TWELETH ANNUAL REPORT | CORNELL. UNIVERSITY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BOR THE YRBAR 1899. . ITHACA, WN. Y. ee Tr Vie Rhea Wo cov ALP eA OT ay Fes ay wah ip avy ne r it Pag at} 7 ern A a ye Ny * ta - ba ai ves ha H ; e4 » of ad ett yt beg f os ‘ ahi: Mi ; : i th CG a ee aad ‘ ‘ j : ? a DAS Te) ae ‘ : " bei a 7 4 as i) “ = a arts ; » : s w' a Te A) he sd ¢ i j ies ‘ = ra | by r pena ee Lai be rae p a 4 i i} % f y aa Y hale a . | ‘ ; } E ig - i, . iy at . » df “a [' ? Ve ir are wat) ede ) sg 7 q 5 dg ’ a ‘au vin in : hcl Sod se ¥¢ ‘ By? otf . ) ‘ se th 4 ¥ : ‘ a Ay ba ° 4 ’ Ae j 7% ' > Oisah. ; fie Ny nh sine: earns . (as ’ r Ape: ; ea bar dy Meta iiss . VA TWELFTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY Svricultural Experiment Station, PT EEA AG CNA ISQO. THIS REPORT IS NOT FOR GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. > 1899 NV PSE /899 ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. THOMAS F. CRANE, Acting President. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation MRS. MARY R. MILLER, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. HE. HUNN, Horticulture. G. W. TAILBY, Foreman of the Farm. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them IrHaca, N. Y., August 14, “99. To His Excellency, the Secretary of the Treasury, Washington, D. C. To His Excellency, the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. To His Excellency, the Governor of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. To His Excellency, the Commissioner of Agriculture, of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. SIR :— I have the honor to transmit herewith the twelfth annual report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell Univer- sity, in accordance with an Act of Congress of March 2, 1887, establishing the Station. This document contains the report of the Director and the special reports of his scientific coadjutors, as well as copies of the bulletins published by the Station during the year, and a detailed statement of the receipts and expenditures. The Experiment Station of Cornell University is supported by an annual appropriation from the Federal treasury, and its influence has, in recent years, been greatly augmented by reason of sup- plementary appropriations made by the Legislature of the State of New York. I am convinced that the above appropriations have been wisely expended and that they have already greatly promoted the agricultural welfare of the State. I have the honor to be your obedient servant. ©. F.- CRANE, Acting President of Cornell University. REPORT OF THE- DIRECTOR. To the President of Cornell University. SIR : I have the honor to transmit herewith the Twelfth Annual Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University. The work of the Station has been broadened and intensified in many ways during the year. The influence of the Station and allied work along agricultural lines is reaching, as never before, the teachers in the schools, their pupils, and espec- ially the young farmers of the state. The appreciation of the efforts which are being made to place agriculture on a more rational basis is marked and gratifying. No longer are the results reached by the Experiment Station unjustly criticised. The farmers are now in a receptive mood and many of them are adopting methods suggested by reading the bulletins. One cor- respondent who owns a large farm says, ‘‘ Your bulletins are highly prized as they give most valuable suggestions.’’ Another says, ‘‘ When I was at Cornell, many years ago, agriculture had no charms for me, now, I would gladly exchange some of my living and dead languages, mathematics, etc., for a knowledge of dairying and small fruits.’’ One farmer writes, ‘‘ You advised me with regard tosoiling. I have had greater success than you promised me.’’ And still another says, ‘‘I have adopted the Cornell method of raising potatoes and the yield has more than doubled.’’ These and many similarcommunications show how eager the farmers of New York are for assistance, and that they look to the Experiment Station and the College of Agriculture for help and guidance. The Station and College are so intimately connected in the work of imparting and disseminating information related to rural pursuits that it is impossible to write of one without say- ing something of the other. The College of Agriculture had some difficulty in the early years of its existence in persuading the farmers to read the bulletins and to adopt the practices v1 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. which the experiments indicated were the best. To over- come this the Experiment Station staff decided to meet the peo- ple at Farmers’ Institutes, and other public gatherings, with the view of popularizing the work, and also to give more extended and minute instruction than could be set forth in the bulletins which, of necessity, must be brief. The results of the investi- gations for economical reasons, had to be presented in a concen- trated form, and little attempt was made to explain how the facts reached could best be dovetailed into ordimary farm prac- tice. The farmer, unused to this class of literature, was slow to digest it. It was also found that the audiences addressed were largely composed of those who had passed the youthful period of life when courage, hope and vigor are at their best. However clearly they might see and understand, they often lacked flexi- bility and hence could not well adapt themselves to new condi- tions. At last it was perceived that in order to do the greatest good we must reach the children and the young people, and also make use of those who had spent longer or shorter periods” of time at th2 college. This extension work is carried on under three distinct heads—Nature-study, Farmers’ Reading Course and Junior Naturalists’ Clubs. As soon as this work began, a marked and more intelligent interest was shown in the work of the Station. While this added interest may be simply a coinct- dence, we are persuaded that it is due, in part at least, to the work which has been carried on under the special lines noted above, and which for brevity is called generically ‘‘ University’ Extension.”’ Since the Extension work of the college has materially assisted the Station in interesting the rural population in the investiga- tions carried on at the University, I have thought best to incor- porate with this report the leaflets published during the year and all of the Farmers’: Reading Course lessons issued to date. Other circulars of a similar nature have been issued but they do not bear as directly upon the Station work as do those mentioned above, and hence are not incorporated in this report. A detailed statement of receipts and expenditures for the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1899, the Treasurer’s report, and reports REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Vil of the heads of the various divisons of the Station, together with an appendix of twenty-one bulletins, are submitted. The funds appropriated to the College of Agriculture by the State under Chapter 67 of the Laws of 1898, ‘‘ making an appro- priation for the promotion of agriculture by the College of Agri- culture of Cornell University,’’ were expended about equally for University Extension Work and for conducting experiments throughout the State. The results of these investigations together with those carried on at the University are in part set forth in the bulletins submitted. No. 150, ‘‘ Tuberculosis in Cattle and Its Control.’’ No. 151, ‘‘ Gravity or Dilution Separators.’’ No. 152, ‘‘ Studies in Milk Secretion.’’ No. 153, ‘‘Impressions of our Fruit-Growing Industries.’’ No. 154, ‘‘ Tables for Computing Rations for Farm Animals.’’ No. 155, ‘‘San José. Scale; with Remarks on the Effect of Kerosene on Foliage.’’ No. 156, ‘‘ Third Report on Potato Culture.’’ No. 157, ‘‘ The Gtape-Vine Flea Beetle.’’ No. 158, ‘‘Source of Gas and Taint-Producing Bacteria in Cheese Curd.”’ No. 159, ‘‘An Effort to Help the Farmer.’’ No. 160, ‘‘ Hints on Rural School Grounds.’’ No. 161,. ‘‘ Annual Flowers.”’ No. 162, ‘‘ The Period of Gestation in Cows.”’’ No. 163, ‘‘ Three Important Fungous Diseases of the Sugar No. 164, ‘‘ Peach Leaf Curl and Shot-hole Fungous.”’ No. 165, ‘‘ Ropiness in Milk and Cream.”’ No. 166, “‘Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898.’’ No. 167, ‘‘ Construction of the Stave Silo.’’ No. 168, ‘‘ Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms; II.’’ No. 169, ‘‘ Studies in Milk Secretion.’’ No. 170, ‘‘ Emergency Report on the Forest-Tent Caterpillar.”’ TEACHERS’ LEAFLETS ON NATURE-STUDY. No. 12, ‘‘ How the Trees Look in Winter.’’ No. 13; ‘‘ Evergreens and How They Shed their Leaves.”’ #¥ fo Sanity ‘ ay ae as : ry » ig F Oe vs) Pack Wr ae, eke qa aaj ca , is Fae ae te j ¥ rye eens aed ket tat a ley i , = an Y : orn aR) ay & os ~ eee te ae ; . rs AS ‘ a Lc eae) = + Ay 4 bse 5 oa oe ae yy ah REPORT, OF THE DIRECTOR. NATURE-STUDY BULLETINS. ‘* Nature-Study.’’ READING-COURSE FOR FARMERS. ‘‘The Soil; What it is.’’ eee ‘Tillage and Under-drainage ; Reasons why.’” Eagle ‘‘ Fertility of the Soil and What it is.’’ nie ia ‘‘ How the Plant Gets Its Food from the Soil » a ‘* How the Plant Gets Its Food from the Air.’’ “te Very respectfully submitted, | ‘ Lie. eet REPORT OF THE TREASURER. The Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, In account with The United States Appropriation, 1898-9. To Receipts from the Treasurer of the United States as per appropriation for fiscal year ending June 30, 1899, as per Act of Congress approved March 2, 1887: Eg DY Bi EO GR ey Sih OE ae tae NE a ake aa SR eae MAR EYER 0 5 oer ayn oy 3 SEE oo Sa OD a 8 pate ER IC) SEAIIOMELY oo bo). audi e Bid nach. tca'n Bewid wee Dg Eo CURA er ed ey ute RA a en tor oma Ea Pa OG WAUED 5250 toes st aretha ona eas err PEND ILCS 2...) Avidin ot teh bene cad See, "ws Seeds, plants, and sundry supplies................ MNRAS ALS ty peo BA ine Rees a tl ep as See eed hoe Peeding Stuffs... sc +... Seat ORs anG cS 9 nlite: dna: Serhan aioe LAS ee ii AE Bi LA ig SF. eos tmiplements, and machinery...) ..%<00..+é- errretttttr, CBC RUMTOS 28s pine 23 SF aha le oe eee Gace SME AIMS, ATIAL AVES 6067 0) 8 is ad wom EA pee Die eerie sa Fh ee he, oe a abs ie rite nea ae Me ER EMISES So oo Bic siaac ~o)- arse, |X eccebada x Wr cals emer R OO MEOs oy. Peat nae 2S hos, st ea > OF Po ONOFaTO GEPAIS 3, iv). oi6 os ve ee ace bo eee bee REAMIEe a erp eee ai odis es Maeda s.S Dr $13,500 00 $13,500 co We, the undersigned, duly appointed Auditors of the Corporation, do hereby certify that we have examined the books and accounts of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899; that we have found the same well kept and classi- fied as above, and that the receipts for the year from the Treasurer of the United States are shown to have been $13,500.00 and the corresponding disbursements $13,500.00 ; for all of which proper vouchers are on file and have been by us examined and found correct, thus leaving no balance. And we further certify that the expenditures have been solely for the purposes set forth in the Act of Congress approved March 2, 1887. (Signed. ) EEE. LORD, ) MYNDERSE VANCLEEF, $ (Seal. ) Attest: Emmons L. WILLIAMS, Custodian. (Signed. ) Auditors. REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. SIR :— I have the honor to report the following account of the work that has been done in the Chemical Division of this Station during the year 1898-1899. . Forty-two analyses of cattle foods, of which twelve were con- dimental; ten analyses of soils for nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash; ten analyses for water only ; nine analyses of various substances for fertilizer constituents; thirteen analyses of insecticides for arsenic, copper and in some cases other constituents. Much time was given for three months in the fall to the determination of sugar in sugar beets grown in the State for ’ experimental purposes. Also much time has been consumed in working out and testing methods of analysis of some of the new insecticides, in order that the published results should be accurate and reliable. Many of these substances are offered as substitutes for Paris green, and contain other constituents than copper combined with the arsenic. Some are colored with dye stuffs to imitate the color of the regular Paris green. Respectfully submitted, G. C. CALDWELL, G. W. CAVANAUGH. REPORT OF BOTANIST. To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. SIR : During the year investigations have been conducted upon the diseases of trees, cultivated plants, and upon edible and poisonous fungi. Along withthe studies of the edible and pois- onous mushrooms, a large number of photographs have been added to those heretofore made, and descriptive studies and deter- mination of plants has added to the material available for future bulletins. These are designed to be educational helps for the purpose of spreading a popular and yet accurate knowledge of certain species which are useful as food. One bulletin (168) the second in the series of ‘‘Studies and Illustrations of Mush- rooms, II,’’ dealing with Three Edible Species of Coprinus has been published. In the investigations on the diseases of trees a large number of photographs have also been made and material collected which shows in many cases characteristic injuries due to certain species of the wood destroying fungi. Some of the results show defi- nitely the mode of attack of the fungus and the progress of the disease in the timber tees. The investigations carried on by Dr. B. M. Duggar have been chiefly upon three diseases of the sugar beets, and upon the pre- vention of the leaf curl of the peach. Two bulletins written by Mr. Duggar have been published as follows : No. 163—‘‘ Three Important Diseases of the Sugar Beet. ”’ No. 164— ‘‘Peach Leaf-Curi and Notes on the Shot-hole Effect of Peaches and Plums.”’ In Bulletin No. 163 Mr. Duggar treats of the three diseases which have been of economic importance on the sugar beet in New York State. The root rot of beets (Rhizoctonia betz) is a new disease on the beet for the eastern states. Mr. Duggar’s studies have shown the conditions which are favorable for the xii REPORT OF BOTANIST. production of the disease, and indicate that remedial measures can be successfully applied. The other two diseases are the Leaf Spot (Cercospora beticola) and Beet Scab (Oospora scabies). Mr. Duggar’s experiments with leaf-curl of the peach (Bul- letin No. 164) show quite clearly that this very serious disease which has been prevalent ia New York State for the past two years can be largely prevented by timely spraying. Mr. Duggar has also written two circulars as follows: No. 4—‘‘ How the Plant obtains Its Food from the Soil.’’ No. 5—‘‘ How the Plant Obtains Its Food from the Air.”’ Ths investigations in progress for the coming year are to be continued along these same lines, especial attention being given to studies of edible and poisonous mushrooms, the wood destroy- ing fungiinjurious to forest and shade trees, and to diseases of fruit and farm crops. Doctor Duggar is nowin Europe where he will remain for one year, for the purpose of perfecting himself in certain lines of research in plant physiology. This subject is a very important one in connection with the investigations on plant diseases due to fungi and certain plant diseases are due entirely to physiolo- gical causes. During Dr. Duggar’s absence Mr. W. A. Murrill is carrying on the investigations which he had in charge. Respectfully submitted, Gro. F. ATKINSON. REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGIST. To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. SIR : As the Entomological work of the Station has been performed during the past year almost entirely by the Assistant Entomo- logist. I have requested him to prepare a report on it, which I herewith transmit. Very respectfully yours, J. H. Comsrock. To the Entomologist of the Cornell University Agricultural Expert- ment Station. SIR :— The general plan of the work done by the Entomological Division of the Station during the past year has been the same as in previous years. While fragmentary notes are constantly accumulating on many different kinds of insects, we have aimed to make an exhaustive study of only afewinjurious ones. Over 600 different insects are now enrolled on our records, and almost every year some valuable fact is added to our notes regarding each one of these insects. In many cases, like that of the San José scale, the Codling-moth, the Army-worm, and others, our notes would fill a large volume in each case. Some of the results of our investigations during the past year were embodied in the following bulletins : No:,1570,...1 he Grape-vine:Plea-beetle,* No. 170. ‘‘ Emergency Report on Tent Caterpillars.’’ We have just completed our observations upon tent caterpil- lars which were begun last fall, and expect to submit a more detailed bulletin about these pests during the coming year. The forest species of these caterpillars has wrought almost untold devastation in the forests, orchards, and shade trees of the east- ern half of the State. Our emergency report upon them was Xiv REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGIST. distributed freely in every locality where our attention was called to their ravages, with the result that much interest was aroused among the school children, as well as their parents, and in some cases thousands of the caterpillars or their cocoons were collected by the pupils and destroyed. In many places the warfare will be continued by the children against the egg-rings in the fall. This bulletin has, therefore, done much to stimulate Nature- Study in many places, while it has also been one of the most prac- tical and valuable publications for the farmer that the Entomo- logical Division has ever issued. Some very important investigations which have been under way for one or more years were completed during the past year. For example, our observations on Canker-worms, which still continue their extensive ravages in western New York, are now complete and we hope to get our notes in shape for publication in time to enable fruit-growers to use the information next year. And again, for four years past we have been making careful and scientific tests of the different washes and other devices which have been recommended and which we could devise to circumvent that constant menace to peach culture—the peach borer. Our experiments are now finished, the literature of the insect has been thoroughly studied, and a bulletin embodying our observations and results will be written at once. We also have other material awaiting an opportunity to be written up for publicatien.. The fact that we have so much val- uable information in a crude state in our notes, has led us to undertake no new lines of investigation during the past six months. Whenever such work is undertaken it involves all of the time we can spare from our routine duties. The examina- tion, determination, and care of the large amount of material which is sent in to the Entomological Division ; the making end arranging of notes, photographs, etc.; the answering of corre- spondence; the attendance as lecturer at many Farmer’s Insti- tutes and Horticultural Meetings ; and the giving of a course of lectures in the University in the winter—all these duties so encroach upon our time that oftentimes little is left for original investigation, or for preparing our results for publication. The correspondence of the Division increases every year. REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGIST. XV Our daily mail now often averages from five to ten letters, and it is not limited toour State or the United States, but includes Europe and such remote regions as Australia and South Africa. This extensive correspondence; our frequent contributions to the agricultural press ; our personal contact with many of New -York’s leading farmers and fruit-growers in attendance at Far- mer’s Institutes, Horticultural Meetings and other similar gatherings, are resulting in the work of the Entomological Division being brought in closer touch with, and being moreand more appreciated each year by the people. Respectfully submitted, M. V. SLINGERLAND. REPORT OF THE AGRICULTURIST. To the director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. SIR :— Since my last report the following bulletins have been pub- lished by the Agricultural Division of the Experiment Station : No. 156—‘‘ Third Report on Potatoes.’’ No. 166—‘* Report of Sugar Beet Experiments for 1898.”’ No. 167—‘‘ Construction of the Stave Silo.’’ Work has progressed favorably along the lines heretofore reported upon and some new lines of work have been commenced. While experiments with potatoes and sugar beets have been under way for some years, yet it has been deemed wise to pursue the investigations still further as it is found that each year’s work adds something to our knowledge concerning those crops. Interesting and possibly valuable results have already been obtained from experiments in the renovation of pastures. This line of work will be pursued vigorously in the attempt to learn what treatment is best for the restoration of old depleted pasture lands. During the present year the June droughts so shortened the hay crop in many portion of the state that there was an urgent request for information as to what crops might be most profitably grown to supply additional roughage for stock during the winter. To enable us to give accurate information in the future a test is being made of various forage plants to determine which are best adapted for late planting. A study of legumes has been in progress for two years, the experiments being mostly confined to clovers. This line of work has been continued and various investigations have been commenced with beans. Preparations are now under way for an extensive study of legumes as soil renovators. | In my last report I called attention to the importance of REPORT OF AGRICULTURIST. XVli acquainting the farmers of the state with the results which have been secured in our work. Co-operative experiments through- out the state are now being conducted by Mr. J. L. Stone, Assistant in Agriculture under the ‘‘ Nixon Fund.’’ Several hun- dred farmers are conducting under his supervision tillage and fertilizer experiments with potatoes, sugar beets and beans. These co-operative experiments are most valuable in that they enable us to test methods under various conditions, and they also serve as object lessons to the farmers of the state. Respectfully submitted, LA. CLINTON REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURIST. To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. SIR : The experimental work under my charge for the past year has concerned itself chiefly with studies of various phases of fruit- growing. At the home station, the Japanese plums have received continued attention, and it is expected that a fourth report will be issued the coming fall. Various treatments and studies in the experimental orchards, especially those corcerned with tillage and fertilizing, are our staple subjects of inquiry. A new vineyard is how planted, in which similar studies are making. The testing of varieties of fruits has never been a part of our work, except in a few special lines (as the Japanese plums) to which we have been able to give very systematic study. In Oswego County the experiments in fertilizing and spray- ing strawberry fields still goes forward; and results of ‘much importance have been secured. It is desired to have another season’s experience before publishing, however. At the present time we control an experimental acre in three places in the county. The forcing of fruits is a subject of inquiry. We are con- tinuing the study of winter strawberry-growing, upon which we have already published one bulletin; and in the present season we have fruited peaches and apricots under glass. Other kinds of fruit are now ready for forcing. I must call your atten- tion to the fact, however, that we have no houses which are well adapted to this work. In vegetables, we are studying a variety of problems. For two years we made tests with celery in some of the bottom lands of Orange County upon which onions,—which has been the staple crop,—have failed. The purpose was to determine whether celery can be grown commercially on that soil; and, if so, to instruct the people how it may be done. ‘The result has REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURIST. xix shown that the land is well adapted to celery ; and the gardeners there are now beginning to plant it for themselves. Experiments in controling the San José scale have been reported in two bulletins (Nos. 144, 155). Very careful studies in the same direction are now progressing, along with general tests of new insecticides and fungicides. For two seasons, extensive studies have been made of the problems associated with pollination and self-sterility in orchards ; and the results now await publication. Various problems associated with flowers and ornamental gar- dening are still receiving attention. The leading subjects just now are studies of the geranium, of which we have many hundred varieties, and plants for screens. Respectfully submitted, i. i; BAILEY. REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY AND ANIMAL INDUSTRY. To the Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. SIR :— The work of the Dairy Division of the Experiment Station has been considerably expanded and enlarged owing to the increased facilities provided under the State appropriation, Chapter 67, Laws of 1898. During the summer months several dairy schools giving practical instruction in butter and cheese making were held in various parts of the State. In addition to the instruction thus given, we have had many requests from creameries and cheese factories for assistance in special difficul- ties, and we have been able to render such assistance in almost, if not quite, every case. Thecall upon our department for men to supervise butter tests of thoroughbred cows has been greater during the past year than ever before. Investigations in Dairy Bacteriology have been carried on through the year and some valuable results obtained, notably in the study upon ‘‘ Ropinessin Milk and Cream.’’ Our Bacteriolo- gist, Mr. A. R. Ward, has recently removed his laboratory from the Veterinary College to the Dairy Building where he will con- tinue these investigations. The subject of ‘‘ dilution ’’ in raising cream has occupied con- siderable attention. Manufacturers of so-called ‘‘ Dilution Separators’’ have been scattering their wares over the State and scores of inquiries concerning their merits have come to our office. In order to secure new and accurate information with which to answer these inquiries we made careful tests of the ‘“separators’’ both at our laboratory and also at several farms where we found them in daily use. The results of our tests, which show that the dilution of milk for raising cream results, in most cases, in a great loss of butter-fat, were published in REPORT OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY. XxX1 Bulletin No. 151. Another bulletin treating of Patents on Dilution Separators is now in press. A large amount of material which had been accumulating for the past ten years has been published in bulletin form, and still more is nearly ready for publication. The bulletins issued by this division during the year are as follows: No. 151. ‘‘ Gravity or Dilution Separators.’’ No. 152. ‘‘Studies in Milk Secretion drawn from Officially Authenticated Tests of Holstein-Friesian Cows.”’ No. 158. ‘‘ An Inquiry Concerning the Sources of Gas and Taint Producing Bacteria in Cheese Curd.’’ No. 162. ‘‘ The Period of Gestation in Cows.”’ No. 165. ‘‘Ropinessin Milk and Cream.”’ No. 169. ‘‘ Studiesin Milk Secretion drawn from the Records of the University Herd, 1891-98.”’ Respectfully submitted, H. H. WING. ‘oan vee ‘ ; g ayy”. - » , = , * Se * . . ‘ ¥ rc »' s 2 . i _ H ' j - my . . ; i?) . ce : 7 ‘a aE Pe 1? Uw ee, me > %4 Per Nien I. BULLETINS PUBLISHED JUNE 30, ’98—JULY No. es, ies, Bir SS a p54. 1G Ae bLERO- Dy 87 158. Cheese Curd. TSO « 160, SOT. 2 PO: wises + £6n. £65; ¢EBG. EO: 7 268: . 169. 2 L70. I, '99. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. Impressions of our Fruit-growing Industries. Tables for Computing rations for Farm Animals. San José Scale. ' Third Report on Potato Culture. The Grape-vine Flea Beetle. Source of Gas and Taint producing Bacteria in An Effort to Help the Farmer. Hints on Rural School Grounds. Annual Flowers. The Period of Gestation in Cows. Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet. Peach Leaf Curl. Ropiness in Milk and Cream. Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898. The Construction of the Stave Silo. Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms; II. Studies in Milk Secretion. Tent Caterpillars. ict ? ~ * t er eculee s a * ae ee a a “ Bulletin 150. | July, 18098. Cornell University - Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. VETERINARY DIVISION. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE. By JAMES LAW. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1898. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC. P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. F. ATKINSON, Botany. . V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. M. DUGGAR, Botany. . W. SPENCER, Extension Work. . L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. ISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature Study. A. lL. KNISELY, Chemistry. Cc. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. H. P. GOULD, Horticulture. W. MILLER, Floriculture. G. N. LAUMAN, Horticulture. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. TOE GO OE — OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. PUBERCULOSIS. IN CATTLE AND _ATS CONTROL. BY JAMES LAW. PREVALENCE AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE. Our interest in tuberculosis centers in two leading questions : First, its prevalence in man; and second, its diffusion among domestic animals which furnish food for man. If we consider the disease in man only, we must view it first in its sanitary relations, and, as regards the measures available for its restric- tion, in its moral bearings. If we consider the disease in the domestic animals we enter largely into its economic bearing, but in view of the use of these animals and their products for human food the sanitary and moral questions must also be admitted. MAN: GENERAL MORTALITY. In manit is admitted that, in civilized countries, where data can be secured, one death in seven is due to tuberculosis. Allow- ing 15 deaths per 1,000 on our 70,000,000, this would furnish 150,000 deaths per annum from tuberculosis in the United States. Dr. Osler, of Johns Hopkins University, says this is a very low estimate. A war which should leave 150,000 dead on the battle field every year would rouse the nation to put a speedy end to the destruction. The mortality from tuberculosis exceeds the combined deaths from war, famine, plague, cholera, yellow fever and smallpox. Yet we have those among us who deprecate any intelligent measure for the extinction or restriction of this source of such a constant mortality and loss. - The mortality from tuberculosis in man rises far above this ratio when conditions are favorable to its propagation. In some large cities (Vienna) the ratio of deaths from tuberculosis is more than double what it is for the entire country. In the Marquesas 4 BULLETIN 150. Islands it rises to 33 per cent of the total mortality, and in some of our Indian reservations to 50 percent. (Treon, Holden.) TUBERCULOSIS IN ANIMALS. Tuberculosis is rare in cold blooded animals, but Sibley has seen it in vepiz/es in astate of confinement. In d7rds itis common and destructive, but not readily trans- ferred from bird tomammal. The bacillus of the bird is usually a modified form, which prefers a special avian habitation. Wild mammals in confinement suffer excessively. In men- ageries apes die almost exclusively from tuberculosis, while kan- garoos, deer, elk, gazelle, antelope and lions are common victims. The rats, mice and other vermin about our houses and barns also contract the disease and all must be recognized as possible bearers. Cattle suffer more than any other domesticated animal, and tuberculous cattle are especially to be dreaded seeing that they furnish so much food for consumption by man. The Danish herds which were said to be sound until after the importation of Schleswig and Shorthorn cattle in 1840 and 1850 are now gen- erally infected, 17 per cent of the cattle slaughtered showing tuberculosis, while over 60 per cent of the dairy herds showed the disease under the tuberculin test. Statistics from German abattoirs give, for cows 6.9 per cent tuberculosis, for oxen 3.6 per cent, for bulls 2.6 per cent, and for yearlings and calves 1 per cent. In Berlin abattoirs 15 per cent proved tuberculots. By the tuberculin test of New York State herds (2,417 head) in 1894 16.75 per cent provedtuberculous. This is undoubtedly too high an estimate for the entire cattle of the State, as the herds were examined because the owners suspected them and requested examination by the tuberculosis commission. Yet it cannot be said that this represents the extreme of infection as I have found one herd of 60 and another of 200 in country districts of this state tuberculous without exeeption. These represented cases in which no precaution had been taken to prevent contagion. Swine are also very subject to tuberculosis, especially through the consumption of the uncooked offal of slaughter houses and of the milk of tuberculous cattle. TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 5 Rats and mice readily contract the disease from feeding in the mangers of tuberculous cattle and swine, and in their turn carry the disease from manger to manger and from barn to barn. Rabbits, Guinea pigs and goats when left at large do not readily contract the disease but are very susceptible to the infection when it is conveyed to them experimentally. Horses, asses, dogs, cats and sheep do not readily contract the disease under ordinary circumstances, but this cannot be attributed mainly to insusceptibility since one and all take it easily when inoculated. The habitual immunity is therefore largely due to the absence of opportunity for infection, and in some degree also to the outdoor life and the well developed state of the muscular system and blood. For the house dog and cat infection has often come from eating scraps from the plate of tuberculous people and in some instances from licking up the expectoration. At Alfort only 40 dogs were found tuberculous in 9,000 post mortem examinations. TUBERCULOSIS CONTAGIOUS. That this disease is contagious was recognized by many of the medical lights of the 16th to the 18th centuries. Morgagni, Leennec, Cullen, Wickman, Valsalvi and Sarconi, and for ani- mals, Ruhling, Krunitz, Fromage, Huzard and others leave evi- dence corroborating this belief. The civil and ecclesiastical laws joined in forbidding the use of the meat from tuberculous animals, and in prescribing the destruction or disinfection of articles that might have become infected from tuberculous persons. This was placed on a solid basis by the many successful experi- mental inoculations of the disease by Villemin in 1865 and by his numerous followers, who conveyed the disease by feeding tuberculous matter, and by causing the animals to inhale tuber- culous liquid in the form of spray. Finally, Robert Koch, of Berlin, completed the demonstration, placing the keystone in the great arch of evidence, by the discovery of the tubercle bacillus, which he invariably found in the diseased tissues and in no others, end which he cultivated in pure culture in glycerine 6 BULLETIN 150. bouillon, and inoculated successfully upon a large number of animals. Since that time (1882) his position has been corroborated by all competent observers, and there is no truth in medicine more thoroughly established to-day than the essential connection be- en s' — oo sh a tO? \ ae 1.—A drawing from a preparation of tubercle bacilli mag- unified about 1000 diameters. tween tuberculosis and the tubercle bacillus. This bacillus has been so often conveyed with destructive effect from man to the smaller mammals, and even to cattle, that the essential identity of human and bovine tuberculosis must be accepted. This state- ment requires the qualification that the bacillus, like other patho- genic germs, adapts itself to the conditions of the medium on which it grows, and therefore, in the first place to the particular genus of animals in which it has been living for some time, and is therefore often less ready to grow in one of another kind TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 7 than in one of the same genus. The most extreme example of this is found in the bacillus of the bird which can only with dif- ficulty be made to grow in the system of the mammal. But even in the mammal the virulence of the bacillus for other mammals of a different genus or species may be very varied. Theobald Smith obtained, from a pet bear that had been owned by a tuberculous master, bacilli which seemed to have no ill effect when inoculated on cattle, and had a somewhat reduced virulence for Guinea pigs. Kruse found bacilli from human sputum, and others from the lungs of cattle which produced only local tuber- cle in Guinea pigs. Clinical observations show that the same is true as between different individuals of the same genus and species, and hence we find instances of tuberculosis in given herds, which continue for a number of years with few cases showing generalized and fatal results; and other instances of herds in which the disease makes rapid progress, soon affecting all or nearly all of the ani- mals, and proving fatal to a number in rapid succcession. This modification of the germ by its surroundings is again well shown in the common experience that it is usually difficult to start (on artificial media in flasks) the growth of tubercle bacilli taken direct from the animal, but when once started and accustomed to grow on such new materials, it may be started again in fresh culture with great certainty. In stating, therefore, that the one and only cause of tuber- culosis is the tubercle bacillus, it is not to be understood that it is affirmed that that bacillus is at alltimes, under all circumstances and to all animals, equally virulent and destructive. If the con- ditions are favorable it will prove very deadly, while, if unfavor- able, it may linger fora time without producing much obvious effect on the general health. Its presence, however, in any . herd is a constant menace to all members of the herd, to the attendants, to the consumers of the meat and dairy products of the herd, and to other herds into which members of this herd may be sent. It is also worthy of note, that the power of adaptation of the germ to its surroundings, introduces this further element of danger that, as it becomes adapted to its lifein a given animal or in the different members of a closely bred 8 BULLETIN 150. herd, in the natural course of events it must become better and better adapted to survival in that particular animal and breed, and hence increasingly dangerous to all of its members. This is one reason why tuberculosis is so liable to become intensified in special herds of thoroughbred stock, and why common cattle with a varied ancestry will sometimes seem to offer a longer resist- ance to the affection. It may also explain the fact that with ample exposure the disease does not always pass from men to cattle and from cattle to man. Yet it would be folly to argue from such data that the disease, when present in an occult form in a herd, may be safely ignored, and that the products of such herd may be safely consumed by man. ‘The very adaptability of the tubercle bacillus sufficiently contradicts this conclusion. The mere continuous presence of the bacillus in a given system, human or brute, is the means of securing a better and still better adaptation to that form of life, and a greater and still greater measure of potency, so that when the health of the host or exposed animal is in any way reduced it may at once become deadly and far reaching in its evil effects. CHANNELS OF INFECTION. Among the channels of infection the following may be noted: 1. Inhalation by the breath. ‘This is perhaps the most com- mon method of infection andis usually followed by tuberculosis of the throat, lungs, and lymphatic glands of the chest. Expec- torations and other infecting discharges are dried up and raised in dust so that they can be easily inhaled. Cases of this kind have been observed in buildings in which a victim of advanced tuberculosis was employed. The other employes fell victims, one after another, to the infection. They are quite common in infected barns, in which the virulent dust carried in the air is inhaled by a number of animals. Experimentally it has been shown by mixing virulent matters in liquids, atomizing them and causing animals to inhale the spray. Inthe hands of Vill- emin, Koch, Thaon and Tappeiner this almost infallibly produced tuberculosis of the lungs. In man too, many infections and reinfections have been traced to the dust from the soiled handker- chiefs. On the other hand it must be distinctly understood that TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 9 the breath of the tuberculous is not in itself infecting, and if care is taken to prevent the diffusion of the infected solids and liquids and their distribution in dust, the presence of a tubercu- lous individual is not a threat to others adjacent. 2. ILnfection through food and drink. A whole host of experi- menters have conveyed the disease by mixing infecting pus or an emulsion of the tubercle with ordinary food. ‘The same has been often accomplished with milk from the infected animal even to casesin which the mammary glands seemed to be per- fectly sound. The danger of course is enhanced in ratio with the number of bacilli present, so that one diseased cow in a large herd leads to little infection if the milk of the whole herd is mixed. On the other hand such admixture of the virulent milk with the wholesome contaminates the whole to some extent, and inoculation with such mixed milk will often convey the disease when the animals drinking it do not seem to be injured by it. The infection usually takes place through the tonsils, pharynx or bowels. In ruminating animals it may attack the first three stomachs the contents of which are neutral or nearly | so, but it rarely attacks the true digesting stomach the secretion of which isstrongly acid. The bacillus is liable to perish or to be sodistributed by the acid in passing through the stomach that it is largely shorn of its danger. Among the conditions that favor its safe passage through the stomach may be named indi- gestion and a too rapid progress of the undigested food through the stomach, a condition which is especially common in young animals: overloading of the stomach: the ingestion of an excess of cold water just after a meal, thereby rousing excessive ver- micular movement of the stomachand premature expulsion of its undigested contents: and the enclosure of the infected matter in a mass of fat which the gastric secretions are impotent to digest or emulsionize. 3. ILnoculation inwounds. ‘This is acommon channel of in- fection in man. Accidental inoculations—in making post mor- tem examinations have been often noticed since the case of Lennec ; or in making artificial cultures in the laboratory ; or in washing the clothes of tuberculous persons; or in dressing the tuberculous sores; or in making operations, notably that of 10 BULLETIN I50. circumcision ; or in inserting earrings formerly used by tubercu- lous persons; or in inhaling the infecting dust through a nose excoriated by acatarrh ; or in handling infected carcasses in the butcher’s shops; or finally through mouth or throat abrasions caused by hard indigestible materials. 4. Through the mammary glands. This gland is especially sub- ject to wounds by the horns and to sores and abrasions in connec- tion with milking which form entrance-channels for the bacilli present in the dust of the barn. The opening of the teat is also a door of entry through which the germ may invade the milk ducts and glandular tissue. It is not to be forgotten, however, that the milk gland is especially liable to become infected through the blood which is sent in such enormous quantities through its tissues, and is liable to implant any bacilli which may have entered the blood stream. The gland is, therefore, espe- cially liable to infection from without and within and once infected is a source of the greatest danger to the milk consumer. 5. Through sexual congress. In cows the generative organs are often the seat of tuberculosis inducing nymphomania or ster- ility, and the disease has been repeatedly produced experimen- tally by smearing the infecting matter on the penis or introduc- ing it into the vagina. The bacillus has even been found in the semen of an infected male so that transmission by this channel to the female can be easily understood. All this has a very direct bearing upon the question of the propriety of using the same sire on the tuberculous and sound, and of the admission of females from tuberculous herds to be served by the sires in sound ones. | 6. Through heredity. Hereditary transmission of tuberculosis has long been recognized, and until recently accorded a rdle much more important than its infrequency would warrant. Various conditions militate against its occurrence; the foetus is essentially a carnivorous animal, living on the secretions of the dam and not on the direct products of the vegetable king- dom. It has, therefore, that measure of resistance which. inheres in the flesh feeding as compared with the vegetable feed- ing animal. It may be infected through the semen of the sire, but the rule appears to be that the ovum thus early affected rarely TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. II attains to its full intrauterine development. It may be affected from the tuberculous. generative organsof the dam, but here again abortion is liable to cut short the existence of the embryo. In spite of alldrawbacks a certain small proportion of the off- spring are affected with tuberculosis and come to the full period of gestation. Incase of infection from the dam the disease is especially liable to attack the liver in which so much of the placental blood at once circulates. Cases of the kind are recorded by Malvox, Brouwier, Bang, Lungwitz, Barlund and Rieck, and in the tuberculous herd of a large public institution in New York several instances were noted. The infrequency of such an occurrence may, however, be in- ferred from the fact that in 800,000 calves slaughtered only 7 were found tuberculous. PNDESLCRUCTIBILITY. OF. -THH BACILLUS TUBERCULOSIS. The bacillus may be said to be capable of surviving drying, the action of water, and putrefaction. It is destroyed by heat (162° to 212° F), sunlight, or in one month by heavy salting. CONDITIONS WHICH FAVOR TUBERCULOSIS. A personal predisposition to tuberculosis is a prime requisite, and this is rendered hereditary by close and inbreeding and breeding in line. Hence the great danger of tuberculosis among improved breeds. Again whatever undermines the health or stamina, such as breeding before maturity, breeding and heavy milking, breeding the old and debilitated, an insufficient ration, an ill-balanced ration which stimulates unduly the secretion of milk, ill health, local inflammations in the air passages, lack of ventilation, constant stabling in dark, damp, undrained stables and wet soils, greatly favor the reception of the bacillus. The impure air, lack of sunshine and accumulation of the germs in large cities make a destructive combination. In France, cities of under 10,000 lose 1.8 per cent yearly from pulmonary tuberculosis, while Paris with its 2,000,000 loses 4.9 per cent. In Vienna hospitals 85 per cent of the bodies show tubercular lesions. In 12 BULLETIN 150. Bavarian Monasteries 50 per cent of the young postulants die in a few years tuberculous. In New York City charity hospital 30 per cent of all deaths show tubercle lesions. Where country cows are tuberculous to from 1 to 5 per cent, city cows are so from 6 to 20 per cent and upward. On the contrary our prairie and plains fat cattle show but 0.02 per cent tuberculous. In the Southern States with an unbroken outdoor life country cattle are nearly all sound, whereas in large cities like New Orleans they are largely tuberculous. APPEARANCE AND FORMATION OF TUBERCLE. The term tubercle is drawn from the rounded nodular form of the diseased process. The bacillus lodged in the tissue multiplies 939g 02-9 O89 e © @ © && \a.0o a,.? os-~=,2°® eo © 86 a) 04 95 ©, ae OP ON 59 8 “boo am ci) oo, OCS eS s FP e%6 eDoy0 a? 580% 02 ©@ ®0° 2.— A drawing of asection of avery young tubercle in spleen. ( Thoma). and causes congestion and extraordinary growth of cells. The affected points may be at first no larger than millet seed, but these may increase and run together so as to form conglomerate masses of one, six or nine inches in diameter. As the cell growth increases, the central ones degenerate, die, and form a yellowish TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 3 white, soft, cheesy mass (caseation) and these numerous cheesy centres become very characteristic of the disease. Sometimes the tubercle develops into a hard fibrous mass the centre of which may still caseate. In other cases it becomes calcareous or gritty a condition which is usually associated with caseation. Some- times the caseated mass softens into a whitish cream-like fluid. COMMON SEATS AND SYMPTOMS OF TUBERCLE In CATT. Tuberculosis of the lungs may be chronic or acute. The chronic cases may last indefinitely with no other symptom than an occasional cough on leaving the hot stable for cool air, when suddenly raised in the stall, when made to run, or whendrinking cold water or eating dusty food. The cough is usually small, dry, wheezing and repeated several times in succession.. The general health may seem to be good, the subject may be fat or a heavy milker. To the trained ear, wheezing, crackling, or other unnatural sounds may be heard in the lungs or they may fail of detection. There may be a discharge from the nose, which when stained and placed under the microscope may show bacilli, but by cleansing the nose with the tongue the animal may make this test practically impossible. Acute tuberculosis of the lungs on the other hand may prove fatal ina month. It is attended with rapid loss of condition, staring coat, elevated temperature, hurried breathing, frequent weak, husky or rattling cough, heavy, mawkish breath, and nasal discharge containing gritty particles or opaque yellowish masses. Pinching of the back, breastbone or spaces between the ribs, or striking the ribs with the knuckles may cause wincing, groaning or cough, and auscultation over the ribs may detect sounds of friction, wheezing, creaking, crepitation, rattling, or blowing, etc. Percussion over the chest detects areas of lack of resonance corresponding to the seats of tubercles or pulmonary infiltration. A significant feature is that these areas of flatness are distributed over the lungs, and not confined to one spot as is common in pneumonia. Appetite and rumination fail, bloating occurs after meals, the bowels may become irregular, and BULLETIN I50. indications of tuberculosis in the throat, or superficial lymph glands may appear. Tuberculosis of the stemach and bowels is common in young animals living on milk but is not infrequent in the mature animal as well. It may come from infected milk, or from the swallowing of the diseased products coming from / tuberculous throat or lungs. In calves there may be noted indigestion, foetid diarrhcea, bloating, and finally cough and expectoration or swelling of the super- ficial lymph glands. In older cattle there may be irregular appetite and rumination, bloating after meals, costive- ness alternating with diarrhcea, colics, and marked emaciation. The oiled hand introduced into the rectum may detect the enlarged mesenteric glands, which must be carefully distinguished from hardened fceces in the bowels, from the ovaries, from masses of fat, and from the cotyledons of the womb. Tuberculosis of the womb and ovaries may depend on infection by the bull, or may be a complication of intestinal and peritoneal tuberculosis. It is usually marked by sterility, abortion, by fre- quency and intensity of cestrum, and by marked emaciation. Sometimes there is a white vaginal discharge. Tuberculosis of the liver, spleen and pancreas is also a common accompani- ment of infection of the bowel or abdonimal cavity. The liver and spleen are especially liable to suffer from being on the line of circulation of the portal vein which brings blood from all the 3.—Drawing of tuberculous spleen in pig. showing tubercles 2-3 the natural size. TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 15 other abdominal digestive organs. The lymph glands on the posterior aspect of the liver are especially liable to suffer. With liver-tuberculosis there may be jaundice accompanied by other symptoms of digestive trouble, but as in the affection of the spleen and pancreas there is oftentimes only an indefinite ill health. Tuberculosis of the kidneys may be attended by extra tenderness of the loins to pinching and by frequent passage of urine, which may be discolored by blood or pus. ‘The urine is likely to con- tain microscopic cylindroid casts and when stained these may show tubercle bacilli. Tuberculosis of the udder is usually manifested by a circumscribed or general swelling of one or more quarters, without at first special tenderness, and this gradually extends to the whole gland. ‘The milk may be watery, grumous, or even bloody and the lymph glands in front of the udder and behind are enlarged and hardened. ‘The tuberculous nature of the lesions can only be certainly determined by the discovery of the tubercle bacillus in the milk, by the successful inoculation of the milk on a small animal, or by the tuberculin test. Tuberculosis of the throat and pharyngeal lymph glands is one of the most common forms of tuberculosis in cattle. It causes a wheezing breathing, glairy discharge from the nose or mouth, difficulty in swallowing and a loose gurgling cough. The diseased glands may be felt as soft sweliings around the throat, or as shrunken hard nodular bodies, or as masses fluctuating by reason of their liquid contents. When the disease extends to the interior of the larynx it causes a persistent, paroxysmal, husky cough. The lymph glands inside the lower jaw or those near the root of the ear may swell up, soften and discharge a cheesy or thick creamy fluid containing the bacillus. The lymph glands inside the chest-——bronchial mediastinal, etc.,— are especially liable to suffer, as they receive the infected lymph which comes from the diseased lungs. These often suffer when no lung disease can be found, the bacilli having passed through the lung without forming any primary lesion in that organ, or those that have been formed having healed. These are often attended by no distinctive symptoms, and require the tuberculin test. 16 BULLETIN I50. Lymph glands in front of the middle of the shoulder blade may be suspected if of unequal size and form on the two sides, if hard and nodular, or if soft and fluctuating. They rarely caseate and burst. Other lymph glands that may be similarly affected, and that are superficial enough to be felt, are the glands at the entrance of the chest in front of the two first ribs, the glands on the flank above and in front of the stifle, and, in the young, the glands situated high up tn the groin. Tuberculosis of the bones and joints is seen in young growing animals, affecting especially the large joints of the limbs, the elbow and knee, the stifle and hock, but also at times the bones and joints of the digits. The ends of the bones become enlarged and tender and the joints overdistended, tense and elastic. The lameness may be extreme. PROPORTION OF OCCULT CASES. In herds which have the disease in the most intense form, by reason of long standing, indoor life, and repeated reinfection nearly all may be detected by the objective symtoms, but in such herds nearly every animal is diseased. In ordinary herds, where the disease is less intense, at least two-thirds of the diseased ani- mals would escape under such an examination. In one herd of 70 head in which the tuberculin test condemned 24 head (being 50 per cent of the mature animals) I left the examination after slaughter to the veterinarian of the A. J. C. C. who was at the time skeptical as to the value of the tuberculin test. He wrote me afterward of his surprise at finding every one of the 24 condemned animals tuberculous, when not one of them had shown symptoms by which he could recognize the disease in life. Thisis no exceptional case, and may be advanced rather as a typical example of the ordinary infected country herd. It is manifest that if we aim at speedily and certainly clearing a herd of tuberculosis we must have some better method of diag- nosing the disease than the best physical examination. Attempts have been made to discover the bacillus in the expectoration, milk or nodular lymph glands, but this requires prolonged care- PLATE I.—Photlograph of a section trom anterior lobe of a tuberculous lung of a cow, showing rounded tubercular « . o “t! o infiltration and calcified centres. ‘9218 JVANJVU ‘SI]PAIQN] 2Y] SUIMOYS ‘209 vB fo mn]UamMOo AVjNIAIQN fo uo1ZAO| VD fo YFvASOJOYT —'TI ALI TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 17 ful manipulation in almost every case, and, in case of no bacillus being found, is no guarantee of the absence of the disease. Inoculations with the suspected discharges, secretions or tis- tues, demand a delay of one or two months before one can pro- nounce upon the result, and that result if negative, gives no as- surance that the animal is free from tuberculosis but only that the material inoculated did not contain the germ. THE TUBERCULIN TEST. Much has been saidand written against the tuberculin test by those who have never used it, and who are therefore utterly in- competent either to endorse or condemn it, but for those who aim at the prompt and thorough eradication of the infection from a herd, and at the securing at once of a guarantee of progeny, beef and dairy products, no resort can, as regards its efficacy, be at all compared with the tuberculin test. Tuberculin isa sterile solution of the products of the artificial culture of the tubercle bacillus. In its preparation it has been treated to a boiling temperature which is as fatal to a tubercle bacillus in liquid medium asit is toahen’segg. But this is not all, even the dead bacilli have been separated from the liquid by passing it through a porcelain filter. The remaining liquid (tuberculin) is absolutely sterile and can plant and propagate neither the tubercle bacillus nor any other living thing. It can poison if given in excessive doses, as alcohol can poison, but it can no more produce the germ of tubercle where that does not exist than can distilled alcohol plant the yeast germ and start a new vinous fermentation. The insane fear of tuberculin is the fruit of an ignorance of its true natureand of a blind prejudice which withholds its victim from informing himself on the subject. As we produce tuberculin in the bacteriological laboratory of the N. Y. S. Veterinary College, and distribute it free, for use by approved parties in this state, we can speak with confidence of the absolute harmlessness of the agent when intelligently employed. We aim at securing no profit in making this agent, but charge only for packing and shipping. We have therefore no interest in its manufacture, for on the contrary the greater 18 BULLETIN 150. demand from residents of this state for tuberculin the more unre- munerated labor is heaped upon us. The value of the agent consists in this, that the hypodermic injection of an appropriate dose in a tuberculous animal, however lightly affected, produces in the course of the succeeding twenty- four hours a rise of body temperature and other indications of fever. The gradual rise and fall of the temperature in the ab- sence of any other diseased or physiological condition which would bring this about is the most reliable of all symptoms of the presence of the disease. Upon the sound animal system such a dose of tuberculin produces no appreciable effect. It is important, however, that I should not be misunderstood in this matter. The man who will use tuberculin without due caution and without due consideration as to the condition and environment of the animal, and who blindly condemns on any rise of temperature will almost certainly condemn non-tubercu- lous animals and bring the tuberculin test into discredit. The intelligent use of the test, demands an intimate knowledge of the kind of animals tested, both in the healthy and diseased condi- tion, and a careful scrutiny before and during the test. ist. Zhe subject must be in good general health. If there is present in the system any concurrent disease it may undergo an aggravation within twenty-four hours and give a rise of temper- ature that will be mistakenly set down for tuberculosis. At the very start, therefore, it is important that the general health of the subject should be first assured by a critical professional ex- amination. If some other disease is present the tuberculin test had best, as a rule, be delayed until that has subsided, while if tuberculosis is found the test will be superfluous. 2d. The subject must not be within three weeks of parturition, nor about toabort. In many cases, though not in all, as preparations are made for calving, the system becomes unduly susceptible to the presence Of tuberculin and that agent will cause a rise of temperature, though no tuberculosis is present. Unless this source of error is carefully guarded against the most valuable cows in the herd may be condemned unjustly. 3d. The cow must not be within three days of the period at which ‘‘heat’’ would naturally occur. Under the excitement of cestrum — Hours after finjeetipn | PS | | , 2 a I Hoe oe 4 [anee ee Zane HO an of nn® Pla A. ae | NY mat aa a TEMPERATURE CHARTS 4.—Temperature curves of 5 cows, all of one herd, under the tuberculin test. No. 77 was tuberculous, the other health Ly. 5.— Temperature curves of 10 cows, all of one herd, under the tuberculin test. Nos. 68, 87, 97 and 98 were tuberculous, the others healthy. (Curtice, Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry 1893-6. ) 20 BULLETIN 150. the body temperature usually rises two or three degrees, and if tuberculin has been used this rise may be attributed to tubercu- losis and a sound animal may be condemned. Nor is it always enough that the animal is supposed to be pregnant. Abortions sometimes takes place unexpectedly and unknown to the owner. If, therefore, a cow under the test and which is not well advanced in pregnancy should show a rise of temperature it should be at once ascertained whether the animal is not in ‘‘heat.’’ If sym- toms of ‘‘ heat’’ are foundshe should be set aside along with any calving cows to be tested again when such a source of error is no longer present. 4th. The tested animal must not be exposed to a hot sun in a closed area. Inexcess this will cause heat apoplexy, and the fever heat which ushers this in may easily be mistaken for the indications of tuberculosis. 5th. Cattle taken from pastures must not be enclosed in a hot, stuffy stable. While they must be tied up to allow of the tem- peratures being taken at short intervals, coolness and ventilation should be secured in summer by a oles air space and the re- quisite ventilating openings. 6th. Lxposureto cold draughts between open doors and windows, orto wet or chilly blasts out of doors should be carefully guarded against. A chill proceeding from any source and alike in the presence or absence of tuberculin causes a rise of the internal body temperature. 7th. Heavy cows unaccustomed to stand on hard boards may have a rise in temperature tn connection with resulting tenderness of the feet. One must avoid hard floors on the day of the test or make examination of the feet and allow for attendant fever. 8th. Omtssion of the previous milking or a-change of milker and consequent retention of part of the milk will raise the temperature of a nervous cow, and in careless hands secure an erroneous con- demnation. gth. Privation of water at the regular time will often cause rise of temperature especially when on the dry feeding of winter. I have seen a general rise of two degrees and upward from the delay of watering fora single hour, while after watering the temperature went downto the normal and remained so. Water TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 21 always tends to a temporary lowering of temperature but in the presence of tuberculosis it soon rises again. 1oth. Change of food ts liable to produce a slight indigestion and rise of temperature. ‘This should be avoided as far as possible, and when a herd is taken up from pasture for the test it should have grass, ensilage or other succulent food. These are examples of the sources of fallacy which attend on the reckless and unintelligent use of tuberculin. They only show that skill and training are necessary to its successful use, and that in the absence of these the apparent results are not to be too unhesitatingly accepted. In all cases, inthe absence of the re- quisite education and experience it is desirable that the animals which have shown a rise of temperature should be separated from the herd and tested anew after the lapse of three or four weeks. In this way such errors may be almost entirely excluded. 11th. An animal with advanced tuberculosis sometimes fails to veact. ‘The subject is, however, usually emaciated and bloodless, breathes hard and has rapid pulse on exertion and shows une- quivocal symptoms of tuberculosis to the skilled examiner. Such cases can, therefore, rarely escape a physical examination. They are noticed mainly to guard against the mistake of making the rise of temperature or its absence the sole test of tuberculosis. 12th. It is objected to tuberculin that it detects even the slightest and most latent cases of tuberculosis, some of which would recover and many would remain useful for years. This objection would be valid if our object were to obtain the greatest possible money return from the individual tuberculous cow at the expense of any risk to the sound herd. But tuberculin is, and should be used for the purpose of a complete eradication of the tubercle bacillus from the herd and the preservation of a sound stock which with its products will be above suspicion. If this is not aimed at; if the latent cases are to be retained in the herd and the advanced cases only removed then truly tuberculin should have no place in your system. Physical examination should be all sufficient for your purpose. But you could not place the herd at once above suspicion, you could not sell its members with a _ guarantee of soundness, and you could not assure the consumers that the uncooked dairy products were safe. 22 BULLETIN I50. The animal with local tubercle may not at the present time be diffusing the poison, but where such animals are preserved one will at intervals have the local tubercle extended so as to cause generalized tuberculosis; and as this extension necessarily takes place by the conveyance of the bacillus through the blood, and as such bacilli must be circulating in the blood before they can invade new tissues and form new tubercles, it follows that there is always a period between the entrance of such bacilli into the blood and the development of new tubercles in which the blood and all blood-containing organs are infecting, though no symp- tom nor lesion of new tubercles can be detected. At this stage the animal may convey tuberculosis through its flesh, or through its dairy products, while even a post mortem exam- ination would pronounce it free from generalized tuberculosis. It is also liable to distribute the germ to other members of the herd before any suspicion of immediate danger is entertained. Deduction. It may be concluded from such considerations as the above that the tuberculin test is indispensible where one aims ata guarantee of the soundness of the progeny and dairy products of a herd, but that its use demands one of two conditions. A. That the animals showing tuberculosis under the test shall be destroyed and the buildings where they have been shall be disinfected ; or, . B. ‘That such infected animals, as have the disease in a latent form, shall be formed into a separate herd and kept well apart from other stock, for breeding purposes only ; or if their milk is used that it shall be first subjected to sterilization. The stockowner who values the sound portion of his herd can- not afford to allow even the latent cases of tuberculosis to min- gle with it. TUBERCULIN IN MODERATE DOSE HARMLESS TO SOUND CATTLE. The concurrent testimony of all veterinarians drawn from hundreds of thousands of tests is that the ordinary test dose is harmless to a nontuberculous animal. In 1894 I put this to a crucial test on five cows (Holstein, Jersey and grade) injecting - the tuberculin on six successive occasions and found that it pro- TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 23 duced no appreciable change in the general health as evidenced by temperature, breathing, pulse, yield of milk or quality of milk. [I feel accordingly that I can speak with the greatest con- fidence as to the entire harmlessness of the tuberculin test on a sound animal. That it rouses into a temporary activity the tuberculosis already existing in the unsound animal is true. Were it not so it would be useless as a diagnostic agent. But if the state stands ready to destroy and pay for the diseased, there can be no possible objection to the temporary aggravation which leads to the purifi- cation of the herd. MEASURES FOR THE ERADICATION OF TUBERCULOSIS. For the complete eradication of tuberculosis from a herd or country the first and main consideration is the absolute separation of the sick animal and all its products from the healthy. This is fundamental in dealing with all infectious diseases, and if it could be applied would reduce all contagious disorders to the condition of simple sporadic ones. Plagues would cease to be plagues, and the infecting disease would cease like any other affection with the first individualcase. The plagues of men follow the great movements of men—pilgrimages, armies, trade. The animal plagues prevail continuously in unfenced territories (Asia, ~ Central Europe, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, South Africa), and follow the tract of armies and the channels of com- merce. Stop the great accummulations and intermingling of animals and we arrest the general diffusion of a plague and reduce it to the comparatively insignificant importance of some common disease. Exceptional cases like anthrax and blackquarter in which the germ is maintained for years in the soil, are only apparent exceptions to this fundamental principle, as whenever the germ can thus be carried in soil or water the separation of sick and their products from the healthy is incomplete. In applying this principle to tuberculosis we meet with the drawback that a great variety of animals of different genera are 24 BULLETIN 150. susceptible (including the human being) and that it is difficult to keep all these and their products apart, and that further it is not in our power to cut short the disease abruptly in the human race as it is inthe lower animals. ‘There is however the counter- balancing advantage that its propagation is slow and takes place less readily through the air than in the case of most infectious diseases. BREEDING HEALTHY STOCK FROM PARENTS WITH LATENT TUBERCULOSIS. Where the state is not pledged to exterminate the disease by prompt and radical measures it is quite possible to raise healthy stock from sires and dams that have tuberculosis in a slight and latent form. It will be recalled that calves are usually born free from tuberculosis. In the slaughterhouses of Europe there may be but one tuberculous calf in 100,000 killed. If therefore the calves can be preserved from infection of a parental source they may be raised absolutely sound with very few exceptions. For valuable pedigreed animals especially it is quite possible for the owner to keep those with latent tuberculosis in secluded herds, to remove the calf from its dam as soon as born, and to raise it on the sterilized milk of the dam or on the milk of another and healthy cow. In such a case it is always desirable to employ the tuberculin test upon thé entire herd, to destroy at once those animals that have advanced or generalized tuberculosis, and to separate ina new or disinfected barn under special attendants the cows that have been attested sound. There will remain the slight and latent cases which have reacted under the tuberculin, but which are well nourished, having healthy skins, eyes and appetite, and no cough, wheezing nor shortness of breath. These must be kept well apart in separate barn and pasture where neither they nor their products can come in contact with healthy stock, where they can have good air and nourishing food. Their calves must be kept in a separate building or park, and fed on the milk of sound cows, or on that of their dams after it has been raised to the boiling point for 15 minutes. After sterilization the milk must be put in scalded vessels reserved for the use of the calves, TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 25 and fed by the special attendants. Any loss of condition, unthriftiness, cough or scouring on the part of a calf, should be the warrant for separating it from the others and subjecting it to the tuberculin test, and for its destruction in case it shows the tuberculin reaction. The cows should also be carefully watched and in case any one develops cough, wheezing, breathlessness on exertion, or other sign of actively advancing tuberculosis it should be at once destroyed as endangering the others by possible reinfection. The whole isolated tuberculous herd should be submitted to the tuberculin test, every three or six months, and individuals which fail to react on two successive tests, and which show all other indications of good health may be held to have recovered and may be restored to the healthy herd. A second method is that pursued successfully in the North West Territories. Cows and heifers that have reacted under tuberculin, but which otherwise appear to be in good health, are made into a herd by themselves and placed ona special range apart from all other cattle. They live in the open air with slight shelter in winter and their calves are allowed to suck their dams running with them until winter. The wide range, the open air life, and the early destruction, by sunshine and oxygen, of the discharged microbes, tend in the main to ward off infection except such as comes in the milk, and asa matter of fact the majority of the calves grow up in apparent good health and are fattened and shipped to England. The climate of our Southern States affordsa better opportunity for this practice than does the semi-arctic northwest. There the ranch cattle living in the open air all the year round show little or no tuberculosis, and with this outdoor life the genial climate will greatly favor the survival if not the recovery of the slight and latent cases. It should be added that in the stabled cows of the southern cities tuberculosis is very prevalent. 26 BULLETIN 150. EXTINCTION OF TUBERCULOSIS WITHOUT THE TUBERCULIN TEST. As successful examples of this I may quote from my own per- sonal experience. ist. A herd of about 200 head belonging to the Willard Asy- lum had become badly affected with tuberculosis and on physi- cal examination, without the use of tuberculin, I condemned about 50 per cent. These were accordingly destroyed and new barns and yards were constructed at some distance from the others and filled with cows selected from the most healthy herds available. These were bred to healthy bulls and a new herd gradually built up. Meanwhile the remaining 50 per cent of the original herd were gradually slaughtered, and like the original half of the herd were found to be tuberculous without a single exception. The original barn was thoroughly cleaned, repeat- edly disinfected with chloride of zinc and with its cleansed and disinfected yards was left unoccupied for an entire year. The fields on which the original herd had pastured were used for other purposes than pasture for two full years. The new herd was carefully watched and any cow which contracted a cough or _ showed especially poor health was at once separated from the herd and disposed of. This treatment of the new herd was kept up for over twelve years, and in the middle of December, 1897, I subjected the mature animals of the herd to the tuberculin test, and found not a single case of tuberculosis. I have never before subjected an untested herd of this size to the action of tuberculin without finding a considerable percentage of cases of tuberculosis. The splendid showing is highly instructive as to the high value of intelligent management even without the aid of tuberculin. Here a large herd was maintained under the same conditions of food, milking and housing (even in the same barns) as the former herd which became universally tuberculous, and, even under the crucial test of the tuberculin, furnished not asingle case of tuberculosis. The only difference is that with the present herd intelligent measures were taken to exclude the germ of the tuberculosis. The case is all the more striking that some of the most important precautions against the spread TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 29 of tuberculosis in a herd were not put in force. The cows were not taught to keep the same stall on all occasions, but went into any stall that was convenient. Then there were no partitions between the feeding places of adjacent stalls and one cow could lick up the food from the two stalls on the right and left as well as from her own. With an infecting cow in the herd, therefore, there was every opportunity for a speedy spread of the infec- tion. In spite of such obvious opportunity for infection the care- ful selection of the first members of the present herd, the build- ing upof the herd by home breeding only, and the weeding out of all suspicious animals succeeded in excluding any trace of tuberculosis. The experiment, however, entailed the entire destruction of the original infected herd, and though the post mortem exami- nation showed that in this instance this step was necessary to a successful result yet in many other less universally diseased herds the larger part could have been saved by picking out the diseased with the aid of the tuberculin test. 2d. InCornell University herd, which numbers about sixty cattle, old and young, tuberculosis led to the destruction of a number of individuals. The diseased, however, were disposed of as soon as objective symptoms showed the presence of tuberculo- sis, and after some years of this weeding out when I tested the whole herd with the newly discovered tuberculin I could find no trace of the disease except in a young bull which had recently been acquired fromanother herd. Since his destruction I have tested them repeatedly, but have found no trace of tuberculosis. EXTINCTION OF TUBERCULOSIS WITH THE AID OF TUBERCULIN. If a herd has been bred up from home stock without the intro- duction of any animal from without, and if for a number of years there have been no losses and no illness suggestive of any form of tuberculosis there is a fair presumption that it is free from that disease. Butin the average herd, and especially if sickness or death has occurred, even if such has been attributed to something else, it is a wise precaution to subject the whole 28 BULLETIN 150. to the tuberculin test. Especially now when the N. Y. State Veterinary College undertakes to furnish tuberculin free for use in herds in this state, the expense of such a test should not bea serious drawback. ‘The measures to be adopted may be thus enumerated. ist. Apply the tuberculin test to the entire herd. 2d. Remove all animals showing a rise of temperature which indicates tuberculosis. 3d. Destroy and burn, boil, or deeply bury all cases of the disease, unless it is decided to form an isolated herd of latent cases which are in good condition. (See above.) 4th. In case of doubt or disturbing influences which may have caused rise of temperature (nearness to calving, heat, ex- posure, concurrent disease, changes in management, etc.), keep the suspected animal apart for three or four weeks and test again. his will almost certainly correct any mistake of the first test. 5th. Repeat the testevery three months and if two successive tests show no indication of tuberculosis the herd may be ac- counted safe. 6th. As soon as tuberculous animals have been removed from a stable let it be vacated and thoroughly disinfected with chloride of lime, 4 ounces to a gallon of water and enough quicklime to makea good whitewash, which will show if even a square inch has been missed. When chloride of lime is objectionable because of its tainting the milk, mercuric chloride may be used in the proportion of one drachm to a gallon of water, to which is added one drachm of sal ammoniac and 5 drachms of common salt. This is much more poisonous than the chloride of lime and must be cautiously handled during its application. The walls, roof, and especially the floor, gutterand feeding trough must be first thoroughly scraped, washed and cleaned, all rotten woodwork must be removed, and in case of double boarded walls, the boards must be removed on one side to permit of a thorough application. 7th. In making new purchases avoid any herd in which tuberculosis has appeared, or which has had sickness or deaths in recent years. : 8th. Don’t purchase from city, suburban nor swill stables. TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. 29 gth. Don’t take a cow which is in ill health or low condition, especially one with cough, nasal discharge, foul breath, hard nodules under the skin, diseased udder, swollen loins or joints or a tendency to scour or bloat. 10th. Testevery fresh animal with tuberculin before admit- ting it to your herd, unless it has been recently tested and has not since been exposed to possible infection. tith. Don’t admit strange cattle to house, field or yard with your own. Keep them apart until tested with tuberculin. 12th. Keep each animal in your herd strictly to its own stall and manger. 13th. Board up the partitions of the stallsin front so that no two cows can feed from the same manger nor lick each other. 14th. Be especially observant of the older cows and onthe slightest sign of ill health separate and subject to the tuberculin test. 15th. Incase a herd of cattle is found to be tuberculous sub- ject to the tuberculin test all the domestic animals that have mingled with them freely and fed from the same troughs. Re- move those that show a reaction. 16th. Hxterminate the vermin (rats, mice, sparrows) in a building where tuberculosis has prevailed. 17th. Let no consumptive person attend on cattle or other live stock, nor prepare their food. EXTINCTION OF TUBERCULOSIS BY STATE ACTION. It is out of the sphere of the private breeder or dairyman to enter on the question of state sanitary police, yet no one is more deeply interested in the general enforcement of such measures as would banish the existing dangers which attend on the purchase of strange animals and their products. In recent years the rigid supervision of herds in the New England States has driven many infected cattle into New York to spread tuberculosis in previously healthy herds, and to increase it in those that were already affected. The exclusion of cattle seeking to enter Pennsylvania or the New England States, which were not accompanied by the certi- ficate that they had successfully stood the tuberculin test, has 30 BULLETIN 150. led to the testing of western cattle at Buffalo, Albany and else- where, and the detention of such as failed under the test, to be sold too often to the unsuspecting New York stockowner. The tests have often been made by the inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry, who have no legal right to interfere with the condemmed cattle unless the attempt is made to move them into another state, and in the absence of any restriction by the municipal or state health officers, the owner or dealer is at liberty to sell such tuberculous cattle in open market. If the test is made by a veterinarian who is not a national nor state official the same holds true; he has no authority to forbid the sale of the diseased and condemned cattle. Again, private stockowners have had their own herds tested, and have removed from the herd those that failed to stand the test, but there is nothing to show what became of such con- demned animals, and in the absence of a state indemnity and slaughter, there is much to be suspected. These are hints of the evils that have been precipitated for a length of time upon our New York live stock industry. Day by day our herdsare being systematically infected by the introduction of the tuberculous offscouring of other states and of our own, and we raised not a finger to stop it. Further, in the interests of the consuming public we have to consider that we have no inspection in our little local abattoirs and no guarantee of the meats there killed. And meanwhile we are giving free rein to every evil disposed dealer, to add to our herds the tuberculous animals drawn from the states around us. The crying need of New York to-day is first to block these streams of infection, which are now practically invited into our herds from other commonwealths, and second to inaugurate a systematic effort to rid our own herds, which are the sources of our dairy and meat products from this scourge. THE FOLLOWING BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THOSE WHO MAY DESIRE THEM. Creaming and Aerating Milk, 20 pp, Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. Steam and Hot-Water for Heating Greenhouses, 26 pages. Sundry Investigations of 1892, 56 pp. (Edema of the Tomato, 34 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. Four-Lined Leaf-Bug, 35 5 pp. Sundry Investigations oF the Year 1893, 54 PP. On Certain Grass-Eating Insects,58 pp. Hints on thePlanting ofOrchards,16 pp. Apricot Growing inWestern NewYork, 26 pp. The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Leaf Curland Plum Pockets, 40 pp. Impressions of the Peach Industry in N. Y., 28 pp. Peach Yellows, 20 pp. Some Grape Troubles in WesternN.Y., 116 pp. The Grafting of Grapes, 22 pp. ae oe Root Maggot, 99 pp. Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 PP. The Quince in Western N.*Y., 27 pp. Black Knot of Plums and Cherries, 24 PP. Experiments with Tuberculin, 20 pp. The Recent Apple Failuresin N. Y. 24 PP. Dwarf Lima Beans, 24 pp. Feeding Fat to Cows, 15 pp. Cigar- Case-Bearer, 20 pp. Winter Muskmielons, 20 pp. Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 pp. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp. Evaporated Raspberries in New York, 40pp. | The Spraying of Trees and the Canker Worm, 24 pp. General Observations in Care of Fruit Trees, 26 pp. Soil Depletion in Respect to the Care of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. Climbing Cutworms in Western N. Y. 51 PP. Test of Cream Separators, 18 pp. Revised Opinion of the Japanese Plums, 30 pp. | 109 IIo 114 116 117 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 130 131 132 Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, 36 pp. Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp. Spraying Calendar. Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. Moisture of the Soil and Its Conser- vation, 24 pp. Suggestions for Planting Shrubbery, 30 PP. Second Report upon Extension Work in Horticulture, 36 pp. Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. The Pistol-Case-Bearer New York, 18 pp. A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. The Currant-Stem Girdler and Raspberry-Cane Maggot, 22 pp. A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Potato Culture, 15 pp. Notes upon Plums for Western New York, 31 pp. Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. The Army-Worm in New York, 28 pp. in Western Strawberries under Glass, 10 pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp. Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of its Origin and Progress, II pp. Studies and Illustrations of Mush- rooms: I. Teird Report upon Jananese Plums. Second Report on Potato Culture. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. The Codling-Moth. Sugar Beet Investigations. Suggestions on Spraying and on the San José Scale. Some Important Pear Diseases. Fourth Report of Progress on Exten- sion Work. Fourth Report upon Chrysanthe- mumis. The Quince Curculio, Some Spraying Mixtures. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1898. 150. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Bulletin 151. August, 1898. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. VY. AGRICULTURAL DIVISION. Gravity or Dilution Separators. APPROVED BY THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, UNDER CHAP. 67, LAWS OF 1898. By H. H. WING. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1808. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC. P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature Study. A. lL. KNISELY, Chemistry. Cc. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. W. MILLER, Floriculture. G. N. LAUMAN, Horticulture. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. lL. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. GRAVITY OR DILUTION SEPARATORS. Several years ago, before the general introduction of sepa- rators, when the deep setting gravity system of raising cream was the method in common use in the larger butter making districts, there occurred in New England and New York a suc- cession of very mild winters when the supply of ice, so necessary in the deep setting systems, was very materially reduced and, in some cases, entirely cut off. To overcome the lack of ice it was suggested that the raising of the cream could be facilitated by diluting the milk with from one half to an equal volume of water, and the claim was freely made that the separation was then as complete as though the milk without dilution had been set in ice water. The whole matter was quite thoroughly investigated by several experiment stations,* and the following general conclusions quoted from the Cornell University Agricul- tural Experiment Station Bulletin 39 have since been pretty generally received as authoritative : ‘Combining the results of this Station with the results at the Vermont Station, we have the following average percentages of fat in the skimmed milk under the different systems : Diluted, set at 60° (39 trials) .77% Undiluted, set at 60° (30 trials) I.00 Undiluted, set at 40° (26 trials) .29 “It would seem therefore that while, when the milk is set at sixty degrees or thereabouts, there is considerable advantage, so far as the efficiency of creaming is concerned, in diluting it with 25 per cent of warm water; this dilution cannot be regarded as a substitute for setting without dilution in ice water, and it has *Vermont Agr. Expt. Sta., Newspaper Bulletin No. 3 and 4th Annual Report, pp. 100-107. Cornell Univ. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bulletins Nos. 20, 29 and 39. University of Illinois Agr. Expt. Sta., Bulletin No. 12, p. 376 and Bulletin NG. 3S, p. 30. 36 BULLETIN I51. the further disadvantage of requiring increased tank capacity and producing a rapidly souring cream.’’ It might be added that the diluted skimmed milk is very materially lessened in value for feeding purposes. Within the past year or year and a half numerous letters have been received making inquiries into the merits of so called ‘‘dilution ’’’ or ‘‘ gravity’’ separators. Since the early spring of this year these inquiries have been much more frequent and it finally seemed worth while to make a somewhat careful trial of the merits of these ‘‘separators.’’ So far as is known, the attention of the public has not been called to these ‘‘ separators ”’ through the agricultural or dairy press by advertisement or otherwise, and they have been introduced almost wholly by retail agents travelling through those sections where only small herds of cows are kept and where the old shallow pan system of creaming is stillin use. (Circulars of two of these ‘‘separators”’ finally came into our hands and a representative of the station bought one of the smaller sizes of each kind direct from the manufacturers.) They are known respectively as ‘‘ Wheeler’s Gravity Cream Separator’’ made by the Gravity Cream Separ- ator Co., Mexico, N. Y.,and ‘‘ Hunt’s Improved Ventilated Cream Separator’’ made by the Hunt Manufacturing Co., Cato, N. Y. Another known as the ‘‘ Aquatic Cream Separator ’’ made by the Aquatic Cream Separator Co., Watertown, N. Y., has been sent us for trial, and there may be still others on the market. The somewhat extravagant claims made for these ‘‘ separators’’ are best shown by quoting from the circulars and directions sent out with the machines as follows : ) ‘“WHEELER’S GRAVITY CREAM SEPARATOR. ‘‘A new device to separate cream from milk by the dilute pro- cess, which reduces the viscosity of the milk, thereby securing the cream in two hours. No ice to handle, no cranks to turn, no machinery to run and keep in order. ‘“It is way ahead of the best creamery, being the cheapest, best and easiest device to handle milk on the market, and you will make no mistake if you investigate its merits. GRAVITY OR DILUTION SEPARATORS. ay “VISCOSITY. ‘‘'There is a property in milk called viscosity. It is caused by the solids in milk aside from the butter fat. It is a sort of stickiness that retards the raising of the cream. By proper dilution with water we can so reduce this viscosity that the cream will separate or rise in two hours. And, on the same principle, anything that will help the cream up quickly, will also help it to come up thoroughly, therefore we claim we get cream, not only much quicker, but cleaner than with the creamery. ‘WE TAKE OUR OWN MEDICINE. ‘““Have used the Gravity Cream Separator in our own dairy the past season to the satisfaction of ourselves and our customers, who pay us an extra price for our butter. Every dairyman that makes butter should use the Gravity Cream Separator, and every one that takes their milk to the cheese factory should use it ~ spring, fall and Sundays. ‘Those that keep only one or two cows, as well as the large dairyman, can have the advantage of a separator at a small cost, compared with the centrifugal separator or creamery. ‘“IMPORTANT THINGS TO THINK ABOUT. ‘“In these times of low prices how can we reduce cost of pro- duction ? “First. In handling our milk we can reduce the first cost several hundred per cent over any other device by using the Gravity Cream Separator. Second. It does away with storing, handling and cost of ice. Third. It saves more than half the work. Fourth. It is easy to wash and keep clean. Fifth. It runs itself. Sixth. It is durable, being well made of heavy tin. Seventh. It makes ladies happy. Highth. It is endorsed by the Grange. Ninth. Practical dairymen give up their creameries to use the Gravity Cream Separator. “Sizes made to fit any dairy from one cow up. State the num- ber of pounds of milk you have to separate per day and we will quote prices. . “STARTLING FACTS, ‘Brought to light from the experience of practical dairymen the past season, have shown that the diluted sweet milk from the 38 BULLETIN I5I. Gravity Cream Separator is superior for feeding purposes to the undiluted sour milk from pan system. And many claim it is better than the milk from the Centrifugal Separator. This may look like a bold assertion, but it 1s easily explained. “THE REASON WHY. ‘“The solids left in the milk after the butter fat is extracted are what give the feeding value to the skimmed milk. The Gravity Cream Separator leaves these solids in the milk, but the Me- chanical Separator, by its great speed, collects these solids and deposits them in the bowl of the Separator in the form of ropy, sticky and offensive substance made offensive by the great speed and friction in the bowl of the machine. ‘“WHEELER’S GRAVITY CREAM SKPARATOR. ‘‘U. S. AND FOREIGN PATENTS PENDING. ‘“ Directions for Using the Gravity Cream Separator. ‘“Place the Separator on a bench or box in any convenient place, with the front projecting over a little, so that a pail can be placed under the faucet without disturbing the Separator when drawing off the milk and cream. Place over the top of the Sep- arator two or three thicknesses of cheese cloth, and fasten with the wire strainer holder. Pour the milk from a strainer pail through the cloth, then dilute with as much good well water as you had of milk. Stir till well mixed. With Jersey, or any rich milk, use more water. In fact, you can’t hurt the cream or butter with water, for water and butter fat will not mix, and water absorbs impurities and taintsin milk, thereby improving the quality of the butter. ‘‘In very cold weather, if the milk gets cooled off before it is taken to the house, add enough warm water to it to bring it up to go degrees, or 100 degrees, before it is put in the Separator ; then put in Separator and dilute with cold water as per direc- tions. Remove the strainer cloth and replace with mosquito net- ting to keep out flies and give plenty of ventilation. Any time after two or three hours, or between milkings, you can draw off the milk and cream. Partly close the faucet when the cream shows in lower gauge. Keep the cream ina cool, sweet place and stir often till you have enough for churning, then warm up to 65 to 70 degrees, and keep 12 to 24 hours to ripen. Churn at 60 to 62 degrees in summer, and 65 to 70 degrees in winter. Davis Swing or Barrel churn best for Separator cream. The GRAVITY OR DILUTION SEPARATORS. 39 churn should be less than half full of cream for quick time in churning. Be sure and have the cream well ripened. If the Separator is rightly managed you will get all the cream, and if the cream is rightly handled you will get all the butter.’’ The following is the description and directions for using Hunt’s Improved Ventilated Cream Separator : SPOT PUBEIC: ‘‘Hunt’s Improved Ventilated Cream Separators have been on the market for nearly a year. They are now no experiment, having been subjected to the most critical experiments and have fully demonstrated themselves as the most perfect device for sep- arating cream from milk. We have placed them before Farmers’ Institutes in this State, also Michigan, Ohio and Nebraska, and they were endorsed by them as the best and cheapest labor sav- ing device for making butter ever put on the market. ‘HUNT’S IMPROVED VENTILATED CREAM SEPARATOR. ‘‘A new device to separate cream from milk by a dilute process, which reduces the viscosity of the milk, thereby securing all the cream in a few hours. Itis far ahead of the best creamery, being the cheapest and easiest device to handle milk. “VISCOSITY. ‘“There is a property in milk called viscosity. It is caused by the solids in milk aside from the butter fat. By proper diluting with water we can so reduce this viscosity that the cream will separate and raise in one or two hours, and on this principle any- thing that will help the cream to raise quickly will also help it raise thoroughly. Weclaim to get the cream not only quicker but cleaner than by any other method when using our Ventil- ated Cream Separator. Your butter is sweeter, harder and much better than the old method when using pans. Every dairyman should use the Improved Ventilated Cream Separator. It will work as well in winter asin summer, and can be placed in any convenient place near the well or kitchen pantry, etc. Those that keep only one or two cows, as well as large dairymen, can have the advantage of a Separator at a small cost compared with the centrifugal separators or creameries. 40 BULLETIN I51. “IMPORTANT TO DAIRYMEN. ‘In these times of low prices of butter, how can we reduce the cost of production ? ist. In handling our milk we can so reduce the cost one hundred per cent by using Hunt’s Improved Ventilated Cream Separator. 2d. It does away with the cost of handling and storing ice. 3d. It saves more than half the labor. 4th. It iseasy tokeep clean and sweet. 5th. It runs itself; no crank to turn, no machinery to get out of order. 6th. Itisahead of any separator on the market, and made from the best brands of XXX charcoal tin, such as we used to get years ago. 7th. Itis the only and original cream separator on the market with inside ventilation, thereby saving one-third more cream. 