae, 358°. Aulacaspis boisduvalii, 359”. bromeliae, 359°: Chrysomphalus aonidum, 358°- 59, | dictyospermi, 359°. Dactylopius: citri, 355+. longispinus, 355*. Eriocoecus azaleae, 3551. Hemichionaspis aspidistrae,360°. Lecanium hemisphericum, 356°. hesperidum, 356’. Mytilaspis citricola, 360°. gloverii, 360°. Orthezia insignis, 335°. Parlatoria pergandii, 359°. proteus, 359°. Pinnaspis pandani, 360*. Hackberry, Aspidiotus ancylus re- corded on, 327’. Halesia, 310’. Hawthorn, seale on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°. perniciosus, 309°. Hazelnut, Lecanium corylifex, corded on, 356°. hederae, Aspidiotus, 358*. Hemichionaspis aspidistrae, 360°. Hemisarcoptes coccisugus, 299, hemisphericum, Lecanium, 356’. Hemlock, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus abietis, 357°-58". ancylus, 327°. hesperidum, Lecanium, 356’. Hickory, Lecanium caryae recorded on, 356%; reference, 810%. Honeysuckle, Aspidiotus pernic‘osus recorded on, 310°, insects -recorded Ee= 296°, 3837-36?, 372 Horse chestnut, scale insects re- corded on: Aspidiotus betulae, 358°. perniciosus, 310°. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298’. Host plants, see Food plants. House plants, Lecanium hesperidum recorded on, 356’. Howardia elegans, 359°. Hydrangea, 310*. Hydrocyanic acid gas, 3148, 339°-42°. Hyperaspidius species, 303°. Ilex laevigata, and I. verticillata, Aspidiotus aneylus recorded on, oot’, innumerabilis, Pulvinaria, 357°. insignis, Orthezia, 355°. Inspection of nursery stock, 313°, 314°. Ivy, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus hederae, 334’. Chrysomphalus aonidum, 359". dictyospermi, 359”. American, see American ivy. Boston, see Boston ivy. Ivy scale, see White seale insect of ivy. Judas tree, 310%. Juglandaceae, Aspidiotus iosus recorded on, 309*%, juglandifex, Lecanium, 356°. juglandis, Lecanium, 356°. juglans-regiae, Aspidiotus, 358%. Juniper, Irish, Diaspis carueli re- corded on, 359°. Juniper scale insect, 359°. pernic- Kentia belmoreana, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus hederae, 334°. Chrysomphalus aonidum, 358’. dictyospermi, 3597. fosteriana, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus lataniae, 358°. Chrysomphalus dictyospermi, 359°. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Kermes galliformis, 356’. pettiti, 3567. trinotatus, 356’. Kerosene, 3397. Kerosene emulsion, 339°. Kerowater sprayer, 337°. Kerria, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 310° Keys to species, 2951-967, 347°. Laburnum, 310‘. Lae, 294°. lacca, Tachardia, 294°. Lace fern (Asparagus plumosus), Aspidiotus hederae recorded on, 334". ( Lady bug, twice stabbed, 303°, 312?, 381°. Lake, 294°. Larch, 310+. Larrea mexicana, Tachardia larreae recorded on, 294°. larreae, Tachardia, 294°. Lasius flavus, 355°. lataniae, Aspidiotus, 358°. Laurel, Mountain, Aspidiotus per- niciosus recorded on, 310* Lecaniinae, 3567-57". Lecanium antennatum, 356°. armeniacum, 356°. caryae, 356%. cerasifex, 356%. corylifex, 356°. cynosbati, 356°. fitchii, 856°. fletcheri, 356’. hemisphericum, 356". hesperidum, 3567. juglandifex, 356°. ‘ juglandis, 356°. lintneri, 356°. new species, 357°. nigrofasciatum, 356’. persicae, 3577. pruinosum, 357°. prunastri, 357°. quercifex, 357'. quercitronis, 357+. obtained from lac _ insect, INDEX TO SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE Lecanium ribis, 357°. tulipiferae, 357°. Leguminosae, Aspidiotus iosus recorded on, 309°. Lemons, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus hederae, 334’. Lecanium hesperidum, 356’. Mytilaspis citricola, 360°. Lilac, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus hederae, 354. perniciosus, 309%. Chionaspis euonymi, 360°. Linden, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°. ostreaeformis, 325*. perniciosus, 309°. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298%. lintneri, Chionaspis, 360°. Lecanium, 356°, Liquidambar, 310*. List of species, 354°-60’. Livistonia rotundifolia, Aulacaspis boisduvalii recorded on, 359°. Locust, Aspidiotus juglans-regiae recorded on, 3)5*; reference, * 310+. honey, Aspidiotus forbesi record- ed on, 331'. water, Aspidiotus corded on, 327°. longispinus, Dactylopius, 355". lopanthae, Scymnus, 312°. pernic- ancylus, re- maclurae, Pulvinaria, 357°. ‘Magnolia, reference, 310*; scale in- sects recorded on: Aspidiotus hederae, 334?. Lecanium tulipiferae, 357°. Male, development of, 292’. malus, Tyroglyphus, 299°. Manna, 294°. mannifera, Gossyparia, 294°. Maple, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327’. hederae, 3347. juglans-regiae, 358'. Lecanium cerasifex, 356'. ' new species, 357’. Phenacoceus aceris, 355°. Pulvinaria acericola, 357". 373 Maple, ash leaf, 310*. Japanese, Parlatoria viridis re- corded on, 360'; reference, 310%. Norway,, 310*. ‘Silver, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 310°. soft, scale insects recorded on: Lecanium nigrofasciatum, 357’. Pulvinaria innumerabilis, 357°. sugar, reference, 310*; scale in- sects recorded on: Aspidiotus comstocki, 358". Lecanium nigrofasciatum, 357’. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298*, Pulvinaria innumerabilis, 357°. swamp, Mytilaspis pomorum re- corded on, 298*. wiers, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 310°. Maple leaf Pulvinaria, 357° Maple tree scale insect, navkibnes 357° maritima, Ripersia, 355°. Massachusetts, Coccidae in, 292°. Matrimony vine, 310*. Mealy bug, 355%. Melia azedarach, see China-tree. mexicana, Tachardia, 294°. Milkweed, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310°. Mimosa, Tachardia mexicana corded on, 294°. misella, Pentilia, 311°. Mites, 331°. Mock orange or philadelphus, 310*. Monstera deliciosa, Chrysomphalus aonidum reeorded on, 359. Mountain ash, scale insects corded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°. ostreaeformis, 325*. perniciosus, 310°. Chionaspis furfura, 302°. Mulberry, 310*. murtfeldti, Prospalta, 331°. mytilaspidis, Aphelinus, 298°, 300%, 3118. Mytilaspis citricola, 360°. gloverii, 360°. pomicorticis, 300%. pomorum, 296', 297'-300', 360°, EG- re- 374 Nectarine, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°. perniciosus, 310°. nerii, Aspidiotus, 3384°-35°, 358°. Nightshade (Solanum douglasii), As- pidiotus hederae recorded on, 334°. nigrita, Signiphora, 331°. nigrofasciatum, Lecanium, 356". Nursery stock, Diaspis ostreaefor- mis recorded on, 359*; fumigation of, 341°-42°, Oak, reference, 310'; scale insects re- corded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 3277. hederae, 334+. Asterolecanium variolosum, 355‘. Kkermes galliformis, 356°. pettiti, 3567. trinotatus, 356°. Lecanium antennatum, 356°. cerasifex, 356%. black, Lecanium quercitronis re- corded on, 357+. HWnglish, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°. Asterolecanium variolosum, 355‘. golden, Asteroleecanium variolo- sum recorded on, 355’. pin, Aspidiotus ancylus recorded on, 327°. white, Lecanium quercifex corded on, 3577. Oak Kermes, 356". Oak scale insect, 3557. obscurus, Aspidiotus, 312°. Oleaceae, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- es corded on, 309°. Oleander, Aspidiotus hederae corded on, 3347. Olive, Aspidiotus ancylus recorded on, 321". Orange, scale insects recorded on: Ohrysomphalus aonidum, 359". Mytilaspis citricola, 3607. Parlatoria pergandii, 359°. Orange chaff scale insect, 359°. Orange scale insect, 360. Orchid, Aulacaspis boisduvalii corded on, 359°. ne = re- NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Orcus australasiae, 3127. chalybeus, 312. Orthezia americana, 355°. insignis, 355°. Ortheziinae, 355°. Osage orange, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327’. perniciosus, 309’, 310°. ostreaeformis, Aspidiotus, 2967, 3287- 26°, 347°, 352°-54", 358°. Diaspis, 359%. Ostrya, Lecanium ribis recorded on, STU (ae Oviposition, 2911". Oyster shell bark louse, see Apple- tree bark louse. Paeonia tree, 310*. Palm scale, 360%. Palms, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus lataniae, 358°. Aulacaspis boisduvalii, 359°. Chrysomphalus aonidum, 358°. pandani, Pinnaspis, 360+. Parasites, 299, 308°, 311’, 328%, 331°, 334. Parlatoria pergandii, 359°, proteus, 359°. theae, 360". viridis, 360". | Peach, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327’. perniciosus, 3097, 310". Chionaspis furfura, 302°. Lecanium cerasifex, 356*. persicae, 357. flowering, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310°. Peach Lecanium, 356+. Pear, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°. forbesi, 831%, 358%. juglans-regiae, 358%. ostreaeformis, 325%. perniciosus, 309°, 310°. Chionaspis furfura, 302°. Mytilaspis pomorum, 2987. Kieffer, Aspidiotus perniciosus on, 310°, INDEX TO SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE 375 Pecan, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 309°. pela, Ericerus, 294". Pentilia misella; 311°. Peppergrass, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310°. pergandii, Parlatoria, 359°. perniciosus, Aspidiotus, 296°, 504°- 23°, 347, 349°-50°, 3587. Pernicious seale, see San José scale. Perrisopterus pulchellus, 351° persicae, Leeanium, 357’. Persimmon, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 309°. Petroleum, crude, 337°-30*. pettiti, Kermes, 3567. Phenacoccus aceris, 355°. Philadelphus, see Mock orange. Phoenix canariensis, Aulacaspis boisduvalii reeorded on, 359°. dactylineata, scale insects record- ed on: Aulacaspis boisduvalii, 359°. Chrysomphalus aonidum, 359". reclivata, scale insects recorded on: Aulacaspis boisduvalii, 359°. Chrysomphalus aonidum, 359". Pine, Chionaspis pinifoliae recorded on, 360". pitch, Aspidiotus abietis recorded on, 357°, 358’. Pineapple, variegated, Aulacaspis pboisduvalii recorded on, 359°. pini, Aspidiotus, 358". pinifoliae, Chionaspis, 360". Pinnaspis pandani, 360*. Pinus rigida, Lecanium new species recorded on, 357°. Plane tree, see Sycamore. Plum, scale insects reeorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°. forbesi, 331’, 358%. hederae, 334?, ostreaeformis, 325%. perniciosus, 3097, 310". Lecanium cerasifex, 356’, prunastri, 357°. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298", Plum, purple-leaved, Aspidiotus os- treaeformis recorded on, 325%. wild goose, reference, 310*. Plum seale insect, New York, 357°. pomicorticis, Mytilaspis, 300°. pomorum, Mytilaspis, 296', 2977-300", 360%. Poplars, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ostreaeformis, 325%. perniciosus, 310°. Mytilaspis pomorum, 297°, 2987. Preventives, see Remedies and. pre- ventives. Privet, 310+. Prolificacy of San José seale, 293". Prospalta aurantii, 331°. murtfeldti, 331°. proteus, Parlatoria, 359°. pruinosum, Lecanium, 357%. prunastri, Lecanium, 357°. Prunus various species, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°. ostreaeformis, 325+. perniciosus, 310°. Chionaspis euonymi, 360°. Lecanium armeniacum, 356°. Pseudaonidia species, 358%, Pseudococcus aceris, 355°. pulehellus, Perrisopterus, 331°. Pulvinaria acericola, 357". innumerabilis, 357°. maclurae, 357°. punicae, Aspidiotus, 358". Putnam’s scale insect, bibliography, 328-307; description, 326%-27'; dis- tribution, 327°-28*; enemies, 328; food plants, 327'; life history, 327’; reference, 296*, 3587; remedies, 828'*; technical characters, 347‘, 351°-52°. Quack grass, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310°. quercicola, Asterolecanium, 355". quercifex, Lecanium, 357%. quercitronis, Lecanium, 357+. Quercus agrifolia, Aspidiotus hed- erae recorded on, 334". ! 376 NEW YORK Quince, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus forbesi, 331°. perniciosus, 309°, 310°. Chionaspis furfura, 302°. Dactylopius species, 355°. flowering or recorded. on: Aspidiotus perniciosus, 3098, 310°, Chionaspis furfura, 302°. Raspberry, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus 310°. Aulacaspis rosae, 359°. Leeanium fitchii, 356°. Mytilaspis pomorum, 2987. blackeap, Chionaspis furfura re- corded on, 302°. Remedies and _ preventives, 3367-42%, barrier of evergreen trees, 315°. contact insecticides, 336°. extermination, 315*-16'. fumigation, 314°, 339°-42°. hydrocyanie acid gas, 314’, 339°- 42°, isolation of orchards, 315’. ivory soap solution, 334’. kerosene, 339°, kerosene emulsion, 339°. petroleum, crude, 337°-397. spraying, 334°. uprooting, 315%. : whale oil soap solution, 334’, 3367-37? Rhizobius debilis, 334°. Rhododendron, 310*. Rhus, Aspidiotus perniciosus record- ed on, 310°. Ribes sanguineum, Chionaspis fur- fura recorded on, 303°. ribis, Lecanium, 357°. Ripersia maritima, 355%. Rosaceae, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 309°. rosae, Aulacaspis, 359°. Rose, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus perniciosus, 309°. Aulacaspis rosae, 359°. Rose scale, 359°. perniciosus, 309%, 2998, Japan, scale insects’ STATE MUSEUM Sago palm, see Cycas revoluta. Salicaceae, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 309°. salicis, Chionaspis, 360%. _salicis-nigrae, Chionaspis, 360°. San José or pernicious scale insect, bibliography, 316?-23°; certificates of inspection, 313°; description, 506°-7°; destructiveness, 305°; dis- per rah 313°-14'; distribution, 310°- 11°; enemies, 311'-13?; food plants, 309%-10°; extermination not possi- ble, 315*; indications of presence, 305°-6"; life history, 307°-9*; origi- nal home, 311‘; preventives of at- tack, 314°; prolificacy, 2937, 305'; reference, 296°, 3475, 3587; reme- dies, 316", 336°-42°; technical ch- »- acters, 349°-50°*. Sassafras, Lecanium lintneri record- ed on, 356°. aS Saxifragaceae, Aspidiotus pernic- iosus recorded on, 309%, ce Scale secretion, 291°. Scurfy bark louse, 304°; description, 301°; distribu- tion, 3803'; enemies, 303°; food plants, 302°; life history, 3017-2’; reference, 296°, 360°; remedies, 3047. Scymnus lopanthae, 312°. Seaforthia elegans, Aulacaspis bois- duvalii recorded on, 359°. Shad bush (Amelanchier), scale in- sects recorded on: Aspidiotus perniciosus, 310°. Chionaspis furfura, 302°. Shellac, 294°. Signiphora nigrita, 331°. Silver thorn, 310+. Snowball, 310*. Snowberry, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310%. Solanum douglasii, see Night shade. Spartina, Ripersia maritima record- ed on, 355°. Sphaerostilbe coccophila, 312°, alt. Spiraeas, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- corded on, 309’, 310°; reference, 310*, bibliography, a ee ee we a INDEX TO SCALE INSECTS OF IMPORTANCE APT Strawberries, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 310°. Strelitzia reginae, scale insects re- corded on: Agspidiotus hederae, 334°. Aulacaspis boisduvalii, 359°. Chrysomphalus aonidum, 358°. Summer sprays, 339°. Sweet bay, Lecanium hesperidum recorded on, 356°. Sycamore or plane tree, 310%. Tachardia lacca, 294’. larreae, 294°. mexicana, 294°, Tamarix, 310°. mannifera, Gossyparia mannifers is on, 294°, Tangerine, Parlatoria pergandii re- eorded on, 359°. . Technical characters of scale in- sects, 343°-54°. theae, Parlatoria, 360". Tiliaceae, Aspidiotus perniciosus re- eorded on, 309°. Tits, blue and longtailed, feeding on Mytilaspis pomorum, 299", Tree creeper feeding-on Mytilaspis pomorum, 2997. trifolii, Dactylopius, 355°. trinotatus, Kwermes, 356. Tulip tree, Lecanium tulipiferae re- eorded on, 357°; reference, 310’. Tulip tree scale insect, 357°. tulipiferae, Lecanium, 357°. Tyroglyphus malus, 299°. ulmi, Aspidiotus, 3587. Gossyparia, 3557. Urticaceae, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded on, 309°. Useful scale insects, 294*, uvae, Aspidiotus, 358°. Vanda suava, Parlatoria proteus recorded on, 359°. varicornis, Coccophagus, 328°. variolosum, Asterolecanium, 355‘. Viburnum, Chionaspis lintneri re- corded on, 360°; reference, 310°. . viridis, Parlatoria, 360°. Walnut, English, Aspidiotus pernic- iosus recorded on, 309%, 310°. black, Chionaspis furfura record- ed on, 302°. Water locust, see Locust, water. Weigela, 310°. Whale oil soap, 334’, 3367-374. White scale insect of ivy, biblio- graphy, 334°-36°; deseription, 3333; distribution, 333°-34'; enemies, 354°; food plants, 334°; life history, 308°; preventives and remedies, 334°; reference, 296°, 358°. Willow, scale insects recorded on: Aspidiotus ancylus, 327°. juglans-regiae, 358*. ostreaeformis, 325%. perniciosus, 310°. Chionaspis salicis-nigrae, 360°. Mytilaspis pomorum, 298’. laurel-leaved, Aspidiotus pernic- iosus recorded on, 809°. weeping, Aspidiotus perniciosus recorded, on, 309°. Wistaria, 310°. xXanthoceras, 310°. Yellow wood, 310°. Yucca, Aspidiotus hederae recorded on, 334’. Zamia integrifolia, Howardia ele- gans recorded on, 359°. (Pages 379-80 were bulletin cover pages) iy baa aK iy Arak ‘ uh ips tal aa University of the State of New York New York State Museum FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL Director Bulletin 47 September I9o1 AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS A study conducted at the Entomologic field station, Saranac Inn N. Y. under the direction of Ephraim Porter Felt D.Sc. State extomologist BY JAMES G. NEEDHAM Ph.D. Professor of biology, Lake Forest university AND CORNELIUS BETTEN M.A. Assistant paGE | Part 3 Insect life histories (cont’?¢) pace Preface ....-.-----2-+-----++2-e: Ca) 01/5) cI a A 573 Part 1 Introductory: the undertak- Notes on other orders ............ 582 ing, location, objects, methods List and two new species of saw- PREEOSHIES) ou on osc c sw wee eee 384 flies, by A. D. MACGILLIVRAY 584 Part 2 Life of Little Clear creek 400 Original descriptions of new Dip- Part 3 Insect life histories ........ 410 tera, by D. W. COQUILLETT ... 585 PP CCOMCSR Ae ois) ) wraeebacieeee oe 412 Descriptions of five new parasitic PP OMICTIO A ao we oe tininlns, adinw aie 418 Hymenoptera, by W. H. AsH- Odonata...... Bi a alasiscah hie 429 MEAD ....- 2 lata ale: 2 het a Seen, 586 INGEEOPtChAS foo. cawa's-=- items. 540 | Explanation of plates.......- AN 590 Trichoptera, by CORNELIUS BET- List of text ‘ilustrations. .2222. 23.7 597 SEMIN A yet ata eeterattm teste hin eae GOR |i LAGS ck Tit RC ey ee 599 #io¥ wall te atet™ sedi: wore pee, Lowe se eee ™ Ae ae Soy "Weta OA) SPR. CLE Ca au : ery 1 FLAY dee Ma ibe 6 5B Bia bat a wa yah Lie “ roid 3 ! i ita wie w ye ; Rene}. a wee Wd aut eae i a RW yh BN eNO Se LAE aYe Me iets, AON ah HE PAE PoE BECy: Fy ER ee Fg a ied iF ' f (4 i. SAE IRAC MS ash CHNDEY Oma TN, 1k t “Lone } ath yet ae Af het. ‘f Ds edith mee. By icf & Bak wet Nave Bia k Seis eet PANS ck oie By Th ethioint) ue i Hae 1 ec bS hee. Ws AE ge iyfsn : , nab ne AliTAalep is tad er weed dglrans 4 ah Vy WSO SO Le, veonigartnang lt et BI stale PRA Ory Sc taal MAS SAAM ORES ae es ete. Hef cilny Ean ‘itor ant Waos WH twekcl * hela - Peas bas cae, ib ab aita: i oh a Seca University of the State of New York New York State Museum Bulletin 47 September I901 AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS PREFACE - The following account presents in part the results obtained by a close ' study of aquatic insects in one locality. Saranac Inn proved an excep- tionally favorable place for investigations of this character, and the labor of two earnest, enthusiastic workers made the entomologic field station a very successful institution. Only ro weeks in the field sufficed for work- ing out in more or less detail the life histories of about roo species, the discovery of 1o new species and two new genera, and for material additions to the list of insects known to occur in the state. The bred Chironomidae, the material representing the suborder Zygoptera of the dragon flies and the collection of fish stomachs, which have not been included in this report, should give, when worked up next year, a large number of additional interesting and valuable facts. This work, even when all available data are brought together, does not complete the desirable investigations along this line. Dr Needham’s report, though thorough so far as it goes, is largely of a preliminary nature and will prove an excellent basis for subsequent work. It is physically impossible to do more than this with 10 weeks in the field. The solving of the complex interrelations existing between the various aquatic forms requires persistent efforts extending through a number of seasons, and the results thus obtained should be verified by studies in other localities. This is a large field requiring the serious attention of the botanist and zoologist, using these terms in the general sense, and the practical value of these studies can not be fully available till such an investigation is made along broad and comprehensive lines. A study of this character could be conducted at a comparatively small outlay, and would prove of great benefit-to fish culture, and should result in the rear- ing of many more fish in the fresh waters of New York state. Bo Ps ene State entomologist 384 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fart t INTRODUCTORY THE UNDERTAKING, LOCATION, OBJECTS, METHODS AND RESULTS “To collect and study the habits of aquatic insects, paying special attention to the conditions necessary for the existence of the various. species, their relative value as food for fishes, the relations of the forms to each other, and their life histories”: such were the instructions under which I went to Saranac Inn, to take charge of the opening session of the entomologic field station. Arrangements had been previously made with state entomologist Dr E. P. Felt, that the session should extend from June 15 to August 20. I arrived at Saranac Inn on the evening of June 12, and at once began looking the ground over. Dr Felt came on the 14th, and spent the day with me canvassing the situations to be studied. My assistant, Cornelius Betten, arrived on the 15th, and the regular work of the session was at once begun, to be continued without cessation to the date of closing. Through the courtesy of the New York state fisheries, game and forest commission the station was furnished with working quarters in the hatch- ery building, and was allowed the use of parts of the hatchery equipment, not then otherwise needed. ‘There were three very considerable advan- tages to our work in this arrangement: 1) the use of several hatching troughs with their continuous supply of well aerated water for insect breedings, 2) the use of a carpenter’s bench and tools for the construc- tion of special breeding cages, 3) the use of a boat for collecting. We were soon supplied with a special equipment for the collecting and rearing of aquatic insects, that was excellently adapted to our needs, and without which the work hereinafter recorded could not have been done. Our sincere thanks are due Dr Felt for his care in providing exactly the apparatus asked for. Save for the first 10 days, during which we were unable to -find living quarters within 2 miles of our field of operations, we had the still farther great advantage of close proximity to good collect- ing grounds. The season was one of excessive rainfall. ‘The first week of the session and the last one were comparatively dry; but, for the remainder, it was raining more than a third of the time. Thus collecting was greatly inter- fered with, sweeping of vegetation was almost prevented, trap lanterns were flooded night after night and their catch spoiled, and regularity in field operations was made impracticable. The routine work of the station consisted in collecting and studying aquatic insects in all their stages of development, in conducting feeding AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 385 experiments, in making quantitative studies of the life of certain situations, in gathering the materials for the study of the natural and habitual food of trout, bullfrogs, and some of the larger species of dragon flies, in run- ning trap lanterns and sending their nightly catch to the state museum, etc. Besides three official visits made by Dr Felt during the course of our session, our station was visited for a week or more ata time by three scientific friends, who, while there, participated in our operations, and, while collecting for themselves, gathered also valuable materials and information for us. ‘These were Louis W. Swett of Malden Mass., H. N. Howland of Austin Ill., and Dr O. S. Westcottof Chicago. Itisa pleasure to acknowledge the assistance gratuitously rendered by these gentlemen. Biologic features of the locality As is well known, the Adirondack region of northeastern New York is an extensive area of forest, having an average elevation of about 1800 feet. Its eastern half is covered with a succession of low mountain ranges, whose general nne-ss w trend is indicated on the accompanying map (map 1) by the trend of the streams which occupy the narrow valleys between them. ‘The western half is a region of lakes and swamps and bogs, with scattered mountains and hills and ridges. Map 1 shows the principal streams that participate in the drainage of the Adirondack region, the principal lakes, and some of the mountains, It will be observed that the lake region of the Adirondacks is drained principally through Racket river into the St Lawrence. Saranac river is the only one on the Champlain side that drains any considerable part of the lake country. Our station at Saranac Inn was: at the head of the Saranac drainage system. Map 2 shows the immediate field of our operations. As stated above, the hatchery was our working headquarters. We did more collecting from Little Clear creek right on the hatchery grounds than from any other equal water area, and obtained more material of value there than in all other places combined. More or less regular collecting was done, however, from the three propagating ponds, Little Clear, Little Green and Bone, and from Little Bog pond, southwest of the railroad station. ‘Two collecting trips were made to each of the following places: Colby pond, at the western outskirts of the village of Saranac Lake; Stony brook, just north of Axton; and St Regis pond, at the end of the carry from Little Clear. ‘The mornings and evenings of the first week of the session were spent gathering material about the south shore of Lake Clear, or Big Clear at Otisville. 386 Grass R, ° Oswegatchie R. Z GI s%o. AS Moosegr. Mapi1 Drainage map of the Saranac region Lakes: 1Raquette; 2Long; 3 Tupper; 4 Ne-ha-sa-ne; 5 Cranberry; 6 Upper Saranac ; 7St Regis; 8 Raim bow; 9 Placid; 10 Schroon Towns: a Malone; b Saranac Junction; c¢ Saranac Lake; d Lake Placid: e Saranac Inn; jf Tupper Lake g Axton; h Keene Valley Mountains: m Whiteface; n Marcy (Tahawus) ; 0 Seward; p Boot Bay; q St Regis ee Sa ee ee ? : 7 ’ AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 387 Saranac Inn is very near the Champlain-Ontario divide, on a sandy, undulating mountain upland in the midst of almost unbroken forest. Round about it are numerous lakes, ponds, bogs and clear, slow flowing “streams, with here and there a low ridge built on outcropping gneiss, or a sharply rising, densely wooded hill. There is more of sand and less -of rock, more of water area and less of mountain, than in most places in the Adirondacks; and the descent of the streams is much more gentle. The forests are composed, as elsewhere, mainly of hemlock and balsam, ‘beech, yellow birch and maple, pine and spruce having been mainly removed by lumbering, and oaks and our common nut-bearing trees never — having been present in the Adirondack woods. In the drier and denser parts of the woods, where there is little undergrowth, the hobblebush, Viburnum alnifolium Marsh., spreads its broad leaves on strag- gling branches to catch the scanty sunlight, while Indian pipe, Monotropa uniflora Linn, star flower, Trientalis ameri- ana Pursh, rattlesnake plantain, Peramium pubescens (Willd.) MacM., Indian cucumber root, Medeola virginiana Linn., the yellow Clintonia, Clintonia borealis Linn., the dwarf Smilacina, Vagnara trifolia (L.) Morong, several pretty species of ground pine, Lycopodium, and innumerable mushrooms spring from the loose leaf mold. Recently burned tracts are mainly in the possession “of the bracken fern, Pteris aquilina Linn., the _fireweed, Chamaenerion angustifolium (Linn.) Scop., poplars and wild cherry. In wet places in the woods occur stemless lady’s slippers, C y pri- pedium acaule Ait., in the shadows, and in the openings grow cin- namon fern, Osmunda cinnamomea Linn., and clumps of the red elder berry, Sambucus pubens Mx., which in midsummer, when the fruit is scarlet, are strikingly beautiful. In the bogs the trees are balsam and tamarack in nearly clear patches; the shrubs are mainly Labrador tea, Ledum groenlandicum Oeder, small cranberry, Mxyeoccus oxycocecus (Linn.) MacM., lambkill, Kalmia angustifolia Linn. and the pale laurel Kalmia glauca Ait; the herbs are mainly the universal sphagnum, the cotton grass, Erio- phorum sp.?, the sundew, Drosera rotundifolia Linn, the swamp five-finger, Comarum palustre L., and a variety of orchids. ‘The more strictly aquatic plants will be mentioned in connec- tion with the situations in which they grew, and where studies were made of the insect fauna. But I should not omit to mention in passing that the exposed banks by every roadside were covered with mats of > aa0. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AW ep Westen-read’ or. Cacry Map 2 Saranac Inn and immediate vicinity Lakes and ponds: 1S8t Regispond; 2Grass pond; 3 LakeClear; 4 Little Clear pond; 5 Little Green pond ; 6 Bone pond; 7 Rat pond; 8 and 9 Little Bog ponds; 10 Upper Saranac Lake Piaces: aSaranac Inn railroad station; b Adirondack hatchery ; c the sawmill; d the Inn AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 389 mosses, mainly Polytrichium, and bunchberry, ‘Cornus cana- densis Linn., and the latter were very pretty, when covered with white bracts, as in June, or when covered with scarlet berries, as in August. : Propagating ponds. Since the three ponds reserved by the state for fish-propagating purposes were the scene of our principal field studies, a few words concerning their character may best be said here. Bone pond is quite small, as our map will show, is hidden in deep woods, and is accessible only by a “carry” from Little Green. It has gently sloping banks round about, there being no outlet, the hemlocks of the woods come down near to the shore, and there is not the usual fringe of tamaracks outside the sphagnum moss which thinly fringes its banks, but the sphagnum is grown full of lambkill and other small heaths. The sphagnum ends in shallow water and is followed by a zone of Pacem Oulichium arundinaceum : (L.). Britton, and manna’ - grass, Panicularia sp.? In the deeper water, but not forming a continuous zone except for short distances, are stretches of yellow water lilies; Nymphaea advena Soland., and a species of bur reed with very long stem and leaves, the latter not rising from the surface, but lying flat and- directed generally off shore, Sparganium simplex angustifolium (Mx.) Englm.? In the more open places along shore a species of pipewort, Eriocaulon septangulare Wither., was observed growing abundantly, and extending out into deeper water by a succession of stolons, which rooted readily to the white sand of the _ bottom. Among these lay loosely small masses of moss and filamentous algae. In such places the sieve net brought up from the bottom, where they were beyond view and almost beyond reach of the net, besides the pipewort, moss and algae, great quantities of empty caddis fly cases of the species described in the following account of that group by Mr Betten as no. 2, p.572, and also the loose, flocculent cases of blood worms (larvae of gnats, Chironomidae); but the larvae of the gnats themselves were not found except in the stomachs of the brook trout which lived in this pond, and in these they were abundant. The burrowing nymphs of dragon flies, Gomphus, were also common here, where they burrow along under the thin layer of silt that covers the sand. ‘They seemed to escape the trout. Among the sedges and grasses nearer shore other dragon fly nymphs and caddis fly larvae were also abundant. This pond was farther from headquarters than were any of the other situations in which we planned field studies. We did not visit it till 390 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM August, and we went to it then only because it offered an exceptionally good opportunity for the study of the insect food of the brook trout. Little Green pond is a beautiful sheet of water half a mile long and nearly as wide, with steeper banks that are nearly destitute of aquatic vegetation, excepting in the little bay on the north shore, and with a bottom of clean white sand. The vegetation of the bay is somewhat similar to that of Bone pond, with the addition of the white water lily, — Castalia odorata (Dryand.) Woodv. & Wood. Wintergreen, Gaultheria procumbens lJinn., and twin flower, Linnea borealis Linn., and the pretty litle Dalibarda repens Linn., as well as big tufts of the lichen commonly known as “reindeer moss,” occupy the dry and abruptly sloping southshore. Little Green is not a trout pond. Frequent plantings of fry have resulted in nothing. Little collecting was done there, for it seemed very barren of insect life. Little Clear pond (pl. 1,2) is nearly a mile and a half long, a mile wide, and is said to be in places more than a hundred feet deep. It is worthy of a more pretentious name. Owing to irregularities of contour, it has a very long shore line, that varies in character according to the inclination of the adjacent slopes. Conditions have been somewhat disturbed here within recent years by the building of a dam at its outlet, that has raised the water several feet, and caused it to encroach on the surrounding timber, which now stands dead along the shore. Aquatic shore vegeta- tion is not abundant except in a few places. Two places were selected in Little Clear for more or less regular collecting, the bay in Blueberry island near the west shore, and the outlet. Blueberry island is a small sandy spit of burned-over land, now covered with a thin growth of poplar trees, with broad mats of moss and lichen, with extensive clumps of blueberries, and with other clumps of Labrador tea overhanging its shores, specially in the bay. The banks are strewn with decaying trunks of fallen hemlocks, and in the narrow channel between the island and the hill to the westward dead trunks are still standing in water of considerable depth. ‘The water is shallow fora little distance in the bay, and contains a sparing growth of aquatics, such as yellow and white water lilies, sedges, and cat-tails. Not a great many species of insects were collected from this bay, but some of these were exceedingly abundant; as, Chauliodes rastricornis, and species of Gomphus and of Tetragoneuria. The outlet of Little Clear pond offered considerable variety of situa- tion in small compass. Its east shore was strewn with logs so thickly as to be difficult of access with a boat except next the lake, where was a AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 3901 low hummock of land covered with cat-tails, Behind this hummock was a shallow stretch of water in which we did some most profitable collect- ing. ‘The bottom here had once been dry land, and was covered mainly with fragments of bark and twigs, but it was the home of numerous caddis fly larvae, particularly those with cases of stick chimney, or cobhouse type, and of the nymphs of the fine May fly, Siphlurus alter- natus Say. The west shore of the outlet was more accessible; and, though collecting along it was not easy because of the abundance of brushwood to entangle a net, it yielded a great deal of most valuable material, particularly dragon fly nymphs. My only specimens of the nymphs of the two beautiful species, Cordulia shurtleffi Scudd. and Leucorhinia glacialis Hagen, were obtained along this shore in a sheltered place. Through the outlet there flows an imperceptible current, which may be responsible for the presence of two interesting plants there which were not observed elsewhere, the water shield, Brasenia peltata Pursh, and shining river weed, Potamogeton lucens Linn. Of the latter there was a bed directly in the channel, and, passing over in a boat it was delightful to look down into the depths of the clear water, at the long graceful sprays of shining lutescent leaves. A species of bladder wort, Utricularia, was not uncommon in the shallow water behind the cat-tail hummock, and two species of shinleaf grew there at the shore, Pyrola secunda Linn. and P.elliptica Nutt. Little Clear creek (pl. 3-6) will be discussed below in connection with the account of the special studies made of the life of its waters. Bog ponds. Of the numerous small ponds in the vicinity of Saranac Inn, hidden in the woods and fringed with a typical floating border of bog moss, we collected extensively at but one—the one a quarter of a mile southwest of the station and south of the track—and visited but one other, about as far east of the station and north of the track. Of the - former only I will speak here; the other was very similar. This little pond (pl. 7) was a woodland gem. The picture of it presented herewith gives but a poor idea of it; for the fine coloration of fringing vegetation, of forest background, and of water and sky are necessarily absent from the picture. It was a peculiar place to collect in, being dif- ' ficult of access, and very difficult to collect in when reached; but it was conveniently near at hand, and was peculiarly attractive on account of the many beautiful and interesting plants and insects found there, ‘Its vegetation (pl. 8) showed a beautiful zonal distribution. Farthest out 392 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM was the zone of the very abundant yellow water lilies. Next came a very broad zone of sphagnum, floating at its outer edge over water 5 feet or more in depth, with here and there a detached and float- ing island. This zone was fairly sprinkled over with pitcher plants, Sar- racenia purpurea Linn., and with a succession of pretty orchids, Limodorum’ tuberosum L., Arethusa’ bulbosa’=iimn. Habenaria sp?, while a few clumps of lambkill and tufts of cotton grass were scattered about. Back of the sphagnum was a thin fringe of pale green tamaracks, while dark hemlocks of the forest stood close be- ° hind, and in the pools in their shadows nestled beds of native callas. Numerous fine dragon flies and a few large caddis flies and the handsome larva of some, to me unknown, diving beetle were the principal insects. observed there. Objects and results This station, being located in the midst of a region whose aquatic insect fauna had scarcely been studied at all, offered a wide choice of field operations. Being established solely for the study of aquatic insects, and in this respect unique among field stations, it lacked the advantage accruing from the simultaneous study of other forms of aquatic life, but offered opportunity for concentration on some of the problems of aquatic entomology. The following objects were had in mind, though it was realized from the beginning that little would be Cone with some of them, and that any one of them might have been made to occupy our time profitably: 1) to increase the state museum collections; 2) to increase our knowledge of the aquatic insect fauna of the Adirondack region; 3) to study the place of aquatic insects in natural societies; 4) to study the reproductive capacity of insects; 5) to study the habits of aquatic insects ; 6) to study the food relations of insects, fishes and other aquatic animals; 7) to study the life histories of aquatic insects. | Additions to the state museum. Our collections of specimens were sO numerous that the attempt made at first to keep some record of the number and kind of specimens was early abandoned. When hun- dreds and even thousands of specimens were being collected every day, the enumeration of them would consume time that was greatly needed for matters of more importance. Miscellaneous collections were made by sweeping vegetation with a net, and by trap lanterns set at night when the rain ceased long enough to permit these operations, and the material thus obtained was sent while fresh to Albany to be prepared there for the cabinet. On warm, still, rainless nights the lanterns attracted from the surrounding woods avery large number and variety of moths, which have been preserved, but not studied as yet, AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS | 393: Special collections were made of aquatic insect species hitherto insuf- ficiently known, of which not a few species known only from a few poor specimens appeared at Saranac Inn in great numbers? and we took oc- casion to gather good series of specimens of such, and also of a few new species which were no less abundant. The most valuable collections were those of life history material. Al[. that is described in part 3 of this report as coming from Saranac Inn has been added to the state museum; and so important is this material that future monographers in several groups will find it very desirable to con- sult the collections at Albany. Aquatic insect fauna of the Adirondacks. All that has been written on this subject is comprised in a few short paragraphs in two papers by Dr Lintner,! in a few isolated descriptions of Adirondack species, like that of Simulium pictipes, from Ausable river, by Dr Hagen,” in a record by Dr Calvert? of a few dragon flies collected at Lake St Regis by J. Percy Moore in 1890, and at Keesville by W. Sheraton in 1894, and in rare locality references in other lists. The Adirondacks are not less interesting entomologically than the White mountains, which have been the resort of New England entomologists for half a century. The following lists, while not even pretending an approximation to completeness (excepting, perhaps, the suborder Anisoptera of dragon flies) add a considerable number of species, not hitherto known to occur within our fauna; and also, a small number of interesting new species. Of these I have described three species and a variety under the following Miificeseeuctra tenella; Sisyra umbrata; Climacia freayona; Gomphus déscriptus.var borealis. I have also described the male of the interesting pygmy May fly, Baetis pygmaea Hagen, hitherto known from a fragment of a single female specimen, and the female of the beautiful dragon fly, Leucorhinia glacialis Hagen (pl. 10). Mr D. W. Coquillet has described at my request two new genera and species of Diptera (see p. 585 and p. 586); and W. H. Ashmead has described five new species of parasitic Hymenoptera (see p. 586) and Mr A. D. MacGillivray, two new species of sawflies (see p. 585) . As the region about Saranac Inn differs considerably from most locali- ties in the Adirondacks, as stated above, its insect fauna will doubtless 1 Lintner, J. A. Collections in the Adirondack region. 5th rep’t N. Y. state entomologist, 1889. p. 281-86. 10th rep't p. 376-77. 2Hagen, H.A. Anew species of Simulium with a remarkable pupa case [Simulium picti~ pes]. Bost. soc. nat. hist. Proc. 1879. 20 : 305-7. 3 Calvert, P. P. Odonata of New York state. N. Y. ent. soc. Jour. 1895. 3:39-48. Additions, 1897. 