8th. Practical dairymen give up their creameries to use the Hunt’s Improved Ventilated Cream Separator, as it requires 2o zce and gives the same satisfaction. goth. It is endorsed by Farmers’ Institutes, the Grange and all other professional butter makers. roth. Don’t try a separator until you have tried ours. We lead ; others try to follow. Be sure that your separator has an inside tube for ventilation. All others are an infringement, and you will have to pay a royalty for using any other. “Directions for Using Hunt s Improved Ventilated Cream Separator. ‘PATENT APPLIED FOR. ‘“Place the separator ona shelf or box, the front of can project- ing far enough to place a pail under the faucet without disturb- ing the can when drawing off the milk and cream. Place over the top of the can two thicknesses of cheese cloth and fasten with the wire strainer holder. Pour the milk from strainer pail through the cloth, then add to the milk the same amount of water at 50 or 60 degrees. Mix both together stirring it fora few moments. Remove the cheese cloth from top and replace a piece of mosquito netting to keep out flies and other insects. After three or four hours setting it will be ready to draw off the cream. Partly close faucet when cream shows in lower gauge. When about one inch of milk remains to be seen in gauge close faucet and then draw balance of milk and cream ina separate dish. Keep the cream in a cool place until there is enough for churn- ing, then warm the cream to 65 or 70 degrees. Twelve to twen- GRAVITY OR DILUTION SEPARATORS. AI ty-four hours is necessary to ripen. Churn at 62 degrees in warm weather and 65 degrees in winter. We guarantee one- third to one-half more cream by using this separator than from any other on the market.”’ The ‘‘ machines,’’ as shown by the cut on the title page, are simply tin cans fitted with upper and lower scale glasses, a faucet at the bottom through which the skimmed milk is drawn off and a wire ring at the top for holding astrainer cloth or cloth cover. Hunt’s has in the middle of the can a narrow tin tube, open at the top and bottom, which constitutes the ventilating feature of the apparatus. There is absolutely nothing new about these cans. ‘They are entirely similar in all essential features to the cans used in the various deep setting gravity cream raising processes, as the Cooley, Moseley and others. Even the ventilating tube is not a new device. So far as is known neither is patented although ‘‘ Patent is applied for’’ in the case of each, and the circulars of Hunt’s give strong warnings as to infringement. Attention is called to the way in which the term separator is used in the name of these cans and in the descriptive matter con- cerning them. Asis well known, there are two forces used to separate cream from milk; the force of gravity acting upon a mass of milk at rest in a suitable vessel, and centrifugal force acting upon milk in motion ina rapidly revolving cylinder or bowl. By common and universal consent the machines separat- ing milk in this latter way are alone known as cream separators, and while it is certainly strictly true that any apparatus in which cream is separated from milk may be called a cream separator, it is as certainly misleading toapply the term cream separator to any other than acentrifugal separator. An old-fashioned shal- low pan is just as much and just as truly a ‘‘ cream separator’’ as are these cans. It is plainly evident in the above circulars, though it is not distinctly so stated, that the idea is intended to be conveyed that these are separators similar, at least in eff- ciency, to centrifugal separators. 42 BULLETIN I51. THE AQUATIC SEPARATOR. This apparatus (Fig. 6) made by the Aquatic Cream Separator Co., Watertown, N. Y., only differs from the others in the fact that the can is of considerably larger diameter and is provided with another smaller can intended to be filled with ice and inserted in the large can asa cooler. The descriptive circulars and printed directions are strikingly similar to those of Wheeler’s and Hunt’s and many of the same phrases are employed. In fact, the same company send out a can, intended to be used with- out the central ice can, that is entirely like Wheeler’s except that it is slightly taller. The Aquatic Cream Separator was patented on June 7, 1898, and on consulting the Oficial Gazette of the United States Patent Office, Volume 83, No. 10, June 7, 1898, it was found that on that date a patent was granted as follows: ‘*605252. Apparatus for separating cream from milk, Chester L. Lee, Ellisburg and Frederick G. Lee, Pierrepont Manor, N. Y. Filed Sept. 13, 1897. Serial No. 651,446. (No model.) ‘“ Claim—An apparatus for separating cream from milk compris- ing a milk can provided with a centrally depressed bottom and GRAVITY OR DILUTION SEPARATORS. 43, having an outlet in the center of said bottom, a cooler within said can and provided on its bottom with feet supporting the cooler over said outlet with passages under the cooler, said feet serving to prevent eddying of the outflowing liquid and causing a draft of said liquid equally from all sides of the can to the out- let and also promoting the discharge of the sediment from the bottom of the can substantially as described.’’ It will be seen that the claim for the patent is based upon the outlet of the large can which is ‘‘ centrally depressed and at the center’’ and in the construction of the legs or supports on the bot- tom of the cooler. In the can received by us from the company, the outlet is not in the center but at the side, and the cooler, with- out any legs or supports whatever, is made to set flat upon the bot- tomofthelarger can. It would seem as though the patent must be regarded, even by the company, as of practically no value. PRACTICAL TRIALS. All three of these ‘‘ Separators ’’ have been used according to the directions. The room in which the cans were set was ata temperature of 65-75 degrees. The water used was at a tempera- ture between 50 and 60, and in all cases the cans set rather more than twelve hours before they were skimmed. They were skimmed by drawing the mixture of skim milk and water from the bottom till the cream line was within one inch of the bottom of the can. The fat in this skim milk and water was determined by the Babcock Test, and then correcting for the water added, the percentage of fat in the skimmed milk and water was secured. The milk used was, at first the mixed evening’s milk of the University herd and it was set as soon as milked and taken to the dairy. Many of the cows were in advanced lactation and giving small amounts of milk, and it was found that it creamed very imperfectly though we had been having no difficulty at all in skimming it perfectly clean with the centrifugal separator. For the later trials the milk of a few cows fresh within two or three months was reserved so that the trials have included milk that is representative of all milk likely to be found on farms. In all the trials made with Hunt’s and Wheeler’s cans com- parisons were made with Cooley cans set in ice water without dilution. The trials with the Aquatic were made later with milk from the same cows, but no comparisons were made with the Cooley. The results are shown in the tables following : oe Ee —— eee v & ate wmv S% 0"e 96" ole: 6, Ub be 84ers, 18 hg ayes Re 8m a gree 2k 8 93° "+ *"SaTqR} qjoq osev1isay es BPS SS wm oS C6: eevee ce Seis 67S 0.n 6s We be 8 Om Mees 6L: ree v ware tek SETA ve |r6| St 06° GL gS | oz | v6 | oz 1 daa» 3! he Iz Ty ISG" VEN: 0). .62 We have also taken occasion to test several of these cans in actual use by farmers in this and adjoining counties. In:all, five different places were visited and four or five tests made at each place. The cans were all of the same form as Wheeler’s, that is, plain cans without ventilators or coolers. The milk was set about twelve hours and was at a temperature, when skimmed, of from 68 to 70 degrees. The whole milk contained from 4 to 5 per cent of fat and was largely the milk of Jersey and Jersey grade cows. used. ‘The results were as follows: TABLE IV. TESTS AT FARMS. Equal parts, by measure, of milk and water were ~ Barn No; 1. Farm No. 2. Farm No. 3. Farm No. 4. Farm No. 5. en Per | Per Per Per Ben | cent fangs ee haiee cent \fat in}| at in’ at in| at in fat in Date skim. | Bere |skim-| Dake 'skim-| Date. skim- Date. skim- med | med med med med milk. milk. milk. milk. milk uly 14a. m. | 1.00 uly 25 a.m. | I.10 uly 25a.m.]| .90 uly 25 a.m. | I.00 uly 25 a.m. | 1.20 y' | y 25 SAS. tit- | .30 25 0p2 ti. |Sr.re | > s25\p>.t1.,| 1.00 i) 251 De ttt. |) ".00 tae Tos 0 50h 8a 1.50 eerste | 50 26.a6 Mule o0 “Se 2oVds M1. | | .80 *220,/A..4115)|| oC *-°26'-d.., 11.0) 1200) ars op-.tn. ||| .90 261 pe fil. 80 pene Zor efit) 60 S20; i |p 96 "26! yt | I.I0 Sioa. ti |) 60 Oe 27 spe tie eee 227. p: 1. || £.00 SZ 7/5 ee ee reys. AVETATe. 1... 266). Average. ac L0G AVETAZE. os. | GO AVETAgE. 3) 5.99 Average..,. 1.20 46 BULLETIN I51I. Before calling attention to these tables in detail, a few words of explanation as to what is meant by efficient creaming may be of service in helping to a clear understanding of the whole mat- ter. The separation of cream from milk is always attended by the loss of some fat which remains in the skimmed milk. The less this fat is,.the more efficient the creaming and vice versa. The percentage of fat in the skimmed milk is therefore the most convenient measure of the loss that has occurred in any process of separation. Centrifugal separators have been so perfected that the loss of fat in the skimmed milk is reduced to a minimum, and for several yearsit has been recognized by both manufacturers and users of separators that the percentage of fat in the skimmed milk need not be more than .1 of 1 per cent, and in actual practice it is found that there is seldom more than .2 of I per cent in the skimmed milk. Whena gravity process, either deep or shallow setting, is used the percentage is larger and considerably more variable. When the conditions are all favorable the efficiency, particularly of the cold deep setting, approaches the centrifugal separator, but it is not infrequently in gravity creaming to find one per cent or more of fat in the skimmed mllk. In the summer of 1892 seventy farms were visited and the fat determined of the skimmed milk at each place. On forty of these farms shallow pans were used and on thirty a deep setting system, in most cases theCooley, was inoperation. Theaverage results were as follows: ; Percent of fat in skimmed milk. Lowest. Highest. Average. Forty farms using shallow pans.............. 15 1.63 39 wilitty faruis using deep Sekine 436.525... 2 ne a 14 .60 30 We are now able to judge of the efficiency of these gravity cans. It will be seen that in no case do they approach anywhere near the efficiency of the centrifugal separator and, in most cases, the percentage of fat in the skimmed milk is decidedly more than ‘would be called good creaming by either the shallow pan or deep setting process. In table I where ‘‘ stripper’’ milk is used they show an average efficiency about equal to the Cooley, but where the milk of fresher cows were used (Table II) the Cooley gave | distinctly better results. The tests made at the various farms GRAVITY OR DILUTION SEPARATORS. 47 show rather higher percentages of fat in the skimmed milk than were obtained here and give a fair idea of the results likely to be obtained under ordinary farm conditions. CONCLUSIONS. Gravity or dilution separators are merely tin cans in which the separation of cream by gravity process is claimed to be aided by dilution with water. Under ordinary conditions the dilution is of no benefit. It may be of some use when the milk is all from ‘‘ stripper ’’ cows, or when the temperature of melting ice cannot be secured. (C. U. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull 39.) These cans are not ‘‘separators’’ in the universally accepted sense of that term and cannot rank in efficiency with them. They are even less efficient than the best forms of deep setting systems, such as the Cooley Creamer. They are no more efficient than the old fashioned shallow pan ; but perhaps require rather less labor. Inall probability they would give better results if used with- out dilution and immersed in as cold water as possible, prefera- bly ice water. THE FOLLOWING BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THOSE WHO MAY DESIRE THEM. Creaming and Aerating Milk, 20 pp, Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. Steam and Hot-Water for Heating Greenhouses. 26 pages. Sundry Investigations of 1892, 56 pp. CEdema of the Tomato, 34 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 3I pp. Sundry Investigations of the Year 1893, 54 PP. On Certain Grass-Eating Insects,58 pp. Hints on thePlanting ofOrchards, 16 pp. Apricot Growing inWestern NewYork, 26 pp. The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Leaf Curland Plum Pockets, 40 pp. Impressions of the Peach Industry in IN; Y. 28 pp: Peach Yellows, 20pp. Some Grape Troubles in WesternN.Y., 116 pp. The Grafting of Grapes, 22 pp. The Sera Root Maggot, 99 pp. Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 PP. The Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. Experiments with Tuberculin, 20 pp. The Recent Apple Failures in N. wEpyey PP. Dwarf Lima Beans, 24 pp. Feeding Fat to Cows, I5 pp. Cigar- Case-Bearer, 20 pp. Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 Pp. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp. The Spraying of Trees and the Canker Worm, 24 pp. General Observations in Care of Fruit Trees, 26 pp. Soil Depletion in Respect to the Care of Fruit Trees, 21 pp Climbing Cutworms in Western N. Y. SI pp. Test of Cream Separators, 18 pp. Revised Opinion of the Japanese Plums, 30 pp. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, 36 pp. Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp. i 114 116 117 119 120 I2I I22 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138. 139. 140. I4I. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. Spraying Calendar. Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. Moisture of the Soil and Its Conser- vation, 24 pp. Suggestions for Planting Shrubbery, 30 Pp. Second Report upon Extension Work in Horticulture, 36 pp. Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. The Pistol-Case-Bearer in Western New York, 18 pp. A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. The Currant-Stem Girdler and Raspberry-Cane Maggot, 22 pp. A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Potato Culture, 15 pp. Notes upon Plums for Western New York, 31 pp. Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. The Army-Worm in New York, 28 pp. Strawberries under Glass, to pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp. Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch _ of its Origin and Progress, 11 pp. Studies and Illustrations of Mush- rooms: I. Third Report upon Japanese Plums, Second Report on Potato Culture. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. The Codling-Moth. Sugar Beet Investigations. Suggestions on Spraying and on the San José Scale. Some Important Pear Diseases. Fourth Report of Progress on Exten- sion Work. Fourth Report upon Chrysanthe- muis. The Quince Curculio. Some Spraying Mixtures. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1898. 150. I5I. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Bulletin 152. October, 1898. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. AGRICULTURAL DIVISION. STUDIES EN MILK SECRETION DRAWN FROM OFFICIALLY AUTHENTICATED TESTS OF HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COWS. By HENRY H. WING and LEROY ANDERSON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. ITHACA, N. Y. 18908. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC. P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. . H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. F. ATKINSON, Botany. . V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. M. DUGGAR, Botany. . W. SPENCER, Extension Work. . L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. ISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemnnistry. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. W. MILLER. Floriculture. G. N. LAUMAN, Horticulture. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. BOR OM ect OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. In 1894, 1n response to inquiries from several Breeder’s Associ- ations, the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station agreed to send an authorized representative to supervise the milk and butter records of thoroughbred cows for any one desiring such records made, upon conditions laid down by the Station. Thus far there has been but little call for supervisors of such tests, except among members of the Holstein-Friesian Associ- ation of America. In fact, there has been but one seven-day test made of cows of any other breed. In 1885, this association adopted a set of rules establishing what is known as a system of Advanced Registry, into which no cow is allowed to be entered until she has made a certain record for milk or butter produc- tion, the amount of this record depending upon her age. The wisdom of adopting such a system has been attested by the uni- form success attending the carrying out of its provisions, and in 1894, the Association added another and still more valuable feature, consisting of what are called ‘‘ Officially Authenticated Butter Records.’’ For these records prizes amounting to about $1,300.00 are givenannually. ‘‘ Such records must be for seven consecutive days and must be supervised by an officer of some Experiment Station or State institution, or by the Superinten- dent of Advanced Registry or some inspector designated by him.’’ The rules also provide ‘‘that such records may be made by the churn or by the Babcock test, or by any other method approved by the Association of Officiat Agricultural Chemists.’’ The Bab- cock test, however, owing to its simplicity and accuracy has been universally adopted as the means for determining the amount of butter fat produced, from which the equivalent butter is calcu- lated. It has also been the almost universal custom among breeders to look to the Experiment Stations for supervisors of tests. The first year, however, that of 1894, of the twenty-five official records published from tests made in New York State 52 BULLETIN 152. only four were supervised by representatives from this Station. On the other hand, during the succeeding years all but three of the official records published from this State have been supervised by representatives from this Station. ‘The men who have super- vised these tests are Professors H. H. Wing and G. C. Watson, and Messrs. J. M. Trueman, S. H.T. Hayes, R. L. Speed, J. M. Johnson, Horace Atwood, Hugh C. Troy, A. R. Ward, H. C. McLallen and Leroy Anderson. It is only from data obtained by our representatives while conducting these official tests that we have to deal in this bulletin. The method of conducting an official test is briefly as follows: The person supervising sees the cow or cows milked dry before the beginning of the test and is present at each milking there- after until each test is completed ; he weighs the milk of each cow separately, samples the same and makes a determination of the butter fat by the Babcock test. He keeps a careful record of each milking, with its per cent and amount of butter fat, and in his report of the test must make an affidavit to the accuracy and truthfulness of the same. The supervisor also keeps a record of the kinds and amount of food eaten by each animal during the test. [he cows are wholly under the control of the owner so far as kind and amount of food, time of milking and general treat- ment are concerned, but the person making the test has access to the cows at all times in company with the owner or his repre- sentative. The owner furnishes a statement of the name and herd book number of the cow, her age and the time at which she dropped her last calf. It is from data obtained in the above manner that the tables contained in the following pages are compiled. The first tests of Holstein-Friesian cattle conducted by repre- sentatives from our Station were begun on May 30th, 1894, and such tests have occurred at various intervals up to the present time. Eight different herds have been visited and 210 separate tests been made of 153 different animals. Some animals have been tested twice and one as many as six times. From these tests and the vast amount of data so accumulated, we believe that something of interest and value can be deduced for the general dairyman as well as for the breeder of Holstein-Friesian cattle. STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 53 From such a mass of material it is difficult to glean the more important points and place them in digestible form before the general reader ; but we have attempted to draw out those points that appear of most scientific and practical importance to the student, breeder and dairyman, and to place them in as readable form as possible. With so much data at hand it is natural to make many tables, but we have endeavored to eliminate all such as show figures merely and to present only those which teach some lesson or from which some practical conclusion can be drawn. All records contained in the following tables were made from tests continuing for seven consecutive days. In these records we have given the amount of pure'butter fat produced but not its equivalent in marketable butter. According to the rule adopted by the Holstein-Friesian Association .80 of a pound of fat is considered equivalent to one pound of butter, while the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations has adopted .85# of a pound of fat as equivalent to one pound of butter. If one-fourth of the fat be added to itself in the former case or one-sixth in the latter, the fat may be readily and quickly converted to its equivalent amount of butter, e. g., 18 pounds of fat would be equivalent to 22% pounds of butter according to the former and 21 pounds according to the latter. The average per cent of fat is obtained by dividing the total aimount of fat by the total amount of milk produced in the seven days. In Table I is given the name and herd book number of the the cow, her owner, age at the time of calving, date of begin- ning the test, number of days from calving to the beginning of the test, pounds of milk for the seven days, average per cent of fat and total pounds of fat for the seven days. ‘The records of the cows are arranged in Tables I and II, (1) according to age, two-year olds coming first, then the three and four year olds, and full aged cows following successively. (All cows five years old or over are considered as of fullage.) (2) Under each age, in the order of time in which the cows were tested, beginning with the first test on May 30th, 1894, and continuing in order until the last test on June 25th, 1898. For convenience of reference, 54 BULLETIN [§2. each of the records is given a number, which number appears in the column to the left of the cow’s name under head of ‘“ Number of Test.’? These numbers begin with the first two- year old test and run consecutively through the various ages of the animals. The two-year olds include numbers 1 to 74, three- year olds 75 to 112, four-year olds 113 to 147 and full aged cows 148 to210. Thus of the 210 separate tests, 74 are of two-year olds, 38 of three-year olds, 35 of four-year olds, and 63 of full aged cows. According to this system, each cow will have as many different numbers as she has different tests; for exam- ple, numbers 37, 88 and 146 all refer to Clothilde Artis Topsy but to tests conducted at different times in her life. All those heifers which calved between the ages of two years ten and one-half months and three years are considered as three-year olds; for it is presumed that at such age they must have had their second calves, and should not, therefore, be classed as two-year olds. In similar manner and for the same reason the heifers that calved between the ages of three years ten and one-half months and four years are considered as four-year olds. ee STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. SIPS. jc. 2e°o, |Obegor | ve. |96,;"9z.AByy|. 6t—-0 —c: |" "suOG29 SudAsIG | os or ee ee Beir ssoq BNUI| Qz 09g'g | Lee | oSz'tgoz| LS oe les CI- 1-z ag mS "6069¢ ‘pz eolIamMY [Neg suT[neg| Lz OCG. |a9G:6 | Seorote-| 19 ie, Sse TZ—-I -Z% oY Ms LEE [OMIM oulpnegs pusiy penynyy| 9z pgror| Zire | ooS1zl | oz |96,‘¢z lady: g -o1-1 # a gOIZe ‘pz [negoul[negs 1aMOPforierg| Sz 6oc'or! Sit |oos’Set ; Sez ao ¢I-1I-I “ "+ "@602€ ‘joyaq oukeMmM S.C a1d8ey| bz OLO°. |), Fere Serepe | 12. | Sah eae 6z-0 -z 2 a 9SoSe"[oyaqT a, [Ne AS, o1sseyssoouttg| Cz zgo’6 | SZ°E | ooS'zpz~| ze 96, ‘61 ‘qay| II-1I -z a 5 sSoSC‘aurtnegs, qyZouAeMyjossaoutrg| zz OprO | vee |SLe’6ec | SV oe LI-O -z@ Se a aie ihe, pSoSt ‘neq sulneg s1pes| 12 LGy-Or|90°e: | 9QrevSt. | go |S6.'R “Sagi v=. —c \sttoS 2) sipemioa x “sy Vy SoS ‘yuvin [neg surpneg| oz Recor cre | Seri16e! of (6: for anni on Ses ee < Zs IVLVS ‘stuTY APTIq}o[D s,ejddy sey, 61 eceo | Oe | \OlZ'tle | 6 "S6.%6 sanii@e-o0 —e4 5. see = if. a REE eis ObLPe ‘dTI[ag SITY OPIOID] gl OcQor)| o7't | ooSSiy | 18 ae Pie SO. Se a eis Wea lbal tg Sacre zVLbe ‘\YStIg SIJTV Op[IqyoTO| L1 izgo°6 | Sze | Slg-gdz| 19 i ey ean eae % sori bee ani eke ot CPLPe ‘ssv’y SIZAW OP[I}O[D] 91 SLv'6 | So€> | Gipoge |. ser geo, OL at nie tee eee DOOM Omiiescuc: soe ecm). SVLVe ‘Aynevag apun’y| SI 692 et C6'z Szg*19z ov BS ey PE Boe) line oe is sre Se GRAD eink ae EN Seat €LzoE ‘Tospad AeW al Arb'Q-| 06%. | SZe°Gee-| “Ve (86. ‘r oun[|o —Z -e.4<*-> ‘a ebb ‘apy yoo Ss .doxjtmM afyroqorq}| 1 G60°6: | ere | Oop rer | ge -,$6, “1 sdyi"S —tr-1..}"-" Suog ap SUSAdIS “F"- VSoLe ‘pz plaarasuay afyrozotq| ZI gSZ'6 | of € | oSz'S6z | €S | eine, leeesliet _ * ‘ooses 6Czze ‘etproouo0; sTVA stpes! 11 ogZ'9 | Ze'z | gfh'otz| 6b |P6, ‘Si ‘oaq! gz—-11-1 ne =f ae “* ogezt [hed eurned S,pz vorraury O1 g906°9 | og‘z | ooo'Lbz | vz .. oe Qz-II-I OgeCh neg sulpneg $,pe Borroury) 6 QII°Iz|] OS'¢ | Szg'Z1¢ | gz |v6, ‘oz ‘AON| Sz—11-1 SUOS » sueut0s x sD al (Canta "OSzze & BIPIOIUO) JITBA sIPeS) g ies) OLe.. Sthige ir. ge ig, Say. A ARE Se ‘3 ms “pee see o's 7 LSOr, ‘ID UIOL-auad pi) 4 eao', | Oo%f itegigce | 7st maa 1-9 -e@ |" i S96c' SS9}TINOD SPTITIO[ PULTIIYION) 9 noes | Gee |'eao'oee | “2 V6, ‘ge ‘sny) Le-11—1 2) [T2Mog a SIS | Se eens 6S¢C¢e Yoq purpisyjeN| S$ STO | ets OOO spe! luo A ee v -O -Z |": be a orrire=* STLOL Sule 8. Dro teGl aor p69°9 oo'¢ SLQ°S6z Cp of " Tg se (<= a een) Se terete co aia Te fa ty zS€gz ‘YAO afzrozoIg c 969°g | got | oSz'zgz| 9f Tae thats LEO AO | s *** B990f ‘OPIFAIYOON afyiojatg exUy| z pvot’g | 9¢°¢ | Szr‘Lyz~| 19 |¥6, ‘ot Avy) L1I-o -z |°°° su0g SUISSE gzzoe Peta s 1p: tle! eeu I “yey “yey | “rar Sutajeo C ‘BQ OW “AA “yso} jo juss ljospunod| wor |"}Ss9} Surmurs|) ‘sutateo jo 1aq spunod |10d a8e, | e}OJ, sAeq | -aq jo 7}eq jo owt ‘1OUMO ‘MOO JO JOquiInd Yood pss, puev survN -lnN [e}0], | -1aaVv ye ony “LVA GNV WTIIN HO LONGOUd—'I A TEVL LbL'tr| 9L°€ | ggr-z1f | of |g6, ‘2 ‘ady] g -1 -z Soares fe » |°° °° Lovrd ‘pe asperg spe a}yJouueN|] 6¢ obb'9 Qgz | ooS'tzz | SS jg6, ‘z cady} Iz-11-1 | ***suog 2 suaaaqg “Yt LLoIP | [OMPeqd mnIq| gS IIof"S | 6E°€ | ooS'gS1 | 6Pr >» 99 | VO-EI-I | noha Peng Aeneas pz [neg aurneg otpes| L¢ Ig69°Z | Sg°€ | Segrorz| oz |26, ‘of aon] Ez-11-1 ‘SOS 29 SURTIOS A ey Li> Seo ourned S,pe pusryy jenynyy) 9S 1069"°g | Lif | gtv-ogz | Lor eae 6 -o -z | ae re a Roles gs pw ePLEMIOLD DOBIH VISSey!) SS Sgro | 16% | Szr-gr€ | zx |L6, ‘gz Ae L -0 -@ [+++ +++ ‘umorg "MV Spee ‘pnspienien ArT) 79 i0og6"6 | z6°z | SZE1pE | SE anpeet: Lz-1I-1I ii caplet oe OP OR EY opoam], alyajatg ¢¢ C6y°L | Le-z | oSLZ°S1¢ | gr | pine eet tee en OES ir A ee ie oo, ee BeORe UR TA SCT aa ta ea Pane | ay © | ObL-1S2)" 9° (26, ‘9c Avy: o1-e -2 | ss catog ag yer Shoge ‘afzzazetg §,39 afyay| 1S vov'6 | vee | oSL-1gz | Sr Gein eae e » 9 | °° *LQQ6€ ‘sity apun’] epriqjofD| of vzev'g | Soe | SLe°SZz |. ob Meret € -O -z rf ciate aiinate -g9g6t ‘Q9UBISUOD SIJIV OPlIq}o[D| 6h g6z"g | Iz°f | ggr'gSz | gz met IzZ-O -Z i 1» 9, | SQR6E ‘sse’] a1sSey sIy1V eplIyio[D| eb 969°g | Lye | f1E*9Sz | HE Saar €Z-0. -Z | iy cy UOROE WS a138ey SIVIV epliyqoyO|. Lr aoe | gv | coo'69z | Le |L6, ‘1z Avy) P -1 -z [+ °+:': ‘Doo *{ u0q * *zgg6° ‘atjag a188ey SHAY PpIIqio[D| 9b m j|goSg | 69°2 | SLZg°S1f | ob 126, ‘vr Ae] z1-€ -z “su0g 2 WwW suvmlosyA “4 1, /S60LE [neg asurpnegs,suAeM P,JeqJON| SP ~ |rrr6 | pr-€ | SLE-06z | Ez 46, ‘vy AvpW| o1-S -z |*** ‘suog 29 suaaaysg “Y|‘YIb puepiayjeN s ,2OUB}SUOS) a1ssey| bP y 9194 | z1't | ooo'Hhe| 06 [L6, ‘Ez ‘Id y| zz-1 -z Cove ven ed gseLe] Fhe ss ST CQ6E | jroprem Ajyyeg) ¢V 4 © |z69"g | 96-2 | Szg'06z| Sg |26, ‘gr -adw| g1-z -z [+++ ++: STOR a Sele ‘zlo6F ‘pz pueyIsyjJON Soylepy| zy = gto’g | zee | ggrrtz| Sg | e392 | een He Seecs +) » », ©CIZE‘puarsny lenin s,pe[oyaq [neg] Iv. on NOGe ad) Gee | Serere | ee. | see ae SI-0' =>). 45 ie as Ne ‘cLILe ‘pusity jenny s,Joyeq [neg| ov Boe (Evoal) eee |ger-Soe | S61 (26, ‘te “xupg) Ger eli, 1 9 | xQO0LE ‘Joxaq auT[NeY s,pz voTIaWMIYy|~ 6E iB OLE | Lz | SLEPEE 12 |96, ‘Lz ‘90q| 6z-1 -z |‘suog 2» sueUtoa x ey “G60LE [OMPG SUT[NeVg S.pz voTIaMIYW) «gf o£6°g | I0°f | oSz*g6z} 9g | 3 Pas VZ-11-1 if ie Mgt Ale ean te ““eeSle ‘Asdoy SIVIY eplrmyo[D| LE Llg’L | vet | gtptre| Sr | ook Lz-oO1I-I a ere ely “6zSZE ‘aunf sijry apriqzorO| 9f vIgl | get | SLe°LEz | ve | Soo apa sey ee a ccothanese i eae 12818 ‘Ajneog sijry epliqyo[o| S¢ gS9o°L | f6°z | Szr‘19z| gl St Depa ae | — ss a A ROE oe Stile eplryyoly S,ysnog joamMG} Pf 61z°g | fxr°€ | ger*coe | FL | a Ol Eee ay eet he nt to Sees iran ‘gzSZL¢ S stv yeauuef opyrmjorp) =&e loL6"L | gg‘z ert 662 L6 |96, ‘I aunf COTIET et tse poo, f wed ° ere LeSLe ‘appiyyo[D TTeqmous| ze GlLo°z1| zz | SLE°*00f | gt Seen e LI-t. =e) Pee a » | Toseq Ape’y s (PlearesuaH afzzazatgq| 1¢ \£76°6 | bz°€ | ooS-g0f| I: | ges F SI-II-I SIP, x 5, O9OLE] BEBO | zgolt * loxed Paul, OF 6¥9°L | Sr°€ | ooS-zbz| LP |96, ‘gz Av £ -II-I |****suog 29 suaaajs A)’ ; Yee st COnOG Ee sine equ] 6z | *3By "yBJ ‘y[Iur ss SUTATRO -eq ‘OW “IA | | *3S9} ee © y499 jo spunod) wo1j (jsa} Surmurs| Surapeo jo 19q spunod tod a3e ejOL skeq -oq jooyeqd jo oun “1IOUMO ‘MOO JO IoquInU Yood pisy pue sumeN “WINN oO | 18}0T, | -lOAYV | ye osy in 57 STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. gIg‘I! 9bg'8 Lv6°11 | z~zg'6 zgOV ‘or gLI'°vI gle ‘or OMe L PoQ*I1 £1g's Ever Sov r1 CeSo1 glg'11 Sve IgtL°e1 \C6S*ze1 6z9' L 6£0°6 ‘Lgl'g LO1'g $696 Pec '6 |0f3"g ovo'6 100°6 cop Nita 5 9Sv°Z 916° voLl6 Stg’9 pSc°6 'p60°II | gor'it | ZLV Lt | 9 2) )¢ c Hc iO mA OtaTw ) At+AMe ln I~ st I~ OVID OO OnN ooS SP’ Cer'vre Czg OI’ Sgt “goV Cgo°71e bie ige oSz'1bV ooo’ SPs ooS ‘Ziv oo0o'Zz¢ GLQ"8tt ooS ‘for ooS Viv ooS'11¢ oSz’eft CLe'vre Cz1 6b" gtr'sse SSI ‘600 | Sz1°L6z SLQ°Sgz SSI'gIt ggi'Lgz gty'cez 000:Lof SLE ele 966 'v6z | CTL Sie | Szg °z6z 00S Z9z Sth '9gz gS ‘S6z oo$ z9f oz ‘9tz Szg*Sze ” | ABT oun[ ABN ady oun[ oun [| ALBIN “IVI "29d “AON ALBIN ”) ” ”? oun[ ABTA | %) ABA, | vz-g -© ZI-g —€ 1z—b -¢ 1 -S -¢ QI-O -© ¢ -o -€ g -1I -€ to-e ” ) Ii dee ee) | SMOG 29 SUBTOAA “D I ‘ourpneg syd Oude jo ssooulig vara a =) (ee) “a sail SSoS¢ |: A S| Ss @. eae eS “UMOIG “MM Nl ‘SUOS WY SUBUIODA "4D “I, ane Ar Lib ere re poom | uoq. °* "SMOG 29 SM9AZJS "HI" ** ‘cgISt ‘eyuy prey Aorig 66LVE ‘ PUeTIETION (Spt ATV] o1ssey "ress 6Seze ‘erpr1oouog ajvA s1pes (£vS Tos. SPITIOTD SIV S,M Ane pa se cI Lov ‘auttneg s,pz [oy[3q * “votgz ‘g181094) [neg ouTNeg -=g9908 SPLOT afyloyoIg eyU ‘6gtgc ‘pe pussy penny “ee ee "*SWOG 2 SUIAZ1G “H |’ ”) ”) eh eee IS ) “suog ZWsuvmoang | "se 698e¢ ‘pe pus Tenn **SUOS 29 SUSAD}S "| Eg6Ez ' sso0ulid afj1aj}aIg pUvTIOyION Ogsbh ‘alqz0z9Ig OpTIyIOTD SIS9G ” pat Pal ee Sgtir ‘ s0eIy) ePIHYIOT[) » | vgtiv ‘appiqyzo[D afj1eyaId s1s8ey ee ee MOI “AN wie “egery S APIIIOTD soyoT, The es 3 Pasa eereape Slsoq Ioue, [OYeq --suog 2 SO AM Ey. ks op ee viziv ‘Ape’y tosed Sed a **LoSop ‘pz soyaeyY eyxUy ‘9stih ‘Joxed purjepeys Logit]: 6og1P ‘apl Iq oe $,139 afzox ‘PURIPI JO ePTMWoe[ afyzoqarg Spee" QO8IP ‘pUurIPHA JO epIIyIqoNl Sogih] Mga Rey LIQIP ‘was puelpI PLIYOo Waly} Sd] Taso 430’] ; ‘Z1cOP ‘aul[neg S,pz eIp1oouod ‘COCIV ‘oultneg s,ou. Ce Spf o1d8ey sh wtsct bh etevere se eee Ete 8 POS SPT siete sere ae acene ys lenge Bre) (s\e “2 owe ewes PCM” 86. he we ee were pt th call AL jeer eh Se Te Ted) ”) 39> 3!9 a0. ee eG We wee ”) by Ab Wh) LS laa € ” ye Sb ip) suo0g 2y suet0a Wee 3) Yo BULLETIN 152. gist LOC*b1 889 eI CiL‘z1 Cgz'gI Pgg°zl g69"o7 zl6'o1 oo1'Z 6rr zi ogZ'6 go6'11 z1S"9 96L tI Clg‘z1 Qb6'o1 ISzr°11| ggl 6 £o06'S1 | SS6'1I gl6'z1 OIgOI 16 160° Sgg°L yey spunod) [®}OL gibt | vz £1} IIQ‘I1| IZQ‘71 | Ccr'1s| \Pzg"o1 | ite) ac N ID 0 mao A Oe ie) st +a +t ioe) oP) N N N Lal © oP) ore vide yeJ yusa. tad a3e -19AY o$z"1z$ 000 ‘O9P Czg Cob SLg'9th gt6 Lev Czg'b sheet sata. 1 t* SPs yeq s.Aned ‘ect ‘ysnog JoOMG * 1fLge ethers Ss ‘Pe DRIAL) ISSVY tex woe ‘cSovz ‘ pe IISSCY SISIG Tress ss 6ezQ “erie SIUUITAT 901 Cr ‘ppaa.rsuapy PULLIOTION ans L¢z6z ‘e1opeseyl zlgee' SIG PULISoTI JURA PULTIIYION seeeeeesssordor ‘ankemM S.pe s1dsevy Se ePeare Rens ic ‘ZOge1 ‘purpiay1aN S$,1R1S "* + 6L6zz ‘eoliaury s,pz eIpioouO|D '--9Sher ‘audVA\ S,pzt pUSTIYT Tenn ose 0) a, 6) 0 <6)0,"0 2 OS SCO ‘pt BIPIOOUOD secesecees COLCr SouAB AM PUPLIOIION Pete a “LOLI “TIP WNT ' 696L ‘Sojrey eyUy ‘g1Sor ‘aude S,pl s18sey "****-g16zz ‘axing Buelezy oe were ‘bl zly ‘(yb wig ee eee wwe . oe ee ees eoeee a 5th ys oo Sle © 6 a) (0/0 Ss [O. ©, an'es0! 08.8. 6s "MOD JO JaqUINU Yoo p1ey pue sWeEN o61 681 gsi Ler 98st Sgr 6t STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. ext: | CLe"07P L6'z Hcp Io'¢ gz'e oo'’ 19’% 5 TH bree 60°¢ 16°z go'e ob’ 69°¢ Sree vo’ go'e o0o'¢ ce'¢ 66°z Cz1'7Sv gS'z6e oSz'gsVv CLEg'gbv oSz'z6r CLE“CbV gtr 167 gtr Lev C1e‘zvs CLo'tev 96 60P oSz‘ore oSL'1S9 oSz‘zlv Szg'IvP 000*60S Cz1'1SV C¢Lg'09P CLE gbv ‘Cz oun ‘g oun[ ‘of sey ‘6L ABI ‘61 ‘idy ‘gr ‘idy ‘Lr cidy e~ “rdw ‘of "AON *jS9} POO} OLUMLOUOD Ty uUMOIg "MM ‘V|" PooAy * ‘f uoq ee) 20 et ek SHEEN Wosaey, “Vv “AA ” ” © ala ware ” ” SUuOS ® suvulosz “4H VL, “uosa}eI “VM SUOS 2 SUdAD}S "H SUOS ® sueUlosA *D ‘IL, ‘UMOIG ‘M'V 2) ») 3109 “WW poom ‘f[ u0qd)’ See fi at ats off6z ‘1aqury puPelapeYys - ozgze ‘aljiojoIg Spt JISSVY SIBIG I898z ‘ofzroqoig vyUls, Anvog Youur! ‘ ob6zz ‘Asdoys Aog S,d0BID oIs8vy sees Ch6zz | pz WSU youue[ 6prge ‘HZ prvi {tH jo afyMno1rA “9CC6z ‘YS Aqny puvjapeys "+ 0699z ‘YZ suAR AM JO SSDUTIg RS eine «O8t Qe ‘pe puslay penny : 6Szz¢ | BIPIOOO) TPA aTpes Be, Sat ooliz ‘aisuy purlapeys gggoe ‘OPT OO, aro}oIg PYUT 6rrgi ‘pz a[vA aTpesS eT eLOT ‘alyreqetd Spe sovIO) IISSBY moby acme: acre Cee le) wie is aane CzLor pz BI [OUIvITD “6brec ‘yyZ preel[tpy Jo afyMno1r, brgot ‘exuy s,e10qeaqd " cSgot ‘exul s pave [TH ature f 3, ee ~SOPS | oq 8,477 eg elec ‘sdoy, $s Aog $,90BIN) a183ey ose eles 6c 8 ere ape « O1lz 60z R07 Loz goz Coz vow Coz ZOZ 10Z o00z 661 961 L6r 961 C61 por C6r z6I 161 SUMMARY OF TABLE IT. A. AVERAGE PRODUCTION OF MILK AND FAT. Age. Number of cows. Pounds of milk, Per cent fat. AVERAGE FOR Cia TESTED WHILE AT PASTURE. Two-year-olds Three-year-olds. | Four-year-olds Full aged cows Average | ay | 47 282.531 3.07 AT TE 19 363.431 5 Loc ee Pr 23 418.905 3.09 ! A ia haa a 35 435.573 3.08 | 124 363.419 3.09 Pounds of fat. 8.680 II.§4! 12.947 13.412 11.245 AVERAGE FOR Cows TESTED Two-year-olds Three-year-olds | Four-year-olds. | Full aged cows Average WHILE NOT AT PASTURE. Bie gt tia 2 27 274.326 3.18 bs See ace ie) 355.036 3.26 eee ao 12 406.036 3.29 by at Nf 28 458.362 3.27 Prey eae 86 370.454 3.25 Two-year-olds Three-year-olds Four-year-olds.. .......- | _ Full aged cows Average of all AVERAGE FOR ALL THE COWS TAKEN TOGETHER. .- Pa ete 74 279.537 2 i er Ee 38 359.234 aae 35 414.493 3.10 felt SPR 63 445.701 3.16 Sti cnet Cees 366.300 3.16 B. LARGEST AND SMALLEST RECORDS OF COWS OF DIFFERENT AGES. (The largest and smallest yields of milk and fat and the highest and lowest per cent of fat are indicated by heavy type.) cows. 187| } Age. | No ill table 3 Two-year- 30 “sf Epa 62 Three-year-- 76 olds..... | IOI! Four-year-| 121 5). ee 125 Full care 174) ' Largest records. Av’ge per Pounds prs * of fat. Pounds of milk. 300.375 4.22 362.500) 2.69) 12.675 9.764 409.188, 4.27) 17.472), 15-903) 520.188) 3.06 427.938 4.27| 1 521.250) 2.91 544.875| 3.92) 21.333 654.125) 3.11 8.265 15.188 20.364) Smallest records. No. in Pounds | per | cent fat. 9 2.29 3-39 3.35 2.56 3-03 2.73 3.83 2.52 eee of milk. Pi et ee 5. 220.688 57 156.500 95 228.625 96, 316.375) 117 231.063 IAl\: > 216,125 155, 228.938 175| 467.563 | Av’age| STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 63 A close study of Table I and its summary reveals a large varia- tion in production between animals of the same age. Among two-year olds the largest milk record for seven days is that of No. 62 (Lotty Moselle’s Pietertje Mechthilde) with 362.5 pounds, containing 9.764 pounds of fat andan average fat content of 2.69 per cent. The lowest milk record is that of No. 57 with 156.5 pounds, containing 5.301 pounds of fat and an average fat con- tent of 3.39 per cent. The largest production of fat is that of No. 31 (Pietertje Hengerveld’s Lady De Kol) with 12.675 pounds from 300.375 pounds of milk containing an average of 4.22 per cent fat, which is the highest average found among the two-year olds The smallest production of fat is that of No. 5 with 5.263 pounds from 220.688 pounds of milk containing an average of 2.29 per cent fat, which is the lowest average found among two-year olds. | The average production for all two-year olds is 279.537 pounds of milk, 3.11 per cent fat and 8.697 pounds of fat. Of the three-year olds No. ror (America 2d’s Pauline DeKol) leads in the production of milk with 520.188 pounds, containing 15.903 pounds of fat andan average of 3.06 percent fat. The largest production of fat is by No. 76 (Mutual Friend 3d) with 17.472 pounds from 409.188 pounds of milk containing an aver- age of 4.27 per cent fat whichis the highest average found among four-year olds. No. 95 produced the smallest amount of both milk and fat, her record at this time being 228,625 pounds of milk and 7.665 pounds of fat. The lowest per cent of fat was given by No. 96 whose average was 2.56; her total milk and fat yield was 316.375 and 8.og1 pounds respectively. The average production for all three-year olds was 359.234 pounds of milk, 3.22 per cent of fat and 11.555 pounds of fat. Among the four-year olds the one producing the most milk in seven days is No. 125 (Debora’s Inka) with 521.25 pounds con- taining 15.188 pounds of fat and 2.91 per cent fat. The same heifer (Mutual Friend 3d) that led the three-year olds as No. 76 in total yield of fat and in average per cent fat, also leads, as No. 121, the four-year olds in the same respect. Her yield of fat was 18.265 pounds from 427.938 pounds of milk containing an aver- age of 4:27 per cent fat, or exactly the same percentage her milk 64 BULLETIN 152. contained as a three-year old. No. 117 produced the smallest amount of both milk and fat, the former being 231.063 pounds and the latter 7.1 pounds. ‘The lowest per cent of fat was given by No. 141 whose average was 2.73. Her total milk and fat yield was 316.125 and 8.64 pounds respectively. The average production for four-year olds is 414.493 pounds of milk, 3.16 per cent fat and 13.091 pounds of fat. Among the full aged cows No. 187 (Helena Burke) leads in milk production with 654.125 pounds containing 20.364 pounds of fat and an average of 3.11 per cent fat. The largest produc- tion of fat is by No. 174 (Netherland Hengerveld) with 21.333 pounds from 544.875 pounds of milk containing an average of 3.92 per cent fat which is the highest average found among full aged cows. The lowest record for milk and fat is by No. 155 with 228.938 pounds of milk and 8.761 pounds of fat and an average of 3.83 per cent fat. The lowest per cent of fat was given by No. 175 whose average was 2.52. Her yieldof milk was 467.563 pounds and of fat 11.767 pounds. The average production of full aged cows is 445.701 pounds of milk, 3.16 per cent fat and 14.106 pounds of fat. It is interesting to note that in all ages but two-year olds the smallest production of milk and of fat fall to the same cow and at the same test,—No. 95 in three-year olds, No. 117 in four-year olds and No. 155 in full aged cows. Also, that in every age, the highest per cent of fat is accompanied with the highest total yield of fat, but in no case are these two accompanied by the largest total yield of milk. On the other hand, the lowest per cent of fat is accompanied by the smallest total yield in but one instance, and that among two-year olds. The gain in production of the older animals over the younger _ shows a constant decrease as the age increases. The gain of three over two-year olds is 28.5 per cent in milk and 32.7 per cent in fat; of four over three-year olds is 12.6 per cent in milk and 18.2 per cent in fat ; and of full aged cows over four year- olds is 7.5 per cent in milk and 7.7 per cent in fat. STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. . 65 COWS AT PASTURE AND NOT AT PASTURE. Of the 210 separate tests made, 124 were of animals at pasture and which also received more or less grain. The remaining 86 cows were entirely stall fed. A study of the Summary of Table I shows a variation in production between those at pasture and those not at pasture. The number at pasture is considerably larger than the number not at pasture, and for this reason a com- parison of averages does not carry so much weight as if there were the same number in each class, but because of the large number in each class we can draw conclusions that are fairly representative. Indeed the number of three-year olds at pasture is the same as those not at pasture and their records bear approxi- mately the same relation to each other as do those of the two and four-year olds. In production of milk, the average for two, three and four- year olds at pasture is greater than the average for the same ages among those not at pasture. On the other hand, the cows not at pasture have a higher average production of fat than those of corresponding ages at pasture. This is because the milk of the stall fed cows averages about one-tenth of one per cent higher in fat. When we come to the full aged cows the order is different, for here the stall fed cows average higher than those at pasture in production of milk as well as in total fat-and per cent of fat. The difference in average production is 22.789 pounds of milk, 1.383 pounds of fat and .19 per cent fat. Taking the average of all the records we find the animals not at pasture exceed those at pasture in average weekly production by 7.035 pounds of milk, .791 pounds of fat and .16 per cent fat. From these averages it would seem that there is aslight advan- tage in production to be obtained by judicious stall feeding over pasture feeding. Whether this results from feed alone or from weather and temperature effects is not determined. Some feeders prefer stall feed and cool, brisk winter weather for the best results. Others claim they can obtain better records in summer with rich pasture and bright, hot weather. Instances may be found which tend to show that both may be right. The matter may resolve itself into the question as to during which season the effects of temperature and weather upon the comfort of the 66 BULLETIN 152. cow can be best controlled. When cattle are kept in the stable, bad weather is expected and provisions are made to protect the animals from the elements, to keep them dry and warm, and to make their environment as uniform and comfortable as possible. Under such conditions the cow may be expected to do her best. On the other hand, with the cows at pasture no provision is usually made for feed in the stable, other than grain, and they are obliged to stay out-of-doors no matter what the weather. If it be warm and dry the cow is likely to do well, but if it be cool and damp, as is often the case during the early summer months, she cannot be expected to doher best. Extreme changes in tem- perature or continuous rainy weather with the cold, damp ground to lie on at night are not conditions calculated to be followed by large records. From our recollections of the tests we are led to say that possibly the majority of tests on pasture were made under unfavorable weather conditions. But few notes were taken on this point and thus no definite conclusions can be arrived at. THE Foop CONSUMED. In Table II is given, after the name of the cow, the amount of each kind of grain and coarse fodder and the total pounds of grain and coarse fodder she consumed daily. Also the total amount of dry matter consumed during the seven days, the pounds of dry matter consumed for each one hundred pounds of milk and each pound of fat produced, and the nutritive ratio of the food. In the calculations of dry matter and nutritive ratio pasture is not included. The data for compiling this table was obtained, in each case, from the statement of the owner or feeder of the animal as to what food she was receiving daily. It was usually based upon the actual weight of food consumed for some one day of the test. No attempt was made, except in the case of ‘‘ Economic Food Tests,’’ to secure official information as to the exact amount of food consumed by each animal, but we have every reason to believe that the statements made by the owners or feeders are substantially correct. We have seen no instance where there appeared to be any attempt to give the cow more food than the statement called for. We believe, therefore, that this table gives STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 67 as accurate information concerning the food of each animal as could be obtained without actually weighing out'daily each kind of grain and coarse fodder to be given her. For the cows entered in the ‘‘ Economic Food Tests,’’ to be described later, each day’s ration was carefully weighed out by the supervisor of the test, and he was required to make affidavit, the same as for the milk and fat record, that, to the best of his knowledge, the cow received no other food than was named in the statement. The names of the cows are arranged in the same manner as in Table I with the same numbers and in the same order as to time of test. Thus the reader can readily follow the same animal through the two tables, first to ascertain the amount of milk and butter fat she produced and second the quantity of food she con- sumed while producing it. ——) BULLETIN 152. 68 =~ . — . ce eee ce ee Be ce ee ee | ce | . . . . . * . . . CF) 10D OF 84) C1) 4 * NNSTNNSANNA NST ewe ie a eee pOWOWOVOOOUOTHNOAA DY YH ‘ore. aA} 1Z°Lz|o6"9g |Le"zgz IgSt|Se g11/Zg'zgz breit|Pg‘911|4Zg'z7gQz €1°0/$2°L6 |Lo-zgz L6‘9g2’C9'6L |L£Q°zgz cele eC 6z EL of "1BJ jo -L1]NN| p,nod ff sot }00% 1IO,T| [BJO], | 9$°98 QS°L6 6h zt SQ iz Le'St|9S-9z1 LO°Lol “rat jo spunod Cr°Lv Cr'Lyv Cr°Lyv Cr°Lyv Cr°Zv LL°9S LL°9S bS‘ogz ZL QQz ZI °QQZ ZO°TIE Lg1vt L£6°601 16 601 L6 601 UdAVS Adj 99 bese a LE | %Sz KS S (KD KD | L ‘ joyaq aude S,pf s188ey [bz 99 ceegu - P LE | %Sz KO So | able | ZL \jpoyeq oulpneg s,aisdsey ssooutig |¢z 99 oe 2G7" -t Lo 1 ¥ESze KS) S Ko wr) ZL aurpned s,qyZ aude \\ JO SsoouTig |zz 99 ie a ae LE |%Sz \%S Cimrnyy | L oe ss Es SPT EP SUE SLES Ie 99 Coat ek LE | Sz HS! S |HoAD | Z£iyrctceses*s** yersy [NB suI[TNBg OZ " AL \t1q) 5 |% ) Mm JHE |++ ++ sHAV eplIMOTD s.etddy sey [61 r AL |tIqA |% | WA [HE [ot BTA SHAW SpTIMIOTO/gI » AL |t1qi% Me | We JHE |r + WSU_ sITY ep[Iq}OTD/Z41 . Mee Ue SBS Mom Nias ak ee eee ssv’] SIFTV eplIq}O[D/91 ; 4%LItIQghy |% bo ARTA Ge fa a le gaan ssereeess AInvog opun’]|S1 Bs z KL “I “HE He Seer ate tans coos "** Toy aq Avy v1 AIS, | z HL WI%r | HC OPITGIOAN § oyiM ofjrojetd |f1 rae) a | Or. |Oy | os 86S z|8et | ve ‘pz plaarasuay alqro}e1d ZI wp |% lI “Ss |KI fz |H%Ce PSV Sie Or ce, | ee Awa es BIPIOOUOD vs[RA sIpVS| 11 ay. 14Li “So KI tz |%ee pi*r| S| orf o [** cc [neg aurpneg s,pz voTlaIMy OI 1S 1 ge ee | Ge | Hoce Pec. Clee: | rat ts [Neg oulpNeg s,pz BoTroUry |6 es ne S|- +8 Gz |%LE WY Vl eS Or Were es BIPIOOUOD IBA VIpes|y a % LI tog ¢ v tg @ calle. wl Oy elaitn) ara ** epIITIO[D auapy|Z » ” ”) ”) ‘SINIShe ) ”) ”) ‘oIn}seg %IL “IL %XIL hag sy AY AY AY ” ‘aanysed OD al ot “d Oo a ” ‘aIn\sed ee | one | i fer Sd ve “Sg |%L ve “Ss [HL PS aeL Nom ok Xe) ~o& 3 eS ALALALeNeNE NN ee eS Re oe AL A-NE- NEN N BS 4 OVALALArALNAr QO BR Ree RS pe eer nee pot ens Nes OH NA SHH H 2 \; Saree ret ot ie Mor AS CQrN +O OH AN ee Fs era ~ s ANN We DN adoaicninenooaaest col MMWIWMOIANANAAHRANADOMMWOOAAAN Wow O000 ttt ND Win WwW WOW ee eH *4S9} POO} OIMIOTIOD Ty Wales "eure s,oudkeM S,pe o1d8ey|o09 OLh= pe a8peld s pe 9}ouUeN 6S OL Sie ole wm ere 6) a ee © 66 8s ae loMeqd mun[d ree) Q [tts " “pe [neg surpneg srpuaiZs eer aul[neg spe pusery yenynyy|g9S : " SPTIAIOTD B0BID a1sdeVy|SS VA Z Chet fal je. tai. 0) wb en x Oho ne pUurLIsyION AIT vs 414 48 Sy) Ou Le, VAS Che, 6 x ae " Sp9oM [ af1sjzeId OG Cc eine ol a EO ee a Ce ric ple JIOpIeM ae Cisse ote : alyiejard 5,119 aljeH i¢ al ee aR SIJAV opun’y] spiqjo[D oS Aa a et JIULISUOD STJIV IP[IYIOTO 6v "** ssv’y o1s8ey styty ep[iqzo[ gh ‘Wag sssey syry eployD Zp 7" afpe_ es8ey siyry eplityo[D|9v [NE GoUT[Ne TS PUABA\ PULL ION \SV PURLAYION S,e0uL}sSUO) a1sseVy VV yi] TCO KAM sees ‘JIOpleEM Aye cv a ee pz purvpioyJeN Soyey cy ‘PuUsTAT TENINIA 8. pe Josed [neg )1v pus] [enn s,fosaq [ued ov ‘yoyo sulpneg s,pz vowomy|6e "** Joma surned spe voyemy gt ets ‘Asdoy, suzy apriqyopo|Ze See is ‘ gunf styry opriqoLD\9£& Pepe tks Aynvag suyry eppiqyzoyo|Se ‘SITY SPIIIO[O s,ySsnoyg yooms|Ve oN Sat youn IPTIYIOTO|EL a degnrapata tela xnespae IpIIMOLO TTeqmous ze ep Cla Sp'Ts, pleasodueHalii9jatd 1¢ Sa Soc ONO ceca * OMPC eyuy|oe eral prabenone ea re ae ea yg eyxuy|6z ate aaah: +555) gsagq Byuylgz rot cate pe volroury [neg sutpneg|Lz ‘OMe surpneg s,pusiyy penyny|9z OI pz [neg sUul[Ne S$ ,JOMOTY oLATeIg|Sz N — EN BULLETIN 152. be'Sz\Sz°eL |€gSot LgSz\zS°f6 |€gSot 90°88 zb'ts zwz'6z'zZ1 ‘ZOT)ee" lev ISt’LP 98°94 Lr'v6ec gb Sez Sg oot CQ Lee pees gg'SZ Co'b6 Ce'b6 Seb6 | bo'zv po'zp QI‘III| Gr IIT" v6°ss | b6'SS | 16'1S MOAN AIANOMONADTHTH HHO TAO NO MHDS bS‘obv br-bg igz'66 |€S-9tz ‘sAvp udAas 104 [B10], ‘OIJBI | *}PJ aA} jo “L4NN Py nod | |I 1097 aha jo spunod OOT 10%F —| | | | *poutnsuoos 19;,eUL Ard cg cs ainjyseg “XL 6L c9Q Iv ¢¢ cg ‘1appoy aS1B09 TROL SS ae ainjsed ves a1nysegq oe a I ‘d “Lt 'S [KI tz °S ¢ % L ”) ” 9IN{Sed “‘SHoOoueRy] “POST "sxreys ‘1appoy as1e0D C Pes) -goe C |} ac) ge ZO ACI of| HCV %L z %O1 € | gf] gt ol’ ob| vz zz|% SC Gz| wet 6 eI Cr Cl G1 i9 r9 aLI $LI 6 6 28 gh ‘OI 9 os) Gr Q ca o 18 ht hs col cokHooltes AANA MAO AD?TINNOWO’O NH He)tsiFelPefe/eiic) eos okey Oli ti Doo “SnoouUrl -[20STIN ‘suorjer Ape Si -e giv “AZ KSI%L'% APs er. 3 eg lz v| P| % S| Hv) % I veh % |% 8% 8% % 8% | Fa v 4 17 KI SI I I £Y Z| = 2 |Ke ~ [918 8 BRIO BS la |§ rine, A “UTR tte alr de SR N [Bom W10) | rc Fesereeeees qui [neg aurTneg ‘aurned s .yyZ aude JO ssooultg oS TS BRT Prey ARTs *“ PRBTIOTION § (pt ATV] o1ssey BIPIOOUOD a[VA 2sIpVS “OPTIMIOLID SHAV SM 4479H aulpned s,pe toyed ‘Q1810045) [neg ouryneg apr wpoosy of jazojzoTg Byuy ‘*pe pusliyy yenqyny ‘pe pusiyy [enynyl ‘ssaouLig afpiojatd puvpsayiaN ‘alq19}91d SPIIGIOTD sisas ee Oe ey f Te Gay, wee OW eeiSh eis) OPIYIOT) PAL, sjoogq JOUR] [OO a 0.0) Sais. sek Soe 1a) © v.60 SM Ge Qe. 2 6 eRe OPS ce ‘Toye puvrjapeys oo epTTpoeW s.qI9 efjeH ‘puUeTPIL JO eppIooW afysojord PURPA JO OPT WIM Ulo‘) PUB[PLA yoo afrazatq s,aypasoy 410°] aplryi| ‘eurpneg s,pz Prpro9u0D “MOO JO JUL NT DOBILH 9PTMIOTD, OPTIIOTO afyrojorg sissey “Ape’y [ose “pz Soyep vyUy 98 Sg bg tg ZS Ig 0g 61 ae STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. . . . HHH H HAR Ss RHR ee eee Re AAR OR Oe Rea Re Oe OR Oe oe oe OW OR aOR oe MOO OOOO OHHH FHMGMH MINMO DCININNHH HE DADDDMOOOO RO! ORR RNHNRRMO ADDO . woommot s+ TOS TSO OMNHMA €6°g1'6L'0g 10°9z|66'¢g Lb-6z\91 68 6°99 b6"99 p6"99 L6°vL Cg'v6 Se" b6 OL Lod £6°z9g £6°zg £6°z9g 1z‘¢g 98°c9 vb'tv9 ES ‘gtz voSgz Lv:Loz 78 ‘Vou z9°Q6z zQ 96z 79°67 Z7Q "vot og gtt Og gt’ og ‘gcc gs69 z8'89 é8°89 Z8'89 €g°Sot 2) cg eS ainjyseg Saal S| 14) ai1nj\seg a ag cp! dInjseg i i~ i ” ” ” dInj4seg ot N ES AMANO Tet n sae ATE gee ps godin eho shorhnoon'r “9 ~\ L=\= FON ANA = = ealiilaniiian! Xer\cn en oS eK NAR eS LA \, anes vr imjoN a PKS. amnst Stir Honma wgeQqogwvwuw MEAN DOD MANN tHHHAOOWA mctrlooriotrs = Hot In HHO XN SOROS ANAS ONO OOO 00 0 W- N NNR DO TST RADO Wat DOW WA Le ‘OMe sulpneg s,pus4»sy yenyny ‘pe [neg aurpned S taMopy ores ‘alzrlaqoId Spt s1dsey sisag ers) ecw eiusiistecerstie te. “pe pusizy jenny ‘ssoultd afja0}21d PULTIITION wee), 0 eee oot elie Taub hme © BIOPBSPIN "++ SoyeY ofyrojetg pueprsy}ON fnteh * SPTMICTD S§.pe spyTMqpo[D) Peay oe "aso¥ afqroytg S.qyb exuy reeees sorte les gyeme Buoy ahs ets oe aeons ‘plaATaBUd FT Sfirsiarg praca ares “8+ -9QITy BIOPIAL ah be whe me. alecwaltas etre WW UeUISI A yeo’] Rcadontye Feeeseee tere sggprg WQIpDA seas EEN yoni! a1ssey sag "OPTIIOT) sov1g sssey sores’ Sty epan’y epiitqjyo[) "79" ***99UBISUOD SIFY 8P[IqIO[D “ss ] o1ssey sity eplityio[) ““qystig s18s8ey sity oplMmo[o sores’ "pe sled SHAV PPTIAIOTD a renciesstsmensaa ‘alazeiata s.1119 aliaH ‘‘oul[Neg S,pz pus penny "TOME surned spe vopwemy “ puei” Tenn s.Jomed med ros) ae sie ue wm » ¥ BluSss1og ApeZ “pIoprem Aye Ce ‘paver lip OTUUTIAL ee ees pbs Pepa OEY) 55 aks Fe Ss S1eeT “7s +4" "Dg aspatg Spe ajJouueN ies ES pz volley [neg surpneg. selieleeis ofqza}etd S Oe ATIOL aIs8ey : ‘Jaq SIV eplIqio[D “* eypeeydey shty epritiolp sreceron'e ASOT, SlIW SPIITIOIO 6 |foyeq sul[Neg S,s1ssey sssoutig|Lg BULLETIN 152. 72 1 eh gv Lor L'e:1 oz Sz pS: vo'er Te eae by-v9 zb:1 |S¢-Lr/SE°LS |gS*g9z Q°S:1 |6b'gr|16°SS |LvLoz 6°b:1 QS ‘Pe ob b6 \zQ°96z I'b:1 jot'fz\Sg°1g \vze' Lez I'v:1 |€o'€z/6S°6g [vz Loz I'b:1 'LS:oz'bo'zg !be-Lbz See 9°69 hes ig gS 69 pS: SI°z8 o°S:1 (6g°9I\gg*Ig |€g°Soe E'g:1 |16°Sr\hg"gh |10°Lzz g°S:1 [LS‘g1|€g"bg oS *69z gS: |Sz°Szl6e"Sg |oS-69z ro CS*1o1 €*z:1 |1z'gzl6g'°gZ 'zS'zSC E-z:1 |SS-SzigS-og zS-zSe¢ EST zoe vos |cO°eeI vc: | corel £2 | 90°88 Zet1 | 99°88 eta ‘Oeies|'.1er- 1-70 ‘sAep SAT} jo j|sp.nod |} uwoaas -I1JQN|pnod! oor 10j I IO} IO [BIOL *pauinsuos 1a}yer Ard gs Ae) ol ee ee ee ») ‘) ainqseg ”) ainjyseg “loppoyj 9STBOO 18}OL, 9” oinyseg Cz Cz oI of of ) ” Cr CI CT Cr cI 2) ‘91n\seq *snoosury -[DOSTIAL “1IPpOJ asavog Lr SkLaet (et SL SGM ae #9 | 7S | $1) ZO1| $C q| #1 4z | #z Sal eel: Ble el sete Scene a 9 | 9S| vz tT) el. | eas oz| of] Lr) #98) z KV KY 8 | Sz} gz tSyi%1 S| © |%or g) Sz} gzitSai%1) 9S) & |%or 8 | Sz) gz) FSqi%r1} = |%S) © |mor I1|#Sq Kz Vix4 11|#Sq Ke Ke g icy Hel | se Gk) gel Lah ele Pra oe g | SC) %o1) z KI z|) © |%8 GI) zz/* 91) ‘9 FAV 9 SI} zz|A%91| 9 HAV 2 % QI 6 vv I%Ke z6| Se vy%v 4b gi tI z6| Se ViAV%v| S| VI bees Lee me |\%C w%li| Le Ke “BE |KE %L1| Le ee me 1%e “%OI| Ve xyz c c %OI| ve%z oi He) a] 3] 8/2/28] 9 2) € Dee a ee eee bale ae EG jarvis ieee | gig" go. | ee = Pip: 1 Q | s e |B [oa woes eee Ws ure. “morjyer Ajred Liha ee ts Aisne SISaQ|LPI yAsdoy, SHV ePIMOTD grr Me ts Oe ae “Wg ByUy|Srr ‘afjazerg ysta yy ofyis|hrr “Mac Yorsatdey |Cr1 ‘TOMed sur[Ned §, a1ssvy ssooulid evi en “BOS lIVI ‘aIssey S,pc PILETTIGOS JO PT], obi "sts gospel o1scey puvpisyjeN '6£1 sol nee’ ae es 9 cen yoroatdeyw ger puLpAIyION afpAojpor gs Ypbeursyeg LE1 “puelIOIION afylajoIg s PURUIA\ OCI "x PUB[IETION afqrajarg 80 1v Fy SC "sees ss *BIDIODUOD B[BA a1pes|Pe1 ‘OTT9G SAV Split) |€C1 '*puRpIDyION ofpiojorg Soyep]|ze1. he a uuy Asdoy, s,pz e[pemeoarg 11 SET usanG syxApuszoy of 1 WZ aude Ay Jo ssaoutig 6z1 ‘a1d10945) [NV suT[Ned gz S99 PULTIOYION ofzrajorg S,eyuy\Lz1 purprayyeN afqreqard s Aye gz ste ete > ‘ BYU] S,e1oqaq |\Sz1 afzrozystg $,yVS spqnoy ver “8 paeey fizzy Jo ofanorA €z1 eee we ewe oe tae 6) 6's) e) 8 ere © “MOD JO SIUBN v3 STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. MIUANAADANOODOO NADH MOOKRRRRRATTMONDNOnRGTTTO "JS9} POO} D1MIOUODATy ZQI ISI OgI 6L1 gLI LEt QLI CLI LI Li zL1 Let oLI 691 8gI Lol 991 Sol Vol {oI zQI gSI- CCI "P:1 69°L1/S6"09 ZI*gSE LL ¢ zl) 9% S34 S|) SSP SO | ene “9 ' pe pasa [enyny[ "G:1 g6°Lz/CS°Lg |9gQ‘zgz sf ¢ zl| vz Rolo eClen |) (Ou Ol pene eee "Ts" DS BVA SIPES ya zO'ee I | 5 oT “d 411; Lee! Ge ren ta en: VYU] WoyeY jo pley oar ZO'eC1| ca ne m%L1| Lee Aa hg Bas Nae a shes =" 9977S Ades, Cel 69°PZ | - S1| eLi4| + + rR rior een ‘ Ysnog }2oMS vod eyo pa " Git Grd €1|°*: ‘alyrayorg s,pz sdeig) s1d8ey CsT zv'rg a “%C1\ "pq (ong oath ce cat as pz s18sey Sisag Cry zb'tg | - “eI eb q Gee eee ee ant acane baits: < BLIV], SIUUTTL vil 9Z°SgI| ‘ ee | 9 61] za, V Si Seis ete week p[eArlssusyZ purpszsyiON ee Sov! 5 eee 9 Cry 41a 4e a le LP an a semine ac e "+ BIOPESPI a ee Co'itr| ainysed ae he 9 Criz#ra Ke AIY%ze | +g |Sje9q PUvysouyueA PULpIsYION Corie Ge Li eo ler cer) We le) ibe he are of| % CP! WSL Ae) 6. | erp "hs oOABM Spe o1dd3ey €:1 (CL oz|vetL |CLSpt 69%.) 887 as eee LESS) | Be Se eS eG Ge din 8 ote Sas puv[IOyION $,12}S ‘€:1 139°6z/90°9g |CL’SPe 99 Seat oe Le| Se PES, MR Peal ast 6 "** BOLIOUTY §,pz BIPIOIUOD ‘Er (ee Ol | 1O6G \oa- aw 99 Sant a Le. Se YES VQ MS wS | 6 ude Spt puoly penny ‘Err ML ceieS'cL ICL See 99 | fail aa LE). Se Ve S| PES eS) PES. le Git Pee ae hei a nee pz PIp1oon0D “rl IDE Le Ve Lea lee aie 99 Rael aa ee Le ewe eS | HeQ\ Fes eS. |S Gi re a: aude M PUPTIOION Cr 99'94 *. Z “OI zZ 574 a OST Tat tek fo ete i} er (ee) dere Agee S ww mn dq oni 98°9Z ainjseg z %O1 Alaa (2a it" Pie ke "+ SoyeY Byuy ‘€:1 |60°Sz|€6'0g [Live 6Z ob “yy Eo} Gel. Se Ai me Nee ol A A it ape a2 aude S,pe sidsey P:1 |99'0z|9I‘0g |TQ‘IIE z9 el vg Ol] ob| vz 8é¢ ciSEe | Meer eal Ae Got dyIng eus[ey ‘py gL9gI Q1°Z9Q vS‘ogz z9 ae oI ob Oz 8%¢ zZ SEC veg ote Nm wl anaes aise Stee ete mn{q I19I ‘P:I joo'1z|L6'CZL |7egecr 6¢ |%Ll7~-°S KI of|% cS OFA 9)! By @ SEE Srl ee ‘pz pus [enyny|og1 ‘p:1 |vL‘of zo°06 |6h'z76e fore) OF Ash's cz nev SLE bi-cS0l SU tal ae ase ** 9udBM puelioq}oN |6S1 "hs gL'gS1 ‘i | HSz| Sq KV, 9 he my aaa ae” Si aga XTINIOXA SSI V:1 gL'gS1. os HSz| Sq VEU 20 she O41) eee cee "* 1" *raYOoY susp] LS1 pI ghgSt, > MmSz) Sq eh. TENG A ros) eens "9 Spo Py 9L'9S1)} a HSz| Sq KY 9 |%6 [rccrccr et stsseeess TOT SsiZey Sok €6°09 = cGy Lol T Bake al one Aqny 8, ueutaa, af ying qiZ/rS1 Shea ~6"99 a 401|410| I plies a ae «dla asin te pager care sjeog orssof|eS1 2p LE°SS P Gi). | 392.813 3.52 10.648 81.65 | 23-30 | | | | 5 345.73 | 524.563 3.41 17.888 | 65.91 | 19.32 109 5 3A5:73, |) “392.563 2.95 11.568 F 88.06 | 29.88 B. SHOWING THE VARYING PRODUCTION FROM SIMILAR AMOUNTS OF) Foop By ANIMALS OF DIFFERENT AGES. Io 2 288. 12 236.438 2.87 6.780 | 121.85 42.49 24 2 282.87 325.500 3.15 10, 209 86.90 27.71 | 98 > 298.62 364. 188 2.97 10.810 81.99 27.62 IOI z 285.04 520.188 3.06 15.903 54.79 17.92 118 4 | 285.46 339.875 a8 10.972 83.99 26.01 143 4 | 266.56 464.750 | 3.39 | 15.357 | 57-35 17.35 fe SET 7 | 282.66 322.313 22 10,099 | 87.53 27.98 203 6 | 285.04 491.438 arg 15.600 58.00 18.27 76 BULLETIN 152. C. SHOWING THE VARYING QUANTITIES OF FOOD REQUIRED TO ‘PRO- DUCE SIMILAR AMOUNTS OF BUTTER FAT IN Number in tables I and II. 26 45 92 44 22 8 59 78 79 I6I 163 160 187 sI™s “SID WQ®NN Total pounds of fat. 8.538 8.508 8.846 g. III 9.082 11.116 11.747 11.348 11.406 15.519 15.705 20.608 20.364 Total dry | Total matter consumed. | of milk. 332.68 226.73 338.80 227.01 282.87 341.67 204.82 285.46 394.17 260.54 394.17 432.82 249.97 | 290.375 | | 242.500 | | 317.625 | pounds 239.625 315.875 310.625 | 312.188 349.125 | 344.875 419.000 487.063 | 585.125 654.125 Average fat. 3.56 2.69 2.85 3.14 3-75 3-50 3-76 3-25 3-30 3-79 4.22 3-52 2.45 Dry mat- iter for 100 per cent | pounds of milk. 138.83 71.78 - 109.07 78.08 | 116.64 107.57 65.61 81.76 114.29 62.18 80.93 73-97 38.21 DIFFERENT ANIMALS. Dry mat- ter for 1 pound fat. 38.96 26.65 38.30 24.92 31.04 30.73 17.35 25.15 34.56 16.78 25.09 21.00 E2205 D. SHOWING THE VARYING QUANTITIES OF FOOD REQUIRED TO PRO- DUCE THE LARGEST AMOUNTS OF MILK IN ANIMALS OF DIFFFRENT AGES. Number in tables I and II. Age. Total pounds of milk. Total dry matter consumed. Total pounds fat. per cent tat. NTO MUN as Oe 354.188 334-395 414.500 520.188 466.750 494.250 585.125 518.250 524.563 589. 250 654.125 Dry mat- | Dry mat- Average jter for too | ter for 1 pounds pound milk. fat. 79.83 | 26.97 68.98 24.69 102.12 29.22 54.79 | 17.92 48.64 15.91 61.88 | 16.89 73.97 21.00 60.16 20.66 65.91 19.32 60.95 17.69 38.21 T2555 STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 7% E. SHOWING LARGEST AND SMALLEST QUANTITIES OF FOOD REQUIRED TO PRODUCE I00 POUNDS OF MILK IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS EXCLU- SIVE OF ‘‘Foop TESTs.”’’ Number | Dry matter | Total dry Dry mat-| Total | Average Total in tables | for too | matter terfor 1 | pounds | percent | pounds Tand Il. | Age, pounds of consumed. pound of milk. fat‘ of fat. | milk. of fat. <9 ile eee 141.75 | 221.83 41.47 | 156.500| 3.39 5.301 GO ifn 2 60.28 | 196.28 | 20.98 | 325.625} 2.87 9.354 79 3 114.29 | 394.17 34-56 | 344.875 | 3.30 | 11.406 IOI 3 54.79 | 285.04 | 17.92 520.188 | 3.06 | 15.903 mel Aa 94.46 | 298.62 34.56 | 316.125 | 7a | 8.640 J i 48.64 227.01 15.91 | 466.750 | 3-05 14.272 pectsg. | 5 go.02 | 392.49 | 30.74 | 436.000] 2.93 | 12.767 | eC ae 38.21 249.97 12.12% ['654.525:" 2.20» *)) 20.364 F. SHOWING THE LARGEST AND SMALLEST QUANTITIES OF FooD REQUIRED TO PRODUCE ONE POUND OF FAT IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS EXCLUSIVE OF ‘‘ Foop TEsTs."’ | Number Dry matter! Totaldry | Dry mat- | Total Average Total | in tables for 1 pound matter (ter for too) pounds | per cent pounds |ITandII.} Age. of fat. consumed. | pounds | of milk. fat. | of fat. } of milk. } | 9 2 45-27 312.62 | 126.56 | 247.000| 2.80 | 6.906 | 59 2. p> 29535 204.82 65.6) | 312.188: | 3-76 | 11.747 92 3 38.30 338.80 | 109.07 310.625 | 2.85 | 8.846 99 3 15.77 204.82 | 57-14 358.438 | 3.62 | 12.978 2 (eh ae 26.01 | 285.46 83.99 | 339.875 | 3.23 | 10.972 3 a | 15.91 227.01 48.64 | 466.750] 3.05 | 14.272 159 | 5 30.74 392.49 90.02 | 436.c0o0| 2.93 | 12.767 187 7 12:11 249.97 26:25 J654.125°". (Sr 20.364 G. SHOWING THE AVERAGE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF ALL ANIMALS TESTED WHILE NOT AT PASTURE AND OF EACH AGE SEPA- RATELY. ‘ | Dry Dry mat- | Dry mat- No. Per Pounds | matter ter for too} ter for 1 of ani- Milk. cent fat con- | pounds pound fat. mals. fats sumed. milk. | | Two-year olds.| 27 | 274.326 | 3.18 | 8.726} 260.55 | 94.98 | Three-year olds; I9 | 355.036 | 3.26 | 11.570; 304.20| 85.68 26.29 | Four-year olds.| 12 | 406.036 | 3.29 | 13.366 | 273.12| 67.06 20.43 Full aged cows | 28 | 458.362 | 3.27 | 14.975 | 303.70| 66.26 20.28 Average of all) 86 | 370.454 | 3.25 | 12.036 286.00 77.20 23 76 78 BULLETIN 152. H. Economic Foop TEsvTs. |; . Detar ean mat- | Dry mat- | | | Number | Total Average Total | dry mat-jter for too | ter for 1 |intables! Age. pounds per cent pounds | tercon- | pounds pound _land II. | of milk. fat. of fat. sumed. milk. fat. (RR ee | 39 2 305.188 5532 10.043 166.02 54.39 16.53 | 183 9 410.000 3.64 14.773, | 208.20 50.78 14.09 | 190 ene 363.875 2.34 12.184 | 176.33 48.51 14.46 Piper ten 542.313 3:00 | 16.792 || SrR rs 58.11 15.79 a 427.438 3.44 |°14.724 | 179:24 | At.o3 11.49 There is much variation in the amount of food eaten by differ- ent animals during a test, and a close study of Tables I and II will be of interest and value to every cattle feecer: Study Table I to see what a particular cow produced in a week and Table II to find what she ate during the same time. The cows tested while at pasture were all given more or less grain, and the amounts vary from 64 to 17? pounds per day for two-year olds ; from 7% to 21 pounds for three-year olds; from 6% to 25% pounds for four-year olds; and from 9 to 254% pounds for full aged cows. The cows tested while on stall feed naturally ate more grain and these amounts vary from 14 to 374% pounds for two-year olds; from 18 to 43% pounds for three-year olds ; from 1634 to 35 pounds for four-year olds, and from 15 to 53% pounds for full aged cows. In amount of coarse fodder eaten daily, two-year olds vary from 42 to 71% pounds; three-year olds from 41 to 71% pounds, four-year olds from 33 to g2 - pounds; and full aged cows from 54% to 82 pounds. Ani- mals under ‘‘ Economic Food Test’’ are not included in the above. : Such large rations of grain and of coarse fodder are, no doubt, surprising to the general dairyman, and he will gravely question the economy of feeding so heavily. However, the question with the men who have entered their cows in these tests is not one of economy so much as it is of forcing the cow to produce as much milk and butter as possible. In order to do this, a large amount of food is necessary, and the more food she can consume and STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 79 digest the larger product she is apt to give. The fame the cow brings to the herd and the prize she wins, and not the milk and butter, are to pay for the food. It is a question whether the ‘Economic Food Test,’’ where the attempt is to feed as little and produce as much as possible, is a step in the right direction. Would it not be a better principle to, in some way, bring out those animals which can make the most economic use of /arge amounts of food ? Under the head of ‘‘Summary of Table II’’ we have gathered such data as will show the great variation in production from the same or similar amounts of food when given to different animals. As a matter of convenience, when referring to the figures in the summary we shall omit fractions as much as possible and speak in round numbers. Under A are arranged two animals from each of the various ages which consumed the same amounts of the same kinds of food, together with their production of milk and fat. Each two animals were in the same herd and were tested at the same time. Of the two-year olds, numbers 20 and 23 each consumed 282.87 pounds of dry matter, but in production No. 20 exceeds No. 23 by about 111 pounds of milk, or 45 per cent, and over 2.5 pounds of fat, or 33 per cent. Number 20 also required 36.5 pounds less of dry matter for 1co pounds of milk and nearly 9 pounds less of dry matter for 1 pound of fat than No. 23. Of the three- year olds numbers 95 and 99 each consumed 204.82 pounds of dry matter. The difference in production is about 130 pounds of milk or 57 per cent, and 5.3 pounds of fat or 69 per cent in favor of No. 99. The latter required about 32 pounds less of dry matter for roo pounds of milk and 11 pounds less of dry matter for 1 pound of fat than No. 95. Among the four-year olds numbers 138 and 140 each consumed 247.24 pounds of dry matter. From this No. 138 produced 95 pounds or 31 per cent more of milk and 1.367 pounds or 13 per cent more of fat than No. 140. Number 138 also required 19.6 pounds less of dry matter for 100 pounds of milk and 2.7 pounds less of dry matter for 1 pound of fat than No. I4o. Of the full aged cows numbers 168 and 169 each consumed 345.73 pounds of dry matter, but No. 168 produced 132 pounds 80 BULLETIN 152 or 33 per cent more of milk amd 6.32 pounds or 54 per cent more of fat than No. 169. Number 168 required 23 pounds less of dry matter for 100 pounds of milk and 10.5 pounds less of dry mat- ter for 1 pound of fat. Under B are arranged therecords of eight cows selected from the various ages, each of whom consumed in the neighborhood of 285 pounds of dry matter. In production they vary from 236 to 520 pounds of milk and from 6.78 to 15.9 pounds of fat, or a variation of 120 per cent in milk and of 134 percentin fat. In the amount of dry matter required for 100 pounds of milk they vary from 55 to 122 pounds or 122 per cent, and for 1 pound of fat from 17.35 to 42.5 pounds or 145 per cent. Under C is collected some data showing the varying amounts of food required to produce similar amounts of butter-fat in different animals. For the production of about 8.5 pounds of butter-fat in two-year olds, the dry matter varies from 226 to 332 pounds, a difference of 46 per cent. To produce a little over 11 pounds of fat is required a quantity of dry matter varying from 204 to 341 pounds, a difference of 67 per cent. For a similar amount of fat among three-year olds, the. consumption of dry matter varies from 285 to 394 pounds, a difference of 38 per cent. Among full aged cows the amount of dry matter required to produce about 15.5 pounds of fat varies from 260 to 394 pounds, a difference of 51 per cent. To produce a little more than 20 pounds of fat, the variation is still greater, being the difference between 250 and 433 pounds or 73 per cent. Under D are arranged the records of the cows which gave the most milk for their age of those that were stallfed. Among two- year oldsadifference ofa little less than 20 pounds of milk isaccom- panied witha difference of over 52 pounds of dry matter, the heifer consuming the most food giving the most milk. This order is reversed among three-year olds where a difference in milk yield of a little more than 105 pounds, is accompanied with a difference of over 138 pounds or 48 per cent of dry matter con- sumed, but the heifer consuming the larger amount of food gave the less milk yield. The variation among four-year olds in milk yield is 274 pounds and in dry matter consumed a little over 78 pounds, or 34 per cent, and the cow giving more milk also con- STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 81 sumed the larger amount of food. Five records of old cows are given. In milk production these vary from 518 to 654 pounds, and these same two records vary in dry matter consumed from 312 to 250 pounds respectively. Here again, as among the three- year olds, the larger yield of milk is accompanied with the smaller consumption of food. It should be added that these two records were made by the same cow, Helena Burke, one at five years of age and the other at seven. She shows a better capacity for the economic use of food at seven than at five. Indeed, she and No. ror, America 2d’s Pauline DeKol among three-year olds are remarkable animals in this respect as wellas in the large records they have made for milk and butter. Under E we have a vivid comparison of the largest and smallest amounts of food required to produce 1oo pounds of milk in different animals. Among the two-year olds No. 57 required 141 pounds of dry matter to produce 100 pounds of milk, which is the most required by any cow of any age. It may be said in her favor that she was not in good condition. She was so hard a milker that it was necessary to use the knife to enlarge the orifices of the teats which were not healed at the time of test, thus rendering the milking operation very uncomfortable to her and doubtless reducing the quantity. The two-year old requir- ing the smallest amount of dry matter for 100 pounds of milk is No. 60 The difference between the largest and smallest amounts is 81 pounds or 135 per cent. In like manner, we find that the difference between the largest and smallest amounts required by three-year olds is 60 pounds or 180 per cent, by four-year olds about 46 pounds or 94 per cent, and by full aged cows nearly 52 pounds or 136 per cent. Under F are shown the largest and smallest amounts of food required to produce one pound of fat in different animals at va- rious ages. For two-year olds the difference between these amounts is about 28 pounds of dry matter or 160 per cent, for three-year olds 21.5 pounds or 136 per cent, for four-year olds 10 pounds or 63 per cent, and for full aged cows over 18 pounds or 154 per cent. Summing up the observations under E and F, we find the order of the per cent of variation from the largest to the smallest 82 BULLETIN 152. amounts of food required by different animals of the same age, is the same in regard to the production of fat as in the produc- tion of milk, namely, the largest variation is found among two year olds, next come full aged cows, then three-year olds, and the least variation is among four-year olds. As regards the va- riation in actual pounds of dry matter, the order is, two and three- year olds, full aged cows and last, four-year olds. Three cows are named in both E and F. Number 133, Clo- thilde Artis Belle has the distinction of requiring less food for 100 pounds of milk and also for one pound of fat than any other four-yearold. Number 159, Netherland Wayne, required more food for the same amount of milk and fat than any other aged cow. Number 187, Helena Burke, required less food for the same amount of milk and fat than any other aged cow. Under G are given the average production and consumption of all the animals that were tested on stall feed. In the order of production of milk and fat they stand in the order of age, the two-year olds averaging the least and the full aged cows the most. Inaverage consumption of food, however, the three-year olds are the highest, being a trifle more than full aged cows, after which follow four and two-year olds respectively. In amount of dry matter for roo pounds of milk and one pound of fat, full aged cows require the least and are followed succéssively by four, three and two-year olds. From these averages it would seem that full aged cows lead in economic production although they are so closely followed by four-year olds as to make the difference of little or no account. ‘* ECONOMIC FOOD TESTS.”’ Under H are arranged the records of five cows that were entered in the ‘‘ Economic Food Tests.’’ The Holstein-Friesian Association gives prizes to the cows producing butter at the least cost per pound for food. A list of all the more common cattle foods with a schedule of prices is given, and each breeder is at liberty to choose any of these with which he thinks he can pro- duce butter the cheapest through his particularanimal. These prizes have been offered for only two years and in this state six cows have been entered for them. One cow, No. 146, was en- STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 83 tered on grass and her record does not appear in our list because no just comparison can be made as to the amount of dry matter consumed which is the basis of this comparison. Numbers 190 and 202 refer to the same cow, Mutual Friend 3d, she being tested in two successive years. On her last test she consumed the least amount of food for one pound of fat that has been re- quired by any cow of any age whose record is given in this bul- letin. It will be remembered under F that No. 187 required the least dry matter for roo pounds of milk and one pound of fat of any cow not on an ‘‘ Economic Food Test.’’ This is only a little more food for a pound of fat than was required by No. 202, and the former was not entered for a food test, but it was intended to give her all the food she could well handle. This is well shown in tabular form below. Food consumed Dry matter per day. | consumed. | For 100 | For1lb Forage. Grain. (lbs. milk. fat. | No. 202.| Mutual Friend 3d .......... 67 1 git 41.93 | I1I.49 (On Economic Food Test) ie-Eet7 cl ELClO TA IEEE yi. -< ia oi ees 58 204% 38.21) /\ 52.2% (Cow requiring least dry) matter for 1 lb. product) Mo. 160. Mutual Friend 2d... ... .--.- 59 53% vce 7 ee lee (Cow consuming most dry matter per day. ) Average for all cows not at PASCHTE eos a ess: See 77.20. | 23.76 On the food test, the only two-year old entered required 16.53 pounds of dry matter for one pound of fat. This isa little more than was required by the three- and four-year olds, numbers 99 and 133 respectively, and only a little less than by No. 59 of the two-year olds. Neither of the three last named were entered on food tests. The cow requiring the most dry matter for one pound of fat among those entered for food tests is No. 201, with 18.79 pounds. It will be noticed, however, that she consumed 84 BULLETIN 152. a large total amount of food, it being 315.13 pounds. Had she given milk of as high a per cent of fat as when a four-year old, No. 134, or when a three-year old, No. 82, she would have pro- duced her fat much cheaper. VARIATION IN PER CENT FAT. Table III contains such data as could be obtained from the records concerning the per cent of fat and its variation in differ- ent animals. Each record given here bears the same number as corresponds to the animal in Tables I and II which bears that record. ‘The data given contains the number of days from calvy- ing to the beginning of the test, the average per cent of fat for the week, the highest per cent of fat, the time of day at which it was obtained, and the number of hours which elapsed between that time and the previous milking; also the same data concern- ing the lowest per cent of fat, and the range of variation in per cent of fat. STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 85 TABLE III. VARIATION IN PER CENT OF FAT. A. Two-Year Olds. o | | | OH | Hours | SH | Days | Av’ge |High’st | from |Lowest | Hours | Range _ o | from | per per Time of previ-| per Time of | from OF An 4 @ |calv- , cent cent milking. ous cent milking. |previous varia- | 6 | ing. | fat fat. | milk- | fat. imitking.) tion. z, ing. TESTS WHICH BEGAN I TO 15 DAYS FROM CALVING. 5 71 9:39 | 2545. |) pight 5 1.40 | morn. | 11% | 2.05 aa. 1%.) 3:24" | 3:90 . 6 2.30 “ 9% 1.60 | Pah vhs 14,24 |--3.80 noon 7 2.90 night. 1% .9O mae) eae! 4.24 12.80 2 | 7% | 2.80 | morn. | u% 1.10 51 6 | 3.48 | 3.80 te Ore: 3.30 mornandnight| 8,9 | .50 earn ee gL 2) oy Cts cnet Wk Sata eta liale pipes whois 9 a Ata’ e aise apse este po ceiets 1.23 TEsTs WHICH BEGAN I6 TO 30 DAyS FROM CALVING. | | 7 | 28 | 2.76 | 3.60 | night. 5 2.00 noon. 7% | 1.60 8 | 28 | 3.50 | 3.90 | noon. 7% | 3.20 mornandnight| 9, 734) .70 Be} ) 24.,\22.80° |. 3.20 c 7% | 2.50 nightandmorn| 9, 7% | .70 $21,526.) 3.12. || 4526 oe 7 1.90 morn. 10 52°26 BEA) N22") 2.75. 125.25 ns 7% | 3.05 ee 934. 2:30 ZR. 21.) 3-24 -| 4.40 Be, | 7% | 2.50 He 9% 1.90 24.25. | 3.15" |. 3-70 night. 7 2.60 noon. 7% | 1.10 B54 20-4 3.17. | 3270) | ¥ acy 2.80 morn. 9% | -90 | 28 | 24 | 2.82 | 3.60 Re 6 2.10 Be 9% | 1.50 31 16 | 4.22 | 4.80 | 7 Na: 3.70 mornandnoon.| 91% 1.10 36 | 3 ae 0 Ta fae Ff noon. | 7% | 2.15 | morn. 9 1.40 44 | 23 | 3.14 | 3.70 |midnight.| 6 2.70 | 6a. m. 6 T.00 | aad BG b 33% |\-2. 90 noon. 736 | 2.70. | morn. 9% | 1.00 46 | 27 | 3.46 | 4.10 noon. 7% |.2.90 | a 9% | 1.20 52 | 18 | 2.37 | 2.70 |noonandmorn.| 7,9] 2.10 | night. 8 .60 56 | 20 | 3.65 | 5.10 | night. 7 1.70 | morn. 9 eee) 5G. 30°) 3.76 |..5:00 “j 7 2.40 | He 9 2.60 Get." 304, 2.37") 3540 Io a. m. 6 2.30 | 4p.m. 6 L1G 69 | 23 | 3.00 | 5.20 | noon. 7 2.00 | morn. 9 3.20 | 65 | 30/| 2.74 | 4.40 " oe Rea Wp eg 9 1.60 67 | 22 | 2.86 | 3.60 | morn. 8 1.60 | noon. 8 2.00 68 | 21 | 2.99 | 4.Io = 8 2.20 | morn. 8 | 1.90 BRON (S27 e nee aw Meee Sek aaa ea gigas lace Tee ie ies ee ees 1.59 TESTS WHICH BEGAN 31 TO 60 DAyS FROM CALVING. 2.1. 26; | 3.08 "| 4.00) | nip he. 5% | 2.10 | morn. | 10% 1.90 Ze 43. | 3:00). 4.50 . aN i ye) |.10% | 2.80 Pah 42.) 3-007 aGs i 5 2.20 noon. , 7% | 1.45 | Oi. - AG. |.2.87. 1.3.40 noon. 7% | 2.20 morn. 9 1.20 imey 53.1 3.30.1 "3.80 ;: 7% | 2.80 | night. 7% |_1.00 133} ='34 | 2:90) ). 4285 * 7 G07) MOT ORG 2.85 86 BULLETIN 152. TESTS WHICH BEGAN 31 TO 60 DAYS FROM CNC an —Continued. a 4 | | eT 7 2 . Hours | S| Days | Av’ge |High'st | from |Lowest Hours | Range .~2j|fromj| per per Time of | previ- per Time of from of ‘= @ | calv-| cent | cent milking. ous cent milking. |previous) varia- oF) || ing. || tat. |" fats milk- | fat. imilking.| tion. Z, / ing. TA.4| 401 /2:95:-|, 310 ‘mornand noon. O07 |acgo night. 8 -40 15 | 42 | 3.35 |- 3-85 noon 6% | 2.90 morn. 10 -95 17 51 | 3.20 | 4.00 = 6% | 2.45 - 10 1.55 | 19} 58 | 3.45 | 4.10 6% | 3.05 as IO 1.05 PP AG S24 ut a50 || be 7% | 2.80 | sk 9% | 1.00 26 | 51! 3.56 | 4.80 | night. 7 3.00 5 9% | 1.80 27 | 57 | 3-37 | 4-00 |night.and noon ie 7}4| 2.80 9% 1.20 20.13 4% 1 3.85 | A430 night. | 2.30 | rh 9% | 2.00 47 | 34] 3-47 | 4.40 | noon. ne 2.40 ‘ 9% | 2.00 PAS | -46,1°3:05.1 3 80.4." | 7% | 2.30 . 9% | 1.50 45 | 40 | 2.69 | 3.30 | night. 7 2.30 morn and non 974, 7% 1.00 53 35 | 2.92 1 3.50 noon. 7 2.40 | night. | 1.10 | 57 | 49 | 3-39 | 3-70 | night. 7 3700 morn. i -79 58 | 55 | 2.88 | 3.60 . 5] 2.40 Hy 9 1.20 GO.) ax) 4.16: | 340 4 Reon. 7 1.80 at 9 3.60 Bae) 45 clo 6p || alters as 8 2.30 es 9 | .80 | G4! Abel 2276, | eedoot * OS 2.30 si 9 | eee OG. | 385) Ray Ae - 8 2.40 night. 7 2.40 age 40 | 2.86 | 3-30 7 2.60 night and morn 8,9) ae ey ea Ml ee Nis eo ie Bo morn Oe BO night. 8 | 80 731. SOc pb 2265) 4.4500 noon 7 2.30 morn. | 9 | 1.70 er A le fel ie Bs Pi te = Je 47 2.50 ne | 9 1.30 62! 41! 2.69 ! 3.00 oo 8 2.30 a | 9 | -70 AvetASE 13.07 Foie Seed dns Soe dade cn ot bebe ee ee 1.44 | | TESTS WHICH BEGAN MORE THAN 60 DAysS FROM CALVING. I 2 fa Me ae! She Wake ee ds noon. 8 2.85 morn. 10% .9O P Uae MOET So Yel 1B Bar go Ma i night. 5% | 2.50 ee 10% 2.10 fe). 6). 3.95 "S560 < 7% | 3.00 noon 6% | .50 ie) GE 5 AG ACTS ie 7% | 2.50 morn Ife) 2.25 L207 168--\'2.96° 12.60 o 2 2.30 a 9% 1.30 3327) O7-4 2.00) t- 22te noon. 7 2.40 e 9% -70 Oar bist ||) Sey Ia.78 ‘g 7 2.80 = 9% ere) 34-1 °78-| 2.93 |.-3.60 fe ‘i 2.60 “ 9% | 1.00 3517 O41 2-28. ee % 2.90 oe 9% | 1.30 ay) 86 )-2.08) aaa re 7 2:70 4 9% 398 ZOM- TOs 3.32" bane ot 8 2.70 - 9 1.80 AB | --724 2-50: 1A -7o | night 7 2.80 oe 9 1.90 ‘AT 4) 85.1845) 1 ee ¥ Z 2.80 bi 9 1.10 42" 35) 2:06 -| 3:80 noon 7% | 2.40 A 9 1.40 43 | 90 | 3.12 | 3.40 y 7% | 2.80 s 9 .60 Ac) TT? 2.901) 3:90 ee 8 2.00 5 10 1.90 55 | 107 | 3.17.1 2.80 a 8 2.60 os IO 1.20 60 \ 84 2.79. |°3.40°| ao pean 6 2.40 | 4p.m 6 1.00 Mverage 3.15: ° VP RW. Je P AR ek ~ cin» « Syein we ie sone 1.25 at. alt BFE ONES? B02 se Oo OL a aisies nu aed > weet ee 1.42 STUDIES’ IN MILK SECRETION. 87 RB. Three-Year Olds. a aH | Hours | Days| Av’ge |High’st from | Lowest Hours | Range eS from| per | per Time of | previ- | per Time of from of -—@ | calv- | cent | cent milking, ous cent milking. |previous! varia- om | ing. fat. | fat. milk- | fat. milking. | tion. Z. ing. TESTS WHICH BEGAN I TO 15 DAYS FROM CALVING. | 75 5 | 4.24 | 5.40 noon. 8 3.70 | morn. 10% | 1.70 Wet, fio | 2225 | 4.co night 7 210. a ite) I 90 Wo.) @25.|. 3.30. 13.90 Ai 7 285 | night. 7 1.05 So E2"| “245 | 4.70 noon 7 2.40 | morn 9 2.30 gt | 12] 2.94 | 4.30 | night 6 2.30 " 10 2.00 105 ba} 3-96 |: 5°80 noon 2 eek - | 9% | 1.60 Ps is a ena nari ha aad nig yea. 4h wih ics Sages es mae 1.76 TESTS WHICH BEGAN 16 TO 30 DAyS FROM CALVING. | | | Get eF7. | 4.2 4.90 | noon. | 7% | 3.60 | morn. 9° 1.30 Sa 20) S26 hb S770 iy ee ee ? 9% 1.40 SS 18 | (3,6r | 4.207) ¥ | 7% | 3.10 Ps 9% | I.10 Go. i025: (63.62 | 5:20 night...) 7) | 2.00 as 9 3.20 98 17 | 297 | 3 20 noonand night 7,8) 2.60 noon 8 .60 pee (a7. loa.58 | seed io p, 45+} “6° | 2604 10m, an 6 1.20 Lon. 27> |'3:.06 | Aloo ee 6 2.40 4p.m 6 1.60 To4 } 27 3:42 |3:60 noon. a | 2.80 night 71% .80 a6) | 25 |"3.19 -| 335021 Bs 7 2 90 morn 9% .60 tog | 20 | 3.20 | 3.90 | A 7 2.80 night 8 I.10 hia. 23 -| 3.44 | AAO. <3 7 2.70 morn 9 1.70 me sy: | 3-95" | a won| Gaia 2.00 | 6p.m 6 1.40 Average 3.30. .02.. A iocset nee Sete ee Aileen gees ealane ess eee oe $0, Phys nso carey oY net 153% TESTS WHICH BEGAN 31 TO 60 DAYS FROM CALVING. | | | 77) 42 | 3:59 | 4.40 noon. 74% | 2.80 | morn. | 9 1.60 82 | 56 | 3.50 | 4.00 night. et Pala pes 8) es 9% to ea |* 50.1 9,08 | 2955 morn. 8 2.55 noon. 8% 1.00 89 | 58 | 2.99 | 4.10 | noon. 7% |! 2.20 | morn. 9% | 1.90 97 | 48 | 3.08 | 4.00 af ae SEL Ge as 9% | 2.30 SG) |< 47. |\2.90° | 40a night. 7 2.10 sf 9% 1.90 7b). SE.) 3-027 1 So a 7 2.20 oy 9% 1.60 O24 45 |, 2:85.15 9-500) s 4 2.60 x 9 .gO QA)" 55: | 3.185.153, 76 Sf 4 2.90 cts 9 .80 G0: | Ol qaaee- aes iS 7 2.00 #3 9 1.20 O7ul- 3h -|-shaa= ease noon 8 2.10 = 9 1.50 103 AY }-2.89. | Scse +‘ 8 2.10 * 9 1.40 IG7.? 35) F LT ip Ase i i 2.70 a 9% .80 Li 39° +°2.69 | 2.90 as 7 2.00 EC Eo 1.90 ge ekolee, 8) pean 2 8% 2] BG Be eR oe Se Se 1.44 88 BULLETIN 152: |: ae | | Hours | Hours q' | Days | Ave’ge|High’st| from T,owest from | Range | Se | from | per per Time of prev-| per | Time of prev- of |= 8 | calv-| cent cent milking. ious | cent | milking. vious | varia- Behe | ing. | fat. fat. milk- | fat. | milk- | tion. [Se GE Ee ee ORCC | TESTS WHICH BEGAN MORE THAN 60 DAYS FROM CALVING. ; = =— = Bs 65 3-40 | 4.80 | night. | 7% | I.g0 morn. eres 2.90 93' 68 | 3.43 | 4.20 ib ee 2.80 ¥ |. a 1.40 Toa 94 | 4:08) Age) eae, 1 6 ee 4am. . |* > “6 Saree 84, 78 | 2.60] 3.30 noon. 7% | 2.20 |} morn, 10 1.10 95| 78 | .3.35 | 3-60| night. | 7 | 3.00 bea ey .60 | 108) 64 | 3.45 | 4.40 noon. ¥ 2 30 " 9% | 2.10 POLES TO oe oa ay won Bia doa wie on diy) wie State felipe ta 1.65 Avg. all BE; OMIS 136228 ioc els wc ooo smh a /seln = Bod we oe oni eye om np ee 1.48 C. Four-Year Olds. TESTS WHICH BEGAN I TO 15 DAYS FROM CALVING. 118 I2 | $25 | 3.90 | night. 7 2.90 | noon. ay; 1.00 | 121] 15 | 4-27 | 5.80 ef 7 3.25 | morn. 9% | 2.55 1221 6) 2.98] 8:40 mor. | 8 2.55 noon. 8% | 4.975 | 1331 14 | 3.05 | 3.80] 6p.m. 6 2.30 | 6a.m. 6 1.50 | 1341 13 | 3.66 | 4.40] noon. 7% | 3.00 | morn. 9% | 1.40 | 139) I0 | 3.02 | 360 26 8 2.30 | e 8 1.30 | 140] 10] 3.52 | 4.50 | morn. 8 2.80 | night. 8 1.70 | 143) 12 | 3.30 | 4.00] noon. 8 2.50 | morn. 8 1,50 | r41| 13 | 2.73 | 3.70 ‘s Maa Mee as ay * 9 2.00 | SAS BU 6 S's PP as ip CRE dw lala we ances sea eee ee TESTS WHICH BEGAN 16 TO 30 DAYS FROM CALVING. | 130 14 | 3.19 | 4.65 | night. 5% | 1.95 morn. 10% | 2.70 13I| 30 2.59 | 3.10] noon. 7% | 2.20 | 2 9 mere) 137| 18 | 3.24 | 4.90 | night. 6 2 40 | 4s 10 2.50 136, 28 2.89 4.60 ee 6 1.80 | - fe) 2.80 138] 29] 3.01 | 3.50; noon 8 2.20 | 8 1.30 142| 24] 302] 3.60 | loam | 6 2.40 | Ap.m 6 1.20 145) 2I | 3.40} 5.00| noon 7 2.00 morn 9 3.00 1441 19 | 3.19 | 4.70 | night | 7 2:20" | 4 9 2.40 AWETABE 8S /OF- 2 oink ged oe egies opel). (epee Peel ol fo pee , «ene TESTS WHICH BEGAN 31 TO 60 DAYS FROM CALVING. he 57 | 3-21 | 4.65 | night | 5% | 1.95 | -morn. 10% | 2.70 116} 36] 2.77 | 3.85 a 5% | 2.00 4 10% | 1.85 B7EL5eO. 3.09") 4.46 se 5 2.20 5 11% Je I19} 31 | 3.00] 4.20 noon 7 2.20 | night. 8 2.00 120, 43] 2.95 | 4.55 E 7 1.80 fe | 8 2.75 STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 89 n es | Hours 3° | Days | Ave’ge |High’st| from (Lowest | Hours | Range ~U |from| per per | Time of previ- per Time‘of; | #ftottes}) oF |.2a/calv-| cent | cent | milking. ous cent milking. |previous| varia- cH | ing. fat. TAE: | milk- at. milking.| tion. | va | ing. J TESTS WHICH BEGAN 31 TO 60 DAYS FROM CALVING.—Continued, —e«Qr oS ee g24+ 54 | 3.12 | 3:90 night. 61% | 2.50 morn. | Io | 1.40 | 126 47 | 3.09 | 4.60 A 6% | 2.10 Hy ite) Wee 8 jaech. 27| 5.16 | 3.70 “3 7% | 2.70 3 | 8% | 1.00 1129 | 4o | 2.93 | 3.50 Fi 7% | 2.40 a 8% | 1.10 1146 | 37-| 3.29 | 4.40 | noon. 7 2.50 x 9% | I.90 ages 40.131» | 4.10 As a 2.40 | night. 8 ee Sea RM NR A Cal eA 2119.22 | 420 a | 7% | 2.60 as 9% -/ 1.6071 ‘171 | E7234. | Atos ae 7% | 2.90 4 9% 1.20 [P7ele (23 |: 3.92 /| 5:70 night. | 6 2.40 a | 9% -))-3736 |178 | 23 | 3-12 | 3.90 noon. | 7 2.30 ss | 93622) "1.6ee /182 | 18 | 3.44 | 4.30 = 74 | 2.70 ‘s a) 1.60 | | | go BULLETIN 152. v / | BH | | Hours | | g™ | Days | Av’ge |High’st| from |Lowest! Hours | Range z from | per | per Time of | previ-| ‘per | Timeof from ° =| calv-| cent | cent | milking | ous | cent | milking. |previous) varia- oH ing. | fat. | fat. | | milk- fat. | milking.) tion. Z | ing. | / Tests WHICH BEGAN 16 TO 30 Days FROM CALVING.—Continued. 184 | 25 | 3.83 | 4.60 noon. 8 2.90 morn. 9 1.70 1186 | 30 | 3.43 | 4.30 rs | 7% |} 2.90 3 9 1.40 1185 | 22 | 3.57 | 4.00 e 7% | 3.10 | - 9 | +99 i188 | 30 | 3.40 | 4.20 | night. 7 3.10 | Je 9% | 1.10 189 | 30 | 3.16 | 4.10 a 7 2.50 + 9% 1.60 194 | 24 | 3.08 | 3.50 noon. 7 2.60 | 4 9 .go 198 | 27 | 3.40 | 4.20 FS 8 2.60 f 9 1.60 201 18 | 3.09 | 3.70 | Io a. m. 6 | 2.50 | Iop. m. 6 1.20 200° |" 20.)°2,905 |. 3.70 night. 8 2.20 |mornandnoon.| 8& 1.50 |p SWRA {RISES Na obs Sige wong n aaah eee ame Oe Dak a ee be ol 1.57 | TESts WHICH BEGAN 31 To 60 Days FRoM CALVING. | 1156 | 33 | 3-26 | 4.60 '5:15 p. m.| 5 2.15 | ILp.m: |) 53% ogee 1158 | 46 | 3.06 | 4.60 | RS 5 2.00 |4:30a.m.| 5% | 3.15 1159 | 59] 2-93 | 3-45 noon. 7% | 2.45 morn. 9 1.00 164 35 | 2.95 | 4.55 Ad 7 I 95 night. 8 2.60 566s) 53 |e ese 7% 11.90 | morn. | 9% | 1.75 1567) | -A2:| 3.28 ("ao |) ee oy | 2.20 “ 9% | 2.50 1168 | 58 | 3.41 | 4.40 nf es 2.15 ay 9% | 2.25 169 | 60 | 2.95 | 3.60 noon. | 7% | 2.30 cs 9% | 1.30 ' |180 | 54 | 2.66 | 3.40 ‘* pose) 580 3 10 1.50 BO7 6 Bl Z2Et- | 4190 oe | 6 2.60 6 a. m. 6 1.30 Yor] 939 | 2:99. '} 3.70 ss | 73%; 41.90 morn 9% 1.80 197 34 | 2.89 | 4.00 * | 8 1.90 & IO 2.10 ig? | 56) 25261390 fs eee 8 3.00 night 8 .70 195 | 38 | 3.04 | 4.10 noon 7 2.30 morn 9 1.80 ge, | 30° f 342 1 280 night 8 2.50 a 9 1.30 199 | 35 | 3.08 | 4.40 I 7 2.60 9 1.80 262.” A as AAS a 20 I0oa.m 6S | eee 4p.m 6 1.30 203, |" 38.4 2557 |. 460 es 6 2.50 I0p.m 6 2.10 205 | 39 | 3-00 | 4.20 noon. | 8 1.80 morn. . {19 1.40 207 | 54 13:01. | 3:96" | wight... 1 736.) 240 3, |. 936 O) tae 208 | 59 | 3.22 | 3.80 noon 7 2.90 + | 9% ele) 209 | 501 2.97 | 3.70 i 7 2.50 | fs ie 1.20 AWETAPE 3 OF os b nee ee eakes + uve ee ee eg 142 TESTS WHICH BEGAN MorE THAN 60 DAyS FROM CALVING. [148 | 128 | 3.26 | 4.60 noon. 8 | 2.40 | morn. | 10% | 2.40 1149 | 69 | 3.15 | 5.00 | night. 5% | 2,00 RS 10% | 3.00 ‘150 942.08, | 2405 neon. ee pee 2: 10% 2 00 ‘I51 65 | 3-32 | 3-90 ee Bo ee . 10% 1.20 153 | 65 | 3.46 | 4.60 night. 5% | 2.00 - 10% 2.60 1154 | 68 | 3.06 | 4.70 4 5% | 1.80 af 10% 2.90 155 | 343 | 3.83 | 6.25 | “s 5 2.15 ss 11% | 4.10 STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. gI | & | goed: | arate : ours | at | Days | Ave’ge|/High’st a from T,owest “ Hours | Range on from per pers}, rime of previ- per Time of from + [> (of 2") [ag | calv-| cent cent milking. | ous cent | milking. /|previous} varia- | 64 | ing. fat. fat. | milk- fat. ‘milking. | tion. lw | ing. | TESTS WHICH BEGAN MORE THAN 60 DAYS FROM CALVING.—Continued. ia? | | | | bs eae | 165| 82 | 3.20 | 4.20 | moon. 7 2.50 morn. | 9 | 1.70 | 172, 140 | 3.29 | 3-75 | night. 6 2.60 OO a ee irs fg7 Ot | 2:87 || 3:75> | >"noon: 8 2.35 | night. *| . 7igwohtiese 179, 89 | 3.30 | 3.90 e 7% | 2.90 nightandmorn 6%, I0| I.00 ame 7A>| 3:13 13:05 night wie || 2.35 morn. | 9 1.60 | | 190 79 | 3-34 | 440 | noon. 7% | 2.70 FE 9% | 1.70 | 193} 63 | 3.00 | 4.50 night. BS $3200 night. 8 2.50 | | 206| 69 | 3.28 | 3.80 noon. 7 “13.80 |" morn. 9% | 1.00 210 5-13.22 "are 6a. m. i ut-s 50° 1 6p. ‘mm: 6 1.60 PEE MONE Se tee Be ek dave pi peas ape tne eats siete ate ee age 1.99 | | Avg. all Sie AEs SU Red MS ple mee A el eR ue ake eee | Avg. all 1- aya, een PA in Ss ee a a hl a Sac prcctang dy) Seo aid bina 1.62 | | Avg. all | Raee aly, 3° OA a che BN eS A ee a he ev Bis. 2 2h pew persia aes 1.60 | | Avg. all | Par Grate ye 3.06) siaig aa s 58 iets) ee Sopgresc Ae se ee rene Pek TORN ia | 1.59 | Avg. all (EEC ERS Nes ae LED ee Re Ge Sims A Ee pen 1.60 | | Avg. ofall | tests. .. = 9 BY ie bis ae heigl ahd Babi E kala} <= 5yt ari s,s EG BE 1.60 | In arranging the data given in Table III we had in mind four questions: (1) Does the percent of fat vary as the period of lacta- tion advances. (By ‘‘period of lactation’’ is meant the time intervening between two successive calvings.) (2) Is there a variation in the per cent of fat between animals of different ages. (3) At what time of day are the highest and lowest per cents of fat found, and are they governed by the time of day or by the length of time from the previous milking? (4) What is the range of variation in per cent of fat found in different animals, and is it more at one age than another? In order to answer the first question, the records were grouped according to age and according to the length of time from calving to the beginning of the test. Four groups were made of each age: I, of those cows whose tests began from one to fifteen days inclusive from the time they dropped their last calf ; II, of those whose tests began from 16 to 30 days inclusive from that time; g2 BULLETIN 152. III, of those whose tests began from 31 to 60days inclusive ; and IV, of those whose tests began more than 60 days from calving: It should be added that of the 47 tests which began more than 60 days from calving, all but 10, or over two-thirds, were go days or under. The averages of each group are given below, together with the general averages of all ages and the average of all cows taken together. TABLE IV. AVERAGE PER CENTS OF FAT. Two- | Three- | Four ° year | year | year /|Fullaged| Average bo olds. | olds. | olds. cows. of all. fae Avg. |Avg.| [Avg |Avg.| | Avg. b No.| per | No.| per |No.) per |No.| per | No.| per cent.) | cent. | cent.) cent. cent. I Cows tested 1 to 15 days! | from calving. Syl 5 13-12] 6|/3.52| 9/3.30! 9 |2.94! 29 |3.20 II | Cows tested 16 to 30 days croitcalyiie ie Ui. sy 4 2. 22 |3.15| 12 |3.30| 8/3.07| 16 |3.38) 58 |3.24 III Cows tested 31 to 60 days | Tioticalyiae st ices ss. 29 |3.07| 14 3.01] II }3.06| 22 )3.07| 76 3.06 IV Cows tested more than 60 | days from calving...... 18 3.15| 6 3-24 7 |3.22| 16 |3.23| 47 |3.20 ye Nays gch Sy oe 5) eek Uy aie em 74 Raed 38 322 35 |3-13 | 63 |3.17/|210| 3.16 A glance at this table will show that qnestion 1 is not answered so far as all the cows are concerned. ‘The smaller number tested from one to fifteen days from calving may reduce the importance of the comparison, but in all ages except two-year olds the fig- ures can be considered fairly representative. Two-year olds gave the highest average per cent of fat in groups II and IV, three and four-year olds gave their highest average in group I, and full aged cows in group II. All except full aged cows gave the poorest milk when the test began in group III, and these find their lowest average in group I. With the exception of group III, all of the groups average practically the same for all ages. More cows were tested in group III than in any other group, which may give more weight to the figures of this group; but considering the data at hand there does not appear to be any STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 93 decided increase or decrease in the per cent of fat at any time up to ninety days from calving. Beyond this time we can draw no conclusions because less than one-twentieth of all the animals were tested at a longer period from calving. We find that there is little variation in the average per cents of fat between animals of differentages. Two-year olds average 3.12 per cent, three-year olds 3.22, four-year olds 3.13, full aged cows 3.17, and the average of all ages 3.16. In order to answer question (3) as to the time of day at which the highest and lowest per cent of fat was found in the milk, we arranged in Table III along side of the highest and lowest per cent of fat found during the seven days, the number of hours which had elapsed between the milking at which such per cent was found and the milking just preceding. These figures may be seen in Table III in the columns marked ‘‘Hours from prev- ious milking.’’ Collecting together all those instances where the per cents were highest at morning, noon, and night, with the hours intervening between milkings, we have the following averages : No. of instances at which Average number of Time of milking. the milk was highest hours from previous in fat. milking. LTS vee eer aC Oo Att BAe Te 8 8.37 DOO 5... creep eid eas a 117 7.44 i hd 2 eer ah a teks re Shes a weet 74 6.59 Fotal and average..”..)..2<+< 199 big ond Collecting the instances of the lowest per cents of fat in the same manner, we have the following averages : : No. of instances at which Average number of hours Time of milking. the milk was lowest in fat. from previous milking. Ment iat. 2 Sia ae eee 165 9.47 WNIGGH ke. aera ea eee 12 7.79 Nee oe ee nee wily: ; 25 7372 Total and average........ 202 9.16 In the morning the average number of hours preceding the lowest per cents of fat exceeds the number of hours preceding the highest per cents of fat by 1.1 hours. In like manner at noon the excess of hours following lowest per cents of fat over those following highest per cents of fat is .35, and at night the 94 BULLETIN 152. excess is 1.13 hours. The general averages of all the hours in each case gives an average of 7.16 hours between milkings where the highest per cents of fat were found and g.16 where the low- est per cents of fat were found, or a difference of two hours. Accordingly, we may say that, as a rule, the highest per cent of fat follows the shortest period between milkings, and the lowest per cent of fat follows the longest period between milkings. However, looking only at the table of highest per cents of fat we see that the greatest number of highest per cents comes at noon, notwithstanding the fact that the average period from morning to noon is nearly an hour longer than the average period from noon to night. In the table of lowest per cents of fat it is to be observed that the lowest per cent occurs only one-half as many times at noon as at night, although the number of hours from each previous milking averages practically thesame. Tak- ing all these fact into consideration, it would seem that there isa tendency for the milk to average higher in fat at the noon hour than at any other time of day. An interesting study bearing on this point is found in Table V. Twenty-two of the cows, while on test, were milked as nearly as possible at exactly equal intervals, eight at intervals of eight hours each and fourteen at intervals of six hours each, or four times daily. This table is arranged in two main divisions, one for highest per cents of fat and one for lowest, and under each division is given the time of day at which the milking was done. Then in the appropriate column, opposite each cow’s number, is given the number of times during the week that she reached the highest and lowest daily per cent of fat. STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 95 TABLE V. RICHEST AND POOREST MILK WHEN COWS WERE MILKED AT EQuaL INTERVALS. Highest per cent of fat. Lowest per cent of fat. Number in Time of milking. Time of milking. Tables I, II andIII. | 5 a.m. Bas ae ae | 5 a.m. Ip. mi. >|" ps mi: 67 3 4 I nde 2 3 68 2 3 I 4 2 138 6 2 4 I 2 139 I + 2 eee: 3 140 6 2 6 143 6 6 I 200 3 4 7 nel 204 I 6 2 4 3 ib oO) een 4 38 I2 See fers ce oO 6a. m. 12m. 6p.m. | 12md. | 6a.m..J 12m. | 6p.m. | 12 md. 44 2 1 3 4 3 2 2 I12 2 4 I I I 4 2 133 4 4 a 2 187 I 2 2 . 5 2 I I 210 2 3 I a 3 Totals)... 7 13 ite) 9 eg PRT ere eee Co) 8 4a.m.|10a.m.| 4p.m. /iop.m.|4a.m. |10a.m.| 4p. m. |10p. m. 60 5 es: 2 I 2 I 61 I 4 Bs IOP 2 3 2 100 | I I aE ier, 2 2 IOI | 3 - A &) 102 4 2 | 4 3 144 Weal orm 5 Lo 201 3 I | 2 2 3 202 5 I 2 hep es 2 203 3 4 2 4 fe vel I ebotale'<'S 2: Garr a2 6 14 23 3 23 12 Total of all which were! milked four times daily itz 46 16 23 36 8 a2) 20 Among the eight cows which were milked at three equal inter- vals it will be seen that, of all the instances where the milk reached its highest daily per cent of fat, 38, or two-thirds, came at 96 BULLETIN 152. the middle of the day, whie of the 57 instances of lowest daily per cent, 33,or over one-half, came at the morning milking. In considering those cows which were milked four times daily, it will be practically correct to count the four and six o’clock milkings together, and the other milkings in the same order as arranged in the table. Then for the complete summary we have 98 instances where the milk reached its highest daily per cent of fat, of which 46, or nearly one-half, occur at the noon hour, and twice as many asat any other time. In the lowest per cents of fat there is very little difference between the number of instances at morning and afternoon milkings. These figures then, bear cut the statement made above, that the milk drawn at noon has a tendency to average higher in per cent of fat than the milk drawn at other times during the day, and this seems to be true whether the milking be at equal or unequal intervals. The lo« st per cents of fat, however, do not so invariably occur at ne morning milkings as when the cows are milked at unequa intervals with the longest period invariably between night and morning. When the milkingsare at equal intervals the honors are divided between morning and night, especially if there be four milkings daily. It would be of interest to know the causes of all these variations, but at present we are more or less in the dark in regard tothem. May it not be that the higher per cent of fat at noon is partly the result of the warmer and more even temperature surrounding the animal ? As to the range of variation in the per cent of fat during the week found in different animals, the following summary from Table III will give some indication. Age. Greatest Variation. Least Variation. Average Variation Two-year O105;,°)... fa. anon ON AAP ep ear 40 2.22 scecr eee 1.42 Paree-veat olds oi..5 os.0 cece AORN be Eins Means has pe gta ~O0 32,5 shoes Pr Pour-yeat olds: ios ce. I Se eR ee 75. sain ap 1.76 Full-aged cows............ TID Ase aro’ Poy wigs Ea JO 6s s03= 6 pee 1.76 Average of all COWS: « « 4c.6<(....