5:91-95. BOA eG NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM be found likewise to differ. It has an abundance of dragon flies and caddis flies and of certain Diptera, while certain other groups, notably the stone flies, which require more rapid and rocky streams, are not well represented. Place of insects in natural societies. A very little was done by us in the study of this subject, but that little constitutes part 2 of the present report. Reproductive capacity of insects. But one thing was attempted under this head, and that was the determination of the number of eggs laid by individuals of a number of species, by means of the examination of the ovaries of newly transformed females. This undertaking at once revealed some interesting biologic facts, which might, perhaps, have been inferred in advance, and which may be known, though I have not read ofthem. These may be stated as follows. | 1 In certain insects (as May flies, caddis flies, gnats, etc.) which jack functional mouth parts, and whose adult life is very brief, the eggs are well developed at transformation, and may readily be counted, the difference in size between the developed eggs and the egg rudiments which will not develop being very marked. : 2 In other insects (such as the larger dragon flies) the eggs are very immature at transformation, and it is impossible to determine how many of the egg rudiments present at that time will develop into eggs. In other words, the time of the maturing of the eggs is related to the dura- tion of the adult life, and to the amount of food taken during adult life. Having read that the larger dragon flies of the gomphine group live as imagos but a week, I was surprised to find that the eggs of a newly transformed female of Hagenius brevistylus were so immature as to be scarcely recognizable; but I have since observed that there is in this and in many other large gomphine species an interval of about a ~ month between the period of transformation and that of oviposition. I am inclined to think that the dragon flies which have been kept success- fully only a week in confinement have died of starvation, and that in any case the length of imaginal life is not fairly determined so. The few counts successfully made by us from insect ovaries will be found under the discussion of the species on which they were made, Study of the habits of insects. What animals do has always been an interesting subject of inquiry, and probably will always be so. A knowledge of the habits of animals has its own peculiar cul- ture value, now generally recognized. It has a higher scientific value, AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 395 é also, than specialists have always been willing to admit. It has a para- mount economic value also, for it forms the basis of nearly all intelligent economic procedure. We do not yet know how the teeming aquatic life of our streams and lakes and ponds may be manipulated as terrestrial life is manipulated to serve human needs, but this we may learn in due time, and, when we have learned it, the accurate knowledge of the habits of aquatic species of insects will be as necessary then as such knowledge of economic terrestrial species 1s now. The following pages contain new observations on the habits of many species — occasionally on groups of species. These will be found under the accounts of the groups and the species in part 3 of this report. Food relations of insects and fishes. It was planned from the beginning that we should study fish food, if the opportunity offered for making a real contribution to the present knowledge of that subject. When, through the courtesy of the state fish commission, we were given working quarters in the Adirondack hatchery, we were the more desirous of attacking some of the problems which scientific fish culture needs to have solved; what problems, it was at first a little difficult to decide. In the culture of all animals there are two principal objects to be sought: 1) protection for the young, and 2) forage. Past triumphs of fish culture have come from the mastery of the difficulties in securing the first of these, the second has scarcely been seriously undertaken. While extensive food studies have been made by Prof. Forbes and a number of others, from which we have learned in general terms what fishes eat, still there is hardly a fish of which we may say we know what Species it eats, at what age, at what season, in what situations, with what choice of food. And so little are the essential features of good foraging ground understood that each planting of fry in a new place is still largely an experiment. So it seemed to me that any new study of fish food should include the study of the feeding grounds, feeding habits, choice of food offered, and’ conditions that make for the continuance and possible increase of the food supply. The two smaller propagating ponds at Saranac Inn, Bone and Little Green seemed to offer an excellent opportunity for contrasting conditions relative to these points. Bone pond has been well stocked with brook trout for some years, while Little Green, after numerous annual plantings, has remained as barren of trout as ever. Through the earlier part of the season some random collections of food were made from trout caught in gill nets set for suckers; but not till August was there opportunity to make the studies outlined above, and Py = a — pe — ea —— PES. Se 396 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM then our efforts met with interference which made their successful prose-_ cution impossible. Before they were abandoned, however, the stomachs of some 27 brook trout were obtained, and their contents (consisting almost wholly of insects), cleaned and preserved, are now part of the state museum collection. The records of the numerous insects collected during these few days about the shores of Bone pond will be found under their respective species in part 3 of this report, and a brief account of the vegetation, above in the introduction. A random report onthe fish food there collected may yet be made from the material I prepared, but it will of necessity lack the features which I counted most essential, unless farther study be made at the pond itself. Bullfrogs were common in Little Clear creek, and I collected the stomach contents of 25 of them. Lack of timeis the only reason why they have not been studied, and are not reported on at the present time. Life histories of insects. One of the first decisions made with _ respect to station work was that no gteater service could be done for aquatic entomology, pure or applied, than adding as opportunity offered to present knowledge of insect life histories. So long as the species can not be recognized in their immature stages, little progress is possible in food studies, or in quantitative studies of any sort. To this absolutely necessary preliminary work, therefore, much the greater part of our time was given. We were able to work out more or less completely the life histories of about a hundred species of aquatic insects, immature stages of most of which are described in part 3 of thisreport. ‘Those who have done life history work will not need to be told that this work occupied rather fully the available time of our short session. In order to make part 3 serviceable to teachers and students, I have ‘filled it with keys and tables for determining the orders, families, genera and species of immature stages of aquatic insects, and have illustrated these with special figures explaining the terms used. ‘The several orders will be found to have received very unequal treatment, because we wished to add chiefly to the knowledge of the things least known. For this reason the larvae of Diptera and Coleoptera received much less than a fair share of attention; for they are already much better known than are the larvae of the other orders treated. More dragon flies than anything else were reared. ‘There are two reasons for this: Saranac Inn is a splendid locality for dragon flies, and I have been rearing dragon flies for a number of years and have learned how to doit. With slight additions from my former breedings, I have AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 207... been able to give in part 3 an account of the dragon flies (suborder Anisoptera of Odonata) which is almost a monograph of the New York Species of that group. But two species of stone flies were seen at Saranac Inn. Both of these were reared, and the descriptions of their nymphs, published herewith, appear to be the first to be printed for American species. . I have been able to rear representatives of all the New York genera of May flies, and present in part 3 a key for the determination of the nymphs of the same—apparently the first key to be published for American forms. In the Neuroptera, with its two families having aquatic genera, I have been able to straighten out a tangle in the Sialidae, and to report the dis- covery of larvae and pupae of two genera of Hemerobiidae. These two are both new species of spongilla flies, representing two genera whose larvae live on fresh-water sponges. Entomologically, their discovery was one of the best things of the season. Our account of the aquatic Neu- roptera is thus considerably more complete than any that have hitherto _ appeared. Mr Betten occupied himself during the intervals of routine operations with the study of the habits and transformations of the caddis flies. He has written the account of this order in part 3. He collected many speci- mens in all stages, and reared four species representing as many genera. His descriptions seem to be the first that have appeared for American Jarvae. It is a matter of regret that specific determinations could not be had for more. of the material in this little studied group. He has pre- pared a table for caddis fly larvae, compiled from the descriptions of European writers and verified, so far as possible, on his own material, and while it is tentative and incomplete, it will doubtless serve a temporary purpose. Aquatic larvae of flies and beetles were abundant at Saranac Inn, but there was little time available for their study after attending to the others mentioned above. A few of the more interesting ones were reared, how- ever, and will be found described in part 3. The three bred Diptera there described make an interesting addition to our knowledge of the larvae of that order. me Apparatus and methods. Little need be said on this head. We used the insect nets, cyanid bottles, setting boards, pins, and preserva- tives used by all collectors; but our main stay in aquatic collecting was the sieve net', which is shown in use in plate 4; leaning against a tree in 1 Described and figured in part O of U.S. nat. mus. Bul. 39, p. 4. 398 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM . plate 5. On the sandy bottoms of these quiet waters it was specially advantageous. Extensive use was made of white wash bowls, soup plates and saucers in the examination of our catch. We habitually placed teneral specimens of most orders, when found in the cages newly transformed, in paper bags to await the maturing of their colors. For rearing purposes, the screen cage, a simple cylinder of wire screen with a loose cover (described on page 7 of the above mentioned bulletin and shown in operation in plate 5) was most useful. The larger cages of this sort were set down in the sand of the bottom of the creek; smaller ones were set in the hatchery troughs. These, of course, needed a bot- tom, which was supplied by inserting a piece of cloth laid over an open loop of spring wire; the wire when released holding the cloth tightly against the sides of the cage. A still farther modification of this cage consisted in making it smaller, and of fine brass sereen, and attaching cork to its sides to float it. Mr Betten made a very good egg-hatching cage out of it by sealing a watch glass in the bottom of it with paraffin, and attaching the cork floats. ‘The eggs were thus kept in flowing water, but could be at once removed to the stage of the microscope without disturbance. I devised for our work at Saranac Inn another type of floating cage that proved so generally useful for minute insects, and was so easily and rapidly constructed that it may be worth while to givea description of it. The accompanying figure shows its construction in the main. With the five little pieces of wood (which should be cut from dry pine) at hand, a cage of this sort can be put up and. ready for use-in ro minutes. The cloth is attached to the wood by means of paraffin, which is melted and applied with a brush. The loose end of the cloth is attached, and the door closed by means of a rubber band stretched between two tack heads over the convex upper edge of one of a ¢ the wooden side strips (fig. 1). This sort of cage i \ was most successful with small Diptera, but not ¢ . : = oleh Fig A omemade: cage- with small?‘May' flies, such -as ‘Caen; for these 7a eee : . . . fully f would invariably fall into the water and die at live’ jn standing water, : Wooden kit with covering- once on transformation. of netting tied on Fig.1 Floating cage, designed for rearing small Diptera The trap lanterns we used (pl. 4, 5) were also very simply constructed. The idea of them, however, was borrowed from some lanterns I found my —————e ee AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 399 friend, Dr Westcott, using. The lantern part is of the “search light ” type to be found on the market, with large parabolic reflector having projecting edges. The trap part consists of a circular flaring band of tin, whose slope con- tinues that of the edges of the reflector, inside which it is pushed and fastened. It has two transversely placed sheets of wire screen within it, arranged as shown in the accompanying figure, and on the lower side within the trap there is an open, detachable cup to hold the “cyanid of potassium. It is easily managed and very effective, and the specimens are in the main obtained in good condition. The lantern of the markets has many advantages in the way of conveniences over lanterns of home construc- D Fig. 3 Sectional diagram of tion. lantern trap R, edge of lantern e 4 e 4 v th 1 Jo) Assistance in preparing this report. At . w edge ‘of parabolie reflector : , the trap the conclusion of my work at Saranac Inn, I @eatch for attachment to ector meneeroscambridge: Mass., where, through the | ®*¢entrance between two courtesy of Mr Samuel Henshaw, I was allowed ° ***#°hable cyanid cup to spend several weeks determining the specimens I had collected, by comparison with specimens in the museum of comparative zoology. During this time Mr Henshaw showed me many kindnesses and took the trouble himself to determine the names of a number of species. I am also under special obligation to Mr D. W. Coquillett and Mr William H. Ashmead, of the U.S. national museum, for the study and determination of numerous Diptera and Hymenoptera respectively, and for the descrip- tions of new species sent me by them to be published as a part of this report. 1 am indebted, also, for determinations, to a number of other gentlemen, as follows: Trichoptera, Nathan Banks; Orthoptera, Dr S. H. Scudder; Homoptera, Prof. Herbert Osborn; leeches, Dr W. E. Castle and Dr J. Percy Moore; mollusks, Frank C. Baker; an entomostracan, ) Prot. A. Birge. The colored plates have been made by L. H. Joutel. The figures of Trichoptera are by Mrs J. H. Comstock. Those of Diptera, Plecoptera and Ephemerida are by Miss Maude H. Anthony. ‘Those of Odonata are drawn by myself. The figures made from photographs taken by other persons than myself, contain the proper acknowledgment in their legends. 400 — NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM fart 2 LIFE OF LITTLE CLEAR CREEK This tranquil little stream (pl. 3), once famous for-its trout fishing, traverses the hatchery grounds, and disappears in the woods below under a canopy of overarching alders. It leaves the pond at present by a little artificial fall, runs through a big, tubular iron culvert under the railroad, tumbling over a little bed of stones at the end of the culvert, and then traverses a narrow bit of brookside meadow, bordered by spring bog full of balsam trees. Then it enters the fish ponds. Passing the hatchery, and all the fish gates, it is free again for a little open space before enter-~ ing the woods below. From the pond to the woods below the hatchery is less than a quarter of a mile; and in this short space the Aollowane studies were made. In the undisturbed portion of this course the brook glides alternately over beds of rippled reddish sand or percolates through tangled mats of river weed, Potamogeton, and stonework, Nitella, or clumps of bur reed, Sparganium. It has an average depth of perhaps a foot, and a width of about 1o feet. Its depth varies very little with the weather, a continuous downpour of rain for days raising its level but a few inches. In the edges of the woods were seen scattering stemless lady’s slippers, and banks of that dainty little favorite of Linnaeus, the twin flower, while the star flower and the bunchberry and the yellow Clintonia and the red elder berry made these places bright in June with their flowers and in August with their brilliantly colored fruit. From this little strip of water we did more or less collecting every day of the session. While we thus gained some general information as. to what the stream contained, we were desirous of making our knowledge more exact by quantitative studies, for which unfortunately our breed- ings, requiring constant attention, left us very little time. .We did, how- ever, make quantitative studies of the animal life of two little patches of the creek, made a count of the cast skins of dragon flies left along a strip of the bank, made qualitative studies of the insect life of the ripple below the bridge, and of the hatchery pipes and troughs, and made some scattering observations of more or less interest, which will constitute the subject of this chapter. « Quantitative studies. These were made from two patches of Little Clear creek, each approximately 15 square feet in surface area. _ They do not include the animals that slipped through our nets, the AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 401 coarsest of which had a mesh of about 2.5 mm square (10 meshes to the inch). The method was the same for both: the plot was staked out; the vegetation was swept with an air net down to the water line for its aerial forms of life; it was swept again with a water net for its aquatic population; it was then pulled up by the roots and piled in pails and examined a handful at a time in a bowl of clean water, having all the animal life separated from it; the soil of the bottom was then scraped up and sifted for a depth of two or three inches. ‘The material was very quickly gathered up from the plot selected, but the separation of the animal life from the plants and débris was a whole day’s work for two or three persons, to say nothing of the time necessary for studying the animals later. These studies, though time-consuming, always yielded the information sought as to the relative numbers of the several species present, and were profitable, also, in quite another way. ‘The careful examination of the situation which they necessitated always revealed the presence of a number of species not found by more superficial collecting methods, and these were not always the smaller species. first plot. ‘This was in the creek just below the hatchery. The site is shown in plates 4 and 5. ‘The plot extended from the edge of the current in open water 12 to 15 inches in depth, to the bank, a distance of about 5 feet, and a strip 3 feet wide was selected. Two views of it from opposite sides are given in the plates, and its exact site is indicated by the position of the sieve net in plate 4, and is occupied by the cage in the foreground in plate 5. The collections were made July 10. The ~water was about 3 inches deep at the bank, and descended somewhat regularly toward the current side. Over nearly the whole of the area there was an abundant growth of aquatics, most abundant among which was a species of matted, submerged Potamogeton, intermixed with a variety of filamentous algae, and a little Nitella. The plants which appeared above the water were water-cress, water-speedwell, and a thin grass which I took to be a species of Leersia. ‘There was ’ no bur reed growing in this plot. The following animals were taken from this plot. Vertebrates 1 full-grown bullfrog, Rana Catesbiana Shaw, whose stomach contained: 7 full grown snails, Physa heterostropha Say; 1 dragon fly, 9 Calopteryx maculata Beauv.; 1 Crane fly (unde- termined); 1 Scarabaeid beetle; 1 female winged carpenter ant; 1 Syrphus fly (apparently one of the smaller members of the genus Syrphus); 1 402 . NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM caddis fly (teneral imago; undeterminable) ; 1 water skater, Hy gro- trechus sp.?, and fragments of a number of others; 1 small bullfrog tadpole; considerable sand intermixed with fragments of Potamoge- ton leaves; 1 Entomostracan (undetermined) 3 grown bullfrog tadpoles I young green frog, Rana clamata Daud. ‘The stomachs of the tadpoles and of this frog were empty x small salamander, probably an Amblystoma 1 long-eared sunfish,Lepomis auritus Linn., whose stomach con- tained: 34 little snails, the largest not over 1.5 mm long, apparently of — the genera Physa and Limnaea; 12 larvae of gnats (Chironomidae), 2Chironomus sp.? andio Ceratopogon sp.?; 1 larvaof Chau- liodes sp.? in fragments Mollusks 305 snails, retained by our nets, not counting innumerable smaller ones, which fairly covered some of the plants. The 305 were: 292 Physa heterostropha Say 13 Limnaea desidiosa Say 35 small clams, Sphaerium similis Say Leeches 6 specimens 2-4 inches long of Haemopis (Semiscolex) grandis Verrill A large number of minute glossiphonids, the counting of which was not undertaken ) Lnsects The following were taken with a sweeping net from above the surface of the water DRAGON FLIES 1 Aeschna sp.?, probably constricta Say, found transforming. 1 Ischnura verticalis Say 9 1 Lestes unguiculata Hagen @ 2 Argia violacea Hagen ¢ and 9? 1 Nehallennia irene Hagen 9 BUGS 43 water skaters, Hygrotrechus sp.P . (A greater number got away) 2 Helochara communis Fitch _ 20 Cicadula sexnotata Fall AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 403 Bee, divisa Uhler 7 Liburnia pellucida Fabr., of which two were females, one _macropterous, and one micropterous 1 Chermes sp.? (apterous) 3 Aphids (undetermined) 1 Lygaeid (undetermined) FLIES, AND OTHER DIPTERA 65 Hydrellia scapularis Loew. A number of other little Muscidae, some of them apparently of different species, escaped r crane fly 9 (undetermined) I mosquito @ (undetermined) 3 gnats of three species (undetermined) MISCELLANEOUS Meesocid, Peripsocus madidus Hagen 1 Anthicid beetle, Notoxus anchora Hentz 8 parasitic Hymenoptera: Telenomus longicornis Ashm', Meoecachystrophia quadriceps Ashm.'1¢; Rhizarcha erwemaAshm.’ 16,3 9s; Aphidius nigripes Ashm2 gs The following insects were taken from the water. DRAGON FLY NYMPHS Aeschna constricta Say of various sizes, one full-grown Goupduleaaster maculatus Selys Gomphus scudderi Selys Gomphus spicatus Hagen Ophiogomphus aspersus Morse bast#aeséchna Janata. Say Sympetrum assimilatum Uhler Nn AWN 1 eS) MAY FLY NYMPHS 2 Hexagenia variabilis Etn. Meapmemera varia, Ktn. Aoipihemenehla excrucians Walsh 5 Caenis diminuta Walker. These nymphs are so hard to find among the stems to which they cling very closely, that more were prob- ably present but not seen. 1 Described on p. 586-88. 404. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM CADDIS FLY LARVAE AND PUPAE 1s Molanna cinerea Hagen a 8 Polycentropus lucidus Hagen 2 Fal esis 0: a. (se2.p. 507) 2 Hales Wsemo. 22 a(seesp. GOS) = Halesws no. “(see p. 560) 13 unclassified ... 43 in all DIPTEROUS LARVAE AND PUPAE 2 sepedon fusceipenmis Loew 1 Bittacomorpha clavipes pupa, probably from the farthest point in shore 7 Simulium venustum Say 8 Tabanid larvae (undetermined) from the bottom in the fee of the channel in open water 1 crane fly pupa (undetermined) 107 gnat larvae (Chironomidae: all undetermined) of four species Numerous minute CeratopogonpP larvae were observed in the algae associated with still more numerous Limnicolous oligo- Cae tes: Second plot. ‘The second plot selected for study was in the upper part of the hatchery grounds, just below the railroad bridge. It was a strip across a bed of bur reeds (shown in the foreground of plate 3) and was similar in form and about equal in area to the preceding. Collections were made precisely as before, but the conditions in the plot were some- what different; the water was of about the same depth, but there was more of a current flowing through the bur reeds. Potamogeton and Nitella and filamentous algae were perhaps a little less abundant in the water here, specially the algae. ‘The date was July 27. The list for this second plot is a short one, in species, if not in individ- uals. It is as follows: 1 bullfrog, Rana catesbiana Shaw 1 crawfish (undetermined) ; MOLLUSKS 13 snails: 11: Campeloma decisum Say; 2 Limnaea idee sidiosa Say 245 clams, mainly Sphaerium simile Say I17 CADDIS FLIES 27 Molanna cinerea Hagen 22 Hydropsyche sp.? (near phalerata) Hagen (see p. 566) AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 405 17 Polycentropus lucidus Hagen eet abesus: now1 (seep. 567) to Halesus no. 2 (seep. 568) fioalkesius no..3 (see p. 569) 17 unclassified 260 BEETLES Donacia emarginata Kirby, of which two were adults, 152 were inclosed in puparia attached to the bur reed roots, and a few were free larvae. Since several species occurred about the creek, it is by no means certain that all these belonged to the single species named. 25 DRAGON FLY NYMPHS 2 Cordulegaster maculatus Selys 4 Aeschna constricta Say 4 Gomphus exilis Selys 5 Ophiogomphus aspersus Morse 5 Argia violacea Hagen s Sympetrum assimilatum Uhler. Of this species 7 addi- tional specimens were picked from the stems above the water in trans- formation; but one other insect specimen (a stone fly, Leuctra tenella) was found above the water. — IO MAY FLY NYMPHS Ephemera varia Etn. La! weepmemerella excrucians Walsh Laat Baetis pygmaea Hagen 8 DIPTEROUS LARVAE AND PUPAE 2 small crane fly larvae (undetermined Tipulidae) 4 horsefly larvae (undetermined Tabanidae) 2 mosquito pupae (undetermined) Comparing now the lists made from the two plots we observe some striking differences. Those that appear in the number and variety of aerial forms taken in the first plot, and the paucity of them in the second, _may be due mainly to weather conditions: the first plot was worked on a dry, sunshiny morning; the second, on a partly cloudy morning after rain. The plots agree in that their miscellaneous plant feeders were mainly mollusks and caddis flies. Mollusks seem to constitute a larger bulk than any other single group. Snails were found in the stomachs of frog and fish, and are known to be the food of horsefly larvae (Tabanidae). There are certainly snails enough in the creek to justify the extraordinary abundance of horseflies in this vicinity. 406 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The plots were strikingly unlike in that there were fewer species in the second, fewer dragon fly and May fly nymphs and dipterous ‘larvae. They differed farther most strikingly in the kind of mollusks present: the Campeloma decisum of the second plot was absent from the first ; it is common in the pond above. ‘The long-horned leaf beetles, Do - nacia, of the second plot were a special feature which belonged with the special habitat furnished by the bur reed growth. Two photographs, reproduced in plate g, show these insects in their natural positions on the plant. These are fragments—mere fragments——of real knowledge of the life of this stream. While not without interest in themselves, they seem to me chiefly valuable in their suggestiveness of possible knowledge to be gained by farther application of these methods. Count of dragon fly exuviae. Inthe midst of the hatchery grounds there was a fish pond, made by impounding the creek, with its eastern side boarded up to a hight of 15 to 20 inches above the level of the water, for a distance of perhaps 20 yards. The boards were rough, and suited dragon fly nymphs very well as a place to transform. It was an exceptionally favorable place in which to learn something of the numbers of dragon flies to emerge from a given water area; for the cast skins were all left in plain view. The other bank was not boarded, and while the cast skins appeared to be about as common there, one could not be sure of finding all of them. A view of this pond, looking up stream, is presented in plate 6. Conditions here were right for determining the yield of this strip of water in dragon flies of those species whose period of transformation falls entirely within the last three weeks of June at Saranac Inn. I do not, say half the yield, because it seems fair to presume that half were on the other bank, where their discovery was not so easy. Nymphs when ready to transform are blind, and wander about till they find a bank, showing no preference as to which bank it is. These time limits are taken be- cause they are the only narrow ones that will include the entire trans- formation period of a considerable number of species. I found quite a number of these skins already clinging to the boards on my arrival June 12, for the season for transformation for some of these species was already at hand. It appears fair to assume, however, that I obtained practically all the skins that had been left there, because they had apparently not been disturbed at all; they stick very tightly, so that moderate winds and even rain do not quickly dislodge them. The weather previous to my arrival had been clear and calm, and the season of trans- P———S ee ee rl ee — AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 407 formation was certainly only opening. I collected all that appeared after that daily till the end of June, at which time all the species for which I thought such counting practicable had ceased transforming for the year. The results of the count are as follows. eerGomphus exilis -Selys 20 Gomphus brevis Selys 18 Gomphus spicatus Selys 24 Ophiogomphus aspersus Morse meieagenius brevistylus Selys yeGordulegaster maculatus Selys 1 Didymops transversa Say Yr Letragoneuria semiaqua Burm. 6 Basiaeschna janata Say Intermingled with these were the cast skins of a number of species whose period of transformation was not finished, perhaps, by the end of the month of June; viz Calopteryx maculata Beauv. (12), Argia violacea Hagen (20), Enallagma sp.? (5), Boyeria vinosa Bayi3),and Aeschna constricta Say (2). It is difficult to conceive how so many of the large rapacious Gomphine nymphs can get a living inso smallspace. I do not believe that, judging by repeated collecting, they were more abundant here than in other basins along the creek. I collected in this same place with a sieve net after this count was ended the nymphs of the next season’s brood, and obtained in 15 minutes’ use of the net 22 Cordulegaster macu- Poms 2 tagenius brevistylus, 4o Gomphws and Ophiogomphus, 8 Calopteryx maculata and4 Didy- POmMse tranhsversa. The life of the rapids. At the railroad Little Clear creek pours out of the culvert and tumbles over a little bed of stones. ‘This is the only rapids within easy reach from the hatchery. There was no time fora quantitative study of its life, But we studied it as carefully as time would permit. The most abundant and important animal in the rapids is the black fly, Simulium venustum Say. With the exception of. a ‘few Chiro- nomidae which live in the “skin algae”, covering the broader surfaces over which the water glides, all the life of the rapids seems to center in the Simulium colonies. These are very extensive indeed, masses of the swaying, dark greenish larvae, or of the yellowish pupae covering the stones over considerable areas. 408 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Plate 15 shows the forms which I found together in this little rapids by | the railroad. Simulium is vastly more numerous in individuals than all the other species put together and also more restricted in its habitat. The next in numerical importance would probably be the pygmy May fly, Baetis pygmaea Hagen, though a larger May fly, Hepta- genia pulchella Walsh, and a caddis fly, Hydropsyche sp.? (see p. 566) seemed almost as numerous. These three species are probably predatory, feeding on the members of the Simulium colony. The other members of this little society are much fewer. They are 1) a hitherta unknown fly of the family Empididae, Roederiodes juncta Cogq., (described post at p. 586) whose larvae crawl about among the Simulium pupa cases, and pupate within empty cases, and 2) the stone fy, Leuctra tenella. It must be another, earlier species of black fly which makes all the trouble in the Adirondacks with its bites; for this one is quite peaceably disposed. Guides have a saying, that, when the black flies put on their white stockings in June, the trouble 1s about over. ‘This species has the “‘ white stockings.” I was interested in watching the females of this species ovipositing, and saw the operation very frequently. The place selected is always at the edge of a little waterfall, on a surface that is intermittently washed by the swaying current, and so kept wet (see pl. 15). Here the females flock, and _ pile up great white masses ~of eggs, which with a little age turn yellowish. Waves dash over them while ovipositing, and often sweep them away, but they at once return to their task. _ I do not know what Simulium larvae feed on; but their tentacles seem well adapted for straining plankton from the water that dashes over them. The life of the hatchery pipes and troughs. The life of the pipes is essentially that of the rapids! What is living in the pipes is learned by observing what comes out of them, into the hatchery troughs and into the windows. Simulium, Hydropsyche, Hepta- genia and Baetis, were in the hatchery windows throughout the session, often in enormous numbers. ‘Their periods of greatest abund- ance do not coincide however. The windows were fairly darkened with black flies and caddis flies and the larger May flies, Heptagenia, during the earlier part of the session, while the pygmy May flies did not appear in swarming numbers till the latter part of it. ‘The only member of the Simulium society as portrayed in the plate, which was not observed 1It appears that the mollusks which get into city water pipes and sometimes cause trouble are forms that normally live in rapids. AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 409 to come into the hatchery was the fly, Roederiodes juncta. In addition to these forms, and the green stone fly, Chloroperla bi- lineata Say, which doubtless belongs with them in its season, there occurred in the hatchery a large number of Diptera of various sorts, and the spongilla flies, hitherto accounted so rare. Fresh-water sponges from the lake above invade the pipes, and the larvae of these flies come in with the sponges on which they live. On June 19 we collected the contents of one of the supply troughs in the hatchery. It contained more than 125 little fresh-water sponges, averaging the size of peas, from which were picked seven spongilla fly larvae, nine amphipods (undetermined), one entomostracan, E pis- chura lacustris Forbes, about a dozen each of two species of May flies, Heptagenia pulchella Walsh and Ephemerella-ex- crucians Walsh, a large number of black fly larvae, afew Hy dro p- sy che larvae, a few gnat larvae and a number of colonies of rotifers, Some of the multitudinous gnats in the windows were of the same species that I bred from larvae taken from ‘“ skin algae” scraped from the races outside. Horseflies (Tabanidae) were also conspicuous occu- pants of the windows, but I did not find their immature stages in the hatchery. Possibly these may have come in through open doors and - windows, being so active and so abundant outside, The handsome longicorn beetle, Leptura canadensis ‘Fabr., which was not uncommon in the windows during the latter half of the session, certainly entered in this way. A small number of specimens representing a new genus and species of Stratiomyiidae (described in part 3, p.585 asZabrachia polita Coq.) were picked from the hatchery ceiling, while gathering spongilla flies. Red hydras were exceedingly abundant in Little Clear creek during the first half of our session, insomuch that they fairly covered every trailing stem and leaf in the current, and occupied every available sup- port, even to the backs of the dragon fly and May fly nymphs, one of which would often bear half a dozen or more of them. Then they gradually disappeared, till in August hardly a hydra was to be found. A single blade of Sparganium brought in in June for some eggs of Basiaeschna janata which had been laid in it, bore hundreds of hydras profusely budding, and all of a very distinct red color. An observant employee of the hatchery, Milo Otis, who attends to feeding the fry, informed me that at certain times the water flowing through the ponds is tinged with red from the hydras floating in it, and that at such times the young trout sub” © sist on these, and refuse to eat other food. It would be interesting to 410 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM know whether this abundance of hydras always occurs when the trout are newly hatched. Two fine Diptera belong to the characteristic fauna of Little Clear creek, but do not live in any of the situations we have been discussing. These are the curious phantom fly, Bittacomorpha clavipes Fabr., and our largest crane fly, Tipula abdominalis Say. Both live almost out of the water in very shallow bays filled with red-rotted vegetation and both are very common in such places. Gomphus scudderi Selys wascommon inthe creek below the wagon bridge, but was not taken above it. fart 3 ‘ INSECT LIFE HISTORIES | In the following pages there is assumed on the part of the reader such a knowledge of the external parts of insects as is obtainable from the elementary textbook of entomology or of zoology. He should know that the body of an insect larva is composed of successive rings or joints; that the first division is the head and bears the eyes, antennae and mouth parts; the next three joints, bearing the wing and leg rudiments, con- stitute the thorax; and the remaining joints, often with prop-legs or pro- legs under them, constitute the abdomen. External gills are arranged in delicate whitish tufts when in a sheltered position, or, when exposed, are thin plates traversed by delicate air tubes. In addition to these, there are at the sides of the abdomen, longer, paired, simple, pointed appen- dages, called lateral filaments, which also, when small and delicate, may serve the respiratory function. Lateral filaments, gills (with very few exceptions) and prolegs disappear with the end of larval life, and are absent in the adult insect. In the immature stages insects differ wonderfully; but there are two types of larvae, which have been distinguished by the degree of differ- ence between larva and adult insect: 1) those called nymphs, which differ but little from the adults in general organization, and when grown transform directly to imagos, without having entered on a quiescent pupal stage; and 2) larvae proper, which differ very greatly from their imagos, having the adult appendages reduced in size or altogether wanting, wings never visible externally, and requiring a quiescent pupal stage, when they have done feeding, before transforming to the imago. These two groups constitute the primary divisions of the table given below. > The student will find in Comstock’s Manual for the study of insects, or in his Zusect life, or in a number of other books that are not so AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 4II good as these, serviceable tables for the determination of the adult insects. We give here a table that will serve for distinguishing the orders in the larval stage. So few relatively of the larvae of aquatic insects are known as yet, that this table must be considered tentative as to its state- ments of group characters. In all the following tables and descriptions the characters described and the measurements given apply to fully grown nymphs or larvae except when otherwise expressly stated. KEY TO ORDERS OF AQUATIC INSECT LARVAE! - @ Larvae with wings developing externally (called nymphs in this paper) and no quiescent pupal stage b With biting mouth parts ce With long, filamentous caudal setae; labium not longer than the head, and not folded on itself like a hinge d Gills mainly under the thorax; tarsal claws two; caudal setae generally Me ete ae ac len ain aim ota ai AS ne a ee Toi (stone flies) Plecoptera dd Gills mainly on the sides of the abdomen; tarsal claws single; caudal setae generally three. ........-....---.. (May flies) Ephemerida ce Caudal setae represented by three broad, leaflike respiratory plates traversed by tracheae, or by small spinous appendages; labium much longer than the head when extended; at rest, folded on itself like a hinge and extending between the bases of the fore legs (dragon flies and damsel flies) Odonata bb Mouth parts combined into a jointed beak, which is directed beneath the head backward between the fore legs ..-..-.....--...----- Hemiptera aa Larvae proper, with wings developing internally, and invisible till the as- sumption of a quiescent pupal stage b With jointed thoracic legs c With slender, decurved, piercing mouth parts, balf as long as the body; small larvae, living on fresh-water sponges. Family Hemerobiidae of Neuroptera co With biting mouth parts d With a pair of prolegs on the last segment only (except in Sialis, plate 29, which has a single long median tail-like process at the end of the abdomen) these directed backward, and armed each with one or two strong hooks or claws e Abdominal segments each with a pair of long, lateral filaments Family Sialidae of Neuroptera ee Abdominal segments without long, muscular, lateral filaments, often with minute gill filaments; cylindric larvae, generally living in portable cases ..... diab ieig alcicinlow ei oa'sie (caddis flies) Trichoptera 1The Thysanura, or springtails, common on the surface of water, but not living in it are not in. eluded in thistable. They willbe readily recognizable, if collected, by their very minute size, entire absence of wings, mouth parts retracted within the head, and the forked spring beneath the abdomen, A NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM dd Prolegs, when present, on more than one abdominal segment; if present on the last segment, then not armed with single or double claws; often entirsly wanting e With five pairs of prolegs, and with no spiracles at the apex of the abdomen ..... atic oemere aoe en ee ee oe (moths) Lepidoptera ee Generally without prolegs; never with five pairs of them; usually with terminal spiracles; long, lateral filaments often present on the abdominal segments ............---- (beetles) Coleoptera bb Without jointed thoracic legs; with abdominal prolegs, or entirely legless ; in the more degenerate forms, the head is reduced and retracted within the pointed apex of the thorax, no appendages of the imago are visible, and the pupa is formed within the contracted and hardened larval skin (flies, etc.) Diptera Those orders, on which some life history work was done at our station, are severally discussed below. That some of these, notably the Coleop- tera and the Diptera, were slighted, is only too apparent, and no one will be so regretful as we are that no more time could be given to the study of these; but the other orders treated seemed to be in more press- ing need of study; and we always had more life history material avail- able than could be attended to by two pairs of hands. A few random notes on the representatives of those orders which received from us no study whatever, will be found grouped together under a final heading. Order PLECOPTERA Stone flies The stone flies are all aquatic. They frequent rapid streams, and are most abundant in those places wheré the water dashes over heaps of broken, half submerged rocks. In summer one may often see in such places the projecting top of a rock decorated with the empty skins which the adult stone flies left behind when they left the water and acquired wings. To find the nymphs one need but lift a stone from the water quickly, turn it over and look atit. The flat, closely clinging nymphs will be seen with their legs at full stretch and their claws gripping the rock, or running from one depression to another, seeking to hide. The nymphs are little known. In this country they have received hardly any attention, which is surprising, considering that they are so easy to collect and to rear, and that they live in places in general so attractive to us. The good angler who has the blood of a naturalist in him is likely to know the species of stone flies, both nymphs and adults, better than does the average professional entomologist. The systematic study of the order is little advanced beyond the point where Pictet left it 60 years ago!: his work is still the best textbook of the group to be had. 1 Historie naturelle des neuropteres: perlides. Paris 1841. Pe Pp ne ee ee ee ee a , 4 AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 413 The nymphs of stone flies require well aerated water. They can not live in a stagnant pool!, orin a foul stream. A large number of the smaller species, including the two described below, are entirely destitute of gills, With these the air supply is absorbed directly through the thin skin of the ventral surface. At the ventral sutures one can readily see that the skin is fully permeated by fine tracheal branches. Stone fly gills at their best development are but small tufts of delicate respiratory fila- ments attached to the ventral surface of the body, oftenest about the bases of the legs, swished about by the motion of other parts, or depend- ent on the motion of the water for the renewal of the oxygen supply. Nymphs brought in from the brook and placed in a vessel of still water will soon be seen with claws affixed vigorously swinging the body up and down, trying to get a breath under the difficult conditions into which they have been brought. In two important respects the nymphs of May flies and dragon flies _ have surpassed those of stone flies in the development of aquatic respira- ‘tory apparatus : | t In developing flat, plate like gills, which offer greater surface for contact with the water ; 2 In developing special apparatus for the independent movement of the gills, or for causing currents of water to flow over them. ~ It is the smaller species that are gill-less. The extent of respiratory surface is in a measure proportioned, 1) to the size of the nymphs; 2) to the condition of the water, whether well or poorly aérated. It is because of the limitations on the respiratory system of stone-fly nymphs that they are so restricted in their aquatic habitat. As to the food of the stone flies there have been a number of guesses, but apparently no careful and continuous observations recorded. It is supposed that the nymphs of the larger species eat smaller May fly nymphs, and soft-bodied dipterous larvae associated with them on the rocks; but Benjamin D. Walsh has said that perlid nymphs eat decaying vegetable matter, and that the imagos eat nothing.2 Here, then, is an opportunity for some careful observer to replace inferences with facts. The adult stone flies may be collected at almost any season of the year. The little black capnias emerge in winter. They live mainly in small brooks, and are often found in transformation on the edge of the ice. Through the spring months the dusky and grayish little nemouras 1 Ihave bred a Species of Acroneuria in some numbers from nymphs taken from rotting oak leaves in the edge of an ice pond at Ithaca N. Y.; but the water about the bed of leaves was clear, and could not be called stagnant, since the turbulent Cascadilla creek flows through the pond, 2 Practical entomologist. 