¢si5 ce.cs sce dune oe 1.60 The greatest average variation is found among those animals which we would naturally suppose to be most constant in their per cent of fat, namely, the older cows. ‘The average variation for four-year olds and full-aged cows is exactly the same. The STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 97 average variation for two and three-year olds is practically the same, and about three-tenths of one per cent lower than among the older cows. If the variation in per cent of fat be averaged according to the groups given in Table IV, a striking similarity is found between the averages for the different groups as can be seen from the figures here given. No. of Group. Average Variation. I. Cows tested 1 to 15 daysfrom calving................ Oe rng ty 1.62 ine = hee aaa. TAY ete ¢ Peete on Se ole oe ee 1.60 1808 ‘ hie SEED: BO 2 S50) 5S OO PSA. ae ee ee ee oc 1.59 EV. a ‘more than) 60.days from calving’ 2433 .6.).2.. 55% shee 1.60 WGCEAOE Gr Gs. AC me eT a, eo Ore ee eas. Je asta 1.60 In the table below are given two instances under each age of individual variation in per cent of fat,—one for the greatest and one for the least variation. Along side of the greatest variation for the week is given the greatest variation for.one day and also the pounds of milk and per cent of fat for each milkingon that day, together with the total fat for the day. There is also given the same data for the day on which the least variation in the per cent of fat occurred, and finally the total fat for the week. Moreover, in order to compare these animals showing so great and so little variation with animals of the same class, there is also given under each age the largest, smallest and average weekly yield of fat for that age. 98 BULLETIN 152. TABLE VI.—INDIVIDUAL VARIATION IN PER CENT OF FAT. | Pounds of milk and per cents of fat given : ahh rach at thethree milkings on that day. Total pounds of = variation | ——_—_—_—___———__—_ ———_ ‘ * bn Pika Morning. Noon. Night. ye as | or rer a ME q | S¢-| For | For ; | = the | one} Milk. Fat. | Milk. Fat. | Milk. | Fat. | For the} For the Z we'k day. day. week, 70! 2 | 3.60) 3.40) 14.625 2.0 | 15.250| 5.4! 12.000} 3.6 | 1.549 10] 13.000 | 2.4 | 14.000| 2.5 | 16.625 2.4 | 1.061 | 9.695 14) 2 | .40)* (30) 17625 | -3.1°| 12,0004 2.9 [13.250 | 2.8 | 1.265 | | ,10} 16,000 3-0 | 12.375 | 2595% 12. 125 ie g | 1.197 8.289 Largest weekly yield of fat for two- -year olds Jae buee ee 12.675 SUEMALICSE 0 OR i RES EE on ER 5.263 ‘Average “i “i ON ie chee een 8.697 | Tn A 99| 3 |3-20)3. ai 19.000 | 2.0 | 18.500] 4.0 | 15.500] 5.2 | 1.926 i 10 20.688 | 3.1 | 18.125 | 4.2 | 15.375 | 3-8 | 1-986 | 12.978 106} 3 | .60 40) 18.938 | 2.9 | 14.250") 3.3 | 16.375 | 3/54 ieee £0| 19.000 | 3.3 | 14.125! 3.3 | 16.125 | 3.2 | 1.609 10.824 Largest weekly yield of fat for three- -year olds J J's e ee 17.472 Sr o> i i a Ra eM LES oe See 7.665 /Average as ss « CA Dah 6 veer ee 11.555 | | 145| 4 |3.00 2.50 19.500 | 2.2 | 17.250 | 4.7 17.000 | 3.5 | 1.835 | | | | -10| 18.375 | 3-5 | 15-750| 3-5 ap G2o 3.4 | 1.759 | 13.069 122} 4 | .75| .50| 21.375 | 2.65] 22.000} 2.65] 19.750 | 3-15) 1.771 | .20 21.688! 2.95} 21.188 | 3.00 22.313 | 2.80, I.90I |12.713 Largest weekly yield of fat four-year olds. 2. 12 eee 18.265 Smallest a ¢ Aaportss inet ig eee 7.100 ‘Average A “ y S @.. 15-3. 255k | 155| 6 | 14. 188 | 5.10 eda | 60) 27168 14. L063 4.45| 5.563 | 4.25) 1.314 | 8.761 4.10 2. a 10.688 | | 2.15 /1.65| 16.125 | 2.80 192 II .70 .60) 24. 875 | 3.10| 20.000 | 3. 50) 21.000 | 3.70) 2.248 .20| 24.750 | 3.40] 20.500 | 3.50\ 21.000 | 3.30, 2.253 | 15.459 Largest weekly yield of fat for full aged COWS ..: 5. .:obe 4 cane 21.333 Smallest RES hk oR ORE 8.761 Average “s x - zs » a kale so obs ee 14.106 Here it will be noticed that among the examples of largest variation each animal, except the full aged cow, No. 155, gave more fat than the average for her class. "Those with the least variation are only a little lower than the average in total fat except the full aged cow, No. 192, which is quite above the average. Thus it is evident that neither those animals which vary much in per cent of fat nor those which vary little can be ter ned abnormal animals, and that a cow can give a good yield of fat if her per cent does or does not fluctuate widely. - Oe ee Se eS ee See eee STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. RECORDS OF CoWS WHICH HAVE BEEN TABLE VII. TESTED MORE a | | tab- | lesI and Name of Cows. Inka Pietertje Mech- thilde oe ee | | DeKol 2d’s Pauline... | | Sadie Vale Concordia. Americ 2d’s Pauline | naa + 6 WM Get Crear Greve Clothilde Artis Belle.. Pauline Paul Grant .. | | | | Princess of Wayne 7th’s Pauline | PrincessAaggie’s Paul- ine DeKol Prairie Flower’s Pauline Paul 2d | Mutual Friend’s Paul-| | Mie DEOL sar Pkak | Pauline Paul America | 2d | Clothilde Artis Topsy. *Economic food test. No. *146 in at calving. eT: 2— 0-27) IQ9|5-10 29) 4,2- 0- 4 80 3- 1-26 8 I-11I-25 II) I-1I-25 82 3- 3-29 134|4- 6- 3 *201 5- 5- 3 g I-I 1-26 10 I-11-26 18/2- 0-29 133'4- I-10 20)|2— 86 3- I- 4 7-4 22'2- 85 3- I-II 4- 8 23|2- 87|3- 0-29 2-22 2-24 25 I-I0- 8 92, 3- 4-21 26|2— 1-22 93|3- 8-12 27\2- I-13 94\3- 8-24 To4- 7| [4-O= 3 37 88 I-I1-24 3- I- 8 4— I-10 calving. Days from sone 36|/282.250! 11/349. 125| 35, 409.938 63 245.000) 12 338.250) 28 317.625| 53, 295-250, 56 414.500 13/494.250 18 542.313, 24|247.000 49|236.438 61/273.750 14'466.750 68 354.188 47 417.500 22 242.500 18 327.000 21|243.125 51 343-000 24 478.375 20 321.500 45 310.625 51 239.625 68 344.125 57 263.250 ali 47 242.500 21 383.500 | 86 298.250 30 441.250 37 415-750 3.08 3-25 3.08 3-72 | 3.45 | 3.50 | 3.30 | 3.50 3.66 | 3-99 2.80 2.87 3.40 3.05 2.96 2.90. 3-75 3.61 | 3.24 3.02 | 3.02 a7 | 2.85 | 3-56 3-43 | 3-37 | 3.18 | 3-15 3.40 3.01 | 3,25 3-29 | | | | | per cent Pounds of of gain fat or loss. 8.696 i 11.348 +30.5 12.614 +11.2 9.116 11.676 +28.1 II.116 | 9.756 : 14.485 +30.3 18.103 +24.9 16.772 6.906 | 6.750 — 1.8 9-372 14.272 +54.4 10.487 12.116 +15.5 9.082 11.824 +30.2 7-879 10.378 +31.7 14.461 +39.2 10.184 8.846 | —13.1 8.538 | 11.816 | +37.2 8.860 | 11.094 | +25.2 7-649 | 13.069 | +70.9 8.970 | | | 14.176 | +-58.0 | 13.724 | 99 THAN ONCE. Perct. incr’se | requir- ed on equiv- | alent record. 44.3, | 32.6 26.9 25.0 PE 34.1 34.8 34-9 46.0 24.9 | TOO Name of cow. America 2d’s Pauline! 9m oe 2 are es 26 eo & Paul DeKol’s Mutual) Friend Patty Waldorf Clothilde Artis Aaggie Bright Lass a 6) 8 e068, it SMe Sis eT ea) 2 dw a = ae er a ade e162 Clothilde Lunde Artis Hetje 6th’s Pietertje.. AaggieGrace Clothilde Mutual Friend 3d.... Pauiine Paul Georgie. Helena Burke Magadora Debora’s Inka *Economiic food test. BULLETIN No. in tab- les I 1 Ages and | calving. | lyr.mo.da 152. Aver- ¢alving. from age per e>nt ,at. )/ Pounds of | milk. at ay a I-29) 21)334.375 I—29|105 305.188 5-15| 27.520.188 2.79 3-32 3.06 O-15 3-29) 72|\242.125 27 375-938 3-59 3.18 I-22 3-18 gO 244.000 17 364. 188 op te. 2.97 34 256.813 14|325.313 26 258.188 25|339-313 46 275.875 38 367.188 0-23 I-22 3-47 3.96 G-21 ee 3.21 3-19 3-05 ze | OAS 0-20 2 a | 10-28 15 281.750 64 371.625 3-34 3-45 2-10 O—-29 3.48 2.89 6 251.750 41 354.313 O- 9/107 280.438 3-16} 20 462.375 2-24 2-24 3- 8 6-15 6-15 6-26 17 409 188 42 355.438 15 427.938 25 431.938 79 363.875 44 427.438 4-20 4-15 3-20 15 344.875 37 437-625 30|376.125 57 418.000 9 518.250 31 654.125 3-10 3-0 3-10 I— 6 I-20 31353. 625) 3.00 II ig ra 2.84 61| 521.250 2.91 24 509.000 3.08 5-0 as Per cent of Pounds} gain of or oss 9-339 10.043 | + 7-5 15.903 | +58.3 8.500 11.955 | + 40.6 7.616 10.810 | + 41.9 8.896 12.875 | +44.7 8.298 10.824 | +30.4 8.424 11.423 | +35.6 9.404 12.821 | +36.3 8.783 11.123 | + 26.6 8.890 . 14.796 | + 66.5 17.472 12.738 | —27.1 18.265 | + 4.5 16.327 | —10.6 12.184 14.724 II 406 13.808 | + 21.1 12.819 | — 7.2 13.416 15.089 | +22.5 20.364 | +51.8 10.696 | 12.605 | +17.8 15.188 | 15.667 | ++ 3.2 Per ct, incr’se requir- ed on equiv- alent. record. 27.7 De 8.4 STUDIES IN. MILK SECRETION. veld Plum 4th tertje | | 7th 101 No. ® eG Perict. | in a? cent | incr’se| tab-| Age | 68 of | requir- | Name of cow. ae ee = Eounts ae aun See | n | = TL. g i> | milk. fat. loss aed | yt.mo.da Q irecord. Princess of Wayne 7th 29 4- 3-20) 40 459.625 13-450 re | 189 5— 2-29 30 463.625 14.680 9.1L ( I1G-2 203, 6- 1-27, 38.491.438 15.600 | +15.9| 10.2 | Hartog Pieterje Neth-| 1324-10-13) 62/415.688, 16.258 | re Pea OT Oa *135 4-10-13) 96 403.750, 13.819 | | Netherland Henger-) 1515-10- 3) 65'410.250 13,627. | | pein ine tat ds co ela» 174|7-II- 7| 23'544.875 21.333 | +56.5 | | idien, Hartog: .. son. - 152\7— I-16 3/383.125 10.960 | | 1648- 0-16) 35 494.125 14.573 | +33.0 | Netherland Wayne....| 1595-10-16) 59 436.000 12.767 | 166,6-11I— 4! 53/446.438) 2.79 | 12.470 | — 2.3 | MutualFriend 2d..... 160 7— 0-17} 22'585.125 20.608 182\9- I- 3| 18589.250) 20.242 | — 1.8 es a aaa 161\6— O- 5| 20 419.000 15.519 165 6— O- 5| 82'465.250 14.837 | — 4.4 Aaggie 3d’s Wayne...| 163/7- 4- 5! 21|487.063 15.705 171\8— 3— 5| 17\497.063 16.582 | + 5.6 *183,g- 2-12| 8)410.000 14.773 Aaggie Grace 2d’s Pie-| 177/5— 2— 0| 61 624.938 17.906 | Sdn Sah ofits sate hel adi 197 |6- 2-23 canted 18.803 | + 5.0 eae SP Cling.) zoe 179 g-II-13 89 380. 125 ee fie 185, 11-O— 2| 22'453.500 : : *192|1I-O- 2 56/460.875 15.459 Sagie Vale. 2d. 425... I81/7— 2-25 74|322.813 10.099 198|8— 3-14| 27|/340.250 11.656 | +15.4 | Janie Hijlaard’s Inka.; 186 5- 0-26] 30'446.063) 15.320 | 193 5—- O 26] 63/451.125 13.536 | —I1.6 | Aaggie Grace’s Boy’s| 191\7- 0-17| 39'448.375 13.410 | Repay. eo ry te eee 207|8- 0-13] 54 458.250 13.800 | + 2.9 | Vrouwkje of Hijlaard| 1956- 1- 4 planes 13.427 neo Aa ene 205|7- 0-26] 39 492.250: 3.00 | 14.791 | +10.1 PV ELATEC OL (2 LONs Ven total Sambi ise Ses ale atars opis o's a +34.4| 26.4 PMVETALE OR 3 LOM yVEOr Glare coe ie i alslee sete os oles +21.7| 19.0 Average of.4 to:5 year olds ..5.....5.52.. ste ee sales eds +12.0| 11.3 Average of all cows exclusive of those which were tested twice in the same period of lactation or not tested un- bil EE y: lad rege Mem mM ASe toy ci. 6/4 oes es eye 2 5 20's = + 26.6 21.4 *Economic food test. 102 BULLETIN 152. Table VII places in ready comparison the records of those cows which have been tested more than once. Nine were tested twice during the same period of lactation and all of these gave a less amount of fat on the second test than on the first except No. 39. In this case she gave less milk than at the first test, but her per cent of fat was greater by .53 of 1 per cent, so that the total fat was also greater. (She was in an ‘‘ Economic Food Test’’ the second time.) Three gave more milk and two a higher per cent of fat on the second test than on the first. The average produc- tion of the nine on their first tests is,—386.042 pounds of milk, 3.53 percent fat and 13.829 pounds of fat. Their average on the second tests is,—381.91 pounds of milk, 3.27 per cent fat and 12.128 pounds of fat. Accordingly, we may infer that, asa rule, a cow which has been forced to her utinost for seven days cannot again be made to reach the same point either in production of milk or fat during the same period of lactation. ‘“HOUIVALENT RECORDS.”’ According to the scheme adopted by the Holstein—Friesian Association for the admission of cattle into the Advanced Registry, each two-year old must have produced 7.2 pounds of fat, three- year old 8.8, four-year old 10.4, and each cow, five years old or older, 12 pounds of butter-fat in seven days. It is considered by the Association that a two-year old which produced 7.2 pounds, a three-year old which produced 8.8 pounds, or a four- year old which produced 10.4 pounds of fat would, when she reached the age of fiveor over, produce 12 pounds. Or, inother words, a yield of 7.2 pounds of fat by a two-year old, 8.8 by a three-year old, or 10.4 by a four-year old is equivalent to 12 pounds when the heifer reaches full age. To make this plan good there must be a gain of 1.6 pounds of fat during each succeeding year, which requires an average gain of .13% pounds per month and .00438 pounds per day. In other words, the gain from two to three years must be 22.2 per cent, from three to four years 18.2 per cent, and from four to five years, 15.4 per cent. In Table VII in the column headed ‘‘ Per cent of Gain or Loss ”’ is given the actual gain or loss per cent sustained by the cow from one test to another. In the column headed ‘‘ Per cent of STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 103 Increase required on Equivalent Record ’’ is given the per cent of increase the cow ought to make for the same length of time in order to make good her equivalent record. For the basis of determining what the per cent of gain on the equivalent record should be, there is taken the amount of fat the cow should produce during the time which elapsed between two successive calvings; this amount is divided by the amount of fat a cow of her age should produce at the time of the first of these two calvings; for example, No. 2 was 2 years and 27 days old at the time she dropped her first calf, and at such age should produce 7.318 pounds of fat. The time intervening between the first and second calf was ten months and 26 days, and she should gain in this time in production of fat 1.447 pounds. This would makea gain over 7.318 pounds of 19.8 per cent, which is her required gain on the basis of equivalent records. Her actual gain was 30.5 per cent, so that she did much better than her requirement. On the other hand, this same cow from the ages of three to five actually gained 11.2 while her required gain was 36.9 per cent. In working out equivalent records no account is taken of age over five years. In the same manner the actual and equivalent gains are made out for those cows in Table VII which were tested at the various ages from two to five and the averages under each head and for each age are given. From these averages it will be seen that among the different ages, three, four and five-year olds, the actual gains were in excess of the gains required on the basis of equivalent records. ) The actual gains from year to year as determined from the average records of all the cows, and the average gains required on equivalent records present such a wide variation from each other and from the figures determined in Table VII, that we have placed all the averages in tabular form below for ready compari- son. From From From ZOOS 3to4 4to5 years. years. years. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Actual gain as found from average product for all cows of different ages (Table 1)............. 20.7 Average gain required on equivalent record plan. 22.2 Actual gain as found from average gains of cows that were tested more than once................ 34.4 Zia 12.0 3 7-7 2 r3: 18. 15.4 104 BULLETIN 152. From the averages found in Table I it would seem that, as a rule, the cow has nearly reached her full capacity for production at the age of four years and that she does not gain as much in the remaining year as is required by the equivalent record system. Onthe other hand, a study of the cases given in Table VII shows this system to be fairly accurate. It is without question that the cows which have been tested several times are above the average in power of production and for this reason they may be more able to keep up the pace set for them than are the average cows. GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. The largest total yield of fat among two, three, four-year old, or full aged cows, is, under every age, accompanied by the high- est per cent of fat found among cows of that age. The smallest yield of fat foreach age of animal is accompanied in only one case by the lowest per cent of fat, and that among the two-year olds. . The largest yields of milk do not contain the lowest per cents of fat nor do the smallest yields of milk contain the highest per cents of fat. The stall fed cows average higher in total yield of milk and fat and in per cent of fat than the cows at pasture. Equal quantities of the same kinds of food or similar quantities of different kinds of food produce widely varying amounts of milk and butter in different animals. To produce the same or similar amounts of milk and butter different animals require widely varying amounts of food. Cows, although of the same breed and raised in the same herd, vary greatly in their power to make an economic use of food. The cost of production is greatest among two-year olds and decreases gradually as the age increases up to four years, after which there is little if any variation. Within a period of ninety days from calving there is but little average variation in the per cent of fat among the different ages, except that the average of all the tests made at thirty-one to sixty days from calving is lower than for any other period. STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 105 There is slight variation in the average per cent of fat between two, three and four-year olds, and full aged cows. The highest per cents of fat usually follow the shortest period between milkings. The lowest per cents of fat usually follow the longest period between milkings. Where the cows are milked at equal intervals the highest per cent occurs most often at or near the noon hour, and the lowest per cent about equally often at morning and night with a much larger number at mid- night than at noon. . The average range of variation during seven days between the highest and lowest per cents of fat for individnal animals is greater among four-year olds and full aged cows than among the younger animals. Neither the cows which show very great variation during seven days in the per cent of fat nor those which show slight variation are abnormal animals, since their total product of milk and fat is near the average for their class. Cows which have been once tested and forced to their greatest capacity for a week rarely reach the same height of production again during the same period of lactation, even though the cir- cumstances be otherwise most favorable, but frequently have made increased records in succeeding periods of lactation. There is an increase of only 7.5 per cent of milk and 7.7 per cent in fat of full aged cows over four-year olds, which shows that, on an average, cows have very nearly reached their largest production between the ages of four and five. The ‘‘ Equivalent Record ’’ plan is supported by the records of individual cows which have been tested at various times from two to five years of age, but not by the average records of all the cows of the different ages. ey) st a | : ; wh ee ily ii ris ; tot i ae ' 4 be + the L : ak vi aa we at Sates ay ase ys ; ai Hs ras hike yi ae "in Ne cn 3 ‘ a ved 8S [Eras ae THE FOLLOWING BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THOSE WHO MAY DESIRE THEM. 39 Creaming and Aerating Milk, 20 pp, | 110 Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp. 40 Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. 114 Spraying Calendar. 41 Steam and Hot-Water for Heating | 116 Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Greenhouses. 26 pages. 117 Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. 49 Sundry Investigations of 1892, 56 pp. 119 Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. 53 (Edema of the Tomato, 34 pp. 120 Moisture of the Soil and Its Conser- 55 Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. vation, 24 pp. 61 Sundry Investigations of the Year 1893, 122 Second Report upon Extension Work 54 pp. in Horticulture, 36 pp. 64 On Certain Grass-Eating Insects,58 pp. 123 Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. 69 HintsonthePlanting ofOrchards,16 pp. 124 The Pistol- Case-Bearer in Western 71 Apricot Growing inWestern NewYork, New York, 18 pp. 26 pp. 125 A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. 72 The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. 126 The Currant-Stem Girdler and 73 Leaf Curland Plum Pockets, 40 pp. Raspberry-Cane Maggot, 22 pp. 74 Impressions of the Peach Industryin | 127 A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. Ne We, 28 ppt 128 A Talk about Dahlias, 4o pp. 75 Peach Yellows, 20pp. 129 How to Conduct Field Experiments 76 Some Grape Troubles in WesternN.Y., with Fertilizers, 11 pp. 116 pp. 130 Potato Culture, 15 pp. 77 TheGrafting of Grapes, 22 pp. 131 Notes upon Plums for Western New 78 The Cabbage Root Maggot, 99 pp. York, 31 pp. 79 Warieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 | 132 Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. pp. 133 The Army-Worm in New York, 28 pp. 80 The Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. 134 Strawberries under Glass, Io pp. 82 Experiments with Tuberculin, 20 pp. 135 Forage Crops, 28 pp. 84 The Recent Apple Failuresin N. Y., 24 136 Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. pp. 137. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch 87 Dwarf Lima Beans, 24 pp. of its Origin and Progress, 11 pp. 92 Feeding Fat to Cows, I5 pp. 138. Studies and Illustrations of Mush- 93 Cigar- Case-Bearer, 20 pp. rooms: I. 95 Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. 139. Third Report upon Japanese Plums. 96 Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 pp. 140. Second Report on Potato Culture. 97 Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp 141. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Iol The Spraying of Trees and the Canker Among Swill-Fed Hogs. Worm, 24 pp. 142s ie Codling-Moth. 102 General Observations in Care of Fruit 143. Sugar Beet Investigations. Trees, 26 pp. 144. Suggestions on Spraying and on the 103 Soil Depletion in Respect to the Care San José Scale. of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. 145. Some Important Pear Diseases. 104 Climbing Cutworms in Western N. Y. 146. Fourth Report of Progress on Exten- 5I pp. sion Work. 105 Test of Cream Separators, 18 pp. 147. Fourth Report upon Chrysanthe- 106 Revised Opinion of the Japanese mums. _ 4»: Plums, 30 pp. 148. The Quince Curculio. Geological History of the Chautauqua 149. Some Spraying Mixtures. ; Grape Belt, 36 pp. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1898. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. 150. I5I. 152. Bulletin 153. October, 1898. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. IMPRESSIONS OF OUR FRUPT-GROWIMG INDUSTRIES By L. H. BAILEY, LIBRA PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1898. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL : THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J: L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature Study. A. Ll. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Horticulture. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. CoRNELL UNIVERSITY, IrHaAcaA, N. Y., Oct. 21st, 18098. THE HONORABLE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, N.Y. Szr: This bulletin is submitted for publication under Chapter 67 of the Laws of 1898. Five years ago Professor L. H. Bailey began to make a careful study of the fruit-growing industry. Since that time he has visited Florida and other southern states and has made himself familiar with the production of many classes of fruits. He has studied the problems under consideration not only in all of the fruit-growing counties of this state, but has made trips into the fruit-growing districts of Europe. While this bulletin does not embody the results of strictly scien- tific investigations, it does give, in a concise form, the conclusions reached by the author after a long, careful study of fruit-growing under widely different climates, soils, markets and local conditions. Few Americans have had the opportunity for making such extended observations and few writers on fruit-growing have shown a greater interest in the welfare of both producer and con- sumer. It is therefore with pleasure that I submit this bulletin which embodies the ripened judgment of an expert. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. ae ’ Pas td that planta- ly sa zw cannot be well lt is common a solo means of tilling orchards New York orchard. im a hich 7.—Clean tillage lled. For tt. in 72. (TA the trees are tra 10NS in W t see our Bullet ’ zon of A1SCUSS1 a IMPRESSIONS OF OUR FRUIT-GROWING INDUSTRIES. Some years ago, the writer was asked to undertake an investiga- tion, on behalf of the State, of the fruit-growing of New York. An attempt was made to determine the extent and condition of the industry, to discover the leading difficulties, to devise means to combat insects and fungi, and, by means of lectures and pub- lications, to give advice to fruit-growers. Asa result of the inquiries, there have appeared, by various persons, 34 bulletins, covering most of the fruits which are commercially grown in the State. Inthe progress of these investigations, it became apparent’ that there are greater problems in our fruit-growing than those of soil and insects and diseases, that fruit-growing is profitable or not, in the long run, in proportion as it meets the general requirements of trade and conforms to the agricultural status of the time. It became apparent, also, that. even the immediate problems of fertilizers, tillage, and handling of a plantation cannot be fully understood from mere scientific investigations at a given place. The investigator must correlate and compare the results of actual fruit-growing in many places and under many conditions to be sure that he arrives at broad and sound conclusions, or at principles. Withthis thought in mind, aneffort has been made, in the last five years, to determine the underlying reasons for some of the successes and failures of the fruit-grower, by studying the actual experiences of fruit-raisers; and some of the summary con- clusions of this inquiry are given herewith. Such conclusions are necessarily colored by the personality of an author, and the writer must therefore say that they are meant to be expressions of general truths rather than statements of specific facts, and that he cares less whether they are accepted by the reader than that they shall suggest his thinking out his problems for himself. 114 BULLETIN 153. I. AMERICA IS A LAND OF FRUITS. The fruit-growing interests of the United States are very large and are rapidly expanding. Of some fruits we are already raising more than we consume, and we therefore find a mar- ket abroad; and if we are to compete in foreign markets, we should know something of the conditions under which the fruits of our competitors are grown. In other words, it is impor- tant that we understand why America is aland of fruits. ; 1. Amierica is a land of fruits because, for one thing, its agriculture is so recent and so little bound by tradition, that the farmer feels himself free to discard old and unprofitable enter- prises for new and relatively profitable ones. In the unrest which has come from agricultural depression, the newer and less-worked business of fruit-growing asserts itself over the old-time agriculture. It does not follow, how- ever, that fruit-growing will continue to be the more lucrative business. In fact, it is possible that it may come to be over- crowded. But its rise has relieved the over-worked old-line farming, and, as a whole, has been a blessing both to those who went into it and to those who remained out of it; andit has exerted a most important secondary influence in diffusing new knowledge and thereby in educating the people. 2. Again, North America is the leading fruit-growing country of the world because large areas are available for the business. Fruits are grown on a large base, and in wholesale quantities. This means that they are grown cheaply and that the product is of sufficient quantity and uniformity to attract the attention of the market. This is illustrated in a smaller way by comparing the two sides of the continent: Californian fruit is often able to drive the eastern fruits from their own markets because it is in larger and more uniform supply and thereby controls the market. It isthe large base upon which American fruit-growing is established which enables it to enter Huropean markets. 3. Political and social conditions are essentially uniform in all parts of the country, allowing of a free interchange and com- parison of ideals and methods. FRUIT-GROWING INDUSTRIES. 115 In Kurope, the various fruit-growing centers are apt to be unique. The business is the outgrowth of years and centuries of localeffort and tradition. There are difficulties or barriers of races, languages, political systems, and physiographies. Uniformity of methods and results on a large base is practically impossible. In North America, we speak one language and live in practically one political and social environment. We can therefore have community of ideals. We grow thousands of acres of one variety, if need be, and growers work towards a common end. 4. Theclimate of North America is congenial to fruits. 5. The Ameriean farmer has more help from teachers and experimenters than other farmers have. A fundamental idea of our agricultural colleges and experi- ment stations is toreach the very man who tills the soil. The teacher and the farmer are in most intimate contact. As a consequence, the fruit-grower quickly assimilates new methods. He is not fettered by tradition. He is bold and con- fident. He feels that he controls his own efforts and destinies. He receives help at every doubtful point. ‘The result of all this is that the general tone of agricultural business js rising, and the farmer is feeling more and more independent because he knows that he can receive aid and advice in his perplexities. Even those persons who depreciate the colleges and stations, are nevertheless greatly dependent upon them, for they share the general mental uplift and partake of the new ideas which diffuse from the teacher and the experimenter into every farmer’s meeting, into the schools, and the rural press. Public senti- ment is compelling better farming. Asa consequence, knowledge of all theories and practices which make for better fruit-growing are being rapidly popular- ized. . It isenough to cite only a single example,—the fact that spraying for the control of insects and diseases is better under- stood and more extensively practiced by the fruit-growers of America than by those of any other country. 116 BULLETIN 153. II. PROBLEMS OF MARKETING MUST RECEIVE GREATER ATTENTION. It is generally the first thought of the fruit-grower to plant that kind of fruit which he can raise. It is quite as important, however, to plant that which he can sell. It is the business of the experiment station to determine means of increasing the production ; it does not teach means of selling the product except as it makes the product better. There is necessity, therefore, that problems of marketing receive more and more attention from farmers ; and these problems are more complex with the increase of population and of competition. The first step in a discussion of marketing is a classification of the purposes of the given enterprise. Classified in respect to the objects in view, there are two kinds of fruit-growing,—that which desires the product primarily for home use, and that which desires it primarily for market. Of market or commercial fruit- growing, there are again two types,—that which aims at a special or personal market, and that which aims at the general or open market. ‘The ideals in these two types of fruit-growing are very unlike, and the methods and the varieties which succeed for the one may not succeed for the other. The man who grows fruits for the special market, has a definite problem. The product is desired for its intrinsic qualities; and special products demand special prices. The man who grows fruit for the world’s market, has no personal customer. The product is desired for its extrinsic or market qualities ; and the world’s products bring the world’s prices. The special-market fruit-grower generally works on a small base. The world’s- market fruit-grower works ona large base ; or he sells to another who, by combining similar products of many persons, is able to command the attention of the market. Failure to distinguish these two categories is the result of a confusion of ideas. One grows fruit either for a special and personal market, in which case he looks for his own customer and is independent of general trade ; or he grows what the market demands, and allows the machinery of trade to handle the product. In the latter effort, FRUIT-GROWING INDUSTRIES. 1i7 the American fruit-grower is preeminent ; but in the former he has made little more than a beginning. 1. Theessence of these remarks is the fact that in the staple or large-area crops, the demand regulates the supply ; whereas, in products which are essentially luxuries, amenities and accessories, the supply largely regulates the demand. The world’s staples are breadstuffs, meats and materials for clothing and building ; but in fruits there are some types or varieties which are staples for that group,—staples in the sense that they are adapted to cultivation over wide areas and to be sold in the general and open markets. In apples, the Baldwin and Ben Davis are staples ; Chenango and Lady are accessories. 2. It follows, then, that general or staple products find their best outlet in the generaland open markets; special and accessory products find their only outlet in particular and personal markets. This law is well illustrated in the market for glass-house products. Persons are always wondering that there should be sale for forced tomatoes and strawberries after the southern- grown products are in the market; but the fact is that one does not compete with the other. The accident that the pro- ducts from the glass-house and from Florida are called by the same name does not signify that they are purchased by the same parties. ‘There is a market for glass-house produce and a market for field-grown produce ; if the glass-house produce is offered in the other market, the prices are not sufficient to pay the cost. Shall I grow apples on free stocks or on dwarts ? Whichever you like; but with the dwarf-grown fruit you can- not compete in the open market. You cannot afford to sell dwarf-grown apples in barrels: such apples cost too much to raise. You cannot afford to grow Baldwin or Ben Davis on dwarfs, for apples thus grown cannot compete with large-tree orchards; and the gain in quality (due to the better care) of such low-quality varieties when grown on dwarfs, costs more than it is worth. The dessert apples can be profitably grown, ~ perhaps, on dwarfs, provided they are put into a dessert market. The staples may be sold to the itinerent buyer, but the special products must be handled by the producer or his 118 BULLETIN 153. agent. How often we grow the fruit, but miss the market! These facts respecting the two classes of products and mar- kets are, it seems to me, the most imperative lessons for the American fruit-grower now to learn. 3. The foreign market may be expected to increase. I have already outlined the reasons, as they appeal to me, for the great development of fruit-growing in North America; and therein are stated reasons why we can enter the European markets. It only remains to add that the European consumers desire our fruit. It is handsome, uniform, and much of it is of excellent quality. It is also well packed ; or, rather, that which is not well packed does not reach the discriminating consumer. The English are now well acquainted with our apples, and fruit-buyers on the continent, particularly in Ger- many, are learning to knowthem. The foreign market is only fairly opened: it is not yet supplied. Most persons with whom I have talked in Europe believe that the European fruit-growers cannot compete with the American in general- market fruit and they are looking for a growing trade in American produce; and my own opinion is that they cannot compete with us in apples, and probably not even in pears and some other fruits. But as exportation increases the more dis- criminating the foreign market will become. Greater and greater attention must be given to packing and grading, selec- tion of varieties, and particularly to good tillage, thinning and spraying ; for spraying gives a better keeping as well asa sounder fruit. A person connected with an experiment station is often asked if he would advise the planting of more fruit. The question is one which pertains to business and is therefore not within the purview of the experimenter ; and the success of any venture is intimately associated with the personality of its promoter. Yet, one can form some notion as to whether fruit-growing is over- done, or whether there is still opportunity for expansion. Now, every business is overdone in its common levels. There is com- petition everywhere. The success of a business, therefore, depends more upon the man than upon the business. The first advice, therefore, is to choose the business which one likes best. FRUIT-GROWING INDUSTRIES. IIg Again, one must not expect a financial success every year. There are good and bad years in fruit-growing, as there are in manu- facturing or store-keeping. The fruit-grower should go into the business, therefore, as a long-time or more or less permanent undertaking, expecting to become more adept each year. He should then distinguish the type of market for which he desires to grow. If heis to compete in the general open markets he must work on a comparatively large base. The man who has only a small area will generally do best in the growing of special things—if he have sufficient skill—for personal markets. Asa people, we are not diverse enough in our fruit-growing. Too many of usare aiming at the general, common market,—assum- ing that we aim at all. It seems to mie that the success in the general metropolitan and export markets is to be more and more secured by large-area fruit-farming, and that other fruit-farmers must develop sufficient skili to raise choicer things for more restricted and better markets. Asa whole, fruit-growing is not overdone, particularly if the foreign markets are properly encour- aged and supplied ; but in particular places and cases it is over- done. Some fruits are not capable of indefinite extension. It seems, for example, that grape-growing in western New York has reached the limit of its profitable development for the time being. Grapes area dessertfruit. They are not used to a large extent in culinary preparations; and there are few incidental or secondary products,—that is, they are not dried, canned, made into jellies, and the like, to any extent. Moreover, quality ina grape does not show on the surface as it does on apples or peaches. In apples, there is likely to continue to be demand for export, and the demand for dessert apples is almost wholly unsupplied. - In fact, the demand of the world’s markets has obscured the impor- tance of the special markets. Of good peaches, pears, apricots and berry fruits there is sufficient supply only in occasional years ; for even when the open market may be full, there are still per- sons who are asking for a better grade for private use. All these hints are given to indicate the fact that success in fruit-growing is quite as much the hunting out of a market as the raising of the fruit; and the market problem should be clearly in mind from the moment the plantation is planned. 120 BULLETIN 153. Ill. THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTATION. The details of the handling of the fruit plantation are discussed in many bulletins issued from this and other stations; but there are some general considerations—or ways of looking at certain questions—which it may be profitable to discuss. Sod or tillage.—This an old question, this controversy whether sod or tillage is better for an orchard. Plantations will be cited to prove either case, which really prove them both. That is, for the orchard which does better in sod, sod is the better. But it cannot be that both are equally good; and if not, then we should discover which is fundamentally better, and the other will thereby be the exception which proves the rule. Now, there -have been bulletins and expositions enough to show that liberal tillage is the better condition for the orchard; and the man who cites his plantation as an example of a contrary fact, cites only an isolated case and one which should be explained. He does not cite a principle. It is desirable that horses be shod; yet there are cir- cumstances in which it is better that they be barefoot. I shall not repeat arguments for tillage, but give a few summary con- clusions of observations. European large-area orchards are generally in sod; and this fact is perhaps one reason for the» prevalence of sod orchards in America, since European practice becomes known in this country through books and foreign-born farmers. ‘There are various rea- sons for this condition which, it seems to me, will not apply here. In the first place, the country is moist and there is less necessity for conserving moisture than in America. ‘The drier the coun- try, the better is the tillage, other things being the same. Com pare the frequency of sod orchards in New England with their infrequency in California. Again, the higher price of land and the smaller farms, make it necessary to support two crops on the same land,—trees and grass. In parts of Europe which are primarily grazing or dairy regions, the tree fruits are in reality -a secondary or catch crop, as, for example, in the cider-produc- ing parts of Normandy. In other parts, cattle are kept indoors most of the summer and are fed newly-cut grass; this grass may be gleaned in orchards. Still again, the large-field plantations FRUIT-GROWING INDUSTRIES. I2I of fruit-trees in Europe are generally of secondary importance to the small-area or garden plantations. In the fruit-gardens, the trees are excellently well trained, fertilized and tilled, and the results are usually good. Yet again, there is less horse-labor and fewer horse-tools in Europe than in this country. And finally, _ many of the plantations are rented, and the lease-holder has little interest in such long-time investments as fruit-trees. It is undeniable that excellent results are often secured in sod orchards, but the reasons for these good results must be deter- mined for each case. By examining such cases under a wide range of conditions, however, one may be able to formulate a afew general statements or principles. We may first throw out of our inquiry those cases in which the sod is present merely because the owner has neglected to till. He has not had time to care for the orchard as he cares for the other parts of the farm. In most of these cases, the orchard is a mere incident toa gen- eral scheme of grain-farming or dairying. The land is needed for pasturage, and if fruit is obtained it is clear gain. This isa perfectly legitimate practice. The owner has no taste for fruit- growing and does not expect to compete with fruit-growers. He is in other business ; and it is doubtful if it would pay him to reduce his grazing area and neglect other affairs by keeping the orchard in a high state of cultivation. There now remain those cases in which the farmer believes that orchards dobetter in sod than in clean tillage. My own opinionis, from an examination of hundreds of these instances, that the greater part of such orchards thrive in spite of the sod, not because of it. It is very rare that the farmer has made ,com- parisons of the two methods side by side. If he has made any comparative observations,: they have been drawn between his plantation and his neighbor’s ; but the two are often not com- parable, being on different sites, soils, and of different varieties. Because an orchard does well in sod, does not prove that it might not do better in tillage. There are many instances in which the orchardist has tried till- age and has found it to be unsatisfactory. In the greater number of such cases, the tillage was begun too latein the life of the plantation to yield good results : the habit of the trees had already 122 BULLETIN 153. been established and the shallow root-systems had been formed. In another class of cases, the grower is misled by an occasional very heavy crop into the belief that his orchard is successful. It is the habit of sod orchards to over-bear at long intervals, or whenever all congenial natural conditions chance to be in unison. Tilled orchards tend to bear more continuously, but may not bear so heavily in occasional years. If the ‘‘ bearing year’’ is ever to be controlled, tillage is the first step towards that end. In other cases, sod orchardsthrive because they have been well manured by the droppings of animals which are pastured in them ; but the good results in these instances are due to fertilizing, not to sod. It does not follow, however, that this is the best way to fertilize orchards, although it has the great merit of expediency. Sometimes seeding-down is the only practicable means of caring for an orchard, because the land is so hilly or rocky that it cannot be tilled. There remain other instances in which sod seems to be a decided benefit to an orchard. These are cases in which it seems to be necessary to check growth on lands which are over-rich or which hold so much moisture that some of it can be profitably utilized in the growing of grass. On parts of the Cornell grounds, we think it necessary to seed down about fruit trees, because the land has been made so rich that the trees are over-growing and splitting down with the weight of top; but the seeding-down will be only a temporary expedient. The danger of too rapid growth is particularly great in peaches and grapes; it is very small with apple trees. Everyone knows that sod is not good for strawberries, grapes, potatoes, corn, wheat or raspberries ; the presumption is, there- fore, that it is not good for apples or quinces. But apples, quinces and pears are tough, and it is surprising what little harm sod can do them when the land is good ! Fertilizing.—I am convinced that it will not yet pay to add commercial fertilizers to the general run of fruit plantations in New York. ‘The tillageand other treatment are not good enough to warrant the extra expense. That is, the product is not of sufficient value to pay for any extra investment ; and the land and trees are in such poor condition that the mere addition of FRUIT-GROWING INDUSTRIES. 123 fertilizer will be of little avail. But the better the tillage and the better the crops, the more it will pay, as a rule, to add fertilizers : the better a thing is, the more will it pay extra care and treatment. And the heavier an orchard bears in its youth, the greater is the presumption that it will need good care and fertilizing in its old age. All this means that the best fruit-growers will generally find it profitable to use liberally of fertilizers. What fertilizers to use and how to apply them are subjects which are discussed in bulletins by many authors, and it is not necessary to refer to these details here; but even after reading all the literature, the farmer must experiment with his own land and his own crops to determine just what materials are most profitable for his use. In other words, the advice as to fertilizers is more valuable in teaching a man principles, in suggesting means of experimenting, and in designating the probabilties of any line of action, than in specifying just what fertilizers one shall use. Various studies of the effects of fertilizers on horticultural crops have been made by this station, some of which will be published in due season. Of these, two may be mentioned here: I. In 1894, an unprofitable apple orchard 25 years old, belong- ing to S. W. McCullom, Lockport, was examined by an expert, who thought that it needed potash. The orchard had been unpro- ductive and had been in.sod for some time. It stands on a rather, hard dryish light clay loam, in which there are many small stones. The trees, Baldwin and Greening, are in good shape, and looked better than most apple trees do. Some trees received'1o pounds of nitrate of soda, sown as far as the spread of the limbs. Other trees received 10 pounds of muriate of potash, other 10 pounds of sulfate of potash, and others both muriate and sulfate. The materials were lightly plowed in, and the ground was then harrowed. ‘The fertilizers were applied August 11, 1894. The orchard was plowed again in the fall of 1895, and again in the spring of 1896; and it is yet under tillage. Inthe season of 1895 no results were seen. In 1896, the nitrate-fertilized trees were remarkably darker colored than the others in foliage, more vigorous, and carried a heavier load of fruit. The difference in 124 BULLETIN 153 foliage could be detected at a distance of a half mile. In 1897, these trees were still superior to others, but the effects were not so marked as in the previous year. In 18908, all effects were lost, - and the trees could not be distinguished from their neighbors. In 1896, the potash trees seemed to show a very slight gain, but no difference could be detected between the different potash treatments. In 1897 no effects were noticed; neither at fruiting time in 18908. This experience is remarkable in two respects,—in showing how difficult it is to predict results with fertilizers in old orchards,and jn the slowness with which the nitrate of soda worked. It was eighteen months before the effects of this dressing were seen ; and yet nitrate of soda is soluble and is supposed to pass quickly through the soil. There are two explanations of this tardy action of the nitrate: this length of time may have been required to carry the material down to the roots, or the tree may not have recovered from its accustomed lethargy until the season follow- - ing its appropriation of the nitrogen. ‘This experience is further valuable in showing that the effect of nitrate lasted but two years. II. Inthe orchard of J. J. McGowen, near Ithaca, experi- ments were begun in 1894 and 1896. ‘The trees were 26 years old when tests were begun, and they had been continuously in sod after the first three years. They had been well top-dressed with stable manure for many years, however, and were in good bearing condition. The varieties are King and Baldwin. Plot A. Plowed in the fall of 1894 and spring of 1895. At the latter time, sulfate of potash was applied at the rate of 750 lbs. to the acre. Clean tillage followed. The apples of 1895 were larger, and seven to ten days later than those on untreated trees. In 1896 the tillage was continued, and on May 14a heavy dressing was made of muriate of potash. Early in June, 1896, the foliage on the plot was seen to be unusually dark colored and vigorous. ‘The difference could be seen a half mile. There was also a larger crop, not due to more profuse blossoming of the treated trees, but to less loss at the ‘‘June drop.’’ The amount of fruit was about twice as great as on adjacent trees, and the apples were larger, later and lighter colored. FRUIT-GROWING INDUSTRIES. 125 These results at once raised the question whether the potash or the tillage had influenced the trees. Consequently, two other plots were undertaken : Plot B. ‘Top-dressed in June, 1896, with 750 lbs. muriate pot- ash per acre, and August, 1897, with sulfate potash, 750 lbs. to acre. Remains in sod. Plot C. Plowed and tilled, from June 1896 to 1898. No fertilizer. Plot A was continued in tillage, and in August, 1897, sulfate of potash was applied at the rate of 750 lbs. per acre. In 1896, neither plot B or C showed any results. In 1897, Plot A still had the darkest and best foliage and gave aslightly better yield than the remainder of the orchard ; but the results were not so marked as in 1896. The apples were still larger and later. In 1898, Plot A was still best, although the differences were very little. The fruit on this plot still ran larger than on others, and the owner thought, as in other years, that it was coarser and less sweet. Plots B and C seemed to show no gain over untreated trees. Here, then, is an orchard, in good bearing condition, which was benefited by a treatment combining tillage and application of potash. Neither of these factors alone gave results. But the extra vigor and yield were at the expense of high color and early maturity. In the McCullom orchard the extra vigor of foliage, due tothe nitrogen, seemed to be an unmixed blessing, although it should be said that the nitrogen-fertilized apples were Greenings, in which loss of color would not show. If there is any lesson to be drawn from these comparisons, it is that sod orchards which have been top-dressed systematically with stable manures may be expected to respond less profitably to remedial treatments than those which have not been so treated ; but it does not follow that such orchards may not have given still better results if they had been both manured and tilled from the first. In other words, the better the habitual care of the fruit planta- tion, the less occasion the grower has to worry about it. These experiments also illustrate how different the problems are in dif- ferent orchards, and how necessary it is that the farmer attempt 126 BULLETIN 153. to solve these local problems for himself by means of experiment. It is the custom to say that fruits need potassic fertilizers. This may he true as a general statement ; but it does not follow that every plantation needs them. Why are orchards barren ?—This is one of the most difficult to answer of all agricultural questions,—why so many orchards are unproductive year after year. There are many causes of unpro- ductiveness; and it is impossible to make an orchard young again in order that it may be brought up in the way it should go. It is a significant fact, however, that of many hundreds of barren orchards which I have inspected, less than half a dozen had received good tillage and other good care from the outset. In fact, barren orchards—of properly selected varieties—which have been well tilled, fertilized and otherwise well treated, are so rare © that it is unnecessary to consider them in this discussion. The most casual observer will agree that neglect is the common and general cause of barrenness in orchards. Even pigs are an unsatisfactory crop when they are obliged to shift for them- selves. But it isthe business of the experimenter to determine just which element of neglect is responsible for the failure in any particular case. I believe that the most general causes of bar- renness are the following, being stated approximately in the order of their frequency and importance: (1) lack of good tillage, particularly in the first few years of the life of the plantation ; (2) lack of humus and fertilizer ; (3) uncongenial soils and sites; (4) lack of systematic annual pruning ; (5) lack of spray- ing and of attentionto borers and other pests ; (6) bad selection of varieties; (7) trees propagated from unfruitful stock. Seasons vary. Some years aregood fruit years: in those years most orchards bear. In fact, they are likely to overbear ; the trees are thereby depleted, and a bad year follows: the con- sequences are ‘‘ bearing years’’ and “‘ off years.” The longer the conditions are allowed to dictate what the crops shall be, the more difficult itisto bring the plantation into a habit of annual bearing. I suspect that half the mature barren orchards of the State could not be made profitable by any line of treatment. They have had theirown way too long. In most cases of barren FRUIT-GROWING INDUSTRIES. 127 orchards, something is fundamentally wrong ; and fundamentals can not be changed in a day. In the nature of the tree there is no reason why it should not bear more or less continuously. On the Cornell grounds is a Stark apple tree which was planted in 1890. It is in rich ground and has had good care. It is as large as most trees are attwelve years. It has borne five consecutive crops. In 1896it bore two barrels of first-quality graded apples ; in 1897 it had nearly as many ; in 1898 it bore three barrels. Varieties.—There is a decided tendency in this country to limit closely the number of varieties of any fruit when setting a plantation. Some of the most successful fruit-growers would limit the varieties of apples, pears or strawberries to three or four. Yet, as a matter of fact, the really good varieties of any fruit are usually numbered by scores, sometimes by hundreds, and valuable novelties are always being introduced. Here, then, is aconflict. If the advice of fruit-growers is to be followed, it would seem that the introduction of novelties is unnecessary ; and yet without novelties, progress in varieties is impossible. It is true that varieties should be few in most plantations, but the reason is that most American fruit-growers are raising fruits for the general or open markets; and in these markets, uniform- ity of product is almost imperative. But if it is fatal to grow many varieties when the world’s markets are in view, it may be equally unsatisfactory to grow very few varieties when special or personal markets are in view. I believe that the tendency is to go too far in the reduction of varieties. Weare reducing fruit-growing to a single ideal and are thereby increasing the competition in that direction. There are varieties for different uses, different soils, and different geographical regions ; and a variety which fails in every region but one, may still be worth introducing. It is the commonest mistake to recommend a variety for any region merely because it thrives in some other region. Because the Ben Davis is eminently successful in the mid-continental region, is no reason for supposing that it will be equally good in New York; in fact, it is a presumption against its thriving equally well in New York, for a variety rarely does equally well everywhere. A 128 BULLETIN 153. fruit-grower in western New York asked me if I would advise him to plant Arkansas apples. I told him no; but I advised him to test them. A variety which is suited only to the general market, is most profitable in that region in which it thrives best. It is doubtful, for instance, if the New York grower can compete long in Kieffer pears with growers in the middle and southern states; and it is certain that those regions cannot compete with New York in Bartletts and Seckels. Wherever a fruit reaches its highest development, there it should be grown; and local varieties are often best adapted to local and personal markets. The nurseries grow fruit trees to supply the demand for gen- eral-purpose varieties; and as a consequence they tend to reduce varieties and to make them uniform over the whole country. Many of the fine dessert varieties cannot be obtained at nurseries. With the refinement of our horticulture more varieties will be grown. The more fully the horticulture of any country is developed, the more perfectly are the various localities and needs supplied. In this direction we have much to learn from Europe, for one is there impressed with the great numbers of varieties which are actually known and grown. Butin Europe, the fruits are grown for local and personal markets; here we grow for the world’s markets, and varieties must therefore be few in com- parison. Since the selection of varieties is a question of locality and of the personal ideals of the grower, it follows that those lists of varieties are most valuable, other things being equal, which are made by the most local and circumscribed societies. . Does spraying pay ?—The past season has given strange re- sults in spraying. In very many instances spraying seemed to do no good. Does spraying pay, then? Certainly, the same as tillage and pruning do. We do not know why there were so many unsatisfactory experiences in 1898; but this does not lessen the fact that bugs and fungi should be killed. That spraying pays is as well demonstrated as it is that apple-worms, tent-caterpillars and potato-blight are injurious. Markets often fail, but it does not follow that markets are a nuisance. The safest way is to make it a rule to spray everything every year, FRUIT-GROWING INDUSTRIES. 129 and then to break the rule when oneis sure that the combination of circumstances is such that spraying is not necessary. This means that the fruit-farmer must master the reasons and the principles, and then apply them as circumstances demand. As arule, the better the results of spraying the better has the operator conceived of his own local problems. If the fruit- grower follows this advice, he will probably’ find himself spray- ing apples and pears and quinces every year; and he will be more than likely to do the same for plums, grapes and straw- berries. In no one of the applications of science-teaching to fruit- growing has the American so clearly the advantage of the Euro- pean asin the knowledge of insect and fungous pests and of means of dispatching them. The superiority of the American fruit as a general-market product, is due toa considerable degree tospraying. The American, of all men, should be the last to ask if spraying pays. BEY sr uyi ya ee 4 i Poe ; i TARA bihobde At Hei Hee iriees as ene Seen Seat ae ete 5 yf Aeris se OPES cia Loe ve bies ner agree. ini ae ihe init Se a en RaS 1 oldie aH 4 eE | ee ik rai : EF a spoken” Toe P at ee a Oa hk : ite te ee REE Ltt Ney - i wes: o Been: Aa Ss a ; eet Rs. oe faye: . Fi > haa aCe eos Ay yer Se ‘ ° ‘ jae » 6 Pe + ; ; rere th) fhpehe hist) Vv % : . 4 * ‘ Te ye Uist hel yceet ee ’ wee PO Oras ; P t = J UJ v¢ ‘ Pistoia . wal aw irs “> 24% ‘ t+ J 3 M4 | ~ * iy ae ‘ ¥, a4 | 7 ; 77 > . j. % * . 7 - ad ;. v * a all © , * ie *& os * SI g 4 , os 7" oA ‘ i. = meee vs ie 7" “hs fat ‘a a. 5 “4 met a) phe oN dng, . apne tik: tah Ph epat Saet t ee THE FOLLOWING BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THOSE WHO MAY DESIRE THEM. Creaming and Aerating Milk, 20 pp, Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. Steam and Hot-Water for Heating Greenhouses. 26 pages. Sundry Investigations of 1892, 56 pp. (Edema of the Tomato, 34 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. Sundry Investigations of the Year 1893, 54 PP. On Certain Grass-Eating Insects,58 pp. Hints on thePlanting ofOrchards,16 pp. Apricot Growing inWestern NewYork, 26 pp. The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Leaf Curl and Plum Pockets, 4o pp. Impressions of the Peach Industry in WN... 28 Dp. Peach Yellows, 20pp. Some Grape Troubles in WesternN.Y., 116 pp. The Grafting of Grapes, 22 pp. The Cabbage Root Maggot, 99 pp. Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 Ppp. The Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. Experiments with Tuberculin, 20 pp. The Recent Apple Failuresin N. Y., 24 PP. Dwarf Lima Beans, 24 pp. Feeding Fat to Cows, 15 pp. Cigar- Case-Bearer, 20 pp. Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. Forcing House peat 43 Pp. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 p The Spraying of Trees and the Canker Worm, 24 pp. General Observations in Care of Fruit Trees, 26 pp. Soil Depletion in Respect to the Care of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. Climbing Cutworms in Western N. Y. SI pp. Test of Cream Separators, 18 pp. Revised Opinion of the Plums, 30 pp. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, 36 pp. Japanese | IIo 114 116 117 119 120 Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp. Spraying Calendar. Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. Moisture of the Soil and Its Conser- vation, 24 pp. Second Report upon Extension Work in Horticulture, 36 pp. Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. The Pistol-Case-Bearer in Western New York, 18 pp. A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. The Currant-Stem Girdler and Raspberry-Cane Maggot, 22 pp. A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. A Talk about Dahlias, 4o pp. How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Potato Culture, 15 pp. Notes upon Plums for Western New York, 31 pp. Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. The Army-Worm in New York, 28 pp. Strawberries under Glass, Io pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp. Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of its Origin and Progress, 11 pp. Studies and Illustrations of Mush- rooms: I. Third Report upon Japanese Plums. Second Report on Potato Culture. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. The Codling-Moth. Sugar Beet Investigations. Suggestions on Spraying and on the San José Scale. Some Important Pear Diseases. Fourth Report of Progress on Exten- sion Work. Fourth Report upon Chrysanthe- mums, The Quince Curculio. Some Spraying Mixtures, Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1898. 150. I5I. 152. 153. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. SECOND EDITION. Bulletin 154. November, 1898. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. AGRICULTURAL DIVISION. TABLES FOR COMPUTING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. By J. L. STONE. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, TTR ACA SN, .\V 1808. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Horticulture. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. G. W. TAILBY, Foreman of the Farm. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Apply to the Director for bulletins. . 20 Morrill Hall, Ithaca, N. Y. COMPUTING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. For more than a third of a century the subject of feeding to farm animals a ‘‘balancedration’’ or one that conforms quite closely toa ‘‘standard’’ that has been fixed by carefully con- ducted experiments with the kind of animals for which it is recommended, has been before American stock feeders. ‘The general utility of feeding standards is almost universally admitted by those who have given the matter study, and the number of feeders who are endeavoring to conform their practices to the standards is continually increasing. The tables of feeding stuffs and the methods of using them have been much simplified of late years, but judging by the large number of requests from farmers, received by the agricultural papers and the Experiment Stations, for formulas of balanced rations, adapted to the needs of the inquirers, the subject is still too complicated, or the labor involved too great, to be readily accomplished by the ordinary farmer. It iswith a view of further simplifying the computation of rations and bringing it within the range of every feeder that the accompanying tables have been prepared. The effort has been to carry the computations as near too completion as possible, so that the user will simply need to take from the table the figures corresponding to the kinds and amounts of the feeds used in the proposed ration and add them together to be able to compareit with the standard. The only advantage claimed for this publication is that by the arrange- ment of the tables and by the computations made, the labor of formulating rations is very materially reduced, and it is hoped that many who have not heretofore attempted this work for themselves will be encouraged to do so. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. The various substances found in animal bodies may for con- venience be grouped under four heads: water ; ash, or mineral matter; fat, and nitrogenous matter or protein. These sub- 136 BULLETIN 154. stances occur in the animal body in somewhat varying propor- tions, depending upon age, condition, treatment, etc. Water is an essential constituent of the animal body and constitutes from 4o to 60 per cent of its liveweight. Ash occurs mainly in the bones and constitutes from two to five per cent of the live weight. The fat occurs in greatly varying proportions, but rarely is less than six or more than thirty per cent. All those substances containing nitrogen are classed as_ protein. They constitute an important group of which washed lean meat and the white of egg may be taken as types. They contain about 16 per cent of the element nitrogen and are the only class into the composition of which thiselement enters. All the work- ing machinery of the body, such as flesh, skin, bones, hair, internal organs, brain and nerves, contain a large proportion of protein. COMPOSITION OF FooD MATERIALS. The same four groups of substances found in animal bodies, viz.: water, ash, fat and protein, are also found in the food they consume and in addition the food of herbivorous animals contains a Class called carbohydrates. Water.—All food stuffs, no matter how dry they may seem, contain a considerable amount of water. In grains and dried fodders it ranges from 8 to 15 percent of the material, in green forage and silage it is about 80 per cent, while in some roots it amounts to 90 percent. While.water is essential to animal life and the water in the food fulfills the same function as that drunk by the animal, we do not value food materials for the water they contain, and computions are based upon the water-free or dry matter. Ash.—When a food stuff is burned till the organic matter is all driven off the residue is the ash. It iscomposed largely of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, iron, chlorine, and carbonic, sulfuric and phosphoric acids. The ash of the food is the source of the min- eral matter of the animal body and as such is of great importance. Ordinary combinations of feeding stuffs, however, contain an abundant supply of mineral matter for the use of the animal, so COMPUTING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 137 it is not a matter of practical concern except as it has a bearing on the mineral elements of fertility in the manure. Fats.—This group embraces the materials which may be dis- solved from a feeding stuff by either. ~It includes, besides the true fats, wax and coloring matter. Fat in the food may be either stored in the body as fat, or burned to produce heat and energy. Carbohydrates.—This term includes two groups, nitrogen-free extract, such as starch, sugar, gum, etc., and fiber or the woody part of plants. The former are quite freely digested, the latter much less so, though fulfilling the same function to the extent it is digested. The carbohydrates constitute the largest part of vegetable foods. They are not stored in the animal body as such, but are converted into fat or used (burned) to produce heat and energy. Since the carbohydratesand fat serve nearly the same purpose in the animal economy, they may, for convenience, be grouped together. Experiments, however, have shown that fat is about 21% times as effective as a food as are the carbohydrates. Hence it is customary to multiply the amount of fat by 24 to reduce it toa ‘‘starch equivalent’’ before adding it to the amount of the carbohydrates. Protein.—The protein of foods, like that of the animal body is characterized by containg nitrogen.. It therefore, is fre- quently termed ‘‘ xztrogenous matter.’’ The term albumenoids is sometimes used to designate this group, though it more correctly implies a certain class of protein substances. The function of protein in the food is, first of all, to build up and repair the working machinery of the body, and to supply protein for the production of milk, wool, etc. For no other food constituent can fulfill this function. The importance of a sufficient supply of protein in the ration is, therefore, apparent. If in excess of the amount required to build up and repair the waste of the body the protein may be converted into fat and deposited as such or used to produce heat and energy. Its efficiency for these purposes is about the same as the carbohydrates, but as it is usually far more expensive to supply than the carbohydrates, economy would dictate that only so much should be supplied to the animal as will suffice to repair 138 BULLETIN 154. the wastes of the animal machinery and build up new growth in case of growing animals, or for the production of milk, wool, ete. COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS. Nutritive ratio.—Since the protein on the one hand and the carbohydrates and fat on the other, serve, in the main, different purposes in the animal economy, it becomes evident that the relative amounts of these nutritients in the food are important. This relation isexpressedas the ‘‘ nutritive ratio,’’ which means the relation of digestible protein to digestible carbohydrates and fat—the fat having been multiplied by 2% before adding to the carbohydrates, as explained above. The nutritive ratio is found by dividing the carbohydrates, plus 2% times the fat, by the pro- tein. In the accompanying table. No. II, the sum of the carbo- hydrates and fat, thus obtained, is given in the third column, which divided by the protein as given in the second column gives the second term of the nutritive ratio in the fifth column. A feeding stuff having a large proportion of carbohydrates and fat as compared to protein is said to have a ‘‘ wide’’ nutritive ratio, while one having a small proportion of carbohydrates and fat as compared to protein has a ‘‘ narrow’ ratio. While these terms are relative, it may be said that a ratio greater than 1:6 is wide, while one less than 1:5 is narrow. The composition of feed- ing stuffs, that is the proportion in which the different nutrients occur, is determined by chemical analysis, but the amount of each nutrient that is actually digestible has been determined by care- ful experiments with living animals. Only the digestible nutri- ents are considered in the tables given in this publication. Feeding Standards.—The amount of nutrients required and the proportions in which each should be given, varies with the kind of animal and the purpose for which it is kept: whether it is growing, being fattened, doing work, or producing milk or wool. Thus an ox at rest requires less food and the various nutrients in different proportions than an ox at work; a cow producing milk requires more food and the nutrients differently balanced than one not producing. Various investigators have condensed the results of many experiments and much practical experience into what are called >) COMPUTING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 139 ‘“feeding standards,’’ which attempt to state what is general, and under average collections, a good ration for the purpose in view. While these standards cannot be considered as mathe- metically exact, still large practical experience has demonstrated their great value as aids to feeders. In Table /, under the title of Feeding Standards, are given the approximate requirements of various classes of animalsand under varying conditions. These standards are mostly from German sources, but they have been found very helpful to American feeders. They are presented here as arranged by Armsby, in Circular of Information No.1, ‘‘ Computationof Rations for Farm Animals,’’ Penna. State College. The standardsare for animals of 1,000 lbs. live weight,and may beincreased or diminished for larger or smaller animals, though itis probable that the individuality of the animal, its power toassimilate and produce, will have more todo with the varying of the ration than its weight. It is permissible, perhaps, to depart from the amounts given in the first column under the head of ‘‘ Dry Matter,’’ more than in any other way. The digestive apparatus of farm animals is elastic and accommdates itself quite readily to the varying bulk of its food. In the last column is given the nutritive ratio, which should, perhaps, he adhered to with some care, trusting to the appetite of the ani- mal (which will be controlled largely by its power of digesting and producing) to indicate the amount of nutrients required. As a rule the most rapid fattening or growth and abundant pro- duction are most economical, and these results are best secured by feeding an abundant and well balanced ration (well up to the limit of the animal’s appetite) while the dry matter is not per- mitted to rise much above the standard. These standards presuppose comfortable stables for the animals during cold weather. If the stables are not comfortable, make them so if possible, but if the animals must be exposed to cold either in doors or out it will be well to increase the amount of carbohydrates in the rations. On the other hand if the stables are so constructed that the temperature never falls below 32° F., a ration even narrower than that given in the standards may be fed to advantage. TABLE I. FEEDING STANDARDS. A—Per day and 1,000 pounds live weight.* ___ ee Dry || Carbohy- | ~—~*| Nutri- matter.| Protein dretes. Total. | tive and fat. ratio. re . Lbs. | Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Oxen at rest tn atall) oc lemenees 17.5 0.7 8.3 9.0 | I:II.9 Wool sheep, coarser breeds....... 20.0 tsZ 10.8 12.0 | 1:9.0 Wool sheep, finer breeds......... 22.5 1.5 12.0 13.5 | 1:8.0 Oxen moderately worked......... 24.0 1.6 12.0 13.0: ,/ te | Oxen heavily worked ............ 26.0 2.4 14.3 16.7 | 1:6.0 Horses lightly worked............ 20.0.)} Aas 10.4 II.g | 1:6.9 Horses moderately worked.. 21.0 9 Op REE eB 13.5.4) Tae Horses heavily worked........... 23.0 28). 14.3 16.6 | 1:6.2 | Milk cows, Wolff’s standard...... 24.0 Bee) 15:4 15.9 | 135.4 | Milk cows, Wisconsin standard...| 24.5 2.2 |: 14.9 17.1 | 1:6.8 Fattening oxen, preliminary period 27.0 25-4. 16.1 18.6 | 1:6.4 Fattening oxen, main period...... 26.0 3.0 16.4 19.4 | 1:5.5 Fattening oxen, finishing period. .! 25.0 2.7 16.2 18.9 | 1:6.0 Fattening sheep, preliminary period 26.0 3-0 16.3 19.3 | 1:5.4 Fattening sheep, main period. . Ane oie Pia 15.8 19.3 | 1:4.5 | Fattening swine ,preliminary p’ riod 36.0 Rekha oS 32.541 435ee Fattening swine, main period..... 31.0 | 4.0 24.0 | 28.0 | 1:6.0 Fattening swine, finishing period.| 23.5 2.7 17.5 20.2 “ies Growing cattle: | Average live weight Age. Months per head 2-3 150 MS) 2-2 oo 22.0 4.0 18.3 22.3 4 See 3-6 200 ths ..68 5) 22k % Bea |< 32 15.8 19.0 | 1:4.9 | 6-12 Gat Pre tots BAGO..|. 2.5: lao a 17.4 | 1:6.0 12-18 ASO ANOR, ae ONS As 24.0 2.0 | 13.9 15:9 | £27:0 18-24 Sriihe.ic 24.0 1.6 1377 14.3 | 1:8.0 Growing sheep : | 5-6 BG ADS a yce 23:0 )- 3.2 5° aga 20.6 | 1:5.4 6-8 sg As So Res ce. Sa 1 22:7 14.7 17.4) Pee 8-11 hg | aed See 240.1 208 12.5 14.6 | 1:6.0 II-I5 2 AS 3-0ee wee 22.5 1.7 40 kee 13.5 | 1:7.0 | 15-50 $5 1s ooo ices 2220.4" Ta 15-1 12.5 | 1:8.0 | Growing fat pigs : | 2-3 50 ths cavers 42.0 | 7.5 | 30.0 37.5. Piss 3-5 106 16: ss Bez 34.0 | 5.0 25.0 30:0) | 45.04 5-6 (25) (be Soe 31-5 | 4-3 eee er, 28.0 | 1:5.5 6-8 17G they cone 27.0 2.47) oom 23.8 | 1:6.0 8-12 250 lbs .......-| 21.0 | 2.5 | 16.2 | 18.7 1 1:6.5 | 16,2 18.7 | 1:6.5 B—Per day and per head. Growing cattle: 2-3 150 lbs; a ee 2:3} 0.6) ) eB ‘| 9. Bq 1:4.6 3-6 2001bS..o ane ee 7.0 |. 0 | 44 | - 5.9 1:4.9 6-12 500 Ths; sence meas, | 0 3° oe 8.8 1:6.0 12-18 700 lbs" isda T6501) 7.4 POF Tis 1:7.0 18-24 S50 1DS). 2x2 ceem peas) 1.41 .eaek 12.5 1:8.0 Growing sheep: | | 5-6 eS jy cciber he Ret e.18 0.974 | I.154| 125.4 6-8 AAS Ce Rey 1. 0.18 0.981. | ..1.565 | aaa 8-11 PRS eos. ara ee ifn OC. 16 |". 58 1.173 | 78 II-I5 0 | 5 a 1.8 | 0:14| © 0.975 T.115 | 1:7.0 15-20 “ir! aia a 1254 0.12 1 °@955 1.075 | 1:8.0 Growing fat swine : 2-3 RS Se itis 2. eas 1.50 1.88 | 1:4.0 3-5 jhe 2a W'S he ee 3.4 | 0.50 2.50 3.00 | 1:5.0 5-6 el) | a ieee 2.9) 1 ae 2.96 3.50. Si saee 6-8 PROMS ee eines 46a 3.47 4.05 | 1:6.0 8-12 Pty |: Me | 5.2 | 0.62) 4.05... 1G ees *The fattening rationsare calculated for 1,000 lbs., live weight at the beginning of the fattening. COMPUTING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. I4! Table IT gives a list of the feeding stuffs in most common use in New York state. Column one is headed ‘‘ dry matter ;’’ col- umn two, ‘“‘digestible protein ;’’ column three, “‘ digestible carbo- hydrates + (fat * 2%) ;’’ column four, ‘‘total’’ (which is the sum of two and three) ; column five, ‘‘ nutritive ratio.’’ In each of these columns is given the computations of the various food stuffs from one pound up to the amount that is likely to be used in compounding any ration. In the case of the coarse fodders, to save space, the increase is made by more than one pound at a time, but intermediate amounts can readily be obtained from the table if desired. Inno case are the calculations for fen /bs.. of a feeding stuff given, as these can be obtained at once from the figures for one pound, by simply moving the decimal point one place to the right. These computations are based upon the table of ‘‘ Average Digestible Nutrients in American Feeding Stuffs’’ given in Prof. W.A. Henry’s recent book, ‘‘ Feedsand Feeding.’’ The aim has been to carry the computations involved in formulating rations as near completion as possible, and to present the figures in such simple form that no feeder will have difficulty in com- paring the ration he is feeding with the standards and correcting it, if necessary, to conform thereto. 142 BULLETIN 154. TABLE NO. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN THE STATED AMOUNTS OF THE MORE COMMON FEEDING STUFES. si Pounds of digestible nutrients. Protein. — . . . = bs . . sees Kind and amount of food. Total dry | matter c SOILING FODDER. Fodder eotn/') a Ibe Meee .20 ‘ 5 lbs. 1.00 oS ae 3.00 = hs i "Pe cee ee 4.00 n SS) oe shee er 5.00 Ps cml - Pedi c= sty 5 | 6.00 ii meen pase peak ly P2700 sg ee | rey aay sco cam Peas and oats, 1 Ib....:. 16 | FS . 5 as Git / £0 s «s Sey rey: | 2.40 fe 20 OL npateeed ih ys 20 “ce “c 25 ce t 4.00 rs 2 ap. Sal a: 4.80 a « 35 ee 5.60 “6 66 40 iS etre # 6.40 Peas and barley.....:..... 16 Practically the same as peas and oats. Red clover, © tb... 22k ; 29 .s se Isa, y Satan 1.45 Be ARN ORE 7 ee en oer 4.35 es Pies OO. adn Bae 5.80 43 BRN EDS act eee Rs 2 725 rs An ee) a ee 8.70 zh NAS oe on eng int 10.15 5 OS. ees 11.60 at ee te .28 pe he LS a Paes 1.40 Pe BSG Oe Wg eta 4.20 ae CC apheeee ae e ae 5.60 4 De fe es oie OS ea 2 7.00 me Pe ait era ls | 8.40 a ee a Rice eeenen rate. 2 9.80 o AER rT ne eae ey II.20 Hungarian grass, I lb..... .29 pe | erga 1.45 “c «< 15 66 ee 4.35 ce ce 20 ett : ‘| 5.80 ce “c 25 “6 726 “ec “6 30 ce 8.70 ‘ ‘ 35 ae TO. 15 ce ce 40 ac 11.60 - See ee -SOO (fat « 2.25). {025 625 1.875 2.500 3-125 aoe Carbohy- drates + | 4.375 | 5.000 | .076 | .380 I.140 | 1.520 1.QO0 2.280 2.660 3.040 -O77 .164 .820 2.460 3.280 4.100 4.920 5-749 6.560 .138 .690 2.070 2.760 3-450 4.140 4.830 5.520 .169 -845 2.535 3.380 4.225 5.070 5-915 6.760 Nutritive Total. ratio. 135°) Daas .094 | 1:4.2 — ee) ee) oO .094 | 1:4.5 177° | teas .189 | 1:8.4 COMPUTING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. TABLE No. I1.—Continued. Kind and amount of feed. | Total dry Pounds of digestible nutrients. 143 | Carbohy- | ROOTS AND TUBERS. HAY AND STRAW. Timothy « Ib Potatoes 2 iiuue pias aa - Wp ls Ooh ee ae ° a eee 3S Se a {6 mT nner yee P 9s - 1 aOR Se Beer ee Beet, mangel alba os. aaa: ; oh La 5 CO ce ce ec 5 ee! ae or oe Ae ce ee a ce a et) aS ee ae ate ae 1 ie nat Ee «ec ae A ce Beet, supar i ln eae ae ‘. ag be Vere nee ee Pee ae ce ae ES Sue nhs bok bh i a apr rt brent a ce ce 25) ei =i ce ce = ae Catrot, 1: 1b>. cee om ee “S § 1DS: Ae gee eae 15 S* eee ee eee 1) 204° Bo eee ee a Re eee ee 8O BO ee eee Flat Turnip tin. oe es Hy 5 Ibs eeso8 | ‘ ee ee 1s Bes © #3 ce ce ims : : ce ae ce 2S Nees sea ec ce aa ce ow at ey ed, tay ete .009 -045 .135 .180 225 .OII .055 .165 .220 .275 .330 OIL 055 -165 .220 Beas: +330 .008 .O40 .120 .160 .200 tter. Z ges Protein. ieee 2.25.) ee ort silage. |i Wires oss. 2k £609) |. E29 * pe ee, a Nees | 1.05 .0O45 .645 ce ce 15 ce : 205 Wh 25 | 1.935 = Fay SORTA ree Se aes 4.20 .180 2.580 i 4 Bie ae ee sks aS | 5.25 .225 3.225 a ig 6 LIS Cee ea 6.30 <270 3.870 re sarge We Pare pee 7-35 315 4.515 5s De A as oe ltd. 8.40 .360 5.160 7 p amat! Rebe ciara Saban ee | 9-45 .405 } 5.805 ‘ apres) biases eae 10. 50 .450 | 6.450 Nak Rare ae ge ee ge ee ON sae heey Oe ee RRS NES A me CO Be Bo nN Oomann Total. .138 .690 2.070 | 2.760 3-450 4.140 4.830 5-520 6.210 6.900 -174 .870 2.610 3.480 4.350 .067 335 1.005 1.340 1.675 | 2.010 115 SY ia E725 | 2.300 2.875 3-450 .090 | .450 1.305 1.800 2.250 2.700 .087 -435 1.350 1.740 2.175 2.610 493, | 1.479 2 AAS | Nutritive ratio. aie Se 1:9.4 L310;3 12977 T:oL.6 BULLETIN 154. TABLE No. I1.—Continued. Total dry| matter. 144 Kind and amount of feed. Timothy, 7 lbe.k... 2.5.28 | ae 8 “es ae ce Poise et |, . I Re iis Sree ty on ba hae fe a < a +? Pe aes Xa Mixed grasses and clover, ‘ a 3 3 Ibs AE Me, at ee ; 5 Dototeeeeeee ‘ ‘ ¥ z ocpeseeeees rs Of) tee. ee ce Ry ae repens A A 15: Bom mien oot ig ie’ Sop Ss eee Ae ‘1 eT Hungarian hay,.1 Ib...... ~ “¢ 3 Ibsasiiae “ae ae ce | ae ac : ca’ MR ae ce bs] ce ie ac ae cc ac ce e Go tea Red clover hay, 1 lb...... | 5 2 ibs) ee ae ce 3 ce oe ce 7 ae af ac 8 oe ale af ce ce ae ce ee x le De oe ce ae TH SS" | le ce s<¢ ie ce ae ace 20 ae R Alfalfarhay, © Ub 62.5. 2% - OS), Bip rae ae ce ae rs 5 Dopeeessess se ‘ eet ie Lt eae de Ra IB Ree, as eee oh i Ad Danhammeemiaed ore. - eMC Ad So [aes eee ry Gay) dg IE Ly 2 es firemes cer Lbs tc ae v ele Or a a CORRES | Protein. ms Ne =a OO — &WNnNO An vd Of O | Carbohy- | drates + ‘fat 2.25.) 3-255 3.720 4.185 5.580 6.975 8.370 | 9.300 .460 1.381 2.300 3.220 3.680 4.140 5.520 6.900 8.280 g. 200 546 | 1.638 2.730 3.822 4.368 4.914 6.552 .396 1.188 1.980 2.992 3.168 3.564 4.752 5-949 7.128 7.920 423 1.269 2.115 2.961 3.384 | 3.807 5.076 | 6.345 7.614 |Pounds of digestible nutrients. Total. 7-395 | 8.874 9.860 .522 1.566 2.610 3-654 4.176 4.698 6.264 7.830 . 9.396 10.440 -591 1.773 2.955 4.137 4.728 5-319 7.092 .464 1.392 2.320 3.248 3.912 4.176 5.568 6.960 8.352 9.280 S358 1.599 © 2.665 | 3-731 4.264 4-797 6.396 | 7-995 9-594 10.660 Nutritive ratio. 57:4") es Hy 1:5.8 | : COMPUTING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. Kind and amount of feed. Cora fodder: “14b?. Ses f5:- .58 em ei ae Pee 2.90 “ 2 ihe AE gee 4.64 ‘4 SRO Leto eos Cats 6.96 . EAE OR Bed FE 8.70 ~s 5 SE IE Sse 10.44 ki eS a ae 11.60 Cord stover <2 °lbs/a2.:-t. .60 Ne Ce Et he 3.00 as TalAS eer te 4.80 =; bb ei ceo mas nat 7.20 a 15 ee a he basen 9.00 _ ES Dalde LS Oiak EArt ie 10.80 a Be eee ew mars 12.00 Pea-vine straw I lb...... .86 sad A Ed eager 2.58 % a St A aes es 4.30 a ‘ 5 gi pea Ne 6.85 eS ” Po. Aras 10,32 aS oi ah Rava ate ei 12.90 PHean straw “Ep! <5. S. .95 es 4 5 3g as ge 1.90 5 tik = ee ee 2.85 ae et a a ee 3.80 .§ Bud Ryike einer 4.75 si \ pee Core te 6.65 ae fe aba: Beet sls 8.55 “ ¥2 Sas ee II.40 Wheat straw 1 Ib... .... .gO if i epee 2.70 ple ie ee ee! 4.50 45 + a te ee 720-| TZ Ser 10.80 ae 5 “Sot aaeuere 13.50 Oat. straw... Thon eee | .gI oy: ye ee, eae ea ie} | = 5 aera 4.55 | a 3: os a ey eee 7.28 a 12 Vine tate ean 10.92 x 15. ree eee GRAIN. | Com(av:). 1. Tb) Besos .89 a 2. Tbs Veen Y 1.78 5 BO Draka ree 2.67 TABLE II.—Continued. Total Dry Matter. Pounds of digestible nutrients. Corbohy- 145 Nutritive Protein. | drates a Total. ratio. (fat 2.25). Pas “373 398 | 1:14.9 125 1.865 1.990 200 | 2.984 | 3.184 300 | 4.476 | 4.776 375 5-595 5-970 a gaia 6.714 7.164 .500 | 7.460 | 7.960 saad -340 -357 | 1:19.9 085 | 1.720 | 1.785 -136° | . 2.720] 2;856 -204 4.080 | 4.284 255 5.160 B65 306 | 6.120 6.426 -340 6.880 7.140 -129 1.023 1.152 215 1.705 1.920 -344 | 2.728 3.072 516 4.092 | 4.608 -645 5-115 5.760 -036 -397 | ASS. EES -072 -794 | .866 | .108 1.191 1.299 -144 1.588 1732 .180 1 985 2.165 +252 2.779 3.031 -324 3-573 3.897 -432 | 4.764 | 5.196 4 -372 .376 | 1:93 -OI2 1.016 1.128 .020 1.860 1.880 .032 | 2.976 | 3.008 .048 4.064 4.512 060 5.580 | 5.640 O12 -404 | 4.16 C326 .036 1.212 1.248 .060 2.020 2.080 .096 | 3.232 | 3.328 -144 | 4.848 | 4.992 .180 6.060 | 6.240 | -079 -764 | Saal Ba gage 158 | 1.528 |. 1.686 | | -237 | 2.292 | 2.529 | * Computed from recent analyses by G. W. Cavanaugh. 146 BULLETIN 154. TABLE IIl.—Continued. | ‘Pounds of digestible nutrients. Total dry / Kind and amount of feed. | | matter. | | Protein. et ia Peer ene I = == | Corn (av.) 4]bs.........-. ier Pe | x Weis IS aaa Oa, | a gs a Feral. hee Basen 2a94 S : Ais fees es Bae tee ees 3, dine ee | aed 3632 oe Gok ats ed | 2751 | Wiheatil 205% icac 4 ace | Rete) 102 .-SaDS 252s eee 1.80 | .204 as rt Ne as dole eee 276. .306 SF) Selly ie ane 3.60 .408 1 ee eee Are | 4.50 .510 _ Bs chitin te oe | 5-40 .612 Rye, Ee ti. eo eee thease ogo oes ree PES ot ee 1.76 .198 Dees 2 tbe ee ee | 2.64 | -297 we peers ee go a. i> 3-52 | -396 D kien reese teeesesse| 4.40 -495 {6 is i oe eee 5.28 .594 | > Batley, 5: tian. eo eee “op |. ,087 | a 2 TSE oP pak Ee emo.) © S174 ie ik oe Her eee eee 2.67 .261 4 ae ROT Ree St, 3-56 | 348 + che re Walt west iS" | 4-45 | 435 - Bere e athe | 5-34 -522 Oates Ceti cores sox Gees | .89 .092 6 i> MAIS. Be ee ete 1.78 .184 | at) ay Ee ete gee 2.67 .276 ere sO BAL AS Set aes Be50 - | 94.5368 ae Bo aioe ge Speen Ea 4.45 | .460 SM, Mike veal ee ny Fa 5-34 |. .552 hg | a a: A Te Re) 23 | 644 Oe BS SS eee le Berne eee ey fee: .736 aes hee ene 8.01 .828 is). Fo ee eee | 10.68 1.104 ‘hy 2s SG sie 13.35 1.380 Buckwheat, | eee . Sadat - .87 .077 _ 2 Lbs...) fee ef .154 oe 3 te ae ee 2.61 23% 4 eee 3.48 .308 bs BO U2 ite ELS 385 = Bot ne eon ee 5.22 .462 ha Se se ee 6.09 .539 | a a eee ae 8 6.96 .616 ES Of es ohare 7.83 .693 Carbohy- drates+ (fat 2.25.) .700 1.400 2.100 2.800 3.500 4.200 .692 1.384 2.076 2.768 3.460 4.152 .568 1.136 1.704 2,272 2.840 3.408 3.976 4.544 5.112 6.816 8.520 -533 1.066 1.599 2.132 2.665 3.198 3-731 4.264 4-797 ey Pe 1:7.1 1:7.9 1:62 cae / Nutritive | ratio. COMPUTING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 147 TABLE Il.—Countinued. Kind and amount of feed. * i 2 Ibs. ce “ce ae «ce 3 “ce ‘ cc 4 ae ‘ 5 re ce 6 «ce “ec ce ae «ce cc f ae “ec “ce ae 9 cc ce 12 «ce Wheat bran, ribeene aoe: OVS. eas ete Ee ayy, 0) | ‘ 4 eo ar? “ec ce So on, eee ae 08S on eee eee sie anny Mere mre 4 “¢ a 8 aL Bemee se, rome, | Be oO” Oca Med ance Wheat middlings, 1 lb..... § is 2 4bs: ae ay OAL Oe alee Dad Ow Le MILI, PRODUCTS. Corn and cob meal, 1 lb. ce Dark feeding flour, 1 lb.. ce 2 Ibs... 66 | ‘Pounds of digestible nutrients. Total dry Carbohy-! Nutritive matter. | protein. artiow | Total pe 2.25). | .9O 168 534 | JO? si iaee 1.80 336 1.068 1.404 2.70 504 1.602 2.106 3.60 672 2.136 2.808 4.50 840 2.670 3.510 5.40 | 1.008 3.204 A212 6.30 [576 3.738 4.914 , 7.20 1.344 4.272 5.616 8.10 1.512 4.806 | \ 6.318 .85 .044 .665 .709 | 1:15.1 1.70 .088 E330 1.418 2.55 <5 30 1.995 22427 3.40 .176 2.660 2.836 4.25 .220 3.325 3-545 5.10 .264 3.990 4.254 5-95 .308 | 4.655 | 4.963 6.80 352 5.320 5.672 7.65 396 5.985 6.381 10.20 528 | 7.980 | 8.508 .88 122 453 oy lal (ae Sg 1.76 244 .906 1.150 2.64 366 1.359 1.725 3.52 488 1.812 2.300 4.40 610 2.265 2.875 5.28 732 2.718 3.450 6.16 854 2.47% 4.025 7.04 976 3.624 4.600 7-92 | 1.098 | 4.077 | 5-175 .88 128 .607 ly es en | ee yf 1.76 256 1.214 1.470 2.64 384 1.821 2.205 752 512 2.428 2.940 4.40 640 3.035 3.675 5.28 768 3.642 4.410 6.16 896 4.249 5-145 7.04 1.024 4.856 5.880 7.92 1.152 5-463 6.615 go 135 658 793 | 1:4.9 1.80 270 1.316 1.586 2.70 405 1.974 2.379 3.60 540 2.632 ai72 4.50 -675 | 3-290 | 3.965 | 148 BULLETIN 154 TABLE I1.—Continued. Total dry j Kind and amount of feed. matter. Dark feeding flour, 6 lbs... ee ce ce 8 “ec ae «ec 9 “ec Ne = ae, ae iS) _— = 77 Low grade flour, ae ee ee ee ‘ 3 aK ‘ 7 Boat Fn rts (A ia o E Sf EAS hte ae se ae 6 ae es ee . i Jet he Aen ae a ce 8 cial sets Eee ae ae oe . 9 heer Rye Oran FA. + hse ee os = SaaS) { ae ec aa oe ve ec ee ae 6 ce ce oe ae ae ee Buckwheat middlings, 1 Ib. 7 * 2lbs. ce ce ac ce ce ae 3 4 5 ac (é 6 ce ‘i 8 9 BYE-PRODUCTS. Malt sproutg, “14b.2.7.- >. + in eee AS cae | A | Protein. oe oe oo ee Ct hs en ae eee Carbohy- Pounds of digestible nutrients. drates + | Total. (fat < 2.25). 3.948 4.606 5.264 5-922 647 1.294 1.941 2.588 | 3-235 3.882 4-529 5.176 5-823 | .548 1,096 1.644 2.192 2.740 3.288 3.836 4.384 4.952 -347 -694 1.041 1.388 1.735 2.082 2.429 2.776 2.194 .456 .gI2 1.368 1.824 2.280 2.736 3.192 3.648 4.104 -409 .818 fe ee eee eee eee 4.758 5.551 6.344 7-137 .729 1.4558 2.187 2.916 3-645 4.374 5.103 5.832 6.561 .663 1.326 1.989 2.652 3-315 3-978 4.641 5-304 5.967 421 .842 1.263 1.654 2.105 2.526 2.847 Nutritive ratio, 1:7-9 1:4.8 1:4.7 | oy Fe | COMPUTING RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. TABLE I1.—Continued. Kind and amount of feed. ce cc ce ce ce ce Gluten feed* é cc ae cs cay 6 oe Malt sprouts ae ce ce cc ce «e ce ce cc ec ee ce ce ce ae ae ce Gluten meal I RAR Ne ard, aoe ce OO ON DNL ie ee Ie sew ewe Brewer's graius, wet I lb.. | a AOS, | a ‘ ce Brewer’s grains, dry 1 lb. cs te 2 lbs e 3 “ce oe 4 ims ec 5 ae <é 6 ins “es 7 ce a6 8 cc ese 9 ae Tole eee 2 Ibs: a a ae ones ARR potent ai Fo earn note ie apart ret es oh eet ee + ee pn, fs | Ae Ceol Pe 2: YngeanAe see se eee *From Bulletin of Information No.1, Penna. State College. Total dry matter. 6.44 7-36 Pounds of digestible nutrients. | Protein. .558 +744 .930 I. 116 1.302 1.488 1.674 -039 .078 “TY? .156 -195 -234 27% 312 351 s429 .468 -585 -157 “314 -471 .628 785 .942 | Carbohy- | drates+ £099. 1.256 1.413 .194 .388 .582 | 776 | .970 1.164 1.358 1.552 .258 .516 -774 1.032 1.290 1.548 1.806 2.064 (fats 2.25). 1.227 1.636 2.045 2.454 2.863 Total. 1.785 | 2.380 2.975 3-579 | 4.165 4.760 5-355 164 328 .492 .656 .820 .934 1.148 T.312 1.476 1.804 1.968 2.460 635 1.270 1.905 2.540 3-175 3.810 4.445 5.080 5-715 .827 1.654 2.481 3.305 4.135 4.962 5.789 6.616 .Q14 1.828 2.742 3.656 4.579 5.484 6 398 7.412 149 a Nutritive ratio. Fane £-3 122)5 150 BULLETIN 154. TABLE Il.—Continued. { Pounds of digestible nutrients. Kind and amount of feed. Total dry | Gastsiiees| Nutritive ° i Tatio, oar Protein. | Sta se Total, wii 2.25) | Hominy Chops, 1 lb....... .89 75 | 2705 .780 | 1:9.4 a 2 So 1 eee 1.78 150 | I.4I0 1.560 oA aa ale We 2.67 .225 2.115 2.340 ht F Nasal es ee 3.56 .300 2.820 | 3.120 4 ft Rae 4.45 -375 | 3-525 | 3-900 rs Dot eae 5-34 .450 4.230 4.680 oe 7 pies niet ie ag. 6.23 525 4.935 5.460 = Shame aah Ar Taha £8 .600 5.640 | 6.240 A LO 8.01 -675 | 6.345 7.020 Linseed meal (ald. process): T-2Ds:. sik 5 | .9I 293 .485 -778 1:21.97 2s ny eee WROD ache oe ra eae .586 .970 1.556 7 et. eee | 2.73 879 | 1.455 | 2.334 cs et si: Dae aan | 3.64 |° 1.172 | 1.940 | “3.332 rs rans, ares As 4.55 1.465 2.425 3.890 ou hire |? repeee Oneg es 5.46 1.758 2.910 4.668 “ ale eis hh oe 6.37 2.051 3.395 5.446 Linseed meal (new process), I lb...... / .9O {282°}: ~* Abs .746 I:1.6 i us

5.8 |S. 92 \25| Barley. |£128/143) 24.8 | 13.9 y A: ee a aaa | (26 Oats. R608 33) "SFO tag Gg)! Ae 5, 56 27, Buckwheat. PROPEL S29: 7) eae ee OOo ati lor. aie 2) 28 Peas. | 118/140} 28.1 | 26.8 8.4 | 10.1 | 9.16 | 29 Corn-cob meal. | go ys MeN sy A aay Ay ee 30 Wheat bran. | 93/132! 58.0] 19.5 | 26.9 | 15.2 | 9.24 | 131, Wheat middlings. LE S@atr26) 27:06 bh 20MS) T3850 |.) 4 A GO 32, Dark feeding flour. | eto MI oe By il Rte 0 5 90) CEA ae ila OY aa 33) Rye bran. | 230/125; 46.0 | 18.4 | 22.8 | 14.0 | 8.46 34| Buckwheat bran. b= Silas, 28io°} FeS.|s Ae re:7 | 4.82 35, Buckwheat mid. coarse. | 6/120 47.0) 35.2) 12.3) 11.4 11.98 36 Malt sprouts. 128/120} 75.1 | 29.7 | 17.4 | 19.9 |11.68 37 Brewer's grains, wet. | 158|762| 12.4 6.2 Ase) > 0522 To] 35 Brewer’s grains, dry. ee DGGb-Q5 |<. 47-2 |r -250 MGT} 2: O° (Bs 7On! 39 Gluten meal. | 86 oe AES ries) SRC s 40 Hominy feed. | MAB pn P2E i} E2014 19.8) 4:9" 14-68 41 Linseed meal, old P. | | 89] 61.0 | 46.8 | 16.6 | 13.7 (15.83 42, Linseed meal, new P. 20j110| 62.1 | 45.1 | 17.4 | 13.4 |15.40 | 43) Cotton-seed meal. | 142; 88) 70.5 | 59.5 | 30.4 | 15.8 |20.82 44| Cabbage. Pee TISO|sc1AS EN) cP Bolel 22" in Re br Ae! 45 Sugar beet leaves. |. §|880). 23.9 | 2:7 | 1.5 | 6.2 | 1.25 | 46 Sugar beet pulp. | 16/898} 5.8 5961: 55 y52 pAb ice aa St 47 Beet molasses. | 35/207 ).106> |, 1405.1) 251, 56.3.1 9-16 | 48| Apple pomace. AS late 1 Boo shay | I | ae iY 26 49\ Skim-milk, gravity. fs eI Pe OAS tei D Fabs 1 BORNE. ZAs 50 Skim-milk centrif. aN ROG: a4" |: trasOulri 02.7) |) .20-) 6g 51) Bean straw. | GlieS 3) 20 69n 7) TR Qales 2. Bf T8.4e |) 5.04 | |52| Turnips | 905 8. gS. Eel, -2e6ch enema 156 BULLETIN 154. and animal excrements,—nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, —are not so available as they are in skillfully manufactured commercial fertilizers, yet they are usually computed at com- mercial prices, for there should be some convenient and uniform standard upon which to base comparisons and with which to make calculations. On the other hand, manures furnish avail- able humus, and amulchif they are spread upon the surface, and they also tend to increase the water-holding power of the soil, and to improve its texture or physicalcondition. In many cases it is believed that these benefits are a full equivalent for the less available fertilizing constituents of manures as compared with commercial fertilizers. When the soil has a reasonable amount of easily available plant-food, it is probable that such may be the case, but the ultimate welfare of plants depends so much on a healthy, vigorous start and abundant root development, that the more quickly-acting commercial fertilizers may be more valuable than the slower-acting farm manures, whenever the land is deficient in readily available plant-food. Careful observations and experiments can only determine the relative values of the constituents found in fertilizers and manures. The final pro- ductive value, as evidenced in the harvest, depends so much on the skill of the farmer, on climate, character of the plant, and rainfall, that it can never be certainly predicted whether profit or loss will result in the purchase and application of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid in any form. One thing is certain, that the careful husbanding of farm manures, and the applica- tion of them in reasonable quantities in almost any form, result in improved fertility and increased profits in the final income. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1808. 150. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. 151. Gravity or Dilution Separators. 152. Studies in Milk Secretion. 153. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. 154. Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. 2d Ed. revised. 155. Second Report on the San José Scale. 156. Third Report on Potato Cultnre. 157. Grapé-vine Flea-beetle. 158. Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bacteria in Cheese Curd. 159. An Effort to Help the Farmer. 160. Hints on Rural School Grounds. 161. Annual Flowers. 162. The Period of Gestation in Cows. 163. Three Important Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet. 164. Peach Leaf-Curl. 165. Ropiness in Milk and Cream. 166. Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898. Bulletin 155. December, 1808. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. SECOND REPORT .ON THE SAN. JOSE SCALE WITH REMARKS ON THE EFFECTS OF KEROSENE ON FOLIAGE. tag PE Ya iLefert. 4 “> 4 alas - al hes ss ail was ty Sst lan PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1898. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. Ll. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Horticulture. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. G. N. LAUMAN, Horticulture. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS. Director. BE. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, Nov. 15, 1898. HONORABLE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY. Sir :-—In 1897, careful experiments were made by H. P. Gould upon methods of treating the San José scale in summer time, and the results were published in Bulletin 144 (January, 1898). It was found that a mechanical mixture of kerosene and water, 1 part of the oil to 4 parts of water, will kill the scale and not injure foliage of the plants with which we have experimented. In 1898, Mr. Gould continued the experiments, and the results, published herewith, confirm the conclusions of last year. The oil and water are mixed automatically by an attachment to the pump (see picture on title.) We are now convinced that val. uable plants can be saved from an attack of the San José scale by summer treatment. However, we believe that the effort to save plants should be allowed only on stock which is per- manently planted in the grounds of responsible parties, and not on stock which is to be sold. These experiments have been made under the direction and supervision of Professor Bailey. Mr. Gould is now one of the State inspectors of nursery stock. The report is now submitted for publication as a bulletin under Chapter 67 of the Laws of 1898. bh Pi ROBERTS: Director. INSPECTION LAWS. The San José scale has been the cause of much legistative action, fifteen States having passed laws which provide forthe inspection of nursery stock and other trees, shrubs, etc., where this and other dangerously injurious insect pests and fungous diseases are likely to be found. The States having such laws are the following: California, Colorado, Delaware, Georgia, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Washington. From the fact that the San José scale has become so widely distributed in the eastern States, its appearance in new and unsuspected localities may occur at almost any time, notwithstanding the existence of rigid laws and the vigilance of nursery and orchard inspectors. These inspectors are necessary means to the desired end, but it is only when the most hearty co-Operation exists on the part of the people who are concerned that the object and aim of such laws can be fully accomplished. Asa further caution, parties purchasing nursery stock should ask for a certificate of inspection, accompanying the stock when it is delivered. The New York law is for the ‘‘ prevention of disease in fruit trees and the extirpation of insect pests that infect the same.’’ It specifics yellows, black knot and San José scale. Every infested plant is held to bea public nuisance. Persons suspecting the presence of serious diseases of fruitsmay apply to the commissioner of agriculture for an inspection. ‘‘ Unless pre- viously inspected by a federal officer the same year,’’ the commissioner of agriculture shall ‘‘ cause an examination to be made at least once each year prior to September first of each and every nursery or other place where trees, shrubs or plants, commonly known as nursery stock, are grown for sale,”’ and if the stock is found to be healthy there shall be issued to the proprietor ‘‘a certificate setting forth the fact of the examination and that the stock so examined is apparently free from any and all such disease or diseases, pest or pests.’’ Infested stock may be destroyed. I. NOTES ON THE SAN JOSE SCALE. Another season’s experience has again demonstrated that the San José scale can be as easily controlled as many of the insects with which the farmer and fruit-grower are more familiar. The potato-bug has been fought for twenty years, the codlin-moth has been given annual treatments of Paris green ever since the general spraying of orchards has been practiced, yet these insects reappear in abundance every year. They and their kindred, however, cause no alarm; but if they were left unchecked in their ravages, the annual losses from them in this State would be almost inconceivable. It may not be possible, from a practical point of view, to exterminate the scale in an infested orchard without injury to the trees any more than it is possible to exterminate the potato- bug; yet I am convinced that the same vigilant, persistent effort which controls the potato-bug, codlin-moth and other insect pests will also control the San José scale. I do not wish to minimize the danger from this insect, for itis indeed serious under conditions favorable for its development, but there has been a tendency to unduly emphasize the seriousness of the pest. Our observations on this insect, recorded in Bulletin 144, have been continued and extended during the past season, and the conclusions at which we arrived from last season’s experience have been largely corroborated. EXPERIMENTS IN 18908. A large number of small pear trees, badly infested with the San José scale, were placed at our disposaland treated with the following solutions and mix- tures : Lot No. 1. Whale-oil soap, 2 pounds to a gallon of water. Lot No. 2. Whale-oil soap, I pound toa gallon of water. Lot No. 3. Pure kerosene. Lot No. 4. Kerosene, 20 per cent ; water, 80 per cent. Lot No.5. Kerosene, 10 percent; water, 90 per cent. 162 BULLETIN I55. Lot No. 6. Kerosene, 7 per ce1t ; water, 93 per cent. Lot No. 7. Quassaine, 3¢ lb. to 1 qt. water. Lot No. 8. West’s Insecticide, % pt. to 1 gallon of water. The first application was made June 16. The weather was clear, with no wind. Young insects had just begun to appear, a small number being found on nearly every infested tree. The second application was July I. The weather was clear, very hot and no wind on this latter date. The following notes were taken on the results of the first application : Mixtures No. 3 and 4 seem to be the only ones which have had much effect. On the trees thus treated, there are very few young insects to be found, indicating that nearly all of the mature insects have been killed by the first applications of clear kerosene and the mixture of 20 per cent kerosene and 80 per cent water. There are apparently as many young insects on all trees sprayed with the other solutions and mixtures as there are on the trees which have not been sprayed. The presence of so many young insects on these trees would seem to indicate that the materials used had not been effective in destroying the mature insects. It should be stated in this con- nection, however, that the physical condition of the whale-oil soap used at the time of the first application, was not satisfactory.* The third and last application was made July 19. The weather was cloudy and very ‘‘muggy.’’ At the time of making this application, the following conditions, results of the first two applications, were noted : No.1. Foliage slightly injured ; trees practically freefrom young insects. No. 2. Foliage slightly injured ; afew young insects found. No. 3. About 10 per cent of foliage injured ; insects apparently all killed. No. 4. Practically no injury to foliage; no young insects to be found. No. 5. Foliage uninjured ; young insects numerous. No. 6. Foliage uninjured ; young insects numerous. No. 7. 50 per cent of foliage injured; young insects numerous, but mature ones show some effect of treatment. No. 8. 75 per cent of foliage injured ; but few young insects alive. Results of sprays.—It was intended after the application on July 19, to * The whale-oil soap solutions in Nos. 1 and 2 were applied witha brush and this fact doubtless accounts for the slight injury to the foliage. Only small quantities of the solution came in contact with the leaves. The soap solution used at this time, instead of being of uniform consistency, was of a granular nature; that is, there seemed to bea very thin liquid (probably water) in which was a coarse precipitate. In this condition it was impossible to apply it thoroughly, even with a brush. As this difficulty had not been experienced before in tsing other lots of the same brand of soap, I wrote to the manu- facturers in regard to it. In their reply they suggested that better results might be obtained if the soap were dissolved in moderately hot water and agitated while cooling. This caution was followed in preparing the soap used in later applications, and none of the earlier difficulty was experienced. NOTES ON THE SAN JOSE SCALE. 163 allow the trees under experiment to remain undisturbed for the remainder of the season and so watch the ultimate results of the applications, but owing to circumstances it became necessary to make the final records about the middle of August, as follows: No. 1. Insects apparently all dead. No. 2. A few insects alive. No. 3. Insects apparently all dead. No. 4. Insects apparently all dead. No. 5. Insects apparently all dead. No. 6. A few insects alive. No. 7. A few insects alive. No. 8. Insects apparently all dead. The condition of the foliage on all the trees remained essentially the same as it was on July 19, when the notes recorded above were taken. Effects of whale-oil soap.—In the light of these experiments, several facts are conspicuous. It will be noted that the first application of whale- oil soap had little effect on the scale. From the results of the later appli- cations, it isevident that the ineffectiveness was due in part, if not entirely, to the poor physical condition of the soap solution. In the final examina- tion of the trees treated with whale-oil soap, the fact was again emphasized that a solution weaker than two pounds to a gallon of water cannot be relied upon to kill the scale. Effects of kerosene.—Four different strengths of kerosene were used in these experiments: pure, 20per cent, 10 per cent and7 percent. The pure kerosene was the only strength which injured the foliage to any appreciable extent, and in this case the injury was not sufficient to interfere with the normal activities of the trees. From the fact, however, that a 20 per cent mixture of kerosene and water gave equally as good results as clear kero- sene in killing the scale, there seems to be no reason for using a stronger mixture'than this. This mixture (20 per cent,) has in no case, under my observation, injured the foliage. The mixtures containing the smaller percentages of kerosene were iess satisfactory, though the final results of the 10 per cent mixture indicate that good returns may result from the use of this strength. A 7 per cent mix- ture, or I to 15, is evidently too weak to be effective, as live scales were found on the trees so treated during all the time they were under observa- tion. The kerosene and water mixtures were applied by means of a pump having a kerosene attachment, thus using the ingredients in the form of a mechanical mixture. Several pumps of this type are now on the market. As a further suggestion as to the use of pure kerosene, a word of caution may be given. While no serious results followed the use of it in the cases above noted, very conflicting results have been obtained by different experi- menters, and by the same experimenters at different times. In many cases no apparent harm has followed its use, while in others, for no obvious 164 BULLETIN I55. reason, the trees have been killed. Probably the best time to use kerosene in any strength is on a bright sunny day when the conditions favor a rapid evaporation of the kerosene. Pure kerosene should not be used without an appreciation of the fact that the results may prove fatal to the plants treated with it. Of the different solutions and mixtures used in this series of experiments, it is evident that, all things considered, No. 4 or 20 per cent kerosene and 80 per cent water, is the most satis- factory. While this was fully effective in destroying the scales, the foliage remained in good condition. This result corroborates our experience (in Bulletin 144) of last year. Some of the stock which was treated with the 20 per cent mixture was examined by Mr. Slingerland, who pronounced all the scales to be dead. CONCLUSIONS FROM OUR EXPERIENCE. Practicability of spraying.—The practicability of spraying for San José scale will depend entirely upon conditions. In the case of fruit trees or ornamentals, permanently set, which have not already become weakened from the effects of the scale, it would seem, in the light of the evidence at hand, to be an entirely feasible operation and if thoroughly done, there can be little doubt as to its effectiveness; but spraying cannot be recom- mended for nursery stock. When the treesare so close together as they are in the nursery, it is impossible to spray with sufficient thoroughness to insure complete success, and the possibility of distributing the scale on trees thus sprayed becomes too great to warrant such a method of treatment. When to spray.—From the fact that the scales are probably more susceptible to the action of insecticides during the period of activity than they are during the winter months, it follows that a weaker insecticide can be used in the summer than during the winter ; and so far as the use of kerosene is concerned, the evi- dence at hand seems to show that plant life is little, if any, more liable to injury from it when in an active state of growth than when dormant. Accordingly, the summer season would seem to be the preferable time to spray if kerosene in any form or strength be used. Professor J. B. Smith recommends the use of pure kerosene during the middle of a clear sunshiny day in Sep- NOTES ON THE SAN JOSE SCALE. oR ROS tember. In our own experience we have obtained satisfactory results by using kerosene in the spring or early summer as soon as the young insects began to appear. In using whale-oil soap, the nature of the case demands that it be applied only when the plants to be treated are dormant. Since it must be used at the rate of two pounds to a gallon of water in order to destroy the scale, and at this strength it is destructive to the foliage, a summer treatment with whale-oil soap is out of the question unless it be applied only to the trunks and larger limbs of infested trees and shrubs. FUMIGATING. Asa method of treating infested nursery stock, fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas is doubtless the most satisfactory and effective treatment which has been extensively used. The value of this treatment was recognizedin Californiasome years ago, but for vari- ous reasons it has not been generally used inthe East. However, there seems to be no adequate reason why it should not prove as effective here as in the West. Probably the most extensive use of the gas treatment in the eastern States has beenin the experiments of Johnson, of Maryland. In his recent report* there is detailed a long list of experiments in which is seemingly proved the adapta- bility of this method of treatment for eastern as well as for western conditions. The most of Johnson’s work, however, was in bearing orchards where tents were used for covering the trees during treatment. The chemicals used by him in giving the gas treatment are approximately as follows: Fused cyanide of potassium, 98 per cent pure...10z. by weight MELT ICCC. . 7s te ee ne ee eae Ne 1% oz. by measure WPT 5) os ao a ey EE tees eee size 20z. by measure The above quantities of material are sufficient for 100 cubic feet of space. In fumigating nursery stock in small quantities, a large box which can be made perfectly air-tight is convenient. The stock is first placed in the box, then an earthen or glass vessel placed near the center of the box, the cubical contents of which has been previously estimated. The chemicals are then weighed out *Bulletin 57, Maryland Experiment Station. 166 BULLETIN I55. in proportion to the size of the box, the above mentioned amounts being used for every hundred cubic feet of contents. The sul- furic acid should be put in the vessel, the water added, and last of allthe cyanide is dropped in. If the latter is carried in a paper bag, the bag may also be dropped into the diluted sulfuric acid, and in this way the danger of handling is somewhat reduced. As soon as the cyanide is put in the acid, the box should be quickly closed and the stock allowed to remain at least thirty minutes. eh = 8. Fumigating house. Adapted from Johnson. When large amounts of nursery stock are to be fumigated, a small building specially constructed for the purpose will be more satisfactory. Such buildings are in common use in Maryland, where all stock handled by nurserymen is required by law to be given the gas treatment. A fumigating house.—A building similar to the one in question is illus- trated by Johnson and described as follows : ‘‘It is 32x16x8 feet with a roof pitch of two feet, and is divided into two rooms about 15x14x7 feet and two smaller rooms 4x5x7 feet constructed as follows : ‘First, a good substantial frame is built which is covered outside with 14% inch 12 inch Virginia pine boards, and %x4inch batting. The interior is first lined with two-ply cyclone paper and then with 4 inch flooring. The partitions and floors are also double with paper between. The roof is covered with heavy roofing paper, tarred and graveled. The doors are 6% x3 feet (3% would be better), made double, refrigerater style, and hung with three heavy strap-iron hinges, and held in place when closed with two NOTES ON THE SAN JOSE SCALE. 167 bolts. At the top of each large room on the opposite side there is a door 3x2¥% feet for ventilating purposes. There is also a flue opening between the rooms as shown in the illustration, which can be uncapped when it is desired to air the house.’’ (See Fig. 7.) Johnson estimates that a house the size of the one described is large enough for parties handling a million or more trees annually. The advantage of having a double house or room with a nartion in it lies in the fact that when there are large quantities of stock to be fumigated, one side or one room can be filled while the treatment, which should con- tinue for at least a half hour, is being applied to the other, thus greatly facilitating the work. In using such a house as this, one would proceed in essentially the same manner as described for using a fumigating box. After the doors have been opened, following a fumigation, the house should be allowed to air for at least ten minutes before an attendant attempts to enter. Caution.—In handling sulfuric acid and cyanide of potassium, all possible care must be taken. The former will destroy cloth- ing if it comes in contact with it, and wounds caused by it are very painful and slow to heal. The cyanide of potassium 7s one of the most deadly known potsons. After the fumigating box or house is opened after being used, it should be very thoroughly aired before the attendants approach near enough to inhale any of the gas, as serious results will follow if this precaution is not taken. As cyanide of potassium will absorb moisture if exposed to the air, it should be kept in tightly closed jars or cans. Concluston.—In the work of Johnson, this method of treating bearing trees has been proved to be of practical importance when: properly managed. In such operations, the trees are covered during treatment by tents constructed for the purpose, and where one has a large number of infested trees, it may be more satisfactory, in the end, to have such tents made and apply this treatment rather than to spray. SUMMARY. 1. With the exception of the pure kerosene and the 20 per cent mixture, the first applications of the various insecticides seemed to be mostly ineffective. The poor physical condition of the whale-oil soap solution may account for its not being more satisfactory. 168 BULLETIN I55. 2. In the final results, live scales were found on trees treated with whale-oil soap, one and one-half pounds to a gallon of water ; a1 to15 mixture of kerosene and water ; and quassaine. The insects on all the trees treated with the other materials seemed to be killed but with various effects on the foliage. 3. A solution of whale-oil soap weaker than two pounds to a gallon of water cannot be relied on to kill the scale. 4. Of the different kerosene mixtures, the 20 per cent or 1 to 4 mixture gave the most satisfactory results. A 1o per cent mixture may be effective but should not be relied on for the best results. 5. The practicability of spraying for the San José scale is dependent upon conditions. Nursery stock, if badly infested, should usually be burned. 6. Probably the most satisfactory time to spray for the scale is during its active stage ; that is, during the summer and early fall months. >. Fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas may doubtless be used successfully in many cases. 9g. San José scale, 10. Oyster-shell bark- natural size. louse. Nat, size. Often mistaken Jor the scale. NoTES ON EFFECTS OF KEROSENE. 169 8. A building made especially for the purpose is convenient if large quantities of nursery stock are to be treated. 9g. As potassium cyanide is a most deadly poison, also the gas generated in fumigating, great care must be taken in using and handling it. Air the room thoroughly before entering it. it, “HFFECTS OF KEHROSENE ON PEACH AND APPLE TREES. Although the value of kerosene in combating sucking insects was recognized in the early history of spraying, yet it is only within the past few years that it has been usedto any extent in any other form than as an emulsion with soap. But with the advent of the San José scale in such force in the East, experi- menters began to turn their attention to kerosene in other forms, and as a result many references to the effects of kerosene have appeared in horticultural literature during the past few years. And yet there is much to learn concerning kerosene and its effects on plant life. From the fact that the results have been so con- flicting without any apparent reason, the use of kerosene is an uncertain practice. It is generally conceded by those who have had much experience that the conditions of the weather have a marked influence in determining its effects; that if applied in bright sunny weather,—a condition which favors the rapid evaporation of the oil,—the liability to injury is greatly reduced in comparison with applications made in cloudy weather. With respect to the effect of the 20 per cent mixture of kerosene with water on the buds of Cornus and Pyrus referred to in Bulletin 144, 1t may be said that they did not sufferin the least. The trees and shrubs sprayed with this strength of kerosene, a year ago, made an excellent growth the past season and are now in good condition. Several months after the Cornus bushes were sprayed, the bark, in some instances, indicated some injury, but it has not proved to be of a seriousnature. I think this injury might have been avoided if the climatic conditions had been regarded when the spraying was done. It was with the hope of throwing some light on the effects of kerosene and of determining under what conditions it is possible 170 BULLETIN I55. to use it with impunity that a series of experiments was begun during the winter of 1897-8. The trees used for this work were young peaches and apples. Kerosene in four strengths was used ; pure, 50, 40 and 20 per cent. The first series of trees was sprayed February 7, and others March 7, April 13, May 3; and the final notes were made May 20 and July 8. The character of the weather was carefully noted at each treatment. In applying the kerosene to the trees, a Stott’s nozzle, which makesa very fine spray, was used, and while the trees were thoroughly sprayed, care was taken not to apply more of the various strengths of kerosene than was required to thoroughly moisten the surfaces. It is not necessary to repeat all the details of the experiment, but to give only the summary conclusions. From the results of the experiment, it was evident that kero- sene should be used with caution, especially on peach trees. While in no case were any apple trees greatly injured, several peaches suffered very serious injury. Any mixture of kerosene stronger than 20 per cent, applied to peach trees, even when dormant, is likely to affect the tree injuriously. In some cases under observation, it was noted that a 50 per cent mixture was more disastrous than when used undiluted. It seems probable that clear ke1osene may be used on apple trees without serious results, although it is not unlikely that treesso treated are in some instances more or less weakened. Any strengths weaker than 50 per cent seem to have little, ifany, injurious effect on apple trees. Again, in the light of the data at hand, the commonly accepted notion that kerosene applied on a cloudy day is more likely to injure the plant than if applied on a clear sunshiny day, is corrobrated. With only one exception in the case at hand, did this result otherwise. It is not unlikely that the manner in which the kerosene is applied may have material effect upon the results. If the spray is coarse, so that in applying it the trees become drenched with oil and it forms in drops on the tips of the leaves, the danger is doubtless much greater than when a very fine spray is used and NOTES ON EFFECTS OF KEROSENE. V7 the foliage and branches are merely moistened. In the latter case the evaporation is rapid, and this seems to be one of the essential features in avoiding the injurious effects of kerosene. The results of our experience in the use of kerosene are not unlike those of others. Experimenters have recorded very con- flicting results in their experience with pure oil, in some instances very little harm coming from its use, while in other and similar cases, without apparent cause or reason, very serious results have occurred. Why such conflicting results should occur is difficult to explain, but it seems not unlikely that it may be due to the individual variation of the trees or plants treated. From our study of the subject we draw the following SUMMARY. 1. Pure kerosene is likely to seriously injure peach trees even when they are perfectly dormant. 2. A 20 per cent mixture of kerosene can probably be safely used on the peach at any time, but a stronger mixture cannot always be so applied. 3. Apple trees do not appear to be as susceptible to the action of kerosene as peaches. Insome instances clear kerosene did not harm them. 4. There seems to be little, if any danger, to apple trees from a mixture containing 50 per cent or less of kerosene. 5. Very conflicting results are often obtained from the use of kerosene. 6. Kerosene is especially likely to cause injury if applied on other than a bright sunny day. 7. In our experience, a 20 per cent solution (1 part oil to 4 parts water) is harmless to plants and destructive to insects, even to the San José scale. Ek, Ps Geurp: THE FOLLOWING BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THOSE WHO MAY DESIRE THEM. Creaming and Aerating Milk, 20 pp, Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. Steam and Hot-Water for Heating Greenhouses. 26 pages. Sundry Investigations of 1892, 56 pp. (Edema of the Tomato, 34 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. Sundry Investigations of the Year 1893, 54 PP. On Certain Grass-Eating Insects,58 pp. Hints on thePlanting ofOrchards, 16 pp. Apricot Growing inWestern NewYork, PP. The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Leaf Curland Plum Pockets, 40 pp. Impressions of the Peach Industry i in W, Y.,.25 pp. Peach Yellows, 20 pp. Some Grape Troubles in WesternN.Y., 116 pp. The Grafting of Grapes, 22 pp. The elapse Root Maggot, 99 pp. Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 Pp. The Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. Experiments with Tuberculin, 20 pp. The Recent Apple Failuresin N.Y. 24 PP. Dwarf Lima Beans, 24 pp. Feeding Fat to Cows, 15 pp. Cigar- Case-Bearer, 20 pp. Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 PP. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp. The Spraying of Trees and the Canker Worm, 24 pp. General Observations in Care of Fruit Trees, 26 pp. Soil Depletion in Respect to the Care of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. Climbing Cutworms in Western N. Y. SI Pp. Test of Cream Separators, 18 pp. Revised Opinion of the Japanese Plums, 30 pp. Geological History of the Chastang Grape Belt, 36 pp. IIo Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp. Spraying Calendar., Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. Moisture of the Soil and Its Conser- vation, 24 pp. Second Report upon Extension Work in Horticulture, 36 pp. Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. The Pistol-Case-Bearer in Western New York, 18 pp. A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 p The Currant-Stem Girdler ands Raspberry-Cane Maggot, 22 pp. A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Potato Culture, I5 pp. Notes upon Plums for Western New York, 31 pp. Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. The Army-Worm in New York, 28 pp. Strawberries under Glass, Io pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of its Origin and Progress, II pp. Studies and Illustrations of Mush- rooms: I. 32pp. Third nei upon Japanese Plums. 16 p Sereda Report on PotatoCulture. 24 pp. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. t12pp. The Codling-Moth. 72 pp, Sugar Beet Investigations. 88 pp. Suggestions on Spraying and on the San José Scale. 20 pp. Some Important Pear Diseases. 36 pp. Fourth Report of Progress on Exten- sion Work. 28 pp. Fourth Report upon Chrysanthe- mums. 36pp. The Quince Curculio. 28 pp. Some Spraying Mixtures. 8 pp. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year June 30, 1898. 150. I5I._ 152. “Studies in Milk Secretion. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. ‘Gravity or Dilution Separators. 153¢: ‘Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. 154: » Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. i55. Second Report on the San José Scale. Bulletin 156. December, 1808. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. AGRICULTURAL DIVISION. Third Report on Potato Culture. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. ITHACA, N. Y. 1898. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL : THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. Ll. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. KE. HUNN, Horticulture. G. N. LAUMAN, Horticulture. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. aint Reros 1 ON POTATO iCULTU RE: CONCLUSIONS BASED UPON EXPERIMENTS IN PoTATo CULTURE DURING FOUR YEARS. 1. The average yield of potatoes throughout the state is not more than one-half what it should be and what it would be were better methods practiced. 2. All soils of ordinary fertility contain sufhcient potential plant food to produce abundant crops. By tillage, and drainage if necessary, a part of this potential plant food can be made avail- able for the use of plants. 3. Early planting of potatoes and frequent tillage to conserve moisture will ordinarily give best results. 4. Early planting necessitates vigorous spraying with Bor- deaux mixture and Paris green to protect the foliage from blight and beetles. 5. Success with potatoes depends largely upon the preparation given the soil before the potatoes are planted. Plowing should be deep, and at the time of planting, soil should be mellow and loose. 6. On soils which are likely to be affected seriously by droughts, it is especially important that the potatoes be planted early and deep and the tillage should be frequent and level. 7. On soils which are not well drained, either naturally or artificially, and on clay or clay loam soils, potatoes may be planted somewhat shallow and slight hilling may be practiced with benefit. 8. Harrowing the land after the potatoes were planted and before the plants appeared produced marked beneficial results. 9. From six to seven cultivations have given best yields. POTATO EXPERIMENTS IN. 1808. For four years the experiments with potatoes have been con- tinued. In 1895 an experiment was planned, the object of which 176 ; BULLETIN 156. was to determine something of the possibilities of the soil when superior methods of tillage were. practiced. A study of the statistics of crop production in New York and other states revealed the fact that something was radically wrong with the soil or with the methods being pursued. The average yield of the ordinary farm crops had fallen so low that in many cases actual loss resulted in their production. This condition prevail- ing while the soil was yet comparatively new, led to the belief that tillage was being neglected. Theexperiments were planned to learn what could be accomplished by superior tillage and care. The results of these experiments for previous years have been recorded in bulletins 130 and 140 of this station. While the results for 1898 do not differ materially from the results hereto- fore secured, yet it seems wise to publish the same. Details of experiment.—The land selected for the experiment was a portion of the series of plats upon which the experiments had been conducted in previous years. The soilis gravelly and porous and especially subject to injurious effects from droughts. The potato crop grown this year is the fifth crop removed from the land since any fertilizer or manure has been applied. The soil is beginning to show a deficiency of humus owing to the intensive culture which has been given and the slight returns of organic matter. While cover crops of crimson clover, wheat or rye have been used, yet necessarily the growth has been restricted and the amount available to plow under in the spring has been small. The result of this deficiency of humus is shown in the tendency of the soil to become hard and compact under the effects of beating rains. In order to keep a soil permanently in good physical condition, it is absolutely necessary that organic matter be returned in some way either by green manuring or the use of barn manures. Previous treatment of the soil.—The plats entering into the experiment have been cropped heavily for five years since any manures were applied with the exceptions noted below. In the winter of 1893-4, about ten tons of mixed barn manure were applied per acre. In 1894 all plats were planted to corn which was one of the regular crops in the four years rotation. Previous to 1894 the rotation which had been practiced was THIRD REPORT ON POTATO CULTURE. Wheat. Clover and timothy. Corn. Mm iOats. The crops which have been produced upon each plat since and including 1894 are shown by the accompanying table : While it will be seen that all plats have not received the same treatment each & WH N FR year, yet the various plats can be compared with refer- ence to their previous treat- ment. In all cases after the crop was removed the land was plowed and seeded either to crimson clover, or rye, or wheat which was allowed to serve aS a cover crop during the winter and was plowed under in the spring. Thus the land has been thoroughly plowed from two to three times each year. Record of the potato crop for 1898.—In the spring, as early as the conditions of the soil would permit, the land was plowed to a depth of about ten inches. Short- ly before the time for plant- ing, the land was re- plowed with the gang plow, the furrow being 177 QO QO On hare OQ = = Sr tae = e) ° ° ce) ‘e) tae) 42) so) ao) ro oO p ~ Bt 8) Ot On ee ~ ~ i He bond ° oO Co (oe) (0/2) oe) 5 Ne) Ne) Ne) \O Ne) ee) “I Cw fiat - rd eee) fe) hi MS) © ro) ce) 2 ie) ~ = n te he ee o D ESE A 5° | = fe) OQ ee | ro Sh as 2) ra an 2: 9 > fe} 2 fe & or — e ct a) re 2 w =] | re) =} wD en rd ae fal = eo Q = OQ i) ro) ie) = 2) = A = > | -F f © Dw =) ° =} 3 if a") =) es) So A ees. OQ o OQ i) Ow ie} re) e) Gr = | ® - t+ an} > ee aay Ree ae a o a! | oo Tce rg & UJ ie a Sl So 2 O ro) t Dw ie) fab) ° Sy co o> 2 t oo -t - 2 we 5 2 =} ee FAB = BD, —_ — Pd] % as) =i Sa ag tae a ig i = ee) -A - | = a ro) D i=} re) + mit | o em et Sil ae) rd © e O Q O ey la) ° © ° S + = = = = ‘ 1 es a Milt a Dn n rOaey, | Pol Pearien ° bd pee O Oo ow | = DS Oe! 2 oD | Q @ art o2niw] &o,} Oo 3 (= 2 head ee et 5 he! at has a Oo] Sth =} ee ere S| rd | needa 5 Q | © np o Q SU ph est es tas oo ia ° © ot } PES peace: Cou a . heme wee =o ° fe] oO ' oo @ oO n n rg rd e) Cc Big wel ew (lis de oen ee + at foal 2) a) = ° Dn (eo) 3 5 B B rg oe o is) On ia) ie) o) oS oc © cot - ai 5 oO | @ w Pu wn 178 BULLETIN 156. turned toa depth of about four inches. The harrow was then used and the surface thoroughly pulverized and fined. Rows were marked off at a distance of 40 inches apart and the fur- rows for the potatoes were opened with a common shovel plow to a depth of about five inches. The ‘‘seed’’ was from first-class stock, only large, market- able potatoes being used. These were cut into pieces contain- ing from one to three eyes, about two strong eyes to the piece being what was desired. The pieces were dropped in the fur- rows directly after the furrows had been opened, one piece being put in a place and at distances fourteen inches apart in the row. The shovel plow was again used and a furrow was opened in the middle of the space left when the first furrows were opened. This second use of the shovel plow served to cover the potatoes, ‘the earth being ridged up directly over the potato row. (See frontispiece which is from photograph). ‘The planting was done on May 10. The soil was tnen left undisturbed until May 28. The ridges which were left over the seed potatoes covered them to a depth of about eight inches. By May 28 the weed seeds which were in the surface soil had germinated and the whole sur- face was covered with tiny weeds. A _ spike tooth hrrrow was fitted with a piece of 2x4 scantling placed diagonally across underneath the frame and held in place by the harrow teeth. The harrow thus rigged was used upon the potato plats, being first run lengthwise of the rows and then crosswise. The weight of the driver upon the harrow was necessary in order to make it do the leveling as required. The benefit derived from this treat- ment was very marked. All weeds were destroyed, the sui face crust was broken, all clods and stones were removed from above the row and deposited in the center of the space between rows, the surface was leveled and in every way the conditions were made favorable for the rapid growth of the potatoes, and they appeared above ground in three or four days. The treatment which the various plats received during the season and the yield from each plat is shown by the following tabular statement. THIRD REPORT ON POTATO CULTURE. 179 RECORDS OF POTATO PLATS, 1808. | | } | pues No. of Yield Yield Plat | Date Variety of pota- No. of cultures. |spray-) Date of | per plat.|per acre. | No. planted. toes. ing. | digging.| Pounds. |Bushels,| 21 |May 10 Endurance. | 6 level 7 |Oct. 18/1, 196 398.6 | 22 «(Carman No. 3.| Bo) s 7 on) ** § Besa ss) aaa 23 “e “ec ce | 3 “¢ 7 ec 18 glo 303.3 24 “ec ce ce 3 ce 7 ce Ey 1,020 340 | 25 Es is te 3, hilled 7 1S ET $982.5. |) aaa 26 ef - os 6 level 7 |\Sept.29} 931.5 |. 310.5 27 «ce «ce ce 3 ce 7 ee 29 809 269.6 28 ice ce ae 3 ce 7 ce 29 809.5 269.8 29 «ec ce ce 6 ce 7 ce 29 610 213.3 30 ia ae as fe) o~ 26) 618.5] 20688 31 ‘« Rose of Sharon 6-4/5 7 Pr 2G)) 356 118.6 32 ‘« |Endurance. Gu fe) ‘+. 29)... 696"" |, 320 Spraying operations.—Early in the growth of the potatoes spraying became necessary. In addition to the Colorado potato beetle (Doryphora decemlineata), the leaf-flee-beetle (Crepidodera cucumeris) early began its depredations. Bordeaux mixture and Paris green used freely served to check both insects. Several farmers have informed us that the Bordeaux mixture has failed with them to check the work of the leaf-flee-beetles, but with us for three years in succession it has proven effective in checking, although it has not entirely driven them away. Bordeaux mix- ture made and tested with the ferrocyanide of potassium proved very satisfactory. Directions for making Bordeaux mixture.—Directions were given in Bulletin 140 for making Bordeaux mixture. We have found that the ferrocyanide of potassium test is much simpler and so the following directions are given: Into a barrel of water suspend a gunny sack or other porous bag, containing two pounds of copper sulfate for every gallon of water in the barrel. If this is suspended near the surface of the water at night it will all be in solution by morning and ready for use. Into a water tight box or other open receptacle place some fresh burned caustic lime, the amount to be determined somewhat by the amount of spraying to be done, but from 4o to 50 pounds of lime can be easily slaked at one time. Add sufficient water to 180 BULLETIN 156. thoroughly slake all the lime and keep well stirred so that the water may come in contact with all particles. This thorough stirring is important and the lime should be carefully watchedand stirred for several minutes or otherwise it is likely to become dry and hard. After the lime is all slaked, cover it over with water and it is then ready for use and may be kept for any length of time desired if it is always kept covered with water. Ferro- cyanide of potassium may be purchased from the drug store, and comes as a solid. One ounce of ferrocyanide of potassium dis- solved in one ounce of water will be sufficient for testing many barrels of the Bordeaux mixture. When it is desired to begin spraying, there should be provided two empty barrels. Into one barrel dip three gallons of the copper sulfate solution after it has been thoroughly stirred. This will provide the six pounds of cop- per sulfate in case two pounds were dissolved per gallon of water and will be sufficient for making one barrel, or 45 gallons of Bor- deaux mixture. Dilute the three gallons with ten or more gallons of water. From the lime box dip from five to ten pounds of slaked lime into the empty barrel. Add water and stir thoroughly until the milk of limeis produced, after which dilute with some ten gallons more of water. Pour the milk of lime thus diluted through a sieve into the dilute copper sulfate solution. The quantity of lime to be added to the copper sulfate is to be determined by the ferrocyanide of potassium test. After adding a small amount of the milk of lime to the copper sulfate solution, add to the mix- ture a drop of ferrocyanide of potassium. Ifa brick red color is produced where the drop strikes, it indicates that more lime is needed. Continue adding the milk of lime until no reddish color will be produced when the ferrocyanide of potassium is used.

ae snulsiy vIpeqo’] &tzy ‘aBelloj pne s1aMOP snoriny oF, Sam bs a ct me as aU Si © Am lien er es IO[OOTI} BSBO’T ~TLZ ‘adeipoy Aysnq ‘asus ‘t)|\"deutiz)’ g1°O |-g2 “yl te "Tf |.°* umopipaEss ner] Tee she) Etre Cie Sey ou ok. eat eee BUBDOOIVI PIIVUL’T OFZ q p:| "S016 gr‘g| of ‘yf | Si ‘Tf |‘ eptpuazds vyy2edI1q elseury 6zz f ‘Mm | ‘S 'ULQ Peo | Se Tih On Uy ee snpiuqdy uoydisojda’y gzz “Ae eee er) =r “Suge spin fe a ae snqje ‘p uoydisojda’y Lzz ‘BUISpa 10} pooy Or) Ve ME Onl 4g eS ye ieee Sy " ‘sILOpIsuep uoydisoyda’] gzz: “Ip Sete er “Gu een Shh er ph ‘snourmaies uoydisoyde'y Szz f Ale ee eT Slee: Tht fa af " “snaoesorpue uoydisoyda’] zz ‘saamoy pedeys-dno a81v/] aS Ors) er eye, eee | Re ier ‘SLIJSOUILI} PIOPBAR’T Cz ‘Me. |) 3B UME OF) eT Ol ee “Th, hee ahi ee ee BB BIOJVAV'T TE BULLETIN I61. /Sansereyay pue snonoidsuos syn A Gamer see: Gye. fe ae anes ‘*UInt19}eI[9 eoIpioMoy LLZ,y "‘M| ‘S‘ULQZ] Of "GS/9 ‘YW; Of If |*° Baqre BIOYISUO] stIqeary gZz UMOUX { “Mm | "Ss “UI gz Qz 'S c a | Qz if wh eae, ope A eae el ae eee ‘eles [[]PM pue plo !syxoTI,O INOY 3TL - -a11evA oo} edvyef stiqevaryr SLz “M ‘S “Ul Or of "S ¢ ‘Y Qz vk aa We Yee Vit er te Oe ar fe fer eqe ST[IGRALTAL plz "Sid ‘wm | ‘ds ‘ur 6 PE Pe et ine ore snoidno sninumyl Lz, -Moy snonoidsuoouy = “jueyd snorms “Ge “ENOT) She ON 1 af Te Uf, Zr of ot th 4t ‘tf iz ‘If same 4r tf Lr ‘If oy 'Y Ae hs a i Nae me .. Ol. cake ve ‘if perc (0) a =f “uLoo[g Thal ee on eee th 2 ie ES i or ory pees Sr OW ee i Ort 4 ttf | eae ae 5 ge SE ea iif eo ‘ames | Se af gz if ge. Tl zZ ‘Vv of of ‘if zz If 1) aa 8 co oe gl ‘VY i a “mLOO[q SILT ‘urs | ‘TIP umyoardory, 66¢ “WmMYoS ‘T[B} uinposedory, g6¢ ‘[[e@} winjosedory, L6¢ ‘T[v} Wnyosedo1y, 96¢ oe Sik arenes [[¥} wimnposrdory S6¢ ‘JaeMp winjoordory t6¢ ET tee eIpuy yo ssondng jaemp uinjosedory, £6¢ ago as jyaemMp winjosedoiy z6e Oe eas Dees mas sor[eg [eyshaQ ‘jaemp wnyjooedory, 16¢ pad Ape’y' jaeMp uinjosedory, o6f "7 * yaeMp tmnyposedory 6gf “BION ‘JABMpP wanyosedory, ggt eo) © eee Open 6 ene siee e Sulyy Aqny jaemp ummyoardory, Let chee F jaeMp winyosrdory, 9gt Be Res Ae yaemp umnyosedory, Sgt pane eg yieMp uinjosedory, pet ete Spates 4 quinyy woy ‘jaemp uinjoardoiy gt "**vaimydyns ‘ev visiaqunyy zgt ““"Bovueine ‘e eisiaquntyy, gt ‘aA “B BISIAquNyy, ogt eons liayeg “Be visisqunyy 6Z¢ 7 Epes e}E[e elsssqunyy, gle os yecipraeee eyeUsis sajasey, LLC Re a3 0S ‘'pinqed sajasey gf ees Id ‘yf epoara sojasvy SLE “plop Jo yassnn ‘sayesey, Plt <0), 'e. Ste a) See yousaly ‘sojosey cle ‘syurld jo samen 319 ANNUAL FLOWERS. ‘sjuvld suippog BULIOMOY VII} PU ISRI[O} BUTT SIOMOY poos pue ISvRI[O} 9}eOI[Iq ‘sjuvid suippeg AO[OO su JO pue SulIaMOY ssnjo1g ‘yuvd yUsTNIONs yeYMIUIOS ‘soov{d ojsem puv YSnNOI SUIIBAOD IO} WUS][IOXA ‘sp ayo asel[O} 10} poos AyAe[NdT} -1ed o1e pure ‘sjurid Suiquitpo jo jsoq 9} JSSuoUTe 91e SpUTY [[e} ITT, aA man Hh oan How sal pe fiolie) GDUuG CoO DA ‘M} “UT Og SOLE "S$ ‘UI CI SST va ‘2 “Ul % go (Pe A ‘de *arZ ‘ds ‘ut €1 ‘ds ‘ut $1 ‘ds sur Sr ‘ds ‘ut 91 ‘ds ‘ur S1 ‘ds ‘ut $1 ‘ds ‘ur Sr "”} ‘UL 96 “M} “UL GQ “My ‘UT 09 ‘M} “UL OQ "My “UL O09) "M4 "UT OQ "M} “UL O9, "M} “UT OO | "M} "UL OQ ‘M4 “UL O9 “M7 “UT og! ‘M4 “UT Og! "Mj ‘UT OO; "M4 ‘UT O9 "M} “UL O9 “MY “UL Og =i —sglI * —gI SI wk +f =e bs —gI 2 Taek ! =r M — Or % gI° SI’ SI’ SI 81° Sie gi’ a 2 oe a gi ° gI QI I SI gi * SI SI elenieniieleres) cumelelesisislemiolelelejclelelslaisiel o) OOO 4A zz Qt of 7 ZZ zz zz Zz ad Zz ad 8c 14 1d ce O07 Id co (x4 ce Ks (x4 (74 (XG (x4 (x4 ce 1% "Tf [ccct2*s**- BzyBlNDO BiIBOSIA 6zP SVuesicrosctees epid suvsola BiIeosiA gzV 2) a hee ae rete es BSOY-I[I0D eiaeosi, Lzp Stk eer e eae Wek fet Yer ea Pan T1preias) BINTA gzb tf Ce ee) ee “eudqioA Ad ‘If |" peaeaf-uspjloyy eusqisa bzb ee prea cat BINDS evusqis~A fzp itt aes Pe Nabe sn q-yorjg ‘eusqiaA 7zv ‘Tf jsoueyoq yoyIeVoS ‘*Y eusqIoA IZV if © aee welts eee We epriqAy BusqI9A ozv Cina Sa BYRLIS VITTVIT vusqIi3A GIP 5H iets a elOPw[Noane evudsqi9A IV ‘If |°° wmosorpnpusres mniptus, Liv Helse asuolieuey winyjosedo1y, 9gIP wl CC fel kt Meck Eat 4 eee spriq Ay Joyuny) "pey ‘wnyosrdory, Sv ‘If jmmout900'S"w urnjosedory, VIP ‘Tf [wnuewoenyosm ur jooredo1y, fib Aili i) 0 serie. e ) i) OMG s) CUNO TR MSF PCO yy ty q ba -aeydsitmoy mw umyoordory, civ | oy Kae rt sufem umyoordory, 11P a ee ‘aay-yidg ‘’y wmnyjosordory ob “Tif oa Fee en alls! sHis' iy seine, Maan (ele) enee a BIIO} -OIA uvenG ‘’y wmyjosrdosy, 6or ‘If [°° ‘umueiqqo’y umyosrdory, gov ‘If |: ** aejron’y ‘7 winyjosedory, Lov If | ays WIV 7] wnyjoordory, gob ‘If |: cc csnestng ‘’y winjosedory, ScP “1h oa Oe OR e Ble Meee Siew eee We d0R[ed [eyskap ‘J wmyosedory, vor if ecaiausciaitonces eIssnig Jo 90ulIg UMOID ‘yy wnyposedo1ry, Cor ‘If |: querntug ‘77 wnyjosedo1ry, zor “Tf sis) mts \eNaye gih! (eer ne si! Ae esy ‘wmnuerqqo’y unyooerdory, 10P oj | Foe 112} winjosedory, oor 161. BULLETIN 320 ‘AMOYS ‘asr1eoo JIB SPULY asIV[sy, “Ssapso0q 19} -1B} 9} UI AOTOD jo sassem Aavoy SUIyBM IO} JUsT[IoxX* ‘sued ‘Ay 01g ‘SyIVMIDy Suippeq ‘Ssutamoy-asnjoid AraA ‘sSuljselIoAy ‘slomoy podeys- noe Se SoHdowy u — EE GE nd re) ‘out Hu a gE Od "M pur" ee a re) BEG OF du "Ul €Z ‘oar Ee "ul fz "UL £z "ul £2 “Ul OZ “Ul IZ "TE &Z “UL OZ "Ul QZ "UL Z% ‘Ul QI "Ul OZ ‘Ul OZ "UT ST) ‘Ul Z| ‘al Pz GED Le "S “Ul ZZ S ‘Ul vz S ‘UL IZ s ‘ul 61 S ‘UL QI S ‘UL OI § ‘ULZI Ss ‘ul PI ‘yiqey pue 14319 "ul fz “al €z “ul €z 3 ‘Ul €z io oko oe oe 6) Donde Se ee | o@) _ eo = [oe] co er it lololeloemmololololojelolelojelolelolelolejelolo: 4 — = te “MLOO|q ye] ce Tf ez. tf ee ‘Tl aa ee “tf oy, oy 6) Cf A « ze ‘Tf les gz If gz if ge tf A eee we Tf Spey seq El ge ‘V ey ze TT B= gz if am Ey Coe ap an at we. “Th ec <1 ry i ib ze Tf “utoo[q Woy or id tr ti or a er tf ot 9: ‘If gy 2) oy th eh oe 4 ied tr tf elo De gz if et ot ‘tf ero iy el Th sais U2 a zz If be if zz If bz ‘if or ‘If Or Tf or’ tf pa Ee br if mOOTG 34 vag eA Ie et a aT | Sit Fhe ‘Ile ae "B ‘ITRY TIP} ‘T1e4 ‘T1®} ‘T12} ‘TTe} evans i ( y {12} *s***- ead e1u19900 . ‘td ‘Dy a 'B ‘eq ‘td Cpe eer Oe jd ap ‘JABMP BIUUIZ eee td td a ae earn @ce td ace W a wie td wwe ve ap '-Isstqiodns (. “-tanqye ‘wnIOY yaw wnnuue Ge eo 8 sty e eke ae e ‘vuvoseryy RE qunyy woy ‘BIUOIZ ‘quinyL Woy, ‘eruUurz le suesaye 'Y ‘Jaeap 'B ‘Jaeap ‘py ‘jJaeup ‘yy ‘Jaeap 'p ‘BMP que eqe eluurz 6SP eiuurz gSp as ore Ey ‘T1e3 BIUUIZ LSv . ‘td 0 eluurz 9St eiuulz SSP eiumiz SP eluuiz CSP eluulz zSV eluulz SP eluulz oSp viuurz 6b gbr Lvov gbr Str ber thr zbv Ibv oby BIUULZ bid idee 74 BIUUIZ BLUNT BINT BIUULZ td ‘py ‘uinu mnmMsyjueIIxX UW wnwseyjueIIaxX WNW yUeIIX mnmMsayyueIa xXx WnWsyuUeIIX ‘3 BIARTIT AM cers BIOYIPURID VIARTLINM ae Pres SOPLOULXO[S IARI A gia iin Ba[NIDd “O VILBOSTA “Oo BIIBISIA 6cr gty Lop oft cer ber Cer z7cVv Icy otV ‘syuv[d jo somen ANNUAL FLOWERS. q22 Summartes. The various flowers mentioned in the foregoing tables are here classified for the convenience of the cultivator. In the color groups, those kinds which have given most satisfaction at Ithaca are printed in Italics; and these judgments are made with the cooperation of C. E. Hunn, gardener to the Horticultural Department. Blue flowers.—Nos. 1, 2, 10, 11, 24, 26, 27, 49, 50,51, 79, 82, ea5705,, 106, LIO, 120, M20 4132. 738, S41 y F421 46,,159, face Foo. HG. 202,203, 2045210; SEL, 213. 218, 270,220, 220; 237, 294,245, Bye, 255, 2798; 20222050 2esg 2Op; 200, 20%, 292, 203. 214 age. 325, 328, 336, 354, 367, £22, 423, 424, 426, 432, 433, 436, 437, 439, 441, 454, 455, 458. Orange flowers.—Nos.. 28, 34, 35, 122, 126, 127, 373, 447. Ked flowers.—Nos. 4, 5, 7, 8, 13, 29, 30, 31, 43, 44, 45, 55) 573 67,71, 72, 80,80, 100, 102, FOF, hOO, FIT, L12, 215, TIA, eA ge. $25, 140,147, 1484-4 5Fs 152, 153, 154,159, B50. bho, 0 ene lee. 187,180, 191, 193; 196,200, 201, 205; 200, 212) 215 270) 21 7,324. 225-230; 2315 230, 240,250; - 254,. 256, \ 260, (2072635307, 26n, 270, 297, 298, 299, 303, 395,307, 308, 309, 310, 311, F715, 726, 317, 318, 320, 322, 322, 327, 329, 330, 334, 337, 338, 339, 253; 355, 356, 357; 358, 363, 365, 366, 387, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 391, 392, 395, 397, 402, 403, 404, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 414, £20, £21, 427, 428, 429, £40, 443, 444, 450, 451, 452, 453, 456. White flowers.—Nos. 3, 6, 9, 78, 29, 22, 25, 36, 37, 46, 52, 56, 60, 62, 64, 70, 73, 76, 77, 78, 87, 83, 88, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, O09; 70l, TOL, 107 ea, MU Eey UI L1G, E25,, 130, 520) Tao eae. 145,140, 150, 1575. £74k yo) 102,287, 184, u85, 186, 102,85, EQ7, 108, 204,>200, 200) 22 222,224) 237, 228, 225, 220, 242. 243, 244, 245, 247, 248, 257, 252, 257, 258, 259, 262, 264, 265, 266,-260,. 271 27 en 27 ae 29a On. 270, 270, 280, Oley neo. 290, 294, FOL, ZO4, 700, F719, 323, 326, 340, 341, 344, 361, 362, 364, 368, 369, 378, 379, 389, 401, 430, 434, 435, 438, 445, 446, 448. Yellow flowers.—Nos, 20, 21, 23, 72, 3?) 38, 39, £0, 42, 42, 47, 53, 54, 58, 59, 61, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 87, 89, 90, 91, 98, 105, 19g, 120, 12}, 125, L20 ie eke Oe sy ISO ETE. Fas AO Pee TI, 194, 206, 232, 240, 241, 246, 253, 277, 295, 296, 332, 333, 342, 379, 371, 372; 374, 375, 376, 377, 380, Z87, 382, 390, 393, 394, 396, 398, 399, 400, 412, 416, 417, 425, 449 457, 459. Climbers.—Nos. 46, 81, 88-95 inclusive, 180, 181, 205, 206, 207,208, 200; 210, 2i inne Weegee OIA, B15. 216, (297; 221, 215) S785 370, 3004408 382, 395-416 inclusive, 426. Plants six to eight inches high.—Nos. 2, 148, 159, 281, 283, 284, 286, 291, 292, 361; 19, 43, 200, 333, 366, 424, 425; 151, 152, 218, 228, 230, 233, 234, 285, 288, 293, 332, 334-342 inclusive, 345. Nine to twelve inches high.—Nos. 22, 76, 77, 149, 219, 220, 322 BULLETIN 161. 229, 273, 289, 344, 357; 18, 24, 31, 49, 75, 79, 150, 152, 157900 226, 272,282, 287, 294, 298, 343, 358, 363, 364, 365, 367; 44, 57, 154, 156, 158, 266; 83, 84, 86, 126, 137, 143, 144, 155, 182, 224, 227, 262, 279, 297, 310,315, 3027470 Thirteen to seventeen inches high.—Nos. 1, 25, 26, 27, 80, 102, ~'f16, 133, 184, 185, 190, 277, 296, 299, 372, 383-394 inclusive, - (423, 428, 429; 28, 29, 30, 105, 113; 117, 118, 119,327, I20,meee ¥{%34, 175, 183, 187, 188, 189, 225, 269, 270, 314,317, 21 cee 371, 427, 430; 82, 85, IOI, 103, 104, 106-112 inclusive, 114, I15, I20, 124, 139, 145, 186, 238, 242, 274, 306, 310, 320-331 inclu- Sive, 355, 369, 417 418, 419, 421, 422; 3, 38, 123, 125, 240, 267, 278, 280, 359, 420, 432; 4, 5, 9, 62, 179, Eighteen to twenty-three inches high.—Nos. 14. 39, 50, 52, 53, 55, 99, 136, 138, 146, 243, 252, 257, 271, 307, 311, 433, 441, 444; 32, 87): 135, 205, 4345-7, 9}'33;'36, 60, 61, 100, 140,47 ee 236, 239, 263, 264, 295, 303, 309, 376, 377, 442, 443, 447, 450; 45, 231, 235, 308, 435, 440, 449; 40, 56, 63, 68, 132, 232, 248, 309, 426, 437, 445; 172, 249, 254, 256, 258, 259, 438, 448, 451, 452, 453, 454. 455-459 inclusive. wenty-four to thirty inches high.—Nos. 11, 34, 37, 42, 46, 51, 59, 69, 131, 253, 255, 260, 261, 265, 300, 370, 374, 436, 439; 67, 171, 237, 251; 35, 47, 66, 122, 250, 275, 276, 305, 446; 173, 313, 375; 23, 71, 176; 96, 121,142, 191—204 inclusive, 304;-3525 same 373: Thirty-one to forty inches high.—Nos. 9, 10, 20, 21, 58, 64, 65, 97; 142, 177, 353; 15, 48, 54, 70, 73, 95, 98, 130, 166, 169,223, 24%, 244"; 5,6; 7- _ Forty-one inches and above.—Nos. 8, 88-94 inclusive, 160-168 inclusive, 170, 180, 181, 205-217 inclusive, 221, 315, 346-352 inclusive, 378-382 inclusive, 395-416 inclusive. Kinds destrable for borders or edging.—Nos. 18, 19, 24, 25, 74-79 inclusive, r1oI—119 inclusive, 159, 182-190 inclusive, 224,225, 226, 227, 228, 233, 234, 278-287 inclusive, 334-342 inclusive, 357, 358, 367. Good for bedders.—Nos. 7, 8,9, 10, II, 23, 28, 20; -42=45 inclusive, 48—53 inclusive, 60-69 inclusive, 82-87 inclusive, 99— 120 inclusive, 123-129 inclusive, 133-136 inclusive, 138-158 inclu- sive, 176,177, 182-204 inclusive; 222, 223, 231, 241, 243.0emee 248-271 inclusive, 278, 279, 280, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300-311 inclusive, 314, 316-331 inclusive, 334-342 inclusive, 353, 354, 355, 356, 359, 360, 363, 364, 365, 366, 370-377 inclusive, 383-394 inclusive, 418—424 inclusive, 427—431 inclusive, 440-459 inclusive. Kinds tn bloom at [thaca after the first frost. —Nos. I, 29s 21, 32-39 inclusive, 43, 44, 45, 47, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 50, 58, 59, 61, 82-86 inclusive, ro1—129 inclusive, 133, 134, 135, 136. 139, IAI, 142, 143, 146-150: inclusive, 152, 153, 154, 157, 159, 174; 182, 222, 249-262 inclusive, 264, 265, 267, 269, 270, 296, 297, 298, 316-333 inclusive, 353, 354, 355, 418-431 inclusive. a | ee Bulletin 162. February, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. ROTA By HENRY H. WING. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, sie gi 5 OY toy te ae. 1899. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Horticulture. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. . W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. THE PERIOD OF GESTATION IN COWS. Since 1889, observations of the period of gestation have been regularly made on all the cows in the University herd. The herd has contained an average of about twenty cows, about two- thirds Holstein and high grade Holstein, and one-third Jersey and high grade Jersey with a few native, mixed, and cross bred cattle. Nearly all the animals were bred and raised on the farm from dams so bred and raised. So that the observations were taken from a single herd and its descendants. In all, 194 obser- vations have been made; of these, 9 terminated in the birth of dead calves prior to 253 days of pregnancy and three more were doubtful so that the 12 havebeen excluded and the averages con- fined to the 182 births that may be considered normal. ‘The number of days required for gestation in each of these cases, and the sex of the offspring, is shown in Table I. TABLE I. | Period of gesta- Number of Number of cow | Number of bull | Number of twin tion days. cows. calves. calves. calves. 264 I I 267 I I 268 E I 2 271 4 I 3 272 I I 273 5 I 2 % 274 II 4 6 Ij 275 A780 4 6 276 13 4 9 277 15 9 5 If 278 9 3 5 LS 279 5 It + 280 15 10 5 281 7 6 I 282 fe) 5 5 283 16 9 7 284 II 2 9 ! 285 9 4 5 | 286 8 3 5 | 287 7 2 5 | | 288 a 2 I / 289 2 I I 290 I I | 293 2 I I 294 Z ar I 296 I I | 182 | 87 eTe) | 5 * Bull and cow calves. + Two cow calves 326 BULLETIN 162. AVERAGES OF TABLE I. General average including twins 182 births 280 days Average, bull calves pory'*' 280. %4 le cow calves 0 aie 250 ‘' By twin calves 5" Ph Mor By breed affinity (exclusive of twin births). Holstein and Holstein grades 97 births 280 days bull calves seo 2804'"* cow calves Ab AS 280 ‘ Jersey and Jersey grades BG 5 2 7ia: ie bull calves 28S 279. ** cow calves 25,20 2769 4 Mixed and cross bred DAs ee 283°") bull calves yrash 284 ‘‘ cow calves i ia, 2823, According tothe age of dam (exclusive of twin births). Fromm 2-year-old cows 26 births 278 days bull calves sf Ras iy 6 pes cow calves rae oe 2754 From 3-year-old cows ch Pe 280 ‘ bull calves ct nas 280755 cow calves fhe ge 280.55 From 4-year-old cows 29.55 231-5 bull calves pa opps 2557-5 cow calves a 282-5 From cows 5-year-old and over 90> *5 28039 bull calves Aa es 255 see cow calves Cae 280 ‘ In this summary fractions of days have been omitted which will account for some apparent discrepances. The statements in text books as to the period of gestation in the cow are commonly drawn from Earl Spencer’s tables* which are based on the period of gestation of 764 cows of the ‘‘ Durham or improved short-horned breed’’ observed for several years previous to 1839. The averages are as follows: General averages 764. births. .\.5. 5. oaks ee .. 283 days. naiieaives, 401 birtis.2 6 ten rcenoe eee 284 cow Calves, 340 births... 50.00. Sie seek 253 ame twiniiesives, 23 “Dirhis ct ee eee 277 “ree In commenting on the table Earl Spencer says: ‘‘It will be seen that the shortest period of gestation, when a live calf was *On the Gestation of Cows, by the Right Hon. Earl Spencer, Jour. Royal, Agr. Society, I, 1840, p. 165. ink PERIOD OF GESTATION IN Cows. 327 produced, was 220 days, and the longest 313 days; but I have not been able torear any calf produced at any earlier period than 242 days. Any calf produced at an earlier period than 260 days must be considered decidedly premature; and any period of gestation exceeding 300 days must also be considered irregular ; but in this latter case the health of the produce is not affected.’’ While the number of observations which we have been able to make is not enough to allow of extensive generalizations, still it may be permissible to generalize somewhat till more extensive observations shall make possible more definite conclusions. The average period of gestation with us has been almost exactly 280 days and is the same regardless of the sex of the offspring, which is contrary to the general belief, perhaps based on Earl Spencer’s tables, that the male calf is carried from one to three days longer than the female. The shortest period we have observed is 264 days and the longest 296. This as would be expected from the much smaller number of observations is a much narrower range than was observed by Earl Spencer. While as has been said the average period of gestation is almost exactly two hundred and eighty days, a close study of Table I will show that the great majority of births occur from the 274th to the 287th day inclusive and that within this period the births are fairly equally distributed. It would thus appear that there is a period of about two weeks on any day of which the chances are approximately equal that the gestation will end. The great practical importance of a knowledge of the period of gestation is of course in knowing when the gestation is likely to terminate so that the animal may receive the care and attention that is necessary. In studying the records of individual animals in this respect we have noticed that in very many cases there seems to be a characteristic peculiarity of the animal as to the period of gestation. We have noticed in some animals that the period of gestation is uniformly either considerably longer or considerably shorter than the average. In others that the same rule holds true except as to a single birth which may depart widely from all the other births of the same animal. While with still other animals the period of gestation varies very widely with the different births. This has seemed of so much interest that 28 BULLETIN 162. ws x we have given below the details of the gestation of twenty-one cows that have produced four or more calves, arranged in groups according to the above characteristics. TABLE II. Al. Cows whose period of gestation has been fairly uniform and usually markedly longer or shorter than the average. Sex of calf. Period of gestation. =—_— *% Mollie, born Sept. 25, 7899 : : Sept. 25, 1891, cow — | Sept. 10, 1892, bull 285 Sept. 3, 1893, cow 281 Oct. 14, 1894, bull 283 Sept. 11, 1895, cow 285 Oct. 24, 1896, bull 284 Sept. 14, 1897, cow 280 Sept. 9, 1898, cow 294 Avg. 285 ; Emma, born Sept. 20, £890 : , Feb. 2, 1893, cow 284 Z May 5, 1894, bull 280 . Aug. 25, 1895, cow 279 Sept. 9, 1896, bull 252 Aug. 22, 1897, bull 279 Sept. 7, 1808, cow 282 Avg. 281 Pearl, born Sept. ro, 1888 : Aug. 5, 1890, cow 267 Sept: 1; 18901, cow 274 Sept. 16, 1892, bull 279 SepL > 3; 98s; bull 280 Aug. 21, 1894, bull and cow sencis; May 11, 1896, bull 278 Mch. 25. 1897, cow 278 Avg. 276 Dora, born Sept. 1, 1891 ¢ Aug. 27, 1893, bull 268 Aug. 30, 1894, cow 278 Sept. 5, 1895, bull 274 Nov. 20, 1896, cow 274 Dec. 25, 1897, bull 273 Dec. 2, 1598, bull 275 PERIOD OF GESTATION IN COWS. 329 B. Cows similar to group 4 except that one or two gestations have been markedly longer or shorter than the others. The divergent gestation is printed in Italics. Sex of calf. Period of gestation. Julia, born Oct. 6, 7897 : Sept. 15, 1593, bull 283 Oct. 24, 1894, bull 284 Oct. 12, 1895, cow 293 Sept. ro, 7896, cow 280 Oct: “10,°1897; bull 288 Sept. 24, 1808, bull 286 Avg. 286 Belva 2d, born Oct. 4, 1893 : Sept. 78, 1895, cow Ly 4 Sept. 22, 1896, bull 290 Sept. 9):28907, bull 283 Oct. 1751806, bull 294 Avg, 286 Cherry, born Sept. 27, 1893 : Sept. 18, 1895, bull 283 Sept. 18, 1896, bull 284 Oct. 28, 1897, bull 287 Dec.” 12,1398 cow 279 Avg. 283 Freddie, born Aug. 28, 1885 - 1887, a — 1888, — ee Sept. 4, 1889, bull 287 Sept. 18, 1890, cow 287 Oct. "S, tSer, cow 288 Sept. 15, 1892, cow 283 Ang. 23, 1893, bull and cow 273 Aug. 28, 1894, bull 274 Avg. 282 Pet, born Sept. 14, 1885 : 1887, _— ao 1888, aa a Aug. 29, 1889, bull 285 Sept. 20, 1890, cow 283 Mch. 2, 1892 cow Apr. 9, 1893, bull and cow 273 Apr. (Ti; 1864, cow 285 June 15, 1895, cow 283 330 BULLETIN 162. Beauty, age unknown - Feb. Feb. Jan. Nov. Sept. Sept. Sept. Gazelle, born Jan. 25, 1888: Sept. Feb. Dec. Oct. Sept. Aug. Cora, age unknown : Mch. Feb. Jan. Dec. Dec. Daisy, born March 26, 1890: Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Glista gth, born Oct. 9, 1892: Oct. Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept. Bertha, born Aug. 15, 1888: Oct. Sept. Oct. Sept. Sept. Aug. 14, 1890, 11, 1891, 15, 1892, 9, 1592, 21, 1893, 1, 1894, 22, 1895, 6, 1890, 8, 1892, I, 1892, 25, 1893, 24, 1894, 27, 1895, 26, 1890, II, ISQI, 16, 1892, 31, 1892, 15, 1893, 20, 1891, 22, 1892, 13, 1893, 12, 1894, 21, 1895, 17, 1894, 2, 1895, 12, 1896, 28, 1897, 8, 1895, 17, 1890, 16, 1891, 7, 1892, 30, 1893, 17, 1894, 30, 1895, bull COW bull bull cow bull cow bull cow COW bull bull cow cow bull cow bull bull cow bull bull cow COW bull bull bull bull cow bull cow bull bull cow bull 276 277 276 278 279 287 280 Avg. 279 275 278 275 277 286 279 Avg. 278 277 277 275 279 283 Avg. 278 274 275 277 282 Avg. 277 280 272 274 276 277 Avg. 276 278 268 275 274 282 276 Avg. 275 PERIOD OF GESTATION IN Cows. Bay C. Cows whose period of gestation has been variable. Sex of calf. Period of gestation. Garnet Valentine, born Sept. 2, 1891: Aug. 18, 1893, cow aburtion Aug. 30, 1894, bull 273 Aug. 31, 1895, > CONT. 285 Aug. 29, 1896, cow 276 Sept. 13, 1897, cow 285 Avg. 280 Sadie, born March 2, 1892: Mch. 21, 1894, bull 280 Mch. 10, 1895, bull 287 May I, 1896, cow and cow 274 June 25, 1897, cow 280 Avg. 280 May 2d, born Nov. 20, 1892: Sept. 16, 1894, cow 271 Sept. 13, 1895, bull 279 Sept. 28, 1896, cow 279 Sept. 11, 1897, bull 283 Dec. 18, 1898, bull 284 Avg. 279 Ruby, born Sept. 16, 1888 : ; Sept. 6, 1890, cow 279 Sept. 11, 1891, COW 280 Nov. 14, 1892, cow and cow 277 Feb. 22, 1894, cow 283 Jat. 37,1805; cow 286 Dec. 24, 1895, bull 283 Dec. 26, 1896, cow 281 May 26, 1898, bull 282 Avg. 281 Gem Valentine, born Jan, 4, 1889: Jan. 10, 1891, bull 268 Mch. 23, 1892, cow 282 Jan. 26, 1893, COW 274 Nov. 24, 1893, bull 276 Oct. 20, 1894, bull 284 Sept. 1, 1895, cow 283 Sept. 5, 1896, bull 278 Oct: 4, 165-1897, bull 287 Dee? 2t1, Toes. bull 285 332 BULLETIN 162. Belva, born Sept. 4, 1886: 1888, --— — Sept. 8, 1889, bull 275 Aug. 14, 1890, cow 280 Oct.:|: “2, 1608) cow 286 Sept. 26, 1892, bull 278 Oct. : "ay Tega; cow 279 Sept. 16, 1894, cow 284 Avg. 280 It will be seen that the larger number of cows fall into the second group, i. e., those whose period of gestation is uniform with asingleexception. Taking group 4 and group & together, it would seem that in the great majority of cases after a cow has had one or two calves it ought to be possible to predicate her period of gestation quite closely. It has already been shown that the gestations where twins have been carried, average quite a good deal shorter than when but one calf is born. This is true not only of our own observations but of Earl Spencer’s as well. The difference isstill more marked if the twin gestations are com- pared with the other gestations of the same animal as is shown in detail below. TABLE III. Comparison of Twin Gestations with other gestations of same cow. Sex of calf. Days of gestation. Freddie, born Aug. 28, 1885 : Sept. 4, 1889, bull 287 Sept. 18, 1890, cow 287 Oct.“ 6, 1S98r; cow 288 Sept. 15, 1892, cow 283 Aug. 23, 1893, bull and cow 273 Aug. 28, 1894, bull 274 Avg. 282 Pet, born Sept. 14, 1885: Aug. 29, 1889, bull 285 Sept. 20, 1890, cow 283 Mch. 2, 1892, cow — April 9, 1893, bull and cow org April 12, 1894, cow 285 June 15, 1895, cow 283 PERIOD OF GESTATION IN Cows. Ruby, born Sept. 16, 1888 : Sept. Sept. Nov. Feb. Jan. Dec. Ves May Sadie, born March 2, 1892: Mch. Mch. May June Glista Netherland, born Nov. Oct. May Sept. SUMMARY OF TABLE III. 6, 1890, II, 1891, 14, 1892, 22, 1894, 31, 1895, 24, 1895, 26, 1896, 26, 1808, 21, 1894, Io, 1895, 7, 1896, 25, 1897, 21, 1892° 21, 1895, 10, 1897, 1, 7898, Average of all gestations days. Preaaie i. . 0 anlar eee. 282 bE ©) BUS EGR ale cote s OP et 282 PETRY Ao 5 oa a crate 281 ro 3 fee Eire ete an 280 Glista Netherland.... 281 PUVETAR Ce: eee catee: 281 COW COW cow and cow cow COW bull cow bull bull bull cow and cow COW bull cow bull and cow Average ofall except twin gestation days. . 284 284 283 SUMMARY. Avg. Avg. Avg. Twin Ww o>) Ww gestation days. 273 273 277 274 278 275 Of 182 births the average period of gestation was almost exactly 280 days. The shortest period was 264 days ; the longest 296 days. Approximately equal numbers of births occurred on each day from the 274th to the 287th inclusive. The period of gestation was the same for male and female calves. AA yl \ 4 \ ; : in eee Tote Maida by a ( ; A @ rf 4 ; Men ME i 7 oe oe m ® ilo ie # ® . 4 MA wy * + i re 5 - t a a = 7 _* , z t 7 ‘ + - ert har ere » y pet i! aa © sh ? “ a) a y Reel < ave o. Te “r 334 BULLETIN 162, The period of gestation where twins were born was 5 fi less than the general average and eight days less. th heading 3 of the single births of the same cows. Many cows show a well marked individual characteristic B iaeits than the average. Bulletin 163. February, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. BOTANICAL DIVISION. teh IMPOR TANS FUNGOUS DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. By B. Tl. DUGGAR. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1899. eee ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL : THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. \ J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Horticulture. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. G. W. TAILBY, Farm Foreman. F.-A. STEVENS, Demonstrator. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request thei. CoRNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., Feb. 3d, 1899. THE HONORABLE COMMISSIONERS OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, N. Y. Szr -—The great awakening in the production of sugar beets naturally leads toa careful study of the diseases which effect them and which may, in many cases, seriously reduce the yield, there- fore, it has been thought wise to make somewhat extended studies of some of the diseases of the sugar beet observed dur- ing the past season. Mr. B. M. Duggar has made most careful investigations and studies of three diseases which are more or less prevalent. An attempt has been made to confine the work largely to those dis- eases which have proven to be of economic importance in this state. The ‘‘root rot’’ isa new disease in the Eastern states, but in the few localities where it was present during the past year it showed its possibilities for harm, and remedial measures should be at hand. This fungous is of special interest since it may cause diseases of other plants. The leaf spot of beets is ubiquitous in its occurrence, and in many localities it caused severe loss during the past season. The work here presented is the result of work in laboratory and field. The abundance and distribution of the diseases have received special attention in the field studies. LP. ROBERTS: Director. THREE IMPORTANT FUNGOUS DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. I. Roor-Ror or BEETS (XAAzzoctonia Bete Kuhn.). . Occurrence of the Disease. . Appearance of the Affected Plants. The Cause of the Beet Root-Rot. Special Characters of the Fungus. The Beet Root-Rot Fungus as a Cause of Other Types of Plant Diseases. J. Remedies. SAN HA II. LEAF Spot OF THE BEET (Cercospora beticola Sacc.) a. General Account. b. Characters of the Fungus. c. Remedies. III. BkrET ScaB (Oospora scabies 'Thaxter.) a. Appearance of the Disease. b. The Cause of the Disease and its Prevention. IV. Some REFERENCES To THE LITERATURE OF BEET DISEASES. THREE IMPORTANT FUNGOUS DISEASES (OFS SUGAR BEET. Many diseases of the sugar beet have been reported in the different countries where this crop is grown, and this is espec- ially true of the old world, where the culture of sugar beets has formed an important industry throughout many years. Already there are three diseases in this state which should be well known to those interested in beet culture. When other diseases appear abundantly, they will also receive merited attention. The wide- spread distribution of beet culture during the past few years is necessarily attended by a greater distribution of the diseases. It is well at the start to know what these troubles are, and to know the methods of prevention. The losses from plant diseases are often as great, or greater, than losses due to neglect of the proper methods of culture; and as long as we must grow varie- ties susceptible to fungous diseases, the grower should prepare to combat these disease attacks just as efficiently as he is equipped to fulfil other necessary cultural requirements. I. Root-Ror or BEETS (RAzzoctonia Bete Kuhn.) a. Occurrence of the Disease. Beet root-rot was first brought to my attention as a disease of small extent in the vicinity of Binghamton. A few days after- wards it was found abundantly at Cattatonk, N. Y. A visit to the latter place on Aug. 12 demonstrated that the disease was a matter of considerable practical importance. An examination of a three-acre field on the premises of Philip Caple convinced me that probably one-third of the beets in this field were affected, and it was then too late to attempt any remedial measures with this root-rot. Fortunately, some change in the conditions soon checked it, and my notes represent the final effect of the dis- ease. A careful study of the affected field showed one point of peculiar.interest. In certain areas the chipped tan-bark of an 340 BULLETIN 163. old tannery had been thickly spread on the land, and in such areas there was not the slightest indication of diseased beets, 49.—An early stage of the attack of Beet Root- Rot. basal parts of the leaves are blackened. The The tannery product was quite dry; and I attributed the absence of the disease to the lessened water content of the upper layers of the soil, which assumption would be in ac- cordance with the results of “some experi- ments to be detailed later. Again, ina part of the field wherecoal ashes had been heavi- ly applied, there was a noticeable diminution in the amount of the disease. This disease was afterwards reported from several places in the state, al- though it has not yet proved a common disease in New York. As mentioned later, what is probably the same disease was reported in Iowa in 1891, and it may have been 50.—A late stage of Beet Root-Rot, showing the cracking and rotting of the root. 342 BULLETIN 163. observed in one or two other sections of the country. It may be the same trouble that has several times been very destructive to the sugar beet industry in Germany. Again, as subsequently noted, this beet root-rot is caused by the same fungus which causes a stem rot of carnations; and probably by the same fungus which produces some damping off diseases, so that we may pre- dict that it has a wide distribution even at the present time. b. Appearance of Affected Plants. Under favorable conditions for its spread, this beet root-rot generally secures its first foothold at the bases of the leaves. — These parts are moist with the slightest rain or dew, and inocu- lation experiments show that in those regions the disease ‘“‘takes’’ very readily. The first evidence of the attack is mani- fest in the blackening of these leaf bases, the outer leaves first, so that the stalks soon become unable longer to support the blades, and the leaves may lie prostrate on the ground. The leaves do not, however, lose their green color very readily. Figure 49 shows this blackening of the leaf bases, before any in- jury is manifest in the other parts. t The disease soon works into the crown and root proper, caus- ing the infested parts toturn brown. With further spread of the fungus in the root region, cracks appear, as shown in figure 50. If the conditions continue to favor the disease, in time the whole top rots away, and the beet gradually disappears. Cold weather or dry conditions may so retard the disease that plants only slightly affected may recover entirely. Ordinarily the trouble was scattered throughout the entire field affected, but numerous small areas indicate that the fungus passes rapidly from plant to plant in the row, spreading radially. Even when the bases of the leaves alone are affected, upon careful examination one will find that there are to be seen the brown mycelial threads of the fungus growing over the surface. After the root has become affected, a considerable weft of the fungus will be evident in the cracks. A diseased beet sliced lengthwise and placed in a moist chamber. yields in a day or two a luxuriant growth of the mould-like hyphe. From this out- growth of mycelium it is very easy to secure a pure culture of DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. 343 the fungus. Acidulated bean pods, or bean stems, as mentioned by Professor Geo. F. Atkinson, in his study of the sterile damp- ing off fungus,* are excellent for this purpose. The fungus pre- fers an acid substance, while the ordinary bacteria of decay are shut out by such acidity. One drop of 50 per cent lactic acid to each test tube with the usual amount of medium is sufficient for best results. If the beets are much rotted, one may find, even in the field, that the surface of roots in moist conditions is covered with a short, tuft-like growth of the fungus. I have not found that the blackened, crust-like, or more or less rounded, compact masses of the mycelium, called sclerotia, ever occur on beets in the field. In this connection it may be well to state that all necessary cultures were made both from affected parts, and from the adja- cent white meat of the beet, to determine the part that bacteria or other fungi might play in the etiology of the disease ; but no other parasitic organism was found. As Pammel has stated, bacteria are probably much concerned in the final rotting of the beet. c. The Cause of the Beet Root-Rot. The constant association of the brown fungus AAzzoctonia with the cracking and rotting of beets in the field was not taken as final evidence that this fungus caused the trouble, and although late in the season, a few experiments were undertaken to determine the degree of parasitism of the fungus, and the conditions un- der which it acted. Experiment 1. In a short row of twenty-four half-grown beets eight were inoculated on Aug. 13. The inoculations were made by placing among the crown leaves fresh pieces of beet on which this fungus alone had been growing forashorttime. The whole row was mulched with straw. The weather was wet for a few days only, but afterwards quite dry. On Sept. 2 eighteen beets in this row were affected by the rot. Experiment 2. Six beets or clusters of beets were inoculated as in experiment 1, but over each inoculated area was placed a * Bulletin 94, Cornell Univ. Agl. Exp. Station, 1895. 344 BULLETIN 163. large bell glass. On Sept. 2 all of the inoculated plants were dis- eased, but the trouble had not spread from the bell glasses. Experiment 3. Twelve beets as above were inoculated, but with no provision for retaining moisture. On Sept. 2 nine of the inoculated plants were affected. Experiment 4. Twelve beets were inoculated with a mixture of several bacterial forms isolated from diseased tissues and from pe 51.—The brown hyphe which invest the cracks on diseased beets. parts of the beet immediately below diseased areas. These beets remained healthy throughout the experiment. Alternating with the rows experimented upon were check rows, all of the beets in which remained perfectly free from root- rot troubles. These experiments indicated that the fungus RAzzoctonia read- ily produces root-1ot when the conditions are favorable, and that moist conditions are essential for the spread of the disease from plant to plant. Later experiments with pure cultures of the fungus growing on bean pods were used to inoculate seedling beets, and with such plants a damping off effect was produced. DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. 345 d. Special Characters of the fungus. The morphological characters of the fungus may well be studied both from the mycelium found on the diseased beet, and from the growth in pure cultures, secured as above mentioned. In pure cultures on bean pods and on slices of sugar beet the fungus grows vigorously, and a loose mycelium first appears. However the fungus may be grown, it shows a very charac- teristic method of branching, which serves to identify it. In the young, vigorously growing hyphae the branches are inclined at an angle more or less acute with the direction of growth of the parent branch: and the point of union of the two is marked by a slight constriction. Invariably the branches are cutoff by a septum at a distance of several micromillimeters from the parent branch. At first the mycelium is quite hyaline, and 52.— The large, closely septate hyphae which make up the short tufted growth. strongly vacuolate ; but with age the loose hyphae may become very light brown in color. In the older hyphae of the loose growth it is noticeable that the constrictions at the places of union of the branches are not so evident, and this is especially true of the dark colored mycelium found externally in connection with the diseased area of the beet root, as in figure 51. In the cultures the loose growth is followed by a closer tufted growth of short hyphae. On such rich mediaas bean pods this close growth covers almost the entire surface, and little tufts may also appear on the glass of the test tube. This growthis at first somewhat mealy in appearance, but later it becomes deep brown in color. These tufts are made up of short 346 BULLETIN 163. hyphae much larger in diameter than those previously mentioned. They are closely septate, and constricted at the septa. Usually they branch irregularly and profusely as in figure 52, but truly dichotomous branching is often observed, and long moniliform chains of cells are not infrequent. Such tufts of hyphae are also occasionally found on beets badly rotted in the field. With age these chain-like aggregations break into hyphal elements of a single cell or of several cells attached ; and most of these cells may then function as conidia, producing on germination the charac- teristic mycelium first mentioned. Inthe manner of germination these cells are peculiar. The germ tube passes out through the septum origi- nally separating the cell from its neighbor. As soon as the germ tube has grown to an extent equal to several times the length of the parent cell, a septum invariably forms at a short distance from the latter, the proxi- mal cellissomewhat narrowed at its exit from the hyphal cell, and the first septum decides the normal diameter of the tube. When germination takes place from an inner one of several connected cells, a peculiar phenomenon occurs. The germ tube may pass from one cell intoand throughits adjacent neighboring cell; and usually such cells through which germ tubes pass seem to be themselves devoid of contents, or at least they lack the vacuolate structure of the germinating cells. These characters are shown in figure 53. When this fungus is grown on bean stems or on other nutrient media not so rich as bean pods, crust-like sclerotial bodies are oftener formed. The sclerotia begin as a closely branched mass of filamentous hyphae, and by further growth these become so interwoven as to form a more or less com- pact body. Sclerotia have been more readily produced by making fresh cultures from pure cultures of the fungus which had been kept in the labor- atory for a long time, the original cultures being made from damping off lettuce. In all cases, however, the hyphae and the sclerotia are very dif- ferent from those of Zotrytzs and other allied fungi often causing rots and certain damping off diseases. e. The Beet Root-Rot Fungus as a cause of Other Types of Plant Diseases. While working with cotton diseases in Alabama in 1892, Pro- fessor Geo. F. Atkinson found that the so-called ‘‘sore shin’’ of seedling cotton plants is abundantly produced by sterile fungus. Some of the results of this work were published in Bulletin 41 of the Alabama Experiment Station. In his later work at this Ex- periment Station upon damping off fungi, the same fungus was again found to cause damping off of many seedlings, especially of lettuce, cabbage, radish, egg-plant, &c. Under the caption ‘“Damping off by a Sterile Fungus,’’ in Bulletin No. 94 of this DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. 347 Experiment Station, the fungus was described in considerable detail. During the past two years I have continued studies upon cer- tain damping off fungi, and this sterile fungus has often been found as the cause of damping off in seedling lettuce, beans, and cucumbers, and occasionally in many other seedlings. That the fungus referred to is the cause of these troubles has been proved in the case of the lettuce and radishes by inoculation with pure culture. Seedlings affected by this fungus show the usual char- 53.—Germinating cells of the Root-rot fungus. acteristics of damping off. The plants first show signs of weak- ness near the surface of the ground, the water-soaked tissues of this region are soon unable to support the plant, and it may fall prostrate on the surface of the ground, the fungus soon invading all parts. Among lettuce seedlings, especially, this fungus spreads rapidly from plant to plant ; and a box of seedlings may have the appearance of being wilted: down, as in figure 54. Damping off diseases of seedlings which have been growing nor- mally should not be confused with the simple wilting of seed- lings in dry soil, or to the wilting due to the transfer of seed- lings from a warm soil to a cold soil, etc. In the winter of 1898 I received from a correspondent radishes of marketable size which showed a soft rot of the crown, or ul- cerated areas in the region of the crown, as shown in figure 55. ‘snSunf aqrsays ay) gq fo surduvp s.surppaas 39N}42] fo x09 p—'VS DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. 349 The leaves were usually unaffected until large portions of the fleshy roots had rotted. Cultures from diseased parts again yielded a fungus with structural characters exactly similar to those of the sore shin and damping off fungus. When the beet fungus was first isolated and studied I was sur- prised to find a fungus agreeing in structural details with the one causing damping off, radish rot, &c. The growth characters of the fungi in pure culture were also practically the same, and experi- ments were soon insti- tuted to de- termine if, under any cireum- stances,the beet fun- gus could Gat se dam ping- off. Inthe first exper- iments to deter mine this point, . lettuce and radish seedlings were used. Small pieces of beet on which the beet fungus was growing profusely were put at definitely marked places in a large box of lettuce seedlings on Sept. 26. Similar inoculations were made in a box of radish seedlings, and in both instances checks were observed. On the second day, at every point where the the beet Ahzzoctonza had been introduced a few lettuce seedlings were diseased, and in five days a considerable area about each piece had damped off. With the radish seedlings damping off was very slow, and no large number of seedlings succumbed ; but in seven daysa few plants were affected at about one-half of the inoculation centers. Subsequent work seems to indicate that the fungus from beets does not cause damping off of 55.—Radishes affected with soft rot of the crown. 350 BULLETIN 163. a very violent kind, but that it may cause damping off of lettuce, cotton, and some other plants toa limited extent. Owing to the similarity in morphological characters of these formsof Rhizoctonia from the sources mentioned, and with the experimental evidence available, it seemed at first that these forms were exactly identi- cal. Further evidence may indicate that we must recognize differences which are at least racial, not permitting of the ready transfer in a single generation of the beet fungus to seedlings of other plants, or vice versa.* Mr. F. C. Stewart, of the Geneva Station, is at work upon a stem rot of carnations and the fungus causing this disease of © carnations is identical in all morphological characters with the Rhizoctonia of beet root-rot. Experimental proof has also been established showing that the two diseases are due to the same organism ; and this evidence is detailed in the paper mentioned below. From the work of Kuhn and Pammel it is quite evident that the beet fungus should be referred to Rhizoctonia Bete Ktthn ; but at this time it is undesirable to enter into any discussion con- cerning the proper limitation of species in this genus which has been variously treated by Tulsanet, Comesf, and others. f. Remedies. The use of lime as a possible preventive for certain rhizoctonial diseases has been recommended. The use of an alkali as a preventive might be logically suggested knowing the avidity with which the fungus grows on acidulated nutrient media. The failure of the A/Azzoctonia to cause trouble in those parts of the field where coal ashes had been used abun- dantly again suggests the same remedy. Furthermore, Mr. F. C._ Stewart has determined that a small amount of alkalinity is fatal * Further details bearing upon the similarity of these forms of RAtzoc- tonia will be found in a paper presented before the Society of Vegetable Morphology and Physiology, Dec., 1898, entitled ‘‘Different Types of Plant Diseases Due toa Common Rhizoctonia,’”’ by B. M. Duggar and F. C. Stewart. This paper will soon be published in the Botanical Gazette. + Tulasne, L.R. & C. Fungi Hypogei, pp. 188—195. ¢ Comes, O. Crittogamia Agraria. 56.—A beet leaf showing the early stages of injury due to the leaf spot fungus. (Photographed by Prof. Geo. F. Atkinson.) 352 BULLETIN 163. to the growth of the AAzzoctonia of carnations in cultures. In general it seems that the soils of the State are usually in need of liming, and where this beet disease appears it would be very well to make an application of lime. Sixty to seventy bushels of air-slaked lime per acre would be a cheap and effective means of securing the desired alkalinity. It would be preferable to make this application in the autumn, or at least before the ground is turned, so that the lime would be well distributed. II. Lear Spot oF THE BEET (Cercospora beticola Sacc.). a. General Account. The above disease is one of very wide distribution. It has long been known both in this country and in Europe, and it probably occurs in all regions where beets are grown even to a limited extent. Itis a well known disease of the red garden beet, but many of the garden varieties are so resistant that the disease is not there a matter of great concern. My observations in this State indicate that it is much more injurious to sugar beets, than to the red varieties, and much damage was done by it during the past year. For this reason it needs to be brought to the special attention of those interested in the culture of sugar beets. The name well denotes the appearance of the disease, at least in the early stages. It begins as small brown spots with a red- dish purple margin, these spots being scattered irregularly over the leaf, as in figure 56. The spots become ashen gray at the centers, with the border as before; and they may become so numerous as to cover a large portion of the surface of the leaf before there is any general discoloration of the blade. In time, however, the blade shows a parched appearance, begins to blacken gradually from the distal portions towards the stalk, and finally the whole leaf is black and crisp. As soon as the leaves begin to appear parched and dry, they stand more nearly upright on the crown, and a whole field badly affected with this disease makes a very characteristic appearance, as shown in figure 57. The individual blades that are badly affected are somewhat curled or rolled, and even this is slightly evident in the photo- graph. 57.—A field of beets near Owego badly injured by the leaf-spot fungus ; the curled and upright condition of the leaves indicate the trouble. 354 BULLETIN 163. The outer or older leaves are of course first affected, and after the leaf stalks wilt these leaves are shed. In the meantime the plant is endeavoring to supply this deficiency of leaves by con- tinuing to develop new ones from the center, or from the bud. In consequence of this, the crown becomes considerably elongated, as in figure 58. During the past summer several fields of beets were observed in which the majority of the plants showed crowns thus elongated. If this is very marked, the roots are abnormally small, and much of the energy of the plant is evidently directed to saving itself. Even where the leaves are much less injured, it is undoubtedly a matter of economy to resort to preventive measures. During the present season this disease has been especially abun- dant in the valleys along the streams, but there is every reason to believe that it is usually 58.—Prolonged crown of a beet which has been quite as abundant in affected by the leaf-spot fungus. the high land as in the low land. In the same field the conditions seem to make but little difference ; it is found in the moist basins, and on the well- drained knolls. Sorauer has stated that the leaf spot fungus is not confined to the leaves, that it is also to be found upon the bracts and pedun- cles of the flowers, and even upon the seed pods themselves. For this reason he thinks that the disease may be transmitted through the seed so as to be in readiness to affect young seedlings. DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. 355 6b. Characters of the Fungus. The leaf spot of beets is caused by the fungus Cevcospora beti- cola Sacc. When the spots on diseased leaves begin to look somewhat grayish in appearance, the reproductive or propa- gative parts of the fungus will be found abundantly. The upright blackened leaves often show this ashen appearance over } the entire surface. Examining | under the microscope a little of | this material scraped off with the “2. | knife there will be found numer- S ous clusters of short erect hy- phae, such as are represented by the darker lower portion of fig- ure 59. These hyphae bear the spores, or reproductive bodies, represented in the upper portion of the figure. These spores are carried about by the wind from diseased leaves to healthy leaves, and from diseased plants to healthy plants; where they fall they germinate, if the conditions are suitable; and on growing again within the tissues of the beet leaf they produce the char- acteristic spots. 59.—Fertile hyphae and spores of The fertile hyphae are about 35- the tap spon (unees, 55xX4-5.* The conidia vary considerably in size, but are usually 75-200X3.5—4.5,* although much longer if produced in very moist conditions,or ina moist chamber. Pureculturesof the fungus may be readily secured by the ordinary method of dilution culture. The colonies show up wellin the petri dishes after a growth of a few days, asshownin figure 60. The mycelium grows in aclose mat, deeply olivaceous in color. The aerial growth is alsooblivaceous at first, and later it is grayish-green. Transfers to sterile bean pods have givenexcellent growths inpureculture. Culturesof the fun- * Measurements expressed in micromillimeters. 356 BULLETIN 163. gus have been kept in thelaboratory for two years, and during this time some attempts have been made tosecure any other stages that might be connected with the Cescospora, but in culture no fruit- ing forms have been secured. In studies of some other species of Corcospora more or less abnormal conidia* were produced, but with this beet fungus not even conidia are developed in cultures. There’ is <2 tendency for the aerial hy- phae to ad- here in clus- ters as they grow out from the substra- tum, asinthe upper portion of figure 61, and from these hyphae branches arise as if to bear conidia, but none are produced. In the lower portion of figure 61 is represented some of the characteristic mycelium which grows immersed, abundant swellings and irregular branching occurring. A close inspection has been made of old diseased leaves during the autumn and winter, but no fungi have yet been found which seem to suggest a perfect stage of this Cevcospora. c. Remedies. During the past season the serious injuries due to the leaf spot were not manifest until it was deemed too late to make satis- factory experiments with the use of fungicides for its prevention. For several years, however, experiments have been conducted by Professor Halsted, at the New Jersey Experiment Station, in the *Compare, Early Blight of Celery, Bulletin 132 of this Station. Bhi eo. DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. 357 treatment of this disease, and a successful remedy seems to be at hand in the well-known Bordeaux mixture. Numerous fun- gicides were experimented upon, but the Bordeaux mixture has proved most efficient. There is every reason to believe that by be- A. ginning the ~baek sprayings early the leaf-spot may be al- most entire- ly prevented by the use of this fungi- as ae ; cide: — Etre 61.—Mycelium of see ira 0 Abr: as grown in pure disease con- tinues so disastrous as it was in certain sections during the past season, for success growers must expect to spray their beets with the same regularity as has been found necessary in growing potatoes. The standard formula for the Bordéaux mixture should be used, consisting of :— ' Copper sulfate (Blue Vitriol).......... 6 pounds Fresh stone lime (unslaked).......... 4 =: Wiater Seo Weems Gb on a Shah alee 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper in half of the water used, suspending the crystals in a sack in the water. Slack the lime slowly, and then dilute to half the full quan- ity of water. Pour one solution into the other, stirring constantly. Stir the mixture before using. If the potassium ferrocyanide test is not used, it might be well to add another pound of lime. If by further experiment it should be shown that the disease is introduced abundantly by means of the seed, it will be necessary to treat the seed with hot water, copper sulfate solution, or some 358 BULLETIN 163. other fungicide. That the seed of beets will readily withstand such treatment is shown in the following table :— EFFECT OF HoT WATER AND COPPER SULFATE SOLUTION ON GERMINA- TION OF BEET SEED. Plonts | Plants /|Total ger- _ Nov. 4, oo seed treated Plants germ. germ, | minated, No. | with Time. germ. Nov. 8, | Nov. 14, | also per Nov. 6. addit. addit. cent. I | Hot water 1 GOCE ed 5 mins 60 74° 4 3 77 2 ht 5S pee II II 71 93 3 é he eee On? 7 26 | =e 88 4 = i og eae: ee, > ale. pee To |) ae | 92 5 Check, water bathe eee BS. Pl pe 26 9 99 6 1S Mesa 48 15 21 84 ¢ Copper sulfate. 7-64... 6 hrs. 83 II 3 97 8 teed io ek (eS tas 80 16 fe) 96 9 * eee cee 87 10 I 98 10 ri sg I-128.| 6 ‘S 78 17 fe) 95 II Check water heres i ae 54 21 13 88 Dy Bie Ff = TOT ee | cee ae Si 69 10 9 88 13 Copper sulfate 1-64../18 ‘‘ 92 7 fe) 99 sed 99 15 43 I-128.|18 ‘° gI 6 oO 97 16 - s I-128.|18 ‘‘ 2 lie £3 2 98 £7) | Meek wyrater ons so iS.o ae e! I 88 18 ia? Se Nee is tae 50 40 5 93 14 mn 1-64. AIS “422 4j 69 | 30 Plants Plants | Total ger- Nov. 1, 100 seed treated Plants germ. germ. | minated, | No. wit Time. germ. | Nov. 27, | Nov. 29, | also per Nov. 24. addit. addit. cent. 19 Copper sulfate 1- 8..| 6hrs. 75 12 4 gI 20 nh ead SY 80 16 I 97 21 rg ‘50 EBA Gr B2) a I 99 22 s SS ARB 2s Git TE a) ce OO I 83 23 Check, water....... 6. * 66. “27 2 95 24 Copper sulfate 1- 8../18 ‘‘ 74 25 I 100 25 i I-16..|18 ‘‘ 52 36 I 89 26 $ i ii eAS ite, G2. nie ta8 2 99 27 ” - $922. 155“! 61. 2 Gs 22 5 98 28 Check, “water... .4.:... mm. * AT ee eae 4 78 } ) J In the above experiment nos. 1-18 were germinated on moist filter paper, while with nos. 19-28 moist sand was used. The check lots were soaked for a corresponding period in water, DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. 359 since soaking the seed is often resorted to in practice. In gen- eral, even the strong solutions of copper sulfate gave slightly better results than the water ; and germination was often slightly hastened. In a preliminary test, the germination was very mark- edly in favor of the copper treated seed; but since the conditions were abnormally close and moist, the exclusion of bacteria by the copper solution might have caused the apparently excessive ‘benefit. - It remains to be determined, ‘however, if it is desirable to treat the seed for the prevention of the leaf-spot. III. Breer Scas (Oospora scabies Thaxter). a. Appearance of the Disease. The smooth surface of the beet root may often be disfigured by warty or scabby excresences. The texture of these injuries is somewhat corky or spongy, and the larger diseased areas will show that the injury is not entirely su- perficial, but to some extent alters the tissues immediately underly- ing such areas. The frontispiece shows two beets affected in a char- acteristic manner. The disease beginsas small irregularities either widely scattered or clustered. In- dividual onesspread in extent, and 62. Beet Ma groups often become united, so that in time it may spread over large areas, or small isolated areas may remain. One often notices a tendency for the scabby spots to be arranged in more or 360 BULLETIN 163. less definite bands, often just at the surface of the ground. The diseased bands, or areas, may, however, appear much lower, as in figure 62. It is very probable that this is determined by soil and moisture conditions. The scabby protuberances are abnor- mal developments of corky tissue stimulated to excessive growth by the presence of the fungus. Professor Arthur has noted sunken scabby spots on the surface of the beet, and he explains these as early injuries which failed to develop further, when the 63.—-Scabby potatoes. conditions were probably unfavorable, and future growth of the beet has left them rather as pits than as excrescences. b. The Cause of the Disease and [ts Prevention. In 1890 Professor Thaxter discovered that potato scab iscaused by the growth on the surface of the tuber of a, fungus which he named Oospora scabies. When scabby potatoes, such as are represented in figure 63, are placed in a moist chamber, a light, DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. 361 grayish, mould-like growth of the fungus may appear on the sur- face; and it was by inoculations with pure cultures of this fungus that he was able to reproduce the disease on healthy tubers. ‘The following year Professor Bolley found the scab of beets abundantly, and the microscopic evidence which he obtained indicated that the fungus was the same in both cases. He furthermore ascertained that in all cases when the beet scab was abundant, potatoes had been grown on the soil, either the pre- vious year or somewhat earlier. Working independently, at about the same time, Professor Arthur came to similar con- clusions about the identity of these two forms of scab; and a single decisive experiment in the transfer of scab from potato to beet was reported by him. Since that time there has been abundant general evidence to establish the fact that scabby beets may be expected if the seed are sown on land which has recently produced scabby potatoes. On the College Farmduring the past season it has been very significant that the land producing scabby potatoes the previous season, produced scabby beets last season, while infected soil produced beets free from the disease. The remedy cannot consist in this instance in the treatment of the seed, since the seed do not disseminate the disease ; nor can it consist in the treatment of the land, since the experiments with liming, sulfuring, etc. have not given satisfactory results. The only course open, then, is the one of avoiding for the growth of beets any soil, which, during several years previous, has pro- duced scabby beets. B. M. DUGGAR. IV. SoME REFERENCES TO THE LITERATURE OF BEET DISEASES. Arthur, J. C., and Golden, Katharine E.—Diseases of the Sugar Beet Root. Bulletin 39, Indiana Agl. Exp. Station, pp. 54-62. Bolley, H. L.—A Disease of Beets Identical with Deep Scab of Potatoes. Bulletin 4, North Dakota Agl. Exp. Station, pp. 15-17. Buckhout, W. A.—(Report Penn. Agl. Exp. Sta., 1893, pp. 152-153). Busse, W.—Bacteriologische Studien iiber die Gummosis der Zuckerruben. Zeitschr, fur Pflanzenkrankheiten, VII, 1897, 65-77 and 149-155. Eidam, E.—Untersuchungen zweier Krankheitserscheinungen, die an den Wurzeln der Zuckerriibe in Schlesien seit letztem Sommer ziemlich haufig vorgekommen sind. Jahresb. der Schlesischen Ges. fur vater- landische Cultur, 1887, pp. 261-262. [Ref. Bot. Centrb. 35, 1888, p. 303]. 362 BULLETIN 163. Frank, B.