2:73, A414 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM are emerging ; but the larger stone flies, and the paler and green ones are to be looked for mainly in summer. Stone flies are abundant in most parts of the state of New York. Every rocky stream swarms with them. But about Saranac Inn there are no rocky streams. ‘The creeks flow leisurely over beds of sand or filter through mats of river weed, and are destitute of the stony obstruc- tions which afford suitable shelter for young stone flies. But two of the smaller species were studied there, and these were neither abundant nor very important members of the aquatic fauna. Both live in Little Clear creek and in the pipes which bring water to the hatchery, and both were taken as adults at the hatchery windows. Nathan Banks has published keys to the North American genera of stone flies in the Zransactions of the American entomological society, 20:328-29; and 26:240-42. The student is referred to these. CHLOROPERLA This genus includes a small number of delicate, pale green stone flies about half an inch long. At emergence they fly to the shelter of green vegetation, and thereafter remain concealed most of the time, returning to the water, perhaps, to deposit their eggs. So far as known, the nymphs which live in clear streams are entirely destitute of gills. C. A. Briggs has recorded a curious habit of the adult male of Chloroperla.1 Placed in a box, it struck the bottom with its penultimate abdominal seg- ment to make a noise. Chloroperla bilineata Say 1823 Sialis bilineata Say, Godman’s western quarterly reporter. 2:165 (original description) 1839 Chloroperla transmarina Newman Aun. & mag. nat. hist. (2) 3:87 1841 Chloroperla transmarina Pictet, Perlides, p. 283 1852 Chloroperla transmarina Walker, Cat. neur. ins. Brit. mus, 1;161 1852 Chloroperla picta Walker, Cat. neur. ins. Brit. mus. 1:161 1861 Chloroperla bilineata Hagen, Synopsis Neur. N. Am. p. 30 1892 Chloroperla bilineata Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19:342 (listed) 1899 Chloroperla bilineata Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 25:200 (in- cluded in a key to species of Chloroperla) This species was taken only in the hatchery. It was already disap- pearing when we arrived, June 15. A few could be found about the windows each day. Many more dead ones were discovered in the hatchery loft, entangled in spiders webs, or fallen on the window Sills, 1 Ent. month. mag. 1897. 33: 207-8 AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 415 having made their way upstairs, seeking their freedom. They were not observed flying, except from the place of transformation to the window. Empty nymph skins were, on the contrary, very abundant. There were hundreds sticking to the sides of the hatchery troughs, thickest near the inflow pipe, but some were to be found on all the troughs. Observing that the season for the species was waning, we lost-no time emptying the supply trough and sifting its contents. Thus we obtained two nymphs, one of which was reared. Imago. Length to tip of wings 12 mm; antennae 7 mm more. Setae two thirds as long as the abdomen, hardly surpassing the tips of the wings. Expanse of wings 21 mm. Color light green. Antennae brownish black, except a small paler part just beyond the base. A broad U-shaped mark on the top of the head, just including the ocelli, A blackish brown stripe each side of the prothorax, darkest anteriorly, continued on the mesothorax, diffused posteriorly. Abdomen greenish, washed with brown dorsally, specially toward its lateral margins. Setae brownish. Legs greenish, a little darker exteriorly and at the tips of the tarsal segments. Wings green ; veins very faintly touched with brown. Nymph. Fully grown, measures 9 mm; setae 3.3 mm more. Body slender, slightly depressed. Head hardly wider than prothorax or than abdomen; the latter a little widened in the middle and a little more narrowed at the posterior than at the anterior end. Color greenish to pale brownish. Antennae green at base, becoming brownish at tip, stout at base, rapidly tapering. The broad U-shaped mark on the top of the head in the adult is present in the nymph, the base of the U being laterally extended in a transverse band which meets the eyes and extends two angles anteriorly toward the mouth each side. Prothorax with two lateral stripes, darkest anteriorly. Two pairs of small spots on mesonotum and on metanotum between the bases of the wings. Abdomen with three distinct blackish brown stripes, a median one and two lateral ones, the latter ending on the bases of the setae. Setae stout at base, rapidly tapering; brown at base, becoming paler distally. Legs pale greenish. Ventral aspect, whitish or pale green. No tracheal gills. Numerous specimens, Adirondack hatchery, Saranac Inn N. Y. June. Observed till June 21, when the last specimen was taken. LEUCTRA This genus includes the slenderest of stone flies; small, brownish species, with wings closely inwrapping the body on the dorsal side. Mr McLachlan says that the females in this genus carry their eggs on their backs, extruding them from the upturned end segment of the abdomen and pushing them toward the bases of the hind wings. 1 Ent. month. mag. 1865. 1:216. 416 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Leuctra tenella Provancher (pl. 15 and fig. 4 and 5) 1878 Leuctra tenella Provancher, Petite faune entomologique du Canada. p. 802 (without description) : 1892 Leuctra tenella, N. Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19:343 (cited) ~ This species was much less common than the preceding one. Adults were not observed in flight. A few were taken in the following places: at the hatchery windows; on aquatic vegetation close above the surface of the water; and under the ends of some boards which over- hung the water at the railway embankment, where the water pours out of the culvert, forming a little riffle. In this last mentioned place ; the nymphs were obtained. They were found crawling over the surfaces of the stones and boards among the brown and empty cases of Simulium pupae. One was bred July 31. Sweepings by day alongside the creek and trap lanterns by night failed to find this species. From the foregoing bibliographic notes it will be apparent that this species is still practically undescribed. Fig. 4 Leuctra tenella, male :_a, dorsal view of head and prothorax; b, end of male abdomen Imago. Length, male 7.5 mm, female 9 mm te tip of wings; anten- nae, 5 mm. First and fourth segments of antennae of about equal length, the third longer, the second shorter, about 34 segments in all; ~ AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 417 moniliform ; not close set cylindric and tapering as in the more typical Perlidae. Median ocellus clearly double! Body slender, with sides nearly parallel. The prothorax narrower than the head, regularly quadrangular, with straight sides and ends, and with angles all a little rounded; a faint median raised line and on either side of it a faint raised circle covering nearly half of the prothoracic dorsum. Color brown, becoming yellowish on legs and sutures. Wings smoky hyaline with brown veins (see pl. 15, fig. 12). On the dorsum of the abdomen in the male there is a conspicuous prominence on the seventh segment which rises to a hight equal to one fifth of the thickness of the abdomen (fig. 44). Nymph. Fully grown, measures A\ i2 mm in length of head and body; se abdomen alone 4.5 mm; antenna 4.5 mm; abdominal setae 4.5 mm. \ Width of head .g mm. Body with nearly parallel sides. Head as wide as the prothorax; mesothorax a little wider; abdomen a little narrower. Color nearly uniform yellowish fulvous, pale below and on sutures, antennae and setae. Legs pale yellow. Eyes blackish; ocelli brownish, with a faint wash of brown between thejposterior pair. No tracheal gills. - Little Clear creek at Saranac Inn N. Y. June 21, 24, 26, 28, July 31 and Aug. 2, 1900. Not common. The two stone flies discussed above fall in separate divisions of the family, which I regard as subfamilies, distinguishable by the following characteristics. Fig. 5 Wings of Leuctra tenella t Perlinae. /mago. The median vein hardly fused with the radius at the base, but running close beside it, and bending away from it very gradually, not forming a distinct arculus. Nymph. Flat body, flattened femora ciliate on the sharp and convex margins, and with tapering abdomen. ‘Tracheal gills, when developed, consisting of tufts of filaments. This subfamily includes the two tribes, Pteronarcini and Perlini of Banks.! 2 Nemourinae. /#ago. The median vein fused with the radius at the base, then bending sharply away from it to meet the cross vein, with which it forms a distinct arculus. WVymph. More cylindric body; femora not flattened or sharp edged; abdomen with nearly parallel sides. ‘Tracheal gills when developed 1 Am. ent. soc. Trans. 1900. 24: 210. 418 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM consisting of single, isolated filaments.!. This subfamily includes the two tribes, Capnini and Nemourini of Banks. Order EPHEMERIDA May flies Family EPHEMERIDAE The May flies are all aquatic. A few of the larger species, which sud- denly appear in countless numbers on the shores of our larger bodies of water and as suddenly disappear again, are very well known. But most May flies, being less concerted in their period of adult life, emerging a few at a time, resting under cover and returning to the water in the twilight to oviposit, are little observed. The nymphs live in all sorts of fresh water, and are almost everywhere abundant. ‘They are differentiated into highly specialized groups, each finely adapted to its 6wn peculiar situation. There is great apparent similarity among the imagos; but the nymphs of the several principal groups are strikingly unlike. The struggle for existence has fallen mainly on the nymphs, and they have specialized for themselves, more or less. independently of adult life. On this account, the beginner will find the study of the group greatly facilitated by collecting the nymphs along with. the adults. Nathan Banks has twice published keys for the determination of the genera of our North American May fly imagos, in the Zransactions of the American entomological society, 19:332 and 26:246-47. Nearly all our species are described in Eaton’s monograph.? The following table will serve for the separation of the nymphs of the genera occurring in our fauna. It will also serve to indicate what I believe to be the three principal natural divisions of the family, corroborated by important characters pertaining to both adult and nymphal life. It is based in part on the figures and tables of Pictet?, Vaysseire*, Eaton? , and Schiller ®>, but mainly on my own breedings of New York May flies. So- few species have as yet been reared that this table will doubtless need considerable revision when more of the nymphs are known. 1 Rarely developed. They are known from the European Nemoura cinerea Oliv., in which: species there are six separate filaments at the front end of the prothorax beneath. An undetermined species of Nemoura, bred by me at Ithaca N. Y. possessed no gills whatever. I also bred at Ithaca an undetermined species of Taeniopteryx the nymph of which had attached to the: posterior side of each coxa.a single, tapering, three jointed, telescopic, gill filament. In the Perlinae, the number of filaments in a tuft often increases with the age and size of the nymph. 2Eaton. Revisional monographo recent Ephemerinae. Linn. soc. Lond. Trans. (2) 3, 1868. 3 Pictet. Histoire naturelle des neuropteres: Ephemer. Paris 1843. 4 Vaysseire. Organization des larves des Ephemerines. Sci. nat. zool. Ann. (6) 11, 1881. 5 Schiller. Die Ephemeriden-larven Sachsens. Sitz. u. abh. der. naturwiss. ges. Isis in Dresden. 1890. p. 44-49, 2 pl. AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 419 GENERA OF EPHEMERID NYMPHS IN EASTERN UNITED STATES a Body flat, widest across the rear of the head; eyes dorsal; legs depressed ; adapted for clinging closely to flat surfaces. (Imagos have five freely movable segments to the hind tarsi) (HEPTAGENINAE) Heptagenia, sens. lat. aa Head not so wide as succeeding parts of the body; eyes lateral: (imago with but three or four freely movable segments to the hind tarsi, the basal segment at least coherent witb the tibia) 4 Body widest across the mesothorax; legs of the first and second pairs about equidistant at the base. (Imagos have the cubitus and the first anal vein nearly parallel toward the base) (BAETINAE) ¢ Gills completely concealed under the enormously enlarged, conspicuously POM PpINed MesonotMMm 'a.55 slosh ee ee ee Baetisca _ ee Gills exposed; mesonotum normal da Outer caudal setae fringed only on the inner sides; gills on abdominal segments 1-7; agile swimmers e Gills simple f Gills oval in outline, obtuse at the apex.-.......-.......- Baetis Sf Gills lanceolate in outline, acute at the apex... Centroptilum ee Gills double, at least the anterior pairs f Antennae hardly longer than the head; the thin lateral margin of the eighth abdominal segment produced posteriorly in a very large flat tooth; ocelli on the face...........-..- Siphlurus Sf Antennae longer than half the body; the posterolateral angles of the eighth abdominal segment not forming a conspicuous tooth ; ocelli generally on the top of the head g Antennae shorter than the body; gill tracheae pinnately branched Callibaetis gg Antennae longer than the body ; gill tracheae palmately branched Cloeon™ add Outer setae fringed on doth sides e Gills on abdominal segments 1-7, double, similar f Divisions of the gills narrowly linear........-. Leptophlebia Sf Divisions of the gills leaflike, each with a terminal filament Blasturus ee Gills absent from one or more of abdominal segments 1-7, one pair more or less elytroid, covering those behind it f Gills present on the seventh abdominal segment, elytroid on the third or fourth segment; a pair of minute tubercles at the apical margin of each abdominal segment beside the median line Epbemerella Sf Gills absent from the seventh abdominal segment, elytroid on the second segment: no dorsal abdominal tubercles...... Caenis 5b Body somewhat compressed, widest across the base of the abdomen; legs of the first pair much more closely approximated at the base than those of the second pair; all the legs appressed against the sides of the body and adapted for burrowing; mandibles usually produced anteriorly in a long, curved tusk. (Imagos have the cubitus and the first anal vein strongly divergent toward the base) EPHEMERINAE ¢ Head without frontal prominence; gill rudiment on the first abdominal SOSMIeMt SEMIples ces ce Ca. SSS Lee SNR Ek Polymitarcys 420 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ce Head with a frontal prominence; gill rudiment on the first abdominal segment bifurcated, shaped like a tuning fork d Frontal prominence rounded; the flattened fore tibia with a broad, rounded lobe at its apex, close behind the apical] burrowing hook Hexagenia dd Frontal prominence bispinous; no conspicuous lobe at the apex of the fore tibia behind the apical burrowing hook... Ephemera I describe below the nymphs of seven species of May flies, repre- senting as many genera, bred at Saranac Inn. The only bred North American nymph of which I find description is the singular Baetisca obesa Say, which is figured by Walsh, Vaysseire and Eaton. A number of undetermined American nymphs, mostly from the Cambridge museum of comparative zoology, are figured and described in Eaton’s monograph. One of these I have been able to identify as Ephemerella excrucians, described below. Heptagenia pulchella Walsh Plate 15, figure 15 : 1862 Palingenia pulchella Walsh, Acad. nat. sci. Phil. Proc. p. 375 (original deseription) 1863 Palingenia pulechella Hagen, Ent. soc. Phil. Proc. 2:177 (note 1863 Palingenia pulchella Walsh, Ent. soc. Phil. Proc. 2:203 (note) 1863 Heptagenia pulchella Walsh, Ent. soc. Phil. Proc. 2:204 (merely refers it to Heptagenia) 1871 Heptagenia pulchella Eaton, Ent. soc. Lond. Trans. p. 141 (de- scription in Latin from the original by Walsh) 1885 Heptagenia pulchella Eaton, Linn. soc. Lond. Trans. (2) 3:299 (a very full description) 1892 Heptagenia pulchella Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19:347 (listed) Imagos of this species were common in the hatchery windows through- out our session, and during the month of June were most abundant there. A few, mostly males, were taken regularly in the trap lanterns: when the weather was favorable. A few others were seen, flying in the twilight. The species was little in evidence, common as it was. The nymphs were abundant in Little Clear creek, specially in the more rapid places, clinging closely to flat surfaces of boards, sticks, stones, etc. ‘To collect them one needed but to lift these obstructions from the stream and pick the nymphs from them with forceps. Within a few days after our arrival we had reared some of the nymphs, and others. were reared repeatedly after that. Oviposition was not observed. I dissected a female subimago, and counted the eggs in her ovaries in part, and, on the basis of this count, estimated the whole number at about 1340. Imagos and subimagos thrown on the surface of the fish ponds — AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 421 were snapped up eagerly by the trout. The membrane of the wings of the imago is in this species finely iridescent. Nymph. Pl. 15, fig. 16 Length of body 10 mm; setae, male 12, female 15 additional; abdomen, male 6.25, female 7. Body flat; lateral margins of the head and prothorax thin, sharp edged, flaring, that of the head projecting distinctly beneath the eyes, antennae reaching the tips of the extended fore femora; all femora flattened, sharp edged, edges very convex and fringed with hairs. Color yellowish or greenish brown, mottled, paler below, and dorsally marked with paler spots as follows: an inverted, mushroom-shaped spot before the middle ocellus, a triangular patch between each reniform, lateral ocellus and the eye, a transverse band at the rear of the head; an oblique band each side of the prothorax, a large lateral spot each side of each of the intermediate abdominal segments with a black mark at its hind margin. The femora and tibiae show very indistinct transverse banding of color, Abdomen with sharply toothed posterolateral angles on its hindmost segments, the tooth largest on the eighth segment, where it surpasses the middle of the ninth segment, smaller on the seventh and ninth, and a mere sharp angle on the sixth segment. Setae sparsely fringed with hairs for a third of their length. Gills present on segments 1-7, similar on 1-6, though becoming smaller posteriorly. Anterior gills double, the anterior leaf thickened, trapezoidal with the angles all obtuse, a sparse fringe of slender hairs around the distal half of its border, a strong oblique, longitudinal ridge on its anterior face near its ventral edge; posterior leaf thin and deli- cate, covered by the anterior, smaller than the anterior, cordate triangular in general outline, cut into a peripheral fringe of long respiratory filaments which are once or twice forked or simple, the fringe being as lomg as the body of the-leaf. Gill of the seventh segment simple (corresponding to the anterior leaf only), lanceolate, fringed along its entire margin, its apex surpassing the lateral tooth of the eighth abdominal segment. This species is known from Rock Island IIL, Maryland, New York and Quebec. There is in the Museum of comparative zoology a specimen of another species labeled ‘Adirondacks, New York, Aug. 1872” in Dr Hagen’s handwriting, which agrees entirely with other specimens in the same museum bearing thename Heptagenia vicaria Walker. Baetis pygmea Hagen Plate 15, figures 13, 14 1861 Cloe pygmea Hagen, Synopsis Neur. N. Am. p. 54 (original descrip- tion) 1863 Cloe pygmaea Hagen, Ent. soc. Phil. Proc. 2: 178-79 (notes, ‘It is the smallest ephemerous species known.”) 1871 Baetis pygmaeus Eaton, Ent. soc. Lond. Trans. p. 122 (original description, repeated in Latin) 422 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1885 Baetis pygmaeus Eaton, Linn. soc. Lond. Trans. (2) 3:170 (a new description of the fragments remaining of the type) 1892 Baetis pygmaea Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans, 19 :348 (listed) All the above are bare descriptions of the single female specimen in the Hagen collection from the St Lawrence river. I studied this fragmentary type specimen in Cambridge Aug. 25 and 28. ‘There remains of it a bit of the thorax, bearing the greater part of one fore wing. ‘The venation of this wing furnished the only points for critical comparison with my specimens. ‘The descriptions and the type specimens agree fairly well with the smallest of my specimens. I could not see the brownish color of the veins described by Eaton either in my specimens or in the type. Also the veins in the pterostigmatic space vary in number in my specimens from 5 to 12, and from being simple and straight to being forked and anastomosing. . This species, like the preceding, was common in the hatchery windows, was taken often sparingly in the trap lanterns, and was seldom seen at large. Imagos occurred more sparingly, however, through the earlier part of the season, but they became very abundant in August. From the window in the hatchery nearest the mouth of the inflow pipe carrying surface water, hundreds of imagos and subimagos could be picked ata time. These were preyed on in great numbers by spiders which lurked in the crevices of the window casings. Not a few flew against the window panes when these were wet with condensations in the mornings, and, striking their wings, adhered, and were. unable to free themselves. When the moisture evaporated, these were dried down on the glass. Among these I noticed a number of females which had discharged the contents of their ovaries on the pane in masses of about 200 eggs each. Nymphs of this species were found most abundantly among the cases of Simulium pupae in swiftly flowing water; a few could be taken at any time from the hatchery troughs. This is the daintiest, and one of the prettiest of our May flies. It is still so insufficiently known that I will append hereto complete cose tions of the stages known to me. : Male imago. Length 3-5 mm; setae 7 mm additional. Colors black and white varied with reddish brown and yellowish red. Head yellowish, with the ocelli and the inferior part of the eyes black, turbi- nate superior part of the eyes yellowish red on the sides, reddish brown on the superior, corneal surface. Thorax black, paler on the lateral sutures. Legs, antennae and setae pale yellowish white ; fore legs darker on the sutures. Wing very trans- parent with a faint wash of yellow on the extreme base. Hind wing bivenulate, sometimes with a short third vein. : AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 423 Abdomen black and white; segments 2-5 pure white (in old males) with black spiracles; segment 6 yellowish; segments 7—10 black, paler below. Male subimago (undescribed). Differs only in having the setae about 5 mm long (as in the female); and in lacking strongly contrasting black and white colors on the abdomen, all the colors being duller, the wings merely translucent, with a fine fringe of hairs. Female imago. Length 3-5 mm, setae 5 mm. Color reddish brown, darker on the thorax and paler beneath the body; discoloring badly when pinned. Head and thorax brownish with ocelli paler and eyes black. Thoracic dorsum brown, darker on the ridges, with a pair of oblique pale stripes extending from the hind angles of the prothorax to the wings, and a pair of narrow, submedian, longitudinal stripes on the mesothorax. Abdomen reddish brown, apical segments paler. Female subimago. Differs in obscurer coloration; on the top of the mesothorax there is a single wide middorsal longitudinal stripe. Known only from the St Lawrence river and Saranac Inn. Specimens are deposited at Cambridge in the Museum of comparative zoology and in the New York state museum. Nymph. Measures 4-5 mm; setae 2.3-2.5 mm additional; anten- wae.2.2 mm. Body slender, graceful, smooth, clean; brownish above, yellowish beneath and on the sutures; a narrow middorsal yellowish line, dilated on the middle-of the mesothorax, and expanded again into a quadrate spot at the front of the prothorax; paired yellowish markings beside this line, and numerous small yellowish spots nearer the sides; legs and antennae yellowish. Setae with a brownish shade near the bare tip; all fringes short; the two outer setae fringed only on the inner side. - Gills present on abdominal segments 1-7. small, separate, widely extended and fully exposed; each leaf obovate, a little oblique, with a chitinous thickened inferior border, this border, short on the foremost gill leaf, reaches the apex on the sixth one, and comprises the greater part of the narrow, reduced seventh one. The face is vertical, with the ocelli in front, somewhat as in Siphlurus. The nymph is an exceedingly agile, little fellow} darting hither and thither with astonishing speed when one tries to pick it up. A few specimens of a larger, undetermined species of Baetis were taken at the hatchery windows. Siphlurus alternatus Say Plate 11, figure 7 1324 Baetis alternatus Say, Godman’s western quart. reporter, 2: 304 1859 Baetis alternatus Leconte (ed.), Complete writings T. Say, 1: 204 1861 Baetis alternatus Hagen, Synopsis Neur. N. Am. p. 49 1862 Baetis alternatus Walsh, Acad. nat. sci. Phil. Proc. p. 369 1863 Baetis alternatus Hagen, Ent. soc. Phil. Proc. 2: 169 424 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1863 Baetis alternatus Walsh, Ent. soc. Phil. Proc. 2:189 1853 Baetis annulata Walker, List Neur. ins. Brit. mus. 3: 567 1861 Baetis annulata Hagen, Synopsis Neur. N. Am. p. 48 1876 Baetis femorata Provancher, Nat. Canadienne. 8: 267 1877 Baetis femorata Provancher, Faun. ent. du Canada. 2:83 1871 Siphlurus aunulatus Eaton, Ent. soc. Lond. Trans. p. 127 (de- scription in Latin: figures of forceps of male, and ventral abdominal markings in pl. 6, fig. 4 and 4a) 1871 Siphlurus alternatus Katon, Ent. soc. Lond. Trans. p. 129 1877 Siphiurus alternatus Provancher, Faun. ent. du Canada. 2: 83 1885 Siphlurus alternatus Eaton, Linn. soc. Lond. Trans. (2) 3:219 1892 Siphlurus alternatus Banks,Am.ent.soc. Trans. 19: 346 (listed) This handsome brown species was not observed at large, was not taken in our trap lanterns, and was only obtained by rearing nymphs. These were not uncommon in shallow water about the outlet of Little Clear pond among the debris of fallen brushwood. Doubtless the imagos might have been. found at large, had careful search been made of the shores about these same places. The nymph is a graceful.creature, and exceedingly agile. The beautiful fringes on the abdominal setae constitute a powerful tail fin, one stroke of which sends the nymph through the water with a speed the eye can hardly follow. It is exceedingly difficult to pick up one of the nymphs, when confined in a little dish of water, with a forceps, so quickly will they dart away. In a water net of some size they are easily taken, however, apparently not finding themselves ensnared till lifted from the water. A good many specimens were taken in shallow water behind a large hummock overgrown with cattails (Typha) to the north of the outlet of Little Clear pond. ‘These transformed July 21, 22 and 23, and remained in the subimago stage for more than 48 hours. in every case, undergoing the final molt during the second day after emergence from the larval skin. This species is widely distributed throughout the eastern United States. Nymph. Pl. 11, fig. 5,6 Length of body 15 mm; setae 6.5 mm additional; abdomen 9.5 mm; antennae 1 mm._ Body arched, tapering, very graceful and exceedingly well adapted for: swimming. Abdomen somewhat depressed and upcurved at the tip. Face vertically elongated, with an aspect singularly like that of the face of the common grasshopper. Head and prothorax short, each about twice as wide as Jong; meso- thorax large and prominent; abdomen a little wider in the middle, tapering slightly to the end, serrated on each side by the prolongation of the posterolateral angles of segments 1-g in sharp, single, back- wardly directed teeth, which become largest on the sides of the 8th © segment, and sharpest and thinnest on the sides of the ninth: roth segment cylindric, two thirds as wide as the ninth. r i - AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 425 Color yellowish or greenish brown, mottled with blackish brown on the dorsal side in a pattern of short streaks. Legs yellowish: femora with a band of brown just beyond the middle; other brownish marks beside or on all the leg sutures; tibia shorter than the tarsus without its claw. Setae yellow, with a whitish fringe of hairs of silky aspect; a trans- verse band of brown across them just beyond the middle, and a brownish shade near the tip. Gills present and double on segments 1-7; the posterior leaf with a chitinous ridge on its ventral (external) margin, not reaching the apex, relatively shortest on the first gill; the posterior leaf trilobed on segment. 1, bilobed on segments 2-6, and simple on segment 7; the smaller, thinner and more delicate anterior leaf bilobed on segments 1 and 2, simple on segments 3~—7, becoming very small on the seventh segment. In contrast with the gills of Heptagenia, in which the anterior leaf of the gill is thickened and protects the delicate posterior one, we have in Siphlurus the anterior leaf thin and delicate, the posterior one thickened. The latter, having muscles attached to it internally, thus becomes a swimming organ, capable of a smart backward stroke, Each acts in concert with its fellows and with the tail fin, producing a racing speed for a succession of short dashes through the water. The respira- tory gill leaf, being placed at the front, is out of the way of the stroke. Two specimens of Callibaetis ferruginea were taken at the hatchery windows during the month of August. Ephemerella excurcians Walsh 1862 Ephemerella excrucians Walsh, Acad. nat. sci. Phil. Proc. p. 377 (original description) J 1863 Ephemerella excrucians Hagen, Ent. soc. Phil. Proc. 2:178 (note) 1885 Ephemerella excrucians Eaton, Linn. soc. Lond. Trans. 3: 180 (a full description) 1892 Ephemerella excrucians Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19:347 (listed) 1871 Ephemerella invaria, in part, Eaton, Ent. soc. Lond. Trans. p. 100 Very few imagos of this interesting species were obtained, notwith- standing the nymphs were common in Little Clear creek and even in the hatchery troughs during the month of July. A single pair was bred July 10, transforming to imagos the following day. Specimens were taken at the trap lantern and from the hatchery windows. The species is known from New York, Illinois and Michigan. The nymph is no. 5 of Eaton’s monograph.! This being the type species of the genus Ephemerella, a genus the nymphs of which show considerable differences, it is the more desirable that the immature stages should be made known. 1Linn. soc. Lond. Trans. 1885. 3 :133-34, pl. 40, fig. 18-20, and pl. 64, fig. 3-7. Unknown genus: “allied to Ephemerella.”’ 426 — NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Nymph. Length 8 mm; setae 4 mm additional; abdomen 4.5 mm; antennae 1.5 mm. Head twice as wide as long ; thorax convex; legs short; tibia about equal in length to the tarsus without its claw: abdomen depressed, widened on the fourth to ninth segments, with thin latéral margins, pro- duced at the hind angles into thin, flat teeth, which appear in outline like the teeth of a circular saw; third segment with a minute tooth, first and second segments with none at all, roth segment with a low, longi- pasa lateral carina; setae fringed in the middle, nearly naked at both ends, Color dirty yellowish, darker above, paler beneath. Gills double, well developed on the fourth to the sixth segments, rudi- mentary on the first and seventh, and absent from the second and third ; the opercular anterior leaf on the fourth segment covers all the gills pos- terior to it; on the fifth and sixth segments the anterior leaf is similar in form but smaller and much thinner; the delicate posterior leaf on the fourth, fifth and sixth segments is two parted; on the first segment is a simple cylindric rudiment, jointed on a low pedicel; on the seventh segment the rudimentary gill is leaflike, single, six lobed. July 19 quite a number of nymphs were obtained, both from Little Clear creek beside the hatchery and from the hatchery troughs. Caenis diminuta Walker 1853 Caenis diminuta Walker, List neur. ins. Brit. mus. 3; 584 1861 Caenis diminuta Hagen, Synopsis Neur. N. Am. p. 55 1861 Caenis amica Hagen, Synopsis Neur. N-Am.- p. 55 1871 Caenis diminuta Eftoty Ent. soc. Lond. Trans. p. 95 (description in Latin) 1885 Caenis diminuta Eaton, Lana: soc. Lond. Trans. (2) 3: 147 (a full description) 1892 Caenis diminuta Banks, Am. ent. soe. Trans. 19: 348 (listed) This dumpy, little, nocturnal species was taken abundantly in a trap Jantern hung on the side of the boathouse at the outlet of Little Clear pond. 15 to 50 specimens were taken at a single lantern each evening from the 14th to the 18th of July. This appeared to be the season of greatest abundance for the species, It is quite variable in size and in coloration: the best colored of my specimens agree well with Eaton’s detailed description ; but the size is often much larger, reaching 5-6 mm in length. This may be due to the taking of published measure- ments from dried specimens, which are always shriveled considerably. The species is generally distributed over the eastern United States. The nymphs are common among the trash on the bottom in all quiet waters. Their inconspicuous coloration and trashy covering protect AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 427 them well. They cling closely to twigs, bark, etc., and will allow them- selves to be lifted from the water without stirring. Nymph. Length 5.5 mm; setae 3.4 mm additional; abdomen 2.5mm; antenna 2.3 mm. Body stout, with thick thorax, and short and rapidly tapering ab- domen. Color pale brownish, darker above, obscured by adherent silt, by diatoms, vorticellae, hydras, and other adherent organisms. Abdomen with large and sharp, flat teeth, made by the projecting posterolateral angles of the third to the ninth segments, largest on segment 7, smallest on segment 3. Gills present on segments 1-6; on segment 1 minute rudiments; on segment 2 thick, elytroid, covering the functional gills, squarish, the distal and external angles rounded, the basal-internal angle square; there is on the anterior face a piliferous carina, regularly arcuate, near the external margin, extending from the outer basal to the inner distal angle. The gills on segments 3-6 diminish in size posteriorly ; they have the shape of the hind wing of a pierid butterfly, and bear a long dense peripheral fringe of respiratory filaments. ‘These filaments are unilaterally several times branched on the anterior side, and are so closely crowded that they overlap in regular series around the margin of the gill leaf. They are longest at the distal end, where they exceed the length of the gill leaf itself. Setae slender, thinly fringed along both margins, the middle one appar- ently a little shorter in the males, a little longer in the females than the other two. Hexagenia variabilis Eaton Plate 16 1343-45 Palingenia limbata Pictet, Hist.nat. Neur. v.2 (Ephem.) p. 146, pl. 12 (the original description: this was Serville’s name for another species) 1353 Palingenia limbata Walker, List neur. ins. Brit. mus, 3:548 1861 Palingenia bilineata Hagen, Synopsis Neur. N. Am. p. 41 (a full description) 1862 Palingenia limbata Walsh, Acad. nat. sci. Phil. Proc. p. 373 1863 Palingenia limbata Hagen, Ent. soc. Phil. Proc. 2:176 1863 Palingenia limbata Walsh, Ent. soc. Phil. Proc. 2: 197-99 (makes the species the type of his new genus Hexagenia) 1868 Hexagenia limbata Eaton, Ent. mo. mag. 5:85 1871 Hexagenia Jimbata Eaton, Ent. soc. Lond. Traus. p. 65, pl. 1, fig. 7, and pl. 4, fig. 3 and 3a (deseription in Latin) 1885 Hexagenia variabilis Haton, Linn. soc. Lond. Trans. (2) 3:55, plod, fo. dle 1890 Hexagenia variabilis Hagen, Stett. ent. zeit. 51:11-13 (dis- tinguishes this species from bilineata Say by the form of the forceps of the male) . 1892 Hexagenia limbata Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19: 345 (listed) 428 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1888 Hexageniasp.? (probably variabilisand bilineata) Forbes, State lab. nat. hist. Bul. 3. 2: 484-85 (estimate of the value of Hexa- genia larvae as food for fishes, based on the examination of the stomach contents of 1221 fishes, representing 87 species, 63 genera, and 25 fami- lies: Hexagenia larvae constitute nearly one tenth of all the food taken). Summary in Insect life. 1888. 1: 158-61 This species was much less numerous than the other six whose life his- ‘tories are discussed here. It was found only along Little Clear creek. An occasional subimago was seen in early morning leaving the water and flying weakly to some neighboring tree trunk to rest. A single specimen was taken on the outside of a trap lantern in the morning twilight. A few were picked from the sides of the hatchery building, where they were -conspicuous on account of their size. The nymphs were easily obtained from the bottom of the creek with asievenet. They were obtainable throughout the season, this species not having.a limited period of emergence, as H. bilineata seems to have. Nymphs taken incidentally while collecting, were reared at various times from June 26 to Aug. 1. They were associated in the creek bed with Ephemera varia, described below, but were very much less num- -erous. In our eerie cages the subimago emerged one oe and transformed to the imago the night following. Nymph. PI. 16, fig. 2, 3. Length of body 27 mm; setae 12 mm more; abdomen of male 18, of female 21 mm; antenna 4.5 mm. Color yeliow, with some paler longitudinal markings on the thorax; a series of mushroom-shaped marks on abdominal segments 6-9. Head compressed ; a shelf like prominence above the base of each an- tenna, straight on its front border, round on its exterior side; the frontal prominence semi-elliptic ; mandibular tusks long, stout, upcurved, with a line of hairs on their supero-external margin. Antennae at base, and the sharp edges of the legs, and the lateral margins of the prothorax, densely clothed with long yellowish hairs. The antennae are bare at the tips and do not surpass the extended fore tarsi. .Legs (pl. 16, fig. 3) short, stout, twisted, flattened, closely applied to the sides of the body, and well adapted for burrowing ; femora and tibiae scapulate ; the tibia produced at its apex into a terminal burrowing hook and scraper, the edges bearing a stiff line of hairs; the hind foot chelate, the distal angle of the tibia forming with the opposed tarsus a pincer. Gills on segments 1-7; gill of the first segment small and shaped like a tuning fork; of the six following segments large, of a rich purplish color, two leaved, the leaves similar, lanceolate, and densely fringed with minute linear respiratory filaments, which are as long as the greatest width of the gill leaf. On the flat side of each gill leaf is a yellow, longi- tudinal median line closely bordered on either side by a line of black. All the gills are directed over the back, where they are gently waved back and forth in intermittent, graceful motion. One of the largest of our May flies; generally distributed over the United States east of the Rocky mountains. AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 429 Ephemera varia Eaton Plate 11, figures 3, 4 1861 Ephemera decora Hagen, Synopsis Neur. N. Am. p. 38 (decora was Walker’s name for another species) 1875 Ephemera decora Hagen, Rep’t U.S. geol. sur. terr. for 1873; p. 578 1885 Ephemera varia Eaton, Linn. soc. Lond. Trans. (2) 3: 69-70, pl. 63, fig. 12h 1892 Ephemera decora Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19:345 (listed) This dainty New England species was common about Little Clear creek, associated with the preceding species, with which it agrees quite closely in habits. Imagos, while not sought outside our cages, were often seen sitting lightly on the bushes near the banks of the creek. The nymphs were abundant in the bed of the creek till the first of August. Nymph. Pl 11. fig. 1,2 Length of body 18 mm; setae 8 mm addi- tional ; abdomen 11 mm; antennae 4.5 mm. Color yellowish ; abdomen with a pair of submedian, longitudinal, ‘brown streaks, laid on yellow ones, which they divide. “Antennae sparsely hairy, much surpassing the tips of the tarsi. Man- dibular tusks, approximate, slender, bare, gently up curved and divergent at the tips; femora and tibiae moderately dilated and bearing on their flattened edges copious fringes of hairs, Gills asin Hexagenia, but slenderer, and less deeply tinged with purple color. Order ODONATA Dragon flies _ The dragon flies are all aquatic. They frequent fresh water in all sorts of situations, and are probably the most important predatory aquatic insects. They are strictly carnivorous in all stages. The adults feed ona great variety of insects, and the larger dragon flies habitu- ally eat the smaller ones. The nymphs are very voracious, and in many species can- nibalistic, the larger nymphs eating the smaller ones; but they eat chiefly other aquatic insects, worms, crustaceans, fish fry, and tadpoles. The nymphs may be conveniently grouped Fig. 6 Face of nymph of Sympet- : é rum illotum Hagen, showing the according to habits as follows, enormous mask shaped labium a Burrowing nymphs, with depressed, wedged-shaped heads, abbreviated and flattened antennae, approximated fore legs, and external burrowing hooks at the ends of the fore and middle tibiae. These burrow along on the bot- tom of the pond or stream, just beneath the layer of silt, with the tip of the abdomen turned upward and reaching the water for respiration (Gomphinae) 430 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM b Squatting nymphs, with the face vertical and the eyes capping the prominent | anterolateral angles. These settle themselves on the trashy pond bottom, some of them covering themselves over completely with sand or silt, and thus await in ambuscade the approach of their prey (Cordulegasterinae,, Macromiinae, and some Libellulinae) ec Climbing and clinging nymphs, with cleaner, slenderer, more active bodies, generally showing a definite color pattern, with the head neither cuneate nor vertical in front (Agrionidae Aeschuinae, and some Libellulinae) All nymphs, when ready for adult life, crawl up some support above the edge of the water, fix their claws firmly and transform; the old nymph skin is left attached when the imago fliesaway. Since this skin pre- serves well the form of the nymph, and can be pinned for the cabinet, an easy way to gather life history mate- rial for dragon flies is to pick them up: when newly transformed and before the imagos are ready to fly, place in a coarse paper bag each imago with its. cast nymph skin, writing locality, date, etc., on the bag and closing its top, leave a day or more till the imago Fig. 7 The transformation of Plathemis assumes its mature coloration and lydia Dru. 1, 2,3, three stages in the emerg- 2 3 ence of the imago from the old nymph skin then preserve as specimens, being always careful so to label imago and nymph skin that future mixing of specimens will be impossible. The two suborders, of which but one is treated in this paper, may be readily recognized by the following characters. a Fore and hind wings similar, held vertically in repose: nymphs with three large leaflike respiratory plates at the apex of the slender abdomen, and with the body tapering posteriorly from the head. Suborder ZYGOPTERA * damsel flies aa Fore and hind wings dissimilar, the latter broader at the base: nymphs without external respiratory plates, but with a respiratory chamber in- eluded within the wide abdomen; body less slender, and not widest across the head. Suborder ANISOPTERA: dragon files proper Suborder ANISOPTERA The dragon fly fauna of New York state is somewhat more extensive than that of the few other states in which careful collecting has been ‘done. Dr P. P. Calvert has summarized the local lists of the dragon flies. of the state in the Journal of the New York entomological society,’ giving 11895, 3 : 39-48 and 1897, 5 : 91-96. AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 431 all the recorded localities of occurrence within the state. The list in- cludes 102 nominal species. In the suborder Anisoptera belong 67 of these, to which I am able to add 15 species and varieties not hitherto recorded. These are: Ophiogomphus aspersus_ Morse, O. johannus Ndm. (O.carolus Ndm. has been previously listed as O.mainensis Pack.) Gomphus abbreviatus Hag., Gom- pase semddert sel, G.quadricolor Walsh, G. furcifer fae Ge sordidus Hag, G. descriptus borealis n.: var., Cordulegaster maculatus Sel, Tetragoneuria spinosa bee cordulia shurtleffi Scudd, Ladona julia Uhl. and Leucorhinia glacialis Hag. Iam able also to describe the nymphs of all the genera herein characterized, except two: Gomphaeschna, and Micrathyria, and in many of them, to describe the nymphs of a number of species. Immature stages in this order are still very little known. Of the 80 species herein discussed, I find that the nymphs of 20 have been more or less completely described and referred to their proper species; 18 of these have been described by Hagen and Cabot, and most of them, well figured; the nymph of one of our species which occurs also in Europe, Libellula quadrimaculata Linn., has long been known in the old world; and recently E. B. Williamson has been able to get for description the nymph of Tachopteryxthoreyi Selys, our sole representative of the Petalurinae and thus to fill one of the most im- portant gaps in our knowledge of’ the immature stages. Most of these are briefly redescribed below, and 42 new descriptions are added. Thus the early-stages are more or less known for 62 of our 80 species. With three exceptions I have given herein no descriptions of imagos;: The descriptive catalogues of Calvert, Kellicott, and Williamson, and other available special papers contain descriptions which it is hardly profitable here to duplicate. In absence of these I trust the keys and tables herein given may be sufficient for the determination of the species. In the bibliographies given below, completeness has not been aimed at: the student who desires complete bibliography should consult the three following bibliographic catalogues. Hagen, H. A. Synopsis of the Odonata of America. Bost. soc. nat. hist. Proc. 1875. 