—Ueber Phoma Betae, ein neuer parasitischer Pilz, welcher die Zuckerrube zerstort. Zeitschr. des Vereins f. d. Rubenzucker—Indus- trie d. Deutschen Reiches, 1892, p. 903, u.s. w. [Ref. Zeitschf. Pflan- zenkr., IV, p. 13]. Phoma Betae, ein neuer Rubenpilz. Zietschr. fiir Pflanzeukrankheiten III, 1893, go. Ueber die biologischen Verhaltnisse des die Herz-und Trockenfaule der Ruben erzeugeuden Pilzes. Ber. d. deuts. bot. Gesellschaft 13, 1895, 192-199. Die neue Rubenseuche, Phoma Betae und ihr gegenwortiger Stand. Deut. landw. Presse, 20, 1893, 921-922. [Ref. Experiment Sta. Record]. (On Combatting the Heart and Dry Rot of Beets). Deut. landw, Presse, 23, 1896, 568-569. [Ref. Experiment Sta. Record]. Neuere Beobachtungen uber die Blattfleckenkrankheit der Ruben (Cercospora beticola). Zeitschr. des Vereins fir die Rubenzuckerin- dustrie des Deutschen Reichs 1897, p. 589. [Ref. Centrb. fiir Bakterio- logie u. Parasitenkunde, 2, Abth., III, 1897, 754-755]. Glacer, Fr.—Zur Gallertausscheidung in Rubensaften. Centrb. fur Bak- teriologie u. Parasitenkunde, 2 Abth. I, 1895, 879-880. Halsted, B. D.—Some Fungous Diseases of Beets. Bulletin 107, New Jersey Agl. Exp. Station pp. I-13. Some Fungous Diseases of Beets. Report, New Jersey Agl. Exp: Station, 1894, pp. 336-246. Report, New Jersey Agl. Exp. Station, 1895, pp. 328-329, 333, 335) 340, 343, and 345. Report New Jersey Agl. Exp. Station, 1896, pp. 346-351, 360, 365, 369, 371, 374, 376, and 391. Report New Jersey Agl. Exp. Station, 1897, pp. 327-334. Harvey, F. L.—Potato and Beet Scab. Report Maine Agl. Exp. Station, 1893, p. 156. Hiltner.—(Root Rot of Beets). Sachs. landw. Zeitung, 1894. [Ref. Landw. Centrbl. Posen, 23, 1895, 79-80]. Humphrey, J. E.—Report Massachusetts Agl. Expt. Station, 1889, pp. 225- 226 (Amherst). Kiehl, F.—Das Auftreten herzfauler Zuckerriiben in massen Jahren. Blatter fur Zuckerruubenbau, 1897, 55. [Ref. Zeitschr. fur Pflanzenkr, VII, 1897, 247]. Kramer, E.—Die Bacteriosis der Runkelrtube (Beta vulgaris L.) eine neue Krankheit derselben. Oesterreichisches Landw. Centrb. Jahrg. I. H. 2, pp. 30-36. Kruger, F.—Die bis jetzt gemachten Beobachtungen tuber Frank’s neuen Rubenpilz, Phoma Betae. Zeitschr. fur Pflanzenkrankheiten IV, 1894, [Abstract by Sorauer of following]. Phoma fetae als einer der Erreger des Wurzelbrandts junger Rubenpflanzen erschienen. Zeitschr. des Vereins f. d. Rubenzucker- DISEASES OF THE SUGAR BEET. 363 Industrie d. Deutschen Reiches, 1893. [Ref. Zeitschr fir Pflanzenkr, Pe py. 1345 Weitere Untersuchungen uber die neue Krankheit der Zuckerriibe, verursacht durch Phoma Setae. Zeitschr des Vereins f. d. Riiben- zucker-Industrie d. Deutschen Reiches, 1893, 90, u. s. w. ([Ref. Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkr, IV, 13]. Kudelka, F.—Die Blattfleckenkrankheit der Rube, und ihre auftreten. Deut. Zuckerindustrie, 1893, p. 1632. [Ref. Wochenschr Cent. Ver. Rubenz., Ind. 31, 1893, 707-708]. Marek.—Zu den Erfahrungen uber Einbeizen der Rubenkorner gegen Wurzelbrandt. Abstract in Braunschw. landw. Zeitg. 62, 1894, 38. [Ref. Experiment Sta. Record]. Pammel, L. H.—Fungous Diseases of Sugar Beet. Bulletin 15, lowa Agl. Exp. Station, pp. 234-254. Prillieux.—La Pourriture du Coeur de la Betterave, Bull. de la Soc. Myco- logique de France, VII, 1891, 15. Prillieux et Delacroix.—Complément al’ étudede la maladie du coeur de la Betterave. Bull. de la Soc. mycologique de France VII, 1891, 23. Rostrup, E.—Phoma—angriff bei Wurzelgewachsen, Zeitschr, fur Pflan- zenkrankheiten IV, 1894, 322-323. Scribner, F. L.—The Rust of Beets. Report U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1887, PP- 350-353. Smith, E. F.—The Bacterial Diseases of Plants: A Critical Review of the Present State of Our Knowledge. II. The Beet (Beta vulgaris L.). American Naturalist, 30, 1896, 716-731. Sorauer, P.—Die bakteriose Gummosis der Zuckerriibenbau. Blatter fur Zuckerrubenbau, 1894, p. 9. [Ref. Centrb. f. Bakt. u. Parasitk. 2 Abth. I., 1895, 295-296]. . Feldversuche zwecks Feststellung einer Abhangigkeit der bakteriosen Gummosis der Zuckerruben von Witterungs—und Bodeneinflussen. Blatter fiir Zuckerriibenban. Bd. IV, 1897, p. 81. [Ref. Centrb. f. Bakt. u. Parasitk. 2 Abth. III, 535. Feldersuche mit Ruben, welche an der bakteriosen Gummosis leiden. Zeitschr fur Pflanzenkrankheiten, VII, 1897, 77-80. Sturgis, W. C.—On the Susceptibility of Various Root-Crops to Potato Scab and the Possibility of Preventive Treatment. Report Connecticut Ag]. Exp. Station, 1896 (New Haven). Tubeuf, K. F. von.—Diseases of Plants Induced by Cryptogamic parasites, 1897, pp. 468, 513-514, 537-538. Trabut.—Sur une Ustilaginée parasite de la Betterave, Oedomyces leproides. Revue Mycologique, 18, 1896, Io-IT. THE FOLLOWING BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THOSE WHO MAY DESIRE THEM. 150. I5I. 152. 153- 154. 155. 156. 157.° 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. Creaming and Aerating Milk, 20pp. | Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. Steam and Hot-Water for Heating | Greenhouses, 26 pp. Sundry Investigations of 1892, 56 pp. CEdema of the Tomato, 34 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp Sundry Investigations of the Year 1893, 54 PP. On Certain Grass-Eating Insects, 58 pp. Hints on the Planting of Orchards,16 pp. Apricot Growing in Western New York, 26 The Ehitivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Leaf Curl and Plum Pockets, 40 pp. Impressions of the Peach Industry in | N.. Y.,.28 Dp. Peach Yellows, 20 pp. Some Grape Troubles in Western N. Y., 116 pp The Grafting of Grapes, 22 pp. The Cabbage Root Maggot, 99 pp. Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 | Pp. The Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. Experiments with Tuberculin, 20 pp. The Recent Apple Failures in N. Y., 24 Pp. Dwarf Lima Beans, 24 pp. Feeding Fat to Cows, I5 pp. Cigar-Case-Bearer, 20 pp. Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 pp. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp. The Spraying of Trees and the Canker | Worm, 24pp. General Observations in Care of Fruit Trees, 26 pp. Soil Depletion in Respect to Care of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. Climbing Cutworms in Western,N.Y. 51 pp Test of Creain Separators, 18 pp. RevisedOpinions of the JapanesePlums, 30 pp Geological History of the Chautauqua | Grape Belt, 36 pp. IIo | 114 116 | 117 119 | 120 I2I 122 123 | 324 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 | 146 147 148 | 149 Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp. Spraying Calendar. Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. Moisture of the Soil and Its Conser- vation, 24 pp. Suggestions for Planting Shrubbery. Second Report upon Extension Work in Horticulture, 36 pp. Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. The Pace in Western New York, 18 A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. The Currant-Stem Girdler aud the Raspberry-Cane Maggot, 22 pp. A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Potato Culture, 15 pp. Notes upon Plums for Western York, 31 pp. Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. The Army-Worm in New York, 28 pp. Strawberries under Glass, 10 pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp. Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of its Origin and Progress, II pp. Studies and [Illustrations of Mush- rooms ; I, 32 pp. Third Report upon Japanese Plums. v , Second Report on Potato Culture, 24 pp. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. The Codling-Moth. Sugar Beet Investigations, 88 pp. Suggestions on Spraying and on the San José Scale. Some Important Pear Diseases. Fourth Report of Progress on Exten- sion Work, 26 p Fourth Report He Chrysanthemums, 36 pp. Quince Curculio, 26 pp. Some Spraying Mixtures. New Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year, June 30, 1898. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. Impressions of our Fruit-Growing Industries. Tables for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. Second Report on the San José Scale. Third Report on Potato Culture. The Grape vine Flea-beetle. Source of Gas and Taint Produciug Bacteria in Cheese Curd. An Effort to Help the Farmer. Hints on Rural School Grounds. Annual Flowers. The Period of Gestation in Cows. Three Important Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet. Bulletin 164. February, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. BOTANICAL DIVISION. PEACH LEAF-CURL AND NOTES ON THE Shot-Hole Eifect of Peaches and Plums. By B. IM. DUGGAR. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N: -Y. 1899. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL : THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC. P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHNSH. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. . H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. F. ATKINSON, Botany. . V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. M. DUGGAR, Botany. . W. SPENCER, Extension Work. . L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. ISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. G. W. TAILBY, Farm Foreman. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITHS, Dairy Husbandry. F. A. STEVENS, Demonstrator. CEO SO yr SoS OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., February 7, 1899. THE HONORABLE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, N. Y. Szy: Of the many diseases with which the fruit-grower has to contend, probably no one has been more generally prevalent dur- ing the past season than the peach leaf-curl. Wherever horticultural schools or meetings have been held, questions have come up concerning this disease and its treatment. Moreover, the greater part of the correspondence referred to the mycologist during the spring of 1898 was in regard to the peach leaf-curlfungus andremedies for the same; fortunately, experiments relative to preventive treatment were already under way. In this bulletin, Mr. Duggar has given a brief and clear account of the fungus causing the leaf-curl, and he has outlined a treatment which, under difficult conditions, has proved most satisfactory. The peach leaf-curl is one of the three great enemies of the peach-growing industry and like the other two, the yellows and the borer, if neglected or if treated unintel- ligently, the orchard soon becomes unprofitable, and finally is entirely destroyed. I. P. RoBERTS, Director. of CAP Pn tat Ake, PEACH LEAF-CURL AND NOTES ON THE SHOT-HOLE EFFECT OF PEACHES AND PLUMS. Pe pach: PEewr-Curt.* a. General Remarks. In bulletin 73 of this Experiment Station a complete account was given of the fungi causing leaf-curl and plum-pockets on many members of the genus Prunus. In the present discussion of the leaf-curl of the peach it will be unnecessary to go into technical details; but in order, as far as possible, to have a reason for that which is done, or recommended, a general account of the life history of the fungus must be included. Peach leaf-curl is a disease which has long been known to the orchardist as well as to the botanist; and since the seasons of 1897 and 1808, there are probably very few peach growers in the state who are unfamiliar with the disease. The inquiries received during the past spring concerning this disease were so numerous that it has seemed important to give to the growers the results of the work of a single season, along with those results which have been elsewhere obtained. Many of the inquiries have sought a remedy only, but still others have desired a knowledge of the cause; and a general treatment of the subject is necessary. b. Appearance of the Disease. Peach leaves affected with the curl can often be detected as soon as the leaf buds have opened to a slight extent. A roughened surface of the young leaf, and an excess of coloring are usually the first indications. As the young leaves rapidly assume their normal size, this curling and arching of the blades is more prominent. Sometimes there is distortion in a small area only, and again the entire blade may be affected. The curling of the edges of the leaves may be upward or downward, or the * Exoascus deformans ( Berk.) Fuckel. S72 BULLETIN 164 upper surface of the leaf may be gradually arched from base to tip. When the leaf is full grown, the diseased areas may be red- dish green ; but usually the green color is largely lost and a pale discoloration characterizes diseased parts. The frontispiece and 64.—A terminal shoot with both leaves and twig affected by the leaf-curl Sungus. figure 64 show the appearance of the disease on a cluster of leaves terminating a shoot. Figure 64 also shows another point to be observed. Not only are leaf and leaf-stalk affected, but the terminal part of the shoot becomes much enlarged, and also palein color. The fungus is then thoroughly established in | ee ee “tere PEACH LEAF-CURL. 373 the tip of the branch, and the significance of thisis apparent later on. The leaves soon become grayish or mealy in appearance. This appearance is due to the fact that the fungus is fruiting, 65.—Feach curl and gummostis. producing the spores which are to disseminate the disease. After the grayish color appears, the affected leaves gradually dry up and fall off. In this latitude the defoliation from such injuries usually occurs late in June. In the late stages of this curl disease, as with some other peach diseases, gummy exudations are often noted on those twigs which are enlarged by the fungus; or these may occur even on 374 BULLETIN 164. the large branches where a diseased cluster of leaves has been attached. Figure 65 shows the condition often called gummosis. Defoliation of the entire tree does not necessarily mean the death of the tree; but it does mean the death of many twigs, and lessened vitality. New buds, or rather some of the sleep- ing or dormant buds open and the tree attempts to supply itself with new and healthy foliage. It is very seldom that this fresh foliage is badly affected by the curl; and it is possible to account — a b Cc a 66.—a, healthy twig; bandc, twigs in which the leaf-curl fungus 1s win- tering ; and a, twig killed by the fungus. for whatever curl is now evident as having come directly from diseased buds or twigs. The new shoot growing out from a diseased terminal bud may grow entirely out of the disease, but the swollen part remains below. ‘Thus, when the season’s growth is done and the autumn at hand, these swollen areas may mark out the recovery of shoots ; but they also indicate where the fungus rests; and they are warnings of danger for another season. Figure 66, dandc¢, PERACH LEAF-CURL. 375 show the appearance of twigs in which the fungus is winter- ing; a, a twig of the same age which is perfectly normal; and d, a twig killed by the presence of the fungus in its tip. c. Life History of the Fungus. In this latitude it is usually the latter part of May that the curl is most pronounced, and the grayish appearance is evident soon afterward on all diseased leaves, and on both surfaces of such leaves. The surface is evidently covered with a dense close growth, somewhat mould-like in character. As _ previously mentioned, the fungus which causes the curl is then fruiting, forming the spores which are to disseminatethe disease ; but this cannot be seen by the eye alone. Examining under the micro- scope some of the close growth scraped from the surface of dis- eased areas, numerous short, erect, thread-like growths (fertile hyphae) will be evident, as in figure 67. Close examination at the time that the fungusis mature shows that these erect hyphaeare sac-like in appearance (the asci), and they usually contain eight oval bodies called the spores. In the asci the spores may sprout or bud, forming numerous conidia. After these spores or conidia are mature, they are soon set free from the sac-like structures ; and being so minute and light, they are ready to be borne about by the wind. When they fall upon vulnerable parts of other trees, they are in readiness to grow into the tissue and to pro- duce the disease again. The fruit of the fungus is produced on the surface of the leaf, but the true vegetative state of the fungus is within the tissues of the leaf and of the young shoots. The threads, or filaments, which make up this vegetative state pass in between the cells of the leaf, and it is the irritation due to the presence of these fun- gous filaments (the mycelium) which causes the leaf to become distorted in form. Passing into the young shoot, the fungus is in a condition to pass the winter in situ, provided the twig lives, without having to trust to the fortune of winds and rains, asis the case with the spore. It is unfortunate that the exact fate of the more fortunate spores is not known. Since the second growth of leaves is not badly infested by the curl, the spores do not produce the disease 376 BULLETIN 604. again immediately, it seems. One of two possibilities is then open ; either (1) to germinate immediately and infect the buds which will open the next season ; or (2) to be hidden away about the twigs, in the bud scales, or even on the ground about the tree, and there to pass the winter, germinating the next spring. On leaf surfaces of its host plant Sadebeck* has germinated the 67.—Cross section of a part of a leaf affected with leaf-curl, showing the fruiting of the fungus. (From Bulletin 73, by Professor Geo. F. Atkinson. spores of a closely related species growing on Alnus. This took place, apparently, soon after the spores were produced. It is hoped that some studies now under way will throw light upon this important matter,—important because treatment can be made more effective the more complete is our knowledge concerning time and method of infection. At present, the results from pre- ventive treatments indicate that normal infections take place in the spring. d. Conditions Affecting the Abundance of the Leaf-Curl. The sporadic occurrence of the leaf-curl is rather remarkable. In many sections of the State there was very little in 1896. The * Unters. uber d. Pilzgattung Exoascus, u. d. durch dieselbe um Hamburg hervorgerufen Baumkrankheiten. Abgedruck a. d. Jahrb. d. Wiss. Anst. p. 102, 1883, Hamburg. PEACH LEAF-CURL. 577 same sections in 1897 saw a large increase in the abundance of the disease, and the past season was characterized by unusual injuries from this cause. This wave of increasing abundance during the past few years seems to have extended quite gener- ally through the Northern States, judging from inquiries received, and from the activity of experimenters in this field of work at various experiment stations. Attempts have been made specifically to define the conditions which encourage the curl. Some have asserted that a cool, moist spring is most conducive to its abundance. The time of infection, however, should be determined, it seems, before any satisfactory explanation may be given. It is quite reasonable to suppose that the conditions prevailing at the time the spores of the fungus are being disseminated, or the conditions prevailing at the time the spores germinate to infect the buds or leaves would be the factors to determine the greater abundance or the less abundance of the disease the following year. If the spores of the fungus live over winter on the ground or twigs, and ger- minate with the first warm days of spring to infect the opening buds, then the spring conditions would seem to be of great importance in determining the amount of the disease. If, how- ever, infections result during summer or autumn the effect of spring conditions is not apparent. It is well known that different varieties of the peach show dif- ferent degrees of susceptibility to the attacks of leaf-curl. The same is often found to be true of other plants attacked by other fungous diseases, and it can only be explained by constitutional differences in the varieties. Among varieties of peaches very susceptible to the curl, Selby* mentions Mountain Rose, Old Mixon, Globe, Elberta, Scott’s Nonpareil, Red Cheek, and others. Such a list will, in all probability, vary with the place, and I have examined some orchards of many varieties in which none were exempt. é€. Remedies. The early experiments made to determine the value of fungi- cides for the prevention of peach curl were unsatisfactory both * Bulletin 92, Ohio Agricultural Exp. Station; 1898. “XNVDIPAOT Yjia aqv} padwads ‘7f2] ayy uo ‘€ mor SaanpximM wnvapsog yj dprva padvrgs ‘Jy sis ay) uo ‘2 mor SE puv 2 sos Susmoys ydvssojOy] —'89 PEACH LEAF-CURL. 379 because the fungicides themselves often injured the leaves, and - also because the best time for spraying was not apparent from our knowledge of the fungus. Much of the later work has been to demonstrate that spraying one season lessons the disease during the succeeding season. At the time that my experiments were begun, I was not aware of other results. In an orchard of young trees closely set and used for some experiments with borers, by M. V. Slingerland, leaf-curl appeared in 1896. The following year it was so abundant as to cause almost entire defoliation, and there was every promise of an abundant reappearance of the disease in 1898. These trees were so close together that they were especially desirable for such work, since it would be very probable that any remedy proving more or less effective under such conditions would be even more effective under ordinary circumstances. There wasalso the addi- tional advantage that the trees were all known to have been affected the previous year. Several varieties were represented in the orchard, and the experimental rows were run across varieties, so as to eliminate any error on this score. The treatments given, and dates of spraying, were as follows :* Row 1. Check. 2. Bordeaux mixture, April 8, May 10, May 21, June 8. 3. Bordeaux mixture, May 10, May 21, June 8. 4. Bordeaux mixture, April 8, Potassium sulfide, May 10, May 21, June 8. 5. Cheek | 6. Potassium sulfide, May 10, May 21, June 8. 7. Bordeaux mixture, April 8, Ammon. copper carbonate, May 10, May 21, June 8. 8. Ammon. copper carbonate, May 10, 21, June 8. In the statement of results the abundance of the disease the previous year must be remembered, for it is very evident that no hope could be entertained for securing exemption from the disease where the fungus had been carried over winter in the twigs. *In this experimental work Mr. H. P. Gould cooperated with me. 380 BULLETIN 164. Notes on the results at the different dates may be stated thus: Apr. 8.—Buds hardly beginning to swell. (1st spraying.) May 10.—Soon after pollination of the flowers; petals drop- ping, and young leaves out from one-half to one inch long. Even at this time a large number show that the curl is present, by increased reddish coloration, but almost no dis- tortion of surface. Microscopic examination showed that there was yet no fruiting of the fungus. (2d spraying.) May 21.—Curl showing abundantly in the orchard both on leaves and twigs ; fungus not yet fruiting. (3d spraying.) June 1.—Row 1, (check). Very bad; almost:every leaf on the tree affected. Row 2, (Bordeaux early). Very good, curl mostly con- fined to some of the tips of growing twigs. Row 3, (Bordeaux late). Very bad; almost every leaf affected. Row 4, (Bordeaux early, Potas. sulf. late). Very good ; perhaps slightly more curl than in row 2. Row 5, (Check). Very bad; almost every leaf affected. Row 6, (Potas. sulf. late). Very bad; a large majority of the leaves affected. Row 7, (Bordeaux early, Am. cu. carb. late). Very good ; almost equalto No. 2. Row 8, (Am. copper carb. late). Very bad; almost every leaf affected. Particular attention should here be directed to the fact that where Bordeaux mixture was used before the buds swelled, the foliage of the trees was very largely entirely free from the curl, even during this first year of treatment; and this was true irrespective of the mixture subsequently used (compare rows 2, 4, and 7). Unfortunately there was no row whichreceived the first treatment only. June 8.—On this date, the time of the last application, the leaves badly affected were falling abundantly. Soon after this time the photograph was taken from which figure 68 is repro- -duced. This figure shows the difference between the row sprayed late with Bordeaux, and the row sprayed both early and late with Bordeaux, rows 2 and 3. so oh PEACH LEAF-CURL. 381 The final results indicate very significantly that at most there is very slight effect from the treatments subsequent to the early treatment with Bordeaux, and that the early treatment is the one of importance for the pro- tection of the foliage dur- ine, the: same year. )Per- haps the subsequent treat- ments may prove of value as to the amount of the curl the following year, and this is what others have already demonstrated. Since securing these re- sults, I have had corres- pondence with some or- chardists who had sprayed peach trees for various dis- eases. With few excep- tions, those who have sprayed early have been those successful in the pre- vention of the curl. A very interesting result has been reported by Mr. A.I. Loop of North East Penn: So far as the pre- vention of curl is con- cerned, the benefit was accidental; but the value of early spraying is again 69.—A branch from a tree in row 2, demonstrated. From his sprayed early with Bordeaux letter, I quote as follows, mixture. ‘‘’The experiment was to try the effect of whitening for the protection of buds during winter. The directions given by Professor Whitten in his bulletin issued at Columbia, Mo., were followed. A selection was made about the center of a block of A4ooo trees; about a dozen trees across the rows, including different varieties, were treated. The first application was made 382 BULLETIN 164. the first week in January, using his regular milk and lime for- mula. ‘The next was the same treatment on the first of February. They were again treated about the first of March, but instead of milk we used dextrine. * * * Asto results,—we could dis- cover no difference in time of blossoming between the treated and untreated trees. * * * We discovered one thing, however, that we thought remarkable. All of our trees were considerably affected with curl-leaf, but we found these treated trees to be almost absolutely free from it. At least one-half of these trees have not shown a single diseased leaf up to the present time (July 27) ; about one-half of them had one or two diseased leaves. The adjoining trees on both sides and on each end of the treated trees without exception showed many curled leaves, from 25 per cent to 75 per cent of allof the leaves on the trees being affected.”’ The above is very conclusive, even with a fungicide, dilute whitewash, which we have not held in high esteem when used alone. For this early treatment it has one of the special advantages of Bordeaux mixture, that of adhering well. In the Year Book of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1897, page 110, there are given some noteworthy figures concerning the gains which growers on the Pacific coast have enjoyed by fol- lowing out certain lines of treatment suggested by the Depart- ment. This report was not out until our experiments were practically complete, and in it no statement is made of the time when the applications were made. I have since learned, how- ever, that special stress is iaid upon the early spraying. The results at other experiment stations, notably at Ohio, largely confirm what has already been said concerning remedies. Special recommendations :—With our present knowledge of peach leaf-curl, the following may be suggested : Ist. Spray thoroughly with strong Bordeaux mixture just previous to the swelling of the buds, late in March, or very early in April seems desirable in this latitude. 2d. Spray again with weaker Bordeaux as soon as the petals of the flower have fallen, or after the work of the bees is over. 3d. Spray again with weak Bordeaux when the first leaves are just full grown, or at just about the time that the spores of the fungus are developing. PEACH LEAF-CURL. 38 Ww Discussion of recommendations : 1st. Why not spray in midwinter? Midwinter spraying may be quite effective, but there is every reason to believe that the April spraying will be better ; for if that is near the time that the buds are infected, the spores will then be more readily killed. If a time when other work is not pressing is of first importance, spray earlier. Why not use copper sulfate solution? It may be quite as ef- ficient, but Bordeaux adheres better and would be more likely to prevent infections throughout a period. 2d. .Why? Late in- fections by spores from the ground or from neighboring fields may thus be guarded against. ad... This sprayinoss) is to cover the leaves with Bordeat= 2a¢ about the time the fun- gus is fruiting, hoping not only to prevent summer infections, but tocover places where the spores may lodge in order to pass the winter. 70.—A branch from a tree in row 3 sprayed late with Bordeaux mixture. The Bordeaux Mixture. In making the first spraying, the all-important one, strong Bordeaux mixture may be used ; and every twig should be so well covered that the blue color appears as a distinct coating after 384 BULLETIN 164. the application has dried. However, under certain conditions, the foliage of the peach seems to be easily injured by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Withweak Bordeaux mixture properly made,I have not been able to produce any injury on the trees experimented upon. The customary formula for Bordeaux mixture is : Copper sulfate (blue vitriol)............... 6 lbs. Unslaked lime (good quality)............. 4 lbs. Water oi skein ore ens. =a 2 Sree See 50 gallons. In spraying the foliage of peach trees, reduce the copper sul- fate to four pounds. Even this may seem strong. It should not, however, be condemned until tried; and when tried the mixture should be made by the one method which “has been most successful.* To dissolve the copper sulfate, suspend it in a coarse sack in a barrel containing twenty-five gallons of water. Slack the lime (use only the best) slowly, and then dilute it to twenty-five gallons. Pour the two together in this dilute form, stirring for a few minutes. Stir before using. If large quantities of the mixture are desired, stock solutions may be made as usual. Dissolve say fifty pounds of the copper sulfate in a barrel containing as many gallons of water. The stock solution of lime may be made of the same strength. Then each gallon means a pound of the substance wanted. When the mix- ture is made, dilute each solution separately before pouring them together. *See Farmers’ Bulletin No. 38, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, p. 6. PEACH LEAF-CURL. 385 II. NorTres ON THE SHOT-HOLE EFFECT OF PEACHES AND PLuMs.* During several years past I have received from a few cor- respondents, leaves of the plum and of the peach badly affected 71—Shot-hole effect on Japan plum sprayed with improperly made Bor- deaux mixture. with a shot-hole injury. The interesting feature of the cases mentioned was the fact that this injury occurred where the trees * Fuller details upon this subject will be found under the same title in the Proceedings of the Soc. for Promotion of Ag]. Sci., 1898. SA cn ecnte 286 BULLLTIN 164. had been abundantly sprayed. From observations already made, I had suspected that other causes besides the shot-hole fungus might be responsible for some of the troubles referred to me. In one case, especially, there was an unusual appearance of the shot-hole effect in a large orchard soon after the application of Bordeaux mixture. On the horticultural grounds of the Experiment Station, during the season of ’97, Mr. H. P. Gould called my attention to the abundance of the shot-hole effect on Japan plums which he had sprayed constantly. I had then completed some experiments with the production of such injuries by means of substances injurious to the foliage; and the results indicated clearly that injuries to the foliage by many deleterious chemical agents might produce the characteristic shot-hole appearance. It was reasonable to believe that spraying might have the same effect under certain conditions. - Later experiments were made to test the effect of some copper compounds upon the foliage of the peach and of the apricot, and comparatively upon plums of the native, domestica, and Japan groups. In general the peaches, apricots, and plums of the native and domestica groups were free from any shot-hole effect; but the Japan plums generally indi- cated some injuries of this kind. The entire orchard had been sprayed with Bordeaux mixture tested with potassium ferro- cyanide. A few trees of each kind mentioned were then sprayed with properly prepared Bordeaux mixture, with Bordeaux mix- ture containing an excess of copper, with Bordeaux made by the use of poor lime, and with a solution of copper sulfate containing one pound of the compound to about 15 gallons of water. The properly prepared Bordeaux produced no injury except upon the Japan plum (Burbank) ; but there was an evident injury in the latter case. The improperly made Bordeaux mixtures affect- ed the peach and the Japan plum to a marked extent, a photograph of injuries to the latter being shown in figure 71. By the same mixture the apricot and the native plum (Yellow Transparent) were somewhat injured, while the effect upon the domestica (Empire) was scarcely noticeable. The copper sulfate solution of course produced injury in all cases, but this injury was very little in the case of the domestica, and somewhat more pro- PEACH LEAF-CURL. 387 nounced with the native. On the Japan plum and on the apricot a marked shot-hole effect was produced, followed by considerable 72.—Shot-hole effect on peach produced by weather conditions. defoliation, and on the peach there was complete defoliation within a few days. The shot-hole effect abundant among Japan plums in the orchard was again examined, but there was no indication of a causal fungus; and very significant was the fact that young 388 BULLETIN 164. shoots growing out beyond the region covered by the spraying were wholly free from such injuries. There was no doubt that this general appearance of a shot-hole fungus on the Japan plums was due directly to thespraying. An unsprayed orchard of Burbank and Abundancein the vicinity showed no shot-holeinjury whatever. Later experiments on the Chabot plum confirmed the previous work, indicating that under certarn conditions the Bordeaux mix- ture may be injurious to the foliage of the Japan plums, much more so, in fact, than to that of the peach. Among the varieties which have shown the greatest injury from spraying during the past season may be mentioned, Willard, Chabot, Douglass, Berckmans, Earliest of All, Georgeson, Ogon Kelsey, Blood No. 3, and Abundance. Burbank and Red June were also affected. Forest Garden was the only native plum noticeably affected, and all varieties of the domestica group were conspicuously free from the trouble. An examination of specimens of the various fungi affecting the peach and the plum will show that, with the exception of leaf- curl, mildew, and a few others, these fungi are very generally productive of a shot-hole effect. The fungus most abundant ina particular region will be the one there designated as a shot-hole fungus. With these facts at hand, my experiments with fungi- cides and other chemical agents above referred to were made. These results are sufficient to demonstrate that this shot-hole effect is a peculiar physiological reaction of the plant to injuries of many kinds. Figure 72 shows an effect of this kind produced by peculiar causes. The tree was blown down during a summer rain storm. The rain was followed by a hot, steaming afternoon; and in about two days the shot-hole effect was evident. After an examination of a number of plum orchards in this State, I find the Japan plums so free from shot-hole fungi that I see no necessity of spraying them for these particular diseases and thus encouraging a shot-hole effect due to spraying. Where the plum rot is bad,it will be necessary to spray,and one must disregard the slight injuries to the foliage resulting from the use ofproperly made Bordeaux mixture. B. M. DuGGAR. THE FOLLOWING BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THOSE WHO MAY DESIRE THEM. Creaming and Aerating Milk, 20 pp, | 114 Spraying Calendar. Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. 116 Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Steam and Hot-Water for Heating 117 Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Greenhouses, 26 pages. | 119 Texture of the "Soil, 8 pp. Sundry Investigations of 1892, 56 pp. 120 Moisture of the Soil and Its Conser- (Edema of the Tomato, 34 pp. vation, 24 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. | 121 Suggestionsin Planting Shrubbery, Sundry Investigations of the Year 1893, | 122 Second Report upon Extension Work 54 pp. in Horticulture, 36 pp. On Certain Grass-Eating Insects,58 pp. 123 Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. Hints on thePlanting ofOrchards, 16 pp. 124 The Pistol-Case-Bearer in Western Apricot Growing in Western NewYork, New York, 18 pp 26 pp. 125 A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 pp. The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. 126 The Currant-Stem Girdler as Leaf Curland Plum Pockets, 4o pp. Raspberry-Cane Maggot, 22 pp. Impressions of the Peach Industry in ‘ 127 A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. N. Y., 28 pp. 128 A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. Peach Yellows, 20 pp. 129 How to Conduct Field Experiments Some Grape Troubles in WesternN.Y., with Fertilizers, 11 pp. >. -116 pp. 130 Potato Culture, 15 pp. The Grafting of Grapes, 22 pp. 131 Notes upon Plums for Western New : The Cabbage Root Maggot, 29,PP f York, 31 pp. Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 132 Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. ‘pp. 133 —The Army-Worm in New York, 28 pp. The Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. 134 Strawberries under Glass, Io pp. Experiments with Tuberculin, 20 pp. 135 Forage Crops, 28 pp The RecentAppleFailuresinN.Y.,24pp. 136 Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. Dwarf Lima Beans, 24 pp. 137 Agricultural Extension Work, sketch Feeding Fatto Cows, 15 pp. of its Origin and Progress, 11 pp. Cigar-Case-Bearer, 20 pp. 138. Studies and Illustrations of Mush- Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. rooms + 4.32 pp: Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 pp. 139. Third Report upon Japanese Plums. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp 16 pp. The Spraying of Trees and the Canker | 140. SecondReporton PotatoCulture. 24 pp. Worm, 24 pp. | 141. Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death General Observations in Care of Fruit | Among Swill-Fed Hogs. 12pp. Trees, 26 pp. { 142. The Codling-Moth. 72 pp. Soil Depletion in Respect to theCare 143. Sugar Beet Investigations. 88 pp. of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. 144. Suggestions on Spraying and on the Climbing Cutworms in Western N. Y. San José Scale. 20 pp. 51 pp. 145. Some Important Pear Diseases. 36 pp. Test of Cream Separators, 18 pp. 146. Fourth Report of Progress on Exten- Revised Opinion of the Japanese sion Work. 28 pp. Plums, 30 pp. 147. Fourth Report upon Chrysanthe- Geological History of the Chautauqua mums. 36pp. Grape Belt, 36 pp. 148. The Quince Curculio. 28 pp. Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp 149. Some Spraying Mixtures. 8 pp. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year June 30, 1898 150. I5I. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. Second Report on the San José Scale. Third Report on Potato Cultnre. Grape-vine Flea-beetle. Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bacteria in Cheese Curd. An Effort to Help the Farmer. Hints on Rural School Grounds. Annual Flowers. The Period of Gestation in Cows. Three Important Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet. Peach Leaf-Curl. Bulletin 165. March, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. ITHACA, N. Y. DAIRY DIVISION. Ropiness in Milk and Cream. By ARCHIBALD, R. WARD. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y. 1899. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC. P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. G. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. B. M. DUGGAR, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. G. W. TAILBY, Farm Foreman. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITHS, Dairy Husbandry. F. A. STEVENS, Demonstrator. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y., February 22, 1899. THE HONORABLE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, N.Y. Sir: This bulletin is sabmitted for publication under Chapter 67 of the Laws of 1808. The abnormally viscid condition of milk and cream, commonly designated ‘‘ ropy,’’ is familiar to many dairymen, and its occur- rence causes most serious loss. This publication contains a brief résumé of the conclusions reached by earlier investigators together with a detailed account of the investigations carried on by the College of Agriculture. The conclusions reached in this publication, based upon actual experience and supported by those of other investi- gators, indicate that this trouble may be arrested or prevented by the exercise of precautionary measures intelligently directed. Further, it has been found that ropiness in milk is a trouble which may be transmitted by the unclean milk utensils of the dealer or by those of the consumer. Because of this fact, certain dealers have been unjustly accused of delivering faulty milk, when the true cause was the unclean milk utensils used by the consumer. ‘Therefore the information conveyed by this bulletin is of interest to those dealers who, although exempt from this trouble, are anxious to preserve a good name, as well as to those suffering losses as a result of faulty methods. I. P. RoBERTsS, Director. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE. 1. Bacillus lactis viscosus from an agar slant culture eight days old, stained with carbol fuchsin. XX 1,000. A loopfulof the vis- cid growth was drawn across the cover-glass. The linear arrange- ment of the organisms probably is due to the capsules. 2. Bacillus lactis viscosus from a bouillon culture three days old, stained with carbol fuchsin. XX 1,000. This preparation shows the extreme variation in size and the polar stain exhibited by this organism when grown in bouillion. 3. Drawing from a cover-glass preparation from a milk cul- ture of Bacillus lactis viscosus twenty-four days old, stained with carbol fuchsin. X 1,000. The presence of a capsule is indicated by the unstained areas surrounding the organisms. *Weowe eds hed ¥ PLATE IV.—Bacillus lactis viscosus. ROPINESS IN MILK AND CREAM. BY ARCHIBALD R. WARD. Ropiness in milk is one of the most serious troubles with which milk dealers have tocontend. ‘This condition which is objection- able more on account of its unwholesome appearance than from any known harmful effect which it produces, has received its pop- ular designation from the viscid, slimy, consistency which char- acterizes the affected milk. The cause has been found to be the action of certain bacteria, and a number of apparently dif- ferent species have been described as possessing the power of pro- ducing the ropy condition. Among those who have written on this subject should be mentioned -Adametz, Loeffler, Guillebeau and Marshall. Nevertheless, few definite determinations have been made concerning the natural habitat of these particular species of bacteria and the channels through which they gain entrance to the milk. Further information on these points is especially desired in order to successfully combat the trouble and to pre- vent its recurrence. This trouble which is wide spread and of considerable economic importance to milk dealers and butter makers, should not be con- fused with the abnormal changes in milk which accompany an inflamed condition of the udder frequently called “‘ garget.’’ Milk drawn from udders in this condition is more or less thickened by the presence of pus or may in addition contain white, tough, solid masses of casein which pass through the duct of the teat with more or less difficulty. Milk in such condition is by some called ropy and consequently it has been asserted that a diseased condition of the udder is the cause of all ropy milk. The inves- tigations which have heretofore been made do not throw any definite light upon this alleged cause. They do not suggest a necessary dependence upon a diseased condition of the udder, although they do not preclude the possibility of such a combina- tion. ‘The fact that each of the authors referred to was able to isolate a species of bacteria capable of producing this trouble under artificial conditions, suggests that its source is very likely 396 BULLETIN 165. without, rather than within the udder as suggested by the ‘‘garget theory.’’ Von Freudenreich isolated a gas producing bacillus* from the udder of a cow which was suffering from mammitis. In addition to establishing its etiological relation to the diseased condition of the gland, Guillebeau, who studied the organism isolated by von Freudenreich, found the bacillus to produce viscosity in milk. As this organism has not been reported by others as causing ropiness in milk and as it is asso- ciated with mammitis, in which case the milk is of no commercial value, it is of little significance when considered as a cause of ropy milk. Adametzt has shown that Sacz/lus lactis viscosus possesses a slimy viscid capsule which envelops each organism and by reason of this is enabled to bring about a corresponding condition in milk when the individuals are present in sufficient numbers. In the year following the discovery of this bacillus in brook water, Adametz again isolated it froma sample of milk obtained from a dairy in which trouble from ropy milk was experienced inter- mittently. Although not verified by bacteriologic examination, the indirect cause of each separate outbreak was believed to be the occasional use of water from a certain well. It was observed that trouble was experienced upon each occasion when because of drought it hecame necessary to use the water of this well, and immunity from trouble was attained by avoiding the use of the water in question. Mention of this bacillus described by Adametz is to be found in several works upon bacteriology. In each reference a statement is made to the effect that the viscid change caused by Bacillus lactis viscosus takes place so slowly at room temperature that it can not be the cause of ropiness under ordinary conditions and that Adametz’s painstaking investigations are only of a * Landwirthschaftliches Jahrbuch der Schweiz, 1890, p. 41. + Landwirthschaftliche Jahrbiicher, 1891, p. 185. Earlier and less com- plete reference to this organism are to be found in the Milch Zeitung, 1889, No. 48, p. 941, abstracted in Centbl. fur Bakt. und Par. Bd. VII, 1890, p. 767. Also in the Oesterreichische Monatsschrift fur Thierheilkunde und Thierzucht, Jahrg XV. 1890. No. 2, p. I, abstracted in Centbl. fiir Bakt. und Par. Bd. VIII. 1890, p. Iog. aint > ROPINESS IN MILK AND CREAM. 397 theoretical interest. After a critical reading of Adametz’s paper in the Landwirthschaftliches Jahrbucher of 1891, it becomes evident that misconstructions have been placed upon his statements. On page 191 of the volume referred to he makes a statement of which the following isa translation: ‘‘ Sterile milk inoculated with Bacillus lactis viscosus and kept at room temperature, shows lit tle outward appearance of change during the first two days But the surface layer of cream is found to be ropy when tested and the increased viscosity of the skim milk below becomes evident when it is stirred.’’ Farther on in this paper he says: ‘Tn cultures contained in test tubes where the milk is slightly exposed to the air,* the complete change of all the milk does not occur until about four weeks.’’ ‘Those writers who have under- “estimated the practical bearing of Adametz’s work, seem to have labored under the impression that ropiness must necessarily appear in the depths of the milk as well as in the cream, in order to be the cause of serious trouble. My observations upon the occurrence of ropiness in milk in creameries in New York, and the identification of Baczllus lactis viscosus as the cause, show that the ropiness brought about by that organism although appearing only in the surface layer of milk, may become of considerable commercial importance. In the summer of 1898, the appearance of ropy milk in a local- ity near Ithaca was brought to notice by a milk dealer, who, having suffered severely in loss of custom by its occurrence, applied to the College of Agriculture for aid. He was instructed to dampen the udders of the cows with dilute carbolic acid before each milking. This measure, which is of value in preventing filth on the udder from falling into the milk, was carried out faithfully without benefit. With the view of ascertaining facts which would lead to methods of prevention, a careful study was made of the conditions under which the outbreak occurred. The attending conditions were as follows: All of the milk handled by this dealer was supplied by one dairy consisting of twelve cows. The surplus of milk over that disposed of on the * The fact that Bacillus lactis viscosus is an obligate aerobe explains the behavior. in milk observed by Adametz. 398 BULLETIN 165. route was used for butter making, the deep setting system of creaming being used. The cream on the surface of the cans of milk which stood in water at a temperature of from 45° to 50° F. (7°-10° C.) became viscid in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours after setting, so that it would adhere to a table fork, stringing out ina ropy mass. ‘The frontispiece of this bulletin illustrates the typical behavior of the cream. The viscosity was more marked in the surface layer of the milk, and hence in the cream. It is for this reason that the trouble is incorrectly regarded as a fault peculiar to cream. No complaint was heard from those customers who consumed the milk within a few hours. Some of them, however, kept the milk until the following morn- ing when the cream would be ropy. A bacteriologic examination of the ropy cream revealed the presence of Bacillus lactis viscosus. After isolating from the viscid creaman organism which invariably produced the ropiness in milk (or cream) when inoculated with it, further work to determine the distribution of this organism in nature and to find out through what channels the milk became infected seemed highly desirable. To accomplish this it was proposed to collect samples of the milk at each step in the processes to which it was subjected between the cows’ udders and the deep setting cans where the ropiness becomes manifest. The fact that the organism grows in milk at a temperature of 54°F. (12°C.) and produces ropiness ina few days, was a valuable aid in the search since such.a low temperature will prevent the rapid multiplication of most species of bacteriain milk. If the samples collected are kept at room temperature, there is no assurance that Aaczllus lactis viscosus can be detected among the other bacteria present. By lowering the temperature the growth of most microorganisms is checked, without seriously hindering the multiplication of the one causing the ropiness. It was just this condition in the creamery which enabled that species to assert its presence in the deep setting cans. In taking samples of milk from each cow, the udders and teats were moistened with a weak solution of carbolic acid, this being the only safeguard taken to prevent the access of dust. Glass milk bottles were scalded and kept sealed with paper covers, ROPINESS IN MILK AND CREAM. 399 except at the moment the samples were drawn. ‘The wide mouth of the bottle offered considerable opportunity for the entrance of dust particles which might convey the bacteria had the particular species in question been adhering to the udder. The twelve samples were kept cool but none became viscid. All other samples were drawn into test tubes the mouths of which presented a smaller area for the reception of dust. The tubes had been previously plugged with cotton and heated, ren- dering them absolutely sterile. At one milking period two sam- ples were taken from each cow. One was from the first milk drawn and the other from the strippings. Two more samples were taken from each cow on different days. In every case they were kept at a temperature of about 12° C., none of them becom- ing viscid. Cultures were made from the milk of each one of the cows on two different days, the bacteria present in the milk of each cow being thus obtained in pure culture. From the first twelve samples, there were obtained five apparently different species none of which when grown in sterile milk brought about the viscid condition. None of the species at all resembled the organ- ism sought. In lke manner a second series of cultures was made from the milk of each of the cows with similar negative results. During the period that the cultures were being made from the milk, the ropy milk was constantly present in thecreamery. The evidence from these experiments leads to the conclusion that the various species of bacteria which are always found in freshly drawn milk did not, at that particular time at least, contain among them the species capable of rendering the milk viscid. Bacillus lactis viscosus itself furnishes evidence in support of the conclusion that its natural habitat is not the ducts of the udder as is true of many of the bacteria found in freshly drawn milk. This microorganism does not grow so luxuriantly at the temper- ature of the cow’s body, 37.5° C., approximately, as it does at a lower temperature. Such would probably not be the case if the organism were accustomed to living in the udder. In addition to examining the milk samples collected, a bacteri- ologic examination was also made of those substances which might harbor the obnoxious organism such as stable dust, par- 400 BULLETIN 165. ticularly that dislodged from the udder, unclean utensils and feeces. For study of the species present in the air of the stable, ‘Petri dishes* containing a layer of nutrient agar were used. The agar surface of each was exposed to the air for a definite length of time. The bacteria in the air, thus coming in contact with the agar, would later manifest their presence by the colonies formed as a result of their rapid multiplication upon this medium. One Petri dish was exposed under the udder of each cow at some time during the period of milking, the cover of each being off for a period varying from one-fourth to one-half minute. After four or five days at a low temperature a slight growth was observed. Had Aacillus lactis viscosus been present, its growth would have been visible much sooner. The several species which did grow on the agar at that low temperature were quite unlike the one sought. Sterile milk was inoculated with bits of rub- bish from the floor of the stable, dust from the beams overhead, cow hair, water from the drinking trough, and sawdust from the ice house. None of the samples of sterile milk thus artificially contaminated became ropy, although all underwent some sort of fermentation. Cultures were made from the feces of a cow, but the bacteria found threw no light upon the problem. An examination of all of the other probable sources from which the bacteria might have gained entrance to the milk having revealed nothing, attention was turned to the utensils with which the milk came in contact. It would bea very simple mat- ter fora milk vessel which had once contained ropy milk and which had not afterward been properly cleansed, to again infect normal milk placed in it. Upon one occasion the milk erator in use at the farm barn was found in an unclean condition, it having been carelessly rinsed when last used. Cultures were made directly from the milk remaining in the apparatus. Several small quantities of sterile milk were exposed to infection in the pails used for milk- ing and also by pouring through the mesh of the strainer pail. Inoculations were made directly to culture media from the accu- mulated mass of filth on the border of the brass strainer. Such *A Petri dish is a flat, shallow, circular glass vessel with sides perpendic- ular to the base and provided with a closely fitting cover of the same shape. ROPINESS IN MILK AND CREAM. 401 an accumulation, although innocent in appearance, is neverthe- less, teeming with bacteria which infect the milk which passes through the strainer. None of the cultures made from the accumulated filth revealed the presence of the bacteria causing ropiness, nor did any of the milk samples become viscid. It was noted, however, that the bacteria found in the filth of the zrator were identical with those found growing in the milk which had been poured over it; also that those in cultures from the filthy strainer were the same as those found in the milk poured through it. These facts are of interest as illustrating how directly filth may influence the keeping qualities of milk by introducing bac- teria. It should also be noted that the filth itself cannot cause ropiness in milk, unless there are present in it the bacteria which possess that power. A bit of the cloth strainer used over the top of milk cans was placed in sterile milk. Samples of the mixed milk of the dairy were collected from the milk pails, after passing through the strainer pail, after passing through the erator and through the cloth strainer into the milkcan. All of the samples were kept cool, the various fermentations going on slowly, giving oppor- tunity for the development of ropiness. None of the samples became viscid. From this fact it was concluded that the milk did not contain Bacillus lactis viscosus when drawn from the udder, nor did it gain access to the milk during any of the pro- cesses. to which the milk was subjected up to the time that it was taken from the barn. | It is important now to note the results obtained from a similar treatment of the milk in the creamery. Thé evening’s milk was brought to the creamery and placed for the night in deep setting cans surrounded by ice-water. That of the morning was crated and brought to the creamery where it was again strained before delivering. A brass wirestrainer was used constantly because it was of such size as to fit over the top of the cans, forming a con- venient device for holding a cloth strainer in place. For this reason all of the milk passed through the one strainer and always into deep setting cans. The milk strained in the even- ing remained in the cans over night. The meshes of the strainer were seriously obstructed by an accumulation of filth, the result 402 BULLETIN 165. of a lack of thorough cleaning. They had become obstructed to such an extent that the reservoir would become half full of milk before the pressure of the accumulated fluid was sufficient to force its way through the meshes. The deep setting cans were apparently clean but they were never placed where sunlight could act upon them. The method employed in washing the tinware was closely observed. The tubof hot water in which the work was done, was, at the beginning, as hot as could be borne by the hand, but was allowed to cool so that it frequently fell to 80°F. (28°C.). After washing, the utensils were rinsed in hot water, but they were not subjected toa high temperature for a long enough time to sterilize them. So little importance was placed upon the necessity for extreme care in washing and scalding, that the woman who came daily todo merely that work, had been kept in ignorance of the occurrence of ropiness in the creamery. Three different quantities of sterile milk were successively exposed to contamination on the surface of the strainer. Four other samples were allowed to remain for short periods incontact with the interior of the deep “setting cans. All three samples contaminated from the strainer, and two from the deep setting cans became viscid. ‘Toinsure that no mistake had been made, and that the viscid condition was caused by Baczllus lactis viscosus, the presence of that organism in each of the viscid samples was demonstrated by a bacteriologic examination. The evidence concerning the cause of the constant ropiness of the milk at that time requires little comment. To recapitulate: The strainer through which all the milk passed was found upon two different days to possess the power of contaminating milk with the specific organism which causes ropiness. ‘Two out of four deep setting cans examined were found in a like condition. During the time that the ropiness was occurring at the creamery, samples collected from the milk before being brought there did not become viscid. In addition, a bacteriologic examination of the probable sources of contamination at the farm gave negative results. It may be suggested, and reasonably, that each of the sterile samples contaminated in the creamery may have received the ROPINESS IN MILK AND CREAM. 403 bacteria from the air rather than from the cans. There are two reasons, for considering this improbable. First. If the bacteria had been present in the air, and were in that manner contaminating the milk, all of the samples exposed in the vessels, and incidentally to the air, should have become viscid. Second. The bacterium which accidentally survived the cleans- ing process in the utensils is the one more likely to occur under the uncleanly conditions prevailing in the particular creamery visited. Another establishment which had suffered to a similar extent from the occurrence of ropiness was visited for the purpose of obtaining additional information. The business was conducted in a manner similar to the first except that several dairies instead of one supplied the milk. Ata time when the writer was not present, the proprietor of the establishment set samples of the milk of each patron noting those which became ropy. Upon this evidence, he reported several dairies as furnishing ropy milk. In one of those so reported, experiments were made ofa similar nature to those in the first case, as follows: Samples of the milk of each of the twenty-eight cows were drawn into» sterile test tubes, with no precautions against the access of dust from the udder. None of the samples became viscid, although they were kept in a refrigerator for ten days. Agar plates were exposed under ten of the cows, but no growth resembling that of Bacillus lactis viscosus appeared. Samples of the mixed milk were collected from the milk pails, before and after flowing through the strainer pail and from that which had passed through the strainer cloth, but none became ropy. In the creamery, the cans, etc., were rinsed with sterile milk exactly as had been done at the first establishment. Two deep setting cans, the strainer and several dippers were examined. Four of the separate quantities of contaminated milk became ropy. Two of them had been contaminated in the two deep set- ting cans and two in forty quart cans used on the route in deliv- ering the dip milk. Cultures of the organism in question were obtained from all of the viscid samples except one, from a forty quart can. The milk rinsed in the dippers and that poured 404 BULLETIN 165. through the strainer did not become ropy. A quantity of sterile milk was inoculated with some of the water in use in the creamery, but the resulting changes did not indicate the presence of Bacillus lactis viscosus in the water. Had the results of Adametz’s investigations been known to the writer at this time, a more extended examination would have been made of the water supply in both creameries. The study of the conditions prevailing in the two creameries and the two dairies, indicated that a more thorough scalding of utensils would afford relief. It was suggested that the smaller utensils be totally immersed in boiling water for three minutes and that the larger cans be filled to the brim with boiling water for a like length of time. The suggestion was adopted and immediately brought the trouble to an end. There were certain features connected with the outbreak which cast about it a shadow of mystery and discouraged efforts to locate the source. The two dealers consulted had purchased milk from all of the available dairies in the vicinity in an effort to supply the customers with faultless milk. Their lack of success is not surprising considering that the milk was dealt out from infected cans. From the standpoint of the consumer, the apparent wide distribution of the fault among the several dealers of the community was discouraging. A repetition of the occur- rence of ropiness in milk obtained from any one dealer, generally caused the customer to patronize a rival dealer. Very frequently the change failed to prevent a recurrence of the trouble in the customer’s milk vessel. Once infected, the milk pail or cream pitcher may harbor Aacrllus lactis viscosus indefinitely, since thorough scalding is not a prominent feature in kitchen dish washing. Undoubtedly in this and in many other cases of a sim- ilar nature the consumer has unintentionally wrought great injustice upon innocent dealers by too hastily condemning the milk furnished when the true cause was careless dish washing. The importance of scalding vessels which have once contained ropy milk or cream cannot be too strongly emphasized. The source from which #acillus lactis viscosus originally reached the milk cans in the outbreaks studied is not known. Adametz has shown that its natural habitat in Austria is water. Assum- ROPINESS IN MILK AND CREAM. 405 ing that the same is true in America, there is every reason to believe that ropiness in milk caused by Bacillus lactis viscosus can be prevented. Whether these particular bacteria are conveyed from brook water to the milk through the agency of the cows’ udders, or directly to the milk utensils by the water used in washing them, proper precautions should prevent trouble from those sources. Where the trouble occurs, particular care should be taken to avoid the use of unboiled water for cleaning utensils and to prevent the cows from wading in water. It seems highly probable that ropiness would not appear in milk handled in sterile utensils and consumed within 24 hours. The evidence at hand indicates that ropiness becomes trouble- . some in establishments handling milk, only when it is allowed to stand for some time, as in butter making. Milk, when drawn with ordinary precautions, contains a considerable number of species and among them may occasionally be found the one in question or others capable of producing ropiness. The low tem- perature at which milk is kept in the deep setting process of creaming is unfavorable to the multiplication of most of the bacteria commonly present in milk, but does not entirely check the growth of Bacillus lactis viscosus. Owing to the unusual faculty of growing at a low temperature, that bacillus, or any other possessing that faculty, might readily come to predominate even when originally introduced in small numbers. ‘The imper- fect cleansing of infected cans, together with their indiscriminate use for containing the market milk and the cream, results in the spread of the infection through all of the utensils in the estab- lishment and to those of the consumer as well. In creameries where butter is made and milk is also sold, exceedingly great care must be taken in scalding utensils used for creaming. In an outbreak of ropy milk in Michigan, Marshall concluded that the bacteria* fell into the milk from the udder during milk- ing. Unfortunately the organism described by Marshall can- not be positively identified from the brief description available but there is reason to suspect its identity with Baczllus lactis viscosus. ‘The results of Marshall’s investigations indicate that * Bulletin No. 140, Michigan State Agricultural College Experiment Station. 406 BULLETIN 165. extreme care in milking is of especial importance in preventing trouble from ropy milk. A discusssion of the general precau- tions which should always be taken to prevent the contamination of milk by bacteria cannot be given here, nor is it necessary. For definite instructions concerning general precautions to be taken in the stable, irrespective of the presence of trouble, the reader is advised to read a bulletint on the care of milk which will be mailed free on application to the Secretary of Agriculture at Washington. When it is desired to determine which of several dairies sup- plying a creamery is furnishing the faulty milk, it may bea val- uable aid to set samples of the milk of each dairy in separate vessels and note the subsequent changes, but in order that such a test may give reliable information and the conclusions work no injustice, several precautions must be observed. 1. The vessel used to contain the samples should be provided with a cover of somesort. Either a small fruit can or a bottle is convenient. 2. Boththe can and cover must be thoroughly sterilized by steam or hot water and kept covered to exclude dust except when the contents are examined. 3. The sample must be poured directly from the patron’s can without coming in contact with any other vessels whatever. 4. A fine wire with a loop bent at one end is the most con- venient instrument to introduce into the vessel when determin- ing the viscidness of the cream, but the loop must be heated to redness in a flame each time before it is used. The last precau- tion, one of the most important, is necessary in order to prevent transferring ropy milk from one vessel to another should it be present in any. SUMMARY. Ropiness is a fault of milk which does not necessarily depend for its cause upon the health of the cows. It is said to be caused by any one of several different species of bacteria. I have found Bacillus lactis viscosus to be the cause of viscid milk in tCare of Milk on the Farm, by R. A. Pearson. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 63, U. S. Department of Agriculture. ROPINESS IN MILK AND CREAM. 407 two different creameries. In the two outbreaks investigated, the trouble was found to be caused by the useof milk utensils which had not been sufficiently scalded. The bacteria, remaining in cans which had previously contained viscid milk, were able to survive the washing and remain alive to infect new quantities of milk., Greater care in scalding utensils brought the trouble to anend. Allsmall utensils were immersed in boiling water for three minutes and the larger cans were filled to the brim with scald- ing water which was allowed to remain forthe same length of time. Athorough investigation of the sources from which the bacteria might have entered the milk at the stables and of sources elsewhere, failed to reveal the presence of Baczllus lactis viscosus. Nevertheless, from the work of Adametz, there is reason to sus- pect that during warm weather these particular bacteria get into the milk from water. The importance of thorough scalding of vessels which have once contained ropy milk is urged upon the consumer as well as the dealer. Bacteria may readily be transferred from running water to milk by the agency of mud, which drying upon the udder, may be dislodged during milking. Mulk utensils which have been used for containing water, should be scalded before using again for milk. The apparent purity of water used about acreamery gives no assurance that it is free from bacteria. DESCRIPTION OF A BACILLUS PROBABLY IDENTICAL WITH Bacillus lactis viscosus ADAMETZ, 1889. Source.—Ropy milk from two creameries in New York State. Morphology.—This organism is rod shaped in form with rounded ends and possesses a capsule. Owing to its relative shortness it may, upon superficial examination, be mistaken for a micrococcus. The individuals occur singly, in pairs placed end to end, and occasionally in chains. Apparently because of the viscid nature of the capsule, cover-glass preparations show a tendency for the organism to associate in groups of varying size. The paired arrangement is most commonly met with. In young cultures especially where active multiplication is taking place the 408 BULLETIN 165. individuals are either spherical in form or short rods exhibiting the various stages of segmentation. There is a great variation in size depending upon the medium and age of the culture. In an agar slant eight days old the spherical forms vary from .6 to .8 w. in diameter, while the elon- gated forms which predominate in numbers vary from 8..to 1.2 #. in breadth and from 1.2 to 2 w. in length. Ina _ bouillon cul- ture three days old great variation in size occurs, the predom- inating form measuring I to 2 v. in breadth and from 2 to 3 #. in length. In all old cultures forms occur which differ widely from those in growing cultures. Involution forms, approximately circular in outline and measuring from 2 to 3 p. in diameter, may appear singly or in pairs. Rods measuring about 1.2 w. in width and from 2 to 4. in length are’occasionally present. Long chains are frequently found in cultures three weeks old. Some thread like forms occur which show no indication of division into sep- arate individuals. The organism stains readily with the aniline dyes in common use. It exhibits an irregular arrangement of the cellular pro- toplasm when stained with carbol fuchsin. This feature is more or less noticeable in individuals from all of the culture media, but is most conspicuous in bouillon (See plate). When treated by the Gram method the stain is retained. The capsule does not stain when treated by the common methods, but preparations made from milk by extracting the fat with ether and staining with carbol fuchsin show the capsule especially well as an unstained area surrounding each individual. The presence of the capsules can be positively demonstrated by Welch’s glacial acetic acid method and by the Gram method. The organism probably possesses slight motility, but the motion is so feeble that it is with difficulty distinguished from the Brownian movement. Motility is best observed in young milk cultures. The viscid nature of the growth presents diffi- culties which may have prevented the demonstration of flagella. In view of the uncertainty concerning the presence of motility this is unfortunate. Biologic characters.—This bacillus is a strict aérobe. It grows RoPINESS IN MILK AND CREAM. 409 readily in the presence of air upon all of the ordinary culture media. The minimum temperature at which growth will occur, is below 46° F. (8° C.) and the maximum, at about 104° F. (40° C.) A freshly inceulated milk culture was frozen for twenty hours without destroying its vitality. The cultures which are described below were all grown at room temperature. Agar.—Growth appears in agar plate cultures in twenty-four hours after inoculation as circular gray colonies 1 to 2 mm. in diameter. Young colonies are opalescent and exhibit the phe- nomonon of diffraction of light. Mature colonies may be irreg- ular in contour, flat, with sharply defined borders, and grayish white in color. Under low magnification no distinctive marking is apparent. The growth is viscid so that the substance of the colony adheres to the platinum needle and spins out intoa fine thread. After several weeks, when the culture media has dried perceptibly, the viscid character tends to disappear, the colony becoming more pasty in consistency. In suchold cultures, faint concentric markings are visible near the border. The young growth upon the surface of slanted agar is opales- cent and usually consists of numerous small confluent colonies. Later, when the growth thickens, the opalescent appearance is not noticeable. The condensation water becomes clou'ly, viscid, and after considerable evaporation has occurred, brown in color. Growth in slant cultures of glycerine agar presents no distinctive features. Fifteen per cent gelatin.—Surface colonies appear first as minute gray points upon the surface of the medium. Undera low mag- nification they are granular and show concentric, circular mark- ings. Older colonies are approximately circular with a sharply defined border, and distinct circular markings. Some have a pronounced central protuberance surrounded by a thinner border, while others consist of a hemispherical mass alone. The colo- nies, at first whitish in color and opalescent, later become dis- tinctly yellow. The growth is viscid like that of agar, but upon . drying somewhat, the colony adheres to the platinum needle and becomes detached from the surface of the medium. The gelatin is not liquefied even after long standing. In ten per cent gela- tin the growth is more luxuriant. Sub surface colonies appear 410 BULLETIN 165. as small whitish points. Gelatin stab cultures exhibit a white growth extending along the line of puncture. This is com- posed of minute, closely set whitish colonies, and is more vigor- ous near the surface. The surface growth in stab cultures pres- ents no important features. Rouillon.—In twenty-four hours after inoculation alkaline bouillon becomes slightly clouded and somewhat viscid. A thin gray growth adheres to the sides of the tube at the surface of the liquid, and if the culture is allowed to stand undisturbed, a thick extremely viscid pellicle forms after about a week. It extends gradually from the outer border of the surface towards the cen- ter. Upon displacing the pellicle, the liquid underneath is found to be much less viscid. When the culture is agitated daily, the pellicle does not form and the liquid becomes uniformly viscid throughout. A quantity of white, tenacious sediment is depos- ited. The reaction isalkaline constantly. Culturesa month old or more are extremely turbid, slightly yellowish in color, and contain considerable whitish viscid sediment. The growth is as vigorous in acid boulliou as in the above and the reaction becomes alkaline in two days or less. One per cent solution of sugars tn bouillon contained in fermen- tation tubes.—In glucose, lactose, and saccharose bouillon growth occurs only in the bulb and the constricted U shaped portion leading to the closed arm. In each one the growth is discon- tinued abruptly at the base of the closed arm, showing the organism to be an obligate aérobe. The reaction in each is alka- line to litmus. Gas is not formed in any of the cultures. Potato.—Twenty-four hours after inoculation a thin growth appears, which is distinguished with difficulty, being of the same color as the potato. Later, the growth becomes more abundant and viscid, assuming a drab color. Blood serum, slanted.—The growth first appears as a yellowish, viscid mass occupying the line of inoculation, and eventually spreads over the moist portions of the medium. In the upper portions of the slanted serum, where there is relatively less moisture, the spreading of the growth is more restricted. Tree- like branches grow out and anastomose with one another form- ing a net work which covers the surface of the medium toa greater or less extent. { cm mee eet 3 10.9 Colliere, F. J. PIE bn 2 oo. 8 oo > os ne wp cepa eer I ¥2.% Corbett, M. J. Carettville .. 655° Snd etc ete aete eee I 12.7 ¢ SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1898. Crawford, E. Cummings, C. J. Cummings, O. J. Cartin, D: E. Daley, Frank Darby, L. D. Davadge, Jas. Davison, Chas. S. Dietz, P. B. Duglace, Geo. Dunham, H. W. Edgecomb, G. Elmer, J.C. Elmer, S. Ellis, Spencer Ensign, D. Evans, R. W. Fenderson, G. L. Foote, J. Foster, Jas. Fuller, D. L. Gates, C. H. Gates, J. A. Gay, F. J. Giddins & Son, Groton, S. W. Haley, M. EH. Hall, Jno. Hanson, A. B. Harden, Benj. Harper, L. G. Harrington, W. D. Harris, J. H. Hanen, A. G. Hazard, J. H: Hemsbrought, E. Hedlerman, Thos. Hovey, C. Cc: Hoyt, S. T. Jarvis, I. S. Jones, Theo. June, A. K. Karkritz, Chas. King & Long, Knapp, A. A. Knapp Bros., erent) g's sare Babes oa onters Fle PCISM BR beraits A a's ah aves Sas. ata 2 dhe SMa I Err eaPaNre ests Ret eile ais 0 hts Urata vale of Doe I ROU RRR I fess ion tern yw Sie Sh otn,a be a's. os onflctnee I Nees ite Gt thr nies whe Asia wan apes Saat I MRI ot ca cre ah aes oe Sidi. sieeve wire oe I Peres AEC, oe in dia ence eee ws cae eats 6 APIO es bs sinew sto teen ee PE 3 Pea APCS, 2 its ew ra ets wre, i oa oe bw ew bes 2 MEG ese sere pe eee ad hae eae awe 2 TA Sos x on SR ate a Seta tms bans tetas I Pe ENG & oe 2auces wad ore ee gure « bres 1.5 LS OG RR Ree ce 2 eed ener ee I PCS oak lye ae sale Bare ees a alanes I Betis Gas Sa waee gee ka we ae oe I VL RR a bon arr oo er gg NS I EMOTE 3 Lies Som Dou wheats de BE ee i ate I PMINSDEILY... < oosikc His eae rede wane bined I SHECHUINE 2 P ee Pe ate Sw eee were I PMOL PULUE . one's ae ae eee hen yee = 3 REMASTER Cente Scns ach py STO Oe keer I iterate POtks oo race ae ts sala ne ss ES He RIB ED oars unin cin’ 48 Ser Te ee a bom mS 1.5 BEIM oo ipiiss, o bie OP ts Peewee I PIGETASVUIG. 6S cide oh only ee te awe sree { Mirae oc Oa hdc tae Ree ee lee tek 3 RIOR A) cies, a eaeie alee eine ee I BASEN ys op aah ys. «tata a his Sei ete rah owe I ANTE ERE 2 o's an Sie a ee ne eae se we as Se 3 SUE TEEGRED oi dar ch iis sito DOs chained amar I MR EIOR Oo Ten. cine win nig’ Tet aides Dae I (Rage 2 1 eo RE ee cre eee any oN I AAG rN os Sdn Vase Oe eck orem 2 es relied g/l 5 S13 Se ok eae oes * I Elgg resesad tot. das Sed ee la ees hee se ee I PSU iste seta wie te kee ears ese ovale I Bebop. Pt erent ees ed esa oe I bESEST ES G08 0) tae Re PORES Me ed aaa I NEE Fae Pee oo EI es, 5 dn 8 ere 2 area Bate oe. Fo sina eo ae’ a0 I PRM eVae oc SU eet eR Ad ss « Rs I PG Cae tee ein aig trae: s s ene ES I ES AS RIN ria ha oS SATA Sle a % hiss ele I SURE eh tata ROSS ae ghana win Soe oS I EG teeta ee ia ai al oie, tc, nite +. 0°w eee I DSi re eee See rls siania wigs ve. I 429 11.4 22.1 16.2 14.2 14.9 12.9 257 12.4 10.9 17 LES 14.7 15.9 14.1 Wig 10.7 12.6 13.8 ig 20.2 10.2 11.9 10.2 15.9 13.0 10. I 19.9 14.8 12.4 14.2 14.9 13.3 1226 14.6 17.4 11.6 EGA 11.9 14.6 10.3 15-2 14.9 15-3 17.3 12.8 F2:1 430 Knapp, C. A. Kneale, Chas. Kahl, &.’ Vv. Lamb, W. G. Lane, Geo. S. Leaman, A. Littlewood, G. H. Lasee, R. R. Lowman, M. Martin, H. S. McCauley & Smith, McMurdy, W. J. McNamara, T. McOueen, H. H. Millers Bros., Montague, C. D. Oxie, W. Murphy, J.C. Nelson, H. Newcomb, C. A. Newcoinb, J. H. Nye, M. S. Newton, C. O. Odell, G. D. Onit.S. DP, Park, A.D: Parkinson, T. W. Phoenix, L. J. Plunkett, E. F. Powell, J. G. Puimpelly, G. N. Quinn & Co. Rackly, W. J. Randall, W. N. Rathbun, A. T. Riehlman, F. Risley, J. M. Roberts, W. C. Rood, W. C. Rowland, W. H. Ray, W. J. Saunders, Henry Shafer, Geo. A. Sherwood, H. Smith, Chas. Smith, J. J- BULLETIN 166. Homer 6 0 @@ 6 We O18 8 OB = 9010 81s D6 © 8S 9 OS 8 Se Ree Lawrenceville, Pa... creas ew wees ae EB. ‘Harrington :.....5.: s+ wae ee ees ee Lounsbetry ;, oo 3. dee x sel eee eee Central Lisle. ..fs 2git Fake ela sete ba Bridme }: 07.55 24k cointen hoe TATIONS Gisele 5 cies fe a:ors » 0 Hts bsp ote Wellsbatpie sa. ve sve seis wale tie eee Binghamton 2... fj... 2 beeches wae Harseriesds|...). ss... .ebn dee deere Binghamton... /...)iaoen yh etn eee Bangerfield . 2.24. 32<)/s gae ees o-neeee Horseheads 2 ....siss0" eee eee Elmira « 20 6 20's 2 8 6 8:6 2 9&2 6 2 U1 8 6.” 4a sO ee ee Camprielle:j.i2. 5. 2a.tadeincs ee & ee ee Homer oes 2 es 6 6 66 8S 8s) 2h > Bo 10D 64.5 Se eae «fe: 6. 9 £8) 9) ae 6 em) ere 66 10) 0) wee @ By) eee eee N Birdgewater «. « ..%4«Bacneeee sae eee Preble. Safe «(6 a. © 6 6:2 0 & ae) D @ eS SiC oe Te! 6). eos ts Be ee @Gsperne 22.2. 852s ye ee ee eee N. Bridgewater . .2 40.) ties eogend sneer Addison .< ioe = 4.4 ees oe Re eee eee Lindley Elmira Owego oa eo - we. 62.6.6 in Bo £6 6 WO BUSS S26 aren ee ere Sherburne 2.205 0222: ae cee Seely (Creeley oi. oo uate eve tba ee N; Bridgewater ...9.4 Wirt ee ae eee Wellsburg . 26.2. 20. Seek ce oe Otisco. eS 16° 6\8 ove ds. . 6. @ eye) © ite 6 ee) PU ee) See Hee ee Cassville: sj fu. hee sd ao oe Windsor: :.s03.% 1445 cee ae re Center Lisle. 07, 1.sitteeae eee Bridgewater... 58..: eis ee Southport ......° 4 steer ee Horseheads. . «02%. 2 Rik? ai iee oe eee Bia Piats ....<. i 9 4 2a oe ee ee Candor 12.0 10.2 13.9 21.6 15.1 14.0 11.2 15.9 14.8 11.6 12.3 17.3 16.6 17.4 17.6 12.6 15.4 14.2 II.2 24.0 13:3 13.4 13.8 12.4 18.7 16.8 15.6 14.2 13.1 12.9 he Oe 10.9 21.0 18.7 ing rie 16.1 ins 11.3 16.1 14.4 14.5 13.2 1338 11.4 132 SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1898. 431 Smith, W. C. 5S RE eos Riess b)d p's Sb accletohte olebae ete I 14.2 Smith & Powell RNG MC RMECI MIS et sei ki e's x oSs aie c kh wh vata o eaeee 15 15:3 Snell, F. W. er ee Se Sail Livin sso Salon ae nies ROE I 18.1 Shrague, C. R. ERE TARERMIS (SO aPe bets 4 oh eo) a ee Meee II.0 Squires, H. C. gomeor rane mrreeti NV. fol. 2 koe ike: 2 11.6 Stage, Clarence RR ea Sas os siere Wisin So's oud eaereles 3 13.8 Stebbins, H. D. MR MAERUA Ha Tio win ies Vivid x Yaak aaa I 16.0 Stermer, Jno. J ESE TEMES Pete UR eae Ae cS I 19.4 Swart, C. S. OCH rem ER Viernes tr site whale stale hie aS a'eiin.c » 2 13.0 Swartout, G. R. ERACIViGCne EMIINALY S72 og lo8 seb a's slaSela we I 11.8 Taylor, N. D. SOR hE ot SER Oh ORE pa en 2 13.9 Thomas, G. H. Phenanee BOOSEs ssid ie si sbloe wacie os I 20.3 Thompson, D. G. DIA USL Siaicts Alaa niocatge eis’ inlley seas 2 12.7 Tracy, Matt. PUDMART Ae ois tore coy n'a fee aca meee pA Gee eehiee 1 11.6 reat, ROG. ETOPORMCHIS ocd) o tee ehle oe ke kN ede ae I 22.6 *Tuckerman, G. ROAGSW UR aes cathe Bie y wincion ee ean ee 2 16.0 ireyou,; Fi: PUA a ota 8 Wied Sie adn we pipe RE ee eR I 14.6 Wartier burr Weslo k be ets Sore va ahaw oot nk aa aid Be a elec I i Be Van Duser, J. S. PRR o's sea kat alate ay ATs 8 14.3 Vincent, G. S. SA BAe NR ERE RIPE Bet See Latice 4..1 HERS I 11.8 Van Housen C. PE ets are CAI Stok Be Do AGL RD ade I £2.20 Waddell, C. R. MPU EAT CLL — Ue Aye Such ek Ge re Sars I 12.1 Weed, J. B. ee 220) 6 aoe ea te Res drat ee 6 15.9 Wellman, A. E. ite MTURD BESTE: xc Soe ha «xen one cv pe 6m Ree cae Bee 1.5 13.0 Wells, G. M. BMERAEER Re ee ohe ola aici ava do's Ck ct ernny make 2 FICA Westlake, L. D. BASE SEMEN & becaic sos aie yk kein alee Aces ee I 15.6 Wilcox Bros., TIMTSE HANS > Sno eae Slee eo os Od ane I 18:2 Williams Bros., Win WMH OUD fa unis inant | ePice eet Ee I 12.0 Wright, Robt. aktle Ot elec eels cv, ca ey ares 2 14.7 These 152 farmers planted 252 acres of beets and harvested an average of 14 tons of trimmed beets per acre. Cost of growing an acre of beets,—Arrangements were made with more than one hundred farmers to keep careful records of the number of hours of labor of teams, men or boys employed in growing their fields of beets. Blanks were furnished for keeping the data and making reports. They were instructed to charge up this labor at the usual price in their localities. Only forty-five reports complete in this respect have been received. The figures given do not include the cost of seed, fertilizer or the use of land. Of the 45 farmers 4 report the cost as less than $25 per acre. 6 report the cost as between $25 and $30 per acre. 12 report the cost as between $30 and $35 per acre. 432 BULLETIN 166. 7 report the cost as between $35 and $40 per acre. 3 report the cost as between $40 and $45 per acre. I reports the cost as between $45 and $50 per acre. 4 report the cost as between $50 and $55 per acre. 2 report the cost as between $55 and $60 per acre. 5 report the cost as over $60 per acre. The lowest cost reported is $10.20 per acre, the highest $83.00 and the average, $38.15. As was expected the range of cost per acre is very wide and is affected by many circumstances. It was attempted to observe these fields very carefully to determine if possible the conditions that contribute to excessive cost. Many of these conditions have already been referred to under their proper headings. Among others that remain to bementioned attention is especially called to the necessity of timeliness in doing the work. This applies all through the season and to every operation, but espe- cially to thinning and weeding during the early periodsof growth. There is a time when these operations can be performed at the minimum of cost, and sometimes the delay of a week will double or even quadruple the expense of getting the crop in proper con- dition. Perhaps the highest skill of the grower is manifested by wise management in this respect. Another mistake made by many was in tilling the crop by hand instead of horse labor. In nearly every case of excessive cost reported it is attributable to one or the other of these causes. As a result of this season’s observations it 1s believed that when the farmers shall become experienced with the crop $30 to $40 per acre may be named as the probable range of cost. . From the field book of the Binghamton Beet Sugar Co. it is found that the 119 farmers who report the cost of growing the crop up to, but not including the harvest, place the average cost at $16.04 per acre. The cost of the harvest may be placed at $roto $12 peracre andthe total willstill be below the minimum sug- gested above. ‘This leads to the suspicion that only those who were successful in keeping the cost ata low figure reported thisitem. Cost of beets per ton.—The cost per ton, depending as it does on both the cost and yield per acre, is affected by every condition influencing the crop during the season. A study of the reports brings to light some interesting features. Some of the highest SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1808. 433 costs per acre, leave a possible margin of profit because large crops were secured. The lowest cost per ton ($1.41) is associated with a low yield, (7.20 tons per acre) and is made possible by the exceedingly small amount of expense ($10.20), bestowed upon the crop. Of the 43 reports in which cost per ton is given, g place the cost below $2.00 per ton. 15 place the cost between $2.00 and $3.00 per ton. 10 place the cost between $3.00 and $4.00 per ton. 5 place the cost between $4.00 and $5.00 per ton. 4 place the cost above $5.00 per ton. The lowest cost is $1.41, the highest $7.52, and the average $3.25 per ton. ~ The high cost of $7.52 per ton is only possible by the associa- tion of high cost per acre with a small yield. The conditions that brought about this particular result are not likely to recur with experienced growers, nor are we likely to find many cases where an expenditure of only $10.20 per acre will produce any profit in sugar beet growing. More than half of these reports place the labor cost ofa ton of beets at less than $3.00, but the average is drawn above that figure by a few cases of excessive cost. Effect of fertilizer upon yield.—The Station supplied sacks of fertilizer to a number of farmers to be applied to a part of their experimental area. The sacks contained 58 pounds of dissolved rock guaranteed 14 per cent phosphoric acid. 4opounds of sulfate of potash, guaranteed 50 per cent potash. 30 pounds of sulfate of ammonia guaranteed 20 per cent nitrogen. Each lot of fertilizer was intended for a ¥ acre plat, or at the rate of 512 pounds of the mixture per acre, furnishing 24 lbs. of nitrogen, 32% lbs. phosphoric acid and 80 lbs. of potash. While the effect of the fertilizer was very apparent during the growing period, producing a much more vigorous growth and in several instances resulting in a much better stand of plants, yet it is greatly regretted that only five growers took pains to harvest the fertilized and unfertilized plats separately so as to be able to report comparative yields. Someof these grew several varities of beets, so there were in all 13 plats fertilized and 13 plats unfertilized. The average yield of the fertilized plats was 434 BULLETIN 166. 12.84 tons per acre and of the unfertilized 9.37 tons—a gain of 3.47 tons per acre in favor of the fertilized plats. In some instances the gain was very much more marked than in others and was profitably secured. On the average the gain just about paid the cost of the fertilizer and the labor of handling the extra tonnage of beets. In the second and third columns of the fol- lowing table is given the respective yields obtained from the fertilized and unfertilized plats : INFLUENCE OF FERTILIZER UPON YIELD AND QUALITY OF BEETS. (When several varieties were grown fertilized and not fertilized, the average of the fertilized and not fertilized plats is used.) Z viel S rin / i | tons piece Heke, Ber cent. Pury: cnn ——_ Name of Grower. ip 8 Not Not Not &.~ | Fertil- Fertil- |Fertil- | Fertil-| Fertil-| Fertil- c he ized. ized. |} ized. zed. | ized ized ib A oe. McLallen, Trumans- | : DHTS Ree eee + 4 |10.95| 7-59} 15.31 | 14.51; 84.4| 82.7 C. E. Chapman, Peruville | 3 | 18.61 | 11.81 | 16.98 | 15.03 | 86.7| 83.3 C. D. Cartwright, Darien.. | 3 | 12.43 | (0.17 | 17.50| 16.59| 86.1} 86.5 L. R. Rogers, Albion..... 2 | 10.43] 7.03 | 16.77 | 16.34! 88.8] 88.0 F,R. Thompson, Westfield | I | 11.80} 10.25 | 16.15 | 15.06] 89.9] 88.5 C. B. Kershaw, Owego.. I | 11.40] 11.59| 76.4] 79.2 C. D. Jackson, ‘Peruville . | 1 | 14.44] 14.16| 83.0] 79.4 : al ee Mee eras. 4 | 13.23 | 14.42| 81.0] 84.1 A. J. Howland, Ithaca... I | 15-771 15.25 | 80.2| 81.5 Average yield of 13 plats by by 5 SEA WeSs ees hs oS > 12.84 | 9.37 Gain in favor of fertilized | Plate Sesereee: bsi6i 3-47 Average per cent of sugar and purity of 20 plats by GO STOWETS ge ein 15.28 | 14.74 | 84.0] 83.7 | Influence of fertilizer upon quality of beets —The table given above shows the effect produced by the fertilizer described under the last topic upon the per cent of sugar in the beets and the purity of the juice. Nine experiments gave 20 plats fertilized by the side of 20 plats unfertilized. The average per cent of sugar in the beets produced on the former was 15.28 and on the latter 14.74, a difference of .54 in favor of the fertilized plats. The average purity of the juices obtained from the former was 84 SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1808. 435 and from the latter 83.7, a difference of .3 in favor of the fertil- ized plats. Influence of variety upon yields of beets.—A large number of farmers were supplied with several varieties of beet seed, but unfortunately very few of them harvested the varieties separately so as to be able to note comparative yields. The following table gives the yields obtained by six farmers with from two to four varieties each. It seems that there is comparatively little dif- ference in the yielding quality of the varieties named. INFLUENCE OF VARIETY UPON YIELD OF BEETS. (When more than one plat of a variety were grown by the same person the average is used.) v Tons per acre. Experimenter. Klein- | Schrei- wanz- /|Vilmorin.| ber’s | Zeringen. lebner. | German, D. H. McLallen, Trumansburg...... 9.72 10.61 8.82 7.41 Wm. Heyward, Stafford.... ........ | 8.46 ie $y Gi 2 9.71 CE. Chapman, Perryville: 2535 Sic < 13.04 14.47 18.13 C. D. Cartwright, Darien............ pee 10.28 | 11.25 Miss E. R. Hall, West Perry SUE 16.55 14°37-). > 13.50 L. R. Rogers, ire ee aneaae 9.13 8.33 Averages of 6 cases, two varieties..| 11.57 II.06 | Averages of 5 cases, three varieties) 12.07 Fi, 61 4|) E240 Averages of 2 cases, four varieties..| 9.09 g: 10), |. °8. Sr 8.56 Influence of variety upon quality of beets.—On p. 453—is given the averages of all the analyses made of several leading varities used in the experiments this season. It has been thought best to present here some of the results obtained where these varieties were planted side by side, all of the conditions except variety being the same. 436 BULLETIN 166. INFLUENCE OF VARIETY UPON QUALITY OF BEETS. (When more than one plat of a variety was grown by the same person the average is given.) Kleinwanzleb- Schreiber's | ener. Vilmorin. German, Zeringen, Per-eu Per ct Pet ct Per ct sugar sugar sugar sugar in Purity in | Purity in | Purity.| in Purity beets beets eets beets es Eee eens rarer Se SS eee D. H. McLallen, Trumansburg.| 15.06 | 86.5 | 13.65 | 80.8 | 16.41 | 85.3 | 14.53 | 81.4 Miller Bros., Elmira.......... 14.49 | 86.6 | 14.25 | 82.8 | 16.15 | 87.2 | 15.30] 88.9 J. C. Murphy, horseheads. ....| 12.78 | 78.1 | 13.78 | 82.8 | 14.70] 86.3 | 13.72] 82.3 Be ole Caba store. 150% 5 14.35 | 80.8 | 15.39 | 86.2 | 15.77 | 87.4 | 15.20| 87.9 E. G. Fenton, Fenton......... 14.35 | 87.3 15.53 | 87.9 C. E. Chapman, Peruville..... 16.20 | 86.6 | 14.58] 84.8 | 16.32] 84.4 ce eCaririont “atien. : fc. 16.84 | 85.4 | 16.60! 85.0 | 17.69 | 88.5 W. B. Kneebone, Franklinville| 17.10 | 89.1 | 15.11 | 81.9 | 18.19} $9.1 Pi GCORS, ye GY. octane ence 15.30 | 85.2 | 15.30] 83.8 | 14.63 | 86.5 E. R. Hall, W. Perrysburg....| 16.06 | 82.8 | 16.72! 86.7 | 17.10] 90.0 Regie WyBS COL AGIO? oy. cue oy 15.84 | 87.3 | 14.96] 84.8 | 16.48} 87.4 S. A. Ingersoll, Owego........ 13.97 | 85.0 | 14.25 | 83.8 | 13.78 | 84.3 C. H. Andrews, Owego........ 13.78 | 83.3 | 12.83 | 78.5 | 14.63 | 84.6 G. E. Merill, Sheridan ........ 13/114 83:2) 13001) e,8 Chas. Barlow, Le Roy......... T5508 | 37.1. | 3322517732 N. Wheeler, Arkport Te ae 15.34 | 88.7 | 15.11 | 84.5 L. R. Rogers, Albion. Bae A 16.96 | 90.1 | 16.15 | 86.8 Average of 16 plats......... 15.14 | 85.8 | 14.69 | 83.3 Average of 12 plats......... 15.15 | 85.5 | 14.78| 83.5 | 15.99] 86.9 Average of 5 plats... 2. Sc. : 14.21 | 83.9 ; 14.86 | 85.7 myctave or 4 plats’... wot: 14.17 | 83.0 83.1 | 15.76| 86.5 | 14.69 |- 85.1 We give below a list of the recorded the data relating to their crops and forwarded to us the reports upon which much of the foregoing is based. They have the thanks of the Station for their cooperation and the farmers of the state owe them a debt of appreciation. farmers who have carefully Many others grew crops that were instructive but some of the data was lacking and reports were not forwarded to the Station, or if forwarded were not sufficiently complete to be available for tabulation. SuGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1808. 437 List OF FARMERS WHO FURNISHED DETAILED REPORTS ON THEIR SUGAR BEET CROPS. ALLEGHANY Co. Coley Ss; Cuba Morgan, C. H. Cuba BROOME Co. Hazzard, G. E. Upper Lisle Lusk, C. M. Center Lisle Mercereau, M. L. Union) Witherill. Dr. L. D. Union CATTARAUGUS CO. Clements, Geo. Franklinville Davies, Thos. H. Fairview Hall, Ellen R. West Perrysburg Kneebone, W. B. Franklinville Kales, J. W. Franklinville CHAUTAUQUA CO. Fenner, M. M. Fredonia Thompson, T. R. Westfield CHEMUNG CO. Murphy) jie: Horseheads ERIE CoO. Fenton, E. G. Fenton GENESEE Co. Barlow, Chas. Le Roy Cartwright, C. D. Darien Jinks, Jacob Le Roy Hayward, Wm. Stafford Stutterd, J. F. Stafford Tillotson, F. A. Pavilion LIVINGSTON CoO. Barber, Aaron Avon Cafi, Woe. Wadsworth Jacobs, S. H. Mt. Morris MONROE CO. Curtis, Chas. E. Hilton Demming, H. C. So. Greece Smith, I. W. Hilton NIAGARA CO. Hinman, Edw. Lockport 438 BULLETIN 166. ONONDAGA CO. Barnes, E. A. Baldwinsville Guereau, C. H. Baldwinsville Van Wie, Levin Baldwinsville ORLEANS CO. Allis, Clark Medina Howell, H. B. Medina Morgan, B. F. Albion Phipps, H. E. Eagle Harbor Rogers, L. R. Albion Staines, Chas. F. Albion Wyley, W. S. Albion STEUBEN CO. Graves, B. J. Ingleside Hayt,) So is Corning Wheeler, N. Arkport TIOGA CO. Goodrich, Stephen Owego Ingorsoll, Geo. A. Nichols Kershaw, C. B. Owego TOMPKINS CO. Chapman, C. E. Peruville Cornell University Farm Ithaca Howland, A. J. Ithaca Jackson, CoD); . Peruville McLallen, D. H. Trumansburg WYOMING CO. Matteson, Geo. Orangeville Treyon, F.C. Peoria 73.—Factory of the Binghamton Beet Sugar Co., Binghamton, N. Y. (Pile of beet pulp in the foreground.) ‘ISIRYINOS 2YJ MOLL A10JIDY UOJUBY. SUL aY4[ —‘bL PART IT: EXPERIMENTS WITH SUGAR BEETS AT THE COR- NELL UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT FARM, 1898. BY L. A. CLINTON. In bulletin No. 143 of this Station was published results of fertilizer experiments with sugar beets in 1897. In 1898 it was decided to conduct in addition to the fertilizer experiments, investigations relating to the culture of beets. The following lines of investigation were decided upon : 1. Rows 24 inches apart and beets thinned to 6 inches in the row compared with rows 20 inches apart and thinned to 9 inches in the row. 2. Effects of tillage. 3. Effect of bunching and thinning at various periods of growth. 4. Effect of subsoiling the land immediately previous to planting. 5. Test of varieties. Wide Planting of Rows vs. Narrow Planting—lt is generally recommended that beets be planted in rows 20 inches apart. Most farmers are not familiar with the methods of tillage required when rows are so planted. If the rows could be planted at a dis- * tance apart of 24 inches it would very much facilitate culture, especially until the farmers become familiar with intensive methods required in sugar beet production. Plats 33 and 34 of the permanent series of plats were selected for the work. These plats have for five years been heavily cropped and no fertilizer has been applied since the winter of 1893-4. The soil is gravelly loam and especially subject to effects of droughts. Land was plowed in the fall and replowed in the spring. The following table shows the results from the two plats : » Date Date Dates Date har-| Yield per Plat No. planted. | thinned. cultivated. vested. acre. 33, rows | June 1-6 20 inches apart.) May 11 | Juner 17-24 Oct. 27 | 20 tons ; July12-28 | 34, rows - | June 1-6 | 24 inches apart.| May 11 | June r | 17-24 Oct. 27 | 18 tons |} July 12-28 | 442 BULLETIN 166. On plat 33 the beets were thinned in the row to distances of 9 inches, and on plat 34 the space left between beets in the row was 6 inches, thus securing approximately the same number of plants per plat. While in the early stages of growth the tillage of the rows which were 24 inches apart was somewhat simplified, yet on the whole the rows which were 20 inches apart were easier kept clean, and after becoming somewhat familiar with their cultivation no trouble was experienced. Where the land is in proper condition for sugar beet growing the rows should be not more than 20 inches apart. The table above shows that where rows were 20 inches apart the yield per acre was two tons more than where rows were 24 inchesapart. All conditions were alike as nearly as they can be made in field culture, and the results were decidedly in favor of the close planting of rows. Effect of tillage on beets.—Tillage has shown such marked results upon certain crops which have been experimented with that it was thought wise to determine if equally marked results could be obtained upon sugar beets. Plats 35 and 36 of the regular series were devoted to the work. Each plat was divided into three areas each of which would contain three rows of beets, each row being 10g feet long. The following diagram shows the arrangement of rows: ( Discard row. ( I , Fu t Cultivated SRS ei. tetris tl 6 times. L S Discard row. | ( 4 D eee ) | Z Cultivated Plat 35. Te rr | Discard row. ( 7 | 8 : Cultivated | eee 1 4 times. t 2 J [ Discard row. Plat 36 was a duplicate of 35. SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1898. 443 The soil is fairly uniform on the two plats, and was given the same preparation. The variety of beets grown was the Kleinwanzlebener. The following table shows the number of cultures given the various areas and their results : Per cf.) Perc. Per ce: | Date | Yield of of Per ct. of No. of plat. {wate Date har- per solids | sugar | Purity.| sugar | planted. | thinned. | vested.| acre. shale WEN a oe! in | Tous. | quice..| (juice: beet. ———— 35 | May 11 | June 2 |Oct.27| 17.6 | I9 16.70 | 87.9 | 15.87 Ist Division, 6 cultures. | 35 | May 11 | June 2 |Oct.27) 23.6 | 19.5 | 16.95 | 86.9 | 16.10 2nd Division, 5 cultures. Fs 35 | May 11 | June 2 |Oct.27| 18.8 | 21.1 | 18.20 | 86.3 | 17.29 3rd Division, | 4 cultures. Following table shows the results obtained from a duplicate of the above experiment. Perret; | Perce: Pet ct: Date | Yield of of Per ct. of No. of plat. Date Date har- | per |solids | sugar | Purity.| sugarj planted, | thinned | vested.| acre.| in in in Tons. | juice. | juice. beet. 36 | May II} June2 |Oct.27| 14.8 | 20.9 | 18.25 | 87.3 | 17.34 1st Division, | 6 cultures. | 36° May 11 | June2 |Oct.27| 22 Ig.I | 16.70 | 87.4 | 15.87 2nd Division, = 5 cultures. | = May I1| June 2 eee 18.8 | 19.5 | 16.20] 83.1 | 15.39 3rd_ Division, 4 cultures. | Average yield per acre from 6 cultures, 16.2 tons. Average yield per acre from 5 cultures, 22.8 tons. Average yield per acre from 4 cultures, 18.8 tons. The data given above are from experiments which are too lim- ited to warrant our drawing conclusions as to the number of cul- tures best adapted to give good results with sugar beets. While in this experiment five cultures resulted in the largest yield yet it would be erroneous to draw the conclusion that five cultures 444 BULLETIN 166. would always give the best yield, The conditions as determined by soil, rainfall, previous treatment of land, etc., would all need to be considered. ‘This experiment will be continued to learn if more definite data can be obtained. Effect of bunching and thinning at various periods of growth.— It is usually recommended that beets be thinned at about the time the second pair of leaves appear. It is found in practice that it frequently is impossible to thin the beets at the time recommended. ‘The experiment was undertaken to learn if it is important that beets be thinned at a certain time in their growth or if considerable range in time may be taken. The variety of beets grown was Kleinwanzlebener,and the plat selected was No. 39 of the permanent series of plats. The following tabie shows the results :, Per ct. Perict, No. of} Date | Yield of of |Perct.| Per ct.} Plat No. Date Date cul- | har- per solids | sugar | Pur- of | planted. |thinned. tures.) vested.! acre. in in ity | sugar | | Tons. | juice. | juice. in beet. eo 'ag May |June 3; 6 |Oct.28 22.3 | 19.5 | 16.80] 86.1] 15.96. | rst Divi- |! | | | SOM 2525) | | | May II |Junero| 6 |Oct.28) 23 18.8 | 16.35 | 87. | 15.53 and Divi- | | | |} sion.... | | | | 39 MayII |June17| 6 |Oct.28) 28 17. | 14.35 | 84.4 | 13.63 | 3rd Divi-| | | fo SOT ee | A study of the above table shows that the yield per acre was considerably more where the thinning was delayed until the beets had made considerable growth. ‘This indicates that where con- ditions are favorable considerable range may be taken as to time of thinning. With the weather cool and the soil moist thinning may safely be done when the beets have attained a height of three to four inches. However, thinning is such a slow process that it would better be commenced on time, viz., when the second pair of leaves appear the plants should at least be bunched. The bunches may then safely be allowed to remain for a week or ten days before the beetsare thinned toa stand of one beet ina place. If one could always be certain that the weather would be cool SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1898. 445 and the soil moist then there would not be the imperative neces- sity for beginning thinning early. If thinning be delayed until there exists drought accompanied by hot weather the growth of the plants may be seriously impaired, if the plants are not entirely destroyed. Effect of subsoiling immediately preceding planting.—In 1897 it was thought that subsoiling the land immediately preceding planting resulted injuriously to the growth of the beets. To determine the effect of subsoiling under the conditions which might prevail in 1898 plat No. 40 was selected as a suitable place for the test. Immediately before planting, one-half of the plat was subsoiled deeply, and the soil thoroughly loosened toa depth of about 15 inches. Seven rows of beets each 10g feet long and “20 inches apart were planted respectively upon the half of the plat subsoiled and upon the half not subsoiled. The result of the experiment is shown in the following table: Pence rer ct: | \No. of| Date | Vield| of | of |Perct.| Per ct. Plat 4o. Date Date cul- har- per solid | sugar| Pur- of | planted. |thinned.| tures.| vested. acre. in in ity. | sugar | | Tons, | juice. | juice. jin beet, | 7 rows, {| MaylilI|jJune 5| 6 (Oct.28 22.4 | 17. | 14.35 | 84.4 | 13.63 | not sub- | | | soiled... | | | | 7 rows | May 11 \June 5} 6 |Oct.28) 25.3 | 17.1 | 14.25 | 83.3 | 13.54 | subsoiled | | | | The seven rows which were subsoiled gave an increased yield of nearly three tons per acre. The good results following sub- soiling were without doubt due in part to the fact that the soil was abundantly supplied with moisture during the early period of growth. Before the severe drought of July the subsoil had become sufficiently compacted so that capillarity was restored and the plants were enabled to draw moisture from below. Where subsoiling is done the same season of planting it is important that it be done early so that capillarity may be restored before the advent of the usual summer drought. Test of varieties.—Several varieties of beet seed were sent here from various sources with the request that we make a test. This test was made on Plats 41 and 42 of the permanent series of plats. The soilis quite uniform in these plats and all conditions as to preparation, planting, tillage, etc., were alike. The result of the variety test is shown by the following table: BULLETIN 166 446 oz'vI "jooq ur iesns jo | JU99 Iod | pSg c6'vI £'0g Co'bi 0°68 CS-9gI 9'Zg g°SI 9°gZ oo’ I I'tvg or'gI z'tg o6'V1I P'98 Cost ete Cz'vI ‘Ayung | ‘orl ut deg ater OE S'ZI 1z 9z *~PO S°Z1 PLL =| et 390 9°81 SI | 8% "90 g°LI SI gz “PO S'gI SOI | 8% “WO C61 Or +)-Ge"00 6°L1 a4 9t “PO ‘SI 9'61 Bz "DO i QI | gz ‘RO ‘aoinf ur | ‘suo, “paysoa quo tad | aod pris} >1ea ISH] ALHIUVA ‘sony -[no jo "ON ‘OD 2 XnoIpuy ‘ULIOU[IA Wort ‘qort AtOA ‘Youary) 61 Avy ‘OD 3 xnowpuy ULIOWMI IA WO0IJ I9UdqG9[ZUPMULI] YT ‘OUTA SONYOSZId OTA §,WOUITIA *IJUIGI[ZUBMUTIT ST ‘IoUIqo[ZUeM -Uls] MS roumeg *D ‘poaoidmy “UsSULIIZ, ‘UaSULIOZ OD 28 FITMTIS ‘paaoidury uomytA| 11 Ay 61 Avy 61 API 61 AB] Il Avy Ir Avy Ir Avy I1 AVI *AJOLIVA *pozurtd 278d “HOISTATC YP ev “UOISIATIG pt ty “HOISIAIC, pz zv ‘IOISTAI(] 4S1. cv ‘MOISTAIG 3S Iv “MOISTAIC YW Iv ‘MOISIAIC, pf Iv ‘MOISIAIC, pz Iv ‘UOISIAIC }S1 Iv ‘ON 781d SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1808. 447 The average of results from the 24 plats of various varieties and with various methods of culture was as follows: AVERAGE OF 24 PLATS. ; Average wt. of | Yield per acre : Per cent of Per cent of | Per cent of Tons, 5 5 analyzed solids in juice.) sugar in juice. Purity. sugar in beet. ounds, 20.3 1.29 18.7 16.06 85.6 55.53 The above record of results shows a high average for the entire area. No fertilizer of any kind has been used on the land since winter of ’93—4 when about to loads of strawy barn manure were applied per acre. The land has been heavily cropped every year, and while especially subject to effects of droughts, by proper tillage moisture has been conserved and satisfactory crops harvested. The lesson which should be drawn from the experiments is not so much in the variation between the various plats compared as in the unformly high of all plats. It simply enforces that by thorough preparation of the land and by thorough tillage better -results than the average can be obtained. Experiments with fertilizers for sugar beets.—E,xperiments with fertilizers on sugar beets were conducted in 1898 upon the ‘‘Brick yard’’ plats. The construction of these plats was described in Bulletin 143 but it is thought well to repeat the description. ‘“In experiments with fertilizers a frequent source of error lies in the fact that the soils of the different plats lacks uniformity and hence the fertilizers appplied do not each have equal oppor- tunity to exercise its full effect. To obviate this difficulty the plats upon which the beets were grown were prepared in the following manner. The soil selected was a gravelly loam and had been cropped heavily for three years without the application of any fertilizer or manure. In the spring of 1897 a space was measured off for fourteen plats each 4 x 5 ft. in size. Thesoil of this whole area was then removed to a depth of 24 inches, each layer of eight inches being thrown out upon boards by itself. A solid brick cement wall was constructed around each 448 BULLETIN 166. plat and to a depth of two feet below the surface of the ground. This wall was constructed so that there would be no possible chance for the beets in one plat to receive the benefit of the fertilizer applied to any other plat. After the construction of the wall the soil which had been removed was replaced in the inverse order of its removal, the eight inches removed last was returned first so that it would occupy its original place at the bottom. Before being returned each eight inches of soil was thoroughly mixed and then an equal number of pounds was put into each platand packed. In this way all the plats were filled, each layer of soil after having been thoroughly mixed was returned to its original position.’’ Fertilizer experiments were continued upon these same plats in 1898, each fertilizer being applied to the plat which received similar fertilizer in 1897. The table on page 449 gives the recordof the plats and the results for 1898. The plats upon which these experiments were conducted were so limited in area that no estimate is given of the yield per acre. The object of the experiment was to determine what effect if any, the various fertilizers would have upon the quality of the beets grown. ‘The most noticable effect is seen on Plat No. 6, where nitrate of soda was applied. ‘The per cent of sugar and the per cent of purity falling considerably below that of the other plats. Where more than one chemical were used they were combined in equal proportions and all fertilizers were thoroughly incor- porated with the soil before the seed was planted. The results would seem to indicate that the. use of nitrate of soda is con- ducive to the growth of large beets of poor quality. When used it should be in combination with other chemicals unless the soil _ is markedly deficient in nitrogen. 449 SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1898. 10°91 v'98 zL"gI ¢°Zg gy4i | 8°98 ob'gl p'Sg Co’ LI v'Lg 96°L1 ¢°Z8 Go'L1 0°99 CI'gI 6'°zg gL°C1 e'gL zL'9gI €°98 6£°91 g'Sg Ab ‘QI L°Sg sanede | wo Sg°9I 09 °LI ob’gI SC2LT Sr'gI 06'gI G6°LI “LI oS "tI o0g9'ZI Ge°Z1 G9°LI ‘ao nf ur 1esns jo yU99 19g 61 “AON |"Sq[ 6g01)yo01 ‘soyd punory ¢°61 S9° Tbe S9° 61 ‘AON |'sq] 6g01 Z'1e oS 61 ‘AON |'sq] 6g01 ‘sql 6801 €'0z ts 61 “AON | "sq 6go0r "sql 6901 f ; i *sq] 6g01 I'1z vg 61 ‘AON sq] 6801 : ‘ Sq] 6g01 g'lz 09 61 “AON ‘sat 6g0r voz oL° 61 ‘AON |"sqT 6801 C*oz 69° 61 ‘AON |*Sqy 6g01 V'gI II‘I | 61 ‘AON |‘sqy 6801 : ‘ , "sq[ 6901 v'0z 16 61 ‘AON aay baer I*0z S9° 61 ‘AON |‘sq] 6801 g'0z z6° 61 ‘AON |*sq] 6g01 ‘soil ut ‘pozA|eue SpI[os Jo S}99q *pozAjTe ‘9198 yuso adq [JO “WH ‘AY! -We sje | Jod ayey omy] ysejod jo 9}RLIN IL a}eydsoydasdng BPOS JO 9}PI}JIN ysejod azeyd{ns ajyeydsoydisdns BPOS JO 9}PI}IN oyeydsoydisdns ysejod jo ayeydins IIZII}AIJ ON I9ZI[I}19} ON BpOs JO 9}P41}IN Bpos JO 9}¥I}IN ysejod jo a}eyd[ng oyeydsoydisdng ysejod jo ayeyd{ns ‘pasn IIZI[IAI PT J9UIQ3[ZUBM UT9] ST I9Maqd[ZUBM ULI YT I9UIqa[ZUBPMUII] SJ IIU9q9[ZUPM UTI SJ I9UIGI[ZUBM ULI] YJ I9MIqGI[ZUPMULIT ST I9UIGITZUCMUTI] YJ IOUIqG9[ZUPM ULI] J I9WIQI[ZUBMUTIT SI I9UIGI|[ZUCM UTI] YT IIU9Q9[ZULM ULI ST IOUIGI|ZUPM UII] ST *AJIIIVA or ounf|VI jel OI oun{|CI eg OI oun{[|Z1 3d OI oun{|II jeg OI ounf{|o1 jeg or oun[} 6 jeIq OI ounf{} 9g 3eIq or oun[| Z 31g or ounf{}| 9 31d or oun{} $ zeIg or oun{| Vv 31g or oun{| ¢ }eIq *pozurid 21eq ‘9691 ‘SUNHWIMHdGX*] YAZIILLAAY ‘SLWId GUVA MOU > ParT III. THE WORK OF THE CHEMICAL DIVISION. BY A. L. KNISELY AND G. W. CAVANAUGH UNDER THE DIRECTION OF G. C. CALDWELL, CHEMIST. The work of the Chemical Division has been carried along lines very similar to those of a year ago. Samples of beets have been received from several hundred farmers. In most cases the samples were accompanied by reports of the experi- mental plats. 75. Apparatus used in the analysis of Sugar Beets. The first step in the analysis of sugar beets is to obtain a sample of juice. This process is similar to cider-making. The beets are grated on an ordinary grater, lying under the press. The pulp obtained, about one pint, is put in the cylinder of the press and the juice pressed out flows into the glass cup or beaker under the spout. The juice is then poured into the tall glass cylinder at the left ofthe lamp. The temperature of the juice must be found with the thermometer,which lies on the table in front of the cylinder. The density or solid matter of the juice isnextfound by means SuGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 18098. 451 of the hydrometer, or Brix spindle ; this spindle lies against the press with its base at the bottom of the glass cylinder. The next step is to put a definite amount of the beet juice into the 100 cubic centimeter flask. This flask with a longslender neck and wide mouth is just at the left of the bottle marked ‘‘ poison.’’ This definite amount of juice is measured out by the large pipette which is just at the left of the bottle and leans against the polariscope. The juice is very dark colored and the coloring matter must be removed. A little of the sub-acetate of lead in the bottle,added to the measured juice in the flask will cause the coloring matter and impurities to coagulate and settle. In front of the lampisa funnel holding a folded filter paper. The juice is poured into this filter and the clear filtrate is caught in the flask which supports the funnel, whilst the impurities and coloring matter are held back on the filter paper. The juice which runs through the filter paper is justasclearas water and is now ready for analysis (polarization). . In front of the sub-acetate bottle is a glass tube about eight inches long with glass caps on either end that can be screwed on. One of the glass caps is removed, the tube is filled with the clear juice and the cap is replaced so that one can look through the tube endwise. At the extreme right is the saccharimeter, a very costly piece of apparatus. The tube full of juice is put into this saccharimeter ina dark room and the lamp islighted and placed just in front of the instrument. On looking through the tele- scope one can see the light of the lamp; the line of vision passes endwise through the tube full of the clear beet juice. By carefully noting how any particular beet juicein the tube affects the rays of light passingthrough it, we can tell immediately what per cent of sugar there isin that particular . Juice. In front of the press is a flask called a wash bottle, containing pure water. Such a bottle is needed always in chemical work. At the extreme right of the cut isa pile of white filter papers used in filtering juices. The samples of beets were analyzed as soon as received, or as soon after as possible and ineachcase a franked report blank* was filled out giving the analysis of the sample. This report was sent back to the farmer who had sent in the sample for analysis. In this way each experimenter quickly learned the quality of his beets. | The results of the season's work have been carefully tabulated, *These report blanks are the size and shape of ordinary postal cards. On the face they have the mark of the U. S. Government which exempts them from postage ; on the opposite side is the blank form ready to be filled in with the results of the analysis. These blanks were kindly supplied to the Station by Dr. H. W. Wiley, Chemist of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 452 BULLETIN 166. but it has been thought best not to publish again this year a series of exhaustive tables, but rather to state in a concise form some of the final results of the season’s work. In summarizing the work it is necessary to use the terms ‘‘total solids,’’ ‘‘ sugar in juice,’’ ‘‘ sugar in beet,’’ and ‘‘purity ;’’ therefore for the benefit of readers in general these terms are here defined. 1. Per cent total solidsin the juice, or degrees Brix.—Beet juice consists of water, and of solid matter containing sugar, mineral salts, coloring matter, nitrogenous compounds, etc. A beet juice is said to have 19.9 per cent total solids. This means that 19.9 per cent of that juice is solid matter and the remaining 80.1 per cent is water ; or, in other words, in each 100 pounds of such a juice there are 19.9 pounds of solid matter and 80.1 pounds of water. 2. The per cent of sugar in the juice.-—This per cent is determined by the polariscope. A beet juice is said to analyze 17 per cent sugar. This means that in each 100 pounds of such a juice there are 17 pounds of pure sugar. 3. The per cent of sugar in the beet.—The per cent of sugar in the beet is obtained by multiplying the per cent of sugar in the juice by °3,. Thus 17 percent sugar in juice X;%>,—16.15 per cent sugar in the beet. This means that in each 100 pounds of such beets without crowns there are 16.15 pounds of pure sugar. 4. Per cent of purity of a juice.—This term is often called the coefficient of purity, or better still the quotient of purity. It expresses the ratio between the per cent of total solids in the juice and the per cent of sugar in that same juice. That is, in any ~ particular juice, the puvzty expresses what proportion of the total solids is sugar. Thus in a juice analyzed, there is founda purity of 86.6 per cent. This means that if such a juice were evaporated to dryness and the total solid matter obtained, then of this solid matter 86.6 per cent would be sugar and the remaining 13.4 per cent would be impurities not sugar ; or stated in another way, in every 100 lbs. of the solid matter obtained by evaporating the juice, 86.6 lbs. would be sugar and the remain- ing 13.4 lbs. would be impurities and not sugar. In any given case the purity is obtained by dividing the per SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1898. 453 cent of sugar in the juice by the fer cent of total solids and mul- tiplying by 100. The term fpuzvzty is not an indication of the quality of a juice, but of the quality of the /ofal solids in the juice ; that is, it tells how many parts are sugar in every roo parts of the total solids. We shall now take up, first, the general summary of the sea- son’s work and then the condensed reports from each county and lastly the meteorological data for 1897 and 18908. Four hundred and ninety-six samples have been received and analyzed consisting of the following varieties: Number of analyses. Maxtety. 260 Kleinwanzlebener. 81 Vilmorin. 22 Schreiber’s German. 12 Zeringen, 7 Very Rich French. II4 Scattering and unnamed. 496 Total. Giving our attention to the three leading varieties; the Klein- wanzlebener, Vilmorin and Schreiber’s German we find that they ranged in quality as follows: 454 BULLETIN 166. | Kleinwanz- Schreiber’s lebener. Vilmorin. German. Samples. | Samples. Samples. _ Below 12 per cent sugar in beets....... 15 12 oO _ Between 12-13 per cent sugar in beets. . 32 8 Oo | Between 13-14 per cent sugar in beets. . 44 13 2 | Between 14-15 per cent sugar in beets... 48 15 4 | Between 15-17 per cent sugar in beets. . 99 25 9 BDOVE-T7 a5 sts Veer eee es oa ee Ta we 22 8 7 POA Fo Pee a ew ons vie es 260 8I 22 The averages of all the analyses made during 1898 of each of these three leading varieties areas follows : Kleinwanzlebener |Vilmorin aver- |Schreiber’s German average of 260 age of 81 average of 22 samples. samples. samples. Per cent solids in juice. . 18.40 18.30 19.60 Per cent sugar in juice.. 15-43 15.07 16.96 Per cent sugar in beets. . 14.66 14.32 16.11 Percent purity......... 83.90 82.30 86.50 This table shows that the Kleinwanzlebener is a little better than the Vilmorinin quality. The Schreiber’s German has been tried this year for the first time andit seems to be a very promis- ing variety for New York State. The 22 samples analyzed ranged much better than either Kleinwanzlebener or Vilmorin. Comparing the results of 1898 with those of the season of 1897, when 495 samples were analyzed, we have the following figures. The averages of the two seasons 1897 and 1898, are given side by side so as to be easily compared. BULLETIN 166. 455 Season 1897. Season 1898. Average of 495 Samples. Average of 496 Samples. | Per cent solids in juice..... 20.25 || Percent solidsinjuice...... 18.30 Per cent sugar in juice..... 16.91 | | Percent sugar in juice, .... 15.29 Per cent sugar in beet...... 16.06 | Per cent sugar in beet...... 14.53 | Per GONE PITY. 9 0)s5 ote nae 83.50 | | et COUR TITY coh aN 83.60 A comparison of these two seasons suggests the query, why so much difference in the two cases? Why are the beets so much richer in sugar one year than they are another year? Several causes suggest themselves for this. There is a possibility that the quality of the seed this year was not quite so good as that of ayearago. This season a few new varieties were tried and some of them were of a poor quality and hence tended to lower the general averages of the season’s work. The temperature of the two seasons varied somewhat and this probably has been an important factor influencing the amount of sugar produced in the beets. ; It is thought that the one condition that had most to do with the decrease of sugar in 1898, was the difference in the amount of moisture. In 1897 the weather was very favorable for the development of the sugar, especially during September and October ; the later month being exceptionally dry and just right for the formation of sugar. In 1898 the later months of the growing season, especially August, September and October, were very wet ascompared with the corresponding months of 1897, so that the beets continued to grow more and mature less than in 1897. In 1897 the temperature for August and September was below the normal, whilst for the corresponding months of 1898 the temperature was considerably above the normal. This excessive warmth together with the over abundant rainfall, would stimu- late plant growth and retard the formation of sugar and also pre- vent theearly maturing or ripening of thebeets. (Forthe weather conditions of the state for 1897 and 1898, see pages 466-7.) 456 SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1898. In 1897 beets grown on freshly plowed clover sod, were of poorer quality than those grown on land that had been well tilled the preceding year. An experiment carried on in 1898 by Mr. C. D. Jackson, of Peruville, supports the conclusion drawn in 1897. Mr. Jackson grew Kleinwanzlebener sugar beets on corn stub- ble and also on clover sod, both with and without fertilizer, with the following results: — | Per cent | Per cent | Per cent Kind of soil and how treated. solids sugar sugar Per cent in juice. | in juice. | in beet. Purity. | Clover sod with fertilizer...........: | 18.0 13.90 13.21 iy Clover sod without fertilizer......... iin easy 14.50 13.78 78.4 | Corn stubble with fertilizer.......... 18.6 16.50 15.68 | (SG Corn stubble without fertilizer....... 19.0 15.30 14.54 | 80.5 These results are decidedly in favor of planting upon recently plowed corn stubble. Mr. C. M. Lusk, of Centre Lisle, also experimented along the same line and tested the relative merits of corn stubble and clover sod for producing high quality beets. He experimented with three varieties of beets and got no great difference in qual- ity and the results were somewhat contradictory. They are as follows: | Per cet) Per cent | Per cer Soil. Variety of Beet. solids sugar sugar Per cent in juice. | in juice. | in beet. Purity. Clover sod. Corn stubble. ae 19.6 16.90 16.06 | 86.2 ‘Kleinwanzlebener.| 52'¢ 16.45 15.63 | 88.4 Clover sod. Corn stubble. 18.6 15.60 14.82 | 83.8 a 18.5 15.90 15.11 85.9 Clover sod. Schreiber’s 19.8 17.50 16.63 | 88.4 Corn stubble. German. 19.9 17.20 16.34 | 86.4 BULLETIN 166. 457 Comparison of sandy and clay loams, eighty-four samples were grown on sandy loam, and 48 samples on clay loam. ‘The aver- ages of the results from these two types of soil are as follows: | Sandy loam. Clay loam. Average of 84 samples. Average of 48 samples. | Per cent solid in juice.... 18.20 18.60 Per cent sugar in juice...| 15.24 15.44 Per cent sugar in beet.... 14.48 14.67 Per cet: purity..c ss 000 a | 84.30 84.10 + These results would seem to indicate that there is little or no difference between clay loam and sandy loam for producing beets of high quality. The sugar content of the juice is 0.2 per cent higher on clay loam, whilst the purity is 0.2 per cent higher on sandy loam. On the following pages are given the results of the season’s (1898) work by counties. The work has been greatly condensed and a few of the general averages only are presented. ' In cases where but few experiments are recorded, one must guard against drawing too sweeping conclusions. They may often be misleading. Allegany—Twelve samples were analyzed of which 7 were Kleinwanzlebener and the remainder miscellaneous samples. The Kleinwanzlebener ranged in quality as as follows: From 12-13 per cent sugar in beet, 1 sample; 13-14 per cent no sample; 14-15 per cent, 2 samples; 15-17 per cent, 2 samples, above 17 per cent, 2 samples. These beets were grown mostly on sandy and gravelly loam. The average of the analyses of the 7 samples is as follows: Per cent:sobidsiiiegiicey se ie ee eh ha) 20.00 Per cent Stiear ime giige et ees. ss. 3: 16.71 Pert cent: sian uimeceemaceetr etn eke 15.87 Percent Purity er ere acres eke eo os 83.60 The richest beet of the season came from this county and was 458 BULLETIN 166. a Kleinwanzlebener grown on stiff clay with a hard-pan subsoil. It analyzed as follows : Per.-cent-solids in Jiulice : 3p is 23.80 Percent star in Jaice. 25 Ske oo ee 21.00 Per ‘cent sugar-in ‘beetisccanee et) 0 «phan 19.95 Per cent purity: 15. cg ae rts .c:s- sche 88.20 Broome.—Fourteen samples were analyzed including 5 Klein- wanzlebener and 4 Vilmorin. The remaining samples were miscellaneous. The quality of these two varieties was as follows : Between 14-15 per cent sugarin beet 1, Kleinwanzlebener, 2 Vilmorin ; 15-17 percent, 3. Kleinwanzlebener, 2 Vilmorin ; above 17 per cent 1 Kleinwanzlebener. The averages of the analyses of these two varieties are given below : | Kleinwanzlebener. Vilmorin. | Average of 5 samples.) Average of 4 samples. Per cent solids in juice........... | 19.50 18.50 Per cent sugar in juice........... ! 17.11 15.70 Per cent sugar in beet............ | 16.25 14.92 PeLecene Oniiege et 5's steel 87.70 84.90 Samples were grown mostly on sandy loam. Cattaraugus. — Twenty-three samples were received con- sisting of 11 Kleinwanzlebener, 7 Vilmorin and the remainder miscellaneous samples. The Kleinwanzlebener and Vilmorin varieties ranged in quality as follows: Below 12 per cent sugar in beet, 1 Kleinwanzlebener, 2 Vil- morin ; from 12-13 per cent, 1 Kleinwanzlebener, 1 Vilmorin ; from 13-14 per cent, 2 Kleinwanzlebener ; from 14-15 per cent, 1 Kleinwanzlebener ; from 15-17 percent, 4 Kleinwanzlebener, 3 Vilmorin; above 17 per cent, 2 Kleinwanzlebener, 1 Vilmorin. SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1898. 459 Below are given the averages of the analyses of these two varieties : | Kleinwanzlebener. Vilmorin. Average of 11 samples.| Average of 7 samples. Per cent solids in juice. ........-- 17.80 17.80 Per cent sugar in juice...... Ses 14.93 14.34 Per cent sugar in beet. .....:...-.. 14.18 13.62 Pet Cenb purtt yas wig ta seiees sto 83.90 80.60 These varieties were grown chiefly on gravelly and clay loam. . Chautauqua—One hundred and thirty-seven samples were received, consisting of 86 Kleinwanzlebener, 27 Vilmorin and the remainder miscellaneous varieties. Beets ranged in quality as follows: Below 12 percent sugar in beet, 5 Kleinwanzlebener, 6 Vilmorin; from 12-13 per cent, 19 Kleinwanzlebener, 3 Vil- morin; from 13-14 per cent, 18 Kleinwanzlebener, 4 Vil- morin; from 14-15 per cent,15 Kleinwanzlebener, 3 Vilmorin ; from 15-17 per cent, 24 Kleinwanzlebener, 7 Vilmorin; above 17 per cent, 5 Kleinwanzlebener, 4 Vilmorin. The averages of the analyses of these two varieties are given below. ; | Kleinwanzlebener. Vilmorin. Average of 86 samples. Average of 27 samples. Per cent solidsin juice.. 18.00 18.20 Per cent sugar in juice .. 14.86 14.98 Per cent sugar in beet .. 14.12 14.23 Per cént purity. joneaees 82.60 82.30 Of the 86 samples of Kleinwanzlebener, 17 were grown on clay loam, 23 on gravelly to gravelly loam and 10 on sandy to sandy loam. Their quality was as follows: 460 BULLETIN 166. Clay loam. Gravelly loam. Sandy loam. Average of 17 sam-| Average of 23 |Average of 10 sam- ples. samples. ples. | : a ee fos Be . Per cent solids in juice... 18.50 18.40 18.10 | as | Per cent sugar in juice.. 15.65 15.31 15.19 Per cent sugar in beet... 14.87 14.54 14.43 Per cent parity a6.) sess 84.60 §3.20 83.90 Giving our attention to the Vilmorin variety; of the total number received from Chautauqua County, 3 were grown on clay loam, 7 on gravelly loam and 4 on sandy loam. Their quality ranged as follows: Clay loam. Gravelly loam. Sandy loam. Average of 3sam- | Average of 7 | Average of 4 sam- ples. samples. ples. Per cent solids in juice. 18.50 19.10 19.20 Per cent sugar in juice.. 15.23 15.86 16.31 | _ Per cent sugar in beet... 14.47 15.07 15.50 | Pet cent purty. -.+. 82.30 83.00 84.90 | Chemung—Sixteen samples were received of which 6 were Kleinwanzlebener, 4 Zeringen, 3 Vilmorin, and 3 Schreiber’s Ger- man. Withtwo exceptions these samples were all grown on sandy loam. The averages of the analyses of these several varieties are as follows: Kleinwanz- Schreiber’s lebener. Vilmorin. | Zeringen. German. Average of 6] Averageof |Average of 4;Average of 3 samples. 3 samples. samples. samples. Per cent solids in juice...... 18.20 18.10 17.70 18.20 Per cent sugar in juice...... 15.39 15.25 14.75 15.67 Per cent sugar in beet....... 14.62 14.49 14.01 14.89 Per cent parity: oc. -soheeas es 84.60 84.30 83.30 86.10 SuGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1898. 461 Erie — I'wenty-five samples were analyzed consisting of 11 Kleinwanzlebener, 8 Vilmorin and the remainder mis- cellaneous. Giving our attention tothe Kleinwanzlebener and Vilmorin varieties we find that they ranged in quality as follows : Below 12 per cent sugar in beet, 3 Kleinwanzlebener, 2 Vil- morin; from 12-13 per cent, 1 Vilmorin; from 13-14 per cent, 3 Kleinwanzlebener, 1 Vilmorin ; from 14-15 per cent, 3 Klein- wanzlebener, 3 Vilmorin; from 15-17 per cent, 2 Kleinwanz- lebener, 1 Vilmorin. The averages of the analyses of these two varieties are given below: Kleinwanzlebener. Vilmorin. Average of 11sampies.| Average of 8samples. Per cent solids in juice........... 17.40 17.60 Pen cent sugar ii juice,.......5. 2. 14.37 14.29 Percent sues im Deeks ii). . i658 hs 13.65 13.57 Per Cen kre ye. oo. 2/5 450 w ae aterm 82.60 81.20 Samples grown on “ght clay and sandy loam were of better quality than those grown on heavy clays. Genesee—Fifty-five samples were received and analyzed consisting of 29 Kleinwanzlebener, 12 Vilmorin, 6 Schreiber’s German and the remainder miscellaneous. The beets ranged in quality as follows : Between 12-13 per cent sugar in beet, 1 Kleinwanzlebener, 2 Vilmorin ; from 13-14 percent, 4 Kleinwanzlebener, 2 Vilmorin ; from 14-15 per cent, 9 Kleinwanzlebener, 1 Vilmorin, 1 Schrei- ber’s German; from 15-17 per cent, 13 Kleinwanzlebener, 4 Vil- morin, 2 Schreiber’s German ; above 17 per cent, 2 Kleinwanz- lebener, 3 Vilmorin and 3 Schreiber’s German. 462 BULLETIN 166. —< = sa LSore 7® The averages of the analyses of the three varieties are given below : Kleinwanzlebener. Vilmorin. Average of 29 Average ot 12 samples. samples. Per cent solids in juice.. 18.80 19.00 Per cent sugar in juice.. 15.87 15.94 Per cent sugar in beet... 15.05 T5314 Per cent purity... ..+424.. 84.40 83.90 ples. 20.20 17.66 16.78 87.40 Schreiber’s German Average of 6 sam- The predominating soils in Genesee County are not heavy, being © light clay, sandy and gravelly loams. Livingston — Ten samples were received consisting of 5 Kleinwanzlebener and the remaining varieties scattering. Considering the Kleinwanzlebener we have : One sample below 12 percent sugar in beet, 3 ranging from 12-13 per cent and 1 sample above 17 per cent sugar. The average of the analyses is given below: Kleinwanzlebener. Average of 5 samples. Per cent solids in juice. Per cent sugar in juice. Per cent sugar in beet.. PECeCent Purify sss. 7. The soil upon which these samples were grown was chiefly sandy loams. 17.00 13.58 12.90 79-99 Monroe—Eight samples were received consisting of 2 Klein- wanzlebener, 3 Vilmorin; 1 Zeringen, 1 Schreiber’s German and I unnamed sample. The averages of the analyses are as follows : SUGAR BEET INVESTIGATIONS FOR 1898. Per cent solids Per cent sugar Per cent sugar Per cent purity Ail FICS oo es a GUUICE ie in Heeb! asec th. oe eee ee ree eee Kleinwanz- lebener. Vilmorin. Average of 2|Average-of 3 eens samples. samples. ple. 19.80 20.00 18.00 16.15 16.83 14.35 15.34 15.99 13.63 463 Schreiber’s German. Isample. 20.60 17.25 16.39 83.70 Niagara — Nine samples were received, of which 6 were Kleinwanzlebner, 2 Vilmorin and rt unnamed. » The Kleinwanzlebener ranged in quality as follows : One sample between 13-14 per cent sugar in beet, 3 ranging from 14-15 per cent and 2 from 15-17 per cent. The average of the analyses of the Kleinwanzlebener is given below. Per cent purity Kleinwanzlebener. Average of 6 samples. Per cent solids in juice. Per cent sugar in juice. Per cent sugar in beet.. 18.30 15.49 14.72 84.60 Orleans — Seventeen samples were received, consisting of 13 Kleinwanzlebener and 4 scattering varieties. The quality of the Kleinwanzlebener ranged as follows : One sample below 12 per cent sugar in beet, 1 between 13-14 “per cent, 2 between 14-15 per cent, 7 ranging from 15 to 17 per cent and 2 above 17 per cent sugar. These Kleinwanzlebener gave an average analysis as follows: 464 BULLETIN 166. Kleinwanzlebener. Average of 13 samples. 6 APTS ANT, | Per cent solids in juice. 19.20 Per cent sugar in juice. 16.48 Per cent sugar in beet. .| 15.66 Per cent purity........ | 85.80 These samples were all grown upon light soils, chiefly sandy loams. Steuben—Nine samples were received consisting of 8 Klein- wanzlebener and 1 Vilmorin. Of the Kleinwanzlebener, 1 sample ranged between 13-14 per cent sugar in beet, 1 from 14-15 percent, 5 from 15-17 per cent and 1 sample above 17 per cent sugar. The averages of the analyses of the two varieties from Steuben county are given below: Kleinwanzlebener. Vilmiorin. Average of 8 samples. I sample. / Per cent solids in juice... 18.90 18.80 Per’cent sugar in juice... 16.20 15.90 Per cent sugar in beet ...| 15.39 15.11 Pet Cent Wpataty ¢- sess 6. do WL bace cists 2h | Ysinra aak cali: Meme ; May, 1898. — Juney | yune; 1897. July, July, ANS 5 |; SUS: Nee pi. Woe mte, Oct., 1898. 1897. 1898. 1897. 1898. 1897. 1898. 1897. 5-58 | 6.67 | 1.07 |4.43 | 6.67 | 1.87 |1.61 | 1.01 2.46 | 2.42 | 2.12 11.61 | 7.42 | 3.80 | 2.58 | 0.74 5.89 | 6.83 | 3.63 |2.68 8.06 | 1.25 | 2.87 | 0.56 3.30 | 4.11 | 1.93 | 2.26 | 5.65 (8.27 | 4.12 | 1.31 5.56 | 6.79 | 2.57 |3.55 |4.71 | 0.81 | 2.26 | 1.56 2.24 | 6.16 | 1.72 11.98 | 2.77 | 0.47 | 3.389 | 1.07 3.00 | 4.54 | 2.20°]1.49 | 4.88 | 0.84 | 3.48 | 1.04 4.40 | 5.00 | 2.72 |2.98 |9.61 | 1.88 | 38.73 | 1.388 2.58 8.22 1.37 3.54 | 4.35 0.78 3.65 0.42 4.11 | 3.14 | 2.18 |0.55 | 5.57 | 1.21 | 2.29 | 0.66 0.98 | 6.10) 1.54 11.46 4.61 10.77 | 3.68 | 0.92 3.35 | 5.58 | 4.26 18.13 | 6.14 | 1.89 | 2.77 | 0.84 2.88 | 5.68 | 1.49 | 1.54 3.48 10.93 | 4.85 | 1.06 4.16 | 4.92 | 4.09 {2.71 8.15 | 2.30 4.65 | 0.38 2.14 | 5.44 | 1.55 |2.86 |6.70 | 1.97 | 3.98 | 0.80 2.67 | 5.07 | 1.35 | 2.08 | 3.71 | 0.88 | 3.58 | 1.01 1.61 | 3.98 | 2.51 | 2.42 | 3.82 | 1.09 | 4.18 | 0.57 3.16 | 8.83 | 2.43 |4.70 8.03 | 1.65 | 3.13 | 1.45 3.09 | 3.27 | 2.65 |2.19 | 4.70 | 2.66 | 1.99 |0.71 342] 4.14 | 2.42 |0.78 | 4.97 | 3.95 | 2.038 | L2L 3.70 | 6.30 | 3.13 | 2.49 | 4.49 | 2.51 | 1.88 | 0.96 3.07 | 4.32 | 2.99 |3.19 |7.05 | 4.05 | 2.26 | 0.56 2.76 | 3.78 | 4.88 | 2.48 | 4.95 |4.59 | 3.05 | 0.94 2.06 | 4.44 | 2.51 [1.19 | 5.58 | 1.15 | 3.21 | 0.62 3.35 | .....| 2.08 |} 1.28 | 4.16 | 1.90 | 1.38 | 0.62 ‘IMOY JD ‘OD AVENG JAIT YAOX MAN SAL ay) fo ArojIVY— ‘OL THE FOLLOWING BULLETINS ARE AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION TO THOSE WHO MAY DESIRE THEM. Removing Tassels from Corn, 9 pp. Steam and Hot-Water for Heating Greenhouses. 26 pages. Sundry Investigations of 1892, 56 pp. (Edema of the Tomato, 34 pp. Greenhouse Notes, 31 pp. Sundry Investigations of the Year 1893, 54 PP. On Certain Grass-Eating Insects,58 pp. Hints on thePlanting ofOrchards,16 pp. Apricot Growing inWestern NewYork, 26 pp. The Cultivation of Orchards, 22 pp. Leaf Curland Plum Pockets, 40 pp. Impressions of the Peach Industry in N. Y., 28 pp. Peach Yellows, 20pp. Some Grape Troubles in WesternN. Y., 116 pp. The Grafting of Grapes, 22 pp. The Cabbage Root Maggot, 99 pp. Varieties of Strawberry Leaf Blight, 26 PP. The Quince in Western N. Y., 27 pp. Experiments with Tuberculin, 20 pp. The RecentAppleFailuresinN.Y.,24pp. Dwarf Lima Beans, 24 pp. Feeding Fat to Cows, I5 pp. Cigar-Case-Bearer, 20 pp. Winter Muskmelons, 20 pp. Forcing House Miscellanies, 43 pp. Entomogenous Fungi, 42 pp. The Spraying of Trees and the Canker Worm, 24 pp. General Observations in Care of Fruit Trees, 26 pp. Soil Depletion in Respect to the Care of Fruit Trees, 21 pp. Climbing Cutworms in Western N. Y. 5I PP. Test of Cream Separators, 18 pp. Revised Opinion of the Japanese Plums, 30 pp. Geological History of the Chautauqua Grape Belt, 36 pp. Extension Work in Horticulture, 42 pp II4 116 147. 148. 149. Spraying Calendar. Dwarf Apples, 31 pp. Fruit Brevities, 50 pp. Texture of the Soil, 8 pp. Moisture of the Soil and Its Conser- vation, 24 pp. Suggestions in Planting Shrubbery, Second Report upon Extension Work in Horticulture, 36 pp. Green Fruit Worms, 17 pp. The Pistol-Case-Bearer in Western New York, 18 pp. A Disease of Currant Canes, 20 p The Currant-Stem Girdler te Raspberry-Cane Maggot, 22 pp. A Second Account of Sweet Peas, 35 pp. A Talk about Dahlias, 40 pp. How to Conduct Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 11 pp. Potato Culture, 15 pp. Notes upon Plums for Western New York, 31 pp. Notes upon Celery, 34 pp. The Army-Worm in New York, 28 pp. Strawberries under Glass, Io pp. Forage Crops, 28 pp Chrysanthemums, 24 pp. Agricultural Extension Work, sketch of its Origin and Progress, 1r pp. Studies and Illustrations of Mush- rooms: I. 32pp. pos Report upon Japanese Plums I Sccond Report on PotatoCulture. 24 pp- Powdered Soap as a Cause of Death Among Swill-Fed Hogs. t12pp. The Codling-Moth. 72 pp, Sugar Beet Investigations. 88 pp. Suggestions on Spraying and on the San José Scale. 20 pp. Some Important Pear Diseases. 36 pp. Fourth Report of Progress on Exten- sion Work. 28 pp. Fourth Report upon Chrysanthe- mums. 36pp. The Quince Curculio. 28 pp. Some Spraying Mixtures. 8 pp. Bulletins Issued Since the Close of the Fiscal Year June 30, 1898 150. cf 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. I61. 162, 163. 164. 165. 166, Tuberculosis in Cattle and its Control. Gravity or Dilution Separators. Studies in Milk Secretion. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals. Second Report on the San José Scale. Third Report on Potato Culture. Grape-vine Flea-beetle. Source of Gas and Taint Producing Bacteria in Cheese Curd. An Effort to Help the Farmer. Hints on Rural School Grounds. Annual Flowers. The Period of Gestation in Cows. Three Important Fungous Diseases of the Sugar Beet. Peach Leaf-Curl. Ropiness in Milk and Cream. Sugar Beet Investigations for 1898. Bulletin 167. March, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. AGRICULTURAL DIVISION. The Construction of the Stave Silo, By L. A. CLINTON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. ITHACA, N. Y. 1899 ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC. P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. 3 . H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. . H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. . F. ATKINSON, Botany. . V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. . W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. M. DUGGAR, Botany. . W. SPENCER, Extension Work. . L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. ISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. G. W. TAILBY, Farm Foreman. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITHS, Dairy Husbandry. F. A. STEVENS, Demonstrator. SPOR O mnt A OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, March 21, 1899. HONORABLE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, N. Y. Sir: As the dairy industry of the state is developed it becomes of more importance each year that the capacity of the farms to sustain stock be not only maintained, but increased. If the capacity is to be increased, there must be provided some means for storing the roughage or fodder produced on the farm. Of the various forms of roughage, there are none which compare in cheapness of production and value of product, with Indian corn or maize. ‘This crop is becoming the mainstay of the dairy farmer. ‘The question which he has been called upon to decide, is, how this product may be most economically stored. Of all the methods which have been suggested, the ensilaging of corn seems to most fully preserve its original feeding value. Hitherto, the draw-back to this method of storage, has been the imperfec- tion of silos. With the old square or rectangular forms of con- struction the percentage of waste has been so great that many farmers have hesitated to construct silos. For more ‘than three years we have been carefully studying the points of merit of the stave silo, and it seems to overcome almost entirely the objections which have been made against the square and rectan- gular forms. As the demand for information with reference to the construction of the stave silo has increased each year it has been thought wise to publish in bulletin form, information as to details of construction. This information is, therefore, offered for publication as a bulletin under Chapter 67, Laws of 1898. I. P. RoBEerTs, Director. THE STAVE SILO. The value of good silage has become so generally recognized that it is unnecessary to enter into any discussion on that point. Especially to the dairy farmer has the silo become an almost necessary adjunct to the equipment of the farm. Dr. W. H. Jordan, Director of the New York State Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y., in an address before the N. Y. State Dairymen’s -Convention in 1897 said, ‘‘ Silage properly made and properly fed never yet injured a pound of milk.’’ The trouble with much of the silage fed, isthat it fails to com- ply with one or the other and frequently both of the above con- ditions. One cause which has contributed more than any other toward poor silage has. been faulty construction of the silo. No matter how good the corn when ensilaged nor how care- fully and intelligently the silage may be fed, if the silo is so constructed that a moldy, sour product results, satisfactory ‘returns from feeding cannot be secured. Reasons frequently offered as an excuse by farmers for not having a silo are the facts that the percentage of loss is usually considerable and the orig- inal cost of the silo is beyond their means. The stave silo more nearly overcomes these objections than any other form of silo which has been proposed. The important features which must be possessed by a silo to adapt it to the needs of the masses are, first, ability to preserve the silage; second, cheapness and simplicity of construction; third, durability. After making for three years careful study and observation of the stave silo we believe it meets fully the above requirements, and that it is the most practical and successful silo which can be constructed. The round stave silo presents no corners which may pull apart and admit air, and which cause the silage to settle unequally ; the original cost is very slight’as no expert labor is required, all mason and carpenter work can be done by the usual farm help: The material used in construction is the minimum 474 BULLETIN 167. amount for obtaining the maximum capacity; the durability of the stave silo is as yet only a matter of conjecture for decay has not commenced on any stave silo which we have examined. A stave silo built at Cornell University in 1898, has a part of the staves of hemlock, a part of Georgia pine, part of white pine and part of cypress. These different materials will be carefully observed in future years to determine their relative value. As many letters of inquiry have been received during the past year asking for information about silos and details for the con- struction of the stave silo it has been thought wise to publish a bulletin which should give somewhat fully the information called for. The location of the silo—A _ silo should be located with reference to facility in feeding. This condition is important above allothers. If stock are housed in the basement it is well to. have the bottom of the silo on a level with the floor of the base- ment. It is cheaper to elevate the silage at the time of filling the silo when it can be done on a carrier by steam power, than to elevate it in baskets at time of feeding when it must usually be done by man power. ‘The practice of digging pits into which to put the silage is not to be commended as it causes an unnecessary expense at the outset and is afterwards a source of extra labor and annoyance when the silage is fed. Whether the silo shall be placed on the interior or exterior .of the barn must be determined for each individual case. If at the time the barn is planned arrangements are made for the silo it can nearly always be placed on the interior. If, however, itis desired to erect a silo and the barn is already constructed it is usually more convenient to place the silo on the exterior. It is very largely a matter of economizing space andlabor. If placed inside the barn no extraexpense need be incurred for roofing, the work is concentrated and it will usually be found more convenient than placing the silo on the outside. Some caution must be observed especially if the silo is located near the milking room and the silage should not be thrown down until the milk is removed from the range of its odor. Wherever the silo is located it should be with reference to economizing labor in feeding and it should be placed at the point most convenient THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STAVE SILO. A75 regardless of any slight extra expense which may be incurred by so doing. Szze of silo to construct.—In calculating the amount of silage which will likely be needed, it is customary to estimate that a 1000 pound cow will consume about 40 pounds or one cubic foot of silage per day. This gives a basis upon which to calculate the capacity of the silo required to carry a certain amount of stock One cow to be fed a full rationof silage, say from Novem- ber 1st to May ist, would require 7,240 pounds which would necessitate a storage capacity in the silo of 181 cubic feet. If, say 20 cows are to be fed during the period above mentioned there would be required 144,800 pounds of silage necessitating a storage capacity in the silo of 3,620cubic feet. It frequently becomes a question of considerable importance to know how large a silo should be constructed in order to furnish the necessary storage room. The following table showing the approximate capacity, in tons, of silos of various depths and diameters, may be found useful. Table showing approximate total capacity of cylindrical silos for well matured corn silage, in tons. Inside Diameter in feet. Depth Feet. 12 ES PN DE AL. 17 he al Is 2 gale os a BP) Fass oA Tons.|Tons. |Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. Tons. |Tons.| Tons. |Tons. | Tons. 20 (as Fart Soe ae) te rar |) Tra pitas.) 138.)/cEsrr 167, 2 180 21 47 Te Og | 95 | 106 | 118 | 132 | 145°] 159 | 173 | I90 22 49 Gi oo OO | LEL | E24, F383 19s 10166 | TS2h| 19s rp} 52 8 g2 | 104 | II7 | 130 | 144 | 159 | 174 | 190 | 207 24 BA 04 Cb | TOG Veb22ToSs aT ROO F66,,| 17g )| 19G.1 ab 25 56 SS | OOs | PEs F927" TAT. | 157.) ¥73 | 189'| 207.1 225 26 50° 1° O2er LOAM EDS | mis ah EAT. E63. 560") LOT. | 205 vl 2am es | 61 G5 etn eae haz th 2b 169 4187: | 205, |. 224)| 944 28 63°.) °GS. ies ie tae | tee hPa igs. | 2E2 | 2392" sono 29 b 65e4 SiGis IG rat Ag 264.582" 1-200! | 220.) 240) 262 30 | G7" VG tee MWh aGuhshS 2170) | TSS 207” | 227 |) 2A 1 ORE In making out the above table the mean weight of a cubic foot of well settled silage has been taken as 4o pounds. While this is only an approximation, yet it comes near enough to enable us to estimate the capacity of silos. It is known that in 476 BULLETIN 167. the upper part of a silo 24 feet deep, a cubic foot of silage will not weigh more than 35 to 38 pounds, while in the lower part the weight will run from 40 to 45 pounds. At Cornell Univer- sity a silo 24 feet deep was filled with well matured corn during the latter part of September 1898. After allowing it to settle for four or five days it was filled again to the top. This was repeated three times, the silo being filled to the top each time after it had been allowed to settle. It was finally covered over with about one foot of freshly cut second growth clover. When the silo was opened in November the silage had settled so that the top of it was five feet below the top of silo. Onthe 25th day of February 1899 several samples each consisting of one cubic foot of settled silage were weighed. These samples were taken at adepth of'14 feet from the top of the silo and 9 feet below where the top of the settled silage had been. The weight of one cubic foot of silage at the depths above mentioned was found to be 38 pounds. How to use the above table.—The table given above is toenableone who contemplates constructing a silo to estimate the size of silo which will be needed. From 25 to 30 pounds of silage per cow is regarded as a light daily ration, 35 to 40 pounds as a medium and 40 to 50 as liberal. If it is assumed that 4o pounds of silage or one cubic foot per day, will be about the amount fed per cow, we can then closely estimate the size of silo needed. The table gives the capacity of silos could they be filled with set- tled silage. Practically this is never possible. If the silo is filled with well matured corn and then after the silage has settled is filled again and this is repeated two or three times, we can get only about three-fourths the maximum capacity of thesilo inset- tled silage. If the silo is filled but once and is not refilled after the silage has settled, not more than two-thirds the capacity of the silo can be obtained in settled silage. Thus if the silocanbe — filled in the manner first mentioned one should be constructed which has a maximum capacity one-third greater than for the amount of silage required. If the silo is to be filled rapidly and not refilled after settling, it should have a capacity one-half greater than for the actual amount of silage required. If, as inthe case previously mentioned, 20 cows are to be fed from Nov. 1st to May 1st a period of 181 days there will be con- sumed 72.4 tons of silage. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STAVE SILO. 477 If the silo be filled by the first method there will be needed in this case a maximum capacity for 96 tons, which will be nearest met by a silo 24 feet deep and 16 feet in diameter. If the silo is filled according to the second method, there will be needed a. maximum capacity for 108 tons, which will be most nearly met by a silo 27 feet deep and 16 feet in diameter. It is always well to construct a silo somewhat larger than the present needs seem to demand. Then as the herd increases or the use of silage increases, extra silo capacity will have been already provided. Construction of foundation for stave silo.—Where the silo is to be constructed an excavation should be made toa depth of 3 or 4 inches or to the bottom of the loose surface soil and witha diam- eter at least two feet greater than the proposed diameter of the silo and drainage should be provided if the conditions seem to warrant. ‘The excavation should be filled with stones, large ones being placed at the bottom and smaller ones being worked in and pounded down toward the top. Gravel if well pounded down may serve as filling between the stones. It is important thatthe pounding be thoroughly done, otherwise settling will take place later on and the cement finish be made to crack. The finishing should be done with cement. First a thin mortar made of one part of Portland or Rosendale cement and four parts of good sharp sand should be poured over the entire stone work. This mortar should be made so thin that it will run down into the interstices between the stones. After this first coat has'thoroughly set a finishing coat made of one part cement and three parts of sand should be put on and worked down with a trowel. Finish off before thoroughly dry by dusting over the top some clear cement and working it in with a trowel. This will give a hard finish and will secure a foundation that is cheap and efficient. While the cement is still soft it is frequently con- venient to strike the circle which will mark the line upon which the stavesare to be set. A spike driven in the center will serve as a pivot. Attach to this a bit of string or twine the length of which shall be one-half that of the proposed diameter of the silo and to the free end of the string fasten some pointed instrument with which to mark the circle. Now strike a circle the radius of which shall be equal to the length of the string and there is marked out the circle upon which the staves are to be set. 478 BULLETIN 167. Material to use for staves.—It is probable that no better mate- rial can be obtained for the staves than Southern cypress. This, however, is so expensive in New York State as to preclude its use in most cases. Of the cheaper materials hemlock, white- pine, and yellow-pine are usually the most available. At the present time hemlock is one of the cheapest satisfac- tory materials which can be purchased and it is probably as good as any of the cheaper materials. It should be sound and free from loose knots. Preparation of the staves for the stlo.—lf the silo is to have a diameter of 12 feet or less the staves should be made of either 2x 4 material unbevelled on the edges and neither tongued nor grooved, or of 2 x 6 material bevelled slightly on the edges to make the staves conform to the circular shape of the silo. Ifthe silo is to have a diameter of more than 12 feet the staves should be of 2 x 6 material and neither bevelled nor tongued and grooved on the edges. If the staves are left perfectly plain, then when they are set in place and drawn together the first point of con- tact will be the inner edge and the tighter the hoops are drawn the closer will become the contact of the staves at the inner edge. If it is impossible to purchase material for staves the length of which shall be equal to the desired depth of the silo then shorter staves may be used and set up according to the method hereafter described. The staves should be surfaced on the inside so that a smooth face may be presented which will facilitate the set- tling of the silage. Whether the outside of the staves shall be planed is a matter of taste, but if hemlock is used the handling of the staves will be found much easier if both sides are planed. Setting up the silo.—There are several methods of procedure which may be followed in setting up the silo. Fig. 77 shows a cross section of one method of construction. The posts (a, a, a, a,) should be of 6 x 6 material and run the entire length of the silo. ‘These should be first set up vertically and stayed securely in place and then they may be used as part of the scaffolding, they will also serve to give rigidity to the staves as the work of setting up pro- gresses, and when the roof is put on, the plates which support the roof may be laid on these posts. The scaffolding may be con- structed by setting up 2x4 scantling in the positions shown in THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STAVE SILO. 479 fig. 77as6466. Boards nailed from these 2 x 4 scantling and to the 6 x 6 posts will form a rigid frame work across which the planks for the scaffold platform may be laid. Before the scaffolding is 77.—Shows cross section of stave silo, the dotted lines are to show how scaffolding may be put up. all in place the staves should be stood up within the inclosure, otherwise difficulty will be experienced in getting them into pos- ition. Some caution needs to be exercised in working on the scaffolding that the planks do not tip, but with ordinary care there need be no danger. The first stave set up should be made 480 BULLETIN 167. plumb and should be toe-nailed at the top to one of the posts originally set. If one man works at the top of the staves and one at the bot- tom with another man to assist in raising them in position they may be set up very rapidly. Immediately a stave is set in place it should be toe-nailed at the top to the preceding stave set. It has been found that the work of setting up and preserving the circular outline may be materially aided by the use of old barrel staves. Fora vas 2 feet 1 in diameter the curve in the stave of the sugar barrel is best adapted, for a 16 foot silo the flour bar- rel stave is best and for a silo 20 feet or more in diameter the iA | stave of the cement etsie. | barrel is best. Before commencing to set up the silo there should be at hand an abun- dance of old barrel staves of the kind best adapted to the work as designated above. When a silo stave is Fic. 78.—Shows how barrel staves may be used BEE a place nail to it in setting up a silo, they should be removed horizontally and on before the silo is filled. the inside a barrel stave. One barrel stave will reach across several of the silo staves and should be secured by shingle nailstoeach silo stave. Onerowofbarrelstaves should be nailed on or nearthe top and one near or below the mid- dle. These barrel stavesassist in keeping the silo on the proper curve and do away withthe necessity of making a mold or form. Fig. 78 shows how the barrel staves are used. If when the silo stavesare put in place they are toe-nailed securely to the ones previously set; if they are fastened firmly to the permanent upright posts (a, a, a,a fig. 77); if the barrel staves are used as directed above, the silo will have sufficient rigidity to stand THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STAVE SILO. 481 until the hoops are put in place. However, if it becomes neces- sary for any reason to delay for any considerable time the put- ting on of the hoops, boards should be nailed across the top of the silo. These will serve as braces and will enable the silo to resist wind storms of considerable violence without collapsing. As the staves are set up the level or plumb should be used occasionally to determine if they are being set vertically. The 6 x 6 posts mentioned as being first to be set in place are not a necessity, they areaconvenience. Wherea silo is being erected away from any other building these posts furnish the fixed points and assist in giving stability tothe structure. When the roof is put on they will also be found of material benefit. If the silo is set up tnside of the barn or in close proximity to the barn or other building, the first staves set up may be braced from the building. After a few staves are in place plank may be nailed across the top and thus a platform secured upon which a man can work. Unless some better method for securing the scaffolding can be devised the use of the uprights as shown in fig. 77 will be found valuable. Splicing the staves.—If it is desired to build a silo 24 to 30 feet or more in height, it will often be found impracticable if not impossible, to secure staves the full length desired. Where this is the case a joint or splice may be made. Forasilo 30 feet deep staves 20 feet in length may be used. A part of these should be used at their full length and part should be sawed through the middle, thus making staves of 20 and to feet length. In setting them upthe ends which meet at the splice should be squared and toe nailed securely together. They shouldalternate so that firstalong stave is at the bottom then a short one, thus breaking joints at 10 feet and 20 feet from the base. This breaking joints is preferable to having the joint come in a circle entirely around the silo, as it gives addittonal strength. Care needs to be exercised that the ends are made square, otherwise the air will be admitted. Hoops for the stave silo.—The hoops for the stave silo are usually made from five-eighths inch round iron or steel rods. Cheaper substitutes have been used and given good satisfaction. The frontispiece showsa silo erected at Cornell University in which common woven wire fencing was made to serve as hoops. When 482 BULLETIN 167. the large stave silo inside the barn was filled it was found that more room was needed in which to store the corn crop. This was obtained by constructing asmall silo 24 feet high and 12 feet in diameter, which was set up in a day and hoops of fence wire were put on and secured as shown in frontispiece. The staves were of 2x6 hemlock, 24 feet long, with edges neither matched nor bevelled. The silo was filled directly after completion and was satisfactory in every way. Where the round hoops are used it is well to have each hoop in from three to four sections. For a silo 12 feet in diameter three sections will be sufficient, whilefor a silo 16 feet or more in diame- ter the hoops will handle more conveniently if they are in four sections each. If the method of construction shown in figure 77 1s followed, then the hoops will need to be in four sections each, the ends being passed through the upright 6x6 posts and secured by heavy washers and nuts. A chisel should be used to sink one edge of the washer slightly so that the 1) (zane Ml Fic. 79.—Shows how the ends of hoops may be secured, strain upon the nut will be squarely in line with the direction of the pull. Ifthe upright posts are not used then a convenient way to secure the hoops is by means of the cast iron lugs as shown in fig 79. The hoops should be long enough so that they can be let out if it becomes necessary after the silo is filled and the strain becomes great. If when the hoops are tightened it is found that the thread at the end has not been made sufficiently long, pieces of gas pipe may be used as washers with which to take up the slack. The bottom hoop should be about six inches from the base of the silo; the second hoop should be not more than two feet from the first; the third hoop two and one-half feet from the second, the distance between hoops being increased by one-half foot until they are three and one-half feet apart, which distance should be THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STAVE SILO. 483 maintained except for the hoops at the top of the silo which may be four feet apart. The hoops should be drawn fairly tight before the silo is filled but not perfectly tight. They must be tight enough to close up the space between the staves thus preventing any foreign matter from getting into the cracks which would pre- vent the staves from closing up as they swell, thus allowing air to enter. To hold both the hoops and the staves in place during the summer when the silo is empty, staples should be driven over the hoops into the staves. Ifa sufficient number of staples are used they will prevent the sagging or dropping down of the hoops and they will hold the staves securely in place. The hoops should be watched very closely for a few days after the silo is filled. If the strain becomes quite intense the nuts should be slightly loosened. If during the sunimer when the silo is empty and the staves thoroughly dry the hoops are tightened so that the staves are drawn closely together, when the silo is filled and the wood absorbs moisture and begins to swell, the hoops must be eased somewhat to allow for the expansion. If a silo is constructed of thoroughly seasoned lumber and the hoops are drawn tight before filling, when the silovis filled the hoops must be loosened slightly or thereis danger that the hoops will break or the thread will be stripped. In one case a silo was allowed to dry out in the summer and fall down when by the use of staples or a few minutes spent in tightening the hoops, it might have been prevented. Another silo met with disaster due to the fact that the hoops were drawn perfectly tight on a dry silo and were not loosened when the silo was filled. The result was the hoops broke. A little judgment and care should be exercised with this as with all other farm operations. Doors for the stave stlo.—The doors should be located on the side of the silo most convenient for feeding. They may be in line, one directly above the other or they may be placed any- where fancy or convenience dictates. If doors are placed one above the other the short pieces of staves should be well secured to the hoops by staples. The lower door should be between the second and third hoops at the bottom and other doors will usually be needed in every second space between there and the top except 484 BULLETIN 167. that no door will be needed in the top space as the silage when settled will be sufficiently low to enable it to be taken out at the door in the space below. Plans should be made for the doors at the time the staves are set. When the place is reached where it sa > Ae iA “ EEF — REAMRBEZAIIYYHTPW@#tk MOLL LY WHEE: 4g tZZ 4 ESS WAN il Lj, i LL Ls Lhe ESS Nt Le es VS —-.§- == —y = ——— ee eee — ’ SS SS ———— . re Dat j Tf NITY | { — ———— ——— - fase iL CZ} SS WS ‘ { | | | \ ee SS Fic. 80.—Shows appearance of door after being sawed out, and shows side view of doorin place. The cleatesc. c. are on outside of door. is desired to have the doors, a saw should be started in the edge of the stave at the points where the top and bottom of the doors ate to come. ‘The saw should be inserted so that the door can be sawed outon a bevel, making the opening larger on the in- side of the silo. (See fig 80.) This will enable the door to be removed and put in place only from the inside and when set in THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STAVE SILO. 485 place and pressed down with silage, the harder the pressure the tighter will the door fit. The sawing into the edge of the stave SS SSS See SS = ——— ~~ SSS = SSS SSS == ee Be a rs gan eae ees le Afi Mnay Pp enion Riek i a Th wl pM Wa alee ee ein Fic. 81.—Shows plan of Construction of Stave Silo. at this time is to permit the sawing out of the door after the staves are all in place without the necessity of making an auger hole, which would admit the air. After sawing into the edge of the stave deep enough to admit the end of the saw the stave 486 BULLETIN 167. should be set in place so that the side corresponding to ec. c. in fig. 80 shall be on the outside of the silo. After the silo is set up and the hoops have been put on and tightened the cutting out of the doors may be completed. The size of doors would better be two feet wide by about two and one-half feet long. This will allow the passing through of a large basket and will make a door of convenient size for handling. Before cutting out the doorscleats 2 inches by 3 inches and in length equal to the width of the door, should be made which will conform to the circular shape of the silo. One of these cleats should be securely bolted to the top and one to the bottom of where the door is to be cut. (See fig. 8o.) After the bolting, the door may be sawed out and it is then ready for use. When set in place at time of filling the silo a piece of tarred paper inserted at the top and bottom will fill the opening made by the saw and prevent the entrance of any air around the door. ‘Two silos built at Cornell University the past year had the doors constructed and put in, in the manner above described and not one pound of silage was wasted around doors. : The stlo roof.—lf constructed in the barn no roof or covering of any kind will be needed. If constructed out of doors some kind of roof should be provided. If the method of construction shown in fig 77 is followed, andthe upright 6x6 posts are used, these posts may serve as supports for the plates upon which the rafters are torest. The roof should have a sufficiently wide pro- jection to protect as thoroughly as may be the walls of the silo from the elements. The plan of roof construction which will prove efficient isshown in fig 81. It is not necessary that the ~ structure be air tight above the circular part. The gable end which is shown as open in the figure, may be boarded up. In this gable end a door should be provided through which the silo can be filled. The roof should extend from the silo to the barn so as to cover the space which intervenes, and thus afford protec- tion to the feeder in stormy weather. Another way in which the roof may be put on is shown in the frontispiece. Around the top of the silo was bent and nailed one-half inch Georgia pine. This was put on so that a slight slope was given to the roof boards which simply overlap each other. The roof answered every pur- THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE STAVE SILO. 487 pose. Another form of roof which is now doing service over a silo 16 feet in diameter by 24 feet deep is shown in fig 82. This silo was constructed in Tompkins County in the summer of 1898. No roof was put on until after the silo was filled. ra Mae ina a ae ta = = ie Fic. $2.—Shows a roof which is doing good service. Then pieces of 2 x 4 scantling were nailed to the staves, plates were laid across the top and the roof supported as shown in the figure. The silage in this silo when examined in February directly after the temperature had been at zero for several days, and some of the time as low as 20° below zero, was found to be in most excellent condition. It was frozen around the edge next to the staves, but the frost had not penetrated for more than six inches. ‘The top of the silage had been covered over with a foot 488 BULLETIN 167. or more of buckwheat straw and this protected the silage from action of frost. Samples of the frozen silage were taken and when thawed out no deterioration in value was observed. When these silos are constructed out of doors it is considered important that in cold weather the top of the silage be well covered over with straw or hay, or some other material which will conserve the heat from the interior. The covering can be pitched back each day as the silage is removed for feeding and then returned to place again. This practice successfully protected silage during the most severe weather that has been experienced in New York for many years. Painting the stlo.—Whether the silo shall be painted on the outside is simply a matter of taste. If the other farm buildings are painted it would be well to have the silo painted the same as the other buildings. Various paints and compounds have been recommended for the interior. Probably the best paint is com- mon gas or coaltar put on hot, though it is very doubtfulif the interioris improved by painting. If paint is applied tothe staves while they are still green it is likely to hasten rather than prevent decay. If gas tar or paint is applied it should be done after the hoops are made tight and the staves drawn close, otherwise the paint is likely to enter the cracks and harden and thus prevent the staves from being drawn together. The large silo built at Cornell University was painted upon the interior,a part with gas tar and a part with a special preparation, and one part was left with no paint, the silage kept equally well in all portions of the silo. It is impossible to anticipate all difficulties which will be met with in various cases. Ingenuity and judgment will suggest many changes from the plans which have been outlined above. It is hoped, however, that the suggestions herein contained will be of value to those who contemplate building a silo, and it is possible that the attention of some will be called to the feasibility and value of the silo who have not heretofore given the subject serious thought. L. A. CLINTON. Bulletin 168. Cornell University Agricultural ITHACA, N. Y. BOTANICAL DIVISION. May, 18099. Experiment Station. Studies and Illustrations OF MUSHROOMS: II. By the rose flesh mushrooms, undivulged Last evening. Nay,in to-day's first dew Yon sudden coral nipple bulged, Where a freaked, fawn-colored, flaky crew Of toadstools peep indulged.” Browning's By the Fireside. THREE EDIBLE SPECIES OF COPRINUS. By GEO. F. ATKINSON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. 1899. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Horticulture. G. W. TAILBY, Foreman of the Farm. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. ———e—EEEE—e CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, May 15, 1899. HONORABLE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY, N. Y. Sir: This bulletin, the second of a series of ‘‘Studies and Illustrations of Mushzooms,’’ is submitted under Chapter 67 of the Laws of 1898. The object of these studies is to give accu- rate information upon, and illustrations of, the more common mushrooms or toad-stools. This should enable interested per- sons to collect and determine specimens occurring from spring to late autumn. Large numbers of the edible species go to waste each year for the want of some clear and ready information to assist in distinguishing the edible from the poisonous kinds. It is to be regretted that in the smaller cities, in suburban districts, and upon the farms, more attention is not given to learning to know wed/ a few of the more common species, since the fields and woods where these plants grow are so easy of access. By careful attention to the localities and by comparison of the plants with the descriptions and illustrations given in these bulletins, a person having no botanical knowledge can identify a number of these plants. Every one has, or should have, a certain amount of leisure time which can be devoted to recreation, or relief from the every day work. Many find enjoy- ment and profit in combining such recreation with an interest in some observation upon nature and natural objects. Having learned to recognize the edible species, it is possible thereafter to readily collect for food large numbers of the more common ones. Some of these plants are so easily determined that children: only eight years old, after seeing the photographs of two of the species illustrated in this bulletin, were able later to name the plants from freshly collected specimens, without the opportunity of acomparison with the photographs. One not familiar with the subject should use caution in the first collections of an unknown plant. It is well in some cases 492 BULLETIN 168. to consult some one who does know the plants, or who has the means of determining them. In such cases, the Botanical Division of this Station is ready to assist in the identification. Directions for collecting and mailing specimens are given in the present bulletin. With some attention to this subject there is no reason why, in America, mushrooms should not form as important an article of food as they do in parts of the Old World. Professor Atkinson has made a large number of photographs of the edible and poisonous mushrooms, as wellas of those wood destroying species so destructive to timber and forest trees. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MUSH- ROOMS, II. Three Edible Species of Coprinus. I—THE SHAGGY-MANE (Coprinus comatus). The ‘‘shaggy-mane,’’ or “‘ horsetail mushroom ’’ (Coprinus comatus), is one of the largest plants of this genus. It is usually considered by many to surpass all the other species of the genus in those qualities most esteemed by the fungus eater. The frontispiece is from a photograph of a group of these plants growing in a lawn on the Cornell University Campus. Allstages of the ‘‘ horsetail’’ are here represented, from the tiny ones which are thrusting their heads through the turf to the old ones which present an unsightly aspect as they are melting down into inky blackness, an example of the swiftness with which it passes its ephemeral existence. A day, or at most two or three days is vouchsafed to it during which it is to lift itself up into the free air, where it may expand and mature its spores. Then it vanishes. Butit has accomplished the final purpose for which it exists as an organism. Its ‘‘seed,’’ the spores are free to be carried by the wind or other agencies of dissemination to distant places, and thus propagate the species. While the natural mode of the wide dissemination of the plant is probably by the distribution of the spores, dissemination may take place through the agency of man or other animals when the soil is disturbed. Some of the “‘spawn’’ may be transplanted in the sod for covering new lawns, or in the fertilizer for old ones. Here food lying hidden in the soil is awaiting forage at the pleasure of the searching threads of the mycelium or ‘‘spawn,’’ which now spreads its meshes as it extends through the earth. Here it grows for months or sometimes for years may be, laying by sup- plies in the shape of an increased amount of ‘‘spawn.’’ We tread upon the soft carpet of green or recline on the sod unmind-~ ‘ 494 BULLETIN 168. (34) ful of the process of growth, absorption and assimilation in that wonderful unseen world of plant life. Suddenly some morning we see the shaggy, unkempt heads of our old friends again just risen from their long sleep which calls to mind Browning’s verse,— ‘* By the rose flesh mushrooms undivulged Last evening. Nay, in to-day’s first dew Yon sudden coral nipple bulged, Where a freaked, fawn-colored flaky crew Of toad-stools peep indulged.”’ 83.—‘‘ Shaggy-mane’’ (Coprinus comatus) in lawn. A “‘mushroom growth,’’ wesay. It looks that way ; as if the whole thing had grown ina single night. That is because we have not searched underneath the sod and observed the long, tedious process of growth while the cords and meshes of the mycelium have increased, and extended their lines through the moist soil. If we do search there and observe we see that some- time before the shaggy heads peep forth, tiny bodies appear on the cords of mycelium ; first like a pin head in size, then as large as a pea and the size of a thimble they grow. A great deal of (35) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROOMS: II. 495 growth has taken place in the formation of these tiny bodies beneath the soil. They are made up of delicate threads and the tiniest cells which have multiplied until there are countless num- bers of them. Now whenevery thing is ready in these fungus ‘‘buttons,’’ the tiny cells already formed, as well as new ones still forming, expand rapidly and this pushes the mushroom up into view in a single night. In figure 84 are shown two buttons of the size when they are just ready to break through the soil. They are now quite dark 84.—‘‘ Buttons’ of Coprinus,; two in section, showing gill slits and hollow stem. (Natural size.) in color on the outside. They appear mottled with dark and white, for the outer layer of fungus threads, which are dark brown, is torn and separated into patches or scales, showing between, the delicate meshes of white threads which lie beneath. The upper part of the button is already forming the cap or ‘‘pileus,’’ and the slight constriction about midway shows the lower boundary or margin of the pileus where it is still connected with the undeveloped stem. We are curious to know if the internal structure of these but- tons will reveal the parts of the mushroom. We can learn this by splitting buttons through from one end to the other with a 496 BULLETIN 168. | (36) sharp knife. At the right of each of these buttons in the figure is shown a section of a plant of the same age. Here the parts of the plant though still undeveloped are quite well marked out. Just underneath the pileus layer are the gills. In the section 85.—Coprinus comatus, removed from soil. (Natural size.) one gill is exposed to view on eitherside. They are long, narrow, and taper at eachend. In the section of the larger button the free edge of the gill is still closely applied to the stem, while in (37) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROOMS: II. 497 the small one the gills are separated a short distance from the stems showing ‘‘gill slits.’ Here, too, the connection of the margin ofthe pileus with the stem is still shown. From our first study of mushrooms (Bulletin 138) we know that this connecting layer between the margin of the pileus and stem forms the veil. This kind of a veil is a marginal veil. The stem is hollow even at this young stage, and a slender cord of mycelium extends down the center of the tube thus formed as is shown inthe sections. From the button stage the growth is quite rapid, andin a short while the plants are full grown. _ Now the plants are nearly all white. Thebrown scales so close together on the buttons are widely separated except at the top or center of the pileus, where they remain close together and forma broad cap resting jauntily on the shaggy head. This is shown in figure 85 which is from a photo- graph of three plants removed trom the sod. A study of the different stages, which appear from the button stage to the mature plant, reveals the cause of this change in color and the wide separation of the dark brown scales. The threads of the outer layer of the pileus, and especially those in the brown patches seen on the buttons, soon 86.—Coprinus comatus, well mer- iting the name ‘‘ shaggy mane”’’. (Natural size.) 498 BULLETIN 168. (38) cease to grow, though they are firmly entangled with the inner layers. Now the threads underneath andall through the plant, in the gills and inthe upper partof the stem growand elongate rapidly. Thispulls on the outer layer tearing it in the first place into small patches and causing them later to be more widely separated on the mature plant. Some of these scales remain quite large while others are torn up in- to quite small tufts. As the plant ages, the next inner layers of the pileus grow less rapidly, so that the white layer beneath the brown is torn up intoan intricatetangle of locks and tufts, or is frazzled into a delicate pile which exists here and there between well formed tufts. While all present the same general characters there is consider- able individual variation as one can see by comparing a number of different plants. Figure 86 shows one of the interesting conditions. There is little of the brown color, and the outer portion of the pileus is torn into 87.—Coprinus comatus, surface of pileus ong locks, quite evenly dis- gathered in loups. (Natural size). tributed and curled up at the ends in an interesting fashion which merits well the term ‘““shaggy.’’? Inothers the threads are looped up quite regularly into triangular tresses which appear to be knotted at the ends where the tangle of brown threads holds them together as if some fairy had plaited the lock. There is one curious feature about the expansion of the pileus (39) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROoMS: II. 499 of the shaggy-mane which could not escape our attention. The pileus has become very long while comparatively little lateral e Fé + fe meg cS Ree ag Ni eee Ee 88.—Coprinus comatus, sections of the three plants shown in figure 85. (Natural size). expansion has taken place. The pileus has remained cylindrical or barrel-shaped, while in the case of the mushrooms treated of in our first study the pileus expanded into the form of an umbrella. 500 BULLETIN 168. (40) The cylindrical or barrel-shaped pileus ischaracteristicof the shag- a ty - no da hs Bcc ls Saks Tne et 4 89.—Coprinus comatus, early stage of diliquescence. The ring 1s lying on the sod. (Natural size.) gy-mane mush- room. As the pileus elongates the stem does also, but more rapidly. This tears apart the connection of the margin of the pileus with the base of the stem, as is plainly shown in figure 85. In breaking away, the con- necting portion or veil, is freed both from the stem and from the margin of the pileus, and is left as a free, or loose ring, around the stem. In all offile plants of our for- mer study, the common mush- room (Agaricus campestris), the smooth lepiota (Lepiota nauct- na), and the deadly amanita (Amanita phallo- ides), the ring remained attached to the stem, z. ¢., it isnot a free ring in those (41) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROOMS: II. 501 species. In the shaggy-mane the veil does not form a thin expanded curtain as in the three species just enumerated. It is really an annular outer layerof the button lying between the margin of the pileus and the base of the stem. é me] It becomes free from the stem. As the stem elon- gates more rap- Ce Zz er ae * idly than the pileus, the latter _2aceegenimbon coe ti me is lifted up away . ba | from the base of the Sometimes the free S.t-€.in: collar around the base loosely adherent to the the same, or it remains less adherent to the as shown in the plant figure 85. It is often the stem before it be- pileus, and is then left on the stem, or it may onthe sod. In _ other main quite firmly ad- of the pileusso that it pileus in age expands somewhat. Insuch cases one often searches for some time to dis- ii oiieee lea eOvel Me chugimg Misia sterile margin of the #5, /ater stage of ailt- pileus, so closely does guescence, pileus becom- its outer texture re- “Ae mer ea wees semble the outer text- ure of the pileus. It is interesting to ob- serve a section of the plants at this stage. These sections can be made by splitting the pileus and stem lengthwise through the middle line with a sharp knife as shown in figure 88. Here, in annulus is left as a of the stem, still superficial layer of for a time more or margin of the pileus @ at the left hand in § lifted higher up on comes free from the dangling somewhere break and fall down instances it may re- herent to the margin breaks apart as the 502 BULLETIN 168. (42) ‘ the plant at the right hand, the “‘cord’’ of myceliumis plainly seen running through the hollow stem. This cord is well seen gt.—Coprinus comatus, drops of inky fluid about to fall from wasted pileus. (Nutural size). (43) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROOMS: II. 503 if one partly splits a stem and then gently pulls the halves apart. At the same time if the stem is held toward the light a very deli- cate mesh of threads, reminding one of the finest gauze, is seen extending from the cord to the wall of the tubular stem. The gills form a large portion of the plant for they are very broad and lie closely packed side by side. They are nowhere attached to the stem but at the upper end round off to the pileus leaving a well defined space between their endsand thestem. The pileus, while it is rather thick at the center, z. e., where it joins the stem, becomes comparatively thin where it spreads out over the gills. At this age of the plant the gills areof a rich salmon color, 7. e., before the spores are ripe, and the taste when raw is a pleasant nutty flavor reminding one of the meat of fresh green hickory nuts. Ina somewhat earlier stage the edges of all the gills are closely applied to the stem which they surround. So closely are they applied to the stem in most cases that threads of mycelium pass from the stem to the edge of the gills, so that they might be said to be ‘‘sewed’’ together. As the pileus expands slightly in ageing, these threads are torn asunder and the stem is covered with a very delicate down or with flocculent particles which easily disappear on handling or by the washing of the rains. The edges of the gills are also left in a frazzled condition as one can see by examining them with a good hand lens. . The spores now begin to ripen and as they become black the color of the gills changes. At the same time the gills and the pileus begin to dissolve into an inky fluid, first becoming dark and then melting into a black liquid. As this accumulates it forms into drops which dangle from the pileus until they fall away. This change takes place on the margin of the pileus first, and advances toward the center, and the contrast of color, asthe blackening invades the rich salmon, is very striking. The pileus now begins to expand outward more, so that it becomes somewhat umbrella shaped. The extreme outer surface of the pileus does not dili- quesce so freely, and the thin remnant curls upward and becomes enrolled on the upper side as the pileus with wasted gills becomes nearly flat. (44) 168. BULLETIN 504 ‘(az1s 2vANJVAT ) ‘utdOf YJOOUS ApAVAU ‘SNIAVJUIMBAQD SNUIAGOD ‘,,JvI-yUL ,, a4 —'t (45) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROOMS: II. 505 II.—THE INK-CApP (Coprinus atramentarius). The ink-cap (Coprinus atramentarius) occurs under much the same conditions as the shaggy-mane, and is sometimes found accompanying it. It is usually more common and more abundant. It springs up in old or newly made lawns which have been richly 93.—Coprinus atramentarius, scaly form. (Natural size.) manured, or it occurs in other grassy places. Sometimes the plants are scattered, sometimes two or three in a cluster, but usually large clusters are formed where ten to twenty or more are crowded closely together (figure 92). The stems are shorter than those of the shaggy-mane and the pileus is of a different shape and color. The pileus is more egg-shaped or oval. It 506 BULLETIN 168. (46) varies in color from asilvery grey ina few forms, toa dark ashen grey, or smoky brown color in others. Sometimes the pileus is entirely smooth, as I have seen it in some of the silvery grey 94.—Coprinus atramentarius ; showing annulus as a border line between scaly and smooth part of stem. (Natural size.) forms, where thedelicate fibres coursing down in lines on the outer surface cast a beautiful silvery sheen in the ight. Other forms present numerous small scales on the top or center of the pileus which are formed by the cleavage of the outer surface here into large numbers of pointed tufts. In others, the delicate tufts cover more or less the entire surface, giving the planta coarsely granular aspect. This is perhaps the more common appearance, at least so far as my observation goes. But not infrequently one finds forms which have the entire outer surface (47) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROOMS: II. 507 of the pileus torn into quite a large number of coarse scales, and these are often more prominent over the upper portion. Fine lines or striations mark also the surface of all the forms, especially toward the margin where the scales are not so promi- 95.—Coprinus atramentarius, section plant. (Natural size.) nent. Themarginal halfof thepileusisalso frequently furrowed more or less irregularly, and this forms a crenate or uneven edge. The annulus or ring on the stem of the ink-cap is very different from that of the shaggy-mane. It forms an irregularly zigzag elevated line of threads which extend around the stem near the base. It is well shown in figure 94 as a border line 508 BULLETIN 168. (48) between the lower scaly end of the stem and the smooth white upper part. It is formed at the time of the separation of the margin of the pileus from the stem, the connecting fibres being pulled outward and left to mark the line of junction, while others below give the scaly appearance. It is easily effaced by rough handling or by the washing of the rains. A section of a plant is illustrated by a photograph in figure 95. On either side of the stem is shown the layer of fibres which form the annulus, and this layer is of a different texture from that of the stem. The stem is hollow as seen here also. Inthis figure one can see the change in color of the gills just at the time when they begin to diliquesce. This diliquescence proceeds much in the same way as in the shaggy-mane, and sometimes the thin remnant of the pileus expands and the margin is inrolled over the top. III.—THE GLISTENING COPRINUS (Coprinus micaceus). The third species described here is the glistening coprinus (Coprinus micaceus). It received this name because of the very delicate scales which often cover the surface of the pileus, and glisten in the light like particles of mica. This plant is very common during the spring and early summer though it does appear during the au- tumn. It occurs about the bases of stumps or trees or in grassy .or denuded places, from dead roots, etc., buried inthesoil. Itoccurs in dense tufts of ten to thirty or more individuals ; sometimes as many as several hundred spring up from the roots of a dead tree or stump along the ae streets or in lawns, formin 96.—The ‘‘glistening coprinus,’’ ; 8 Coprinus micaceus; young stage large masses. More rarely showing annulus, on the pileus jt occurson logs in the woods, the ‘‘mica’’ particles. (Natural ; size. ) and sometimes, the plants are scattered in lawns. From the different habits of the plant it (49) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROOMS: II. 509 is sometimes difficult to determine, especially where the individuals are more or less scattered. However, the color of the plant, and the markings on the pileus, especially the presence of the small shining scales when not effaced, characterize the plant so that little difficulty is experienced in determining it when one has once carefully noted these peculiarities. x NERA ORAS Se tee 5 Se | 97.—Coprinus micaceus, showing different aspects. (2-3 natural size. ) Figure 96 is from a group of three young individuals photo- graphed just as the margin of the pileus is breaking away from the lower part of the stem, showing the delicate fibrous ring which is formed in the same way as in Coprinus atramentarius. The ring is much more delicate and is rarely seen except in very young specimens which are carefully collected and which 510 BULLETIN 168. (50) have not been washed by rains. The mature plants are 8 cm. to 1o cm. high (3-4 inches), and the pileus varies from 2 cm. to 4.cm. in diameter. The stem is quite slender and the pileus and gills quite thin as compared with the shaggy-mane and ink- cap. The gills are not nearly so crowded as they are in the two other species. The pileus is tan color, or light buff, or yellow- ish brown. Except near the center it is marked with quite prominent striations which radiate to the margin. These stria- tions are minute furrows or depressed lines, and form one of the characters of the species, being much more prominent than on the pileus of the ink-cap. In wet weather this coprinus melts down into an inky fluid also, but in quite dry weather it remains more or less firm, and sometimes it does not diliquesce at all, but dries with all parts well preserved though much shrunken of course as is the case with all the very fleshy fungi. Many persons who are fond of mushrooms do not venture to collect and eat other species then the Agaricus campestris. Many will tramp considerable distances to collect the ‘“‘pink gilled agaric,’’ and pass by on the street, or perhaps in their dooryard, a clump of coprinus sufficient fora meal. During the spring and early summer the Agaricus campestris is not to be had in the , open, while these three species of coprinus usually grow in abundance, though the shaggy-mane is usually more abundant in the autumn than in the spring. During the autumn of 1898 the common “ pink gilléd mush- room ’’ (Agaricus campestris) was very rare in the vicinity of Ithaca. This has led a few to search for other forms. Two of my friends during October brought into my office a peck basket filled with mushrooms, and wished to know ifthey were ‘‘good to eat.’’ Nearly allof the plants were the ‘‘ink-cap’’ (C. atramen- tarius), there were four or five of the shaggy-mane (C. comatus), and a single ‘‘ glistening coprinus’’ (C. micaceus). All of them good to eat and collected in a single dooryard. One of these gentlemen had never before ventured to partake of any other species than the Agaricus campestris. During the early summer of 1897, while collecting a ‘ ‘mess ’’ (51) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROOMS: II. 511 of Coprinus micaceus froma large tuft growing around the base of a stump on one of the principal streets of Ithaca, a passer-by halted, probably for the charitable purpose of giving some infor- mation which he thought might save my life. ‘‘ Them’s toad- stools ain’t they?’’ ‘‘ Yes,’’ I replied. ‘‘ Well, I thought so,’’ said he. Thereupon I ate one of the ‘‘toad-stools’’ raw, and received from him a look of mingled pity and despair as he passed on. All of these three species have a somewhat nutty flavor, that of fresh hickory nuts when eaten raw, but they are more palata- ble when properly prepared for the table. The Coprinus mica- ceus need only be rinsed to remove from the caps any adhering particles of soil. The other two species may be peeled if it is desired to remove the outer and tougher layer of the pileus, or this may be done by gently scraping. The shaggy-mane peels well by starting at the margin of the pileus and with the fingers stripping off the outer layer. The ink-cap peels more readily by first splitting the pileus in halves and then starting the strip at the top of each half. It is sufficient, however, to gently scrape the surface of the pileus to remove the coarser outer fibers and whatever soil may adhere. Tothose who are not acquainted with any of the species of coprinus and wish to extend the range of species collected for table use these three species arecommended. The shaggy-mane is perhaps the most delicious of the three, but the other two are much more abundant usually. By a careful comparison of the species growing in lawns, and along streets with these descrip- tions, and especially with the illustrations, there should be no trouble in identifying them. While thecamera here has not at present succeeded in reproducing all thecolors, this series of pho- tographs illustrates well the habit, texture and specific characters of the plants, and the color values in black and white are quite faithfully represented. It is doubtful if any hand coloring has yet succeeded in producing such perfect imitations as these pho- tographic studies of the shaggy-mane and ink-cap. That they accurately portray the habit and specific characters of these plants I am convinced by the experience of my little boy of eight years. While selecting the illustrations for this study one evening, I 512 BULLETIN 168. (52) showed him the photographs, told him the names of each and the parts of the mushroom. The subject was not mentioned again until a week later when I brought in a few specimens of one of the species. ‘‘ What is the name of this?’’ I said. ‘‘ That’s the shaggy-mane,’’ he said. ‘‘ What part is this?’’ ‘‘ That’s the cap.’’ ‘‘And this?” That’s the ring.” “And ties That’s the stem.’’ ‘‘ Now, father,’’ he said, ‘‘ where’s the ink- cap?’’ At another time he was able to select the ink-cap from among a miscellaneous collection. While the Coprinas micaceus usually grows on decaying wood, or roots, etc., underneath the soil, the shaggy-mane and ink-cap grow in rich soil in grassy places, especially such as have been quite recently manured. This latter peculiarity of growing on manured ground, or on dung, so characteristic of a number of the species of the genus, suggested the name ‘‘ coprinus,’’ from the work ‘‘ kopros,’’ meaning dung. A large number of the species of the genus, practically all the large fleshy ones (some of the smaller also) diliquesce into an inky fluid. In the delicate or membranous ones, usually quite small species, the pileus splits in radiating lines above each gill in such a way that the gill itself is split downward, thus giving to the pileus a fluted appearance. In bulletin 138 the writer suggested the formation of mycolog- ical clubs as a medium for the exchange of information among interested persons in a given community. At that time there was already in existence among others, the Boston, Mycological Club, New York Mycological Club and the Philadelphia Mycolog- ical Center. Since that time there have been organized the Washington Mycological Club, Chicago Mycological Club, and others. CORNELL MyYCOLOGICAL CLUB. A mycological club has recently been organized at Cornell Uni- versity, with a somewhat broader work in view. It is called the ‘Cornell Mycological Club ’’ and is under the supervision of the members in the Botanical Department. Its purpose is to study the fungi, to propagate information concerning them among its members, and to encourage the growing popular interest in those (53) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROOMS: II. 513 groups of economic importance, to which belong especially the edible, poisonous and parasitic fungi. The rules governing the club are such that they admit to membership any person interested in its aims and work. No other qualifications except the payment of the small annual fee of twenty-five cents, are necessary, and any person sending name and enclosing the fee will be placed on the membership roll. This small fee is to be used in necessary expenses incurred relat- ing to executive matters of the club, as determined by the Executive Council. With this small fee it will not be possible at present to publish a bulletin of information. It is hoped, however, that it will lead eventually to some medium of com- munication among members, by which a knowledge of the numerous local fungus floras may be obtained, and that this information as well as other matters of interest may be regularly communicated to members. It is purposed to make the club acenter to which persons inter- ested in the study, and in becoming acquainted with the fungi, may appeal for aid in the determination of species they collect. To this end a few general directions are given here for those who desire to know how to put up specimens properly for mailing, so that they will not be broken or ruined in transit. How To Mail FLESHY FUNGI. be] Fresh ‘‘ mushrooms,’’ or ‘‘ toad-stools’’ if of medium or large size, should be wrapped separately in tissue paper, or if the plants grow in tufts the paper can be worked in between the individual specimens unless the tuft is a compact one. A sufficient amount of paper should be used to give support to the expanded parts of the plant, and so arranged that delicate structures on the sur- face will not be rubbed away. The plants should then be packed quite firmly, but not crushed, into atin box, or a light but strong wooden box. If they do not quite fill it more paper can be added, so that they will not jostle about, or they become badly broken. Pasteboard boxes are apt to become broken and ruin the specimens. In collecting the mushrooms do not break off the stems, but pry the stems out of the earth carefully in order to preserve all 514 BULLETIN 168. (54) the characters on the lower end of the stem. Also use care in handling the stems so that the ‘‘collar,’’ when present, and the delicate scales, be not rubbed off. The corky or woody fungi growing on trees, logs, stumps, etc., may be wrapped in the same way. In all specimens from logs or trees, the name of the wood should be given when that is accurately known. When the name of the tree is not known a portion of the wood and bark, or some leaves, nay accompany the specimen. The corky or woody fungi may be dried before mailing if desired. To dry the fleshy fungi requires considerable care, and usually artificial heat, for they must be dried quickly, not burned or roasted, though careful notes upon the characters of the plants while fresh, should also be made before they are dried, in most cases. An extemporized oven for drying may be made of tin, with holes in the sides for ventilation. In this the plants can be placed in paper boxes while they are drying. The oven may then be placed above a stove, or a lamp may be placed under- neath it. Shelves above a stove where warm air is constantly rising isa good place to dry the plants. The best place that I have ever used is the brick work around a large steam boiler, the plants, or boxes containing them, being placed directly on the brick work. Parasitic fungi on leaves of plants should be dried between absorbent paper under some pressure to keep the leaves from shriveling and curling. Dried specimens of the mushrooms can be wrapped in tissue paper for shipment. It is better in most cases, however, if the plants are shipped away for determination, to send them in a fresh condition. At least some duplicates are desirable in a fresh condition, since fresh material is often necessary for determina- tion of the species, especially with doubtful species, and in the case of many genera. When fresh material is mailed, if the sender will use foresight in putting it up and mailing just in time fora mail train which makes good connections through, specimens will usually travel several hundred miles and arrive in a good condition. Specimens sent by mail require, according to the present postal regulations, 1 ct. per 2 ounces in weight, and the package should be marked ‘‘plants.’’ Wherever it is desired to ») (55) STUDIES AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF MusHROOMS: II. 515 send by express, the sender should pay the express charges, except where good material prepared and named for the her- barium or museum is contributed, or where the sender is certain that the material is of value, as in the case of some rare specimens. In all cases where a list of the plants is desired in return, the sender should enclose a number with each specimen, so that the names can be given to correspond with the numbers. All desirable material will be preserved and kept in the her- barium here where it will be available for comparison and for study. For this reason the locality and date of collection and other notes of interest should accompany the specimens. After one has had some experience in the collection of these plants and in noting the important characters their specimens will be of more value. It is possible in this way for collectors to aid us in bringing together material from different sources which should assist in making these studies and illustrations of mush- rooms more comprehensive and of wider usefulness. From students of the fungi who have duplicate material in any of the groups, the Botanical Department will welcome contri- butions to the herbarium. Such gifts are certain to be of great usefulness at a center where students come for research. Not only is this branch of botanical study, as well as others emphasized, it is important to consider that mycological study here contributes to, and is supplemented by, other fields of research in related departments, as well as in the work of the Experiment Station, and in that of the newly organized College of Forestry. . Specimens may be sent to either of the following addresses : PROFESSOR GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botanical Department, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. or, CoRNELL MyYcoLoGIcAL C1LuB, Ithaca, N. Y. Persons desiring to join the Club should send name with the annual fee enclosed, to either of the above addresses. The fee should zot be sent in postage stamps, but preferably in a postal note when in so small asum, unlessthe “‘ quarter ’’ is enclosed 516 BULLETIN 168. (56) in a mailing card for the purpose. The cost of sending will be reduced where several from the same locality choose to send names and fees in a single letter. The exact address should also be given for each person, with the street number where necessary. _ Those wishing to take up the study of the fungi would find it profitable to attend some school where suitable opportunities are offered for beginners. A course in mycology* (devoted especially to the mushrooms) will be given during the summer of 1899 in the Botanical Department of Cornell University. * Besides the course in mycology, courses in general morphology and physiology of plants, as well as a course in ecology are offered in the sum- mer school especially for teachers. The catalog of the summer school can be obtained by addressing, The Registrar, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. A full year’s course in mycology is given during the regular annual session of the University as described in the annual Register. NoOTE.—The author was asissted in making some of the photographs illustrating this bulletin, by Mr. H. Hasselbring, and Mr. B. F. White. Bulletin 169. May, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. DAIRY DIVISION. Studies in Milk Secretion DRAWN FROM THE RECORDS OF THE UNIVERSITY HERD 1891-1898. By HENRY H. WING and LEROY ANDERSON. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. ITHACA, N. Y. 1899. ORGANIZATION. | BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC. P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. . H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. . H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. F. ATKINSON, Botany. . V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. M. DUGGAR, Botany. ; . W. SPENCER, Extension Work. . L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. ISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. 4 OO Om eh ry OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. re STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. The University herd has consisted during the past several years of about twenty cows, the most of which have been grade Jerseys and grade Holsteins. In building up the herd the aim has been to formone that would furnish an object lesson to those farmers who desire to improve their herds but do not feel able to purchase thoroughbred stock entirely. Accordingly the herd has been developed from the ordinary stock of the neighborhood by the use of thoroughbred bulls and a rigid selection of the best heifers. This course of breeding was established by Pro- fessor Roberts in 1875 and has been continued ever since In 1874 the average yield of milk per cow was a little more than 3000 pounds. The descendants of these same cows, as will be seen in the following pages, have produced an average of over 7,500 pounds during the year 1897-—’98. This increase of two and one-half times is the result of judicious selection of sire and dam, together with careful feeding, and is a result which every farmer can obtain by following a similar course. The general management of the herd is on the plan of a winter dairy, z. e., the cows are bred, so far as possible, to calve during the early fall months. They are milked about ten months and most of them are dry during July and August. In the summer they are at pasture which is supplemented with corn or other green forage crops whenever the pasture becomes dry or scanty. In the winter they are stabled at night and during the day runin a covered yard which is well bedded and where they have access to water, none being supplied in the stable. The frontispiece shows the cows in the covered yard mentioned. Since the introduction of the Babcock test a careful record has been kept of the amount of butter-fat produced by the herd. Each cow’s milk is weighed daily and once a week a sample of an equal amount of nights and mornings milk is taken from each cow. The fat in these samples of mixed milk is deter- mined by the Babcock test and this percentage multiplied by 520 BULLETIN 169. the number of pounds of milk given during the week is taken to represent the number of pounds of fat produced during that week. Although this method does not give the actual amount of fat produced, still it gives a very close approximation thereto and is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes in estimating the producing power of any individual cow. The records given in the following table (I) begin with September 1891 and continue until the fall of 1898 and are for all the cows which have been in the herd during that time. These records contain the cow’s age, breed, date of calving, the number of the lactation period, the number ot weeks in the period, the total milk produced, the average per cent of fat and the total fat for the period. ‘The breed of each cow is indicated by the initials following her name. J., designating Jersey, H., Holstein, T., Thoroughbred, G., Grade, and J.-H., Jersey-Holstein. See eee STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. TABLE I.—PRODUCT OF MILK AND FAT. Name of Cow. Breed.|/Age Aggie, 2nd.....|423 H.| 2 BeaUEYy oh oo Ck Pe iy Belle’... ws ae Jard. (2 oe 8: ieee as iH. 5 6 7 8 Belya,-2nd oo. <: 13H.,| 2 3 4 Bertha... ...2422 G:J-1 3 4 5 6 7 Bertha, 2nd... ...|'G.J.| 2 3 MAETION. (5 ec carne Go H.'.2 CHeTEYy oo 00 4 se Ga h2 3 4 Clara........../G.Jjof2 3 4 Bremer eo. 32 | GLARS PIAS Mec. S: G{yaie2 3 4 5 6 Sept. Jan. Nov. Sept. Sept. Sept. Aug. Date of Calving. 1892 1892 1892 1893 1894 1895 1897 . 1891 . 1892 . 1893 . 1894 . 1895 . 1896 . 1897 . 1891 . 1892 . 1893 . 1894 . 1895 . 1897 . 1898 . 1891 . 1895 . 1896 . 1897 . 1894 . 1895 . 1896 . 1892 . 1892 31893 . 1891 . 1892 . 1893 . 1894 . 1895 Number of Lactation. No. of Weeks in WN H “I WN nNpWN Lactation. Total Pounds of Milk 3415.25 6192.00 6176.25 6474.25 6300.00 4416.00 7098.75 9921.25 9720.50 9203.25 8313.75 6272.00 8300.25 8746.50 4371.50 5999-75 5920.50 6250.00 8595-75 5630.50 8150.00 9363.75 4085.50 5442.25 6299. 50 3547.00 4405.50 3893-00 5914.00 5827.75 3732.00 2203.00 3433-00 2669.5 3698.25 876.25 Average per cent Fat. Total Pounds of Fat. 522 BULLETIN 169. TABLE I.—Continued. ) B= r) ws 3 Sdlud % o E | s 55| os Eu vt 5% Name of Cow. |Breed.|Age m Os|es Ac 2 Pa fy = Ba|S& = oo ao 2 ZA) = ae © A Z - é Daisy ztid. c's. G.J.| 2 | Sep. 1896| 1 | 45 | 3505.75 | 4.79 168.16 3 | Sep. 1897 | 2 | 24 2304.25 | 5.05 116.36 SUNG ie via hee ae 73H.) 2 | Aug. 1893| 1 | 45 | 9325-75 | 3-15 293.96 3 | Aug. 1894] 2 | 43 9450.50 | 3.14 297.20 4 |Sep. 1895 | 3 | 53 | 9681.00 | 2.93 283.93 5 | Nov. 1896; 4 | 47 | I1905.00 | 3.00 356.73 6 | Dec. 1897| 5 | 43 | 10926.75 | 3.03 331.38 mtn... ae ee 13H.| 2 | Feb. 1893 1 | 52 | 8421.50 | 3.17 | 267.33 3 | May 1894| 2 | 59 | 10828.50 | 3.36 364. 4 | Aug. 1895| 3 | 42 | 9396.75 | 2.93 | 275.02 | 5 | Sep. 1896} 4 | 42 | 10258.00 | 3.01 308.79 6 | Aug. 1897| 5 | 46 | 9500.00 | 2.98 283.51 Bréeddie: ...5.:25 #H.| 6 | Oct. 1892) §°*) 42. | 0705-25) eae 396.26 7 |Sept. 1892) 6 | 42 | 9906.50 | 3.72 368.55 e 8 | Aug. 1893| 7 | 45 | 11692.25.| 3.52 412,22 | 9 | Aug. 1894/ 8 | 38 | 10913.75 | 3.41 371.84 Garnet St. Lambert *.....| T.J.| 2 | Oct. 1897 |r | 52 |-- 5804/50 eatez 290.05 Garnet Valen- TUES. eee oes T.J. | 2 | Aug. 1893 | 1 | 46) 4811.75 45:33 247.01 3 | Aug. 1894} 2 | 43 | 5544.25 | 4.52 | 250.81 4 | Aug. 1895| 3 | 43 | 5807.00 | 4.51 261.86 5 | Aug. 1896| 4 | 44 | 4390.50 | 4.34 | 190.63 Gazelle... s5c5 G.J.| 4 | Feb. 1892] 2 | 35 | 4641.50 | 5.05 233.32 | 5 | Dec. 1892| 3 | 38 | 5123.25 | 5.17 1 265.02 . 6 | Oct. 1893 |4 | 39°| + 5781.50 {25-12 295.71 | 7 | Sep. 1894] 5 | 39 | 4951.50 | 5.14 | 254.71 8 | Aug. 1895| 6 | 18 | 2859.25 | 4.61 131.71 . Gem Valentine.| T.J. | 3 | Mar. 1892| 2 | 35 | 3258.25 | 5.78 188.56 4 | Jan. 1893 | 3 | 34 | 4536.50 | 5.64 | 255.86 5 | Nov. 1893] 4 | 39 | 4732.75 | 5-61 | 265.43 6 | Oct. 1894 | 5 | 35 | 4063.50 ! 5.58 226.83 7 | Sep. 1895 | 6 | 43 | 5144.00 | 5.42 278.78 8 | Sep. 1896 | 7 | 48 | 6103.75 | 5.50 335.46 9g | Oct. 1897/ 8 | 50 | 6458.75 | 5.24 338.82 Glistal kai siti T.H.| 4 | Sep. 1891 | 3 | 49 | 6935.50 | 3-49 241.80 5 | Oct. 1892 | 4 | 23 | 3048.50 | 3.56 108.49 Glista 2nd..... T.2) } Sep. r89r | 11953) 6082.00: iarre 189.58 3 | Nov. 1892! 2' 16! 1451.75 | 2.89 42.00 Name of Cow. Glista 3rd Glista’ athoo2. Glista Nether- land se eee eee STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. |Breed. f= é.¥0 eae WN nakWw nN nat Uw Aun WwW WN AWN &® dS WN ahWwWh Du fw N TABLE I.—Continued. Date of Calving. ppt ie On Sep. 1893 Sep. 1894 Sep. Oct. 1894 Sep. 1895 Sep. 1896 Sep. 1897 Oct. 1895 May 1897 Mar. 1892 Aug. 1893 Nov. 1895) Nov. Oct. 1896 1897 Sep. Oct. Oct. Sep. Oct. 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 Sep. 1892 July 1893 Jan. 1895 Oct. 1896 Nov. 1897 Sep. Sep. Sep. Sep. 1894 Sep. Sep. Sep. Oct. Sep. 1894 | Number of Lactation al | 61 o of Weeks in Lactation. HAHA OP Qn O Le “I Ww Al 58 AI 42 51 40 52 Total Pounds of Milk, 8049.25 5783.50 5868.25 5850.75 6819.75 | 9854.50 9076.75 | 14780.00 | 12356.75 7118.00 8440.75 4746.75 5759-50 7161.50 7144.50 7599-50 9855-75 7715.00 8507.50 7347.00 6938.50 7984.25 7301.75 6162.00 5815.25 6249.00 7686.00 10273.75 7203.50 8132.75 10204.50 9948.50 IIII5.00 Average per cent Fat. 923 Total Pounds 524 BULLETIN 169. TABLE I.—Continued. Denteme-coie wa : * 2 | | E Pegg) 3. | sa | & )Vs| ws s+ U tr, Om Name of Cow. _Breed.|/Age ns a3 Bs: ci - Pa yd ° 5a\S a oo cn aro y Fit] s 29 5 ee g E Fs | Mollie 13H.| 7 | Oct. 1896| 6 | 40 | I0991.00 | 3.30 363.21 8 | Sep. 1897 | 7 | 45 | 11023.50 | 3.14 345.75 INGE) V3. 408% | KH 2 | Sep. 1894| I | 40 | 6093.50 | 3.41 207.58 | 3 | Aug. 1895! 2 | 38 | 6994.25 | 3.40 | 237.46 Pearls 235. 2 | WH.) 3 | Sep. 1891 | 2 | 44 | 9105.25 | 3.36 | 305.76 | 4 | Sep. 1892 | 3 | 41 | 8963.25 | 3.33 298.86 5 | Sep. 1893 | 4 | 43 | I0142.00 | 3.53 | 357-79 . | | 6 | Aug. 1894 | § | 75 | 13619.50 | 3.29 | 448.47 | | 8 | May 1896 | 6 | 40 | 10764.75 | 3.26 351722 Peto san cee %H.1 7 | Mar. 1892| 4} 41 , 9647.50 | 3.34 | 322.55 8 | Apr. 1893| 5 | 47 | 10208.25 | 3.38 344.80 9 | Apr. 1894| 6 | 43 | 11482.50 | 3.58 410.64 Io | June 1895 | 7 | 15 4595.00 | 3.14 144.51 Pet, 2a en. 15H.| 2 | May 1896 | 1 | 37 | 4360.50 | 3.31 154.50 c 3 | Mar. 1897! 2 | 54 6416.00 | 3.32 213.25 Puss joie .| 4H.| 7 | Dec 1891 | 6 | 50 | 11835.25 | 2.96 349.94 ; 8 | Feb. 1893 | 7 | 64 | 11951.25 | 2.85 340.22 Rens. 5105 1s. 7zH.| 2 Nov 1892| I | 42 | 6374.25 | 3.66 233.53 3 | Oct. 1893 | 2 | 45 | 3619.00 | 3.37 121.78 5 | Jan. 1895 | 3 | 17 | 3557-50 | 3-93 | 139.74 Raby. zi. 3H.| 3 | Sep. 1891} 2 | 53 | 9174.50 | 3.49 320.23 4 | Nov. 1892} 3 | 57 | 9968.25 | 3.44 342.84 5 | Feb. 1894 | 4 | 40 | 11086.00 | 3.49 | 386.50 6 | Jan. 1895 | 5 | 38 | 10781.50 | 3.42 369.01 7 | Dec. 1895 | 6 | 48 | 13574.00 | 3.17 430.15 8 | Dec. 1896 | 7 | 64 16089.50 | 3.24 | 521.32 Rathod 33H.| 2 | Jan. 1897| 1 | 39 | 6464.00 | 3.17 205.02 3 | Nov. 1897] 2:1-38;| 5922.75" | 3.06 181.16 Sadie... 7 sosnze 13H.| 2 | Mar. 1894| I | 42 | 6441.75 | 3.51 226.12 3 | Mar. 1895/| 2 | 49 | 8305.50 | 3.49 289.46 4 | May 1896| 3 | 50 | 8650.75 | 3.26 282.07 | 5 | June 1897 | 4 | 30 | 5006.75 | 3.45 | 172.97 Shadow....... G. | ? | Oct. 1891| ? | 49 | 8590.00 | 4.44 380.97 ne a at et ote pA G. | ? | Nov. 1891 | ? | 53 | 10625.25 | 4.10 435.38 Valerie St. 4 Lambert.....'T.J. 2 | Sep. 1897! 1 1 52 | 5679.50 | 5.04 286.16 STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 525 A survey of the above table will call to mind some of the prin- ciples upon which are based the selection of animals for the herd. Several instances of short periods of lactation will be noted and these are almost invariably the last lactations of those cows which were no longer considered profitable and were therefore sent to the shambles. This is notably the case with some whose rec- ords appear for only a year or two, e. g. Daisy 2nd, Glista, and Glista 2nd. These were kept in the hope that they would show enough improvement over their first year’s record to warrant their continuance in the herd. But as such improvement did not occur, they were sold to the butcher. Attention is also called to the records of several heifers as com- pared tothe performance of their dams. The cow Daisy was kept in the herd much longer than profitable in the anticipation that she might develop into something good. She did not do nearly so well as her dam, Cora, and was improved upon by her daughter, Daisy 2nd. The latter, however, made a poor record as a two-year-old, which, together with her poor promise the following year, made her keeping unprofitable. Three other heifers, Bertha 2d, Garnet St. Lambert, and Valerie St. Lambert, all sired by the same bull as Daisy 2nd (Cornell’s Exile, 30778 A. J. C. C.) have records which bear a different relation to those of their dams than does that of Daisy 2nd. Bertha 2nd asa two- year-old, exceeded her dam Bertha, in both milk and butter pro- duction when three years old. And her three-year-old record is better than any record of her dam until the latter reached the age of seven years. Garnet St. Lambert as a two-year-old pro- duced more milk and fat than her dam Garnet Valentine in any year of herlife. Thelatter died of milk fever in September 1897. The dam of Valerie St. Lambert was Gem Valentine, and she gives promise, judging from her two-year-old performance, of being a more profitable cow than her dam. Of the four heifers mentioned, all did better than their dams, but even this fact, in the case of Daisy 2nd, did not make hera profitable cow, because both dam and daughter were light pro- ducers. The dams of the other three were fairly good cows and as the daughters were improvements upon them, the latter were of still greater value. This illustration goes to show the advisa- 526 BULLETIN 169. bility of selecting heifers from the best cows rather than depend- ing too much upon the good qualities of the sire. Three of the cows are the product of a Jersey-Holstein cross. Jennie, a grade Jersey, was the dam of Jennie 2nd by a thorough- bred Holstein-Friesian bull. A comparison of their four-year-old records shows the daughter to have produced more milk but less fat than the dam. In that year the former’s average per cent of 98.—Ruby at two years of age. fat was .8 of one per cent less than that of the latter. Mabel 2nd is the result of breeding Mabel, a high-grade Holstein-Friesian to a thoroughbred Jersey bull, Cornell’s Exile. As a two-year- old the daughter produced slightly less milk and more fat than the dam, while as a three-year-old she produced more milk and fat for the same number of weeks than her dam. Her per cent of fat was about three-fourths of one per cent higher than Mabel’s for the first two years. Belle is also by Cornell’s Exile and is out of Ruby, a three-fourths Holstein-Fresian cow. Ruby’s record as a two-year-old does not appear, but in compari- STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 527 son to her three-year-old performance, Belle’s production when two years old is over 2,000 pounds less in milk and about five pounds less in total butter fat. This great difference is occa- sioned by Belle averaging about one per cent higher in fat than her dam. Ruby produced 8,448 pounds of milk as a two-year-old and had she averaged the same per cent of fat as when three years old, Belle’s record for butter fat at the same age would have exceeded hers by twenty pounds. 99.—Kate daughter of Ruby at two years of age. The longest single period of lactation was that of Glista Netherland for 73 weeks. This was her first lactation and dur- ing this time she produced 14780 pounds of milk containing 474.64 pounds of butter-fat. A comparison of her record with that of Glista ath will be of interest, since they are practically of the same age and are very closely related, both being by the same sire and Glista 4th’s dam is Glista Netherland’s grand dam. Glista 4th has had four calves; been in milk a total of 174 weeks and produced 31601.75 pounds of milk and 1057.35 pounds 528 BULLETIN 160. of fat. Glista Netherland during practically the same time has had two calves; been in milk 134 weeks ; and produced 27136.75 pounds of milk and 854 pounds of fat. The largest yield of milk for one lactation period was that of Ruby as aneight-year old, or 16089.50 pounds in 64 weeks. Her production of fat for this period was 531.32 pounds equiva- lent to 625 pounds of butter containing 85 per cent fat. As a 100.—Ruby at ten years of age. two-year old she gave promise of being a good cow by producing in one year 8448 pounds of milk. Her picture is here repro- duced as she appeared when two years old and also one taken in the fall of 1898 when ten years old. A pictureof her daughter, Kate, now two yearsold, is also given to show the close resem- blance between calf and dam at the sameage. Kate dropped her first calf Sept. 16, 1898 and up to April 1st 1899 had produced 3684 pounds of milk. This is much less than her dam gave in the same length of time and it will be interesting to see if she ever resembles her as much in production as in appearance. year. STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. AVERAGE PRODUCTION. 529 The average production of all the cows foreach year is given Year. TABLE II.—AVERAGE PRODUCT OF MILK AND FAT. 18gI-’92.. 1892-’93.. 1893-’94.. 1894-’95.. 1895-’96.. 1896—'97 1897-98... ri eis 7 Sr Highest (Sue)... Lowest (Daisy). .| Average Highest(Freddie). Lowest (Carrie). Average Highest (Pet).. Lowest (Roxy).. Lae Cy ae Highest (Ruby). Lowest (May 2d). HVETASO ss St Highest (Ruby). Lowest (May 2d) Average | Highest (Ruby). ~ shel ots, « @°6 Lowest(Daisy2d)) ANGTABES Jn). \n)aca' Highest (Mollie). Lowest (Pet 2d). | Number of cows. 19 17 19 22 19 20 19 Average of all..| 135 | Age. NAR Ww Of 00 n iS) Nok wie No Pounds of milk. 7163.42 10625.25 | 2203.C0 | 6875.00 | 9906.c0 | 4122.50 7563.32 11782.25 3619.00 | 7162.95 11816.00 5815.25 7456.25 13446.75 | 6249.00 | 7495-43 13416.00 3595-75 7575-33 7331.60 Per cent. fat. | 3-94 | 4.10 5:91 3-93 3-72 4.08 3.86 - 3-55 3-37 3-77 3.40 3.17 3:57 3-19 4 3.76 in Table II, together with the highest and lowest records for that These records were selected according to the relative pro- duction of butter-fat and without regard to the yield of milk. Since most of the cows are fresh in the Fall, the ‘‘ dairy year’’ is considered to run from September first to August thirty-first and the averages are for the production of the cows during that period. Pounds of fat. | 282.07 435.38 | 130.13 270.28 368.55 168.30 291.92 418.03 121.78 270.12 402.27 184.35 265.88 428.75 182.68 271.66 432.83 168.16 From this table it is seen that the largest production of fat for any one year was 435.38 pounds. pounds of milk containing an average of 4.1 per cent fat. This was from 10,625.25 The 530 BULLETIN 169. largest yield of milk for one year was 13,446.75 pounds which contained an average of 3.19 per cent fat and a total of 428.75 pounds of fat. The smallest production of fat was in the year 1893-94 and was 121.78 pounds. This was from 3,619 pounds of milk containing an average of 3.37 percent fat. The smallest yield of milk was 2,203 pounds in the year 1891-92. This con- tained an average of 5.91 per cent fat and a total of 130.13 pounds of fat. The annual average yield of milk varied from 6,875 pounds in 1892-93 to 7,575 pounds in 1897-98. ‘The aver- age production of fat varied from 265.88 pounds in 1895-96 to 291.92 pounds in 1893-94. The lowest average per cent of fat (3.57) was also in 1895-96, while the highest average (3.94) was in 1891-92. ‘The average of all the cows for the seven years was 7,331.6 pounds of milk, 275.69 pounds of fat and 3.76 per cent fat. The average age for each year ranges from 4 years in 1891-92 to4.8 in 1894-95. The average age for seven years is 4.4 years. It should be noticed that the lowest record for each year was by either a two or three year old, while the highest record was in each case by a full aged cow. PRODUCTION AS INFLUENCED BY AGE. With a view to determine the average gain in production as a cow increases in age, we have taken from the records that go to make up Table I, such records as there are beginning with two- year olds and continuing for two or more years. In order to make this comparison as just as possible, the first forty weeks in each period of lactation are taken to represent the cows produc- tion for that period. In only a comparatively few cases do the periods taken in this comparison fall short of forty weeks and these instances are noted inthetable. While the shorter periods may work to the slight disadvantage of the cow concerned, still they do not materially affect the average of the whole, which is the most important part of the comparison. The milk records of Bertha, Gem Valentine, Pearl and Ruby as two-year olds were made during the year 1890—g1when the milk was not tested for fat and thus the amount of fat produced cannot be given. This comparison is shown in the following table (III) and along with the forty week records, is given the per cent of gain in milk and fat from one year to another. ——_—-__—— F STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. TABLE III.—THE Name of cow. | BCVA 20 rete Pe 32 Deven See eke oS. 6), 6 19) 0 ee 8 Bent we 8 eee @ 8 6 see eae, ot ey Se Gem Valentine Garnet Valentine ... a AGE OF ANIMAL, | 3b Pounds of milk. 6034.75 8163.75 8000.50 4554.00 4225.25 5601.25 5785.50 6003.00 6243.00 5630.50 6490.75 3810.75 4741.00 5638.25 3547-00 4221.25 2149.00 3216.00 2669.50 3657.00 8758.50 9I92.00 8514.75 I124I.00 10545-75 7355-75 8584.75 9303.00 I0061.75 8767.00 4455-75 - 5395.00 5626.00 4306.50 5177-25 3258.25 b, 35 weeks. c. 37 weeks. d. 38 weeks. Pereent | of in- crease or decrease. Pounds of rats 531 YIELD OF MILK AND FAT COMPARED ACCORDING TO | | | Per cent | | of in- | crease or | | decrease. 195-49 256.74 256.00 212.66 274.41 286.15 289.19 296. 22 262.20 293.80 205.33 252.15 300-35 187.31 212.53 127.13 178.81 150.21 203.11 271.52 287.95 248.57 335-54 318.42 233-33 282.15 271.59 301.98 259.15 228.06 243-97 253.96 186.84 188.56 | 53? a. 34weeks, b. 35 weeks. c. 37 weeks. d. 38 weeks. e. BULLETIN 169. TABLE II1.—Continued. / Name of cow. | Age. | / Gem Valentine..... ch ea Cpa 2 ee oe 2 lista AUB ote pe is) on & WN Qu Nunn & Ww dd = ~ ion @ —_— Nv Ww on Bioline ~5 i viaoe sae 3d) Pounds of milk. 4536.50 4732.75 4063.50 4981.00 5585.25 5710.50 7666.00 5783.50 5868.25 5850.75 6539-75 8926.75 8869.75 4708.25 5759-590 6075.25 6910.25 7599-50 9855-75 7237-59 8507.50 6781.75 5082.50 7984.25 6397.00 6162.00 5630.50 5785.50 7640.25 7838.00 7068.00 7828.00 9145.25 9948.50 9732.00 I0991.00 10302.25 6093.50 6994.25 | | Per cent of in- crease or | decrease. | +39.2 + 4.3 —I4.1 +22.6 +12.1 + 2.2 | +++ Sates _ Lo) |+1+++ ANN WHS WON COC +14.8 Pounds of fat. 255.86 265.43 226.83 269.31 306.27 299-17 265.61 207.78 193.15 220.06 208.36 291.38 284.78 201.20 245.44 260. 39 225.51 262 51 326.56 207.18 280 87 218.54 173-40 307.86 257.08 239.87 180.88 168.00 253-17 246.61 233-14 271.75 317.48 352-85 308.78 363.21 321.34 207.58 237.46 39 weeks. Per cent of in- crease or decrease, |++]++ &® STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 533 TABLE III.—Continued. Per cent Pet cent Pounds of of in- Pounds of of in- Name of cow. Age. milk. crease or fat. | crease or decrease. decrease. 5 Cd Ie BP aie ts a 2 6816.25 | 3, 8666.00 +27.1 | 289.32 4 8963.25 | + 3.4 | 298.86 ses 5 9952.75 +1I.0 | 350.29 at Be 6 9041.50 — 9.2 300.95 —I4.1 Z 10764.75 | +19.1 | 351.32 +16.7 Pet ‘26s ds BEAR ews ZG 4360.50 | 154.50 | 3 5332-75 | 122.3 | 173.56 ae ROSY 2 soe ess he one 6317.25 230.96 3 3475-59 —45.0-| 116.12 —49-7 mahiy: | ABest 2 7235.00 a 7442.00 + 2.9 252 4 8249.50 +10.9 284.18 +12.8 5 11086.00 +34.4 386.50 +36.0 6d}! 10781.50 — 2.7 369.01 — 4.5 7 12740.00 +18.2 401.41 + 8.8 8 12576.50 — 1.3 404.20 — .07 ReLOEI 2:52 oes ees os ee 6464.00 ' 205.02 3, 5922.75 — 8.3 | 181.16 —I1.6 TE CME Pate: 0 | 2 | 6352.50 222.37 [By SdBO.7Sy Vt 07-8. 257,07 +16.0 | AM hades + 2.9 | 249.95 = ae J c. 37 weeks. d. 38 weeks. e. 39 weeks. AVERAGE OF RECORDS SHOWN IN TABLE III. No. Per cent Per cent | Aver- of Pounds of of in- | pounds of fat.| Of im- jage per cow milk. crease. | Man eso crease. say sf of | Two-year olds ...| 25 5844.99 *215.85 3.71 furee ‘* “Ss aes 6133.69 5.0 227.76 5.5 ry p' mone *": ss 18 7238.83 18.0 266.33 16.9 3.68 Full-aged cows. 29 8346.66 15.3 | 302.52 F3:6°" ("3.62 Five-year olds...| 12 7893.08 | 283.96 3.60 Six ? ‘oS Fears 8430.22 294.15 3.49 Seven ‘‘ i: 9143.95 336.29 3.68 Hight and nine- year olds...... 4 8543.63 332.75 3.89 Average of all ...| 97 6925.97 | 255-85 3.67 * Twenty-one two-year olds. 534 BULLETIN 169. In this comparison there are 97 records of milk and g3 of fat production,25 of the milk and 21 of the fat records being of two- year olds. Of the remainder the same number of animals are represented in both milk and fat, and of these, 25 are three year- olds, 18 four-year olds and 29 full aged cows. The average yield of all the cows was 6926 pounds of milk and 255.85 pounds of fat with an average of 3.67 per cent fat. The average increase in milk was five per cent from two to three year olds, 18 per cent from three to four year olds, and 15.3 per cent from four- year olds to full aged cows. The average increase in production of fat was 5.5 per cent from two and three year olds, 17 per cent from three to four year olds, and 13.6 per cent from four-year olds to full aged cows. It will be noticed that the greatest increase in both milk and fat is from the ages of three to four while the smallest increase is from the ages of two to three. This is quite contrary to what was found in the case of seven day tests of thorough bred Hol- stein-Friesian cows, the records of which were published in Bul- letin No. 152 of this Station. The gains of the older cows over the younger were so different in the two cases that the per cent increase in each is given in tabular form below for ready com- parison. PER CENT INCREASE. Milk. Fat. University | Seven day || University | Seven day Herd test. Herd test. 40 Weeks. Bul. 152. 40 Weeks. Bul, 152. From two to three year olds 4.9 28.5 | ges 32:7 ‘* three to four : 18.0 12.6 | 16.9 18,2 ‘* four to five os it Be a5 | 13.6 ye Were it a question asto which gives the more accurate esti- mate of the producing power of older cows over younger, the choice would undoubtedly fall to the records here given of the University herd. The latter is kept under conditions such as STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 535 are found in all well conducted dairies and the records cover nearly, if not quite, the average yearly milking period of the ordinary cow. On the other hand the cows which are entered for the seven day tests are the pick of the herd; they are fed to the highest limit for a short period and thus forced to their utmost production for that time. Moreover the records are for too short a time to furnish an accurate estimate of the relative production of cows of different ages. Forty week records must, in the nature of the case, give us a surer basis of comparison than those which run for seven days only. VARIATION IN YIELD OF MILK AND ITS FAT CONTENT AS LACTATION ADVANCES. A point often discussed concerns the average rate of decrease in yield of milk as the period of lactation advances and also the average increase, if such there be, in the per cent of fat during the same time. As an indication of what this decrease in milk and increase in per cent of fat may be, a careful study was made of the individual records of all the cows inthe herd. This study was conducted in the following manner: Beginning with the third week after calving the weekly records of each cow were divided into periods of four weeks each. The average daily yield of milk and the average per cent of fat were then deter- mined for each of these periods. Considering the averages for the first period of four weeks in each lactation as roo, the aver- age for each succeeding period was calculated to the same basis. The first two weeks after calving were thrown out of the calcu- lation because so many abnormal conditions affect the flow of milk at that time. The records were worked out in this manner for each individual cow in each year, and from these were obtained the averages for seven years which appear below in Table IV. In this table also are given the yearly records of six individual cows representing various degrees of fluctuation in yield of milk and in per cent of fat. An explanation of ‘the figures may be of value. In 1893-94, Dora (II.) had a daily average of 31 pounds of milk during the first four weeks of her lactation. If we represent this average of 31 as Ioo, then on the same basis her daily average for the next four weeks of 28.25 536 BULLETIN 169. pounds, a decrease of nine per cent, would be represented by gt. In like manner her daily average of 31 pounds during the third period would be represented by 100. And so on through the whole period of lactation we reckon the average daily yield of each four weeks according to the ratio it bears to the yieldin the first four weeks when considered as 100. The relative increase or decrease in per cent of fat was determined in the same manner, and is given in the table along with the variation in milk yield. Following this table are three plates showing lines platted according to the figures given in the table. These lines show very plainly the variation in milk and per cent of fat from month to month. The record which each set of lines is intended to display is indicated by the Roman numeral which corresponds to the same number in tableIV. Passing from left to right in these plates, each perpendicular line represents four weeks ad- vance in the lactation period, and each space between the _ hori- zontal lines represents two pounds of milk or .2 of 1 per cent of fat. Keeping these points in mind, the reader, beginning at 100, will easily trace each record for milk and per cent. of fat as given in table IV. 937 STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. TABLE IV.—RATIO OF VARIATION IN YIELD OF MILK AND PER CENT OF Fat, COUNTING THE DAILY AVERAGE FOR THE FIRST FOUR WEEKS AS I00, t ia Ill. Average for Dora, Mollie, Number of peri- PAD eres 1893-94 1895-96 ods of four weeks each after calving. Fer ct. Per ct Per ct; Milk. | fat. Milk fat. Milk. fat. ret actual). .: 31,00:| 3.16 ;} 3§.25) 3.55 Ist relative..| I00 | I00 | I00 100 Too 100 BS ert, erat 96 96 gI 95 97 83 ADA Paheonne cine 93 96 | 100 97 | 100 87 Bsus te nies all | 39 97 | 109 go | 103 89 [ido s eee Re ie 98 | 106 94 ifele) 87 Gi iieniotane vate 3 8I 98 97 94 100 go WAS cles Oe te a6 «| 202 103 | 100 98 89 Shs hance : 7h 103 105 99 97 go UE esata gee ul 2072 Dom O53. (til 98 94 ROLL ay « 2s oat 262) ROs. eto: Ghetoo 84 gI PECUGA co's mets 55 106 57 129 53 96 IV. Belva 2d, 1896-97. Per ct. Milk. fat. 29.00} 3.20 100 100 105 93 104 86 108 94 107 95 109 100 107 95 108 108 gt 105 46 118 Va Daisy, 1892-93. Per ct. Milk. fat. 15.00, 5.10 100 100 80 100 84 102 79 IIo 80 100 79 IIo 68 125 63 119g 67 118 aA 115 39 122 VI. Pet; 1893-94 Perict Milk. fat. 40275). 2.72 100 100 IIo tr 102 112 99 131 100 ae. 68 131 63 132 63 144 67 140 58 150 36 153 Vil, Cherry, 1896-97 Per ct Milk fat. 21.75 4.80 100 100 88 109 80 110 70 116 66 121 70 116 70 re 8I 114 76 II5 68 III 53 121 538 BULLETIN 169. The average of all (1) includes 135 yearly records and such a large number must give a fair representation of the average decrease in yield of milk and increase in per cent of fat as the period of lactation advances. This average shows a gradual and fairly regular decrease in milk flow from the time of calving until the cowisdry. The decrease from one period of four weeks to the next varies from 3.1 to 11.3 per cent, while the average decrease is 5.3 percent. This calculation also shows a decrease in the per cent of fat from the first month to the second and then | l | \ Pa ee BSS SS = 2 > A UNA AHHTAETA | a Hh | | | [ “4 | ih it | i | ith ; MI AUNT HN / zi ULNA l We Lal : | i | | | Diagram showing average variation in yield of milk and fat as lactation progresses. a gradual rise to the end of the lactation period. ‘The variation from one period of four weeks to the next is from minus 4 per cent to plus 4.1 per cent, while the average increase is slightly more than one-half of one percent. The average per cent of fat during the eleventh month is only six per cent greater than during the first month. At notime during the milking period does the increase in per cent of fat compensate for the loss in yield of milk, in the production of total butter fat. This may be the case for a time with some individual cows but as arule it.does not occur so far asour records show. In other words a cow may generally be depended upon to give a larger yield of butter fat 539 STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. LULA | LILI ec ‘une Inn at ne nN i hE nasa co Go oe a EE a? NN ni UAHA LATAH A mf LA ssf NT all ml HANA Y ETT NULL HR ETT TTTNYUTLALA LIM Ty TT Tee TTT (NIN UT A TEE i AL Mi ‘4 I ~ HNN i ANT eT TTT ITT NMAT TTL i il VODNAUOUUNTESTNEUTEAETERAA EEE AERA Fel ULTETAHLETEATL TEA inc il | TTT MTU hep TTT i ee eee ee TT TTTTETLTLTATLLTU } TTT TTL He HTAEUAUTEAEA AATEC HI LE TTT TTT, aS ae ee Be ee ee ee Diagram showing individual variations in milk and fat as ; lactation progresses. 169. BULLETIN 540 | | | IVI ZANE NN INA tt a Hei HNN AUT | ct iii Ae A TINY Lise iT J A eat a CE vi aaa 1 Hitt ri ddd befits ae } [ HUNAN HV ANLOVAREOLONGAEN AAU AARHRAE AVA Se aera ALOHA LAA HNN TINUHNLVUOUANUAUGAERUEUARAAAAAAE AVE a LLL | WUT | I | LE | ae ESS = Ss =a ra = a Ss ees pemeeenaey —=s = aaa <9 i a = mS i = 7 —=== =a == aaa —=s = past os as =a Gees as ct aed Ss = a === Sam cd == = aa SSS ———— ae =e [—— -— = sy = SS Sse ee aaa az = Ss (a = =a Ea Sase —_—— — —= aaae ——— FH vsie mate a Ses Hill am showing individual variations in milk and fat as lactation progresses. Diag STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 541 during the first weeks of a milking period than at any subsequent time during the same lactation. The record given of Dora (II), August, 1893 to July, 1894, is of her production as a two-year old. During this year she dis- played a remarkable ‘“‘holding out’’ power. In the second month she fell off in the daily average nine per cent, but for the next ten months she fell below her first average only twice and then no more than three per cent. At the end of the tenth period she declined so rapidly in milk that she was completely dry before the close of the eleventh. In per cent of fat she showed a variation which is found by these studies to be quite common, namely, a decrease for the second or third four weeks, and then a gradual rise to the close of the milking period. She dropped her second calf August 30, 1894, three days more than a year from her first calving. She ‘‘ held out’’ in milk as atwo- year old better than during any succeeding year. Mollie (III) September, 1895 to September, 1896, displayed almost as continuous a milk flow as Dora in 1893-94. Begin- ning the first four weeks with a daily average of 35.25 pounds, she did not decrease more than three per cent until the tenth period, when she fell off 16 per cent and then declined rapidly until dry in the thirteenth period. In per cent of fat she was higher during the first month than at any other period except at the last end of lactation. This was her fifth lactation and her sixth calf was dropped 13% months after the fifth. Belva 2nd (IV.) September 1896 to July 1897, likewise showed much power in ‘‘holding out’’ in her milk flow. At the end of the eighth four weeks, her daily average had not fallen below that of the first period, but then she declined rapidly and went dry at the end of the tenth four weeks. In per cent of fat she shows much the same characteristics as were noted in Dora (II). This was her record as a three-year-old and her third calf was born a little less than a year after the second. Daisy (V.) September 1892 to July 1893, showed a decrease in milk flow which is rather more than the average and at the same time an increase in per cent of fat which is much greater than the average. During the seventh month the per cent of fat rose 25 per cent above the average for the first four weeks and this 542 BULLETIN 169. without any apparent cause so far as the records show. After this there was a decrease and again a rise to 22 per cent above the first month at the end of lactation. This was her second year in milk and her third calf was dropped one year after the second. Pet (VI.) April 1893 to March 1894, showed the greatest increase in per cent of fat of any of the cows in the herd, it hav- ing increased gradually until at the last of the milking period it was over 50 per cent greater than at the beginning. At the same time the decrease in flow of milk was very great after the close of the fifth month. During the following month it fell off 32 per cent. This great decrease was occasioned by her being taken to the New York State Fair. On September 13, 1893 her milk yield at the home barn was 35.75 pounds. The next day she was at the Fair grounds and gave only 26.5 pounds. She did not again recover her former yield. When the milk flow thus fell 32 per cent the per cent of fat rose 31 percent, butit should be noted that the per cent of fat reached as equally high a point during the fourth month. The average per cent of fat for the first four weeks of this lactation was lower then for a similar period of any other year. This low average may have been abnormal with her and thus show an unusual increase as the period of lactation advanced. It was her fourth lactation and her fifth calf was dropped about one year after the fourth. ; Cherry (VII.) September 1896 to August 1897, represents another instance where the per cent of fat was lower during the first few weeks than atany subsequent time during thesame lacta- tion period. And like Pet mentioned above, the per cent of fat at the beginning of this milking period was lower than for a similar time during any of her other lactations. This may account for the more than average increase in the per cent of fat as the lactation advanced. Shedropped her second calf Sept. 18, 1896, and her third calf Oct. 28, 1897. EFFECT OF THE CHANGE FROM BARN TO PASTURE. When cows are turned from dry stall feed into the fresh pas- ture of early summer they invariably increase in yield of milk. This is a fact known to all dairymen, but the effect of the same STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 543 change on the quality of milk is not so well understood. ~Prob- ably it is the general belief that the early summer pasture tends to produce a milk less rich in fat than the barn feed. The records of the University herd throw some light on the effect of this change in feed both on the quantity and quality of the milk. In considering these records, however, it should be borne in mind that nearly all the cows are fresh in milk in the early fall and are therefore so near to the end of the lactation period that most of them are dried off within six weeks to two months after they are turned to pasture. Under these conditions it is not to be expected they would show so much variation on a radical change of food as though they were fresh just before the change. Uptothe time of going to pasture the cows receive an abundant ration of corn silage, mixed or clover hay, grain and roots, usually mangel wurtzels. On going to pasture, this ration is discontinued entirely except for some grain and what little hay the cows will eat at milking time. About one third or one fourth as much grain is given as when on full stall feed except to such of the cows as are fresh in the spring which receive about as much as they will eat. If the pasture continues good the grain is taken entirely away from all except the fresh cows. To compare the quantity of milk given under the two condi- tions above named, the daily average yield for each cow was determined for four separate periods, viz: the last three weeks before going to pasture ; the first week at pasture ; the first two weeks at pasture; and the three weeks following the first two at pasture. From these averages was found the daily increase or decrease per head for each of the three periods at pasture as com- pared with the period on bain feed. ‘The per cent of fat for each cow was averaged for the same periods and the increase or decrease determined. Inthe following table (V) are given the individual recordsof .he variation in milk and per cent of fat for one year (1898) in order to show the method of comparison and how some cows increase while others decrease under seemingly thesame conditions. There are also given the averages for all the cows for each year and for the six years during which this study is carried. Some interesting data on this same point has been published 544 BULLETIN 169. by the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station * and their results are appended in the table, to be compared with the results found at this Station. The daily averages for the Vermont herds were compiled for two periods, viz: the last twenty days before going to pasture ; and the twenty days following the first ten at pasture. TABLE V.—EFFECT OF THE CHANGE FROM BARN TO PASTURE ON THE MILK YIELD OF INDIVIDUAL COWS FOR 1898. | | } | Aver- | Aver- | Aver- Aver- age for Date of calv-jage for age for|Increase age for|Increase 21 days Increase Name of cow. | ing. last 21 first7| orde- | first 14| or de- | after | or de- dayson dayson| crease. dayson| crease. |first 14| crease. barn pasture pasture \dayson feed. pasture | | | ee ee | | | | Betis > 228K Aug. ’97 | 18.25 | 19.00} + .75 | 19.50 | +1.25 | 19.75 | +1.50 Belva 2d...| Sept. ’97 | 25.75 | 25.00 | — .75 | 25.25 |— .50| 25.50| — .25 | Bertha 2d..| Jan. ’98 | 22.25 | 23.50 | +1.25 | 22.75 | + .50| 24.75 | +2.50 pachetry is .05 Oct. ’97 | 18.75 | 19.75 | +1.00 | 19.75 | +1.00 | 19.00} + .25 LOSE - 5 iss pike Dec. ’97 | 39.25 | 43.00 | +3.75 | 42-75 | +3-50 | 41.50 | -—-2.25 Emma...../ Aug. °97 | 20.75 | 19.50 | —I.25 | 21.25 | 4- .50 | 20.50 | — .25 Garnet St. | Lambert .| Oct. ’97 | 15.50 | 17.50 | +2.00 | Gem Valen-| | | | bine cscs | Oct. ’97/ 17.75 | 18.50) + .75 | 19.00| +1.25 | 18.75 | +1.00 | Glista 4th. .| Sept. ’97 | 28.75 | 30.25 | +1.50 | 30.75 | +2.00| 28.75 .0O | Glista Neth-| | erland....| May ’97 | 21.75 ; 24.25 | +2.50 | 24.50 | +2.75 | 20.00 | —1.75 Jennie 2d..| Oct. ’97/ 17.00 15.75 —I.25 | 14.25 | —2.75 | 15.50 | —I.50 ih: ee Oct. °97 | 28.00 27.50, — .50 2750, — .50| 23.75 | —4.25 CG ES @ 4 a} M4 ne ~] iS) nr -- % ~I wn 14.00 | —1.50 | Mabel 2d ..| Nov. ’97 | 22.75 | 24.75 | +-2.00 | 24.75 | +2.00 | 23.50 | + .75 | May 2d....| Sept. ’97 | .22.75 | 25.00 | +2.25 | 25.co | +-2.25 | 25.25 | +2.50 Mollie. ... | Sept. ’97 | 30.75 | 32.50 | +1.75 | 33-00 | +2.25 | 31.50] + .75 athe. 04.3 | Nov. ’97 | 22.50 | 21.00 | —1.50 | 20.75 | —1.75 | 20.50 | —2.00 | Valerie St.) | Lambert .| Sept. ’97 | 13.00 | 15.00 | +-2.00 | 14.75 | +1.75 | 18.00 : +5.00 | Sa) eae pS ech ia of herd +. .96 +1.01 + .29 * Third, fourth, sixth and seventh Annual Reports. STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 545 VARIATION IN PER CENT OF FAT FOR SAME PERIODS. Name of cow. @eeecovenevee Canes © (6 SO PR Se ase e «© eee ere eee eee © «a (@, wea Me eae we Emma Garnet St. Lambert.. Gem Valentine Glista 4th Glista Netherland ... Jennie 2d Faltes 35 aes +. Ruth Valerie St. Lambert. . 5.47 Average of herd.... Aver- | Aver- age for age for | last 21. first 7 days on days on| barn pasture) feed. 4.43 4.60 | 2.20 + 3:40" 4.72): 4.20" | 5253 |). 5.20 2.80 | 3.00 | 3-20 | 3-55 5-42 | 5.00 5-13 | 5-95 3-47 | 3-20 3.18 | 3.50 | 4.33 | 4-60 3.40 | 3.65 3-97 | 4-20 2.95 ||." 2.95 3-23 | 3-15 2.80 | 2.90 4.80 Aver- Aver- age for Increasejage for|/Increase/21 days or de- | first 14| orde- | after crease. |dayson|] crease. | first 14 pasture days on pasture +.17 | 4.50] +.07 | 4.13 +.12 | 3.18 | —.Io | 3.33 —.52 | 4.32 | —.40 | wy +.07 | 5.23 | +.10 ; 4.98 +.20 | 3.05 | +.25 | 2.88 +.35 | 3.48 | +.28 | 3.20 ~~ AZ +}. G05, | 37 |, 4-03 —.08 | 4.93 | —.20 | 4.98 —.27 | 3-38 | —-09 | 3.35 +.32 | 3.48 | +.30-| 3.13 | +-27 | 4.45 ! +.12 | 4.75 +.25 | 3-23 | —-17 | 3-50 -+.23 | 4.23 | +.26 | 3.90 -—.03 | 3.08 | +.10 | 2.92 —.o08 | 3.05 | —.18 | 3.17 | +.10 | 3.00} +.20 | 3,27 —.67 | 4.95 | —-52 | 5.47 —=.0O ae 8 Increase or de- crease. —.06 AVERAGE DAILY INCREASE OR DECREASE IN YIELD OF MILK AND PER CENT OF FAT AFTER COWS WERE TURNED TO PASTURE. | Per cent of Fat. Milk. Year. No. of Cows For a1 For 21° For first | For first |Daysafter| For first | For first |Daysafter 7 days. 14 Days. | First 14 | 7 Days. | 14 Days. | First 14 Days. Days. SSS eS SS SS 1892 20 — .46 | + .21 | + .26 +.16 +.24 +.03 1893 16 — .44 | +1.42 | +1.20 +.06 +-,07 —.22 1894 18 +1.24 | +1.46 | — .85 +.07 — —.17 1895 19 + .83 | +1.2I1 | —I.90 +.07 —.06 —.oI 1896 15 + .50 | + .03 ; —1.67 +.46 +.47 +.17 1898 17 + .96 | +1.01 | + .29 .0O —.02 —.06 Ay ofall | 105% 9) 243)°|/ 4 ger -45 +.13 +.13 —.04 546 BULLETIN 169. VERMONT AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. | Average for| Average for Year. No. of Cows.| When fresh in Milk. 20 days 20 days after rst after 1st 10 days. 1o days. | Lbs. milk. |Percent fat. ne eee ie EE, Pee, 10 Mostly Fall +3.50 | BORO vs cs eevee ee 4 Fall +4.80 | +.02 YOO... v.nt so have ane 6 Fall +1.30 | +.46 oo ee cer 8 Spring +8.80 | +.14 TOSS. sb Pate we ee | 14 —— +1.30 | lebee BWGAs © ..6/.sSum eter 21 a +2.75 | +.37 Awv.-Of al}.0 ees | 136 +375 | +.17 The results with the University herd show that more milk was given on pasture than on stall feed during the first two weeks after the change. The effect of pasture was more strongly felt the second week than the first. But during the three fol- lowing weeks the average daily yield of milk fell back to nearly one-half pound below that for the last three weeks in the barn. In the per cent of fat there was much the same general result, a slight increase during the first two weeks at pasture and then a falling balk to practically the same per cent as was found under barn conditions. There was more or less variation from year to year, some years showing a decrease where others showed an increase, but the majority show much the same result as is found in the average of ail. The Vermont herds show a much greater increase, especially in yield of milk than the University herd. The greatest increase was for the 81 cows whose daily average was 8.8 pounds greater on pasture than when in the barn. These cows were not owned by the station, and their barn feed was much less nutritious than the pasture ration. This condition together with the fact that they were fresh in the spring accounts for the great increase after the change. Thesix cows in the year 1890, which showed an average daily increase of 1.3 pounds, received a less nutri- tious ration in the barn than was supplied by the pasture. The barn ration of all the other cows consisted of a liberal allowance of grain, hay and silage, and was as nutritious as the pasture. However, when the cows were turned to pasture, this barn feed STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 547 was continued liberally, the cows standing in the barn every night. Comparing these records with those of the University herd for a similar period we find no case where the average increase for the herd equals that for the Vermont herds. In only one year (1893) does it approximate thereto and then only for the two lowest averages found in Vermont. The food con- ditions of the University herd have been given above, where it will be noticed that the barn ration must be fully as nutritious as pasture. Thus far the conditions correspond with those of the Vermont Station. But on turning to pasture the latter kept up the rich barn food while we eliminated nearly all of it, and herein may lie the cause of difference in results. The great increase of the 81 cows is the natural sequence of a change of fresh milkers from poor, dry feed to abundant succulent food, and can- not be justly compared with our conditions. As regards quality of milk the Vermont records also show a greater increase in per cent of fat than was found for similar periods at this Station. During practically the same period after going to pasture our cows show nearly the same per cent of fat as when in the barn, while the Vermont herds show an increase of .17 percent. Whether the differences in food conditions would account for this it is difficult to say. Summing up, then, the comparison of records of the two Sta- tions, and throwing out of the consideration the 81 cows, we have three varieties of conditions. First, 105 University cows chang- ing from a rich barn ration to pasture by day and night with most of the former ration discontinued. Second, 39 Vermont cows changing from a rich barn ration to pasture by day with as much of the former ration continued as they will eat during the night. Third, six Vermont cows changing from a relatively poor barn ration to pasture by day with the same continuation of the former ration as in the second case. As results we have for the first case, a decrease in quantity and quality of milk after fourteen days of pasture ; for the second and third cases, an increase in the quantity and quality of milk after ten days of pasture. This summary takes for granted that the length of time in milk is practically the same for all the cows. In the University herd it is found that some spring cows show no more increase in milk on going to pasture than do some fall cows. 548 BULLETIN 169. Cost OF MILK PRODUCTION. During the year beginning January 15, 1892, and ending January 14, 1893, an accurate record was kept of the amount of food consumed by each cow as well as the amount of milk pro- duced. From this record there was calculated the cost of pro- ducing milk and butter fat by each individual cow and the aver- age cost for the herd. Owing to the fluctuation in price of feeds the cost of production then and now would differ even though conditions were otherwise the same. However, this variation in cost would occur between shorter periods owing to the same cause, and thus it does not seem out of place to publish in these pages the results of the experiment of 1892. Another reason for presenting them here is that the Bulletin in which they were originally published (No. 52) is out of print and so not accessible to the public. Accordingly we reprint here the more salient points and observations contained in that Bulletin. In conducting this experiment it was the aim to feed a ration that would be eaten up fairly clean by all the cows. The foods used during the winter were hay, silage, roots, wheat bran, cotton-seed meal and corn meal. Only very slight variations were made from this list of foods. In the summer the cows had pasture of good quality and a grain ration, for the most of the time, of wheat bran and cotton-seed meal, supplemented with soiling crops when the pastures became dry. The hay used was clover hay ofa fair quality grown upon a wheat stubble and having a considerable proportion of volunteer wheat mixed with it, which was not readily eaten by the cows. The silage was made from Pride of the North corn grown in hills carrying a fair crop of ears. It was well preserved and of good quality. The roots used were almost wholly mangel wurtzels of medium size and good quality. The grain ration in January, February, March and April, 1892, was made up of a mixture of 300 pounds of bran, 200 pounds of cotton-seed meal and 60 pounds of corn meal. ‘The corn silage crop of 1892 had consider- ably more grain than that of 1891, consequently, in November and December, 1892, and the first half of January, 1893, the corn meal was left out of the grain ration and three parts of bran and STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 549 two parts of cotton-seed meal were fed. During the time the cows were at pasture the grain ration was made up of three parts bran and one part cotton-seed meal. The daily winter ration was as follows : For the larger cows. For the smaller cows. 15 lbs. hay. 10 lbs. hay. 50-55 lbs. silage. 40-45 lbs. silage. 10 lbs. roots. 10 lbs. roots. 8 lbs. grain. 8 lbs. grain. The only exceptions made to this were that Freddie and Puss, during January, February and March, 1892, had ten pounds of grain instead ofeight. The summer grain ration was four pounds per cow except during the month of June when one-half of the cows received no grain whatever. The cows while dry were fed no grain at all, the remainder of the ration being unchanged. In the latter part of the summer, particularly in the months of August and October, the pastures became very short and were supplemented in August with second growth clover, cut and car- ried to the cows, and in October with corn stalks. These were in every case weighed and charged to the cows consuming them. In making up the cost of the food consumed the following scale of prices was used, based as far as possible upon the market prices in Ithaca : TAL 5S Serre Se 2 us Le ots ty Was a eens $ g.00 per ton Bia rere emer et nts ho niet h i ike. 2 ese eS 1.75 per ton PNOOtS i. Sage os Sy eid So ae erate 2.00 per ton MN Beri: Tercera cues She et RO EE tee eR 18.00 per ton ER USNR RS 15 2c oa ae a ae PR ee ines OoBea ee 22 ee eT .35 per bu. Castion-sceg mae aiken 3 id St as haps. pees 25.00 per ton rormincinea licrarrumonies a0: Fa hla t ae nee RO 20.00 per ton ear. stalkcsuteeerr se) tet) scifi Seas Sek tee 3.00 per ton (srass, cut-andeparried.to COWS. a6 2240. ce RATT. 1.75 per ton Pasture, exclusive of grain and silage crops..... .30 per w’k In Table VI is given the cost of food consumed by each animal; the total number of pounds of milk and fat produced and the cost of a hundred pounds of milk and one pound of fat for each individual and the average for the whole. The average cost of food consumed was $45.25 ; the highest for any one cow 550 BULLETIN 169. TABLE VI.—Cost oF Foop, MILK AND FAT. Cost of food Cow consumed | Pounds of Cost of Cost of Z during the | milk 1oo pounds | Pounds of | one pound | year, produced. | of milk. | fat prodnced. of fat. Beauty yo es $44.24 | 8,028.50] $ .65 391.62 $.115 Belva..... eee 47.65 | 9,739.75 | 49 | 309.19 0155 | Berttia.. £2354 42.00 | 4.743.25 | 89 233.63 -18 Certs... ston 49.07 | 6,008.50 | 82 219.34 225 Conan aha 38.74 6,214.50 -62 326.68 12 Baise. oo yee AI.24 | 2,820.75 | 1.48 159.02 26 Freddie....... 52.06 II, 165.00 47 417.97 125 Gazelle....... 39.96 5,670.50 70 285.10 14 Gem Valentine 36.24 3,387.75 1.07 197.33 185 Glistt:: scace. Pests .4) 6,323.50 074 224 71 21 Glista 2d...... 43.80 | 5,136.00 .85 160.79 27 Jennie; 2. 43.66 | 5,785.75 75 294.30 015 Ma Peas 44.34 5,458.50 81 195-31 225 Mollie.... ... BS 0G0r8 7,757.25 09 260.34 175 Peat yooh rn AT AA 2) )||,:9,003,25 53 299 07 16 PEL sane 43.12 | 9,776 50 44 330.59 13 ae 47.87. | 10,417.00 -46 302.93 16 Rubyecs 7. ave 48.63 | 7,955.00 61 282 35 017 ‘ Shadow....... 53-38 | 8,655.50 62 382.77 14 Sue: GR: 49.08 10,754.00 46 439.37 ell Toint, ees $905.01 —|144,809.75 5,712.41 Average...... 45.25° 1. 7,240.50). $2625 285.62 $.158 | was $53.38 for the cow Shadow; the lowest $36.24 for Gem Val- entine. The average cost of 100 pounds of milk was almost exactly 62% cents; the highest for any one cow being $1.48 for Daisy ; the lowest 44 cents for Pet. If we consider milk to be worth $1.00 per hundred weight at the barn two of the cows pro- duced milk at a loss, Daisy and Gem Valentine. The average cost of butter fat was 15.8 cents; the highest 27 cents for Glista 2d; the lowest 11 cents for Sue. If we should consider fat to be worth 30 cents per pound, which is a little more than an equivalent of 25 cents a pound for butter, we should have no cows that produced fat at a loss for food consumed. STUDIES IN MILK SECRETION. 551 GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. A good grade herd can be bred up from a herd of ordinary cows by the use of first-class thoroughbred sires and a careful selection of the best heifers. By breeding in this way the University herd has increased in milk production from an average Of 3,000 pounds per cowin 1874 to an average of 7,575 pounds in 1898. It pays to select heifers from the best cows as well as to use only well bred bulls. Milk such heifers at least one year and then retain only those which give promise of being profitable producers. The greatest production for one lactation period was by Ruby in 64 weeks, 16089.5 pounds of milk, and 531.32 pounds of fat, equivalent to 625 pounds of butter containing 85 per cent fat. The average production for seven years was 7330 pounds of milk, 275 pounds of fat and 3.76 per cent fat. The average for each year varied from 6,875 pounds of milk in 1892-3, and 266 pounds of fat in 1895-96 to 7,575 pounds of milk in 1897-8, and 292 pounds of fat in 1893-94. The average gain in production of milk as the cows increased in age was 5 per cent from two to three-year-olds, 18 per cent from three to four-year-olds, and 15.3 per cent from four-year- olds to full aged cows. The average gain in production of butter fat was 5.5 per cent from two to three-year-olds, 17 per cent from three to four-year- olds, and 13.6 from four-year-olds to full aged cows. Beginning with the third week after calving and dividing the remainder of the lactation into periods of four weeks, and then considering the average daily yield of milk of all the cows for the first period as Ioo there was a gradual decrease in milk flow to 55 during the eleventh period. Calculating the average per cent of fat in like manner, there was a decrease to 96 in the second period and then a gradual increase to 106 during the eleventh period. Speaking in other terms there was an average decrease in yield of milk as lactation advanced, of about five per cent from each period of four weeks to the next. In per cent of fat there was 552 BULLETIN 16g. an-average increase of about one-half of one per cent from mouth to month. Asa rule, acow will produce more butter during the first few weeks of a lactation period than at any equal subsequent time during the same lactation. ; The general effect of the change from barn to pasture was an increase in both milk flow and per cent of fat for the first two weeks, and for the next three weeks a slight decrease in milk and per cent of fat below the daily average for the last three weeks in the barn. During the year 1892 twenty cows produced milk for 62% cents per hundred weight and fat for about sixteen cents per pound for the food consumed. In general, the cows consuming the most food produced both milk and fat at the lowest rate. gt Bulletin 170. May, 1899. Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, ITHACA, N. Y. -ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION. EMERGENCY REPORT ON TENT CATERPILLARS. By [1. V. SLINGERLAND PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY, (Ek PRAS Bey WS 1899. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. THOMAS F. CRANE, Acting President. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF. I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. H. H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. GEO. F. ATKINSON, Botany. M. V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. G. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. L. A. CLINTON, Agriculture. W. A. MURRILL, Botany. J. W. SPENCER, Extension Work. J. L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation MISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Horticulture. G. W. TAILBY, Foreman of the Farm. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. OFFICERS OF THE STATION I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Cierk. Office of Director, Room 20, Morrill Hall. The regular bulletins of the Station are sent free to all who request them. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, May 22, 1899. HONORABLE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, ALBANY. Sir: Responding to your request of the 15th inst., for sug- gestions as to the controlling of the forest caterpillar, which has appeared in such numbers in Scoharie and Otsego Counties, I herewith submit a bulletin of advice by Professor Slingerland. Professor Bailey has already sent Mr. H. P. Gould, our expert in spraying, into the affected districts. It is now too late, how- ever, to avert the calamity of this year, but it is hoped that the people may be awakened for action during the coming winter and next spring. This emergency bulletin is submitted to be issued under Chapter 430 of the Laws of 1899. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. os GM Set ag TENT CATERPILLARS. Commissioner of Agriculture Wieting, report's in a recent letter to Director Roberts that many orchards, in the eastern part of the State are overrun with forest tent caterpillars. The writer is also receiving daily from village authorities in eastern New York, appeals for aid in destroying the vast hordes of the hairy caterpillars of the same insect which are defoliating thousands of beautiful shade trees, especially maples, in many village streets. A trip to Oneonta convinced us that an alarming state of affairs exists wherever this insect occurs in such almost incredible numbers as we saw on many of Oneonta’s fine maple shade trees. Thousands of the shade trees in many New York villages are doomed unless prompt measures are taken to destroy the cater- pillars, or ‘‘ maple worms,’’ as many callthem. We began mak- ing observations upon this insect last year, when it stripped the leaves from many maple sugar groves in our State, and we have been watching it this spring, when it seems to be more numerous and destructive all through the State than in many years. Our studies are not yet completed, but there is such a general call for information regarding the insect that this preliminary report, or emergency bulletin, has been hastily prepared to meet the demand. We expect to publish a full account of the forest and the apple tent caterpillars, and will also discuss canker- worms in the near future. THE APPLE-TREE TENT CATERPILLAR. Many are familiar with the common apple tent caterpillar (shown in figure 1o1) its work, and especially its large silken tent which a colony of the caterpillars spin and use as a nest or home. These tent caterpillar nests have been altogether too conspicuous objects in the nearby landscape in most parts of our State during the past two years. It is the work of only a few moments to wipe out with a rag, or burn out one of these tents with its writhing mass of worms. The sooner this operation is performed after the nest is begun, the easier and more effectual will it be. Wild cherry trees along roadsides should be destroyed, for they area favorite breeding-place for the apple tent caterpillars, fall web worms, and other injurious insects, 558 BULLETIN 170. Our orchardists should learn to familiarize themselves with the egg-masses of the,apple tent caterpillar, for one of the easiest and most effectual methods of controlling the pest is to collect and burn these egg-masses at any time between August and the + } > : a ~ ¥ - a rr t b ~ R > dm 1o1.—A trioof Apple Tent Caterpillars, natural size. following April; the egg- mass is very similar to, but a little larger than that of the forest tent caterpillar shown at e in figure 102. Pay the boys and girls a few cents for each score or hundred of the egg-masses they collect; you will be doubly repaid when spring opens by a decided scarcity of caterpillar nests to wipe or burn out. Those who spray their orchards thor- oughly with Bordeaux mix- ture, to which Paris green or some similar poison has been added at the rate of one pound to 150 gallons of the Bordeaux, report little trouble in controlling apple tent caterpillars by this method alone. Caterpillar nests are usually a scarce article in orchards which have had three thorough applications of the above spray. The first applica- tion should be made just before the blossoming pe- riod, when the caterpillars are very small and require but little pot- son to kill them; the second spraying should follow as soon as the blossoms have fallen, and a third application is usually necessary and advisable about a week or ten daysafter thesecond. Unless canker-worms occur in extraordinary numbers in an orchard, TENT CATERPILLARS. 559 not many of them will live through the three applications above specified, if they are thoroughly made, and the same statements will apply to the forest tent caterpillars. THE LIFE-STORY OF THE TENT CATERPILLARS. In order to combat an insect pest the most effectively, one should know its life-story. The story of the lives of the apple and forest tent caterpillars may be briefly told by the aid of the pictures in figure 102. These two tent caterpillars are dis- tinct kinds of insects but are very nearly related to each other and each has practically the same general life-history, differing only in some details of habits. The story of the Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar (Clistocampa americana) has been interestingly told in the Teacher’s Leaflet No. 5, which anyone can get free by apply- ing tothe Bureau of Nature- Study, Collegeof Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. At the date of writing (last week in May), the forest tent caterpillars (CUistocampa dis- stvta) are nearly full grown; the picture at cin figure 102 was recently taken from life. ee Me Le ase In about two weeks, or early %,“#8-7!mg recently laid ; g, hatched egg- : ving ; c,caterpillar. Moths and caterpillars in June, the caterpillars will Re ee and eggs and pupa are be seen wandering about seek- ing a -suitable place to undergo their wonderful transfor- mations. They may select a leaf on or under the tree on which they fed, as did the one shown in the frontispiece, or some angle in your house or rail-fence may afford a more suitable place. Here the caterpillar will begin to spin about itself a white 560 BULLETIN 170. shroud or cocoon, composed of silken threads, in which are mixed the hairs from its own body and the whole is given a powdery appearance by the caterpillar ejecting a liquid which becomes a yellowish powder upon drying. A cocoon is shown in figure 103. Within this cocoon the caterpillar soon changes to the curious brown object—a ptupa—shown at f in figure 102. In about ten days or two weeks after the cocoon is spun, or during the latter part of June, there emerges from it the adult insect—a buff- brown colored moth marked With a slightly darker band across each front wing; # and/fin figure 102 represent the male and female moth respectively. The moths fly mostly at night and are often attracted to lights. Soon after emerging, the female moths deposit their eggs in masses of about two hundred each around the smaller twigs, as shown at ¢ in figure 102. The eggs are covered with a varnish- like substance ; at g in figure 102 is shown an old, hatched egg- mass with the varnish-like coating worn off. The eggs thus deposited early in July will remain unhatched until the following April. Thus there is but one brood of the caterpillars in a year. A very important difference in habit between the forest and the apple tent caterpillar should here be emphasized. It isthis: A colony or family of forest tent caterpillars hatching from the same egg-cluster, like their near relatives, work and live together during most of their life but they never make any tent or nest. The only approach toa web made by the forest tent caterpillars is a thin carpet spun on the bark or sometimes over several terminal . leaves on which the whole family ROE EES Forest. USually rest in acluster (as shown Tent Caterpillar in a maple jn figure 104) during the day or Se AE cen he a when they are shedding their skins, ee TENT CATERPILLARS. 561 METHODS OF COMBATING THE FOREST TENT CATERPILLAR. Fortunately both the apple and the forest tent caterpillars are preyed upon by many enemies, including insects, spiders, toads and birds. Where the forest tent caterpillars confine their work to their native haunts—the forest trees—we must depend largely upon these natural enemies to hold the insect in check. That these enemies are capable of doing thisis evidenced by the fact that this insect usually appears in alarming numbers only at long intervals and its outbreaks usually last only a few years, as their enemies soon reduce their numbers to the normal. We visited several maple ‘‘sugar bushes” last year where the caterpillars had just finished stripping the foliage from all the trees, and we never saw so many parasitic foes: the little Ichneumons and Tachnia flies were surprisingly numerous and busy getting in their deadly work on the caterpillars. Most owners of ‘‘ sugar bushes ’’ will have to depend on these little friends to check the depredations of the forest tent caterpillars, because it would usually be too expensive a job for an individual owner to under- take to combat the pest in his sugar grove. We hope and believe that the enemies of the caterpillars can be depended upon to get the upper hand and control the pest in the forests faa sugar groves of New York ina year or two. Where the forest tent caterpillars are present in alarming numbers in fruit or shade trees, however, the case is very different, and man should take prompt measures to check their ravages. In orchards the methods of gathering the egg-clusters and spraying with Bordeaux and Paris green, discussed on a pre- vious page, will usually control the forest tent caterpillars. The presence of these caterpillars is not so readily discovered because they erect no tent or ‘‘signboard’’ in the tree as does the apple tent caterpillar. The two kinds of caterpillars often Occur in the same tree. The control of the forest tent caterpillar on village shade trees is a special problem, but not a difficult one, we believe. Enlist the aid of the school teachers, and the school children will soon become an invaluable army to help in protecting the trees. Let a few public spirited citizens or the village Board offer a prize to 562 BULLETIN 170. those pupils who collect over a certain number, say 1,000 or 10,000 of the unhatched egg-clusters at any time between August 1st and April rst of the following year; or pay the children a certain sum, a few cents for every hundred unhatched egg- clusters collected. All egg-clusters collected should be burned. The rivalry between the children will soon spread to rivalries between schools and the result will be that the number of the caterpillars will be reduced to the minimum by a single season’s crusade of the children ; and what may be of more value still is the fact that the teachers, children, and many citizens will get lots of fun out of the warfare and all cannot help but learn avery instructive lessonin Mother Nature’s ways. The above suggestion is not a theory, for just such a crusade has been successfully carried out even in so large a city as Rochester, N. Y. We believe there is no cheaper and more > instructive method of controlling these forest tent caterpillars in village shade trees. Beginthe warfarein August or September, 1899, or better, after the leaves have fallen so that the eggs can be more easily seen on the twigs, and keep it up until the last egg-cluster is burned before April 1st, 1900. Let the beautiful and valuable shade trees begin the new century free from the devastating caterpillars. Shade trees can be, and have been, sprayed with a poisonous mixture and these forest tent caterpillars killed thereby. But the spraying must be done early in the spring after the little caterpillars hatch, when the first leaves are unfolding ; and to spray large shade trees requires very expensive ($250.00 at least) apparatus, and experienced men to operate it. It is the nastiest kind of work, and the chemicals would be quite anitem. Hence it is doutful if spraying could be successfuly employed to con- trol these caterpillars in many villages. When the caterpillars get half or two-thirds grown as they are now (last week in May) they are so large that it would be a very expensive matter to feed them enough Paris greento kill them. We believe it would be cheaper, easier and more effectual, to either enlist the children, or to carry on a vigorous warfare against the nearly full grown caterpillars during the latter part of May and the first week or two in June along the following lines : TENT CATERPILLARS. 563 Colonies of the caterpillars can be seen at almost any time of day clustered together on the bark of the trunk or large branches of the infested trees. Such a cluster of caterpillars is shown in figure 104. The apple tent caterpillar may usually be found in its nest during the day, but its forest relative makes no such retreat or home. Where these clusters of caterpillars occur in reach on the trunks of the trees it is an easy matter to sweep them off and crush them. It is also an easy matter to dislodge the clusters occurring high up in the tree on the branches. One has simply to climb the tree with a padded mal- let and suddenly jar (shaking will not do) the branches on which the caterpillars are clustered, when nearly every caterpillar will drop to the ground as if shot, some spin- ning down by a silken thread, which, how- ever, they seem to be unable to ascend as a canker-worm does. One should not be sat- isfied with jarring the caterpillars onto the ground, but a sheet or canvass should have been previouslyspread beneath the tree, and someone employed to at once sweep the caterpillars into some jo4.—4 family of Forest Tent Caterpillars rest- receptacle where they ing during the day on the bark, about one- third natural size. can be burned or otherwise destroyed. Two men could thus remove and destroy nearly all the forest tent caterpillars on a large shade tree in a few minutes, and thus stop the breeding of the insect for the next gia! ie “¢ wir “ Mi a ¥ eh Be id -% “a yx | >a) 5 4 . , f . > yA > ; f ry > ) he es - a or eS oS 564 BULLETIN 170. season. This jarring method is also applicable to orchards, and is in fact the only practicable method to reach the caterpillars after they are half or two-thirds grown, or after May 2oth in most localities in our state. The method can be practiced by individual owners of fruit or shade trees, but where village shade trees are infested, we would .recommend that the village authorities hire two or more men, equip them with padded mallets, brooms, and sheets, and have them make a busi- ness of examining every shade tree and killing the caterpillars. All of the shade trees in a village could be thus gone over ina few days and millions of the caterpillars destroyed before they can transform. Asecond scrutiny of the trees by the same gang of men a few days later would doubtless pay. One hundred dollars expended in this way, zow, by a village, to combat these caterpillars would not be felt by the individual taxpayers, and would doubtless result in saving the lives of shade trees worth ten times this amount. It would not be advisable to trust to individual property owners to jar their trees, for many would not do it, and thus would breed a crop of the caterpillars for their neighbors the next season. Cotton batting, coal tar, or similar bands put on trees to pre- vent the caterpillars from crawling up, will avail but little in reducing their numbers, for only those which fall from the trees or happen to wander from the defoliated trees will thus be kept from going up. These hordes of tent caterpillars which are now ravaging shade and fruit trees in our state can be readily controlled if prompt and intelligent action be taken. M. V. SLINGERLAND. ee APPENDIX II. Detailed Statement of Receipts and Expenditures of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, for the fiscal year ending June joth, 1899. RECEEPTIS, FROM AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL DIVISIONS. 18 ee 20, | Prodemes era. BAaitie Cal Cte swiss one eed a,c" oer Sie A $ 627 32 EXPENDITURES. FOR SALARIES. 1898 apey (80. se enerte,. DMTCCLOL © TO. ys wjaed 125 00 “" 31. UL. He Bailey, Horticulturist, E TG, 9 a hts ane Oe . 00. 2'..02 vee see 83 33 G. W. Cavanaugh, Assistant Chemist, 1 mo........... 83 33 L. A. Clinton, Assistant Agriculturist, I mo............ 100 00 1. P. Roberts. Director, I mo. .23....55. 242540 eee 125 00 L,. H. Batley, Horticniturist 1 mio. .. . 7. ii.5 eee 125 00 H. H. Wing, Asst. Prof. Dairy Husbandry, I mo...... 125 00 G. F-Atkinsen; Gotanist, 1 m0 ... 0 eee Rae 83 37 G. W. Cavanaugh, Assistant Chemist, I mo............ 83 37 L. A. Clinton, Assistant Agriculturist,I mo........... I00 00 Total gt pSalaries. ©... 2.2 tcc taet een eee ... $8,568 34 FOR BUILDINGS. Forest City Plumbing Co., Sewer for Insectary........ $ 48 75 Va 1898 pally’. 2. Ag 2 BS 2. “e 2 pet. «c 25. xs 3. “é 30. Aug. II. ce ye Poel oa . ce 30. Sept. 12. ar 2). es: re eee pe i ce 23 ce 30. Geet, Et “ec sa! ae ss Bi Pe ToT ac 19. ce ss ce Sis «ce aT; ce SF: Nov. 2. (< rete ce 8. ce 14. ac T4. «c 14. ce 15. ce 1B ce 21 28. ce 30. Bec. 1; ce He ce I ce 3 ae aS cc +e iy eo 12 E20 DET 0)R ce APPENDIX II. ili FOR OFFICE AND PRINTING. MA: Ras Eee, CRT DOR on po 2 hae mas ps ea See $ 50 MSA Ati ie tee oly boora's SE i ae ee ees I 20 Andruc 6: Circle, Pengssss sie oc det al hoa Leis a Andrus & Church, Sundry Office supplies.............. 4 68 W. H. Lowdermilk & Co., Book on Manures.......... 2 00 Franklin Engraving and Printing Co., Halftone cuts.. 17 98 Ui Be BPR er ees 5 sara a ictal a irae = ole, hi oes 20 00 Lic MV, egies a Oe oo 3 ic oo os en Seta 2 ee 43, 33 W. F. Humphrey, 5 M. copies Bulletin No. 142and plates 166 50 U. SB heerape:, >) os2 a mea oad ee Cie ope se 25 00 Lo Maloney, Pear. 24-03 ete Be alee ee eee peiaies 45 00 GC. MN Tale Peabo 2625 2-55 08 Saad 5 necaed ahite Wage I2 44 WE As Adettee teanine ‘typewriters. 26 605 4 SSR Aa ote 5 66 W. F. Humphrey, 20 M.copies Bulletin No. 150and plates 307 55 Andrus & Church, Pens and pencil holder....... ..... 15 ME, oiamseville Labor, © 25 ccauiseeesasneuttee at Pee 31 25 J ealeey, Cartage ivi at. 6% 6 a eee eae 25 Andrus & Church, 500 postals and printing........... 6 25 Tz Se aeoney.: Labor: 3.58 ta koala ane oe re es Be 43 33 Ct Fey Pate PADOC. of o%. ones ose Mee ate Oe be ween 2 56 Gi MC aay, LADOE 5 6. day igh s Would ate Sine epee eee 3.35 W. F. Humphrey, 150 copies Eleventh Annual paises 87 84 Tie Oss (508. oom, scien eins ae Do perro yas 16 Andrus & Church, Labela:. soci). eee eee ote 75 M.A. Adsitt, Mimeograph Sale c PE oy rad aoe eee 3 70 Ue tet ee Postace. ..3i-. ae er eee ee ees 25 00 LaWieitatones, Lahore: 20.05 Sebi eipieeas-oeleee 43 33 CC. By batoy Labor a. 50g3s8 S05 Che eee ee 5 60 Gi Wis tally LADOr oo och oer. ata eelie ye eke oe 6 62 Wee, “Bea or) S62 ss Sin va cugeiprs cease ae 3 53 E.. DeNerton, Printing.2 Mcartez. iors. ceceste’ daeet 7 00 Téhaeareeas iG: (Sa. 50. c.lusoe oa bere Ara ee ame & 64 Lo Vas ee , Freight and: Carlawe. .ctutaist eames, tehe 12 08 Woe Humphrey, 20 M. copies Bulletin No. eA ye: 485 20 U. Se eeress Co.,-Hxpressare «2... - = tenitat Nal Vavaeueshts 75 W. Nuffort, Labor 5 A adel nedien yak Raa St anaes Oe aR 2.85 M. V. Slingerland, Traveling Serr Aa Reka ' BeOS: annual meeting) en EN ee mee 31 65 Wa: Muiiaet abo -6).,.3 dies U2 os Bicoaetin® to eee I 05 Franklin Engraving & Printing Co., Halftone........ 3 00 Ty... Vik ey balan: 1) delermtecls aeat eat eieee cis ee oe 43 33 G.. Watdeiiewe: Daher so tots eas ce ee eee 4 82 W. F. Humphrey, 20 M. copies Bulietin No. 154 ...... 193 80 Li. VicReeRo prerehb and Cartage) cesci.5 eset an: 3 81 Cornell Co-Op), Sundry office supplies ... 2.2... ..:..-. 44 66 U. Si extesia ew, ces pressage).6 iin es sec se So I 60 U: Sp Bat eeasrase - 0S... catia «ae etl ath em le aap itt 25 00 W. Nuihoretieate i oO. cling ace hee eo pee a ea eee 2 85 U. Se Eeepress| Ge (Me pressape:. 4\.3 45-2 sae 2 Spe 25 Ithaca Gas Co.., Gas AE DANSE ta ga Fies ORC EN a RARINCS Soi alll SP TAN 2052 Andrus & Church, Postals and printing, Ste oat crec 6 50 W. S. More, 1 book peat MOrEMies. 2.13) enue eae I 00 W. Natflori Baber see ie tac vad ne, oe ple EE ENC caKX® Amount carried forward, $1,795 43 iv Dec. 28. ce 30. ec 31. ae 31. oe 31. 1899 Jan. If. Jab § i oo ES. ce 24. ae 9 f ee a. ‘ec 31. ae ai; Feb. 6. ce 13. cc 72: ta aoe. |. SS. ae hoe Mar. 2. ‘ec 6. cc 9. ey, Sas aeSt ee ce 29. Apr. 3, ae s: “< 2 ee Pf te, paces fi re PY ee May 6. sc 8. ae 8. sans 8 Sb, sabe 2 yane:* 7. a 7, “ec 8. sp me Li ¢ 30. “ec 19. $5) ae. 1898 july 2. ae 2. APPENDIX II. Amount brought forward... .:'....5.. .....>5. 002 eee eee 4 50 Ithaca Rubber Stamp Works, Box rubber type 4 ae I 50 Andros & Ciarek, Pencils. ...... 00-05...) ee 28 Total for Ofiee and Printifig .2>..°.. -222a aoa $2,618 48 FOR AGRICULTURAL DIVISION. U. S. Express Go., Bxpressage...... vase ae . ae 50 Winte & Burdick, Drugs... .2. si. iawn osaoen eee 80 Amount carried forward, $ I 30 July 2. am 2, “< 2. ce 30. wie. < 1. im E: ce i ae Ti. c ie ae ce ¥%. ay to. 7, 3 30. Sept. 7. ae 23. oe a3, Get! 11, “<< iy ce $f. ce 31. e aE ae SF; «6 sf. Novy. Io. e ©, 10. 6 14. ce I5. 7 1 =. EO ce 30. ce 30. ae 30. «6 30. «6 30. im 30. mee: 1. 1899 Want. 2 5. Mar. 9. Apr. 18. im) 24. Ei 20. May 65. pune 1. ac 362 ‘e re ac it ¢ ie c ie LO: ce BO. ce 30. ce 21 APPENDIX II. Ampunt Dreieos torward.:.....-':',).'ois sens oe Jameison & McKinney, 1 hose connection.... CAE Tailby, Papas eriiee Pe Se eee gee GW; Fatlby; Labor si... son 4 tee er ees wee Sc eee tae P aotos int) See ing ee ee Wiite.oe Burdick; Dirnes <3 202 Sot cae ote o dexpress Co... E=xpressages (2075 eS tk a j; ipa emorvurn Galo: SEC0 is eo ee epeascinoton, abate tis cote eee Tow. raaseey, Cartare...t fn ane ee ees Sigil Ste Andrus & Church, Memorandum paper......... Sees idan: PHiotos: 122620. 05 es Pao eee ole Stephens & Masters, 25 feet hose and coupling. J. B. Lang, Labor on spraying machines ........ jee one, Dect iemite oa ee es ame resatoon. ‘Labor it ee Bees es ewe stesse, LADO: . Wann oeuies ore 8a th oe eee Teer rastineton. Lavoro 5% 22st fi ckoes ee eer antay DADO, ols eer Ree tee ee ee IE ok kl Ke Se Co a ae eee E. McGillivray, Photographic supplies..... .... White & Burdick, 2 vat-thermometers ................ Aparna: c Chureli paper Sacks 2.2.6 n ae ck H. H. Wing, Traveling expenses ...;:......... George Small, Lumber for silo. 2) oo 600i eke Anaris.« Church, Stationery: .)o00.¢ 2. fe 25552 eoleete = Tan ko sSNA Mh pee Re ree een le ee Biaeeeon; Labor. oisaret. ses esas eee We enh, LADOP 22 os usls cia ere sp teas wee eee Baer a bobe ds Soe ee a ae eae pac Aa: J: Wapeith, Shearing sheep ..0-.-95-o jalan, 6+ pigs) ve. oo ose 3k Stirs iaerciate ee Si ee tion Pots ae oe Or eal es nea Moma. serine so aia oo De gle teks Peas mage ‘Trent i wie az Cos hacles oie ae ae det wars Geng ealvin, Sect pases ss 7. on. cx ke tec sn as ae J: Chatitiea& Sons, 1 spring balances. 27 70 eee. 1.“ Vise Preis ht ane Cariage sion ws 253 ae ee Sees S. Leiter, Snrintss, Cec eas wine ce owls a ee eee Co Beg abor iii. Uae cioths eal ereater ays rinks wba Ga We LAD OG hn iste tee se oa ge ea cr gn W., Greene aor eso eG ere Aercre ew 8 he, Sea Cr We ad ADOT oe Des aie ae eee eee SS. Era On eras SS ees ae, ai Pe ne ee a ce oe George daylong, Labor :..2% 25 2): * pends rhe ep tea Se nee es” Barr Sf@thers. winegaper Gipyper- 45.) oes soe Ss 5 hn eh ie ED... Norton; 300 postal cards:printed) soe G. Rankin & Son, Lamp shades.......... ate, EeNes ie ae Wi. G. (Cala mii ami a oe ee es ee Be, Sane Total for Agricultural Division .......... }. Meeiinorneen. & Cas Sede its hey hs oes iad Winters itemicg, Denese eo ee en rove ae dete cee U. S4BO., Postage and envelopes FAD fl Demi ae 1s =) Harrington, ‘Labor BIE TS 5 Riba te DIL haa ye 5 ee ABE janes Sars eaneela har yas oe ite ee ah Cyr eauny; Lander <.5.7 255 Fol yest ote tics a/tye mn eis a er ee we No WwW AIH DW n (e) On Go Gd BHATT ODMDOOLW N ae N vil Nv MWOWNNNNNNNNNN WD & ° APPENDI x LI, FOR HORTICULTURAL DIVISION, Burns Bros,, Blacksunthing...... ......2.008.7aeeeeee $ 2 40 A. J, Calkins, Repairs on harness. .....05.)2.+:s- ee eee 6 20 White & Burdick, Tiras, .. 0. nce s.- seen Sos nia, oe 6 15 Shady Hill Nurseries; Fients...... .. «..\cinnshe meee I 35 J. B. Lang, Laborand repairs... .. . ass ys eps ee eee 6 30 J. W. Mating, Sashes. 7. 1s... ..... >. vnelde dang ee 3 75 Andrus & Church, Sundry supplies...... ............ 4 70 U. S.. Dept. Agriculture, Index cards .......2.0 «:0808 2 00 Jj. Carbutt, @aekaves tablets... ...21. «+01 teense pee I 44 B. .F. White, sudes and photos... -...... 9. «stale 31 27 C. 0. Chemical Dept, Chemicals... 4;..: 4. ene eee 2 78 George Smali, Lumber for forcing houses............. 20 79 Jn. J CR nS oe ss weet aa ls geet 20 DL. & W. BR. R.,-Breight and cartage....: 1.4.49 a 45 Go Sasa etary... 1 en ei oe oh wl 50 00 Tre CSO AE ano acs oo ow winnaar 37 50 Se RAI cc sy ca <=, +\ +) + 2 07m dgsce Binipinl ... .. Fo. ¢ occa hae 07 i. Season Ce... ss. ss. eb he ERE ae 45 C. Ob, Woesetin, Tabor... 2. 566 + «940 2s eee 38 E.. Maeciigray, Plates. . ....... <1. txipede se ele ee 58 U. 5. Express Co., Expressage. 03. 5..2.4-235 ee ee 70 Ll. VzB.R. Co. Freight and cartageé. .\.004. a eee I 52 U.S. Dept. Apr., Index cards... 2.5.6 «5: sai pa 2 05 Tra (3tOV GE On eee es Ss se aeons 37 50. U.S. teepr|esa Go... Mxpressage =. 4... .4.2+, cé 19. Ne 9 ps eels oe? 1 Oe. 1898 July 14. ect. SF. 1899 wat, 4. 1899 party.” 2, : 2: ce pS. ce rs. APPENDIX II. Amount brought forward Expressage Andrus & Church, Blank books, tags, etc U.S. B=presa @o-, 62 ai» 8.8 so pro.» Sh SOS BRNO Slew el eee Ss ‘> sen). © sao (aim i 6 e wee ge 8 ew my a TeV: AG RREME ele et Fale co ihe one legac n ha a unt tintin fiers Reon Pig Fa gS eee ls Pha g aie "a sar nao ere Rigg rs Feigaree a pe TSA CONG Clee 2 ace ea Set at tes! We stad, Sixia ce sim eichide Dota es Be Hase th ore elst a= oe aye aoe are vie piace eee OeN Pritchard & Son, Repairs on wagon Andrus & Church, 500 postals. printing, etc......... : F. Hoch, Willow cuttings G. W. Tailby, Hay and straw U. S. Express Co., Expressage of 6) 0 Bhd wo) 6, CG epee £ © 2 oo SUS eo 6 Bie pie we Bg Ea ae EE O08 ee NS Reh gis EL RI AAR Oye 3 Oe Pei Vea ceG ee POE eas hein aloe wa PR se eee Sees American Florist Co., 1 directory J. M. Thorburn & Co., Seeds F.-R. Pierson & Co., Flower bulbs Brown & Barnard, Sundry supplies........ Treman, King & Co., Ira Grover, Labor S. L. Sheldon, Photos bi ees & Burdick, Sponges . Simmons & Co., Geraniums ace Bros., Horseshoeing J. M. Thorburn & Wer Sees, fo ramet eee George Small, Lumber Toa Wapies, Pe: Co., Freight and cartage... J. M. Thorburn & Co., Seeds Fall Creek Milling Co., Bran W. I lawn mower George Grover, Labor.......... Teri reveste: ie OE oo ou ewe a a adie be eae ale ee eee The Cottage Gardens, Seeds and plants Rochester Optical Co., Slides oé¢6 aa is ee ese 2, Ss a2e, 0S, S eiese oMGte eee. 0.) abe. 6,0 ue 31.8 Om a ie a ee ee oS ee 2 OO Cet we ce R) o/s 0) 6 Hey a hime Cee ee Bee 66 6 a ets ae to ae ieee a 9.8. 6 te woe eee S'S) ele, 8 acer hen Sra oe eee oS ee lites ee ceee 0 ef 2) O04 6 Pie 8 wis a asa Ss te seis 0 0 wee 6 6's Bie aa iet ap) eletel sn. + a iale = a 66.6 6 ee Gls 2 ee de Cer el as © Fue Ce ele C. J. Rumsay & Co., Supplies for forcing-house... si Shore ba 2 Sh Sys, eps 2) 60 pe a SRS Gane ages E. A. Ormsby, Ventilator apparatus Treman, King & Co., Sundries for forcing-houses...... Ira Grover, Labor Total for Horticultural Division FOR CHEMICAL, DIVISION. CS ae [eG 5-4 11.6 2 ew £9)5 SS DB D6 DO 2 6Ke1g eis ele 4 C. U. Chemical Dept., Sundry supplies and chemicals. . L. V.R.R. Co., Freight and cartage Bush & Dean, Linen Total for Chemical Division FOR BOTANICAL DIVISION. U_ S. Express Co., Expressage The Bool Co., Repairs J. Carbutt, Photographic supplies Bausch & Lomb, Sundry supplies bee @. wel ee. mice Cpe tal ele wed Feng ee. oi hie ete tot M1 lib ess Ae 6 6 a. 2) ep are w) Aun evelei~ Sia oe ee eee ane) ee, (8 Ever ep@! © ele, ¢ a, 0 ame) Bh eel ope as aii» oi 6) o &, @, mi, whe: \e. $ 68 84 20 Amount carried forward, $ 28 67 Vili APPENDIX II. Amount brought forward... .... +... 7:50.00. eeee The Bool’Co., Repairs... i... +. oo dees eee Bausch & Lomb, Alcona: . ose. os es wo nl ee H. Hasselbring, Traveling expenses.... ......++ssesss J: Carbutt,. Phote, plates. |... .. «6+ 69 Chee G. F. Atkinson, Traveling expenses Bausch & Lomb, Optical Co., Sundry supplies... White & Burdick, Drugs Mrs. W. A. Morrill, Labor......... Bausch & Lomb, Shutters for lens Cambridge Supply Co., Publications G. E. Stechert, Publications G.E. Stechert, Publications...... J. Carbutt, Photo. plates White & Burdick, Drugs G. F. Atkinson, Sundry supplies Total for Botanical Division FOR VETERINARY SCIENCE DIVISION. Cornell University Agr. Dept., Sundry supplies FOR ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION. Treman, King & Co., Sundries... Andrus & Church, Stationery 4 Suseeriand Labor’... 2.55. saa ena eee Rothschild Bros., Sundry supplies Library Bureau, Car Index outfit D. B. Stewart, Kerosene F. K. Luke, Labor B. M. McCartney, Labor U. S. Express Co., Expressage Library Bureau, Book........... J. W. Halsey, Cartage The Bool Co., 1 chair Bausch & Lomb, 1 standard triplet H. A. Dreer, Seeds Bausch & Lomb, 2 filters, etc L. V. R.R. Co., Freight and cartage Cornell University Dept. of Repairs, Labor Bell Telephone Co., Repairs, etc Jameison & McKinney, Plumbing D. B. Stewart & Co., Merosene:.. ......enss tare = Total for Entomological Division......... » 0 0 @ < @ Ss 5p 6 8243 oe Sie ve 6.6 0 oe 2 06 6 ke Be ft we oe ee idee 6 sw es 6 alee eee ene ¢ce*s, ete @ ewer seneor ev 008 ©» .s 916/65 2 Ae U. S. Express Co., Expressage.......1..+:5+50s0 sme Bausch & Lomb, Vials, covers, etc......:....... E. MacGillivray, Photo. supplies. . . 2 eee Bausch & Lomb, Vials... «5... 6. += 2 .vsecuacsss ware ee o= 6.69.08 © 9 en eo .e = Olea See Reed & Montgomery, Binding book..............-..6. U. S, Bapress Co., Expressage: .. 4... 0. ose pee G. G. Allen, Foreign publications. leet E, MacGillivray, Photo plates..............-e.0eeeees 2 bins 6.8/6 0) 8 6 Se 2 eee Me Dake dabor.'.......-20..c ee oe © 0 6.6 « 2 Sige. ol els ee © ie 6 6\6 e196 oe ae eae ewee ec sea een S 2 6 68 8 6 OB *6 = 6 6 6 eee 0 2 6 6s 00 of 6.0 6 6s) s 00 6 « 6 6061S wee eee see © & 6 0s © ees 6 «is ee we oe eee @ wo & 6 o's s ain © pie eae eee PC ee ee ee ee a ee ee eM ee aeae se wees ve 8 iw HS 6.8 618 © Oa eee eee -e eC ese ae £2 © wes = eee “. a bie 4, are a2 0s 2 pele & oie ie A eee “* cece seunte 6 « Ome SP eee os ew. 9 © = 22 6 6s 04m oe Smee G, M. Gataraudéae anor: 2... tee eee Treman, King & Co., Paint and brush.......) 2). “er ee $ 30 20 W®ONnN COOH FS on ; n - Hw OLN 8 SUMMARY. The Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University, In account with The United States Appropriation. 1899 Dr. To receipts from Treasurer of the United States as per appropriation for the year ending June 30, 1899, under Act of Congress approved March 2, 1887............. $13,500.00 Cr. SE CO: ete on oe as dhe he oon oe eye CAR CRS eee oo $8,568 34 ET ST oe eS eer y Seg a ee ey 48 75 ree ANG PRIntye : 9 a cee oy ie 2,618 48 EQUIPMENT, LABOR AND CURRENT EXPENSES. . AE MOUCHIMEMIL Gs 0 oko Sk tach ewe a ee Ae 511 96 PAP ePCUNETIEE, Sots ts vis eae alot catale BS 1,159 32 RPemenTRRR DS 8S asd camcwacte bce iam acne a 69 67 PAGED Sots rw 5y'Sina stats eared Sevilecere Site) aah 346 13 MePeninaity SClenee ie rink aes Cn cite hes 30 20 ROINOIOLY 52 ss a's. civ eet aes 153 97 $13,500 00 RECEIPTS. From Agricultural and Horticultural PRA StS Ose Sak Sane Shaye 2.0 oe $0 627.42 c s - , Appendix ITI, Teachers’ Leaflets on Nature NG, 12 OL. 73 WO.” 1: No: 7. oo No; 2. Nas, .-4:. nO. 5. Study. How the Trees Look in Winter. Evergreens, and How They Shed Their Leaves. NATURE STUDY BULLETINS: Nature Study. ‘ READING COURSE FOR FARMERS. The Soil! What it is. Tillage and Under-drainage! Reasons why. ‘Fertility of the Soil! What it is. How the Plant gets Its Food from the Soil. How the Plant gets Its Food from the Air. ra’ y\? - 7 A iv as \ya' Ae ; ‘ We Fr eiey, tm) hs APs ial et ; rye ang ahh lat, 2 “ i a ' iar 4 4 r oe wey pr AAS prey) ~ ee emer! 4 Je Fl i. Te (enna 7 el] aad 4% ‘a OO oa res 4 arora | bi ? :" hae eda il f¢ ? F ee ae 14 er Ae ‘ s wy ry — * rs ‘ . , F Bet, . " ‘ i | artist ich ¢ work wh The first s the tree. 34). raw wy y 8 5 ( ce wh > LOeS the elm tre d 1 ng Blocki 35. 140 We may now take up our lesson. Our subject is an elm tree (Fig. 34); our medium, lead pencil; our drawing to be rendered in outline. Material.—Almost any good drawing paper, white or buff in color, will answer our purpose: 9x12 is a good size. Our pencil should be of medium grade lead (F. or HB.) of any standard make, Kohinoor preferred. If procurable, we should have a light drawing board 17x22 inches (here is an opportunity for the carpenters) to place the paper on, otherwise a very stiff piece of cardboard; or a large geography book might answer. It is best, however, to fasten our paper, which we cannot do in using the book. For fastening the paper we shall need four thumb tacks for the corners. A Faber or multipex pencil eraser is needed; also a sponge eraser with which to remove the light lines and clean the draw- ing before lining it in. Our position.