18:20-96. Banks, Nathan. Synopsis, catalogue and bibliography of the neuropteroid insects of temperate North America. Am. ent. soc. Trans. 1892. 19:327-73 Kirby, W. F. Synonymic catalogue of Neuroptera Odonata, or dragon flies. Lond. 1890. 432 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Of these three papers the first named is most complete for the period it covers, and it is the only one containing any reference to the literature of the immature stages. The four descriptive papers most continuously referred to in the bibli- ographies of imagos are: Hagen, H. A. Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America. Smithsonian inst. Misc. coll. 1861. Calvert, P. P. Catalogue of the Odonata of ore Taeie and vicinity. Am ent. soc. Trans. 1898. 20: 152-272, 2pl. Kellicott. Odonata of Ohio (a posthumous paper, completed and edited by James S. Hine). O. state acid. sci. Special papers, no. 2. 1889. Williamson, E. B. Dragon flies of Indiana. Dep’t geol. and natural resources of Indiana. 24th an. rep’t 1900. p. 233-338, 7 pl. The first of these papers is out of print; the others may be obtained through the organizations under whose auspices they were published. The bibliographies given below, being solely designed to aid the user of this paper, are intended to cover the following points. 1 The original description of the species 2 The principal descriptions which have introduced synonyms 3 All available descriptions and figures in American periodicals | 4 The records of the occurrence of the species in this state; at least Calvert’s summary of such records. (In most cases I have not thought it desirable to go back of this: Calvert’s paper is cited on p. 430). 5 All available descriptions and figures of the nymphs of our species. It will be convenient to treat here as families the two groups that are so recognized in the descriptive works to which our bibliographic refer- ences refer. These may be separated by the following keys. The tech- nical terms used in the keys are explained in figures 8 to ro. KEY TO FAMILIES Lmagos a Triangle (see fig. 9) about equally distant from arculus in fore and hind wing; stigma with a brace vein at it sinner end (except in Cordule gas- COD) cpieSclaitnin sweep oman ee sta ote atone winie eetetee -Aeschnidae p. 434 aa Triangle in the hind wing much nearer the arculus than in the fore wing; stigma without brace vein... .----+---- -----e- Libellulidae p. 478 Nymphs a Labium (see fig. 8) flat or nearly so, without raptorial setae (except in Cordulegaster, which has the labium spoon shaped, and the median lobe cleft at the summit of a prominent median angle into two divergent beSbN) 2222 Deiea pose seem wine ntelmiaey mye aie pitti oellere ene eel anes Aeschnidae aa Labium mask shaped or spoon shaped, when closed covering the face up to the bases of the antennae, armed with raptorial setae....Libellulidae 433 ~~ g /, f rhptt ie ws \ th \ 4, / G ip \ ss : % Ay cS Fig. 8 Group recognition characters for dragon fly nymphs. Band D, labium and end of abdo- men of Anax junius Dru. (Aeschninae) Aand C, labium and end of abdomen of Perithemis domitia Dru. (Libellulinae) ETL 5 \ \ | a aoe NBR Cray | LA OS KRY CT) z Saat CE Y” rE pad / SX Sy SEE SC AN iC et eda sceeecss 4 POSH Seen M, Cu, Cu, ; Fig. 9 The wings of Gomphus descriptus Banks. Ccosta; Scsubcosta; Rradius; Rs radial sector; M media; Cu cubitus; A anal vein; » nodus; br bridge; ooblique vein; sn subnodus; st stigma: ar arculus; t triangle; t subtriangle; ssupratriangle:mmembranule. Branches of media, cubitus and anal vein membered at the wing mar- Sey oe dotted line in the base of the subcostal space indicates the position of the basal subcostal cross vein when developed. 434 . NEW YORK’STATE MUSEUM Family AESCHNIDAE This family contains four subfamilies that are so different in character and habits they may be best discussed separately. The following keys will serve for their separation. KEY TO SUBFAMILIES Imagos a Stigma braced at its inner end against an inclined cross vein in the space below it (see fig. 9) 6b Cubital vein in the fore wing extending directly to the hind angle of the tri- angle, not appearing forked; subtriangle consisting of one cell, or indistinctly developed ce Eyes widely separated on the top of the head.........--. Gomphinae ce Eyes approximated on the top of the head ....-.. Aeschninae p. 462 bb Cubital vein in the fore wing apparently forked at the base of the second cubito-anal cross vein; subtriangie of three cells. Petalurinae p. 472 aa Stigma without a brace vein....--...--.-.. Cordulegasterinae p. 473 Nymphs a Labium flat (or with the edges of the lateral lobes slightly upturned in . Tachopteryx), and without raptorial setae : b Labium with its median lobe entire; antennae four jointed, the fourth joint rudimentary ; fore tarsi two jointed : burrowing nymphs. Gomphinae bb Labium with a short median cleft (fig. 8B); antennae seven jointed, setaceous; tarsi three jointed; climbing nymphs, with eyes at sides of head Aeschninae bbb Labium with a shallow median cleft (fig. 15); antennae seven jointed, short; squatting nympks, with face vertical, and eyes on anterolateral angles; depressed, hairy; tarsi three jointed ..-...... Petalurinae aa Labium spoon sbaped, with raptorial setae, differs from libellulid nymphs in having the prominent median lobe of the labium cleft into two vari- ously formed teeth at apex (fig. 16)......... Cordulegasterinae Subfamily GOMPHINAE Mostly large species, with clear wings, bodies striped with black and green or yellow, of strong but not well sustained flight, inhabiting mostly Fig. 10 Diagram illustrating the parts of the head and thorax chiefly used in the tables (Lan thus albistylus Selys). Ahead seen from front; eeye; ffrons; pposteclypeus; qanteclly peus; rlabrum: sedge of labium; tside of mandible; ugena: vu vertex, bearing the three ocellé and the antennae; oocciput. B Thorax from-the side; m prothorax; n abdomen; a and bd consoli- dated meso- and metathorax; bcollar; ecarina; dcrest; x, y, zfirst (humeral), second and third. latural sutures and stripes; 2 and 3, bases of middle and hind legs respectively AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 435 flowing or clear water; abundantly represented throughout New York state. The nymphs are burrowers in the beds of streams and ponds. The females oviposit unattended by the males, and liberate their eggs in the water during flight by descending repeatedly and striking the surface of the water with the tip of the abdomen. The eggs have a scanty envelop of gelatin; they tend apart in falling, to lie scattered on the bottom, where they are at once hidden by the silt which adheres to the gelatin. The following key will serve for the separation of the genera likely to be found within our limits. KEY TO GENERA L[magos a Basal subcostal cross vein (see fig. 9) present; a linear or spatalate, median, sternal process on the first abdominal segment; legs very short, the hind femora hardly reaching the apex of the first abdominal seg- EE SE maestros chee c eats s bine edie, Sea shine lec acipte Progomphus aa No basa] subcostal cross vein; no median sternal process oa the first abdominal segment; legs longer, the hind femora reaching or surpassing the middle of the second abdominal segment b Hind wings with a distinct anal loop (see fig. 18 a) consisting of several cells ¢ Analloop normally consisting of three cells; first and fifth antenodal cross veins matched in position and hypertrophied; stigma broad with both sides convex; triangles not traversed by cross veins-Ophiogomphus ec Anal loop consisting normally of four cells; first and seventh antenodel eross veins matched in position and hypertrophied; stigma long and narrow with parallel sides; each triangle divided by a cross-vein Hagenius p. 440 6b Hind wings with no distinct anal loop, or with one consisting of a single cell e Triangle of the fore wing one third shorter than that of the hind wing ; generally a single cell between the bases of veins A2 and A3 .-Lanthus ec Triangle of the fore wing less than one fourth shorter than that of the hind wing; generally, two or more cells between Ag and A3 at their origin d Hind femora naked, or with numerous short spines Gomphus, sens. lat. p. 443 dd Hind femora with five to seven long, strong spines Dromogomphusp. 461 Nymphs a Middle legs more approximate at the base than are the fore legs; fourth seg- ment of the antenna slender, erect, about as long as the third segment is _wide; 10th abdominal segment about as long as the ninth Progomphus aa Middle legs not more (usually less) approximate than the fore legs at base; the fourth segment of the antenna a mere rudiment, orbicular or discoid, much shorter than the third segment is wide; 10th abdominal segment much shorter than the ninth 436 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM bb Wing cases laid closely parallel along the back; lateral lobe of labium ending in a sharp, incurved hook : ce Abdomen very thin and flat, circular in outline as seen from above; third segment of antenna flat and subcireular........---....-.. Hagenius ce Abdomen less depressed, ovate to lanceolate in outline, at least twice as long as wide d Third joint of antenna very flat, thin, and in outline circalar or broadly:ovalq2els20 eRe « tide eameo: Sed eee eas Lanthus. dd Third joint of antenna elongate, linear, little flattened e Dorsum of the ninth abdominal segment rounded, or with alow, obtuse, median longitudinalridge, . Lect eee acca Gompbhus, sens. lat. ee Ninth abdominal segment with a sharp middorsal ridge, ending in a straipht apical spine: sooio5 --5-<- sen me Pets dat Dromogomphus The genus Progomphus has not yet been found in New York state, but it will probably be eventually. Itranges from Massachusetts. southward and westward across the continent, a single P. obscurus Selys, having been taken in the whole northeastern United States. OPHIOGOMPHUS Four species of this genus are known from New York state. A fifth, O. mainensis Packard is in our lists, but erroneously, I believe. The specimens on which the record is based are in the Lintner collec- tion and in the museum of comparative zoology. I have examined them all, and they certainly belong to O.carolus Ndm., which I believe to be a distinct species. The error seems to have come in the associating of males of O. carolus from New York with the female type of O.mainensis. Our four species may be separated as follows. KEY TO THE NEW YORK SPECIES I[magos a Sides of the middle and hind femora yellow; the inferior abdominal appendage of the male narrower than the superiors, not visible from above | b No black line on the third lateral suture (fig. 10) of the thorax; abdominal segments mostly yellowish or brownish, marked with black apically rupinsulensis bb Third lateral suture of the thorax black, middle abdominal segments black on the dorsal side...... i ayia: okey Seale eet oe eo oleae eee aspersus aa Sides of the middle and hind tarsi black; the inferior, abdominal appendage of the male wider than the superiors, its lateral angles visible from above ec Forks of the inferior abdominal appendage of the male apparently again forked, the apex of each bearing two strong, upcurved teeth separated by a. deep rounded, notch. 5.52 .ce om sano bee nee analy eee johannus AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS AST ce Forks of the inferior abdominal appendage of the male ending bluntly, the ooimse angles bearing low teeth -.....---2-.- /-cc.-eccns----: carolus. For the differential characters of other North American species, see my paper “ Ophiogomphus” in the Canadian entomologist, 1899, aib2a3-30, pl. 5. Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis Walsh 1862 Erpetogomphus rupinsulensis Walsh, Acad. nat. sci. Phil. Proc. p. 388 (original description) 1890 Diastatomma rupinsulense Kirby, Cat. Neur. Odon. p. 61 (bibli- ography) 1892 Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19:351 (listed) 1893 Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis Calvert, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 20 : 242 (description) 1894 Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis Banks, Can. ent. 26:77 (listed from Ithaca) 1895 Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis Calvert, N. Y. ent. soc. Jour. 3: 44 (listed from Ithaca) 1897 Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis Calvert, N. Y. ent. soc. Jour. 5:93 (listed from Schoharie) 1897 Herpetogompkus pictus Needham, Can. ent. 29: 181-82 (descrip- tion) 1899 Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis Needham, Can. ent. 31: 236, pl. Do, fis. 3, 12,21, 30 and 31 1899 Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis Kellicott, Odon. Ohio, p. 53-54 (full description) 1900 Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis, Williamson, Dragon fiies Ind. p. 298 (full description) This handsome, widely ranging species has been taken at several places in the state. It was not met with at Saranac Inn, ‘The nymph is unknown. Ophiogomphus aspersus Morse 1895 Ophiogomphus aspersus Morse, Psyche, 7:209 (original de- scription) 1899 Ophiogomphus aspersus Needham, Can. ent. 31: 236, pl. 5, fig. 2, 11, 20 and 29 This species, hitherto known from three somewhat immature specimens in the Museum of comparative zoology, was common at Saranac Inn. Many imagos of both sexes were observed flying. over Little Clear creek in the places where the shallow current rippled over sand. ‘The males would fly back and forth a few times and then rest for a time on some prominent twig near shore, generally on the higher bank. They were not difficult to approach or to capture when at rest. Except when oviposit- 438 ; NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ing, the females seemed to remain less of the time in the vicinity of the water. The female makes a succession of sweeps back and forth near the head of some little riffle, striking the water, after short flights, again and again near the same place, leaving her eggs in it. Imagos, living and mature, are of a rich, deep green color with the usual oblique stripes of blackish brown. Unfortunately, the color fades readily, even where daylight is excluded. The few imagos which I took the time to gather were nearly all netted while resting on a water pipe which crosses a riffle just below the railroad bridge. The nymphs were very common in the sandy bed of the creek. A great many were raked up and sifted out with a sieve net while collecting for other material. The cast skins were abundant along the banks through the months of June and July, sticking to whatever support offered, within a foot of the edge of the water. | Nymph. (pl. 18, fig.5) Total length 27.5 mm; abdomen 17.5 mm; hind femur 5 mm; width of head 5 mm, of abdomen 7.5 mm. Legs, genae, sides of the antennae, and lateral margins of the abdomen, hairy ; the general dorsum nearly bare ; well developed burrowing hooks at the apices of the fore and middle tibiae. Abdomen ovalin outline as seen from above, abruptly narrowed on the ninth segment; the roth segment one third shorter than the ninth; the lateral abdominal appendages two thirds as long as the others; very short, subequal lateral spines on the seventh to the ninth segments ; dorsal hooks represented on the second to ninth segments by blunt rudi- ments, which are erect on the front and posteriorly directed on the hind segments, each surmounting a low transverse ridge, which extends across the dorsum and disappears down on the sides oneach segment. Anterior two thirds of each segment, including this ridge, prickly granulate; posterior third polished, shining, smooth. Mentum of labium one third longer than wide, dilated beyond its basal third and upturned so as to be flaring upward at its edges; median lobe distinctly rounded and fringed with flat scales, and bordered be- sides with a row of low, broad, rectangular teeth; lateral lobe incurved, rounded on the apex and not bearing a terminal hook or sharp angle, its internal margin bordered with a row of 12 to 15 low teeth. _ Color greenish or brownish, with paler and darker mottlings; apical pale rings on all femora; a pair of transversely elongate whitish spots on the dorsum of the seventh abdominal segment, repeated on the eighth seg- ment, but there divided into two spots each side; a whitish spot each side of the roth segment beside the base of the superior appendage; tips of all the abdominal appendages whitish. The nymph is a rapid burrower, trailing along at slight depth through nearly clean sand under the currents, often leaving a faint line behind showing where the tip of the abdomen, upturned for respiration, has pushed the sand grains aside. AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 439 Ophiogomphus carolus Needham Plate 20, fig. 1-4, 6,7 1897 Ophiogomphus caroius Needham, Can. ent. 29: 183, pl. 7, fig. 1, 2, 3,4, 6,7 1899 Ophiogomphus carolus Needham, Can. ent. 31: 235-36, pl. 5, fig. Ny 1 and 28 This species, abundant at Ithaca N. Y. and taken at several other places in the state, was not met at Saranac Inn. It is a very secre- tive species, few imagos being seen, even where nymphs are excessively abundant. Like the preceding species, the nymphs prefer the sandy beds of running streams, Nymph. Total length 26 mm; abdomen 17 mm; hind femur 4.5 mm; width of head 5 mm, of abdomen 7.5 mm. Body moderately depressed, widest across the sixth abdominal seg- ment, suddenly narrowed on the ninth segment. All ventrolateral mar- gins closely fringed with soft hairs. Color yellowish, the surface abund- antly sprinkled with brownish granulations visible under a lens. Abdomen with lateral spines on segments 7-9, a little increasing in length posteriorly, but on the ninth segment distinctly shorter than the roth segment. Dorsal hooks on these same segments developed as small blunt posteriorly directed prominences, which hardly surpass the narrow, bare apical band on their respective segments, longest on segment g, and decreasing in size anteriorly so as to be barely represented on segments 6, 5, 4. F ae as in O. aspersus, but with the 12 to 16 teeth on’ the inner margin of the lateral lobe a little longer and more angulate at tips. Easily distinguished from the nymph of O. asperus by the unequal development of the dorsal hooks on the abdominal segments. This species is very common at Ithaca N. Y. Few imagos have been taken at large, and, indeed, they are rarely met with; but the nymphs may be collected by hundreds from Six Mile creek in spring, and they are very easily reared. Ophiogomphus johannus Needham : Plate 20, fig. 5 1897 Ophiogomphus johannus Needham, Can. ent. 29: 182, pl. 7, fig. 5 1899 Ophiogomphus johannus Needham, Can. ent. 31; 235, pl. 5, fig. 9, 18 and 27 The type of this species in the Cornell university collection is from Wilmurt N. Y., and was collected by Prof. J. H. Comstock. Since describing this somewhat immature specimen, I have seen specimens col- lected in Maine by Prof. Harvey, and in western Pennsylvania by Mr ‘Williamson. From these I learn that the terminal abdominal append- ages of the male are not well represented in the figures I have published.! 1Can. ent. 1897. 29; 182, pl. 7, fig. 9, 18. 440° NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The superiors are well enough (and in these the chief distinctions between this species and O. carolinus Hagen lie), but the inferior is incorrect. It is shrunken in the type from which the figure was drawn; it should be shown almost exactly as in O. carolinus, which is correctly repre- sented in fig. 8 and 17 of the same plate. Mature specimens show also a deep green color on the thorax, and often, the humeral and antehumeral stripes of blackish brown entirely separated at their upper ends. The cast skin, pinned with the type, is not in fit condition for descrip- tion, and the nymph is therefore practically unknown. HAGENIUS There is a single North American species. Hagenius brevistylus Selys 1854 Hagenius brevistylus Selys, Acad. Belg. (2) Bul. 21: 82 1861 Hagenius brevistylus Hagen, Synopsis Neur. N. Am. p. 114 1890 Hagenius brevistylus Kirby, Cat. Neur. Odon. p. 75 (bibliography) ~ 1890 Hagenius brevistylus Beutenmiiller, Dragon files vs mosquitos. p. 163 (listed from vicinity of New York) 1892 Hagenius brevistylus Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19; 352 (listed) 1893 Hagenius brevistylus Calvert, Am. ent, soc. Trans. 20; 241 (de- scription) 1894 Hagenius brevistylus Banks, Can. ent. 26:77 (listed from Ithaca) 1895 Hagenius brevistylus Calvert, N. Y. ent. soc. Jour. 3; 44 (review of lists) 1899 Hagenius brevistylus Kellicott, Odon. Ohio, p. 52-53 (good de- scription ) 1900 Hagenius brevistylus Williamson, Dragon flies Ind. p. 282-83 good description) Nymph 1872 Hagenius brevistylus Cabot, Immature state Odon. pi 2, p. 9, pl. 3,. fig. 4 . : 1885 Hageninus brevistylus Hagen, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 72: 279-80 (very full description) 1897 Hagenius brevistylus Needham, Can. ent. 29:168 (characters: stated in table for gomphine nymphs) This big species frequents clear streams, and is common throughout New York state. It is very striking as an adult on account of its great size and black color, and its nymph (pl. 18, fig. 7} is a most grotesque creature. At Saranac Inn the species was common along Little Clear creek.. The nymphs were found in the midst of the trash on the bed of the stream, and, during the season of transformation, exuviae dotted the banks rather conspicuously. Few imagos were seen at large. These fly swiftly from one resting place to another about the stream. They are AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 441 easy to approach and proved not very difficult to capture with a net, when resting on the bridges crossing the stream. The eggs aré dropped by the female during flight. She descends and strikes the water repeatedly, at points wide apart: 10 to 20 eggs are liberated at each descent. Thus they are well distributed. Each egg (pl. 19, fig. 2) is somewhat spindle formed in outline with rounded ends,. at first of whitish color, becoming yellowish after a few hours. The ovaries of a teneral female from a breeding cage contained no eggs that. were nearly mature; a considerable time must elapse after transformation before oviposition can take place. Nymphs of various sizes are always found together. ‘These sizes fall into three or more possible groups of sizes, which may indicate a developmental period of four or more years duration. In other localities I have observed that the nymphs are likely to be found about the deep holes in the creek bed, under lodged driftwood, etc.; but in Little Clear creek they were found everywhere. Even in the shallow fish ponds made by impounding the creek they were so common on the bottom that one or more could be taken anywhere at almost every haul of the sieve net. 11 exuviae were picked from the boarded side of one of the ponds in a distance of 20 yards. The nymph has been well described by Hagen and figured by Cabot (4. cc.). There is no need of repeating the description here, since it will be at once recognized by plate 18, figure 7, and by the characters given in the table. LANTHUS This genus includes the smallest and the daintiest of our Gomphinae, black species, striped with green. Its two species probably both occur within the state of New York, though but one of them, L. parvulus, has been recorded for the state hitherto. They may be easily distin- guished as follows. UM oOmiUlialynppemdages, lacks. 23 oss sccec. auch cc elece ese ts ctee ee parvulus Abdominal appendages yellow or whitisb..........-....---.---- albistylus Lanthus parvulus Selys 1854 Gomphus parvulus Selys, Acad. Belg. (2) Bul. 21:56 1857 Gomphus parvulus Selys, Monographie des Gomphinae, p. 157 1861 Gomphus parvulus Hagen, Synopis Neur. N. Am. p. 109 1890 Aeshna parvula Kirby, Cat. Neur. Odon. p. 65 (bibliography) 1892 Gomphus parvulus Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19: 352 (listed) 1893 Gomphus parvulus Calvert, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 20: 242 (descrip- tion) 442 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 1894 Gomphus parvulus Banks, Can. ent. 24:77 (recorded from Ithaca) 1895 Gomphus parvulus Calvert, N. Y. ent. soc. Jour. 3:44 (recorded from Ithaca) 1897 Gomphus parvulus Needham, Can. ent. 29: 165, 166, 167 (made the type of anew genus, Lanthus: nympb, found at Ithaca N. Y. identified with those described by Dr Hagen from Rocky creek Ky. in Trans. Am. ent. soc. 1885, 12: 281 and doubtfully referred by him to Uropetala (Tachopteryx) thoreyi: nymph figured, pl. 7, fig. 8-10) The habits of the imagos of this species are unknown. The few speci- mens I was able to obtain at Ithaca in 1897 were all bred, and I saw no imagos at large. The nymphs are very interesting little fellows, quite as different in certain habits as they are in structure and appearance from other gomphines. They seem to prefer little, trickling streams fed by springs, and burrow in beds of sand in the deeper parts. ‘They are more agile than other gomphine nymphs, burrow more rapidly, and, when with- drawn from the water, unlike others, they feign death, and lie quite still for a number of minutes. On account of this habit, as well as on account of the mottled coloration of the body, they are much more diffi- cult to detect while collecting than are the others which begin active struggling as soon as the net is lifted above the water. Nymph. (PI. 18, fig.6 and 20, fig.8-10) Totallength 23 mm; abdomen 14 mm; hind femur 5 mm; width of head 5 mm, of abdomen 6 mm. Body somewhat depressed, a little hairy on the genae and on the tibiae, elsewhere bare; head concave on the hind margin; antennae, with the two basal segments short and angular, the first a little larger, the articulation between the first and second a little oblique, the third segment obliquely oval, flat, one third longer than wide, with a depressed smooth oval area within the scurfy pubescent marginal rim, the fourth segment a minute round rudiment, at the inner apical angle of the third ; jabium mentum a little longer than broad, its front border appearing convex by the rounded fringe of scales, in the midst and at the base of which are four to six brown, minute quadrangular teeth; lateral lobe little arcuate, the distal angle produced and inclined internally, but hard- ly differentiated from the six teeth on the inner margin, these teeth all largest in the middle, and a line connecting their summits would be con- ‘vex internally. Abdomen stocky, widened to the seventh segment, and thereafter nar- rowed, most narrowed on the ninth segment; no dorsal hooks at all, but a median impressed line ending on the seventh segment; lateral spines well developed on segments 8 and g, on g broadly triangular, and con- siderably shorter than the roth segment, against the sides of which they are closely applied; roth segment one half as long as the eighth, one third as long as the ninth, three fifths as long as the superior and inferior appendages; three fourths as long as the others. AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 443 Lanthus albistylus Selys 1878 Gomphus albistylus Selys, Acad. Belg. (2) Bul. 46: 460 (original description of 9 from Maine) 1878 Gomphus naevius Acad. Belg. (2) Bul. 46: 462 (original description of 6 from Pennsylvania) 1890 Aeshna albistyla Kirby, Cat. Neur. Odon. p. 66 (bibliography) 1890 Aeshna naevius Kirby, Cat. Neur. Odon. p. 66 (bibliography) 1892 Gomphus albistylus Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19: 351 (listed) 1892 Gomphus albistylus Banks, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 19: 352 (listed) 1893 Gomphus albistylus Calvert, Am. ent. soc. Trans. 20; 242 (deserip- tion) 1898 Gomphus albistylus Harvey, Ent. news. 9: 63-65 (description, figure and notes) Still known only from Maine and Pennsylvania, in which states, how- ever, Prof. F. L. Harvey and E. B. Williamson, respectively, have col- lected a goodly number of specimens of both sexes. There is in the Cornell university collection a specimen lacking half the abdomen, probably of this species, from North Carolina. The nymph is not known (unless the ones described by Hagen should prove to be of this species, instead of L. parvulus, as I have supposed. I have not compared my own nymphs with Hagen’s types). GOMPHUS The United States is the center of abundance for this great genus, and it is nowhere better represented than in New York state. Our list includes 17 regional species, only two of which have not yet been act- ually taken in the state. They are species of medium or large size, often very local, and locally very abundant. They are found about water, and in woods and copses adjacent to it. They are often flushed from a bare path or roadway; they are perhaps most commonly seen resting flat on the surface of some log which stretches its length across a. stream; they rarely perch atop a slender twig after the manner of the skimmers (libellulines). Our species fly mainly in June, though G. scudderi is a midsummer, and G. spiniceps a late summer species. The nymphs form a most important part of the bottom fauna in all clear waters. They are active burrowers, taking their prey either on or beneath the surface of the bottom silt. They are very rapacious, and will eat almost any living animals small enough to be held by their pow- erful grasping labia. ‘The nymphs are highly specialized for their pecu- liar life. They are more unlike than are the imagos, and in general more 444 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM easily reterable at a glance to their place in the genus. The imagos ex- hibit with slight variations one color pattern, one plan of venation, one habitus, and are therefore not easy to distinguish. I give below an arti- ficial key to 2id in the recognition of our species, and follow it with a synoptic arrangement of the genus, in which is included a statement of the more important characters of lesser groups within the genus. For all of these I prefer to retain the old generic name Gomphus till more of the nymphs are known. ARTIFICIAL KEY TO IMAGOS i: Face-entirely yellow ....2- <<. --. 5. ac cee cbesee cece ae eens Sone ee 2 Face yellow, transversely banded with black... -.-.....--.. .-.-..---- ---2e. 10 Face suffused with brownish black; large, very elongate species, with a dis- tinct analloop of a single cell, a pair of narrow oblique yellow stripes on the dark background of the thoracie dorsum. =. - 52.52 =- <2. eee 14 2 Hind margin of the occiput with a distinct median tooth. .-.. villosipes % r . oN f rt fs bY ; 1 , Plate 8 Photo by C. Betten Shore of Little Bog pond to 4 i a ae ii Plate 9 Photo from life, by J. G. Needham Sparganium with Icng-horned leaf-beetles (Donacia): larval and pupal eases on the roots Plate 10 James B, Lyon, State Printer L. H. Joutel, 1900 rlis lacis inia ¢g 2 Leueorh : ee * ae" ; Mi ba eNom oe GE HEN VEER EE NEED 8 PEN NE TERE Fete EVP ERS T LEY PPI Y CPN GV NER TATE Perera re eerie: Meramec en ns Plate 11 State Printer Piate 12 L. H. Jout tel, 1960 Plate 13 James B. Lyon, State Printer L. H. Joutel, 1900 Caddis flies Plate 14 L. H. Joutel, 1900 James B. Lyon, State Printer Sepedon and Tetanocera Plate 15 oat Fi od s x % & t | ' L. H. Joutel, 1900 James B. Lyon, State Printer Simulium society Plate 16 Plate 17 eee 2 1 Aeschna constricta Say 2 Gomphus scudderi Selys Plate 18 8 Photos by J. G. Needham Dragon-fly nymphs Plate 19 \ ACE ee esbS aniaee re att SNC SS ee 5 Hggs of nine genera of dragon-flies fers: Gaee'f Plate 20 From Canadian entomologist v. 29, pl. 7 (1897) Structural characters of Gomphinae Plate 21 PSRs tot 8 ZR $e Photo from life by J. G. Needham. Drawing by Mrs J. G. Needham. 9 - 1 Somatochlora elongata Selys 2 Epicordulia princeps Hagen CORDULINAE ; Drawing by Mrs J. G. Needham Photo by H. N. Howland 2 1 Epicordulia princeps Hagen 9 2 Tetragoneuria spinosa Selys ¢ nat. size CORDULINAE Plate 23 3 Sa” aS OS TE aes 1 Libellula semifasciata Burm. 2 Libellula pulchella Dru. LIBELLULINAE ai) % “a 0 i Nor= : Thy AL ; * ey, ante a” ‘ SL uae ma AG an eg esd ne a é c w . “ % . M4 ry ' { ! z v4 : ‘ “ af ; , : 1 . a hen it ce a fi iis gt iy “ysis ’ ; . { ie a ake ryan De; y t ry i OF ge F ; i 5 - 1 J % . Plate 24 Peo es, Ses : e Skeeter mt mA Sei Se) Ge 1 Plathemis lydia Drury 2 Celithemis eponina Drury 3,4 Perithemis domitia Drury, $ and @ LIBELLULINAE *; " whe i fi) 1g ft ps te Plate 25 1S. illotum Hagen 2S. semicinctum Say NYMPHS OF SYMPETRUM Plate 26 Photo from life by J. G. Needham, nat. size 1 Photo of living but partly anesthetized specimen by J. G. Needham 2 1 Chauliodes serricornis Say, newly transformed 2 Polystoechotes punctatus Say NEUROPTERA ' Plate 27 Photos from life by J. G. Needham ; Chauliodes serricornis Say Plate 28 sl (After Riley) Horned Corydalis, Corydalis cornuta Fees HAY et ed a Pansie ay Plate 29 ee Rs C; x 2 3 Drawings by Miss Anthony” Sialis infumata Walk Plate 30 poset REL Ba dl OS k Drawings by Mrs J. H. Comstock 1 Phryganea cinerea Walk. 2 Goniotaulius dispectus Walk. 3 Halesus indistinctus Hagen CADDIS FLIES ; Plate 31 Drawings by Mrs J. H. Comstock 1 Halesus hostis Hagen 2 Halesus species CADDIS FLIES Plate 32 Drawings by Mrs J. H. Comstock Caddis flies larvae and pupae “i a o a ee 2 & « 2 hed bes i Gee . ; s i a : i] 4 F j = "i, ur + ¢ r By Te YS 4 7 ‘ , } 9 a <> * wy 7 } eit: ... A ee a eas 7 Oy; 1 ee ip. © Zo ay be Ns rec rt) PreeAL f Lory. ee tise ae ta ae ; - aa Plate 33 3 Photo from life by C. Betten 4 Drawings (fig. 1-3) by Mrs J. H. Comstock Caddis fly cases and eggs ier " Plate 34 3 Drawings by Mrs J. H. Comstock 1 Leptocerus resurgens Walk. 2 Triaenodes ignita Walk. 3 Hydropsyche scalaris Hagen CADDIS FLIES a ae Reval, Lene die ae wh ie eae an) pote us rae Ap mh wee ahi, sh 2 1 Stratiomyia badius Walk. 2 Tipula abdominalis Say @ nat. size DIPTERA Plate Drawing by Miss Anthony Photo by H. N. Howland 39 Plate 36 eee otto Lee Serle at es if ss Anthony Mi Fig. 3, 4. Drawings by ipennis Loew 1,2 Tipula abdominalis Say 3 Sepedon fuse 4 Tetanocera pictipes Loew DIPTERA AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 597 TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. PAGE Prince nia OF SATAUAC, TOMIOWs seen. e oaicie socelnn owt occn eectee ses sce 386 Map of Saranac Inn and vicinity Bese ae aeek = ces Wolke oamcntig cen male's 388 PETC TG ee ac le a ors meets ceieisee aa ecee ste Oe ete eet ate 398 PLIES CTOL CUTE ta AN ee celia as dace vs om aint wine tewcev et Hace Gemdae 398 eta lantern, S6ChiOnal GiagtaM.. 22... .c- .o5. 1a ce ceeeceee cc cmaeladme seule 399 mice trs tenella, parts of adult. -..-..---. ws20. ee ceee cece cies 416 5 a WHE Rewaise. 2 ooelaacesccutGe+ Jeccce scemes eeceee 417 | 6 Face of dragon fly nymph (Soom yet aim: do tw mi) 3.2 6c. kc mec 429 7 Transformations of dragon fly (Plathemis lydia) .......-.....--. 430 8 Dragon fly nymph characters ......A---..----. --s0- a adssis wmereeysa Cems 433 Sepraponiiy wings (Gomphus deseriptus) ...2+-.---- ..---ceccees 433 10 Dragon fly head and thorax ...... A CEPR oe Re So eS ie Sok See 434 11 Gomphus descriptus, genitalia.......... 2 poem ate dite wale aemrmanrs 453 12 es borealis, n. var., genitalia ...........----- 453 13 Epiaeschna heros, labium .............-- Doe atte dot miata he ereiieee eee 469 Peete janis, Nymphs....... .---. cee Bites stare ae hia Sta ree ia Vai siotaa 471 15 Tachopteryx thoreyi, labium antenna ......-........----. .... 473 16 Cordulegaster maculatus, nymph labium.....-...........-- ~ ATT 17 Libellulid nymph labium (Perithemis domitia) ............ 478 18 « wing venation (Leucorhinia glacialis)......... 479 PERO ty Fila, ORGS. oo oes sect wee ean so Soccer na bineanceiccceup case 491 20 i Cy NoOsuTra, nymph characters, i<--5. 0.2.20 <.<~ 492 SeuEMOMRCIMOLT CT) 1 2 CONILALIA: oa ocd « cercwie ee ee ve *% woe ee ed * - Pe ders RD Matilde Py ¥ Per ey i ie tale OR ek a ee i oe ee ot nl ira ~, ene le ee ah ay at > oy aces ehhh: hae 9 at G8 fe ee ie, BSE AED oi ec fat Oe: aa ae wee os) ae aim eS im Sap elle nts hee de rns 4 Bin oh x SIPS her Digs i sek a ee oe, el mk tr a sarah ee eo og Z c “ j : : 5 “eo a a ee Bie ee A : f : Saat 5 oS ; PY) ee ee ee ce ee an a eee ea ee ea el le a eehee eR ee a "2 bes a ch opt Ne eT ke ee a Re Ok i aia! Sy eR ee it et ah hy aaa eye s4 ia Oa da : ‘ie , 4 i CRE: eeu HS Fm wat Shh Pe a ee ee Bee ee a eso em Pray are Aaa teat see’ [o * we ' it “ « 4 s % ip i it Oe i ee Oa % ae j in ee mina Mi ive AL, he ey a eS at Be ape ro reo Cie ea ae seed} > ae oe See se Pe TERS NS Pian SE ee As 288. a ae Breas: eae mies iw eS Oa _SAIOHS _ er Ente etre if Pe vid chek ie ead vid sion bart as aS ee ee es hel tas asitie, ta iin eee’ ms ogres, daueigs ate Nahe minh ty A BS ~ *y: . y 4 ¢ 9 Le pln a See OR ei ae a mY, Ma ; ¢ - ‘ ae : age any Wea, aed chute ah eae a 8 enor \ , wee PRs hs eee eae eR Alen & PS 4 v 5 Ne : pot aiprid aa eR ee a a a PY i - » 4 i‘ Sree CO Seyi ere ¥ ‘ mtr tee us re ? e Aah en ty ie tig an a eyed, ee EN DEX The superior figures tell the exact place on the page in ninths; e. g. 458° means page 458, beginning in the third ninth of the page, i.e. about one third of the way down. abbreviata, Aeshna, 448°. abbreviatus, Gomphus, 4458, 448°. abdominalis, Ctenophora, 575°. Tipula, 410°, 498', 573°, 575°-76°; explanation of plates, 596’, 596°. Acrididae, 582°-83?. Acroneuria, 413°. adelpha, Aeshna, 451°. adelphus, Gomphus, 445’, 446°, 451°- 524, Aeschna, 468°, 464*, 4697-70*. clepsydra, 469°. econstricta, 4027, 403°, 405*, 407°, 469°, 4707; explanation of plate, 593°. fraterna, 451’. janata, 466%. minor, 4667. pentacantha, 467°. quadriguttata, 464’. spiniferus, 470%. verticalis, 469°. vinosa, 464’. Aeschnidae, 432°, 432°, 434!-78°. Aeschninae, 4307, 434°, 484°, 462°-72°. Aeshna abbreviata, 448°. adelpha, 451°. albistyla, 4437. brevis, 4497. heros, 4687. multicineta, 468". naevius, 443%. parvula, 441°, quadricolor, 452°. spicata, 459°. vasta, 458°. villosipes, 460%. 4317, 444’, Agrionidae, 4307. albicincta, Somatochlora, 485’. albifrons, Diplax, 525°. Libellula, 525°. Sympetrum, 521', 521’, 525°. albilatus, Tipula, 575°. albistyla, Aeshna, 4437. albistylus, Gomphus, 443°. Lanthus, 443°. Alder flies, 541+. alternatus, Baetis, 423°. Siphlurus, 391°, 423°-255; planation of plate, 591%. Alysiidae, 5877-887. amanda, Diplax, 516. Amber wing, 512'-13°. Amblystoma, 402’. amica, Caenis, 426°. ex- -amnicola, Gomphus, 444°, 447°, 456°%. Amphipods, 409°. Anax, 463°, 464‘, 4707-72°. junius, 4838, 471?-72°; tion of plate, 593°. longipes, 470°. anchora, Notoxus, 403%. angulatum, Trichiosoma, 584°. Anisoptera, 3977, 430°-%40*; explana- tion of plate, 593°. annulata, Baetis, 424+. annulatus, Siphlurus, 424’. annulosus, Strongylogaster, 584°. Ant lions, 540%. Anthicid beetle, 403%. Anthony, M. H., figures of Diptera, Plecoptera and Ephemerida by, 399°. Aphidius nigripes, 403°, 588°. Aphids, 4037, Aphis lions, 540*. explana- 600 Apparatus and methods, 397°-99%. areolaris, Climacia, 5587. Argia violacea, 402°, 405%, 407%. Arigomphus, 447°-48%. Ashmead, W. H., cited, 393°; ac- knowledgments to, 399°; descrip- tions of five new parasitic Hy- menoptera, 586°-89*. Asindulum montanum, 574%. aspersus, Ophiogomphus, 403’, 405%, 407°, 4317, 4868, 4377-88°; explana- tion of plate, 593°. assimilata, Libellula, 524%. assimilatum, Sympetrum, 403’, 405°, 5217, 521°, 522°, 524°, astigma, Rhizarcha, 403°, 587°-887. aterrima, Chimarrha, 573°. Atractodes, 584°. gravidus, 589%. sepedontis, 584*, 5&87-89°. auripennis, Libellula, 531°, 5327, 532°. axillena, Libellula, 532’, 583°, 583°. badius, Stratiomyia, 574°, 576-77; explanation of plate, 596%. Baetinae, 419°, Baetis, 408%, 419*. alternatus, 423°. annulata, 424. femorata, 424", pygmaea, 3937, 408’, 405°, 421°- 23°; explanation of plate, 592°. Baetisea, 419°. obesa, 420°. Baker, F. C., acknowledgments to, 399%. Banks, Nathan, acknowledgments to, 399", 563*; cited, 414°, 417%, 418°, 431°, 563°, basalis, Libellula, 531°, 5327, 532°. Basiaeschna, 463’, 464°. janata, 403", 407*, 466?-67%. Beetles, 396%, 4057, 412%. bella, Nannophya, 509°. Nannothemis, 509°. berenice, Diplax, 528%. Libellula, 528%. Micrathyria, 528%. Betten, Cornelius, study of caddis flies, 397°, 561'-73°. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Bibliographies of Odonata, 431°-32°. bicolor, Dolerus, 584°. bilineata, Chloroperla, 409*, 414°-15". Palingenia, 4277. Sialis, 414°. Biologic features of locality, 385*- 92°, Birge, E. A., acknowledgments to, 399%. bistigma, Libellula, 534°. Bittacomorpha clavipes, 404°, 498', 574?, 575°. Black flies, 407°, 408*, 408°, 4094, 574°. Blasturus, 419". Blueberry island, 390°. Bog ponds, 391'-92°. Bombyliidae, 575°. Bone pond, 3897-90". boscii, Tetanocera, 575’. 410’, | Boyeria, 463°, 464°, 464°-667. vinosa, 407*, 464°-667. Brachycentrus, 5647. Brachystropha quadriceps, 403°, 587’. Braconidae, 588?-89*. Brauer, F., cited, 578°. brevis, Aeshna, 449?. Gomphus, 4077, 4457, 445°, 449'- 50°; explanation of plate, 593%. brevistylus, Hagenius, 394’, 407%, 407°, 440°-41°; explanation of plates, 593°, 5937. Briggs, C. A., cited, 414°. Bugs of Little Clear creek, 402°-3?. Bullfrogs, 401°, 402, 404". Cabot, cited, 431°, 470%, 471%, 475%, 482", : Caddis flies, 389°, 3912, 392%, 394%, 3944, 8975, 4021, 404%, 404°-5*, 408", 408°, 411°, 5617-73°; adult, found at Saranac inn and time of appear- © ance, 572°-73°; explanation of plates, 595°-96*. Caenis, 419%. amica, 426°. diminuta, 408°, 426°-27°. Cages, 3987. Callibaetis, 419°. ferruginea, 425°. Calopteryx maculata, 401°, 407*, 407° INDEX TO AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 601 Calvert, Dr P. P., cited, 393%, 430°, 481", 4327, 528", 5292, 529°, Camnula pellucida, 583", Campeloma, 404°, 406°, canadensis, Leptura, 409°, Capnini, 418", carolina, Dissosteira, 583", Libellula, 538°, ’Tramea, 588°, 538°. carolinus, Ophiogomphus, 440+ carolus, Ophiogomphus, 431’, 436°, 437°, 439'; explanation of plates, 593°, 5941, Carpenter ant, 401°, Castle, Dr W. E., acknowledgments to, 399%, Celithemis, 5074, 5087, 513°, i elisa, 518°, 514?, 514*, 515%, eponina, 513°, 514', 514+, 514°-15°; explanation of plates, 59838, 594°, ornata, 518°, 514°, 516}, Centroptilum, 419%, Ceratopogon, 402°, 404°, Ceroxys similis, 5752. Chauliodes, 5421, 542°, 5445, sp.? 4023, maculatus, 549°, pectinicornis, 5454, 5472-491, rastricornis, 3908, 545°, 5461, Serricornis, 545°, 5497-50°; ex- planation of plates, 5957, 595%, Chermes sp.? 4032. Chimarrha sp. 573°, aterrima, 573°, Chironomidae, 389", 3944, 4028, 403°, 4044 407%, 409%, 5748, Chironomous Sp. ? 402°, Chloroperla, 4144-15’, bilineata, 4091, 414°-157, picta, 4147, transmarina, 4147, Chrysopidae, 5412, Cicadula divisa, 4031. Sexnotata, 402), cinerea, Molanna, 404}, A OGG, o64", 5738: explanation of plate, 5917, Phryganea, 572°; explanation of Plate, 5957. Clams, 4025, 4048, clara, Tetanocera, 575". Clarke, C. H., cited, 562°, clavipes, Bittacomorpha, 404°, 4102, 4981, 5747, 575°. clepsydra, Aeschna, 469°, Climacia, 550°, 5513, 002°, 552° 5578- 60°. areolaris, 5587, dictyona, 3937, 008*-59°; explana- tion of plate, 5913, Cloe pygmea, 421°, Cloeon, 419°, Coleoptera, 3968, 4057, 4121, 583°-841, communis, Helochara, 402°, complanata, Cordulia, 4948, Comstock, J. H. & A. B., Manual for the study of insects, 410°, Comstock, Mrs J. H.. figures of Trichoptera by, 399°, 5635, confusa, Libellula, 53867. Coniopterygidae, 540°, Conopidae, 5753. constricta, Aeschna, 403°, 405%, 4075, 469°, 470’; explanation of plate, 593°. Coquillet, D. W., cited, 393°: ac- knowledgments to, 399°; Original descriptions of new Diptera, 585°- 86°. Cordulegaster, 4744, diastatops, 4741, 474°, 4748, 4752, 475°, 475%, 475°, 4764, 4772-783, dorsalis, 475+, erroneus, 474°, 474° 475}, fasciatus, 4748, 475}, lateralis, 477°, maculatus, 403°, 405%, 40T®, 4078, 431°, 474", 474°, 4748, 4757, 475°, 476%, 476°-777, obliquus, 474°, 4755, Sayi, 474", 474° 4752, 47738, Cordulegasterinae, 430', 4344, 434° 4734-783, Cordulia, 485+, 4854, 485°, 502°-3°. complanata, 4948, cynosura, 494?, elongata, 4994, filosa, 500*. lateralis, 4942, Gazi. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Cordulia lepida, 506°. libera, 504*, 504°. linearis, 501’. lintneri, 484°, 504‘. modesta, 486%. princeps, 4887. selysi, 495+. semiaquea, 494°, shurtlefi, 391°, 481°, 491°, 502°- * 518°; explanation of plate, 593". tenebrosa, 501°. ubleri, 495*, 4977. walshii, 501° Cordulinae, 4802, 480°. 484*-506°;. ex- planation of plates, 594+. cornuta, Corydalis, 550°; explanation. of plate, 595*. ecorrupta, Diplax, 525°. Mesothemis, 525’. ecorruptum, Sympetrum, 520°, 521’, 525’. corticosus, Pachynematus, 584". Corydalis, 5427, 542*, 550°, cornuta, 550°; explanation of plate, 595%. costifera, Diplax, 522’. costiferum, Sympetrum, 521°, 521’, 522%, Crane flies, 401°, 403°, 404*, 4057, 410”, 498}, 573°-748, 575*. L Crawfish, 404°. Crunoecia, 564’. Ctenophora abdominalis, 575°. Culicidae, 574°. eyanea, Libellula, 531’, 5327, 534°. eynosura, Cordulia, 494°. Hpitheea, 494°. Libellula, 494+. Tetragoneuria, 489°, 490*, 492, 493°, 493°, 4947. Damsel flies, 411°, 430°. decora, Ephemera, 429. deplanata, Libellula, 528°. descriptus, Gomphus, 3937’, 431°, 433, 444°, 446°, 452°-54% 455°; ex- planation of plate, 5937. Diastatomma rupinsulense, 437°. diastatops, Cordulegaster, 474', 474°, 474°, 475%, 475%, 4754, 4755, 476%, 4TT’-78%. Thecaphora, 477°. dictyona, Climacia, 393", 558*; ex- planation of plate, 591°. Didymops, 4811, 481°, 4814. obsoleta, 486%. transversa, 407°, 407°, 481°-82°; explanation of plate, 593°. diminuta, Caenis, 403°, 426°-27°. Diplax albifrons, 525°, amanda, 516°. berenice, 528%. corrupta, 525°. costifera, 522°. elisa, 515°. intacta, 517. obtrusa, 5254, ornata, 516*. rubicundula, 524‘, 5247. var. assimilata, 524+. semicincta, 523’. vicina, 522°, Diptera, 393°, 394', 396°, 397°, 4037, 404°, 405°, 406', 409*, 410°, 412’, 573°-82'; original descriptions of new, 585*-86°; explanation of plates, 596%. dispectus, Goniotaulius, 578; ex- planation of plate, 595". - Dissosteira carolina, 5837. Diving beetle, 392°. divisa, Cicadula, 403°. Dobsons, 5404, 5414. Dolerus bicolor, 584‘. domitia, Libellula, 512%. Perithemis, 438, 512'; explana- tion of plates, 593°, 594°. Donacia, 406’. emarginata, 4057, 583’; explana- tion of plate, 5907 pusilla, 5837, subtilis, 5837. Dorocordulia, 4857, 485*, 485°, 504". lepida, 506". libera, 504°-5°, 518°. lintneri, 506°. dorsalis, Cordulegaster, 475%. dossuaris, Neuronia, 572’. INDEX TO AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS 603 » Dragon flies, 389°, 391%, 392°, 393’, ; erroneus, Cordulegaster, 474°, 474°, 3941, 394°, 396°, 401°, 4027, 403%, 405°, 406, 4115, 429°-540*; explana- tion of plates, 593°. ) Dragon fly exuviae, count of, 406*-7’. Drainage map of Saranac region, 386. Dromogomphus, 485°, 486%, 461°. spinosus, 461°-627; explanation of plate, 593%. Eaton, cited, 418°, 418’. _ elisa, Celithemis, 513°, 514’, 514", 515%. Diplax, 515°. elongata, Cordulia, 499*. Somatochlora, 4857, 498°, 499°; explanation of plate, 594°. emarginata, Donacia, 405’, 583’; ex- planation of plate, 590’. Empididae, 408°, 574’, 585°-86°. Enallagma sp.? 4077. Entomostrachan, 409%. Ephemera, 4207. decora, 429}. varia, 403°, 405°, 428°, 429°; ex- planation of plate, 591’. Ephemerella, 419°. excrucians, 403°, 405°, 409*, 420°, 425°-263. - invaria, 4257. Ephemeridae, 3917, 393", 3944, 397°, 403°, 405°, 406', 4087, 408°, 409°, 411°, 418?-29°, Ephemerinae, 419°. Epiaeschna, 463°, 464, 468°. heros, 467°, 468°-69°. - Epicordulia, 484°, 485%, 485%, 4887, princeps, 488'-89%, 489°, 4907; ex- planation of plates, 594°, 594°. Epischura lacustris, 409%. Epitheca cynosura, 494°. obsoleta, 486°. princeps, 4887. eponina, Celithemis, 513°, 514', 514°, 514°; explanation of plates, 593°, 5948. Libellula, 514°. Epophthalmia lateralis, 4947. Erpetogomphus rupinsulensis, 437’. 475". eurina, Lestes, 518°. excrucians, Ephemerella, 403°, 405°, 4094, 420°, 425°-26%. exilis, Gomphus, 405%, 4468, 455*-56*. exusta, Ladona, 529%. Libellula, 528°. 4077, 444°, fasciatum, Xiphidium, 5837. fasciatus, Cordulegaster, 474°, 475*. Felt, Dr HE. P. acknowledgments to, 384". femorata, Baetis, 424’. ferruginea, Callibaetis, 425°. Tetanocera, 580°. filosa, Cordulia, 500%. Somatcchlora, 500*. Fish flies, 541+. comb-horned, 547’. saw-horned, 5497. Fisheries, game and forest commis- sion, acknowledgments to, 384°. Fishes and insects, food relations, 395°-964, flavescens, Libellula, 539’. Pantala, 539°. Flies, 393°, 394*, 396°, 397°, 4037, 404°, 405°, 4067, 409", 410', 4127; of Little Clear creek, 4037. Floating cage, 398". - Flora of locality, 387°; of Bog ponds, 392'; of Bone pond, 389°; of Little Clear creek, 400°, 401°; of Little Clear pond, 391‘; of Little Green pond, 3907. Fonscolombia vinosa, 465%. Food relations of insects and fishes, 395°-96%, fragilis, Spongilla, explanation of plate, 591°. fraterna, Aeschna, 4517. fraternus, Gomphus, 444°, 446°, 451’; explanation of plate, 594’. Frogs, 4027. furcifer, Gomphus, 4817, 444%, 448°, 461°, furcillata, Gomphaeschna, 464’. Physocephala, 575°. 604 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM fuscata, Sisyra, 554°. fuscipennis, Sepedon, 404’, 574°, 577°- 80%, 580°, 584%; explanation of plate, 592%, 596°. Galerucella nymphae, 5837. Gerke, cited, 578°. glabratus, Macronychus, 583°; ex- planation of plate, 591° glacialis, Leucorhinia, 391%, 393°, 431%, 516°, 516%, 516°, 518'; ex- planation of plates, 590°, 593”. Podisma, 5837, Glossiphonids, 402°. Gnats, 389", 394*, 4027, 403%, 404%, 4078, 409%, 574°. Goéra, 5647. Golden-wing, 532°-33°. Gomphaeschna, 431%, 464’. furcillata, 464’. Gomphinae, 429°, 484°, 484°, 4847-62°; explanation of plate, 593°-94°. Gomphurus, 446°-47°. Gomphus, 389%, 390°, 407°, 485’, 4367, 443°-62', abbreviatus, 4817, 4447, 445°, 4455. adelphus, 4457, 446%, 451°-52%. albistylus, 443°. amnicola, 444°, 447°, 456°. brevis, 4077, 445°, 445°, 449'-50°; explanation of plate, 593'. descriptus, 4383, 444°, 446%, 452°- 54’, 455°. var. borealis, 393’, 481°, 453°; explanation of plate, 593’. exilis, 405*, 4077, 444°, 446%, 455*- 56%, fraternus, 444°, 446%, 451°; ex- planation of plate, 594’. furcifer, 4817, 444°, 448°, 461°. lividus, 454°, minutus, 454’. naevius, 4437, pallidus, Fe Peerage, of plate, 594’. parvulus, 441°. plagiatus, 4457, 4478, 458°. quadricolor, 4317, 444°, 446°, 452°. Gomphus scudderi, 403°, 410°, 4312, - 443°, 444°, 447+, 4568-579; ex- planation of plates, 5937, 593%. sordidus, 4815, 444% 4467, 4548-553, Spicatus, 403’, 4077, 444° 4483 4538, 459*-60"; explanation of plate, 593°. , Spiniceps, 443°, 445°, 4478, 458°-. 59’; explanation of plate, 594°. Spinosus, 461°. umbratus, 455+, vastus, 445°, 447°, 4581. ventricosus, 444’, 447°, 456%. villosipes, 444*, 4484, 460-617, Goniotaulius dispectus, 5731; ex- planation of plate, 595’. pudicus, 5737. granulatus, Tettix, 582°. gravidus, Atractodes, 589%. Habits of insects, study of, 394°-95°, Haemopis, 402°. Hagen, Dr H. A. cited, 393%, 431%, 431°, 4827, 452°, 475%, 512°, 5287, 529%, 551°. Hagenius, 485°, 4367, 440°-41° brevistylus, 394’, 407%, 407%, 4403- 41°; explanation of plates, 593°, 5937. Halesus, 4047, 4051. sp., 567*-70°; explanation of plates, 595°, 596°. hostis, 573°; explanation of plate, 595°. indistinctus, 5737; explanation of plate, 595’. Hatchery pipes and troughs, life ie 4087-10". Helochara communis, 402’. Helocordulia, 484’, 485%, 4857, 495*, ubleri, 496°, 497'-98°. Hemerobiidae, 397%, 411’, 541%, 5507- 60°. Hemerobius, 551°. pectinicornis, 547?. Hemiptera, 411°, 583°, 583+. Henshaw, Samuel, acknowledg- ments to, 399°. Heptagenia, 408°, 4197. INDEX TO AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS Keptagenia pulchella, 4087, 409%, 420°-21'; explanation of plate, 592°, viearia, 421°. - Heptageninae, 419°. heros, Aeshna, 468". Epiaeschna, 467°, 468°-69°. Herpetogomphus pictus, 487°. Hexagenia, 420’. sp.? 428%, limbata, 427%. variabilis, 403°, 427°-28°; ex- planation of plate, 593%. Hilara mutabilis, 574°. Horseflies, 405’, 409°. hostis, Halesus, 5737; explanation of plate, 595°. Howland, H. N., acknowledgments to, 385°. hyalina, Pontania, 584°, Hydras, 409". Hydrellia scapularis, 403°, Hydropsyche, 408’, 409+. sp.? 404°, 408, 566°-674, 573°; ex- planation of plate, 592°. scalaris, 573°; explanation of plate, 596%. Hydropsychidae, 564*, 573°. Hydroptilidae, 564+. Hygrotrechus sp.? 402, 402°, Hymenoptera, parasitic, 393°, 403°, 584°; descriptions of five new, 586°-895, ignita, Triaenodes, 5733; explana- tion of plate, 596°, illinoiensis, Macromia, — 4834, illotum, Sympetrum, 429°; explana- tion of plate, 594°. incesta, Libellula, 533", indistinctus, Halesus, 5737; explana- tion of plate, 5957. infumata, Sialis, 542°; explanation of plate, 595°. innominatus, Taxonus, 5851. Insects, place of in natural societies, 3947; and fishes, food relations, - 895*-96'; life histories, 896%-97%, 482°, 4837, d3l*, 632%, 605 410*-582'; new species of, 555*-57°, 5847-898. intacta, Diplax, 517°. Leucorhinia, 516°, 516%, 516°, 5177. invaria, Ephemerella, 425’. irene, Nehallennia, 402°. ischiaca, Stratiomyia, 576°. Ischnura verticalis, 402’. janata, Aeschna, 4667. Basiaeschna, 403’, 407*, 466?-67+. johannus, Ophiogomphus, 481°, 436°, 4897-40; explanation of plate, 593°. Joutel, L. H., colored plates made « by, 399°. julia, Ladona, 481°, 529%, 5307. Libellula, 528°, 5307. juncta, Roederiodes, 408°, 409’, 574’, 5817-82", 586°; explanation of plate, 592). junia, Libellula, 470°. junius, Anax, 483, 471?-72*?; explana- tion of plate, 593°, Kellicott, cited, 481’, 4827, 4527, 459°. Keys, to Aeschna, 469°; Aeschnidae, 434°; Aeschninae, 463°-64°; Aquatic insect larvae, orders of, 411°-12°; Arigomphus, 448°; Caddis fly larvae, 563°-64*; Celithemis, 514; Cordulegaster, 4749-757; Cordu- linae, North American genera, 484*-85°; Ephemerid nymphs, 419*- - 207; Gomphinae, 435°%-367; Gom- phurus, 4477; Gomphus, 4457-46°; Gomphus, imagos, 444°-45°; Heme- robiidae, 551'; Ladona, 529*; Leu- ecorhinia, 516’; Libellula, 531°%-32?; Libellulidae, 479°-80°; Libellulinae, 506°-9!; Macromia, 483?; Macro- miinae, 4811; Neuroptera, 540°*- 413; Odonata, 432"; Ophiogomphus, 4367-87; Sialidae, 541°-42%; Sty- lurus, 4477; Sympetrum, 5208-22’; Tetragoneuria, 493'; Tramea, 538°. Kirby, W. F., cited, 431°, 512°. Klapalek, Fr., cited, 5637. lacerata, Tramea, 538°, 538%, 539; explanation of plate, 593°. lacustris, Epischura, 409%. Ladona, 507°, 5097, 528%-308. 606 Ladona exusta, 529%. juliay 531%, 529%, 5307. Lanthus, 4385’, 436°, 441°-43°. albistylus, 443°. parvulus, 441°-42°; explanation of plates, 593°, 594°. Lasiocephala, 564’. lateralis, Cordulegaster, 477°. Cordulia, 494°. Epophthalmia, 494. Leeches, 402’. lepida, Cordulia, 506’. Dorocordulia, 506". Somatochlora, 506°. Lepidoptera, 411°. Lepidostoma, 564’. Lepomis, 402°. Leptoceridae, 564°, 5715-728, 573°. Leptocerus sp., 573%. resurgens, 573*; explanation of plate, 596%. Leptophlebia, 419’. Leptura canadensis, 409°. Lestes eurina, 518°. unguiculata, 402°. Leucorhinia, 507°, 508%, 5167. glacialis, 891°, 393°, 431°, 516°, 516°, 516°, 518'-19"; explanation of plates, 590°, 5937. IataCta.) 516%, oto, tO oie Leuctra, 415*-18'. tenella, 393°, 405°, 408*, 4167-18'; explanation of plate, 592°. Libellula, 508%, 5097, 529°, 5308. albifrons, 525°. assimilata, 524%. auripennis, 531°, 5827, 582°-33%. axillena, 532°. J incesta, 533°, vibrans, 533° basalis, 581°, 5327, 532°. berenice, 528%. bistigma, 534°, carolina, 538°, confusa, 5367. eyanea, 531’, 5327, 534°. cynosura, 494". deplanata, 528°. domitia, 512+. eponina, 514°. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Libellula exusta, 528°. flavescens, 539". incesta, 531°, 532°, 533". julia, 528°, 580°. junia, 470°. longipennis, 5267. luctuosa, 532%. lydia, 533°, 536°. maculata, 535’. obsoleta, 486°. ornata, 5167. plumbea, 531’, 532°, 5347. polysticta, 486°. pulchella, 4867, 531°, 532°, 536'; explanation of plate, 594". quadrimaculata, 431°, 531°, 5327, 5348-35°. quadrupla, 534°. rubicundula, 524°, semiaquea, 494", semicincta, 5237. semifasciata, 531°, 582%, 535°; ex- planation of plate, 594". simplicicollis, 527%. tenebrosa, 501%. ternaria, 535°. transversa, 481°. trimaculata, 536". vibrans, 531%, 533°. Libellulidae, 432°, 432°, 478*-540+. Libellulinae, 430', 480°, 480%, 488%, 506°-40!; explanation of plates, 5947, libera, Cordulia, 504*, 504°. Dorocordulia, 504°, 518°. Somatochlora, 504‘. Liburnia pellucida, 403". Life histories of insects, 4104-582", Life of Little Clear creek, 400'-10*. limbata, Hexagenia, 427°. Palingenia, 427°. Limnaea, 402°, 402°, 404°. Limnicolous oligochaetes, 404°. Limnophilidae, 563%, 568°, 573', 573%. Limnophilus ornatus, 573°. linearis, Cordulia, 501°. Somatochlora, 5017. Lintner, Dr J. A., cited, 398%, 545%, 552", 396*-97°, DEX TO AQUATIC. INSECTS AN THE ADIRONDACKS lintneri, Cordulia, 484%, 504‘. Dorocordulia, 506°. Somatochlora, 506‘. Lithax, 564". Little Clear creek, life of, 400'-10°. Little Clear pond, 390*-91°. Little Green pond, 390". lividus, Gomphus, 454°. Locustidae, 5837. Longicorn beetle, 409’. longicornis, Telenomus, 403°, 586’. longipennis, Libellula, 526’. Mesothemis, 5267. Pachydiplax, 5267. longipes, Anax, 470%. lucidus, Polycentropus, 5631, 565’, 573°; plate, 591". luctuosa, Libellula, 532%. lydia, Libellula, 533°, 536°. Plathemis, 430°, 536°; explana- tion of plates, 5937, 594°. Lygaeid, 4037. 404', 405', explanation of MacGillivray, A. D., Sawflies, 393°, 584°-85?. McLachlan, cited, 415°. Macrogomphus spiniceps, 458°. Macromia, 481?, 4814, 482°. illinoiensis, 482°, 4837, 483*-84". taeniolata, 482°, 483%, 483‘, 484’. transversa, 481'. Macromiinae, 430’, 479°, 480*, 480°- — 844, Macronyechus glabratus, 583°; ex- planation of plate, 591°. maculata, Calopteryx, 401°, 407°. Libellula, 5357. maculatus, Chauliodes, 549°. Cordulegaster, 403°, 405°, 407°, 407°, 431°, 4741, 474°, 4748, 4757, 475°, 476%, 476°-77". Neuromus, 549°. madidus, Peripsocus, 403%. mainensis, Ophiogomphus, 436°. Mantispidae, 540°. Maps of Saranac region, 386, 388. May flies, 3917, 398’, 3944, 397°, 403°, 407%, 431°, 607 405°, 406%, 411°, 418?-29°. Mecoptera, 583°. Melieria similis, 5757. Mesothemis, 507’, 508°, 527°. corrupta, 525’. longipennis, 526’. simplicicollis, 527*-28?. metallica, Somatochlora, 485°. Miall, L. C., cited, 543°. Micrasema, 564’. Micrathyria, 431%, 507’, 508%, 528°. berenice, 528%. Micromus, 551°. Midges, 574°’. minor, Aeschna, 4667. minutum, Trichogramma, 584°. minutus, Gomphus, 454’. modesta, Cordulia, 486%. Molanna cinerea, 404', 404°, 563', 564°-65°, 573°; explanation of plate, 591", Mollusks, 402‘, 404°. montanum, Asindulum, 574*. Moore, Dr J. P., cited, 393°; knowledgments to, 399%. Morse, A. P., referred to, 528°. Mosquitos, 403°, 4057, 574°. Moths, 411°. multicineta, Aeshna, 468’. Muscidae, 403°. mutabilis, Hilara, 574°. Mycetophilidae, 574*. Myrmeleonidae, 540’. Mystacides nigra, 573%. 408°, 408°, 409°, ac- naevius, Aeshna, 4437. Gomphus, 4437. Nannophya bella, 509°. Nannothemis, 506°, 508', 509°. bella, 509°-11°. Nasiaeschna, 468°, 464*, 4677. . pentacantha, 467°-68°. Natural societies, place of insects in, 394", nebulosa, Panorpa, 583°. Needham, Dr J. G., acknowledg- ments to, 563°. . Nehallennia irene, 402°. Nemourinae, 417%-18', 608 - Neuraeschna vinosa, 464’. Neurocordulia, 484°, 485°, 486', 495%. —obsoleta, 486°-87°, 536%. uhleri, 497°. Neuromus maculatus, 549%. Neuronia dossuaris, 572°. postica, 572°. Neuroptera, 397°, 411’, 411°, 540: explanation of plate, 595’. nigra, Mystacides, 573%. nigripes, Aphidius, 403”, 588°. Notidobia, 564". Notoxus anchora, 403%. Nunney, W. H., cited, 548°. nymphae, Galerucella, 5838’. obesa, Baetisca, 420%. Objects and results of work, 384?- 85’, 392*-99*. obliquus, Cordulegaster, 474°, 475°. obscurus, Progomphus, 456%. obsoleta, Didymops, 486°. Epitheca, 486°. Libellula, 486°. Neurocordulia, 486%, 536’. obtrusa, Diplax, 525*. obtrusum, Sympetrum, 522°, 525°. Odonata, 392°, 3937, 3941, 394°, 396°, 401°, 4027, 403°, 405%, 406', 411°, 429°- 540‘; bibliographies of, 481°-32°; explanation of plate, 598°. Oecismus, 564". oligochaetes, Limnicolous, 404°. Oligopletrum, 564’. omega, Pachyprotasis, 584°. Ophiogomphus, 407°, 485°, 436', 4386°- 40”. aspersus, 403’, 405%, 407°, 4312, 486°, 4377-88°; explanation of plate, 593°. carolinus, 440". carolus, 4817, 486°, 4877, 489°; ex- planation of plates, 593°, 594’. johannus, 4817, 436°, 4897-40; ex- planation of plate, 593°. mainensis, 4317, 436°. rupinsulensis, 486%, 4877. Orl fly, 542+. ornata, Celithemis, 513°, 514°, 516%. 521°, 521%, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ornata, Diplax, 516’. Libellula, 516". ornatus, Limnophilus, 573'. Ortalidae, 575". Orthoptera, 582°-83%. . Osborn, Herbert, acknowledgments to, 399°. Osmylus, 552?. ‘Pachydiplax, 507°, 508’, 526’. longipennis, 5267-27’. Pachynematus corticosus, 584". Pachyprotasis omega, 584°. Palingenia bilineata, 427’. limbata, 427°. pulchella, 420+. pallidus, Gomphus, explanation of plate, 594’. Panorpa nebulosa, 583’. signifer, 583°. Pantala, 508’, 509%, 539°. flavescens, 539%-40‘. parvipennis, Tettigidea, 582°. parvulus, Aeshna, 441’. Gomphus, 441°. Lanthus, 441°-42°; explanation of plates, 593°, 594". pectinicornis, Chauliodes, 545*, 547°. Hemerobius, 547% Semblis, 547%. pellucida, Camnula, 583". Liburnia, 403". ‘pentacantha, Aeschna, 467°. Nasiaeschna, 467°-68°. Peripsocus madidus, 403%. Perithemis, 506°, 508%, 511°. domitia, 483, 512'-13°; explana- tion of plates, 593°, 594°. Perlinae, 417°. Perlini, 4177. Petalura thoreyi, 472’. Petalurinae, 481°, 434‘, 434°, 472°-73'. Phantom flies, 4107, 498". ; Phryganea cinerea, 572°; explana- tion of plate, 595’. vestita, 572°. Phryganeidae, 563’, 572°. Physa, 401°, 402°, 402%. Physocephala furcillata, 575%. picipes, Stratiomyia, 576°. INDEX TO AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS picta, Chloroperla, 414’. Pictet, F. J., cited, 412°, 4187, 543°. pictipes, Simulium, 393%. Tetanocera, 574°, 580*-81°; ex- planation of plate, 592", 596°. pictus, Herpetogomphus, 437°. pistillata, Scudderia, 5837. plagiatus, Gomphus, 445°, 447°, 458°. Plates, explanation of, 590’-96°. Plathemis, 5087, 509”, 536°. lydia, 430°, 536°-377; explanation of plates, 5937, 594°. trimaculata, 537°. Plecoptera, 394’, 397°, 408*, 400', 411°, 412°-18}. plumbea, Libellula, 581’, 532°, 534’. Podisma glacialis, 5837. polita, Zabrachia, 409°, 5747, 585°. Polycentropus lucidus, 404’, 405’, 5637, 565'-66°, 573°; explanation of plate, 591’. Polymitarcys, 419°. polysticta, Libellula, 486’. Polystoechotes, 551’, 5517+. punctatus, 551°; explanation of plate, 5957. ‘Pontania hyalina, 584°. postica, Neuronia, 572’. princeps, Cordulia, 4887. Epicordulia, 488', 489°, 490°; ex- planation of plates, 594°, 594°. EXpitheca, 4887. Progomphus, 485%, 485°. obsecurus, 436'. Propagating ponds, 389?-92°. Psocid, 403%. Pteronarcini, 417’. pudicus, Goniotaulius, 5737. pulchella, Heptagenia, 4087, 409%, 420*-21'; explanation of plate, 592°. Libellula, 4867, 531°, 582°, 536'; explanation of plate, 594’. ' Palingenia, 420+. punctatus, Polystoechotes, 5515; ex- planation of plate, 5957. - pusilla, Donacia, 5837. pygmaea, Baetis, 395’, 405°, 408’, 421°-23°; explanation of plate, 592°. pyvgmea, Cloe, 421°. 609 quadriceps, 587’. quadricolor, Aeshna, 452°. Gomphus, 431’, 444°, 446°, 452°. quadriguttata, Aeschna, 464°. quadrimaculata, Libellula, 431°, 5313, 5d2?, 534°, quadrupla, Libellula, 534°. Quantitative studies of insect life, 400°-6*. Brachystropha, 403°, Rana, 401°, 402%, 404’, Ranatra, 583%. Rapids, life of, 4077. rastricornis, Chauliodes, 390°, 545’, 5461. Reproductive capacity of insects, 394°, resurgens, Leptocerus, 573*; ex- planation of plate, 596%. Rhizarcha astigma, 403°, 587°-88?. Rhyacophilidae, 564%, 573°. Roederiodes, 585°-86°. juncta, 408°, 409%, 574’, 5817-82’, 586°; explanation of plate, 592°. Rotifers, 4094. rubicundula, Diplax, 524*, 524’. Libellula, 524°. : rubicundulum, 52) Hore o24e rufipes, Tenthredo, 584°. rupinsulense, Diastatomma, 437°. rupinsulensis, Erpetogomphus, 437”. Ophiogomphus, 486°, 4377. Sympetrum, 521', Salamander, 402°. Saranac Inn and immediate vicinity, map, 388. Saranac region, map, 386. saratogensis, Tetanocera, 575’. Sawflies, 393°, 584°-85°. sayi, Cordulegaster, 474", 474°, 4757, ATT. scabripennis, Stenophylax, 5737. sealaris, Hydropsyche, 573°; planation of plate, 596°. scapularis, Hydrellia, 403%. Scarabaeid beetle, 401°. Scelionidae, 586°. ex- 610 Schiller, cited, 418’. Sciomyzidae, 574%-75'. Screen cage, 398’. Scudder, S. H., acknowledgments to, 399’. scudderi, Gomphus, 403°, 410°, 431’, 443°, 444°, 447%, 456°-57°; explana- tion of plates, 593°, 593%. Scudderia pistillata, 583. Selys, cited, 453° selysi, Cordulia, 495*. Semblis pectinicornis, 547%. semiaquea, Cordulia, 494°. Libellula, 494". Tetragoneuria, 407°, 493°, 4944, 494°. semicincta, Diplax, 523". Libellula, 5237. semicinctum, Sympetrum, 521°, 522°, 523"; explanation of plate, 594°. semifasciata, Libellula, 531°, 532°, 535°; explanation of plate, 594’. Semiscolex, 402°. Sepedon fuscipennis, 404°, 574°, 577°- 80°, 580°, 584%; explanation of plate, 592', 596°. sphegius, 578’. Spinipes, 578’. sepedontis, Atractodes, 584*, 5887-89°. Sericostoma, 564’. Sericostomatidae, 563°, 5717. serricornis, Chauliodes, 545°, 549°; explanation of plate, 5957, 595°. sexnotata, Cicadula, 402’. Sheraton, W., cited, 393%. shurtleffi, Cordulia, 391°, 431°, 491°, 502°, 518°; explanation of plate, 593". Sialidae, 397°, 411%, 541°, 541%. Sialis, 541°, 542°, 542%. bilineata, 414°. infumata, 542°-44*; explanation of plate, 595’. Sieve net, 397’. signifer, Panorpa, 583°. Silo, 564*. similis, Ceroxys, 5757. Melieria, 575?, simplicicollis, Libellula, 527+. _ Mesothemis, 527*. 490°, 493°, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Simuliidae, 574°. Simulium, 408', 408’; explanation of plate, 592°. pictipes, 393%. venustum, 4044, 407%, 574°; ex- planation of plate, 592°. Siphlurus, 419°. alternatus, 8917, 423°-25°; ex- planation of plate, 591%. annulatus, 424, Sisyra, 551?, 5527, 552°, 5528 5527-577. fuseata, 554°. umbrata, 398°, 555*-57'; explana- tion of plate, 591°. vVicaria, 554°. Skimmers, 478+-540+, Snails, 401°, 402°, 402*, 4048, Soldier flies, 574°, 5767. Somatochlora, 484", 485°, 4987, 504+. albicinecta, 485+. elongata, 485’, 498%, 499-500; explanation of plate, 594°. filosa, 500‘. lepida, 5067. libera, 504". linearis, 501%. lintneri, 506%. metallica, 485°. tenebrosa, 501°-2'. walshii, 501°. sordidus, Gomphus, 431°, 444°, 4467, 4548-55*. Sphaerium, 402°, 404°. Spharagemon sp.? 5837. sphegius, Sepedon, 578’. Spicata, Aeshna, 459°. Spicatus, Gomphus, 403’, 407°, 444° 448°, 458°, 459*-60°; explanation of plate, 593°. Spiniceps, Gomphus, 443°, 445°, 447°, 458°-59?; explanation of plate, 594%. Macrogomphus, 458°. spiniferus, Aeschna, 470°. spinigera, Tetragoneuria, 490°, 493°, 493*, 493°. spinipes, Sepedon, 578’. spinosa, Tetragoneuria, 431°, 490’, 4934, 493°, 4951; explanation of plate, 594". * INDEX TO AQUATIC INSECTS IN THE ADIRONDACKS _ spinosus, Dromogomphus, 461°-62'; ‘explanation of plate, 593%. Gomphus, 461°. Sponge flies, 560°. Spongilla flies, 897', 409°, 560°. Spongilla fragilis, explanation of plate, 591°. State museum, additions to, 392’- 93°. Stenophylax scabripennis, 573’. Stone flies, 3941, 397°, 405°, 408*, 409", 411*, 412°-18'. Stratiomyia badius, 574°, 576°-77'; explanation of plate, 596°. ischiaca, 576°. picipes, 576°. Stratiomyidae, 409°, 574°. Strongylogaster annulosus, 584°. Struck, Dr R., cited, 5637. Stylurus, 447°. subtilis, Donacia, 583’. Sunfish, 402°. Swale flies, 574°. Swett, L. W., acknowledgments to, 385%. Sympetrum, 507°, 508°, 519°; explana- tion of plate, 594”. albifrons, 5211, 5217, 525°. assimilatum, 403’, 405°, 521°, 521°, 522°, 5248. corruptum, 520°, 621’, 525’. costiferum, 521°, 521’, 522°. illotum, 429°; explanation of plate, 594°. obtrusum, 521°, 521°, 5225, 525°. rubicundulum, 521%, 521’, 522°, 524°-25°. semicinectum, 521°, 5227, 5237-24°; explanation of plate, 594’. vicinum, 521°, 522?, 5228-23". Syrphus fly, 401°. Tabanid larvae, 404‘. Tabanidae, 405’, 409°, 5757. Tachopteryx thoreyi, 481°, 472*-73°. taeniolata, Macromia, 482°, 483?, 483%, 484?, . ae Paeniopteryx, 418°. ‘taxonus innominatus, 585’. Telenomus longicornis, 403°, 586’. 6II tenebrosa, Cordulia, 501°. Libellula, 501°. Somatochlora, 501°. tenella, Leuctra, 393°, 405°, 408*, 416'- 18'; explanation of plate, 592°. Tenthredo rufipes, 584°. verticalis, 584°. ternaria, Libellula, 535°. Tetanocera, 574’. boseii, 575%. clara, 575*. ferruginea, 580°. pictipes, 574°, 580°-81°; explana- tion of plates, 592, 596°. saratogensis, 575*. Tetragoneuria, 390°, 484°, 485°, 485°, 489*-954, 496". . cynosura, 489°, 490*, 492, 493°, 493°, 494). semiaquea, 407°, 490°, 493°, 493°, 494*, 494°, spinigera, 490°, 493°, 493*, 493°. spinosa, 431°, 490°, 4934,. 493°, ~ 495'; explanation of plate, 594°. Tettigidea parvipennis, 582°. Tettix granulatus, 582°. Thecaphora diastatops, 477°. thoreyi, Petalura, 472°. Tachopteryx, 431°, 472%-73°. Uropetala, 472%. Thysanura, 411°. Tipula abdominalis, 410°, 498', 573°, 575°-765; explanation of plate, 5964, 596°. albilatus, 575°. Tipulidae, 405", 573-745. Tramea, 508*, 5094, 537°-39°. earolina, 538°, 538° lacerata, 538°, 538°, 65391; ex- planation of plate, 593°. transmarina, Chloroperla, 414". transversa, Didymops, 407°, 407°, 481°; explanation of plate, 593". Libellula, 481°. Macromia, 481°. Trap lanterns, 398°-99%. Triaenodes ignita, 573°; explanation of plate, 596°. 612 NEW YORK Trichiosoma angulatum, 584°. Trichogramma minutum, 584°. Trichoptera, 3917, 392°, 394', 394%, 397°, 4021, 4041, 404°-5?, 4087, 4088, 411°, 561'-73°; explanation of plates, 595°-96°. trimaculata, Libellula, 536°. Plathemis, 5377. uhleri, Cordulia, 495*, 4971. Helocordulia, 496°, 4977. Neurocordulia, 4977. umbrata, Sisyra, 393°, 555*; explana- tion of plate, 591°. umbratus, Gomphus, 455’. unguiculata, Lestes, 402°. Uropetala thoreyi, 472%. varia, Ephemera, 403°, 405°, 428°, 429"; explanation of plate, 591’. variabilis, Hexagenia, 403°, 427°-28°; _ explanation of plate, 593’. vasta, Aeshna, 458°. vastus, Gomphus, 445’, 447°, 458%. Vaysseire, cited, 418’. ventricosus, Gomphus, 444’, 447°, 456%. venustum, Simulium, 404*, 407°, 574°; explanation of plate, 592°. verticalis, Aeschna, 469%. Ischnura, 4027. Tenthredro, 584°. STATE MUSEUM vestita, Phryganea, 572°. vibrans, Libellula, 531°, 533°. viearia, Heptagenia, 421°. Sisyra, 554°. vicina, Diplax, 522°. vicinum, Sympetrum, TPP villosipes, Aeshna, 460%. Gomphus, 444%, 448%, 460°-61’. vinosa, Aeschna, 464’. Boyeria, 407%, 464°-66?. Fonscolombia, 465+. Neuraeschna, 464°. violacea, Argia, 402°, 405*, 407+. 21%, 522, Walsh, B. D., cited, 413’. walshii, Cordulia, 501°. Somatochlora, 501’. Wasp-mimicker, 575°. Water skaters, 402°, 402°. Weith, R., cited, 509°. Westcott, Dr O. S., ments to, 385°. Williamson, E. B., cited, 431°, 431’, 4323, 4727, 472°, 515°. acknowledg- Xiphidium fasciatum, 583°. Zabrachia, 585*. polita, 409%, 574’, 585°. Zoraena, 478’. Zygoptera, 430°. (Fages 613-614 were bulletin cover pages) University of the State of New York New York State Museum FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL Director Bulletin 48 December I901 PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF PORTIONS OF NASSAU COUNTY AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS BY JAY BACKUS WOODWORTH B.S. PAGE PEED alec alot =) obiniccs seins eins ome 617 Introduction. .... <.-.--:.---...-. 618 Popography -...-..---- ---. «+-0=- 618 CLT Loy SS ee ra 621 Pre-Pleistocene formation.-.... 621 Glacial formation ..........-... 623 Harlem and Brooklyn quadran- PRRs eee tos-2 ae cieet a eae Sk 648 Jamaica bay depression........ 650 Glaciated ledges........ ie at. 652 Port Washington glacial lake.. 653 College Point delta............ 657 Summary of glacial history..-.... 660 Post-glacial changes and pro- cesses now in action......... 661 BUBMOLTAPHY 204 2222 cess ccse cone 664 SNORKEL on aie SS nmnpewon addi, = nails 664 PAGE Index 669 Plates 1 Map-of the Pleistocene geology of the Oyster Bay and Hemp- stead quadrangles on Long Uslandy6 35 sede came Cover page 3 FACING PAGE 2-5 Views of boulder bed King’s pit, Hempstead harbor, 627, 629, 631, 633 6 Sand washer at King’s pit....... 635 7 Reed and Murray’s sand pit, Port Washington, glacial delta. -.... 8 Eastern sand pit, Port Washing- eceeseectereweo eee se est ee ee oe se eee 9 Sketch map showing position of retreating ice front at the Port Washington stage.........---- W i LAte im ; m Loa yan “by: f - | “a wy, we | Al ry A vepeinoniet oad avthy gm dhp wy Ake dips & 4 ne Bebidas A ahs Men Pah. Sah gaged Oar EH treton @ egy PPA a" y a I a f ity ‘wreaty be { 4 if oe z | LAA ida RV a {, Foray ? i $ ; : “4 : TOOL: YC M1935 i is f J ; ip eet evar” gay Ue ry a we oe ee oo | + | Ph RP yk LP thi 430 . ' Ch BEOY rues Ue at ah sae ak a Cok a nat a ¥ «) a ek " i} a ‘ Py a ay ‘ iY F ’ d a4 AY BG ae h yee i ah Be > ae i a ewe € «w« 4 ¥ ” y : - ‘ q Pe hy I iat? t , re: Ai bee + pala Feis r aon WW ' eitahe a ae ay ‘Lesa filter} he a Th, Ae bck RT aie i i ] ui . n 4 ay png yohiood TO ORMOLY nit " y CR ry a UE tysyendngy eki : * a t WG cae aie a QH UE de totam D rah thy Rete Hoge Tn bina be He sa. ondtaly tnipaly’ 08 ald “we aay ila AE drokl i faites eet “dona? TBO. elie poi» ni i io pte aT th ay rahe gaunt rofl okt a towtl oat mahinond at) hears é 4 und ey anaty quiilen't i oe es ee ee ely thea st University of the State of New York New York State Museum Freperick J. H. Merritt Director Bulletin 48 December Igo! PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF PORTIONS OF NASSAU COUNTY AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS PREFACE The following report by Prof. Woodworth on the results of field work in western Long Island is in continuation of an investiga- tion of the quaternary formations of Long Island and the Quater- nary history of the Hudson river valley begun in 1883 by the present state geologist. The great development of the branch of Quaternary investigation makes it now possible to seek positive proof where formerly only broad inferences could be drawn. Prof. Woodworth’s work will include the Hudson and Cham- plain valleys and the drainage basins tributary to them and his results may be expected to contribute an important chapter to _ American Quaternary history. Freperick J. H. Merrinp State geologest 618 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM INTRODUCTION The term Pleistocene is used here as the equivalent of Quater- nary, a term which has heretofore been employed in the museum reports for the period of great ice sheets. | The Oyster Bay and Hempstead quadrangles together include a belt about 13 miles wide extending north and south across Long Island. The area thus mapped comprises, aside from a triangular area on the mainland about Mamaroneck not dealt with in this report, the major portion of the towns of Oyster Bay, North Hemp- stead, and Hempstead, the coast of Long Island sound from Man- hasset bay on the west to Oyster Bay harbor on the east, and the Atlantic shore from the eastern part of Far Rockaway beach, eastward to Short beach. The matters considered in this report are 1) the topography, 2) glacial deposits, 3) Pleistocene history, including data gathered from the area on the west, 4) the post-glacial changes and processes now in action. TOPOGRAPHY As the traveler from Greenport or Sag Harbor approaches the western end of Long Island, there are more or less continuously before him two low ridges, one skirting the north shore of the island, the other less elevated and continuous and at a variable dis- tance inland from the south shore, the two being separated first by the deep embayments of the pronglike eastern end of the island, and then by a broad, sandy plain, narrowing westward to the eastern limits of the area with which this report is concerned. At ‘ this point, near Syosset, the north and south ridges rudely coalesce. The northern ridge takes a south southwesterly course, lies more remote from the shore of the sound, and traverses the area so as to inclose the southern ends of the V-shaped harbors of Manhasset and Great Neck bays. What appears to be a continuation of the southern ridge is trace- able as a series of low mounds at Locust Grove, Jericho, thence south of Old Westbury, at Albertson station, Searington, and so westward | to an abrupt termination at the base of the higher, more massive northern ridge just east of Lake Surprise. Between these mounds PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 619 and the northern ridge rude plains of coarse gravels rise gently toward the southern face of the latter. Between the mounds them- selves, these piains merge southward into a broad, slightly creased plain, which sinks to the level of the marshes and the sea on the south coast. The main ridge rises very frequently to a hight of 300 feet above sealevel, and from 100 to 150 feet above the low ground at its base. Where most distinct in its topographic features, its base is but little more than a mile wide. Between Syosset on the south and East Norwich and Brookville on the north side, this ridge is relatively low and narrow. Between Jericho and Wheatley three or four well marked spurs extend for one or two miles to the southward, impinging on the line of mounds representing the continuation of the southern ridge above described. West of this broad develop- ment, the ridge becomes more massive and elevated, attaining its highest point in Harbor hill, 391 feet. West of Roslyn, it gradually falls off in elevation, and from Lake Surprise westward becomes a low, flat ridge with a steep southerly front and with a gentle slope northward. The broad crest, seldom over 200 feet above the sea, is cast into mounds and hollows, or knobs and basins, some of the latter containing small tarns or lily ponds, a feature less common in the eastern extension of the ridge. From the northern base of the ridge there extends a series of plains or terraces, frequently at an elevation of about 200 feet near the ridge, separated by the wedge-shaped harbors of the north shore. These surfaces form the headlands or “necks,” between the bays, with elevations of from 100 feet to nearly 200 feet. The surface is _ deeply indented by valleys mouthing on the broader indentations of the coast line; and in the vicinity of Oyster Bay harbor the land is reduced to a few islands, now tied to the main island by marine beaches. Between these rude plains on the north and the broad plain on the south the deeper reentrants of the northern coast are continued ’ by narrow depressions across the main ridge. One of these troughs occurs south of Manhasset, another at Roslyn, and similar passes traverse the ridge at the eastern base of the Harbor hill mass, on the road from Brookville to Locust Grove, and eastward along the 620 _ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM line of the highways connecting Syosset with towns on the northern side of the ridge. The northern plains varying from 190 to 220 feet in elevation are well developed about East Norwich. Their surface is roughened and is usually more uneven than the 20 foot contours of the accom- panying map can be made to indicate. ‘These upper plains frequently overlook like a terrace lower levels of much more uneven surface near the 100 foot level, as between Manhasset hill and Flower hill, between Greenville station and Glenwood landing, and on the borders of Mill Neck creek. The terraciform slopes are like the sides of those valleys which dissect the rude plains, usually irregular, roughly lobate or cuspate, and sloping without sharp demarcation into the lower grounds which they overlook. The northern margin of these dissected plains often reveals them as mere narrow ridges with rounded summits, and with small bays or marshes on either side. as at Mill Neck. The broad southern plain needs little more description beyond that already given than to note a low ridge, about 20 feet in.eleva- tion and from a mile to 2 miles wide, springing out from the plain near Lynbrook, and extending southwestward parallel to the main ridge farther north, till it is cut off by the sea at Far Rocka- way. Associated with this ridge is the semicircular depression on the west known as Jamaica bay, largely marsh-filled, and an exten- sion of this feature in the region of Broad channel. Along both north ahd south shores are bars and beaches, with cliffs, produced by the recent work of the sea. A summarized view of the island in this lt would be fairly represented in a cross-section, such as that shown in fig. 1, in which the northern, rude, terraced plains rising rather abruptly above the sound are succeeded on the south by the main ridge and the out- lying knobs, from which there stretches a broad plain sloping south- ward to the sea or confronted near Far Rockaway by a low ridge, beyond which in turn lie the south beaches. mn To ooo PO ee = Horizontal Distence in Miles Fig. 1 Diagrammatic cross-section of Long Island near the boundary line of Queens and Nas- sau counties PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 621 The main topographic features thus set forth are traceable east- ward for 200 miles, one or more elements appearing either on the islands off the south coast of New England or on the adjacent main- land, the essential elements of the topography being two ridges each one of which rises rather abruptly above a plain sloping southward from it toward the sea. If the plain is absent, the sea covers the space where we should expect it to oceur. Westward, the main ridge here described abuts on lower New York bay at the Narrows, reappearing on Staten Island and continuing to be recognizable far inland over the continent as a topographic feature, often imposed on the rocky profile of valleys and high ridges alike. GEOLOGY The topographic features above described have long been known to constitute a group of drift materials laid down along the margin of an ice sheet or a successive series of such glaciers in the Quater- nary or, as it is now usually denominated, the Pleistocene period, ‘a time defined as beginning in this hemisphere with the first of these ice invasions on the coast plain and closing with the final dis- appearance of the ice from eastern America. The time since this disappearance of the ice, variously estimated at from 7000 to 10,000 years, 1s frequently denominated the post-glacial epoch. With the deposits made during this Pleistocene period, the present report has mainly to do. Pre-Pleistocene formations The basement on which these Pleistocene drift materials repose in this part of Long Island has but a small exposure above sealevel, and that is mainly limited to the northern coast north of the main ridge, or moraine. These older materials are clays and sands, evi- dently an eastward extension of the nearly horizontal clays and sands largely of Cretaceous and late Jurassic age which constitute a large part of the coastal plain from New Jersey southward. Little is known of the attitude of these beds in this region, prior to the earliest ice invasion, farther than the reasonable presumption that they lapped over on the underlying gneisses and igneous rocks of the mainland and the extreme western end of the island, gently sloping from their inner margin seaward, as they still do in the coastal plain south of the glacial district. 622 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The fact that, wherever these older clays are now seen in the cliffs. and exposures about the north shore of Long Island, they are involved in folds and disturbances with the earlier glacial gravels and sands is evidence that they have been disturbed during Pleisto- cene time by the same agency which produced dislocations in the earlier glacial deposits. Since they have been thus displaced, their present relief can not be taken as evidence of the form of the land surface on which the glacial deposits were laid down. It is even uncertain whether the depression known as Long Island sound had any existence prior to the disturbances in which these clays were involved in Pleistocene time. Everywhere the existing relief of these clay masses above sealevel is a function of their displacement. The entire absence of any relatively hard or resistant layer in the series makes it even doubtful if the seaward migrating outcrops of the Cretaceous series presented at the time of the first ice invasion, ‘anywhere along the line from Cape Cod or Nantucket westward.to New Jersey, anything like a bluff or inface of strata overlooking the bared, hard rock terrane on the north, such as might be expected were the rocks of a firmer character or of greater lithologic variety. At most, where these older clays now rise highest in dislocated masses, it may be that remnants of the old coastal plain, similar in origin to the highlands of Navesink on the New Jersey coast, stood up on the interstream areas. The deep reentrants of the northern coast, as in the case of Hempstead bay, appear to be features of Pleistocene date, across whose site the Cretaceous clays previously extended unbroken. ‘In short, no definite trace of an older detail of land surface is now discernible beneath the glacial materials within the limits of this report. The absence, however, of deposits inter- mediate in date between the older Pleistocene and the ancient clays warrants the supposition that at least the northern part of the island was an area of erosion by ordinary meteoric agencies. Beneath the Cretaceous and Potomac clays should come the hard rocks exposed on the mainland. These hard rocks in the form of gneiss appear at the surface westward in Long Island City and have been met in borings in Brooklyn. The precise depth at which they occur beneath this area is at present a matter of conjecture. The entire absence of hard rocks in fixed ledges or outcrops within PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 623 the limits of this part of the island naturally precludes any observa- tion of glacial striae indicating the direction of local ice movement. The ledges of gneiss in Long Island City bear striae whose direc- tion is s. s. e. and presumably a similar course was followed over tliis tract. Glacial formations The glacial formations of this area are divisible into two great groups: those of an unassorted, unstratified structure, composed of mixtures of boulders, pebbles, sand and clay, frequently, when | covering the surface, with a knob and basin topography, forming in general terms till, or boulder clay when boulders are mixed with clay ; and those composed of gravels and sand with a stratified struc- ture showing their evident deposition by running water. Till constitutes the larger part of the ridges or moraines already described. Boulder clay occurs as a thin layer in the bluffs on. either side of Hempstead harbor and in the area between Searing- ton and the main ridge near Lake Surprise. Ordinary till, largely in the form of scattered boulders, covers the terraced plains and the ridges and valleys north of the main moraine. The rest of the area is largely composed of gravel and sand with local deposits of blackish or bluish black clay not certainly of glacial origin and per- haps to be regarded as of Tertiary or older age. Gravel and sand - constitute by far the greater portion of the glacial deposits both as regards the surficial extent and cubic contents of the Pleistocene. Since these deposits appear by their structure and relations to have been deposited in succession, some till having been made under the ice or at the ice front while gravels and sands were being laid down by water running through or pouring out of the ice, it will be necessary to consider them in the order of their development in time. In the chronologic succession, the glacial deposits exhibit three marked phases of Pleistocene history in this area: 1) a group of older gravels and sands with an intercalated till bed, the evident equivalent of the Columbia formation; 2) the moraines and their attendant stratified gravels and sands, forming the topographic details of the surface ; 3) between these deposits in the order of time, evidences of erosion by other than glacial action, et demand separate treatment. 624 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Columbia formation. The rude terraced plains lying north of the main moraine on the Oyster Bay quadrangle are but the surface of a thick series of gravels and sands on which the moraines have been heaped. The reasons for referring to them heretofore.as older Pleistocene may now be set forth, together with the evidence in favor of referring them to the Columbia formation of McGee,’ the group to which the deposits appear to have been referred by that author in 1888. F. J. H. Merrill, following the pioneer work of Mather, pointed out in 1886 that these gravels and sands under the name of “ gravel drift”? underlie unconformably the moraine, and concluded that they were deposited by swift currents carrying along fine and coarse materials together.’ The deposits as exposed on the Oyster Bay quadrangle consist of water-worn gravels and sands, clearly divisible in certain sections into an upper and lower series by a thin bed of glacial boulder clay. It has not been possible in the course of the present survey within the area to determine whether or not the group thus defined is to be divided into an earlier dislocated and a later undisturbed series, but it is clear that many sections of these gravels, along with what appears to be the boulder bed named, have been dislocated along the north coast of the island. On Marthas Vineyard and Block island such a division has been made out,> but the boulder clay parting, on the other hand, has not been found there in the position of an inter- mediate conformable bed. The gravels consist of water-worn fragments of quartz derived from veins, granite and gneiss from the ancient Piedmont terrane of the mainland, of silicified fossils from the metamorphic Paleozoic limestones of the mainland, cherts of the same origin, and ferrugin- . ous sandstones and fragments of concretions from the underlying Cretaceous or Potomac section. 1McGee, W J. Three formations of the middle Atlantic slope. Am. jour. sci. Ser. 3. 1888. 35: 367-88, 448-66. It has not seemed possible at present to establish a satisfactory comparison of the deposits in this portion of Long Island with the formations recognized in New Jersey by Prof. Salisbury. 2Merrill, F. J. H. N. Y. acad. sci. Annals. 1886. 3: 341-64. ® Woodworth, J. B. Unconformities on Marthas Vineyard and Block island. Geol. soc. Am. Bul. 1897. 8 : 204-11. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 625 Quartz pebbles predominate in this formation, particularly those stained yellow by the oxid of iron; hence the term, “ yellow gravel,” which has been sometimes given to it. This discoloration will be treated more at length later. White quartz pebbles are not uncommon, pebbles which appear never to have been stained. The silicified fossils and cherts are relatively rare, but search carried over a few square yards of surface in any gravel pit in the forma- tion north of the moraine will usually reveal two or three of these erratics. The gneissic and granitic pebbles are at least in the mass of the formation not much decayed. On the whole, the materials are like those in the moraine and in the gravel and sand terraces on the mainland except for local staining by iron oxids. The com- parison with the moraines is perhaps hardly just, because the moraines are locally largely composed of rearranged drift from these same beds, as in Harbor hill. The inference from the sands and gravels is that they are of glacial origin, modified by the work of running water, either ice-born streams or extraglacial waters. This conclusion as to their glacial origin amounts to a certainty when the intermediate boulder clay bed is taken into the account. That the beds extend southward beyond the Harbor hill ridge or moraine can hardly be questioned; but it is difficult to distin- guish the formation in front of the moraines from the later gravels and sands washed out from the ice front. At one point in the mounded drift southwest of Roslyn an exposure by the roadside of a coarse cobble bed with yellow pebbles contains also iron stone con- eretions which have evidently not been rolled, showing that they are probably in place, though loosened by exposure to surface actions from the surrounding pebbles. Beds of this character are found at the base of the Pleistocene on Marthas Vineyard in the Gay head section,’ where the origin of the concretions is clear. The concretions arise from the erosion of light colored clays of the underlying Cretaceous or Potomac beds and their deposition with the coarse gravels as pebbles permeable to percolating water charged with iron salts. Cementation takes place by deposition of iron oxids around all of the pebbles, involving the outer part of the clay 1 Woodworth, J. B. Geol. soc. Am. Bul. 1897. 8 : 205-6. 626 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM pebbles, which becomes converted into a hard stone layer, the inside remaining usually unconsolidated. When in after time these nodules are wrested from the bed in which they originate, they are broken open, the clayey or sometimes sandy interior washes out and there is left a potlike, hollow pebble of the kind known as aetites or eaglestone.' Hundreds of these nodules were dragged out of their bedding places by the advance of the ice over the Columbia at the time of making the terminal moraine on Marthas Vineyard and in portions of Long Island. The occurrence of these nodules at the locality mentioned affords evidence that the underlying white clays and sandy clays ‘were eroded at the beginning of Columbia deposition. The uncon- formity thus inferred is widespread to the east on Marthas Vine- yard and Block island and along the Atlantic coast southward to the vicinity of Washington. Of direct local evidence, little can be said. On the shore north of Coldspring the gravelly beds at the base of the tilted Pleistocene series may be seen resting on the Cretaceous and older clays, but there is no ovserved difference of dip, though the absence of identifiable Eocene or Neocene beds is — proof of an unconformity. No clearer fact than this was gathered from the similar sections about Glen Cove and Glenwood. Aside from this unmistakable instance of older gravels lying out- side of the moraine, it is uncertain to what extent the older beds make up the frontal plain. Yellowish gravels abound in the road and railroad cuts, but the yellow quartz pebbles have invariably been washed and worn since they were stained, and similar pebbles are now working their way from the cliffs down the beach slopes into the deposits now making along the coast. It is to be inferred, how- ever, from the attitude and thickness of the Columbia north of the moraine that a large part of the section south-of the moraine is composed of these beds. The structure of these beds is revealed in only a few pits and coastal sections. The most extensive exposures in 1900 were found in anumber of sand pits on the west shore of Hempstead harbor. In these pits the beds are horizontal, and the boulder clay bed is clearly traceable. 1Geikie, A. Textbook of geology. 3d ed. 1893. p. 146-47. i , - ‘ 2 » } ‘ s) \ i \ 3 4 ‘4 y 1 ——— : a ; ; i . . - x ji : my he j r af t 2) d | | ; . : oer i a f ; ( a mM ‘ R ie . Md x To ! I Ti, te ss i "i ort { a . i) as j - P a Ao Ais i * ‘\ 1 1 , a / h q i “tual —— ioqiey peo dumeH ‘41d 8. SUI ‘[esAeIs ‘SUTAIOA0 puUe SpueS peyliesjs oy} JO eMOS puke poq Jep[nog SuLmoysS MoIA ‘oj0Yyd ‘sory “H G Pid PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 627 A borrow-pit in the southwestern part of the village of Oyster Bay showed beds dipping southward 26°, an angle not far from that of fore-set beds in delta structure. These beds were overlain by other sands in horizontal beds, and the whole appears to be a portion of the normal section of the lower part of the series. This section lies between 40 feet and 50 feet above sealevel. There is nothing in the attitude of the beds at this locality to indicate that the strata were disturbed after deposition, as is the case on the | contrary in so many of the bluffs along the north shore. Another good exposure occurs in Cooper bluff between Oyster Bay and Coldspring harbors, in the cliff on the south side of Oak neck near the wharf, and at Barker point. The boulder clay bed. In many of the coastal sections on the north shore an unstratified mixture of pebbles, sand and clay in a bed varying from 3 to 10 feet in thickness may be seen in a posi- tion to indicate that it is interstratified with these older gravels; but it is only in the sand pits on Hempstead bay that a bed of this character is fully revealed. About half way up the bluff, or about 100 feet above the bay, there is a bed of boulder clay from 2 to 3 feet thick, traceable in-all the pits open in 1900 south of Bar beach. The matrix o* this bed is an unctuons dark blue clay locally sandy or gravelly. Scattered through it and sometimes in close contact- with each other are glaciated boulders often over 1 foot in diameter and numerous pebbles attesting the glacial origin of the deposit. Several large boulders examined in 1901 by Dr F. J. H. Merrill and the writer were recognized by the first named as having been transported in all probability from the Adirondacks. Other small boulders carrying Silurian fossils indicated their origin in the Hud- son valley north of the Highlands. The longest journey made by these materials appears to exceed 200 miles.' The bed rests evenly and smoothly on the underlying gravelly sands. without marked disturbance or erosion. This relation to the under- lying bed suggests the dropping of stones and clay from overlying floating ice more than the actual advance of an ice sheet on this part * Mather reported finding in the valley of Schoharie kill, boulders with ‘‘ opales- cent feldspar like that of Essex county” and referred them to parent ledges in the eastern Adirondacks. Geol. rep’t. 1843. p. 187. é , ae . : “ oJ 628 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of the area of the Oyster Bay quadrangle at this time. The thine ness of the bed, and the identity of the sediments which underlie and succeed it, go far to show that this boulder clay making was but an episode in the formation of the gravels and sands in this field. The outcrop of the boulder clay bed on the bluffs gives rise to boulders which have slidden down the slope. A section transverse to the face of the bluff in one of the pits showed an ancient talus of boulder clay extending down to the road. Not only the texture and structure of the sands and gravels, but also the appearance of the boulder clay bed in these pits indicates that these deposits extended eastward across what is now the bay to the like deposits on the opposite bluff. Nowhere do the deposits show that increasing coarseness toward their exposed edges which is the characteristic mark of the heads of glacial sand plains and those bodies of glacial sands and gravels which have accumulated about the edge of a gla- cier or its outlying stagnant masses. The bays are clearly valleys of erosion cutting through both the Pleistocene and locally the pre- Pleistocene clays and sands alike. A bed of till, presumably an extension of that above described, occurs on the east shore of Hempstead bay in Glen Cove about 60 feet above sealevel, in the following incompletely exposed section. PLEISTOCENE SECTION IN GLEN COVE, FROM TOP Gravel and fine sand sec eee so ents eee amb Till, with small angular boulders:./. 22 *. eat Nee 4 5 Gravel-elayey 2.3 dee oa ee eee ee 1. -6'amne Gravel, sandy... 0 5) eon ere eee ee 3 Sand,’ base not séen . sau" gAceer sme ae es 20 feet distant the till passes into stratified gravel and sand. The rapid transition of the till into stratified drift at this locality explains the absence of the bed in many sections. It was probably locally deposited. _ A similar till bed distinctly less bouldery but equally amorphous, is exposed in the bluff at Barker point, from which, first appearing at about 20 feet above the sealevel, it sinks, on the western face of this headland, southward, being involved in the dislocations of the north coast of the island (fig. 2). od ‘ped siq} Wolj Ueye} useq sAeY puno1ise107 ul paid siep[nog ey ‘spues pur sreAvIS [¥,0R]3 UseM}oq pod Jopjnog Su;moysS ‘Joqiey peeydwey ‘Yueq pues s.SuLy ‘oj0yd ‘sary “H € eld PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 629 A small exposure of a bed of till also existed in the summer of 1900 near Rocky point at the northwestern extremity of the so-called Center island in Oyster bay. The annexed sketches illustrate the varying conditions seen at this locality. In fig. 3 the beds in the bluff west of Rocky point show again the transition from till to stratified beds. A detail of the western part of the sec- G95 tion is given in fig. 4, showing a 38.9 2 loesslike sands at top, inclosing eT ‘boulders, beneath which comes =e a bed of gravelly sand from 6 = So A to 10 feet thick, with pockets RSI as NAF N of clay. A gravelly till 10 feet thick underlies this bed, Lo —S\\\ below which again appear S*.: ae eens Bayes and sand. Fig. 2 Southwestern face of Barker point. Near the headland underlying A, cross-bedded ferruginous sands; B, the till bed 5 or 6 feet thick, resting unconformably blue clays rise up in a knob, on the sands, and overlain by sands; C, sands; D, surface tiil and boulders, the fine materials with sands cut off on the east, Hee ec ele a _ the whole being overlain uncon- formably by till with boulders up to 2 feet in diameter. At the headland on the southwest, the sections shown in fig. 5 and 6 exhibit an earthy gravel (as in fig. 6) evidently a phase of the till bed or the till as in fig. 5, resting unconformably on tilted yellow sauds, which in turn repose on disturbed clays. 7 Fig.3 Section along the bluff west of Rocky point. a, clay exposure: B, till; c, sands and gravels; d, partially buried surface boulders Above these exposures on the shore the ground rises on the eroded and till-covered slopes of the Columbia. The evidence of uncon- formity between the till bed and the underlying disturbed clays and sands is in sharp contrast with the sections on Hempstead bay and ee 630 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM admits a different interpretation, one favoring the dislocation of the section before the deposition of the till but on a scale quite admis- sible as the work of a glacier. The dislocated beds dip at high angles to the south. The underlying blue clays weather whitish, carry quartz pebbles and slight traces of black carbonized plant remains and are in presumably Potomac or Creta- Fig.4 Detail of section just west of pre- ceding section. A, sands and gravels; C@OUS. They are unconformably B, till; C, loesslike sands inclosing — beneath the sands boulders i : P : Another dislocated section affect- ing sands underlain by clays occurs at the southern end of Center island (fig. 7). The clays are here dark blue, well laminated, “zz, and pass by gradations into the overlying sands, recalling many Fig. 5 Local section at Rocky point showing ; i deformed blue clays and banded sands, uncon- sections on Cape Cod bay in formably overlain by till with boulders up to 2 es: - feet in diameter, passing laterally into strati- Massachusetts. The UP PS part fied gravel of the sands carries boulders; the whole may well be a basal portion of the Columbia. At one point a small fold overturned southward has passed into a reverse fold-fault. Viewed as an _ over- thrust, the movement has been northward. To accord with the hypothesis of glacial thrust acting from the north, it is necessary to A. suppose that underthrusting has taken place. The railroad from Oyster Bay to ZY YW Voom ; Roslyn passes through three deep cuts in an eastwest valley in Mill Fig. 6 Section at headland on south- f F aatie Ibi gr motte PAAteR EE aL Neck. In the cut nearest Oyster lowish sandstone, with boulders; C, Bay, whitish to pinkish sands, prob- earthy gravel ably Cretaceous, appear at the bot- tom, succeeded by about 30 feet of coarse gravels, ill stratified and et ; ‘aaa \ va * 1 ‘ ' . ' i Pow ; * 1 My : t Largs, 3 & * ‘ . ‘ee ee ' ‘ i 4 r fa b ? \ « . { tah ‘ R : ? Mit. 4 y iq o 1 =) ’ oe a ’ , ; FP ’ ay y fi hee ny = ey : . i ¥ = : i a0 3, : 7 | 1 ¥ i ' x “ ® 1 » = a v 4 ing | Py a + a q 1 1 eae. | ue ; : ye ‘Ma b id 7 JOqiey{ peosdulef, ‘yuUeq PUBS S,SUIy Ul peq Joppnog jo MaIA 1vaN ‘oyoyd ‘sey A 7 Id PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 6531 overlain by at least 20 feet of clayey sands passing above into cleaner sand. These beds dip gently east. The second cut west shows more of the white sands, dip uncer- tain, overlain by glacial gravel with small boulders. The third cut west exhibits cross-bedded, white clayey sands, presumably Creta- ceous, overlain by 10 or 12 feet of glacial gravels and sands with small boulders. The section shows no dislocation. In the first of these sections the measured exposure is evidently a part of the Columbia; in the second cut, the glacial gravels mantle the eroded surface of the pre-Pleistocene series, having been deposited subsequently to the deformation and gullying of the beds. These top beds, by their boulders and lack of strat- ification, as well as their relation to the eroded clays, evidently pertain to ‘the last drift. The Fig.7 A fold-faultin clays at southern end of Center sections show, however, _ island in Oyster Bay harbor that the Columbia man- tles over and is wrapped about masses of the pre-Pleistocene series, as previously stated on p. 622. Similar partial sections occur on Great Neck near Manhasset. In the sand pits northwest of Port Washington, the pre-Pleisto- cene clays are also involved in folds, giving rise to a structure, the upper member of which is a gravel and sand bed of the Columbia formation, itself clearly older than the sands of the Port Washing- ton delta yet to be described (p..646). In this instance the axis of the anticlinal structure lies north and south, and the dislocation may be of a relatively late date, even so late as the time of forma- tion of the delta named, when the ice lay deeply embayed along the north shore of Manhasset neck and when an easterly movement in the mass might be expected, since the ice at this locality was on the eastern margin of a glacial lobe at the mouth of the Hudson valley. The deposit of sands and fine gravels forming the tabular hillock whose frontage on Manhasset bay near Port Washington is known as Tom point is a unique example of the deformation and erosion of 632 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Manhasset sands. The deposit, now largely removed for mason’s supplies, exhibits a strong flexure with a downthrow to the south. On either side of this flexure the beds are horizontal but those on the north belong stratigraphically below those now on the same level but on the south of the flexure. The annexed cut (fig. 8) as sketched from a photograph exhibits the sand beds in the top of flexure. The truncation of the flexed beds at the present surface is sufficient evidence of the erosion of the whole to its present level. A few small glacial erratics occur on the surface, but the ice sheet appears to have swept over it without leaving other deposits. The top sands have lost their stratification but it is impossible to say how far this disturbance was due to the ice sheet and how much has been done by the growth of plant roots in the subsoil. The small heads of Cretaceous clay appearing above sealevel on the shore of Manhasset bay, where the older Pleistocene is essentially horizontal, along with the protruding masses of these older clays in the massive portions of the section, indicate a relatively early disloca- | tion of por- tions of the pre- Pleisto- eene _ base- ment of the island. It would there- eee fore appear that the dislo- Fig. 8 Southward dipping flexed beds in Manhasset sands at Tom point i near Port Washington, showing eroded surface cations were not all of the same date in this portion of the island, ranging in age from at least the oldest Pleistocene to the time of the main moraines, certainly none of them are later than the Port Washington stage. The upper limit of the Columbia accords roughly with the hight assigned to the plains described as lying north of the inner moraine, that is to say, the deposits are approximately delimited by the 200 foot contour line. Where lower, they have been eroded; where higher surfaces exist, later glacial drift, usually till, is found cover- / \) DAH, byt 6 ES SSS Lge Ay i Th } ele Dut ered) v uote ‘ re " ae | i ‘Q0e[d Ul U9eS 9q 0} OIV SJap[NOg sMOS pue MoOIA JO UOI}I0d Joddn wi woes st 10318] oY, ‘pod Joprnoq oY} WOJJ UMOp uST[eJ oAVY YOM siJoppnog jo dnowy ‘10oqiey, peoisdwmey ‘yueq pues s,Suly ‘oVOYd ‘Ssely “Ht | G OWI PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS .633 ing them. If then, we reconstruct the cross-section of the forma- tion, it would appear as a wide belt of gravels and sands declining southward to the sea and rising with a cuestalike bluff from the sound on the north. In ordinary nonglacial, coastwise beds, such a bluff would indicate the retreat of the beds, extending originally north to an overlap on the mainland, to their present northern limit. But in the case of glacial deposits laid down about the border of an ice sheet, it is highly probable that the beds never thinned out landward to an overlapping series on the ancient gneiss of the region beyond the sound. Some- what similar glacial gravels and sands of the last ice epoch, on Nan- tucket, end abruptly on their northern or iceward margins in bluffs overlooking lower ground once occupied by the basal portion of the ice sheet against whose mural front they were laid down.’ Upham * has expressed his belief in the origin of these gravels and sands in this manner, differing only from the view here set forth in that he sup- poses the beds to be essentially contemporaneous with the moraines which rise above their level. It is evident that these Columbia beds, exposed in the bluffs and rude terraces along the north coast of the island, may once have extended much farther to the northward, but how much farther into the area of the sound is not now definitely determinable. Their occurrence on the Connecticut mainland has not as yet been reported, and till that area is carefully studied with this problem in mind, it can hardly be satisfactorily settled. The same indefinite answer is elicited from a study of the equivalent beds on Block island and Marthas Vineyard. In other words, the precise position of the ice front and terminal moraine of this earlier ice advance is unknown, though it could not have been many miles north of the inner limit of these gravels and sands with their intercalated bed of true till. | Aside from the disturbances above noted, two classes of changes have affected these beds since their deposition: 1) the discoloration of the beds by local and secular chemical changes in the iron-bear- 1Curtis, G. C. & Woodworth, J. B. Jour. geol. Chicago, 1899. 7 : 226-36. *Upham, Warren. Glacial history of the New England islands. Am. geol. 1899. 24:79-89, with bibliography, p. 89-92. 634 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ing content of the gravels; and, 2) the erosion of valleys and harbors in its mass prior to at least the last till deposits on the island. The latter phenomena are so extensive as to indicate a con- _ siderable lapse of time for their production. Discoloration of the gravels by the yellow or hydrous sesquioxid of iron has taken place to a variable extent, sometimes affecting less than a cubic foot of the materials and in other places, particularly beneath the moraine, changing the entire appearance of the section there exposed. Local discoloring by the yellow oxid is frequently seen in the gravel pits on the west shore of Hempstead bay, wherever some iron-bearing pebble has oxidized and hydrated, the iron salts spread- ing outward and mainly downward through the action of infiltrating rain water. The sands and gravels above the till bed mainly exhibit this change. Widespread discoloration of the gravels to a deep yellow oceurs in Roslyn in the bluffs on the east side. of the town below the base of the moraine. This deeper and more thorough coating of the gravels in this locality is a natural result of the lixiviation of the ferruginous rocks in the overlying moraine, the products of whose oxidation and hydration have worked downward into the porous gravels beneath. The discoloration is therefore a change which is probably secular and in progress. That it had already advanced very far before the moraines were formed is indicated by the abundant occurrence in the moraine of yellow, stained quartz pebbles; but these pebbles in the moraine are usually not in the place in which they were originally stained, for they have water-washed surfaces. ‘The staining was accomplished while the pebbles lay in an earlier deposit, either the Columbia or some unexposed member of the ancient coastal plain. Erosion interval. The evidence of late dislocation on a small scale commensurate with the pushing and dragging action of a great ice sheet, the spreading of till and boulders over the surface of the Columbia, and the amassment of heaps of drift evidently in part derived from the surface of the deposit, afford indubitable evi- dence of the degradation of the formation to some extent by ice action subsequent to the completion of the series of deposits. But * 0 7 a Tyee Joqiey peojsdmoey ‘YuUeq puvs S.sUly ‘“1eySem pues ‘oJoyd ‘sory “H 9 aid PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 635 the surface of the formation north of the moraine is carved into valleys and deep reentrants of the coast line, depressions the main features of which are consonant neither with the southward move- ment of ice over the area nor the erosive work of subglacial streams discharging across them at the ice front. That these valleys ante- date the last ice advance appears to be shown in that all of them are more or less encumbered by morainal materials. As typical examples of these valleys, that entering into Manhas- set bay at Glen Cove, as well as that in whose lower extension Mill Neck creek flows, may be taken. The Glen Cove valley heads at the inner base of the moraine near a very well marked pass at the eastern base of Harbor hill, a passage through which undoubtedly subglacial waters escaped when the ice front lay against the moraine and at a time when it must be admitted subglacial drainage may well have followed the course of this valley for a part or a whole of its course. The objections to accepting the valley, however, as the work of this subglacial stream, aside from those above stated, are 1) the graded character of its bed, sloping northward toward the sea as if made by a normal stream like that now flowing in it, though the existing stream evidently flows in a valley which it found encumbered by more or less glacial drift; 2) the tributary vales evidently cut by running water as in normal open air streams ; 3) the course of the stream at Glen Cove, east and west, in a direc- tion contrary to ice movement in this locality. The digitation is even more pronounced in the case of the Mill Neck creek valley just south of the ponds. The upper part of the valley above the 100 foot contour is also walled in by glacial deposits later than the Columbia in which it is cut. Like considerations hold in regard to the deep valleys which extend from Oyster Bay village toward East Norwich. The Mill Neck creek depression continues below sealevel, and, branching south of Oak neck, separates that island — an island except for the barrier beach tying it to the land on the west —from Mill Neck. It is evident that there has been developed a marked dissection of the Columbia, and that this dissection on north and south as well as on east and west lines is increasingly severe toward the northern coast, as in the normal degradation of an area of incoherent materials marginal to a depression such as that of 636 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Long Island sound. The inference is that at a time immediately before the last advance of the ice the area was exposed to ordinary stream action opening out valleys on the gravels and sands, the - mouths of these streams reaching the sea below the present sealevel. There are other evidences, however, which show that ice action has considerably modified and enlarged certain of these valleys. Such enlarged valleys constitute the bays and harbors of the north shore. These harbors have their bottoms 27 feet below sealevel in Hempstead bay, 61 feet in Oyster bay and 33 feet in Manhasset bay. This depth in each case is probably less than the original depth of the depressions, for there has been some infilling by glacial deposition — probably small as judged by the filling in of valleys extending above sealevel—and some infilling through post-glacial deposition by tides and currents. Arguments for the excavation of these embayments subsequent to the formation of the Columbia gravels and sands have already been given on p. 628. Homologous depressions occur eastward on this island in Coldspring and North- port harbors. They are also found on Marthas Vineyard in Lagoon pond and Menemsha pond, and on Block island in Great pond. — As to the period of this valley-making, excepting the modification and enlargement by ice action, it is clearly older than the main | or inner moraine at Roslyn, a deposit believed to be equivalent to the Cape Cod moraine. Whether the stream erosion preceded or followed those fragments of an older moraine which on this sheet mark the western extension of the outer or Nantucket moraine, appears to be locally undeterminable, because the two sets of phe- nomena are not found in association. Ifa comparison with Marthas Vineyard and Block island holds good, the erosion of the valleys should be here as there anterior to both moraines. In all of these New England islands, the valleys do not occur as such on the south of the moraines, because that area has been buried beneath the out- wash plains of the first or outer moraine on the eastern islands and of both the first and second, or inner and outer moraine on Long Island. The time involved in the excavation of these valleys is indetermi- nate. They are largely excavated in gravels and sands of a porous structure. Much of the existing rainfall passes through the PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 637 deposits where clays do not occur, finding its way out near sealevel in springs, as in the village of Oyster Bay. At best, surface streams would have cut but slowly on these deposits, as they do now, the excavation in post-glacial time being practically nothing in the form of mechanical abrasion. | The share which the ice and the subglacial streams may have had in the excavation of the harbors, is discussed in connection with the “moraine on p-. 648. Wisconsin epoch. Moraines and attendant sand plains. The existence of two lines of moraines in this area has already been set forth in the account of the topography. Both of these deposits are largely composed of materials which have been water-worn, in this feature reflecting the nature of the terrane from which the materials were eroded and on which they were deposited. The ice sheet on leaving the bed rocks of the mainland and the north shore of what is now Long Island sound passed over the Columbia gravels and sands, gathering debris from these older water-worn deposits ; hence the water-worn pebbles which abound in the moraine even when the materials are truly ice-laid without stratification. True boulder clay occurs in small patches, but much of the till is sandy, and even in its coarser phases often exhibits traces of water action ~ closely followed by a shoving of the deposits into contorted drift. The outer deposits consist of a few low knobs rising like kames from the surrounding gravels. They bear a few boulders on their surface and frequently in road cuts reveal a thin patch of till. West of Searington rolling surfaces of till composed of a gravelly boulder clay give the deposit, along with its steep southerly front, something of the aspect of the main moraine as it exists southwest of Lake Surprise. These knobs and their rare attendant basins have a much less strong development than those heavier accumulations which lie in the form of a strong ridge immediately north of them. The deposits do not afford in themselves precise indexes of the posi- tion of the ice front at the time they were made. They appear to be submarginal deposits laid down when the ice front lay somewhat to the south of them, and are best compared with the kame moraine in the eastern part of Nantucket. : The inner or main moraine exhibits likewise the two phases of 638 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM building by the direct action of the ice and through the accumula- tion of gravels by water action. The till phase of the moraine in this area is best shown in a road cut about one mile south of East Norwich. The till is here decidedly gravelly rather than clayey, with cobbles up to 20 inches. in diameter, rarely, though occasionally ice scratched. The topog- raphy is cast into small knobs more distinct than the 20 foot con- tour lines of the map can be made to show. The hill over which the road in question passes has a drumlinoid curve, as if the ice had overridden it. The overriding action of the ice shown in the polittend deposited on water-worn gravels in the moraine and by the ice-swept curves of many of the knobs is further attested by the outlying meridional ridges between the inner and outer lines of moraines just north of Westbury pond. Their massiveness and accordance in elevation with the inner ridge are good evidence that they were formed by the same phase of ice action which was concerned in the construc- tion of the main ridge of which they are but spurs. The thick till phase of the moraine proper shades off imper- - ceptibly into the thin till phase of the upper surface of the gravel plains on the north. This latter drift appears to be, over most of . the area, ordinary ground moraine like that on the mainland far north of the moraines. Only here and there and particularly on the extreme eastern border of the Oyster Bay quadrangle do consider- able patches of till with morainal topography lie north of the main wall, but none of these have the aspect of a frontal deposit. They are, rather, thickened deposits of the ground moraine, and their principal relief is molded on the ridges and valleys of the older drift which they mantle. They have therefore on the map been distinguished from the deposits which by their linear arrangement and massiness more clearly pertain to deposition at or immediately beneath the ice front: The stratified gravels in the moraine appear to belong to two dis- tinct categories as regards the mode of their origin: 1) outwashed gravels laid down at the ice front and subsequently pushed up into ridges; 2) high cones or fans deposited along the ice front by out- pouring streams either from fountains such as Russell has described PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 639 on the Malaspina glacier; or 3) deposits made in water-eaten cavities in the ice front. Asa rule, the gravels are seldom so well exposed as to reveal the structures on which a decision as to their precise character can be arrived at; and their origin in the presence of the ice in all cases being so intimate as to permit the falling of erratics on their surfaces makes it difficult to discriminate them from the gravelly till. This is particularly true where the growth of trees and the overturning of the superficial deposits have broken up the original stratification in the surficial portion so that the materials have the structural appearance of till or at least ice-deposited gravels. The deposition of the surface gravels by direct ice action is sometimes shown by the scratches on hard silicious pebbles. These scratches are usually miscroscopic and would have been quickly effaced by water action. Such pebbles occur in the churned up gravelly drift on the surface of the Columbia north of the moraine. The structure of the principal knob in this moraine chanced to be revealed in the summer of 1900, and the following notes on Harbor hill show the surprising development of these water-worn gravels in the deposit. Harbor hill. The precise mode of accumulation of the materials in the terminal moraine still demands explanation in numerous details, particularly in regard to those portions which are mainly composed of stratified gravelsand sands. Nowhere in the moraines on the islands off the southern shore of New England does this problem become more urgent for a satisfactory answer than in Harbor hill, a towering mass of stratified gravels, forming the cul- minating point of the moraine on this quadrangle at the eastern side of the pass through which the glacial drainage escaped from Roslyn bay to the great south plain. This hill rises with steep slopes into four knobs, the highest of which has an elevation of 391 feet, its base on the outwash plain being roughly circumscribed by the 200 foot contour line. At its eastern base, the hill is separated from the extension of the morainal wall in that direction by a distinct depression, or trough, one of those numerous channels which gave exit to the intraglacial waters on to the outwash plain. On the west, its slopes fall off to sealevel at the head of Hempstead harbor. The high 640 ; NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM point named is composed of stratified gravels and sands with yel- lowish layers, dipping nearly flat on the north side of the summit but inclining to 80° south, and evidently truncated on the west. This section was exposed in June 1900 in the excavation for a large house then in process of erection. “Other small sections in driveways along the western slope exhibited stratified beds dip- ping in places 5° northward and usually eroded. On the western — slope bouldery till, reddish from oxidation, appears about 5 feet c thick; but till is wanting over the summit, which evidently has not been run over by the ice. io A complete section through this hill would be required to satisfy the needs of an exact analysis of its mode of formation; but the gravel beds dipping 30° south at the summit on the southern face of the knob appear clearly to place it in the group of glacial cones, formed along the ice front, homologous to the alluvial cones which form in the lower course of a drainage furrow on the side of a mountain valley, with this difference, that the mass at whose base it was formed, being ice, has melted away. The glacial gravel in these cones and mounds lesanell along the ice front, would appear to have been washed off from the top of the thinning ice border or to have issued from tunnels in the upper part of the ice. .The character of the material in Harbor hill gives a decisive clue to its origin. The gravels are mostly yellow quartz from the older Pleistocene deposits which flank the moraine on the north. They probably have not been transported for distances greater than 10 miles; they may have been caught up from the base of the ice within 8 or 4 miles. At all events, they are locally derived material already existing in the district when this advance ~ of the ice was accomplished. The elevation of Harbor hill, nearly 400 feet above present sea- level, affords conclusive evidence as to the least estimate which may be made on the hight of the ice front at this point. This hight was at least 400 feet and probably more. This least elevation agrees well with the data found by Smock? in the longitudinal valleys of northern New Jersey, where ice tongues rose northward tor a few 1§mock, J. C. On the surface limit or thickness of the continental glacier in New Jersey and adjacent states. Am. jour. sci. 3d ser. 1882. 20 :339-d0. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 641 miles at the rate of 80 feet to the mile. Such an elevation of the ice sheet increasing northward over the sound and on the mainland would give great hydrostatic pressure to the subglacial drainage, the effect of which would be to produce violent discharge at the front in any direction, outward or upward, in free coursing streams on the one hand and in fountains along the crevassed, drift-blocked ice margin on the other hand, in the manner of the discharge from the border of the Malaspina glacier as described by Russell.t | An over- laden stream, scouring the gravelly bed of the glacier and rising at the front through a shaft to a point of discharge on the margin, would drop that material at the margin in a high cone, whose ulti- - mate form would depend on the degree to which it was deformed | by irregular deposition on buried masses of ice, the melting of which would let down those huge kamelike heaps of gravel in the form of mounds along the ice front. Distinction between outer und inner moraine. Two very distinct lines of moraines, designated as the inner and the outer, typically developed on Cape Cod on the one hand and on Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard on the other, have long been recognized by American geologists, and have been traced with much certainty across the intervening stretches of sea and land or islands to Long Island, most successfully by Warren Upham,’ whose name and labors must ever be associated with the glacial deposits of this region. Mr Upham evidently regarded the inner of these two lines of moraines as terminating, so far as its relief above sealevel is con- cerned, at Port Jefferson. The morainal ridge which extends from the vicinity of Coldspring to New York narrows was regarded as the outer moraine. This interpretation has, so far as I know, ever since been generally accepted,’ and the moraines have so been repre- sented on compiled maps, leaving as an unsolved problem the ques- tion of what has become of so well defined a moraine as that which from Port Jefferson eastward has been known as the inner moraine, 1 Russell, I, C. Second expedition to Mt St Elias. U.S. geol. sur. 13th an. @ rep’t. 1893. pt 2, p. 81. *>Upham, Warren. Glacial history of the New England islands. Am. geol. 1899. 24:'79-89. §’Chamberlin, T. C. U.S. geol. sur. 8d an. rep’t. 1888. map, pl. 33. 642 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM a deposit which is almost everywhere in its extent more massive than the outer moraine. | The writer is led by his observations of the two moraines on Long Island to dissent from this long accepted opinion, and to regard the inner moraine as continuous westward of Port Jefferson to the vicinity of Coldspring and Syosset, where the two moraines nearly coalesce. They maintain their relative positions with some distinctness to the vicinity of Roslyn, where the inner moraine crosses the outer moraine, the latter disappearing beneath the later one, which con- tinues onward to the western end of the island and becomes the terminal moraine of the mainland. The tracing of the two moraines. made in the fall of 1900 by J. E. Woodman served to show the. extension of the inner moraine to the southwest of Port Jefferson on to the eastern limits of the Oyster Bay quadrangle. This interpretation of the westward extension of the two moraines is quite in line with the observed tendency of the ice front along the southern coast from the easternmost point in Massachusetts to the Hudson river. On the east the moraines of Nantucket and Cape Cod are at the outer margin of these two lobes more than 25 miles apart. In the region of Vineyard sound they are from 5 to 10 miles apart; they are quite 10 miles apart in the meridian of Block island; when they reappear on Long Island, they approach each other. West of Roslyn, the second moraine crosses the first. From this it is concluded that the inner moraine is not so much a reces- sional moraine as a frontal moraine built after a retreat from the position of the first moraine, followed by an advance to the position of the second moraine, accompanied in the Hudson valley by a greater outrun of the ice sheet than in the first advance. This overlapping of moraines is a well attested phenomenon in the region south of the great lakes. | | The ice front which rested against the north coast of Long Island in the vicinity of Port Washington can not well be the same as that whose moraine caps the cliffs east of Port Jefferson. In the first place, at Port Washington the morainal accumulations are very slight indeed and do not rise in mounds; in the second place, the ice sheet halted there for a brief time only, as is witnessed by the small amount of outwash in the sand plain at that locality. This PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 643 halt is rather to be compared with those nearly stagnant ice fronts. which are marked over southeastern Massachusetts and in the Nar- ragansett bay region by similar sand plains formed in the retreat of the ice from the long maintained frontage on and against the Cape Cod moraine, a stage everywhere on these islands marked by well developed outwash plains. | Glacial streams. The course of glacial streams escaping from the ice front and extending over the frontal plain on the south side of the island is plainly indicated by the creases extending from the moraines near the head of the north shore harbors and from other passes in the main moraine. ‘The principal of these streams seem to have followed the course of the harbors, if we may judge from - the cross-section of the erosion channel or interruption of the moraine where they crossed it. The most instructive of these chan- nels across the moraine is at Roslyn ; there is another at Manhasset, and still another less marked at the southern end of Greatneck bay. In each of these cases the larger valleys quite up to the pass in the moraine appear to have been occupied by ice at the time the ice sheet began to melt away. The thalweg north of the pass or divide rises steeply, usually from the bay side, invariably much steeper than the gradient of those valleys which, elsewhere on the surface of the plains north of the moraine, have been interpreted as older than the last ice advance. The passin the moraine north of Creedmoor at the southern end of Little Neck bay is about 150 feet. above sealevel; that of Manhasset bay is about 170 feet. The Ros- lyn channel is at about 130 feet. There is thus no accordance of level in these outlets. Other passes across the main or inner moraine occur west of Ros- lyn at about 230 feet, and east of Harbor hill at about 90 feet. Southeast of Brookville there is a pass at about 230 feet, and south of East Norwich another at about 210 feet. All of these appear to. be more or less in line with certain valleys north of the moraine, and all of them lead ont south of the moraine into creases which - descend to the sea. | . The broad depression passing by Locust Grove toward East Nor- wich is not wholly erosional in origin. Just north of the road at Locust Grove the bottom descends into a large elliptic pit suggesting 644 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the one time presence of an ice remnant. The margins of the depression also are contoured as if by deposition against a mass of ice. It is precisely in this portion of the ice front that the crest of the moraine bears indications of having been overridden by the ice (p. 638). ) The transmorainal water courses are best studied at Roslyn. At this point the glacial stream excavated a trench nearly 40 feet deep in the gravels immediately adjacent to the moraine on the south, forming well defined terraces fairly well brought out by the con- tours on the map. About a mile below Roslyn this crease turns sharply eastward for half a mile, then straightens out and continues southward by Albertson, to the east of East Williston and thence to | the sea. The frontal plain near Creedmoor exhibits no marked trace of a crease, and many creases which are distinct on the outer southern margin of the outwash plain become faint and practically disappear as surface features nearer the moraine. This fading of creases would be caused by the wandering of streams over the surface, spreading gravel and sand, with the aggradation or building up of the plain by the streams near the ice front so long as they were overloaded with debris. The creases on the eastern part of the Hempstead quadrangle are deflected southwestward into the Jamaica bay depression. ast of that region, the streams flow generally southward, the numerous creases marked by the 100 foot contour line, for instance, gathering southward into six or seven drainage channels through which small streams now drain the water from the plain. Outwash plain. The outwash plain is evidently more complex in its origin that its mere surface would indicate. The disap- pearance of the older Pleistocene gravels beneath the moraine on the north at about 200 feet above the sea has already been noted. Just as the level of these deposits falls off on the north side of the moraine to the westward, so does the hight of the outwash plain, and, for that matter, that of the main moraine itself. There is good reason for holding therefore that the so-called Columbia deposits extend south of the moraine and presumably underlie the outwash plain, if they do not actually form here and there surface exposures. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 645 Yellow and yellowish gravels occur in some of the railway cuts, but it has not been possible in the present survey satisfactorily to delimit such older deposits, except in one case, that of the Far Rockaway ridge. This peculiar deposit is described on p. 651. The materials exhibit at surface a gradual diminution in coarse- ness from coarse gravel near the inner moraine to fine sands at the outer limits of the plain. A shallow excavation in the county building site at Mineola exhibited alternating layers of coarse, nut- sized gravel and fine sandy gravel with feebly developed crossbeds at intervals. The pebbles were mostly white quartz and gneiss, this latter often decayed. More rarely were seen small pebbles of ironstone and a ferruginous conglomerate of white quartz pebbles. Pebbles as large as 3 inches in diameter were extremely rare. A rather anomalous element for the upper part of the section of the plain is the brick clay found at East Williston. While clays would normally develop about the margin of a plain of this char- acter in the sea, to be subsequently overlain by the outward growth of the thickening plain, such clays would hardly be formed with a surface so nearly that of the completed gravel plain; and it is prob- able that these are either an older degraded deposit or owe their position to the deformation and uplift of the basement on which the deposits and topography of the last extraglacial streams have been imposed. The section, which is exposed in a somewhat depressed, troughlike area, is as follows: SECTION OF CLAYS AT EAST WILLISTON Feet Eo. il be Bibel dn ay Otek icke y tan: ee 1.5 Sand, gravelly, with quartz and granitic pebbles, locally Ted: | dened 2 RES SONS Sc en ar So mE en ge 8 Sime, candy, with, quartz, pebbles. .........)......2. 00.5220 Sieeeandy in: yellow, band .-. 2 ..)< 4.5, « 00 (0/00 «nee tse Clay, blue, finely laminate, rarely with quartz pebbles, EOTEOREC ) RN eOR TA n Se 3 The section is apparently conformable throughout. Crosby, if I understand him rightly, would refer these clays to the Tertiary. The manner in which the water percolating through the sand plain north of and above the 60 foot contour in the Hempstead e 646 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM quadrangle comes to the surface south of that limit and flows in small streams to the sea suggests that clays are there immediately beneath the surface veneer of sand and fine gravel. The surface slopes seaward at the rate of about 15 feet to the mile. Aside from the drainage creases above referred to, no other lines of water action have been found within the area. The line of contact with the moraines gradually rises from west to east, very inuch as the elevation of the older Pleistocene increases on the north ot the moraine. Everywhere the plain appears to rise continuously to the base of the moraines. The only possible exception to this statement is found in the barlike ridge which les northeast of Hicks- ville ; but the northern slope of this bar, much steeper on the whole than its southeastern face, is not conclusively to be compared with the northern margin of a frontal terrace plain such as that of Nantucket, in which the outwash of sand and gravel has carried the deposit up against the base of the ice front. If this deposit were of such an origin, its northern slope would fix the front of the ice at the time of the making of the outer line of morainal deposits, about half a mile in front of the submarginal moraine, and this gravel bar would somewhat antedate the part of the creased plain lying to the west. The plain everywhere on the south sinks beneath the surface of the marsh without trace of a shore line action. So far as its present surface is concerned, it appears to have arisen by the outwash of streams in the manner of those extensive sheets of gravel, sand, and glacier mud which confront the Malaspina and other existing gla- ciers in high latitudes at the present day. With the completion of the inner moraine and the sheeting over of the southern outer slope with gravels and sands creased by out- running streams, the principal work of the ice sheet on this portion of the island ceased, and we next find indications of its front farther north along the blufflike descent to the present Long Island sound. This front is best marked at Port Washington and on the area to the westward shown on the Harlem and Brooklyn quadrangles. Port Washington stage. The first definite trace of a halt in the ice front after the retreat from the main moraine is found on the northern and western extremity of Manhasset neck near Port [OASTVOS JUSSeId OAOGL J007 0S yNOge 4v IEP OY} JO ooVJANS [OAS] 2} pUue ‘speq }aS-do} UIY} OY} ‘yWINOS oY} pIeMo} Suiddip spoq jos-e10J SuIMoYS ‘9AOqGe FN[q Wos] META “UO}SUIYSeAA JOG ‘Pid pues s,AvIIN] pUe poedy UI Biep [vloe[s Jo uwoT}00g ‘OJOYd ‘sely “HH » ld ( PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 647 Washington; hence the ice-laid and the water-laid drift of this epi- sode are here assembled under the name of the Port Washington stage of ice retreat. Whether some of the deposits lying south of this line and yet north of the moraine, as in the plain north of Greenvale station, may not constitute an intermediate series of deposits can only be determined by more evidence than the topography of the deposits alone affords. From the village of Port Washington northwestward there over- looks the harbor a thick plain of sand with a lobate margin. These lobes point inward from the east and the north and have their sum- mit line traced by the 80 foot contour line. The plain of sand is free from boulders, and its structure, as shown in numerous deep sand pits, consists of beds dipping everywhere southward toward the shore at angles of about 20°. All about the iceward edge of the sand plain are boulder-strewn fields, which on the north and west have a decidedly morainic topography below the 100 foot con- tour line. From near Plum point around the coast of the sound to Mott point this topography is very distinct, forming a rough slope to the sea rather than a ridge; but the morainal deposits, as shown at Barker point, are a mere veneer over older glacial beds. The topography thus defined marks the overlap of the ice sheet at this stage on Manhasset neck, and the sand plain is a delta formed in a body of water whose surface was approximately at the level of the summit line of the lobate margin of the deposit. It follows from this conclusion that, if other sand plains at this level occur to the east and west on the north side of the moraine within approximately the same distance of retreat from the main moraine, the probable position of the ice front at this later stage may be traced by drawing a line along the northern margin of these deltas. ' | Another such deposit less clearly developed occurs at Great Neck village at approximately the same hight; and, as the line between the inner margin of the sand plain and the ice edge on the western part of Manhasset neck turns in this direction, it appears legitimate to associate the two deposits in the manner indicated. The line thus drawn suffices to show that the front of the ice sheet was at 648 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM this time very irregular in outline as compared with the crest of the inner moraine (see pl. 9).’ As the land, on the south of the Port Washington stage, on the Oyster Bay quadrangle everywhere in the moraine rises to levels higher than 80 feet above the present sealevel but is open to the west, the nature of the body of water in which the deltas at this stage were built — whether fresh water or sea water —must be determined by observations drawn from outside the district. With this point in mind, the following notes from the Harlem and Brook- lyn sheets throw light on the glacial history of this area. Harlem and Brooklyn quadrangles For the purpose of comparison and in order to follow out to some definite conclusion the problems arising on the area heretofore dealt with, a reconnaissance was made of the region on the west. The questions which have thus far arisen are the distinction between the inner and the outer moraine, the nature of the water body in which the Port Washington delta was deposited, and incidentally the rea- son for the diversion of glacial drainage on the outwash plain into Jamaica bay. It has been shown how the “inner ” moraine becomes the principal and outer moraine west of Roslyn. From this vicinity, particularly near Hollis, to the western limit of the island the aline- ment of the front of the moraine at its merging into the sand plain is strikingly uniform in direction. From 2 to 3 miles east and west of Jamaica this line certainly is suggestive of an ancient shore | line, now at about 80 feet above the sealevel. A number of newly cut streets expose the glacial deposits along this line, particularly on the crest and frontal slope of the moraine in the vicinity of Jamaica. The moraine near the front is composed of till with medium-sized boulders, often passing into an ill strati- fied, contorted drift, with lenses of till and gravel, the topography of the whole being of the knob and basin type. The frontal slope of the moraine inclines from 15° to 20°, an . 1 On the colored geological map accompanying this report, the deposit at Great Neck village is not discriminated from the older Manhasset sands for the reason that no section of the deposit was obtainable. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 649 angle rarely as steep as that of repose of sliding materials on an ancient cliff whose base has been abandoned by the sea. One such steep place a few yards in length occurs between Jamaica and Hollis. ) Along the base of the slope at the inner edge of the plain, if wave action had determined the lineality of the morainal front and secondarily its slope, there is a lack of the critical evidence which one would expevt to find at the place. The generally unstratified character of the deposit forming the morainal front offers little evidence as to whether it has been cut back by wave action or not, but on the west side of Prospect park in Brooklyn decisive evidence on this point is found. West of Prospect park the morainal front maintains its lineal course toward New York narrows, but with a rather bulging frontal slope composed of stratified gravels. As seen in pits open in the season of 1900, these stratified gravels rise up steeply from the northern margin of the frontal plain, then bend downward into a large kettle-hole in the deposit, a depression marking the site of a mass of ice. The attitude of the beds suggests frontal shoving on the part of the ice sheet as well as irregular deposition; but the significant feature at this locality is the apparent absence of any- thing like a cut bench or cliff in the bulging front of the deposit. The structure of the sand plain is exposed in occasional pits. The beds are prevailingly cross-bedded, showing frequent reversals in direction of the transportation of the sediments. Such cross- bedded layers occur in glacial gravels where there is no reason for supposing the sea to have acted on them. On the east, on the Oyster Bay sheet, the inner margin ‘of this frontal plain rises: above the 100 foot contour level; in this region it sinks gradually below it, till north of the Jamaica bay depression, where the plain has a width not exceeding 14 miles above sealevel, its hight next the moraine is only 60 feet; westward it rises slightly again. Fora portion of its length, therefore, this line accords in elevation with the 80 foot level of the water body in which the Port Washington delta was built. If throughout the line accorded with the Port Washington level, it would favor the existence at that stage of a body of water in front of as well as in the rear of 650 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the moraine. So far as can be seen, such a body of water must have been the sea, and it would be warrantable to suppose that the land stood 80 feet lower than now with reference to the ocean. Jamaica bay depression The possibility of such deformation of the frontal plain since glacial times as would produce the present departure from the 80 foot level along the northern margin is negatived by the peculiar depression known as Jamaica bay, whose origin it is now necessary to consider before arriving at a conclusion concerning the submer- gence or non-submergence of the island at the time of the Port Washington stage of ice retreat. The semicircular area of marshes and salt creeks forming Jamaica bay outlines a remarkable depression in the outwash plain. The moraine inimediately back of it is quite as well developed as for some distance east and west of it, nor is the crest of the moraine perceptibly lower at this point, where there appears to be a lack of development of the plain. The moraine shows therefore no signs of having been depressed at this point, and was formed prob- ably later than the depression referred to. — That this depression in the plain is a feature dating from early g’acial times and an original feature in the growth of the plain is also shown by the behavior of the creases or drainage channels which lead into the bay: these creases converge on all sides toward the depression, showing that the slopes of the plain were then as now toward this relatively unfilled area. It follows therefore that the plain has not necessarily been deformed since glacial times, and that the rising and falling of the inner line of contact of the plain with the moraine is an original constructional characteristic of the deposits. If this reasoning be correct, then the local coincidence in level of the inner margin of the plain with the level of the Port Washington delta is not due to the control of a water level common to both areas. : Moreover there is reason to believe that the frontal plain was mainly developed when the ice lay along the inner moraine pre- vious to the Port Washington stage, and, as will shortly be stated, that the Port Washington delta was deposited later in a temporary lake confined between the moraine and the retreating ice front. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 651 Concerning the origin of the Jamaica bay depression, it is inti- mately associated with another feature, the Far Rockaway ridge already mentioned as extending northeastward on the southeast side of the bay till it disappears beneath the sands of the frontal plain near Lynbrook. The structure of this ridge is not well revealed. So far as the superficial deposits go, they appear everywhere to be yellowish quartz gravels up to 3 inches in diameter. Like the depressed area northwest of it, the ridge appears certainly to be older than the surface features of the plain in its vicinity. Barnum’s island, lying to the east of the Far Rockaway ridge, was not visited ; but the following well section, reported by Dr F. J. H. Merrill several years ago, would seem to indicate that the Far Rockaway gravel extends in that direction. The normal sediments of the outwash plain would be, at least at surface, at this distance from the moraine fine sand rather than gravel. WELL SECTION ON BARNUM’S ISLAND? Feet Seem aravel, (Stratified sy). oo) Wii. WLI eee. ge ebelece ns 70 may and clayey sand with lignite.............0 0500 dwe. 56 Gravel and fine sand with clayey sand............0...0005 44 Blue clay, clayey sand and silt, with lignite and pyrites...... 168 Crosby agrees in referring the upper 70 feet to the yellow gravel. The elevation of the ridge is quite uniformly a little more than 20 feet above the sealevel ; its direction is parallel with the moraine on the north of it. This association of a depression which appears to have been in the process of filling by streams pouring from the ice front, with a bar of gravels older than the outwash plain, as their composition and form show, suggests the deformation of the Columbia or some underlying coastal plain formation at some time anterior to the completion of the moraine and its frontal plain. Such deformation might well arise as the effect of the imposition of the weight of the ice sheet on the yielding sediments previously deposited. In this view, the Far Rockaway ridge is an outlying, upraised fold, or “ parma,” * and the bay a correlated depressed area, 1 Merrill, F. J. H. Geology of Long Island. N. Y. acad. sci. Annals. 1886. ‘3850. 2? Suess, Edouard. La face de la terre. Paris. 1897. 1: 820. 652 © NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM both of which are an effect of the early invasion of this part of the island by the ice. | On the other hand, it is possible that this bar may be the inner margin of a stratum of these yellow gravels, the low ground north of it being the unfilled portion of a longitudinal valley but it does not seem possible at present to demonstrate this view. | Glaciated ledges Frontal moraines mark the position of the ice front. The motion of the ice, at least near its margin, will tend to be toward that front ; hence, since the moraine in this part of the island trends to the south of west, forming a lobate line across this region and that adjacent in New Jersey, glacial striae in this part of the island should run to the east of south. A number of ledges of gneiss in Long Island City meet this requirement. One of the largest exposures of bed rock occupies a vacant lot adjoining the Queens county courthouse on the west. The ledge is heavily glaciated, forming a long, low roche moutonnée. The striae range in direction from 29° to 30° west (magnetic). A few striae run from n15 w, and one set of scratches lies in a northwest direction. The strike of the foliation of the gneiss isn 25 e magnetic. Other outcrops occur to the north- east with striae running from the north northwest. A series of shallow oval depressions extends in a northwest and southeast direc- tion across one outcrop, the whole bearing evidence of water action, presumably that of a subglacial stream. The southeastward movement of the ice on this side of the Hud- son valley is further attested by the drift. The moraine from Brooklyn as far east as Oyster Bay contains trap boulders, the nearest known site of which rock is in the Palisade trap ridge on the west bank of the Hudson river. Stratified red sands, also undoubtedly derived from the area of | Triassic red sandstones now found only on the west bank of the Hud- son, occur in a section by the roadside from Corona to Astoria, being there overlain by 8 or 9 feet of gray till with trap boulders.’ 1 Boulders of trap and red sandstone were seen by Sir Charles Lyell in an exca- vation made ina boulder bed at the Brooklyn navy yard. See Lyell, Charles. Travels in North America. N. Y. 1845. 1: 189-90. ee Oe? PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 653 This fanning of the ice sheet to the eastward on the east side of the lower Hudson and to the westward on the west side is consistent with the form of the moraine across the mouth of the river. The axis of the lobe thus indicated has been fixed by Salisbury on the west side of the Palisade trap ridge.* From what has been stated, it would appear that the western end of Long Island is occupied by a moraine and a contemporaneous outwash plain built along the margin of the ice sheet, when it had, in this region adjacent to the mouth of the Hudson, pushed a lobate mass somewhat farther south than the limit attained by an earlier stand of the ice front, marked eastward by the outer moraine from near Roslyn to N antucket ; that the frontal plain in this district rises to slightly different levels against the front of the moraine, a feature which is constructional and not due to post-glacial warping ; and that the front of the moraine as a whole presents no decisive evidence of having been subjected to marine action above the present level of the sea. With this statement of the observations bearing on the marine limit at the time of the last ice invasion, it is necessary to return to the later ice phenomena exhibited in connection with the Port Washington stage of the retreat. Port Washington glacial lake It has already been pointed out that the last evidence of the pres- ence of the ice sheet on the area covered by the Oyster bay quad- rangle is found in a well defined delta and attendant ice-laid deposits occupying the semicircular tip of Mannasset neck. The phenomena indicating a halt of the ice front against this headland for a brief time subsequent to the retreat from the inner moraine at Roslyn are very clear. The conclusion having been reached that the area has not been submerged to the depth of 80 feet since the beginning of the deposition of moraines in this part of the island, it seems neces- sary to further examine the region to determine the possibility of this delta having been built in a temporary glacial lake. To the north and west of Port Washington occur a number of gravel and sand pits opened in a characteristic glacial delta, whose’ 'Salisbury, R. D. N. J. geol. sur. An. rep’t state geol. for 1898. 1894. p. 161. 654 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM upper surface, as indicated by the topographic map, is about 80 feet above the present sealevel. The outer, or southern edge of this — delta is sharply lobate, each lobe corresponding, as in existing deltas, to the end of some distributary stream coursing in glacial times over its surface to the body of water in which the deposit was accumu- lating. Taking the summit line of these lobes as indicating the water level of the time, it is evident that the water body rose 80 feet above the present sealevel. We shall examine presently into the question whether this water was the sea or a lake held in on the north side of the moraine by the ice sheet which still occupied Long Island sound. The front of this sand plain or delta is concave toward Manhasset bay, trending northward from Port Washington and then west- ward about one mile beyond the village. This form of the front is. accordant with the outline of the outer curve of the neck. Ata distance varying from half a mile to a mile from the lobes the glacial stratified sands pass into till, and the level surface of the old delta gives place to a hummocky topography, sloping generally toward the open waters of the sound, plainly indicating the deposits which: were laid down in the presence of the ice or beneath it while the waters pouring from the ice constructed the delta. We thus have the picture of a small semicircular embayment of the ice front. — From an inspection of the ground, it appears that the edge of the © ice lapped over on the existing land for a distance of three fourths of a mile to nearly a mile from Barker point, around by Sands Light — point, and for a slightly greater breadth on the eastern side, at least as far as Mott point. Beyond this locality it is quite impossible to discriminate the deposits of the ice made at this stage from the earlier deposits laid down when the ice front was closely pressed against the moraine on the south. The structure of the delta as exposed in the summer of 1900 is typically deltiform, with beds of sand steeply inclined toward the frontal lobes, each bed having been deposited in its present inclina- tion on the growing edge of the delta, as the streams coursing over the embankment, already built up to water level by this process, came to the outer margin and let their load of sand come to rest by sliding down the frontal slope to the angle of repose for that material in water. (See pl. 7 and 8) YOU SUIYOO,T MeTA ‘“Speq 3eS-do} SUIA[JeAO pue joS-910} sulMoYS ‘MOISUIYSeM }10q ‘Id puUvS Ulo}Sve Ul VIVap [VIOe[? Jo WOT}00g ‘oyoyud ‘sely “H 8 Id PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 655 In the southern part of the sand plain exposed by excava- tion, the inclined, or fore set beds are not overlain by any distinct coating of horizontal, or top set beds but farther north such layers appear. (See pl. 8) The bit of evidence here presented concerning the form of the ice front shows that the margin at this time was less regular than when it lay against or on the high moraine from 4 to 5 miles south. It evidently extended across Manhasset bay from the vicinity of Plum point to the opposite shore and thence westward lay against the land at least as far as College Point, where again there was built a small delta deposit later than the moraine. There is good reason, therefore, to believe that the water body in which the delta at Port Washington was built was cut off from the sound along the north shore of the island, and that the sound was as yet filled with glacial ice. Just north of Port Washington village, there is a deep channel or furrow beginning in the trough occupied by the middle one of three ponds and extending northeastward across the gravelly and till deposit to the vicinity of Mott point. The bottom of this trough, whose contours are shown on the topographic map, is about 75 feet above the present sealevel. The trough has the form of one of those creases eroded or kept open by water flowing out of the ice sheet or from one glacial lake to another along the ice front. At the time it may have connected the waters confined in Hempstead bay with the water held by the ice sheet m the Manhasset bay depression. | The crease at the southern end of Hempstead bay, at Roslyn, shows clearly that a stream once discharged there across the moraine on the plain, with its bed over 120 feet above the present sealevel. Hempstead harbor is bounded on the east quite up to the sound by land rising above 100 feet, so that, when the ice front retreated from the morainal wall at Roslyn, drainage would continue to escape through the Roslyn channel till the Mott point channel was opened by the retreat of the ice north of that point. At this stage any open water in Hempstead harbor would have escaped into the Port Washington body and its level fallen off to about 80 feet. This arrangement of cols and drainage channels, considered in relation to the retreat of the ice front, proved by the Port Washington stage, bdG ” NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM makes it highly probable that for a time Hempstead harbor was the site of a small glacial lake, at first discharging at the 120 foot level at Roslyn, and later by the 80 foot channel into the Manhasset water body. It now remains to determine whether the high level of water in Manhasset bay was then at sealevel or whether it too was held up by a glacial barrier. South of Manhasset is a col in the moraine, at an elevation of about 175 feet, much higher than many cols separating the bay from lower passes through the moraine in the country on the east of the bay. It is evident that this col, which lies just east of Lake Sur- prise, could not have been used as an outlet for the water confined in Manhasset bay after the ice front had retired as far north as Port Washington, for the water level had then fallen to 80 feet, as wit- nessed by the delta at that locality. West of Manhasset bay, most of the region north of the moraine fails to attain the 100 foot level. The moraine itself presents a con- tinuous barrier rising above the 80 foot contour line at all points till the vicinity of Maple Grove is reached. Between this locality and Prospect park in Brooklyn, there are eight or nine low, troughlike passes across the crest of the moraine, which might have served for the overflow of water held in on the north between the moraine and the retreating ice front as late as the Port Washington stage, while the ice, on account of its greater activity near the axis of the Hud- son lobe, maintained its position close to the moraine in the vicinity of Brooklyn, at least depassing the 80 foot contour line on the back of the moraine so as effectually to prevent discharge by a lower level into New York bay north of the Narrows. These troughs across the moraine are singularly uniform in level. In all those enumerated their bottoms lie according to the govern- ment survey between the 100 foot and the 80 foot contour lines. Some of them are clearly inosculating kettle-holes, marking the site of melting masses of the ice. From some of them, drainage creases can be traced out over the frontal plain. They are best developed in line with the bays and depressions on the north side of the moraine, and hence were probably the paths of subglacial streams, as in the case of the passes on the Oyster Bay quadrangle. They are however not unique in this portion of the moraine. There are PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 657 other similar passes at higher levels. Their coincidence of level is apparently accidental ; but their repetition not only determined the level to which delta construction should reach in the temporary lake behind the moraine at this stage, but the fact also explains the failure to depart from that approximate level while the ice main- tained its position. With the possibility of the water spilling over through several or all of these channels, the drainage, if the time were short, would hardly concentrate on any one of them. That the time was short, is shown by the small delta built at this level. Where the outpouring stream from the ice was strongest, the delta pushed out about a mile. The deep drainage furrow dissecting the delta on a north and south line indicates a sudden falling off in the water level. This _ undoubtedly points to a change in the position or in the solidity of the ice barrier on the west, such as to permit the confined waters to escape into New York bay at a lower level than the passes in the moraine. The fact of such a change of level is indicated in a small delta at about 40 feet in the vicinity of College Point. College Point delta A. poorly developed delta fringes the southern slope of the bar of glacial drift which connects College Point with the village of White- stone. The northern slope and much of the crest of this ridge are morainal, though sands are exposed here and there beneath this ice- laid coating. Ata point about due south of the bottom of Powell cove, a section open in June 1900 showed the fore set and top set beds of a typical delta structure extending southward. The struc- ture as in fig. 9 indicates a period of building at about 35 feet above the present sealevel, followed by a rise of the water level of about 5 feet, the whole indicating clearly a water body north of the main moraine at about 40 feet above the present sealevel. The ice front had now evidently retreated along a part of the line somewhat north of its position at the Port Washington stage. That this retreat was not without slight advances, is probably indi- cated by the evidence of rising water level in the College Point delta; but the opening of crevasses in the ice margin and their sub- 658 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM sequent closing might under the local circumstances have accom- plished, as in existing glaciers, such minor changes of water level. A glance at the topographic map will show that from Flushing bay, the shore line of which at the time the College Point delta was deposited must have been about 40 feet higher than now, there is a well defined channel extending westward from Newton through Winfield Junction to the head of Newtown creek. From this point escape of the water to or connection with the sea was possible : either along the northwestward course of Newtown creek to the East river at Hunters point or, if that way was still blocked by the ice sheet, along a more southerly course between Williamsburg and Brooklyn into Wallabout bay, the highest land there lying between the 20 foot and 40 foot contours. From Wallabout bay a somewhat winding passage below the 40 foot level was open, permitting dis- charge into or connection with Gowanus bay just north of the moraine at the Narrows. As for the possibility of the 40 foot delta at “College Point having been deposited at sea- level, it should be Fig. 9 Cross-section of the structures observed in the Col- stated that similar for= ; lege Point delta. a, fore-set beds; 6b, top set beds; c, : . R mations north of the morainal ridge or bar moraine indicate wide- spread waters at about this level. When these have been fully investigated it may be necessary to admit a submergence to this extent. What is stated here must be taken with this reservation in mind. Y 1 See, on the formation of temporary lakes at the present time, Edouard Suess, La face dela terre. Paris, 1900. 2:590-97, and the authors there cited; also De Lapparent, Traité de géologie. 4meed. Paris, 1900. p. 302-3, on the sudden drainage of glacial lakes. For American glacial lakes of the class here described, — see H. B. Kiimmell, Lake Passaic, an extinct glacial lake, in N. J. geol. sur. an. rep’t for 1893. Trenton 1894. p. 225-328; separately printed 1895. p. 1-89; Crosby and Grabau, Glacial lake deposits near Boston, Science. 1896. 3: 212- 13; also Grabau in Crosby’s Geology of the Boston basin. 1900. v. 1, pt 3, p. 564-600, pl. 25; and Warren Upham, The glacial lake Agassiz, U. 8S. geol. sur. Monograph 25. 1895. 658 p. S aft ae Hit s ae i i ee! im” ral t | i ie he nel | By ‘ 4 NF | Hi | (yn " Te f i ihe ‘ iC Y > in ‘ 4 i \ i 7) Hi hee) . | Ae | ae. i +>) Sie Vay i 4 | ‘ Ti | i " Js @4 f ot ‘ he “Ti * ye ' \y es teh) au ti tienth ich pera VC ion eg 4 ; borne Lae Pp i ae oe et : gd ; _ PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 659 The position of the ice front is definitely fixed in this field during the retreat by certain sandy deltas backed by morainal deposits. Elsewhere in the retreat from the main moraine, the position of the ice front is indefinite. In the hypothesis of glacial lakes held in by it, it is placed at certain points so as to control the outlet of water bodies or lakes whose level is known. There are in this district certain drift ridges which simulate the form and extension of the main moraine, and they appear to have developed in part during the retreat from the outer ridge at East New York. Their trend and position accord as nearly as might be expected with the position of the ice front at the time of the ,Port Washington and College Point stages. In a broad sense most of the western part of the island north of the moraine is morainal. But it has a distinct aggregation in belts rudely parallel to the outer moraine and presumably to the ice front as it retreated. Some of the thicker deposits may be due to the working over of the moraine whose disappearance beneath this later drift at Roslyn has been noted. A glance at the contours on the map will show a line of irregu- lar, flattish drift hills with hollows lying about 2 miles -north of the main moraine. This line is encountered at East Williamsburg. On the north and west of Corona is a curved line of deposits highly suggestive of an ice margin, and the phenomena are repeated in deposits bending around from East Calvary cemetery near Hun- ters northeastward past Ravenswood into Astoria and thence to the East river near Sanford point. This line is, again, about 2 miles farther back than the Corona line, and the two bend south- westward toward New York bay, as the line might be expected to bend if the ice were not completely stagnant along the axis of most rapid movement down the Hudson valley. Moreover, the Astoria line is apparently a continuation of the College Point frontal deposits, and they are so represented by the line drawn on the accompanying sketch map (pl. 9). The line of the Port Washing- ton stage is not so definitely known. From Littleneck bay it is represented as following the Corona deposits; it may have rested against the drift hills on either side of the southern end of Flush- ing bay; the results are practically the same in either view. Plate 9 SKETCH MAP OF A PART OF LONG /SLAND SHOWING PROBABLE POSITION OF RETREATING ICE-FRONT AT PORT WASHINGTON AND COLLEGE POINT STAGES OF DELTA BU/LDING. BY JU BWOODWORTH LEGEND aa [Glacial Ice Area covered by water at the 40 ft. stage. Glacial stream deltas of sand and grave/. Area covered by water at the Port Washington stage, 80ft contour 4 o 1 2 3 4 MILES ; ; “ : Ae the 100ft. fh 1 2 3 4 $ KILOMETERS contour line. Base Map by U.S. Geological Survey. N._ Outlets The map includes the area from Roslyn and Glen Cove on the east to Brooklyn and from the moraine to the north shore. The obliquely ruled black lined areas comprise land above the 100 foot line. The unruled area between the moraine and the heayy black line representing the Port Washington ice front gives the approximate extent of the fresh-water lake held in at the Port Washington stage. The dotted surface with lobate margins shows the position of the delta of that stage, and the arrow imdicates the channel through which the Hempstead bay lake drained into Manhasset bay lake, from which in turn the water may have escaped into the Little Neck and Flushing bay region, and so spilled over the moraine in some one or more of the low passes marked by small arrows. 660 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM SUMMARY OF GLACIAL HISTORY From what has been stated of this district, it appears that rela- tively early in the Glacial period the area now forming the western part of Long Island received a thick coating of gravels and sands, some of the debris being eroded from the deposits of the coast plain remaining in the area, some of them being borne from the main- land on the north; that probably somewhere near the middle of this time, as indicated by the occurrence of the deposits in the section, there was an actual invasion of the district by ice, either floating ice or land ice, in either case probably the margin or detached floating portions of the front of an ice sheet laying down tillin the district. These deposits as a whole underlie the moraines and are apparently the Columbia formation of McGee. Certain aspects of the deposits seem to be paralleled in New Jersey by the yellow gravel forma- tions described by Salisbury.’ Subsequent to their deposition, which locally affords no decisive evidence of the relation of land to sea- level, they appear to have been somewhat dissected by open air streams, indicating an epoch of deglaciation or ice retreat of indefi- nite duration. Following this came the deposition of two lines of moraines in the area, an outer and inner or earlier and later, but in the western part of the field the later ice front depassed the position of the earlier advance. The land appears to have been as high above sealevel as it is now, if not higher; and during the retreat of the ice one or more temporary lakes existed back of the moraine, first at 80 feet above the present sealevel, then possibly at about 40 feet. This lower body of water may have been at sealevel as stated above. With the retreat of the ice front across East river, - the region escaped from the field of glacial action, and its latest glacial deposits and features pertain to the very beginnings of the ice retreat, a time but slightly past the culminating phase of the . last or Wisconsin glacial epoch. Of any such distinctions as a Cham- plain and Terrace epoch there appears here no trace, for the over- wash plain was making while the ice was at its maximum extension, and the elacial terraces marked by the small deltas described in this Salisbury, R. D. N. J. geol. sur. An, rep’t state geol. 1895. p. 67-72. Fs ‘ PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 661 report were made before the ice had melted back 5 miles from its extreme prolongation. They clearly belong however to the period of retreat; but the mainland on the north was still actively glaciated. POST-GLACIAL CHANGES AND PROCESSES NOW IN ACTION The disappearance of the ice from a glaciated district of itself induces certain changes which are not wanting in this part of Long Island. The melting out of remnants of the glacier or those parts of its base which filled depressions has in many instances given rise to small lakes and tarns. A number of these small lakes exist in the moraine west of Roslyn. Of these, Lake Surprise is the best and largest example. It lies at an elevation of about 200 feet above the sea in a basin whose sides are gravelly till. Presumably the bottom is clay rather than gravel, as the waters would escape through the latter. Such lakelets depend on the percolation of the ground waters through the relatively gravelly or sandy materials of the superficial deposits, the water standing in the pond at the level of the ground water in the gravels. Other small lakelets lie in depressions in the outwash plain, as at Plattsdale. Westbury pond is one of this class named on the map. : The streams of the plain flow, as has been indicated, in courses which were carved out by the once more vigorous glacial streams or in still older channels on the north side of the moraine. Owing to the porosity of the glacial gravels, much of the rainfall soaks into the ground and issues near sealevel in the form of springs, hence, since the run-off is small, little erosive work has been accomplished in the post-glacial epoch. Yet the streams which converge into Oyster bay have contributed enough gravel and sand to form a narrow flat, modified by wave action where the village of that name stands." Marine action at the present sealevel has cut back the outwash plain on the south coast as well as the Far Rockaway ridge, so that the outermost extent of both of these formations is now destroyed, ‘In June 1900 a well bored by means of a drill on the north side of Main st. 760 feet distant from the beach met at the depth of 45 feet (85 feet below sealevel) a marl containing oyster shells (Ostrea sp). Above this bed were gravels, below light yellowish sand. 662 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and a low bluff faces the sea. Bars of sand have been partially or wholly thrown across the old glacial stream channels by the waves. The most notable of these marine deposits are in the form of off-_ shore bars, subject to frequent changes in hight and position.1 On the north shore, where the wave action is less vigorous, there has-been less cutting back, but, the cliffs being higher, other factors, such as landslips and the ordinary work of gravity on loose materials, nearly compensate for this difference in the quantity of materials handled by the waves. The wave action on this side of the island has been in part resisted by the numerous boulders which come to rest upon the beaches from the undercutting of the till, a feature which is wanting on the south shore. Numerous small barrier beaches occur, usually with outlets at their western end for the lagoons or back bays which they inclose. A few small masses of land, which otherwise would stand out as islands along the north shore, are tied together and so to the main island by these beaches, as in the case of Center island in Oyster Bay harbor, which is thus joined with Oak neck, and that in turn to the land. The upper and — inner portions of these beaches are composed of dune sand. In the narrower bays and creeks behind the barrier beaches marine marshes have developed on both sides of the island. The extent of these deposits on the south side is very much less than on the south coast. The land in such situations usually slopes beneath the inner margin of the marsh flats without evidence of former wave action at this level. Both the beaches and the marshes have developed in post-glacial time. If during all this time the sea stood at its present level, before the barrier beaches were formed the waves must have _ had a relatively free run against the sides of certain inclosed uncut bay shores cf the present time, aud would have nipped the incoher- ent materials so as to form a small but perceptible cut bench and bluff. The absence of this feature in what but for the barrier ' beaches would be exposed bay shores seems explicable only on the hypothesis that the land has sunk, so that the wave-cut terraces, 1 For a recent discussion of the origin and terminology of seashore deposits, consult F, P. Gulliver, Shore line topography. Am. acad. arts and sci. Proc. 1899. 34: 151-258; also F. J. H. Merrill, Barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast, Pop. sci. mo. 1890. 37: 736-45. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 663 made when there were no barrier beaches, are beneath the present sealevel.’ Wherever the breadth of water is sufficient, however, and the depth too great to permit of marsh growth the bay shores are now being cut back in a marked manner by wave action, as at Cooper _ bluff. Evidence of local depression of the shore line is found in beds of peat extending outside of the beach below low tide level. Such a bed, containing a flattened log, was exposed in the summer of 1900 at the northeast end of the barrier beach uniting Prospect point with Sands point. Peat was also exposed on the front of the beach at low tide half a mile southeast from Prospect point. In view, however, of the compressibility of the original swamp deposits, these localities can hardly be regarded as proofs of a general sinking of the island.” It is questionable whether even measurable evidence of a slight depression of the shore line along a coast of incoherent and yielding materials such as the clays and gravels of the north coast of Long Island may be taken as evidence of a movement of the continent. There is a slow movement of the loose materials toward the shore in many high bluffs. At Ragged Land point east of Northport harbor this movement in clays has developed a landslide structure, a pro- cess which presumably has been continuous since the suggestive name was given to the irregular projection which these clays make on the beach. They move with something like glacial flow, over- running the normal beach, the wave action being there unequal to the task of maintaining a straight shore line. 1 De la Beche appears to have first made this point in the case of certain British beaches. See Geological manual. Phil. 1832. p. 73-75. *Suess, Edouard. La facede la terre. Paris 1900. 2: 670-89. 664 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM BIBLIOGRAPHY Mather, W. W. Geology of New York; 1st geological district. 1848. 1: 165-77, 246-78. Lewis, Elias, jr. Ups and downs of the Long Island coast. Pop. sci. mo. 1877. 10: 484-46. — On water courses upon Long Island. Am. jour. sci. 1877. 13: 142-46. — Certain features of the valleys or water courses of southern Long Island. Am. jour. sci. 1877. 18: 215-16, 235-56. Upham, Warren. Geology of New Hampshire. 1878. 3: 200-5. —— Terminal moraines of the North American ice sheet. Am. jour. sci. 1879. 18: 81-92, 197-209. Chamberlin, T.C. Preliminary paper on the terminal moraine of the second glacial epoch. U.S. geol. sur. 8d an. rept. 1883. p. 377-81. Merrill, F. J. H. Geology of Long Island. N. Y. acad. sci. Annals. 1886. 3 : 841-64. —On some dynamic effects of the ice sheet. Am. ass’n adv. sci. Proc. 1886. 35 : 228-29. Hollick, Arthur. Some further notes on the geology of Long Island. N. Y. acad. sci. Trans. 138: 122-82. ) —— Dislocations in certain portions of the Atlantic plain strata and their prob- able causes. N. Y. acad. sci. Trans. 1894. 14: 8-20. — Crosby, W. 0. Outline of the geology of Long Island in its relations to the public water supply. Technology quar. Bost. 1900. 18: 100-19. . Shattuck, George B. The Pleistocene problem of the North Atlantic coastal plain. Johns Hopkins university circular 152. May 1901. Reprint p. 17. GLOSSARY Terms used, in this bulletin or found in writings concerning glacial phenomena Aggradation, aggrading. Deposition of alluvial plains by streams Borrow-pit. Pit from which gravel or sand is taken in construction work Boulder belt. Extended pile of boulders accumulated in the form of a frontal moraine; or excessively bouldery ground marking the former position of the front of an ice sheet Boulder train. Term applied in the United States to the train of boulders and pebbles distributed by the ice sheet over the country southward of some readily identified rock having a limited exposure in the glaciated field and of which the boulders and pebbles consist - Col. That part of a divide which lies in a pass Columbia formation. Series of loams, gravels, and sands occurring in the coastal plain, forming terraces and river deltas deposited during the submergence of the land before the last or Wisconsin glacial epoch and after the tertiary. The deposits are variously subdivided in New Jersey and Maryland. The coarseness of some of the deposits indicates a period of cold with signs of glaciation and one or more advances of the ice over the glaciated district PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU CO. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 665 Cone. Conical pile of rudely stratified sand and eravel often with included boulders with a fan-shaped outward base, and a steep face toward the posi- tion formerly held by the ice front against which it was deposited by out- pouring, waste-laden water from the *helting ice Crease. One of the channels formerly held by a stream coursing over the surface of a delta or glacial sand plain and now usually dry for the reason that the water came from the melting ice along the front of which the deposit was built Cuesta. In physical geography, a land form consisting of a perceptibly inclined plain overlooking a steep slope or escarpment on its higher side, developed by erosion on the retreating outcrop edge of a gently inclined hard stratum Digitation. Fingerlike branching of the headwater tributaries of streams Drift. See Glacial drift - Drumlin. Lenticular or oval, drum-shaped hill composed of till deposited by an ice sheet; distinguished from a kame by its usually greater size, its elon- gate oval form, and its composition Drumlinoid. Having the form of a drumlin Esker. Long winding ridge of gravel and sand, often associated with glacial sand plains and kames, and considered by most geologists to be the deposit made in the channel of a subglacial stream | Esker-fan. Small glacial sand plain or delta with a lobate outward margin and a terrace, often cuspate, on the inward margin facing the ice sheet against which it was formed at the same time that the associated esker was being deposited inside the ice sheet Fore-set beds. Cross bedding often on a large scale developed in formation of the subaqueous portion of deltas. Each fore-set bed is an underwater talus formed at the growing edge of the delta where the stream coursing over the surface of the delta drops its load on reaching open water. The beds incline steeply forward in the direction in which the delta is building, hence the name. Fore-set beds are usually overlain by the top-set beds, which see Fosse. Depression or unfilled area often found between the terraced ice contact of glacial sand plains and morainal mounds forming a belt within the ice covered field, as on Nantucket Glacial drift. In a general sense, the boulders, till, gravels, sands and clays transported by glaciers or the stream flowing from them; specifically in some writings, unstratified or ice-laid drift. Unmodified, unstratified, or unassorted drift are expressions referring to the till or ice-laid drift; modified, stratified, or assorted drift are expressions applied to the water-laid gravels, sands, and clays produced in the vicinity of melting glaciers or remnant masses of ice Glacial lobe. One of the lobate protrusions of the margin of an ice sheet, some- times a score or more miles in width as*where the ice has been free to spread out in depressions along its margin Glacial retreat. A glacier is said to retreat when its front recedes. The ice may be actually moving forward toward this front, but the rate of backward melt- ing at the front, if it exceeds the rate of forward movement, will cause the position of the front toaecede i ary Wiese 666). NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Glacial sand plains. Deposits of stratified gravel and sand in the form of deltas and gently sloping fans, deposited by streams along the margin cf a glacier. Where built into open water, the deltas usually show fore-set beds in the body of the deposit and top-sct beds capping the whole. Where the deposit ‘has banked up ¢ bout the margin of the ice front, a terrace is formed by the subsequent melting out of the ice | Glaciated. Said of a country which has been scoured and worn down by. glacial action, or strewn with ice-laid drift Ground moraine. Coating of boulders or mixture of boulders, gravel, sand, and clay which a glacier leaves on the surface of a country. In existing glaciers, the debris carried along under the ice Ice contact. Terracelike slope at the iceward margin of deposits which have been banked up against the ice front or about masses of ice. The slope is often cast in mounds (kames) and hollows which result from the melting out of buried masses of ice. Where smooth and even like ariver terrace, it may be distinguished from a river terrace by its position often being such that a river could not have flowed along its base Ice-laid. Said of boulders, or mixtures of boulders, gravel, sand, and clay which have accumulated under a moving glacier or have come to rest on the ground from the melting out of the ice in which the material was embedded Ice sheet. Form of glacier moving radially outward fromaregion of great snow- fall and covering usually all but the highest mountains in its path Intergiacial. Interval between two glacial epochs or advances of the ice Intraglacial. Said of phenomena peculiar to the field actually covered by the ice at any given time; contrasted with extraglacial Interlobate. Lying between two lobes of a glacier Kames. Moundsof stratified or rudely stratified gravel and sand often separated by hollows; due to the irregular settling or deposition of deposits laid down in the presence of melting masses of ice Kame moraine. Belt of glacial deposits laid down by the interaction of ice and water at or just witbin the margin of an ice sheet, and having the form of kames. Kamy. Characterized by low knobs and shallow depressions (colloquialism) Kettle-hole, ice-block hole. Pit or depression sometimes occupied by standing water; often found in glacial sand plains or other glacial deposits where masses of ice have melted out : Lobe. One of the rounded spurs of the outward margin of a delta formed where a stream has pushed its deposit out beyond the general line; also one of the protrusions of ice along the margin of a glacier Moraine. Swiss term for the debris stransported and deposited by glaciers; in America, the ice-laid drift accumulated about the edge of a glacier, usually in belts and often a mile or more in width, classified with regard to position in relation to the ice as frontal, submarginal, lobate, interlobate, etc. Osar. Swedish term for eskers; Swedish singular os, plu: al osar; through mis- understanding, English singular osar, plural osarg have been used _ PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF NASSAU 00. AND BOROUGH OF QUEENS 667 Outwash. Said of plains of gravel and sand transported by glacial streams and - deposited along the ice front Overwash. Said of plains of sands and gravels or terraces supposed to have been moraines leveled off by glacial streams along an ice front Parma. Geologic term used by Suess for a foid in strata lying in advance of the main area of folds in a system of folded rocks Piedmont. Lying at the base of the mountain; specifically on the Atlantic slope of North America, the belt of ancient rocks of little or moderate relief lying between the coastal plain and the belt of mountainous relief farther inland Post. Prefixed to the name of a geologic period or epoch to denote any subse- quent time Post-glacial. Time since the disappearance of the great ice sheets of the Pleis- tocene period; in some writings, the time immediately following the last glacial epoch Pre. Prefixed to the name of a geologic period or epoch to denote any or all previous geologic time; in a narrow sense, the Does oens preceding time or rocks peculiar to that time; as in Pre-glacial. Term generally intended to refer to phenomena immediately pre- ceding the glacial period; often vaguely used, and in older writings often applied to formations now understood to be of Pleistocene age but older than the last or Wisconsin epoch Quadrangle. In references to the topographic map of the United States, one of the four-cornered divisions of land corresponding to an atlas sheet; the area mapped as distinguished from the map or atlas sheet Retreat. See Glacial retreat Roche moutonnée. One of the half rounded smoothed knobs of rock produced by glacial erosion Run-off. That part of the rainfall which discharges into the streams of a region without passing underground Sand plain. See Glacial sand plains ‘Striation. Act of scratching the surfaces of ies and boulders by the movement of glaciers Striae. Scratches or furrows produced on rock surfaces by glacial action Tarn. Small lake, as in the glaciated district of Scotland; specifically, a moun- tain lakelet of glacial origin, a rock basin Terminal moraine. In North America, the outermost line of moraine made in the last or Wisconsin ice epoch traceable from Nantucket acress Marthas Vine- yard, Block Island, Long Island, and thence westward over the mainland Terrane. Any definite portion of the earth’s crust defined by its geographic position or its geologic age; as the piedmont terrane, the pre-Pleistocene terrane Thalweg. Stream channel at the bottom of a valley Till. In the widest sense, rock debris carried and deposited by the direct action of a glacier; typically, a more or less compact mass of boulders, gravel, with sand or clay, without stratification and necessarily of glacial origin 668 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Top-set beds. Horizontal or gently inclined layers of gravel and sand which form the superficial coating of glacial sand plains or deltas; made by wander- ing aggrading streams usually at or above the level of the sea or lake in which the delta is building Water-laid. Said of detritus deposited by water | Wisconsin epoch. Term employed in this report for East Wisconsin, the name proposed by Prof. Chamberlin for the last glacial epoch in the state named; ° believed to include the time of formation of the later glacial drift in the eastern United States from the terminal moraine northward into Canada jie gta igh eas € The superior figures tell the exact place on the page in ninths; e. g. 648° means page 648, beginning in the third ninth of the page, i. e. about one third of the way down. Adirondack mountains, drift from, 6277. Aetites, 626°. Barker point, till bed, 628°. Barnum’s Island, well section on, 651°. Beaches, 662°. Bibliography, 664}. Block island, gravels and sands, 624°, 633"; erosion of valleys, 6367. Boulder clay, 623, 6277. Boulders, 624", 627%, 6527. Brick clay at East Williston, 645+. Brooklyn quadrangle, 648-507. Center island clays, 630°. Chamberlin, T. C., cited, 641°, 664°. Clays of Long Island, 6217-22°. College Point delta, 657°-59°. Columbia formation, 624!-33°. Crosby, W. O., cited, 645°, 651°, 664°. Curtis, G. C., cited, 633°. Discoloration of the gravels, 625', 634”. Dislocated deposits, 624°, 6301, 632°. Eaglestone, 6267. East Williston, sections of clays, 6457. Erosion interval, 6348-37°. Far Rockaway ridge, 651!. Fossiliferous boulders, 6247, 6277. Fossiliferous pebbles, 6247. Geikie, A., cited, 626°. Geology, 621%. Glacial formations, 623?-48°. Glacial history, summary of, 660!-63°. Glacial lakes, 6588, Glacial streams, 6439-447, Glaciated ledges, 6523-53°. Glen Cove, Pleistocene section, 628°. Glen Cove valley, 635°. Glossary, 664°-68?. Gravels of plains on Oyster Bay quad- rangle, 624°-33°; discoloration, 6201, 634°; in moraines, 638°. Great Neck section, 631°. Harbor hill, 639°. 41+. Harbors, excavation, 6363. Harlem quadrangle, 648°-50?. Hempstead quadrangle, 618. Highlands, trap boulders from, 6527. Hollick, Arthur, cited, 664+. 627°, Jamaica bay depression, 650?-52?. Lake Surprise, 661°. Lewis, Elias jr, cited, 664”. ‘Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, 652°. McGee, W. J., cited, 624’. Manhasset sands, 632}. Marshes, 662°. Marthas Vineyard, gravels and sands, 624°, 6337; stone concretions, 62538; erosion of valleys, 636". Mather, W. W.., cited, 624°, 627°, 6641. Merrill, F. J. H., cited, 624°, 6517, 6644. Mill Neck creek depression, 635°. Mill Neck sands, 630°. Moraines, 618°-19°, 6254, 637-469; dis- tinction between outer and _ inner, 6415-437. Outwash plains, 6447-46°. Oyster Bay, springs at, 6371. Oyster Bay quadrangle, 618’, 624!. Palisades, trap boulders from, 627°, 6527. Peat, submerged, 6637, 670 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Port Washington, sandpits northwest ! Shattuck, G. B., cited, 664°. of, 631°. Port Washington glacial lake, 653°-57°. Port Washington stage, 646°-48°, Postglacial changes, 661°-63°. Pre-Pleistocene formations, 6217-23. Quartz pebbles, 625'. Ragged land point, 663°. Rocky point, bed of till, 629'. Roslyn, terraces at, 644°. Russell, I. C., cited, 688°, 641°. Salisbury, R. D., cited, 653°, 660°. Sand plains, 637°-46°. Sands of plains on Oyster Bay quad- rangle, 624?-33%. Seashore deposits, origin and termin- ology of, 662°. Smock, J. C., cited, 640°. Springs at Oyster Bay, 63877. Suess, Edouard, cited, 651°, 668%. Terraces at Roslyn, 644’. Till, 6234, 6284. Tom point, 631°. Topography, 618°-21%. Trap boulders from Palisades, 627, 652. Upham, Warren, cited, 6324, 641°, 664°. Valleys, excavation, 634°-37°. Wisconsin epoch, 637°-46°. Woodman, J. E., tracing of moraines, 6424. Woodworth, J. B., cited, 624°, 625°, 638°, Yellow gravel, 625'. (Lages 671-672 were bulletin cover pages) PN EAL... JIN BX r prefixed to page numbers refers to the director’s report in v. 1; other page numbers refer to the appendixes. The superior figures tell the exact place on the page in ninths; e. g. 8’ means page 8, beginning in the third ninth of the page, i. e. about one third of the way down. Aboriginal occupation of New York, by W. M. Beauchamp, v. 1, p. 3-187 (2d paging). Aecessions to collections in geologi- eal hall, r201-7. Adams, F. D., cited, r&81*. Adams Corners, quarries, r167’. Adirondack eruptives, order of suc- cession, r68°-75’; general charac- ters, r75®-79°. Adirondack pre-Cambrian, eation, r58°-60', r66°-68?, Adirondacks, survey of crystalline area, r8'-10', r23-82; and Canada, comparison of rocks, r87-9*, r79°- 827; eruptive core, r64'-79°, Analyses of Adirondack eruptives, r68*-75". Anorthosite gabbros, r34°, r36°, r40°, r43°; analyses, r68-69. Anorthosites of Adirondacks, r26+, rad’-42°, 1r45'; analyses, r68-69; border zones, r64'; conclusions re- garding, r57°-58*; contact with gneisses, r35’, r36°; relations of Syenite and granite to, r62*-63°; relations to syenites, r9°; near Tupper lake, r42”. Aquatic insects in the Adirondacks, by J. G. Needham, v. 4, p. 383-612. Attendance at the museum, r200'. Augite syenite of Adirondacks, r25°, r26*; analyses, r70; conclusions regarding, rd57°; relation to gneiss, r47'-57°; Kemp’s reports on, r60°; Smyth’s report on, r61°; near Tup- per lake, r9°, r42?, r44°, r46’, r47’- 57°. See also Syenites. classifi- Banks, analyst, r174°. Barlow, Dr A. E., referred to, r&°, r27°; acknowledgments to, r79°. Barnegat limestone, r146°, r169%-76°. Bean, Tarleton H., catalogue of fishes, r1/93°. Beauchamp, W. M., Aboriginal oc- cupation of New York, ‘v. 1, p. 38-187 (2d paging); Wampum and shell articles used by the New York Indians, v. 3, p. 319-480. Beck, L. C., cited, r1'73'. Bellvale flags, 149%, r168". Berkshire schist, r147*. Birds, added to collection, r202°-4°; Check list of New York birds, by M. S. Farr, v. 1, p. 198-409 (2d paging); relabeled, r189*; study of, r191°-93%. Bishop, Il. P., paleontologiec work, r186?. Blackford, EH. G., acknowledgments to, r214°. Blue lake, r127*. bluestone deposits and quarries, study of, r14°. Botanist, report, v. 1, p. 129-99 (1st paging). Botany, director’s report on, r198’. Bowker, H. L., analyst, r171%. Brandon, exposures about, r39?-40°. Britton, cited, r148". Bumpus, Dr, referred to, r214’. Burr, J. H. T. E., acknowledgments to, 7118". Burr, William H., metal, r14‘-227, Butts, Charles, paleontologic work, r185°*, tests of road 22 AN ED EE sR ORE SEES RS a SES A OA ’ For full indexes to museum bulletins, see index printed with each bulletin, 674 _ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Canada and Adirondacks, compari-: son of rocks, r8'-9*, r79°-82’. Canada and New York, correlation of faunas, r186°. Carlin, J. P., tests made by, r165'. Carmel quadrangle, r7°. Cataract lakes, r126?-29°. Cattaraugus-Chautauqua r130'-39°. Cattaraugus lake, r136?-37?. Cazenovia valley, r114’-16°. Cement industries of New York, by Heinrich Ries, v. 3, p. 637-955. Cement industry, Chapters on, by EH. C. Eckel, v. 3, p. 849-91. Champlain valley, reconnaissance Of, ri 2) lst Chemung beds, section of, r184°, Chemung section in Chautauqua county, r185*. Clam industries of New York, by J. L. Kellogg, r194*%, v. 3, p. 601-31. Clarke, J. M., report as paleontolo- gist, v. 1, p. 3-124 (1st paging); Notes on paleozoic crustaceans, v. 1, p. 83-110 (1st paging). Clarke, J. M., Simpson, G. B., and Loomis, F. B., Paleontologic papers, v. 3, p. 163-281. Clays of New York, by Heinrich Ries, v. 2, p. 489-944. Cleland, H. T., paleontologic work, r185*. Cold Spring Harbor, biologic and physical characteristics, by G. G. Scott, r224*-29°. Converse, quois silver brooches, r231-54. Cooper, 8S. L., quoted, r156°*. Cornwall limestones, r148°. Cortlandt series, r150°, r166°-67°. Crystalline rocks, study of, r7*-11?; of Adirondacks, report by Cush- ing, r23-82; report of field work in the town of Minerva, Essex co., by G. I. Finlay, r96-102. district, Harriet Maxwell, Iro-— | Gumings, E. R., Lower Silurian sys- tem of eastern Montgomery county, v. 1, p. 415-68 (2d paging). Cumings and Prosser, cited, r&83°. Cushing, H. P., survey of north- eastern Adirondacks, r8‘-10'; Re- cent geologic work in Franklin and St Lawrence counties, r23- 82; Pre-Cambrian outlier at Little ‘Falls, Herkimer co., r83-95. Dannemora formation, r82*. Darton, N. H., cited, r144°, r147°, miss, cis) rise] was. Davenport, Charles B., acknowledg- ments to, r214°. Dawson, G. knowledgments to, r79°. Dean, Bashford, referred to, r214°. Diabase dikes, r34°, r93”. ; Dickinson, H. T., study of blue- stone and flagstone deposits and quarries, r14°. Dikes,:-r32°, .r84*, 134°, r3d°) (red?, r3o®, r44°?, r45°, r46°, r48°, r62’, r78’, r93?. Diorites, r166°-67?. Dutchess county, work in, r&*. Dwight, William B., cited, r167°. Eckel, Edwin C., work of, r7*-8; Quarry industry in southeastern New York, ri41-76; Chapters on the cement industry, v. 3, p. eee Si babs ; m4 Heonomie geology, work in, r14; ac. cessions to collection, r201*. Edible mollusks, study of, r194°-96%. Entomologist, report, by H. P. Felt, v. 2, p. 949-1063. Entomology, Aquatic insects in the _ Adirondacks, by J. G. Needham, v. 4, p. 383-612; Catalogue of in- jurious and beneficial insects of New York state, by EH. P. Felt, v. 8, p. 3-52; director’s report on, r196°-98'; Scale insects of impor- For full indexes to museum bulletins, see index printed with each bulletin. M., referred to; r8*} ace" —— OO ae GENERAL INDEX tance and a list of the species in New York, by HE. P. Felt, v. 4, p. 289-377. Hrie county, geology of, r186’. Eruptives of Adirondacks, r64'-68°; order of succession, r68*-75'; gen- eral characters, r75°-79°, Hssex county, report of field work in the town of Minerva, by G. I. Finlay, r10°, r96-102. Kthnology, additions to collection, r2u7°; report on, r198’-99°. = Hvergreen lake, r127°-28°. Fairchild, H. L., studies of lake basins and valleys of central New York, r13‘-14"; Pleistocene geology of western New York, r108-39. Fairfield county, Ct., work in, r7’. Farr, M. 8., Check list of New York birds, v. 1, p. 193-409 (2d paging); work in zoology, r189°; study of birds, r1918-93°. Farrington hollow lake, r135%-36". Fayetteville, gypsum deposits, r177- 80 Felt, E. P., 16th report of the state entomologist 1900, v. 2, p. 949 1063; Catalogue of injurious and beneficial insects of New York state, v. 3, p. 3-52; Scale insects of importance and a list of the species in New York, v. 4, p. 289- 377. Finlay, George I., studies of crys- talline rocks, r10°; Preliminary report of field work in the town of Minerva, Essex co., r96-102. Vish, catalogue of collection, r189*; relabeled, r189*; added to col- lection, r204°-5°; catalogue of fishes of state, r193°; marine food, of Long Island, r214'-24". Flagstone deposits and quarries, study of, r14°. Fordham gneiss, 1145’, r152°-55*. 675 Fossils, catalogue of type speci- mens, r186°; locality record, r187. Franklin county, recent geologic work, by H. P. Cushing, r238-82. Gabbro diorites, r57°, — Gabbros of Adirondacks, r33', r38?, r64°; analyses, r68. See also Anor- thosite gabbros. Gabbros of Cortlandt series, r166°- 67%. Geologic map, r22’. Geological hall, repairs and altera- tions, r199*-200*. Geology, accessions to collections, r201. Gilbert, G. KX., cited, r106°; Belmore and Forest beaches traced by, rigs™ Glacial lakes, r135°-39°. Glenn, L. C., paleontologic work, risa. Gneisses of Adirondacks, r9*; con- tact with anorthosite, r35‘, r36°; near Brandon, r39‘; relation to augite syenite, r47'-57°; relations to limestones in the town of Minerva, Hssex ¢co., r97-102; rela- tions to syenite, r9°. Gneisses of Canada, r81°. Gneisses of southeastern New York, r144°-457; quarries, r151'-618, Grabau, A. W., Geology and paleon- tology of Niagara falls, v. 4, p. 1-284; paleontologic work, r186, Granites, conclusions regarding, r578-58*; relation to anorthosite, 1623-63". Granites of southeastern New York, r144°; quarries, r151'-66°. Green lake, r128°-29°. Green Pond conglomerate, r168". Grenville series, r9', r32’, r58’, r79°- 81?, r147’°, For full indexes to museum bulletins, see index printed with each bulletin. 676 Gypsum industry in New York state, by A. L. Parsons, r177-83. ° Hall, James, cited, r&83*, r84', r106°. Harlem quadrangle, r7®. Harrison diorite, r7°, r149°-50', r165°*- 66°. Hempstead quadrangle, r11°. Herkimer county, pre-Cambrian outlier at Little Falls, r10°, r83-95. Hill, Benjamin F’., resurvey of Put- ham county, r8°; descriptions of quarries, r143°. Hillebrand, W. F., analyst, r171°. Hubbard, R. T., acknowledgments Os EWS? Hudson river beds near Albany and their taxonomie equivalents, by Rudolf Ruedemann, r185°-86', v. 3, p. 485-596, Hudson river valley, SAncesoMir li: aloes. Hudson shales and schists, r167. Huntington, analyst, r172°. Hyperite, see Gabbros. reconnais- r147, Igneous rocks of southeastern New York, r149'-50°. Indian museum, r198'-997. Indians, Aboriginal occupation of New York, by W. M. Beauchamp, vy. 1, p. 3-187 (2d paging); Wam- pum and shell articles used by the New York Indians, by W. M. Beauchamp, v. 3, p. 819-480. Insects, see Entomology. Inwood limestone, r146°. Iroquois shore line, r106*-12°. Iroquois silver brooches, by Harriet Maxwell Converse, 1251-54. Isopods, two new land, by J. H. Stoller, r208-13. Ithaca fauna, r1847-85", investigation of, Jamesville lake, r127°. NEW YORK STATH MUSHUM Julien, A® A., cited, 11504 Kellogg, J. L., Clam and scallop in- dustries of New York, r194*, v. 3, p. 601-31. Kemp, J. F., studies of crystalline rocks, r10°; conclusions regarding syenites, r41*; classification of Adirondack pre-Cambrian, 158°; recent work, r60°-62?; on massing of limestones and clastic gneisses, r6o*; on rocks at Little Falls, r83*, r&4'; cited, r166". Ktimmel, cited, rl44#, r149°. Lake Adirondack, r30’. Lake belt of Adirondack region, 125°*-30?. Lake Champlain, collections of lower Siluric fossils from, r187”. Lakes of western N. Y., 1137-145, rL03-39. | Law, B. W., acknowledgements to, TIBO? Leverett, Frank, Belmore and For- est beaches traced by, r1388?. Limax maximus, anatomy, plhysi- ology and embryology of, by G. B. Simpson, v. 3, p. 287-314. Lime industries of New York, by Heinrich Ries, v. 3, p. 637-955. Limestone valley, r114‘-16’. Limestones of the Highlands, r169- (6, f Little Falls, pre-Cambrian outlier, r10°, 1838-95. Long Island, survey of western, rll‘; eastern limits of terminal moraines.) rid?>,, marine ) food fishes, r214'-24". Longwood red shales, 1148’, 1168". Loomis, F. B., Clarke, J. M. and Simpson, G. B., Paleontologic papers, v. 38, p. 163-231. Lower Silurian system of eastern Montgomery county, by H. R. ‘ For full indexes to museum bulletins, see index printed with each bulletin. GENERAL INDEX Cumings, v. 1, p. 415-68 (2d pag- ing). Lowerre quartzite, r145*. Lyell, cited, r106°. Magnus, Harry C., work of, r7’, rs*; descriptions of quarries, r143*, Mammals, accessions to collection, r201°-2'; catalogued, r189*; Key to the land mammals of northeast- ern North America, by G. 8. Mil- ler jr, v. 3, p. 59-160. Manhattan schist, r147°. Manlius-Cazenovia — glacial r116°-19?. Marbles of the Highlands, r169-76. Marcellus, gypsum quarries, r180°- 81*. Marine food fishes of Long Island, by G. G. Scott, r214’-24". Martin, D. S., cited, r149°. Mather, cited, r146’. Merrill, F. J. H., acknowledgments to, r79°; cited, r143°, r144*, r145’," r145°, r146°, r148". Millbrook quadrangle, r8°, Miller, G. S. jr, Key to the land mammals of northeastern North America, vy. 3, p. 59-160. Mineralogy, accessions to collection, r201°; report on, r188?-89?. _ Minerva, Essex co., study of crys- talline rocks, r10°, r96-102. Mohawk valley, stratigraphy of, by ©. S. Prosser, v. 1, p. 469-84 (2d paging). Mollusks, added to collection, r205’- hes Monroe shales, 1148°-49", Montgomery county, Lower Silurian system, by E. R. Cumings, v. 1, p. 415-68 (2d paging). Morje, Joseph, acknowledgments to, r143°, Morrisville quadrangle, r14°. Mt Ivy, quarries, r167?. lake, 677 Mumford, plaster deposits, r181*- Se. Nassau county, Pleistocene geology of portions of, by J. B. Wood- worth, v. 4, p. 617-70. Needham, J. G., Aquatic insects in the Adirondacks, v. 4, p. 3838-612. New York and Canada, correlation of faunas, r186°. Newark beds, r149°. Newark diabase, 1150', rl67’. Newark limestone conglomerate, r176°, Newark sandstone, r169". Newberry, J. S., cited, r150*. Newfoundland quartzite, r148°. Newland, D. H., resurvey of Put- nam county, r8°*. Niagara falls, geology and paleon- tology of, by A. W. Grabau, r186', v. 4, p. 1-284. Norite, analysis, r68. Noses, pre-Cambrian outcrops, r10’. Oakfield plaster deposits, r182'-88°. Olean quadrangle, areal survey, r185?, Orange county, work in, r&*. Oriskany formation, section of, r184°. Oyster Bay quadrangle, r11°. Paleontologic papers, by J. M. Clarke, G. B. Simpson and F. B. Loomis, v. 3, p. 163-231. Paleontologist, report, v. 1, p. 3-124 (1st paging). Paleontology, director’s report on, r1847-88*. Pan-American exposition, jee Si Paris exposition, paleontologie ex- habit, reser: Parsons, Arthur L., Recent develop- ments in the eypsum industry in New York state, r177-83; ar- exhibit, For full indexes to museum bulletins, see index printed with each bulletin. 678 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM rangement of collection of min- erals, r188?. Peck, C. H., report as botanist, v. 1, p. 129-99 (1st paging). Pine Hill quartzite, r147°-48', r168°. Pleistocene deposits, study of, r11°- 142 | : Pleistocene geology of portions of Nassau county and the Borough of Queens, by J. B. Woodworth, v. 4, p. 617-70. Pleistocene geology of western New York, by H. L. Fairchild, r103-39. Polygyra albolabris, anatomy and physiology of, by G. B. Simpson, v. 8, p. 2387-314. Poughquag quartzite, GiGi: Pratt, H. S., referred to, r224*, Pre-Cambrian of Adirondacks, clas- sification, r58°-60", r66°-68?. Pre-Cambrian outlier at Falls, r10?, r83-95. Pre-Cambrian rocks, study of, r7*- 11°; of southeastern New York, 1144°-45", Prosser, C. S., cited, r83°, r149°; Notes on the stratigraphy of Mohawk valley and Saratoga county, N. Y., v. 1, p. 469-84 (2d paging). Putnam county, reconnaissance in, rs’; resurvey of, r8°, 1457-46", Little Quarry industry in southeastern New York, by E. ©. Heckel, ri41- 76. Quaternary, see Pleistocene. Queens, Borough of, pleistocene geology of portions of, by J. B. Woodworth, v. 4, p. 617-70. Quecns county, quarries, r161°. Quereau, BH. C., cited, r127°. Reptiles, added to collection, 1204", Richards, William, work of, r191’. Ricketts, P. de P., analyst) (ri7, vig Be Se : Ries, Heinrich, analyst, r172°, r173°, ri74*, ri75*; cited) rl445) mae; Clays of New York, v. 2, p. 489- 944; Lime and cement industries of New York, v. 3, p. 637-955. Road metal, tests of, r14"-227, Round lake, r128°-29°. Roy, Thomas, cited, r106°. Ruedemann, R., paleontologic work, r185*; collections of fossils, r187‘; Hudson river beds near Albany and their taxonomic equivalents, v. 3, p. 485-596, . Kkugose corals, memoir on, r187’. St Lawrence county, recent geologic work, by H. P. Cushing, 128-82. Salamanca quadrangle areal sur- vey, rii&b5?. Sands in northern portion of lake belt of Adirondacks, r28?-30°. Sandstones of southeastern New York, r167%-69°, Saranac, exposures in the vicinity of, r35*-398. ! Saranac and Lake Clear, section between, r32?-35*. Saratoga county, stratigraphy of; by C. S. Prosser, v. 1, p. 469-84 (2d paging). Scale insects of importance and a list of the species in New York; by HE. P. Felt, v. 4, p. 289-377. Scallop industries of New York, by J. L. Kellogg, r194°, v. 3, p. 601-31. Schunemunk conglomerate, r149*. Scott, George G., Marine food fishes of Long Island, and a_ biologic reconnaissance of Cold Spring Harbor, r194’, r214*-24". Seneca county, investigations in, CS: Shales of southeastern New York, r167*-69°. «eR RES ES PR RD ONAN ae Re Te a CA LS tse i For full indexes to museum bulletins, see index printed with each bulletin. f Oe GENERAL INDEX’ Simpson, G. B., Anatomy and physiology of Polygyra albolabris and Limax maximus and em- bryology of Limax maximus, v. 3, p. 237-314. Clarke, J. M. and Loomis, EF. B., Paleontologic papers, v. 8, p. 163-2311. Smith, Dr, referred to, r214’. smock, J. C., cited, r150°. Smyth, C. H. jr, results of work, r10*; conclusions regarding sye- nites, r417; recent work, r60°-62'; on rocks at Little Falls, r83°, r84°, r93°. Spencer, J. W., cited, r106°. Stamford quadrangle, rs’. Stockbridge-Barnegat limestones, r146°, r169%-76°. Stoller, James H., Two new land isopods, r208-13. } Syenite at Little Falls, r10°, r83-95. Syenites of Adirondacks, r35°, r41°- 57°; conclusions regarding, r41?, rb7°-58*; conclusions of Kemp and Smyth, r60'-62’; relation to anor- thosite, r9°, r62*-63°; relations to gneisses, r9°, r4'77-57°. Syenites, see also Augite syenite. Syracuse-Oneida district, r112"-30°. Tarrytown quadrangle, r&’. Taxidermie work, r190". Taylor, KF. B., cited, r30*; Belmore and Forest beaches traced by, r138", Trap rock, tests of, r22*. 079 Tupper lake, sections near, r42?- 57°; augite-syenite, r42?, r44°, 146’, r47"-57°. Two new land isopods, by J. H. Stoller, r208-18. Van Hise, conclusions on Adiron- dack pre-Cambrian, r65', van Ingen, collections of fossils, Elst". Vanuxem, cited, r83*. Vulté, H. T., analysis by, 166°. Wampum and shell articles used by the New York Indians, by W. M. Beauchamp, v. 3, p. 319- 480. Waterlime fauna in central New York, r185°. West Point quadrangle, rs’. Westchester county, resurvey of, r@, r&; work in northern, r8’; Yonkers gneiss, r155°-61°, White lake, r127°. Wilber, analyst, r172°. Willard state hospital, water sup- ply, rs". Woodman, J. E., work of, r11’. Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene geology of portions of Nassau county and the Borough of Queens, r11°, v. 4, p. 617-70. Yonkers gneiss, r149°, r155*-61°. Zoology, accessions to collections, r201°-7*; report on, r189?-96°. For full indexes to nuseum bulletins, see index printed with each bulletin. Oe sap HC ne woah ae me oe Rada: athe ee ee oe Wake gel talae) Map of the Pleistocene geology of the Oyster Bay and Hempstead — | : ‘ quadrangles on Long Island : TOME] oe tae we an ama 4 \ BOMNDARY TINE] rf = oN =