—Our point of view will depend upon our subject, but it is not well to be so near as to necessitate raising the head in order to see the top of the tree. If we take longer than one sitting for our drawing (which I do not think advisable, as we must not choose too complicated a subject) we must mark our posi- tion in order to again obtain the same point of view. Position of the drawing-board.—Our paper must be placed on the board with its edges parallel to those of the board. The drawing-board should be held perpendicular, or nearly so, to the direction in which it is seen, for if the board is tilted far back- ward, it will be fore-shortened and our tree probably will have been drawn longer than it should be. How to look.—Thetendency of the beginner is to see and draw too much in detail. It is most essential that we look first for the large shapes, the greatest dimensions ; next for the smaller ones ; last for detail. Itis not well for the pupils to work too close to their drawings. They should occasionally sit well back in their seats or get up and stand behind their chairs in order to obtain the general effect of their drawing, to see that the big shapes are right and that the spirit of the tree has not been lost. As an aid to placing our drawing so as to best fill the space it has to occupy,we may use what the French call a ‘‘ cherche-motzf,”’ the English, a finder. This is nothing more than a small OOOO OL a reine ee The original pencil sketch ts - not followed exactly. Working tn the details with sharp lines. 36. i] ; | 142 piece of stiff paper or cardboard, about 5x8 inches, in which is cut a small rectangular opening 34x1 inch; the size may vary somewhat. We may look through this opening, the card acting asa frame to our picture. This will help us to decide whether our subject will look better placed the horizontal or vertical way of the paper. We may include more or less in the finder by varying its distance from the eye. Now, I am sure we would not place ourselves within a dozen yards of our tree if we wished to get its general effect ; there- fore, we must have plenty of foreground in our drawing. We must give the eye achance to look, allowing plenty of space between the lowest point of our drawing and the lower edge of our paper. We must also avoid crowding it to the right or left. As the height of tree we are to draw (Fig. 34) is greater than its greatest width, we find that it will fill the space best if placed the vertical way of the paper. After indicating the extreme height and width by four light marks, before carrying the draw- ing further we must test these proportions by comparing the width with the height, always testing the shorter dimension into the longer, viz.: To test the drawing.—Close one eye. The pencil may be used to test the drawing by holding it in front of one at arm’s length (as in Fig. 33) perpendicular to the direction in which the object is seen ; also revolving it ina plane perpendicular to the direc- tion in which the object is seen, in order to compare one dimen- sion with another. For example, hold your pencil horizontally at arm’s length so that its blunt end covers the outermost left- hand point of the elm. Slide your thumb along the pencil till it covers the extreme right-hand point; retain that measurement (keeping the same position in your chair, pencil always at arm’s length); revolve the pencil in the same plane until it coincides with the height of the elm, at the same time lowering it so that the end of the thumb covers the lowest point of the tree; note carefully the point that the blunt end covers; raise the pencil so that the end of the thumb covers that point, noting again where the blunt end occurs and notice how many times, and over, the width goes into the height. In our elm (Fig. 34) we find that the width goes about once and six-sevenths, into the height, or a little ' x sso statiaenasteaenmanetiie-masngaamestsetanice ign memantine ape einen eatR a Nae tates eR pe A! A AL OCLC CL LGA LLIN | aa. The outline drawing complete, and the first pencil marks erased. 144 short of twice. If the latter statement is preferred, we must bear in mind the proportion left over. Do not use the scale side of aruler or marks on the pencil or object used in order to test the proportions. A scale or other mechanical means should not be used in free-hand drawing. The teacher should have a spool of black thread and should give a piece about 2 ft. 6 inches long to each pupil. Aneraser, a knife, or some small article may be attached to one end of the thread. By holding the weighted thread asa plumb-line in front of us, we have an absolutely vertical line; so by having it intersect a desired point of our tree we may obtain the relative positions of other points to the right and left of this intersected point. Blocking-in.—We may conceive of the general shape of our elm by looking at it with half-closed eyes. It appears in sil- houtte. Now imagine lines joining its outermost points ; this will give the general mass or shape of our tree. Now if we represent these outermost points contained in these lines, by sketching lightly these ‘‘ blocking-in’’ lines, as they are called, we obtain the general shape of the elm (Fig. 35). We must emphasize the fact that these blocking-in lines be sketched in lightly by holding the pencil near the blunt end, using a free-arm motion. Now before going farther we again test these new points to see if they occupy their right positions in relation to the height and width. Do not, however, transfer the measure- ments from the pencil to the paper. This test is only to obtain the proportion of one dimension to another. Having tested these smaller dimensions we may draw lightly the main branches. After having indicated their general direction and character of growth, we may indicatesome of the smaller branches and twigs (Fig. 36). All this work should be carried out without erasing ; all corrections should be made by slightly darker lines. Let us now sharpen our pencils to a good point and go over the drawing with a fine dark line, carefully studying the charac- ter and spirit of the tree. Now erase the lighter and superflu- ous lines, as the dark lines remain distinct enough to indicate our drawing. Lining-in.—We may now take our pencil nearer the point and 145 proceed to line-in the drawing, going over it with a definite consistent line. If desirable, we may accent and bring out certain parts of the tree stronger than others by darker or shade lines and short strong markings called accents. These are especially effective at the junction and underside of branches, and where one wishes to give the object a nearer appearance. We should be cautious in using them, however; but lack of space does not permit further discussion of the subject of accented outlines. We should also allow the pupils to make short ten or fifteen minute ‘‘ time sketches’’ of trees. In these, it isthe spirit and general effect of the tree that we must strive for. Above all, we must allow our little draughtsman to give his own interpretation of the tree. A helpful suggestion as to proportion, etc., would be in place, but we must allow his individuality to have as much play as possible. The suggestions given on these pages are necessary for the beginner. Some of them are hard facts; but it lies with the teacher to develop the zsthetic and artistic qualities lying dormant in the pupil, ready to be moulded and started in the right direction. If you have confined the pupils to the flat copy, break away from it; allow themtocreate. Let them see the beautiful things all aboutthem. They willrespond. Let them draw from nature and still life. Train them to observe. The early summer days, just before school closes, with their bright sunlight and strong shadows, make many subjects inter- esting as light-and-shade drawings. Fall with its brilliant color- ing gives us a chance to use the color-box, while the early winter twilights will bring many an interesting silhouette before our boysand girls, which next day during the drawing hour may be carried out in pen and ink. The most successful teacher will be the one of sympathetic nature whose love reaches out to the boys and girls, as well as to all things beautiful. The most successful teacher will be the one who endeavors to place the children where they may view nature sympathetically and with the most intimate relationship. 146 These leaflets are designed to suggest means and methods by which teachers may interest children in nature-study. The ultimate object of our work ts to tnculcate a love for country life, and this can best be done by interesting the coming generation in country things. The teacher will also find nature-study to be directly valuable as a means of education, or training the mind of the child. We want your full co-operation and your unreserved criticism. Any com- munication which you may send to us will receive prompt and direct attention - The following leaflets have been issued to aid teachers in the public schools tn presenting nature-study subjects to the scholars at odd times : Flow a squash plant gets out of the seed. flow a candle burns. Four apple twigs. A children’s garden. For the pupils. Some tent-makers. What is nature-study ? Hlints on making collections of insects. The leaves and acorns of our common oaks. The life-history of the toad. - The birds and J, Life ti an aquarium. ee. a ge ee eT eee ae oY hey S N fi 12. How the trees look in winter. Bulletin 159 gives a general review of the Cornell Agricultural Extension Work. These will be sent free to all engaged in teaching in the public schools of the State of New York. Address, Bureau of Nature-Study, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. ¥. TEACHER’S LEAFLETS NO. 13. FOR USE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS | FEBRUARY, I8gg. PREPARED BY THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CORNEL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. Issued under Chapter 67 of the Laws of 1898. I. P. ROBERTS, DIRECTOR. Evergreens, and How They Shed Their Leaves. BY. B..P GDULE ||) ONE-BEARING evergreens are familiar to everyone; yet this familiarity is usually with the trees as entire objects. We do not often stop to analyze a tree in order to find out what gives it its characteristic appearance or to see what makes it look as it does. We will often find, if we stop to look, that much of the character of a tree,—that is,its general appearance or the way in which it impresses us,—is due to the leaves and to their arrangement on the branches. This is true of many of the evergreen trees. Note to the teacher.—This leaflet has two particular objects : toteach how evergreens shed their leaves, and to enable you to distinguish a few of the evergreens which are most commonly met. These studies (and those sug- gested in Leaflet No. 12) should be the means of adding much cheer to the winter. Encourage pupils to make collections of cones, to observe when they shed their seeds,and how long (how many seasons) they remain attached to the branch. Remember that mere identification of the kinds of trees is not the highest type of nature-study. Cones are good subjects for free-hand drawing. Beginners should draw them in outline, omitting the shading. Encourage pupils to draw single leaf- clusters of the different pines, cautioning them to get the right number of leaves in each case, ae Why are certain kinds of trees called evergreen, in distinction from those which are said to be deciduous? The reason is obvious. One kind is always green from the presence of foliage, while the other sheds all of its leaves every season. The ever- green trees, like the pines and the spruces and firs, always appear to be well covered with foliage, so it does not often occur to us that these trees shed their leaves. And yet perhaps we can recall happy hours when we used to play beneath some large pine tree where the ground was carpeted with pine ‘‘ needles.’’ The falling of the leaves of the maple trees or the oaks is a 148 : EZ SEES awest ANZ - Z fy TA LEA YW AHA: any J 38. Shoot of the common white pine, one-third natural size. familiar sight, but who has seen the spruce leaves fall, and who can tell when the pine needles drop? That the evergreen trees do shed their foliage, as truly as the maples and the elms do, we will not question, for we can see the fallen leaves under any tree. Look up into the top of a spruce or pine. See that the interior is bare of foliage. The leaves are towards the ends of the branches, where they receive sunlight. Yet the branches which are now on the interior once bore leaves, for we can see the leaf-scars. It will be interesting to find out something about the leaves of our common evergreens. Let us look at some of them. 149 THE WHITE PINE. In Fig. 38 is shown a white pine branch. Notice that the leaves are borne in bunches or clusters of five. Each bunch of leaves is produced in the axil (or angle) of a minute scale-like body, but this scale cannot usually be found except on the very young growth. It has been worn away or SE broken from the older growth by the wind i“ and the rain and the other forces of nature. jee Ss Another strange fact should attract our EDU, \ attention. The leaves of the maples and s ¢ eV x other deciduous trees are borne only on the , i. \ ba. present season’s growth; but this is not ZA Eid Gs ‘~ J WN dips we, “i \ the case in the pines, and kindred trees. If we trace back the growth of the past two or three years, we shall find that there are as many leaves on the wood that is two years old as there are on the last season’s growth; and in many cases we can find leaves on the part of the branch that is three years old. This means that the pine leaves or needles are two and sometimes three years old when they fall. The Fig. 38 shows the falling of the leaves from the . different years’ growth. The part of the branch between the tip and A is the last season’s growth; between A and B itis two years old; the part between B and C is three years old. The part that grew four has shed tts seeds. seasons ago—beyond C— has no leaves. teeters The different season’s growth is not indicated by distinct ‘‘rings’’ asin the case of deciduous trees (See Leaflet No. 3), but by the branching. Each whorl of branches about a limb represents the end of a season’s growth. A young pine tree, or the younger limbs of an old tree,show this character very plainly. Do the leaves of the pines and of the other evergreen trees fall at the end of the growing season, as the leaves of most of the deciduous trees do? Or do they gradually become lifeless and fall at any season, from the force of the wind and other forces of 39. Cone of white pine. It Half 150 nature? ‘Tie a large sheet of cloth in the top of some evergreen tree, in such a way as to form a receptacle to catch the leaves. Do you catch leaves in winter as well as in summer ? There are several different kinds of pines, so we must picture carefully in our minds the foliage of the white pine, for it is dif- ferent from that of any others. The leaves are soft and very slender, and from three to four inches long. ‘The base of each cluster of leaves is at first surrounded by a small sheath-like 40. Shoot of common pitch pine. One-half natural size. body, but this falls away when the leaves are still very young. A scar is left when the leaves drop and these scars can often be seen on parts of the branches that are eight or ten years old. Do the leaves of other kinds of trees make a scar when they fall? The white pine cones, in which the seeds are borne, are con- spicuous objects. They are five or six inches long and slightly curved. It will be interesting to find out if the seeds ripen the same year in which they are formed. Perhaps a cone still con- taining seeds can be obtained. Carefully tear it apart and see where the seeds are attached. Red squirrels sometimes eat the pine seeds. A white pinecone, which has shed its seeds, is shown in Fig.309. | 151 This kind of pine is found widely scattered in New England, New York and westward to Minnesota and Iowa and along the Allegheny Mountains as far south as Georgia ; also in some parts of Canada. It is a valuable lumber tree. THE PITCH PINE. This kind of pine is very different, in many respects, from the white pine. Let us find some of the differences. Instead of having leaves in bunches of five, it has them in clusters of three, and the base of each cluster is inclosed by a GA scaly sheath which does not fall away as in me case of the white pine; neither does the little scale-like body upon the branch, in the axil of which the leaf-cluster is borne, fall away, but it may be found just below the leaf, and even on branches that are several yearsold. Some- times a sheath is found with only two leaves. We shall want to know, too, how old the leaves are when they fall. Dothey remain on 41. Cone of pitch pine. f One-half natural size. the tree longer than the white pine leaves do? Again, instead of being soft and slender as the white pine leaves are, we shall find that these leaves are rigid and large in comparison, and stand out straight from the branches. The shape of the leaves is also distinct from the white pine needles. See if you can find any other differences. A pitch pine branch is shown in Fig. 40. The part between the tip and A is the past season’s growth. Observe the foliage on the part that is two years old. Part of it has fallen. We often find it on growth which is older than this; but in this specimen there are no leaves on the three-year wood. The cone of the pitch pine is very unlike that of the white pine. Fig. 41 gives a good idea of one which has shed its seeds. Compare this with Fig. 39; or, better, examine the two kinds of cones side by side. The pitch pine cones are sometimes borne in clusters of two or more and they persist,—that is, remain on the tree for several years after the seeds have ripened and scattered. 152 Notice how the new cones are borne with reference to last sea- son’s growth. Are they attached to the tip of a branchlet? Or are they closely attached to the side of a branch? Figs. 42 and 43 will help usanswer this question. The little conesin Fig. 43, near the tip of the twig, are just beginning to form. The pitch pine usually grows in soil and is found in the United States along the Atlan- tic coast to Vir- ginia, along the mountains to Georgia, west- ward to Western New York, East- ern Ohio, Ken- tucky and East- ern ‘Tennessee. It has little value as timber, be- os cause it does not 42. Pitch pine. One-third natural size. grow large enough, ScotTcH AND AUSTRIAN PINES. In the same manner, other pines may be studied. Fig. 44 shows a cone and bit of foliage of the Scotch pine, and Fig. 45 the Austrian pine. These cones grew the past season and are not yet mature. After they ripen and shed the seeds which they contain, they will look something like thecone in Fig. 41. The Scotch pine has short and blue-green needles.. The Austrian pine is coarser, and has long dark-green needles. There are but two leaves in a cluster on these kinds of pines and we shall find that the sheath which incloses the base of the leaf-cluster is more conspicuous than in either the white or pitch pines. Do the leaves persist in the Scotch and Austrian pines sandy or rocky | = | | | 43. Pitch pine, showing young cones. Half natural size. 7 Renee / A Z ISS a he} aN = Ment) Gi. A) RAE We hd ————— 4 YR AY : bs \ ~ Ri ~A" x \ / / . \ > “ ste ee S SL We re ows Sh sé, KZ nthe) i en Dns / 8) SPL ip ie, ms Mena Mle S| aS va —, - ae 44. Scotch pine. Half natural size. 154 longer than they do in the others we have examined? Study the cones of these and other pines. The Scotch and Austrian pines are not native to this country, but are much grown for ornament. ‘They can be found in almost any park, and in many other places where ornamental trees are grown. THE NORWAY SPRUCE. The leaves of spruce trees are borne very differently from those of the pines. Instead of being in clusters of two or more, they are single and without a sheath at the base; neither are there scale-like bodies on the branches where the leaves are borne. . Notice, too, that the leaves have a very short stem or petiole. The leaves of the Norway spruce are about one inch long, although the length varies more or less in different parts of the tree and in different trees. They are rather stiff and rigid and sharp- pointed. In a general way, the leaves are four-sided, though indistinctly so. It will be interesting to study the position which the leaves 45. Austrian pine. One-third natural size. —— 155 take on the branches. A hasty glance might give us the impres- sion that the leaves are not produced on the under side of the branches; but a more careful examination will convince us that there are nearly as many on the under side as on the upper. The leaves are all pointing outward from the branch and as nearly upward as is possible. In other words, the leaves grow toward the light. We must not forget to see how long the leaves of the Norway spruce persist and to find out when the leaf-scars disappear. We can find leaves that must surely be six or seven years old 46. Twig of the common Norway spruce. Half natural size. and sometimes we can find them even older than this. The leaf- scars, too, remainalong time. ‘The falling of the leaves is illus- trated in Fig. 46. It shows the extremities of a limb which is eight years old. The part between the tip and A is last season’s growth; between A and B it is two years old ; and beyond B isa part that grew three seasons ago. The section beyond C is six years old; from C to D is seven years of age. The four years’ growth of this limb not shown in the drawing was as densely covered with foliage as is the part shown inthe upper figure ; but there are not many leaves between C and D (seven years old) and none on the eight-year-old wood (except those on the branchlets, and these are younger.) 47. 156 The cone of the Norway spruce is nearly as long as that of the white pine, but it is not so rough and coarse as the white pine cone is. ‘The cones are usually borne on the tips of small branch- lets, although occasionally one is found borne in the manner shown in Fig. 47. The cones usually fall the first winter. The Norway spruce is not a native of this country, but, like the Scotch and Austrian pines, it was introduced from Europe and is grown very widely as an ornamental tree. It is the commonest evergreen in yards and parks. THE BLACK SPRUCE AND ITS KIN. Ap Lye ~—SsC«STT‘erre are several different kinds of Lg SSS spruces which we find growing in 75 a ze our forests and swamps, and sometimes these are planted for ornament. A sprig of foliage and a cone of one of these,—the black spruce,—is shown in Fig. 48. The foliage is not very unlike that of the Norway spruce, but the cones are very small incomparison. ‘They are about one inch long, though they vary considerably in size. Before they open they are oval or plum-shape, but when mature and the scales of the cone have expanded, they are nearly globular. ais of Mebane They are often borne in clusters, as well Half size. as singly, and persist for many years after the seeds have fallen. The posi- tion of the cones will depend upon their age. When young, they point upward, but they gradually turn downward. | The white spruce resembles the black very closely in general appearance. ‘The leaves of the white spruce have a whitish or dusty looking tinge of color and when crushed or bruised, give forth a peculiar disagreeable odor. ‘The cones vary in length from an inch to two inches, and in shape are more cylin- drical or finger-shaped than the cone of the black spruce. 157 The foliage of the red spruce lacks the whitish tinge of color of the white spruce and the cones, which are from one inch to two inches in length, are obovate in shape — that is, the widest place is through the upper part of the cone, and from this point it gradually tapers to the tip. They seldom persist longer than the second summer. The leaves of all these different kinds of spruces vary greatly in length, thickness and sharpness of point, according to the part of the tree on which they grow, and their surroundings. The shedding of the leaves on these or other spruces can bedetermined as easily asin the Norway spruce. These three spruces like a cold climate and grow in many sections of northern United States and Canada and farther AW? yj WAZ Y j mee Ae OA Q —xS ‘| 5 WN W 48. Black spruce. Half natural size. south in the mountains. ‘They are sometimes all found growing together, but the black spruce likes best the damp, cold swamps, while the others grow best on the drier and better drained lands. The black spruce is commonest. The red spruce is least known. THE BALSAM FIR. This is another evergreen tree which grows naturally in the cold, damp grounds of the northern United States and Canada, and to some extent in the eastern states as far south as West Virginia. The foliage is borne in much the same manner as that of the spruces ; yet there are interesting differences in the characters of these two kinds of leaves. Perhaps the most noticeable difference is in the shape ; and the color of the fir leaves will attract our atten- tion because the under side is a silvery color, while the upper side is green. What is the nature of the tip of the leaf? and how does 158 it compare with the pines and spruces in this respect? Does the leaf have a stem or petiole? or is it attached directly to the branches without any stem? How are the leaves shed? The cones are about three inches long and present a rather delicate appearance. It will be interesting to determine the position of the cones, that is, the direction in which they point, and to learn if it is the same when they are young that it is after they have matured. The grayish colored bark of the trunk and limbs bears many ‘blisters ’’ from which Canada balsam is obtained. THE HEMLOCK. A hemlock twig is an interesting object. It may have many characters in common with the spruce and fir, yet the impression which we get from it, or from a large hemlock tree, is entirely distinct. The arrangement of the leaves and the gracefulness of the drooping branchlets are most pleasing. We are lead to examine it more closely. We notice that the leaves appear to be borne in two more or less regular rows,—one on each side of the branch or twig; but in reality they come from all sides of the branch, and it is the position which the leaves assume that gives this two-rowed appearance. The leaves havea short petiole or stem, and this stem rests along the side of the branchlet in sucha direction that the leaves are placed in single rows on either side of the branch. The petioles of the leaves are nearly parallel with the branch while the leaves often make a decided angle with the petiole. This fact can best be brought out by carefully examining a small twig. While we are noting the arrangement of the leaves on the branchlets, we should also take notice of the points of similar- ity and difference between these leaves and the spruces and firs. We shall find that there is more in common, at least so far as shape and color are concerned, between the hemlock and fir than between the hemlock and spruce. The small delicate cones, borne on the tips of the branchlets, will also attract our attention (Fig.49.) Wemay wonder attheir small size, for they are only about three-quarters of an inch long, and very delicate, yet a second glance at the tree willimpress us with 159 the number of cones which the tree bears: and we conclude that, although the cones may be small, yet there are so many of them that there will be no lack of seeds. It is more difficult to trace the age of a hemlock limb than of many other kinds of trees, yet we can easily determine that many of the leaves are several years old when they fall. The bark of the hemlock is used in tanning leather. The tree is much used for lumber. Where does it grow? THE ARBOR-VITA. One might almost wonder, at first sight, if the arbor-vite (often, but wrongly, called white cedar) has any leaves at all. Ke Wj Lig \ : Sf NN WINK W\ Vu. Zz NAS 2 pe iit af A : 49. Spray of the hemlock. Two-thirds natural size. It does possess them, however, but they are very different in size -and shape from any of the others which we have examined. They are small scale-like bodies, closely pressed together along the sides of the branchlets, in four rows. Leaves pressed to the branches in this manner are said to be ‘‘appressed.’’ The leaves of the arbor-vitee are so close together that they overlap one another. The leaves are of two distinct shapes, sometimes known as the surface leaves and the flank leaves. The former are located on what appears to be the flattened surface of the branch- lets, while the latter are on the sides or edges. See Fig. 50. If we carefully look at the leaves, we shall noticea raised spot 160 near the point or tip. This is said to bea resin gland. This glatid can be seen more plainly on the surface leaves that are two years old. Most of theleaves persist for at least two and sometimes three years; but even older ones can be found. ‘These older leaves, however, do not exist as green active leaves, but merely as dried up and lifeless scales. These lifeless leaves, are probably detached from the branches by the forces of nature. 50. The Arbor-vitae. Nearly full size. The cones are even smaller than the hemlock cones. ‘They are borne in the axils of the leaves in the same manner as the branch- lets and are not conspicuous unless one isclose to the tree. The arbor-vitee is much planted for hedges and screens, as well as for other ornamental purposes. There are many horticultural varieties. The tree is abundant in a wild state in New York. 161 Summary on the Kinds of Common Evergreens. The white pine (Pinus Strobus).—Leaves in clusters of five, soft and slender ; cones five or six inches long, slightly curved ; bark smooth except on the trunks and larger limbs of old trees, where it is fissured. The pitch pine (Pinus rigida).—Leaves in clusters of three, from three to four inches long, rather rigid ; cones two to three inches long, often in clusters of two or more but frequently borne singly, persisting long after the seeds have been shed ; bark more or less rough on the young growth and deeply fissured on the trunks of old trees. The Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris).—Leaves usually in clusters of two, from two to four inches long, rigid, of a bluish-green hue whenseen in a large mass on the tree: cones two to three inches long and the scales tipped with a beak or prickle. The Austrian pine (Pinus Austriaca).—Leaves in clusters of two, five or six inches long and somewhat rigid, dark green in color and persisting for four or five years ; cones about three inches long, conical in shape and scales not beaked or pointed as in the Scotch pine. The Norway spruce (Picea excelsa).—Leaves borne singly, about one inch long, dark green, four sided; cones about six inches long, and composed of thin scales, and usually borne on the tips of branchlets. The small branches mostly drooping. The black spruce (Picea nigra).—In general appearance, this is not very unlike the Norway spruce, but the small branches stand out more horizontally and the cones are only one or one and one-half inches long, recurving ‘on short branches. The cones persist for several years after shedding the seed. The white spruce (Picea alba).—Leaves about one inch long, having a glaucous or whitish tinge; twigs stout and rigid, of a pale greenish white color ; cones from one totwo and one- half inches long, more or less cylindrical or “‘ finger-shape,”’ and easily crushed when dry. The red spruce (Picea rubra).—The foliage lacks the whitish tinge of the white pruce and is of a dark or dark yellowish color ; twigs stouter than those of the black spruce and not 162 somuch inclined to droop; cones about one inch long, obovate and usually falling by second summer. The hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis).—Leaves about one-half inch long, flat with rounded point, green on the upper side, whit- ish beneath, and borne on short appressed petioles; cones about three-quarters of an inch long, oval or egg-shape, and borne on the ends of small branchlets and often persisting for some time. The balsam fir (Abies balsamea).—Leaves narrow, less than one inch long, borne singly, very numerous and standing out from the, branchlets in much the way of the spruce ; cones about three inches long, cylindrical, composed of thin scales and standing upright on the branches, or recurved ; bark smooth, light green with whitish tinge. The arbor-vite (Thuya occidentalis).—Leaves very small, scale- like and over lapping one another in four rows, adher- ing closely to the branchlets ; the cones oblong and small,—a half inch or less in length,—and composed of but few scales. For further information respecting nature-study, address, Bureau of Nature-Study, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Or, I. P. Roberts, Direétor College of Agriculture. L. H. Bailey, Chief of Bureau of Nature-Study and Reading- Course. John W. Spencer, | | Deputy Chief. June, 1899. CORNELL NATURE-STUDY BULLETIN NEW BO | yA DoTyy _my GAR Ui Issued by the College of Agriculture and Experiment Station of Cornell University, under Chapter 430 of the Laws of 1890, of the State of New York. I. P. Roberts, Director. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. ITHACA, N. Y. 1899. ORGANIZATION. BOARD OF CONTROL: THE TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND STATION COUNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN, President of the University. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Trustee of the University. ISAAC. P. ROBERTS, Director of the College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer of the University. LIBERTY H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture. JOHN H. COMSTOCK, Professor of Entomology. STATION AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION STAFF I. P. ROBERTS, Agriculture. G. C. CALDWELL, Chemistry. JAMES LAW, Veterinary Science. J. H. COMSTOCK, Entomology. L. H. BAILEY, Horticulture. . H. WING, Dairy Husbandry. . F. ATKINSON, Botany. . V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. W. CAVANAUGH, Chemistry. . A. CLINTON, Agriculture. M. DUGGAR, Botany. . W. SPENCER, Extension Work. . L. STONE, Sugar Beet Investigation. ISS M. F. ROGERS, Nature-Study. A. L. KNISELY, Chemistry. C. E. HUNN, Gardening. W. W. HALL, Dairy Husbandry. A. R. WARD, Dairy Bacteriology. L. ANDERSON, Dairy Husbandry. W. E. GRIFFITH, Dairy Husbandry. SBHOR Ot i OFFICERS OF THE STATION. I. P. ROBERTS, Director. E. L. WILLIAMS, Treasurer. EDWARD A. BUTLER, Clerk. Office of the Director, 20 Morrill Hall. the nature-study leaflets. Thirteen leaflets have now appeared. Voluntary _ requests for these publications have now increased our mailing-list to 25,000 live names. Most of these names are of teach- ers in New York. In the State of New York there are 29,000 teachers. Our entire movement in nature-study is for the benefit of the children. We are now making an effort to reach them directly, as well as through the teacher, the parent, the garden and the flower-show. We have long had correspondence with many children. Many thousands have applied to us for information on the making of gardens and on various matters connected with the common phenomena of nature ; but we are now inaugurating a definite effort at the organization of nature-clubs amongst the children of the State. The correspondencearising from this educational work has come to be large. At present it averages over 1,200 letters a week. In a twelve-month as many as 80,000 circular letters of instruction have been sent to our correspondents. This personal correspon- dence will increase. For these reasons we have adopted a new form of publication. This Bulletin will be issued four times a year, and perhaps more frequently. Hach issue will contain a nature-study lesson for the teacher, and one for the children. Notes of instruction, explanation and advice, and letters from friends of the move- ment, will fill the remainder of the Bulletin. We desire to keep in touch with every person who has been connected with us. This nature-study movement has grown to large proportions. 4 It has awakened the deepest interest. This is proof that it is needed and is founded upon correct principles. In fact, the movement is the result of current forces. It has tried to interpret them. The animus of the endeavor is to cause the child to love nature and thereby to be content with country life. There is no other corrective of agricultural ills than this. Content- ment and happiness are results of thinking; and one thinks much when he sees much. We appeal to every person who loves his kind and his country tohelpus. Weneed the cooperation. Wecan do nothing alone. We want to know the shortcomings and the mistakes. We want to reach every child in New York State ; and we hope that others will carry the movement beyond our boundaries and make it better. When all is said and done, it will be found that the significant mark of this century is not its invention nor its learning : it is the spirit of altruism which sacrifices everything that the child may live a fuller life. L. H. BAILEY. TEACHER’S LEAFLET NO. /4. A SUMMER SHOWER. RALPH S. TARR. RAINSTORM comes, the walks are wet and the roads are muddy. Then the sun breaks through the clouds and soon the walks are no longer damp and the mud of the road is dried. Where did the water come from and where has it gone? Let us answer these questions. A kettle on the stove is forgotten and soon a cracking is heard; the housewife jumps to her feet for the kettle is dry. The kettle was filled with water, but it has all boiled away ; and where has it gone? Surely into the air of the room, for it can be seen issuing as ‘‘steam’’ and then disappear- ing from view, as if by magic. The heatof the fire has changed the liquid water to a gas as invisible as the air itself. This gas is water vapor. Do you wish to prove that the water vapor is there, although unseen? Then if the day is cool, watch the window and notice the drops of water collect up- onit. Orif the day is warm, bring an ice cold glass or pitcher into the room and see the drops collect upon it (Fig. 1). People sometimes say, when drops of water collect on a glass of cold water, that the glass is ‘‘sweating ;’’ but see if the same thing will not happen with a pom cold glass that does not contain water. PUB OF cota These two simple observations teach ustwo — Yapor “has con: very important facts: (1) That heat will change 9 "°°" 7” 75 liquid water to an invisible vapor, or gas, which will float about in the air of a room; and (2) that cold will cause some of the vapor to change back to liquid water. 6 Let us extend our observations a little further. The clothes upon the line on wash day are hung out wet and brought in dry. If the sun is shining they probably dry quickly ; but will they not dry even ifthesun is notshining? They will indeed; so here is another fact to add to our other two, namely, (3) that the production of vapor from water will proceed even when the water is not heated. This change of water to vapor is called evaporation. The water evaporates from the clothes; it also evaporates from the walks after a rain, from the mud of the road, from the brooks, creeks and rivers, and from ponds, lakes, and the great ocean itself. Indeed, wherever water is exposed to the air some evaporation is taking place. But heat aids evaporation, as you can prove by taking three dishes of the same kind and pouring the same amount of water into each, then placing one on the stove, a second in the sun and a third in a cool, shady place, as a cellar, and watching to see which is the last to become dry. About three-fourths of the earth’s surface is covered by water so that the air is receiving vapor all the time. In fact, every minute thousands of barrels of water vapor are rising into the atmosphere from the surface of the ocean. The air is constantly moving about, forming winds, and this load of vapor is there- fore drifted about by the winds, so that the air you are breathing may have in it vapor that came from the ocean hundreds or even thousands of miles away. You do not see the vapor, you are perhaps not even aware that it is there; but in a room 10 feet high and 20 feet square there is often enough vapor to fill a two-quart measure if it could all be changed back to water. There is a difference in the amount of vapor from time to time. Some days the air is quite free from it, and then clothes will dry rapidly ; but on other days the air is damp and humid. Then people say it is ‘‘ muggy ’’ or that the ‘“‘humidity is high.’’ On these muggy days in summer the air is oppressive because there is so much vapor in it. Near the sea, where there is so much water to evaporate, the air is commonly more humid or moist than in the interior, away from the sea, where there is less water to evaporate. We have seen that there is some vapor in all air, but that 7 there is more at some times than at other times. We have also seen how it has come into the air and that cold will cause it to condense to liquid water on cold window panes and water-glasses. There are other ways in which the vapor may be changed to liquid. After a summer day, even when there has been no rain, soon after the sun sinks behind the western horizon the grass becomes so damp that one’s feet are wet in walking throughit. The dew is ‘‘falling.’? During the daytime the grass is warmed by the sun; but when the sun is gone it grows colder, much as a stove becomes cool when the fire is out. This cool grass chills the air 2.—A wreath of fog settled in a valley with the hilltops rising above tt. near it and changes some of the vapor to liquid, which collects in drops on the grass, just as the vapor collects on the outside of a glass of ice-water. In the opposite season of the year, on a cold winter’s day, when you step out of a warm house into the chilly air, a thin cloud, or fog, forms as you expel the air from your lungs, and you say that you can ‘‘see your breath.’’ What youreally see is the little drops of water formed as the vapor-laden breath is chilled on passing from the warm body to the cold air The vapor is con- densed to form a tiny mist. Doubtless you have seen a wreath of fog settling in a valley at night time ; or in the morning you may have looked out upon a fog that has settled there during the night (Fig. 2). If your home happens to be upon a hillside you have perhaps been able to look down upon the fog nestled there like a cloud on the land, 8 which it really is. Such a fog is caused in very nearly the same way as the tiny fog made by breathing. ‘The damp air in the valley has been chilled until the vapor has condensed to form tiny mist or fog particles. Without doubt you can tell why this fog disappears when the sun rises and the warm rays fall upon it: On the ocean there are great fogs covering the sea for hundreds of miles, and making sailing dangerous, because the sailors cannot see through the mist, so that two vessels may run together, or a ship may be driven upon the coast before the 3.—Fog clouds among the valleys in the mountains, only the moutain peaks projecting above them. captain knowsit. Once more, this is merely condensed vapor caused by chilling air that has become laden with vapor. This chilling is often caused when warm, damp winds blow over the cold parts of the ocean. This leads the way to an understanding of a rain storm; but first we must learn something about the temperature of the air. The air near the ground where we live is commonly warmer than that above the ground where the clouds are. People who have gone up in balloons tell us so; and now scientific men who are studying this question are in the habit of sending up great kites, carrying thermometers and other instruments, in order to find out about the air far above the ground. 9 It is not necessary, however, to send up a kite or a balloon to prove this. If your home is among mountains, or even among high hills, you can prove it for yourself; for often, in the late autumn, when it rains where you live on the lower ground, it snows upon the hilltops, so that when the clouds have cleared away the surface of the uplands is robed in white (Fig. 4). In the springtime, or in the winter during athaw, people living among these highlands often start out in sleighs on a journey to town, which isin the valley, and before they reach the valley their horses are obliged to drag the sleigh over bare ground. It is so much 4.—A mountain whitened by snow on the top, while there 71s no snow at the base. warmer on the lower ground that the snow melts away much more quickly than it does among the hills. The difference in temperature is on the average about one degree for every three hundred feet, so that a hill-top rising twelve hundred feet above a valley would have an average tem- perature about four degrees lower than the valley. Now some mountains, even in New York, rise thousands of feet above the surrounding country. They rise high into the regions of cold air, so that they are often covered with snow long before any snow has fallen on the lowlands; and the snow remains upon them long after it has disappeared from the lower country. Have you ever seen such a snow-capped hill or mountain? Here is a picture of one (Fig. 4). ) Some mountains are so lofty that it never rains upon them, but snows instead ; and they are never free from snow, even in mid- sce) summer ; so that if one climbs to the top of such peaks he finds it . always very cold _ there. hee . While he is shivering from the cold he can look down PEL. Ta upon the green fields where pi the birds are singing, the flowers blossoming and the men, working in the fields, are complaining of the heat. ‘ One who watches such a mountain as this, or in fact any mountain peak, will not- ice that it is frequently wrapped in clouds (Fig. 5). Damp winds blowing against the cold mountains are chilled and the vapor con- densed. If one climbs through such a cloud, as 5.—A mountain peak snow capped, thousands of people have ithe i on the very crest bya done when climbing moun- tains, he often seems to pass through nothing but a fog, for really many clouds are only fogs in the air above the surface (Fig. 6). 6.—Clouds clinging to the mountain sides. Lf one were climbing these mountains he would find himself, in passing through the clouds, either ina fog ora mist. II But very often rain falls from these clouds that cling to the mountain sides: ‘The reason for this is easy to understand. As the air comes against the cold mountains so much vapor is con- densed that some of the tiny fog particles grow larger and larger until they become mist particles, which are too heavy to float in the air. They then begin to settle; and as one strikes against another the two unite, and this continues until perhaps a dozen have joined together so as to form a good sized drop, which is so heavy that it is obliged to fall to the ground as rain. Let us now look at our summer storms. These do not form 7.—A ‘thunder head” or cumulus cloud. about mountain peaks; yet what has been said about the moun- tains will help us to understand such showers. It isahot summer day. The air is muggy and oppressive, so that the least exertion causes a perspiration, and even-in the shade one is uncomfortably hot. Soon great banks of clouds appear (Fig. 7),—the ‘‘thunder heads,’’—and people say ‘‘a thunder shower is coming, so that we will soon have relief from this oppressive heat.’? The clouds draw near, lightning is seen and thunder heard, and from the black base of the cloud, tor- rents of water fall upon the earth. If we could have watched this cloud from the beginning, and followed it on its course, we 12 would have seen some facts that would help explain it. Similar clouds perhaps began to form over your head in the early after- noon and drifted away toward the east, developing into thunder storms many miles to the east of you. On such a day as this, the air near the ground is so damp that it gives up vapor easily, as you can prove by allowing a glass of ice water to stand ona table and watching the drops of water gather there, causing the glass to ‘‘sweat’’ (Fig. 1). The sun beats down upon the heated ground and the surface becomes like a furnace, so that the air near the ground is warmed. Air that is warm is lighter than cool air, and, being lighter, will rise, for the heavy cool air will settle and push it up, as a chip of wood will rise in a pail of water, because it is lighter than the water which pushes it to the top This is why the warm air rises from a furnace, ora stove, ora lamp. It is the reason why the hot air risesthrougha house chimney ; undoubt- edly you can find other illustrations, as ventilation, and can find abundant opportunity to prove that warm air will rise. The warm, moist air near the ground becomes so light that the heavy air above settles down and pushes it up, so that_ an upris- ing current of air is formed above the heated ground, much as an uprising current of hot air rises through the chimney when the stove is lighted. Rising thousands of feet into the sky it reaches such a height, and finally comes to a place so cool, that some of the vapor must be condensed, forming fog particles, and then makes a cloud. On such a day, if you will watch a cloud, you will notice that its base is flat (Fig. 7); and this marks the height above ground where the temperature of the atmosphere is low enough to change the vapor to fog particles. Of course the air still rises somewhat above this base and continues to get cooler and to have more and more vapor condensed. This makes a pile of clouds resting on a level base, but with rounded tops (Fig. 7). Sometimes the base of these summer clouds, called cumulus clouds, isa mile above the ground and their tops fully a mile higher than this. Just as on the mountain side the drops grow larger until they must fall, so here, fog particles grow to drops of such a size 13 that they are too heavy to float. This growth is often aided by the violent currents of air, which sometimes tumble and toss the clouds about so. that you can see the commotion from the ground. These currents blow one part- icle against another, forming a single drop from the collision of two; then still others are added until the rain drop is so heavy that it must fall. But sometimes the air cur- rents are so rapid that the drops are carried on up, higher and higher, notwithstanding the fact that they are heavy. Then they may be carried so high, and into air so cold, that they are frozen, forming hail. These ‘‘hailstones’’ cannot sink to the ground until they are thrown out of the violent x oe lan ie currents, when they fall to 8.—/holographofalightning flash. the ground, often near the edge of the storm. Some hailstones are of great size; you will find it interesting to examine them. If you do this, notice the rings of clear and clouded ice that are often to be seen. _These are caused when the hail, after forming, settles toa place where it melts a little, then is lifted again by another current, growing larger by the addition of more vapor. This continues until finally the ice ball sinks to the ground. There is thunder and lightning in such storms. Few things in nature are grander than these, and those who will watch the lightning flash will see many beautiful and interesting sights (Fig. 8). Sometimes the flash goes from cloud to cloud, again from the cloud to the ground. . No one knows exactly why the lightning comes; but we do know that it is an electric spark, something like that which one can often see pass from the trolley to the wire of an electric car line. The main. difference is that the spark in a thunder storm is a powerful lightning bolt that 14 passes over a space of thousands of feet and often does great damage where it strikes. The thunder is a sound which may be compared to the crack heard when a spark passes from the trolley, though of course the noise is very much louder. The crack of the lightning echoes and reverberates among the clouds, often changing to a great rumble; but this rumbling is mainly caused by the echo, the sound from the lightning being a loud crack or crash like that which we sometimes hear when the lightning strikes near by. Some of the vapor of the air on condensing gathers on solid objects like grass,or glass; but some,as fog, floats about in the air. Really this too is often gathered around solid objects. Floating about inthe air are innumerable bits of ‘‘dust’’ which you can see dancing about in the sunlight when a sunbeam enters a dark room. Some of these ‘‘dust’’ particles are actual dust from the road, but much of it is something else, as the pollen of plants, microbes, and the solid bits produced by the burning of wood or coal. Each bit serves asa tiny nucleus on which the vapor con- denses ; and so the very ‘‘dust’’ in the air aids in the formation of rain by giving something solid around which the liquid can gather. The great amount of dustin the air near the great city of London is believed to be one of the causes for the frequent fogs of that city. That there is dust in the air, and ‘that the rain removes it, is often proved when a dull hazy air is changed toa clear, bright air by asummer shower. Watch to find instancesof this. Indeed, after such a hazy day, when the rain drops first begin to fall, if you will let a few drops fall upon a sheet of clean white paper, and then dry it, you will find the paper discolored by the dust that the rain brought with it. So the rain is important because it purifies the air by removing from it the solids that are float- ing in it. . These are only a few of the things of interest that you can see for yourself by studying the air, Watch the sky; it is full of interest. See what you can observe for yourself. Watch especially the clouds, for they are not only interesting but beau- tiful (Fig. 9). Their forms are often graceful, and they change 15 with such rapidity that you can notice it as you watch them. Even in the daytime the colors and shadows are beautiful; but at sunrise and sunset the clouds are often changed to gorgeous banks of color. Watch the clouds and you will be repaid; look especially for the great piles of clouds in the east during the summer when the sun is setting (Fig. 10). Those lofty banks, tinged with silver and gold, and rising, like mountains, thousands of feet 9.—4 sky flecked with clouds high ? : in the air. into the air, are really made of bits of fog and mist. Among them vapor is still changing to water and rain drops are forming, while violent currents are whirling the drops about, and perhaps lifting them to such a height that they are being frozen into hailstones. Far off to the east, beneath that cloud, rain is falling in torrents, light- ning is flashing and thunder crashing, though you cannot hear it because it is so far away. You see the storm merely asa brightly lighted and beautifully colored cloud mass in the sky ; but the people over whom it is hanging find it a threatening black cloud, the source of a furious wind, a heavy rain, and the awe-inspiring lighting. To them it may not be beautiful, though grand in the extreme ; and so too, when the summer thunder shower visits you in the early evening, you may know that people to the west of you are probably looking at its side and top and admiring its beauty of form and color. 10.—The cloud banks of a thunder The storm passes on, still to A gpg aaah the eastward, and finally the cloud mass entirely disappears beneath the eastern horizon ; but if you watch, you will see signs that it is still there, though out of sight; for in the darkness of the night you can see the 16 eastern horizon lighted by little flashes, the source of which cannot be seen. You call it ‘‘ heat lightning,’’ but it is really the last signal that we can see of the vanishing thunder storm, so far away that the sound of the crashing thunder cannot be heard. - You watch the mysterious flashes: they grow dimmer and dimmer and finally you see them no more. Our summer shower is gone. It has done what thousands of others have done before, and what thousands of others will do in the future. It has started, moved off, and finally disappeared from sight ; and as it has gone it has told usa story. You can read a part of this story if you will ; and in reading it will find much that interests. JUNIOR NATURALIST LEAFLET NO. 3. LITTLE HERMIT BROTHER, Cicada septendecim. ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK. N far Thibet exists a class of Buddhist monks who are hermits and who dwellin caves. I was told about these strange people by a Senior Nat- uralist, who has spent his life going around the world and finding the coun- tries upon it as easily as you Junior Naturalists find the same countries on the globe in the schoolroom. A real naturalist is never contented with maps of places and pictures of things, but always desires to see the places and things themselves. The Senior Naturalist told me that he found Thibet a dreary land inhabited by queer people ; and the hermit monks were the queerest of all. Each one dwelt in his solitary cave, ate very little and worked not at all, but spent his time in thought. Could we read his thoughts we would be none the wiser, since they are only mysterious thoughts about mysterious things. Now it is a surprising fact that we have hermits of similar habits here in America; only our hermits are a little people who dress in white garb and live in cells underground ; they also eat little and work not at all, and probably meditate upon mysteries. However, they are equipped with six legs while the monks of Thibet have only two, a difference of little importance since neither of them travel far from theircaves. * * * * * There are places in eight or nine counties in New York State that may surely expect visitors this year. These counties are Livingston, Monroe, Onondaga, Ontario, Wyoming, Yates and those bordering on Cayuga Lake. Theconnection between these 18 coming guests and the hermits of Thibet may not seem very close at first sight ; but wait and see. The reason why these New York counties expect company this year is that they entertained a large number of similar guests in 1882, 1865, 1848, 1831, 1814, in 1797, and probably at intervals of 17 years long before that ; however, in 1797 is the first record ever made of the appearance of these visitors. Every time they came they probably outstayed their welcome; yet they had the good quality of allowing their hosts sixteen years of rest between visits. In order that the Junior Naturalist may recognize these vis- itors I will describe their methods of arrival. Sometime during the latter part of May or in early June you may hear a great buzzing in some trees as if there were a thousand liliputian buzz saws going at once. If you examine the trees you will find on them many queer looking insects, with black bodies about an inch long, covered with transparent wings folded like a roof. Naturally you will wonder how such great numbers of large insects could appear one day when they were nowhere to be seen the day before. But if you look at the ground beneath the tree you will find in it many small holes. You will also find clinging to the tree many whitish objects which at first sight seem like pale, wingless insects ; but which on closer examination prove to be merely the cast skins of insects (Fig. 11). These are the cowls and robes which our little American hermits cast off after they come out of their underground cells, and which they must shed before they can free their wings. Our little American her- mits we call the Seventeen-Year Locusts. However, this name is a most confusing one, since we also call our grasshoppers locusts, and to them the name truly belongs. These Seventeen- Year Locusts are really Cicadas ; and they belong to a different Order from the locusts. The real locusts have mouth-parts formed for biting, while the Cicadas have mouth-parts grown together in the form of a tube through which they suck juices of plants. So we hope the Junior Naturalists will call our little hermits by their right name, Cicadas ; and will not permit them to be spoken of as locusts. In order that you may know the mysterious lives of these 19 wonderful insects I will tell you the story of one insect which any one of you may find this summer if you live in one of the counties above mentioned. THE Story oF LITTLE HERMIT BROTHER, CICADA SEPTENDECIM. Seventeen years ago this June, when perhaps the parents of some of the Junior Naturalists were themselves school children, a Cicada mother made with her ovipositor a little slit or cavity in an oak twig, and in this slit placed in very neat order two rows of eggs. Six weeks later there hatched from one of these eggs a pale, lively little creature, that to the naked eye looked like a tiny white ant. However, if we could have examined him through a lens, we would have found him very different from an ant; for his two front legs were shaped somewhat like lobsters’ big claws, and instead of jaws like an ant, he simply had a long beak that was hollow like a tube. After he came out of his egg he ran about the tree and seemed interested in everything he saw for atime. Then, suddenly he went to the side of a limb and deliberately fell off. To his little eyes the ground below was invisible ; so our small Cicada showed great faith when he practically jumped off the edge of his world into space. He was such a speck of a creature that the breeze took him and lifted him gently down, as if he were the petal of a flower, and he alighted on the earth unhurt and probably much delighted with his sail through the air. At once he commenced hunting for some little crevice in the earth ; and when he found it he went to the bottom of it and with his shovel-like fore-feet began digging downward. I wonder if he stopped to give a last look at sky, sunshine, and the beautiful green world before he -bade them good-bye for seventeen long years. If so,he did it hur- riedly, for he was intent upon reaching something to eat. This he finally found a short distance below the surface of the ground, in the shape of a juicy rootlet of the great tree above. Into this he inserted his beak and began to take the sap as we take lemon- ade through a straw. He made a little cell around himself and then he found existence quite blissful. He ate very little and 20 grew very slowly aud there was no perceptible change in him for about a year; then he shed his skin for the first time, and thus, insect-wise, grew larger. After a time he dug another cell near another rootlet deeper in the ground; but he never exerted him- self more than was necessary to obtain the little food that he needed. This idle life he found entirely satisfactory and the days grew into months and the months into years. Only six trmes in the seventeen years did our hermit change his clothes and this was each time a necessity, since they had become too small. Judging from what the Senior Naturalist told me, I think this is six times more than a Thibetan hermit changes his clothes in the same length of time. 7 What may be the meditations of a little hermit Cicada during all these years we cannot even imagine. If any of the Junior Naturalists ever find out the secret, they will be very popular indeed with the scientific men called psychologists. However, if we may judge by actions, the sixteenth summer after our her- mit buried himself he began to feel stirring in his bosom aspira- tions toward a higher life. He surely had no memory of the beautiful world he had abandoned in his babyhood; but he became suddenly possessed with a desire to climb upward and began digging his way toward the light. It might bea long journey through the hard earth; for during the many years he may have reached the depth of nearly two feet. He is now as industrious as he was shiftless before, and it takes him only a few weeks to climb out of the depths into which he had fallen through nearly seventeen years of inertia. If it should chance that he reaches the surface of the ground before he is ready to enjoy life he hits upon a device for continuing his way upward without danger to himself. Sometimes his fellows have been known to crawl out of their burrows and seek safety under logs and stakes until the time came to gain their wings. But this is a very dangerous proceeding, since there are many watchful eyes in forests which belong to creatures who are very fond of bits of soft, white meat. So our Cicada, still a hermit, may build him a tall cell out of mud above ground. How he builds this ‘hati ‘““cone’’ or ‘‘turret’’ as it is variously called, we do not know, but it is often two inches in height, and he keeps himself in the ZF top of it. Under ordinary circumstances our Cicada would not build a hut, but remain in his burrow. Finally there comes a fateful evening when as soon as the sun has set, he claws his way through the top of his mud turret or out of his burrow and looks about him for further means of ‘gratifying his ambitions to climb. A bush, a tree, the highest thing within his range of vision, attracts his attention and he hurries toward it. It may be he finds himself in company with many of his kind hurrying toward the same goal but they are of no interest to him as yet. Like the youth in the famous poem, ‘‘Excelsior’’ is his motto and he heeds no invitation to tarry. When he”reaches the highest place within his ken he places himself probably back downward on some branch or twig and takes a firm hold with all of his six pair of claws and keeps very still for a time. Then his skeleton nymph-skin breaks open at the back and there pushes out of ita strange creature long and white, except for two black spots upon its back ; on he comes until only the tip of his body remains in the old nymp- skin ; then he reaches forward and grasps the twig with his soft new legs and pulls himself entirely clear from the old hermit garb. At once his wings begin to grow ; at first they are mere pads on his back but they soon expand until they cover his body and are flat like those of a miller. The many veins in the wings are white and he keeps the wings fluttering in order that they may harden soon. If, in the moonlight of some June evening a Junior Naturalist should see a tree covered with Cicadas at this stage he would think it had suddenly blossomed into beautiful, white fluttering flowers. As the night wears on, the color of our hero changes and his wings harden; until when the sun rises we behold him in the glory of a black uniform with facings of orange and with beautiful glassy wings folded roof-like above his body. (Fig. 11.) Great is the change wrought in his appearance during this one mar- velous night, and greater still the change wrought in his habits! He is now no longer a hermit ; there are thousands of his kind about him, a fact which he realizes with great joy. So happy is he that he feels as if he must burst if he does not find some adequate means for expressing his happiness in this beautiful 22 world of sunshine. Then suddenly he finds in himself the means of expression and bursts into song. Yet, it is not a song exactly, for he is a drummer rather than a singer. On his body just behind each of his hind wings is a kettle drum. The head to this drum is of parchment thrown into folds and may be seen with a lens if you lift his wings and look closely. (Fig. 12.) Instead of drum sticks he uses a pair of strong muscles to throw the mem- branes into vibra- tion and there is a complex a arrange- 11.—The Cicada is full grown at last, and his cet 5 of " Cicada’s empty nymph skin is hanging to a branch. cavities (= and sounding boards around these drum heads so that the noise he gives off is a great one indeed for a fellow of his size. So fond is he of mak- ing music that he has no time to eat or to do aught else but to sound fanfares all the sunshiny day. He is not the only musician on the tree; there are many others and they all join in a swelling chorus that has been described .as a roar like that made by the “‘ rushing of a strong wind through the trees.’’ If our Cicada could talk to one of you Junior Naturalists he would tell you that there was a good reason for all this music. He would explain that only the men of the Cicada world possess drums and that the object and reason of all their music was the entertainment of the lady Cicadas, who are not only very 23 fond of this drumming but are good critics of Cicada music as well. He would perhaps tell you also that he had his eye on a certain graceful maiden perched on the leaf between him and the sun ; but she on the other hand seemed to give about equal Hep ena him and three other drummers situated nearby. Excited by the competition and by her indifference he rattled his drum faster and faster until he arose to the heights of Cicada melody and har- mony that left his rivals far behind. Then the lady of his choice listened spellbound and pronounced him the greatest of all musicians, and thus he won his bride. However, we may safely predict that their wedded life will be too full of happiness to last. After a few weeks the sunshine, the music, the happiness of wooing and winning will prove too much for our hero and one day he will beat his drum in a last mad ecstasy and fall to earth and die from happy exhaustion. His little wife may survive him only long enough to cut some slits in some of the twigs of the home tree and place in them rows of eggs from which shall develop a family of hermits which shall come forth and fill the world with their music seventeen years hence, when our Junior Naturalists are men and women grown. There are many broods of the Cicadas in the United States so that they appear in different localities in different years. New York State has five well-marked broods: one in the west- ern counties is due in 1900; a large brood on Long Island and near Rochester will appear in 1902; another on Long Island in 1906; another in the Hudson River valley in 1911. The brood which we ask the Junior Naturalists to study this summer is limited to central New York and northern Pennsylvania and is called Marlatt’s brood No. VII., or Riley’s brood No. XIX. Asit was observed first in 1797, yousee this race was an ‘‘old settler’’ in central New York and was doubtless here many years before the Pilgrim fathers landed at Plymouth. So when the Junior Naturalists of central New York observe the Cicada this summer let them count back and see how few generations of them have passed since only Indians listened when they came forth from their caves and beat out their short lives in song. There are several other species of Cicada peculiar to America. One is called Cicada tredecim since it appears every thirteen years. However, this species is limited to the south. 24 The Dog Day Harvest Fly, or Lyreman, is the Cicada that is best known to us through the northern and middle states. This appears in small nnmbers every year and is a distinct addition to the summer chorus of insect singers. He is larger and much more dignified in appearance than is his cousin septendecim. He wears a black suit embroidered with scrolls of dark olive green and the whole lower surface of his body is covered with white powder. His drums are situated above plates which may be seen on the lower side of the body, one behind each hind leg. He hides in trees and hts shrill music is so associated with the heat of summer noons that the sound itself makes one drowsy. The hermit life of the lyremen in underground cells is supposed to last only two years. While the Cicadas of which we have spoken are the children of an ancient race which inhabits America, Europe also has her ancient races of Cicadas, although they are not the kind who live hermit lives for seventeen years. We have evidence that their music was held in high esteem by the ancient races of men— especially the Greeks. When Homer complimented his orators he compared them with Cicadas. Thus it may lend a special interest to the study of the Cicada by our Junior Naturalists when they know that his kettle drums have been celebrated instruments of music by poets who wrote three thousand years before America was discovered by Columbus. QUERIES FOR SHARP EYES. When did you first see one of the Cicadas? What was it doing when you found it? Did it do anything to attract your notice to it, or did you find it by accident? Where did you find it? See if you can determine which ‘are the father and which the mother Cicadas. Try to find where a mother Cicada has laid some eggs. If you find where the Cicada emerged from the ground, or from a hut, givea brief description of the location, as to kind of soil, etc. Where did you find the most of the cast off nymph skins? _ Did you discover animals or birds feeding upon the Cicada ? NOTES FOR JUNIOR NATURALISTS. JOHN W. SPENCER. JUNIOR NATURALIST CLUB is organized under the care and direction of the Cornell University College of Agriculture ; AND THAT, its purpose is the STUDY oF NATURE, to the end that every member thereof shall love the country better and be content to live therein; AND FURTHER THAT this Document is a Charter acknowledging said Club to be a part in the EXTEN- SION WoRK IN AGRICULTURE, inaugurated under the Laws of the State of New York. 26 The foregoing picture represents on a small scale the charter which we give to Junior Naturalist Clubs. A seal is attached to each charter. On the rightis the tower of the Cornell University Library. ‘The Library itself is an immense storehouse of books, containing about 225,000 volumes, besides many periodicals. It is a great factor in University life and work. The University buildings are dotted about the campus, resembling a scattered village ; but all have a path leading to the Library. On the left of the picture is the country schoolhouse, and between that and the Library tower letters will be seen passing back and forth. These are to bind in closer sympathy the University and every common school of the country. We want every child to form a Junior Naturalist’s Club, or to bea member of one. We wish it to be an actual and active club where you can help each other to see the common things about you. We want you to be real naturalists in a boy and girl way. We shall help you to get as much fun out of it as can be found in fishing, and as much wisdom as can be found in a big book. You will not be asked to study books very much, but to see the things themselves. All boys and girls can join the club, and those doing required work will receive a badge button. The first step for you to take toward organizing such a club is to ask all boys and girls, who wish to join, to sign their names to alist for membership. Then call a meeting of all members for election of officers, consisting of a president, secretary and treasurer, and for choosing a name for your club. Your secre- tary can write us an account of the proceedings of your meet- ing, giving us the names of your officers and those of your members, and we, in return, will send a charter showing that we recognize you as working under our direction. With the charter we shall send you some directions for beginning work, the first step of which will probably be to go to the fields and woods for some material for study. Perhaps your teacher will permit you to bring this material to the schoolroom where you can observe it closely from time to time. Most clubs have weekly dues. We shall expect dues from each member, not in money, but aletter, written each week, tell- ing us what new things you have learned. If you prefer to send 27 us drawings instead of a letter, we shall accept them for dues. In some grades, your teacher may wish you to do this as ‘‘ busy work ;”’ or, if she prefers, you can make your nature-study the topic for your language or drawing lessons. Whichever you do, we hope you may be permitted to write as you would talk. We do not care to know so much about your scholarship as to learn your way of thinking and seeing. The letters that we receive from members of the Junior Natur- alist Clubs are very interesting, and we find that there are many ways in which they regard the same questions. Some seem to think that ‘‘ to get the answer ’’ the quickest way possible is all that is necessary. Such answers do not mean much and we are not satisfied with them, because they show very little thought. After a busy day’s work, I often walk home by a path that leads me across a high bridge, where it isa great rest to lean on the railing and gaze into the gulf beneath. The hemlocks, whose tips do not reach as high as the floor of the bridge, spread their boughs until they partially screen the bounding waters on the rocky stairs beneath. I thinkof other days when a comrade joined me in the same pleasure of a five minutes’ silent contemplation. If you ask me what I see in that chasm that rests me so much, I might tell you that I am watching the water run down hill. This would be ‘‘ giving an answer,’’ yet it would not express what I feel and what is really to be seen in the shadowy depth. Some of the letters tell us the number of legs which a tent caterpillar has, the stripes on its back, and all that kind of detail, and so far as it goes it is all right. What we want, however, is more thought given to the subject. Besides learning all we can about it in its present condition, we must look upon the cater- pillar as the second link of a chain containing four parts. To understand some of the marvels of its life, we must understand Nature’s method of causing each link to be a preparation for the following one. The only way this insect survives our severe storms of winter is in the egg state. These eggs are covered with a thick coat of varnish which furnishes a protection as effective as that pro- tecting the paint on the finest coach. The varnish on President Mc Kinley’s carriage is of no better quality than that which the 28 mother puts upon these eggs. The eggs do not hatch until food, in the form of young buds, appears. When left to natural conditions, the buds and the caterpillars develop together and one never precedes the other. As the hairy fellows increase in size and demand more food, the foliage expands to meet the increased demand for forage. The Junior Naturalist who simply works “‘to get the answer’’ fails in getting this interesting part of the lesson. What are the four stages in the life of the tent caterpillar? By the time this meets the eyes of our Junior Naturalists, there will have appeared in the counties of Livingston, Madi- son, Monroe, Onondaga, Wyoming and Yates in this State the seventeen-year locust or, more properly speaking, Cicada, about which Mrs. Comstock has charmingly told you elsewhere. We have a number of Junior Naturalists in these counties, and we shall ask them to make observations upon this visitor and send their reports to us for publication in a future number. A close reader of Mrs. Comstock’s article will see that these Cicadas are really insects, that spend their lives in the ground for 17 years and come out to the air and sunshine only to prepare eggs for another brood, and not to eat. The only damage they do is to kill the tender shoots of trees where eggs are deposited. When this occurs on trees nearly full grown, the damage is very slight. We wish tocall your attention to what is said about the manner in which the male produces a call for his mate. When in large numbers the united sounds make an impression one will never forget. Following is a list of the Junior Naturalist Clubs organized upto May 24, 1899. Some of the Clubs have not yet sent us the names of officers : CORNELL JUNIOR NATURALIST CLUBS. TOWN. New Dorp, Margaretville, S. Schodack, Snyder, N; Sherburne, Gilbertsville, Wilson, Cazenovia, Cazenovia, Cazenovia, Cazenovia, Cazenovia, Cazenovia, Cazenovia, Catskill, Freeport, Freeport, Freeport, Tarrytown, Stockton, Richfield Spa., North Urbana, Utica, Dunkirk, Florida, Gloversville, Guilford, Machias, New York City, Olean, Otego, Prince Bay, Prince Bay, Rochester, Rochester, Rochester, Rochester, Rochester, Rochester, Saratoga Springs, Savona, Schenevus, Schenectady, Utica, Utica, Wassaic, . Edna Nichols PRESIDENT. SECRETARY. TREASURER. Mable Wolfenden Emily Duval Augusta Kaufman Charlotte Shufelf Elmer Pardee Grace Dora Race Mamte A. Meehan Allen Wetzel Fogelson- ger Carrie S. Gorton Chas. W. Gorton Walter Davis Chas. Brewer Edna Tenbrook Grace Johnson Sarah A. Gardiner Lena Camp Lotta Coombs Jno. L. Fray. S. F. Johnson Herbert Tredwell Joseph Murphy Jessie Wakeman Willie Mason Stella Gleason Emma McBride Henry Wirtner Helene S. Jessup Madeline Oley John Leonard Louis Cutting Lizzie Evans Carl Gleason Jessie Sayles Martin Murray Farries Quackenbush Florence Frank Earnest Willetts Florence Rhodes Dora Behrens Edmond Gleason Manley Miller Mary Parkhurst Jennie Putnam Otto Nicholson Harry Frank Geo. Fuggle Francis Austin Lee Starks Ray W. Loomis Harry Higgins H., Theresa ~ Bessie C. Shannon Whittaker Lena Burdick Flossie Mickle Verna Davidson Susie Glass Ralph H.Sequine Clinton Decker Cecil Hanes Janie Wares Glennie Decker Raymond Edna Sigler Willard Bastian Brinkman Ruth Beach Darrel Simpson Frances Bowens Mary Yog Joe Rosenbloom Charlie Eva Muir Gertrude Hartley Langenberger Ruth Goodwin Warren Palmer Mabel Lewis Ethel Garson Frank Roohan Ora Stamp Eddie Orcutt J.CareyWickham J. Humphrey :; Wilber Edith Butler Chester Rankine Erna Pietsch Erna Pietsch Jas. H. Rolling Margaret Hughes Herbert L. Lane Martha Loper Catherine Ward Fannie Wilber Lloyd Knapp Miss Bettenhause Ray Weaver May Ives TOWN. Woodhull, Canton, Canton, Albany, Alfred, Bath-on-Hudson, Big Flats, Binghaniton, NY. ae ce sé «ec ‘e ce ee Castleton-on-Hud- son; N.Y. Cohoes, De Kalb Jct., Delphi, Dunkirk, Syracuse, Brooklyn, Rochester, Candor, Candor, Sciota, Sciota, North Norwich, Albany, Altmar, Altona, Brooklyn, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Callicoon Depot, Callicoon Depot, Cohoes, Farmingdale, Groveland Sta., Johnstown, Johnstown, Johnstown, Kerhonkson, New York City, Poland, Phoenix, Richford, Saratoga Spr. Skaneateles, Springland, West Kendall, Bath, Maine Epping, N. H. Laconia, ‘ Laneville, Mass. 30 PRESIDENT. Alice Wheeler Chas, Drury Ralph Stocking William Boldt Geo. Place Ethel Marvin Edith Sweet Otto Gray Mary Etta Briggs Geo. Peters Wallace Bullock Page E. Thornhill Clara Alexander Wilmer Fred Fenner Irene Morrison Roy A. Cheney Michael Mauer SECRETARY, TREASURER. Florence Colvin Lena Harry Nettie Spear Hoyt Jamieson Peachie L. Estes Irene Place Mamie Kelly Ethel L. Joy Bertha Place Edward Gamble Oscar Russell Neal Bascom Anna L. Griffin. Julia E. Reeder Cecil Major Florence Lock- wood Geo. Peters May Spillane Hemen- Grace Dutcher wa Edith Richards Edith Richards Edua Moser Katherine Burns Katherine Burus Louis Hewitt Arminrus Aiken Madeleine Parrott Mary Slocum Lillian Jennings Mead Willsey Eddie Vassar Edna Dragon Leslie Blanding Maud Dame Nellie Bostwick Roy Bostwick Cora Vanhook Edith Allen Nellie O’ Niel Jennie Relation Maggie Collins Carrie Blanding Helena Crandall Katheleen Hough- taling. Mary L. Tilla- paugh Goldie Wood Chas. Lewis Geo. F. Gibbons Etta Campbell Mabel Germann John Auringer Stanley Robinson Nina M. Hanlin Hazle Fox Lizzie Morford Carrie Monty Herbert Barber Edith Search F. Richter Ruby Emig Ruth Long Lillie Bergner Clara Germann Edna Schelpert Stanley E. Tar- gett James Mitchell Sadie L. Kennedy Mr. A. Van Cott Kate Hendricks Mary Regan Amy Anderson Clarence Parsons Michael Kurchr- sky Dwight Wood Miss L. S. Harris Millard Lewis Anna L. Teall Lucile Rich Oscar Getman Percy E. Waller Emily Foster Chas. V. Feather Robert Morris Alma Dubee Ethel M. Carley Willie D. Sharp Susie Shoemaker Jessie MeKay Vinta Brainard Theresa Lynaugh Peter Dunn Peter Dunn Ethel Rickmyer Edna Sutliff Aida M.Green Ida Green Robert Schur Ferdinand Frey- tag Ralph Newberry Earl Read Emma Pender- Ethel Van Valken- gast burg Lincoln Watkins Henry Marshall Ruth Douglas Alice Crawford Latitia Cornell Harold White Arthur Ketcham Valentine Foster Madeline Clifford Louise Abbott Joseph Belanger Maude Goodrich Ethel M. Carley Chester E. Ken- Katherine Stack- dall pole TOWN. Westminster Depot, Mass. Rowe, Shrewsbury, ‘ Warren, es Lenox, a Falls Village, Conn. Norwich, Danbury, New Milford, New Milford, New Milford, Plainfield, Elizabeth, #p Montclair, mS Montclair, c. Montclair, “< Rutherford, ‘‘ Hazleton, ei Holmesburg, Pa. McDonald, = Philadelphia, ‘‘ Akron, Ohio Columbus, Ohio Lebanon, c Wilson Mills, Ohio Newburgh, Ind. Warren, III. Chicago, ‘‘ Frankfort, Sta. Ill. Galesburg, Ill. Haldane, ie Long Pt, _ Ripley, K White Lake, Mich. Battle Creek, ‘‘ Ryan, lowa Denver, Col. Covina, Cal. Mass. é ‘<¢ “ ‘ “ N. J. Tishomingo, I. T. Greensboro, Ga. Americus, 2s 31 PRESIDENT. Marion Battles Louis J. Tuttle Frank Hodge Catherine C. Kel- Edgar Moody ley Alice C. Dean Albert H. Miller SECRETARY. Wolfred Curtis TREASURER. Helen E. Johnson Maud J. Roberts Edw. R. Upton Cornelia Papanti Christine Hub- bard Mary Rochefort Winifred Dean Rose Tarrant Anna Schulze Lucy Howe Willie Baur Merritt B. Merwin Clifford H.Marsh Marcus Merwin John Addis Gertrude Green Deborah Winn Alice May Bettle Dorothy Sage Felix Jenkins Charlotte Paxton Eddie Jeffries Philip Schwartz Robert McBride Effie Richards James Russell Adella Manders Harry Ross Eva Kratzer Eva Higgins Jas. Peacock Clare Hicks Hawley Turner Albert Pfaff James Saffer Rose A. Good. O.B. Custis Elmer Green Frances Alden Matilda Greten Ruth Burch Mrs. Caroline Amos D. E. Clower Edgar L. Smith Granville Breineg Willis Barton Lettie Gilbert Walter Erwin Francis Meaney Hugh Gray William H. Lange Maggie D. Koffer Helen Wilson Hazard Dunning Mary E. Porter Margery Hoyt Julian Thompson ' Alfred Halpin Henry Peyton Florence G. Shut- Gordon Nicholas ter Etta Freed Blanche Baker Ernest Duran Lillian Borrows Beryl Bien Warren Weyrich Susan Cormack Herman Tingley Esther Crockett Ralph Graham Ethel Southwick Lydia Sherman George Martin Ottie Cook Livingston Osborne Oscar Meyer Lela Alderson Lyman Clarke Helen Davy Geo. Maginnis Genevieve Johns Benlah Jenks Alice Lind © Elsa Chapin Roy Long Ambrose Long Amel Mahrke Orval Werner Maggie Miller Ethel Stoffer Hattie Wemple Hugh Martin Julia Duggan John McElligott Arthur Philpott Ruth Garrett Annie Fishel Moses Adams Halla Willits Irene Van Noy Viola Chambliss Ella Black 32 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. HomE NATURE-STUDY COURSE. A Home Nature-Study Course for teachers has been established for the benefit of those who wish to carry on a line of study in connection with their teaching, and through vacation, but who cannot undertake the work of a summer school. The course consists of printed matter selected for the purpose from the publications of the Bureau of Nature-Study, together with a quiz. This quiz is a series of questions, but should be regarded as a report of progress and not as an examination. Lesson 1 on the germination of seeds is already in the hands of some five hundred teachers. Lesson 2 is on the subject of life in an aquarium with special reference to the study of the development of thetoad and the frog. Both lessons will be sent on application, and others will follow as issued. It is hoped that groups of teachers in one school or locality, training classes, and others preparing to teach, will take up this Home Nature-Study Course. SYNOPSIS OF THE EXTENSION WORK. The State Extension Work in Agriculture prosecuted by the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, proceeds along the following lines : I. Codperative experimentation, the results of which are reported in the regular bulletins of the Station. Il. Nature-Study and Farmer’s Reading Course.—The Nature-study movement proceeds along several lines, of which the following are chief : (1.) Efforts to reach the children through the teacher, by means of : Teacher’s leaflets. Instruction at teachers’ institutes. Instruction at State summer schools. Instruction in a school of nature-study at Cornell University. Home nature-study course. Personal correspondence. (2.) Efforts to reach the children directly, by means of : Naturalist clubs. Children’s leaflets. Making of gardens. Collecting of insects. Holding of flower-shows. Personal correspondence. Correspondence may be addressed to Bureau of Nature-Study, Ithaca, N. Y. L. H. BartLEy, Chief. JoHN W. SPENCER, Deputy Chief. is | READING-LESSON CORNELL READING-COURSE | No. |, FOR FARMERS. | NOVEMBER, |898. 2D EDITION. By CR? BAIBEN:. The oon: What it Is. 1. The basis of soil is fragments of rock.—As the earth cooled, the surface solidified into rock. The processes of nature have been constantly at work in breaking up this rock and making it into soil. 2. Weathering ts the great agency in making rocks tnto soil.— Rain, snow, ice, frost have worn away the mountains and deposited the fragments as soil. Probably as much material has been worn away from the Alps as still remains, and this material now forms much of the soil of Italy, Germany, France, Holland. Our own mountains and hills have worn away in like manner. 3. Weathering ts still active.—A\\ exposed rocks are wearing away. Stones are growing smaller ‘The soil is pulverized by fall plowing. | 4. The particles of soil are worn and transported by water.— Every stream carries away great quantities of soil and deposits it in the shallows and the bays. After every rain, the streams and ponds are muddy or roily. Observe the sediment or fine mud which remains when a ‘‘mud-puddle’’ dries up. The smallest rivulet carries away tons of earth every year ; and this earth is deposited somewhere, and sometime it may, perhaps, come into use again for the growing of plants. Many of our best and richest farm lands are the deposits of former streams and lakes. Such lands are fine and silt-like. Most lowlands belong to this category ; and even some of our higher lands are formed from deposits from water. ‘The mixed and varied charac- ter of soils is largely due tothe fact that they are the results of ' transportation from different places. ” Observe the flat lands about lakes. These flats are formed by the deposition of material from the surrounding highlands; but they are often exposed before their natural time by the lowering of the water level in the lake. Alllakes and ponds are filling up. _Nearly every stream makes a delta at its mouth ; butif the stream into which it empties is swift, the delta may be carried away. Observe also, the broad rounded hillocks and knolls in valleys and ravines.. Many of them have attained their present form from the action of moving water. Every farmer knows that overflowed lands are rich. He has heard of the wonderful fertility of the Nile. Heshould explain these facts. 5. All productive soils also contain organic matter.—Organic matter is the remains of plants and animals. As found in soils in a decaying condition, it is called humus. It is the humus which gives the soil its dark or ‘‘rich’’ look. It also tends to make soils loose, warm and mellow. It holds moisture. The addition of humus makes soils loamy. A sandy loam is a soil of which the original mineral matter is sand, and a clayey loam is one of which the basis is clay. Soils which have no humus are hard, ‘“dead’’ and unproductive. | 6. Humus ts supplied by means of roots and stubble, green-crops and barn manures.—lf the farmer practices a rotation of which meadow and pasture are a part, the supply of humus will be maintained. In such cases, green-manuring is unnecessary except now and then upon lands which are very hard or poor. The roots and stubble, with the droppings of the animals on the pasture, and manure applied with one of the crops in the rota- tion, keep the land well supplied with vegetable matter. When- ever possible, it is better to feed the crop to stock and return the manure to the land, than to plow the crop under ; for one will get back the greater part of the fertilizing value of the cropsand maintain the animal at the same time. In western New York, there are hundreds of acres of refuse lands, and at this day there are thousands of tons of herbage on the ground, and no stock to eat it. It is wasteful. Many soils which are said to be worn out are robbed of their humus rather than of their plant-food ; others have been injured 3 in their texture by careless or faulty management. In supplying . humus, it is better to add small quantities often. Lands which are under constant tillage, in corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, may be supplied with humus if catch crops are sown with the crop, now and then, late in the season. Rye, Canada-peas, crimson clover, and the like may be used for this purpose. Plow them under as soon as the land is ready in the spring, even if the plants are not large. Observe how the forest supplies its humus. Year by year the leaves add to the soil cover, slowly passing into vegetable mold or humus. The trunks finally decay and pass into the svil. The work is effectively done, but it consumes time; and man is ina hurry. When the forest is removed, the land is very pro- ductive. It is called ‘‘ virgin soil,’’ notwithstanding the fact that an enormous crop of trees has just been taken from it, and that it may have grown hundreds of such crops. The real virgin soil is the barren soil. But however rich this forest soil may be when the timber is first removed, it generally soon loses its exhuberant fertility. The pigmy crops of the far- mer seem to be harder on the soil than the gigantic crops of Nature. Some of this loss of productivity is due to the loss of humus. , A rotation prevents the exhaustion of plant-food, supplies nitrogen in leguminous crops, one crop leaves the land in better condition for another, the roots and stubble improve the texture of the soil, it keeps weeds in check, provides for continuous labor because stock is kept. The rotation should differ with the kind of soil and general style of farming. ‘The Cornell rotation is : Wheat, Clover and timothy, 1 year, Maize (corn), Oats. A good rotation for weed-infested land is: Sod, I year, Maize, Potatoes, or some other tilled crop. Oats or barley. 4 On fruit farms, rotations are not so practicable as on grain farms ; but the fields which are not in fruit can often be worked in rotation to great advantage. The general tendency of fruit- farmers is to keep too little stock. If stock cannot be kept, the humus can be maintained by catch-crops and cover-crops. 7. The fertility of the land ts its power to produce crops. Tt ts determined by three things: the texture of the sotl, tts richness in plant-food, and its available motsture.—The texture of the soilis its physical condition,—as to whether it is mellow, loose, leachy, cloddy, hard, and the like. A rock or a board will not raise corn, and yet it may contain an abundance of plant-food. The plant cannot get a foothold ; and it would do no good to apply fertilizers. Spreading potash ona lump of clay is not farming : it is the wasting of potash. A cow will not appreciate the fan- ciest ration if she is uncomfortable; neither will a plant. It is only on land which is in good tilth that fertilizers pay. The ‘better the farming, the more it will pay, as a rule, to buy plant- food; but poor farmers cannot make it pay. 8. Nature secures good texture in soul by growing plants in 1t.— Roots make the soil finer, and plants supply it with humus. Plants break down the soil by sending their roots into the crevices of the particles, and the root acids dissolve some of it. Observe Nature working atthis problem First the ‘‘moss’’ or lichen attacks the rock ; the weather cracksit and wears it away ; a little soil is gathered here and there in the hollows; a fern or some other lowly plant gains a foothold ; year by year, and cen- tury by century, the pocket of soil grows deeper and larger ; and finally, the rock is worn away and crumbled, and is ready to support potatoes and smart-weed. Or, the rock may be hard and bare, and you cannot see any such process going on. Yet, even then, every rain washes something away from it, and the soil beneath it is constantly receiving additions. Some soils may be said to be completed: the rock is all broken down and fined. Other soils are still in process of manufacture: they are full of stones and pebbles which are slowly disintegrating and adding their substance tothe soil. Did you ever seea “‘ rotten stone ?”’ The longer plants are grown on any soil, and returned to it, the richer the soil becomes. But Nature has centuries at her 5 disposal; man has but a few short years and must work rapidly, and he cannot afford to make mistakes. 9. The texture of the soil may be improved (1) by underdrain- ing (2) by tilling (3) by adding vegetable matter (4) by adding cer- tain materials, as lime, which tend to change the size of the soil partt- cles.—The reader will say that Nature does not practice tile-drain- ing. Perhaps not; but then, she has more kinds of crops to grow than the farmer has, and if she cannot raise oaks on a cer- tain piece of land she can put in water-lilies. We shall have an entire lesson devoted to drainage and tillage, and also one to manures and fertilizers. It is enough for the present to say that the roots which are left inthe ground after the crop is harvested are very valuable in improving the soil. This is particularly true if they are tap-roots,—if they run deep into the soil. Clover bores holes into the soil, letting in air, draining it, warm- ing it and bringing up its plant-food. Roberts reports (‘‘ Fer- tility of the Land,’’ p. 345) that a second growth of clover, two years from seeding, gave a yield of air-dried tops of 5,417 lbs. per acre, and of air-dried roots 2,368 lbs. in the first eight inches of soil. Add to this latter figure the weight of roots below eight inches and the stubble and waste, and it is seen that the amount of herbage left on the clover field is not greatly less than that taken off. In this instance, the roots contained a greater percentage of nitrogen and phosphoric acid than the tops, and about the same percentage of potash. Make an estimate of what proportion of the plant growth you raise is actually taken off the field. Figure up, as accurately as you can, the portion left in roots, stubble, leaves, and refuse. Even of maize, you do not remove all from the field. This cal- culation will bring up the whole question of the kind of root- system which each sort of plant has. Have you ever made a close examination of the roots of potatoes, maize, wheat, clover, cabbages, buckwheat, strawberries, Canada thistles, or other crops? From what part of the soil do these plants secure their nourishment? What power have they of going deep for water? What proportion of them is root? Because the roots are hidden, we have neglected to examine them. 10. The soil ts plant-food ; but this food becomes usable or avail- 6 able slowly.—Roberts has compiled the analyses of 49 represen- tative soils, made by American chemists, and the following is the result: ‘‘ The tables reveal the fact that even the poorer soils have an abundance of plant-food for several crops; while the richer soils in some cases have sufficient for two hundred to three hundred crops of wheat or maize. Theaverageof 34 analyses gives to each acre of land, eight inches deep, 3,217 pounds of nitrogen, 3,936 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 17,597 pounds of potash, and this does not include that which is contained in the stones, gravel and sand of the soil which will not pass through meshes of one fiftieth of an inch, which, by weathering and tillage, slowly give up their valuable constituents.—Aoberts’ ‘* Fertility of the Land,’’ p. 16. Fortunately, this great store of plant-food is locked up, else it would have leached from the soil or have been used up long ago. By careful husbandry, a little of it 1s made usable year by vear ; and the better the management of the land the more of this food is available to the plant. When the farmer has done his best to get out of the land all that it will give him, then he may add fertilizers for bigger results. Plant-food is available when it is in such condition that the plant can use it. It must be both soluble and in such chemical form that the plant likes it. Plant-food which is not soluble in rain water, may still be soluble in soil water (which contains acids derived from the humus) ; and the acid excretions from the roots may render it soluble. But solubility is not necessarily availability, for, as we have said, the materials must be in such combination that the plant will take them. Thus, nitrate of soda (Na NO.) is available because it is both soluble and in the form in which the plant wants it. But nitrite of soda (Na NO,) is not available although it is soluble,—the plant does not like nitrites. 11. Nitrogen must probably be in the form of nitrates before tt can be used by most plants.—Nitrogen isabundant. Itis approximately four-fifths of the atmosphere, and it is an important content of every plant and animal. Yet, it is the element which is most difficult to secure and to keep, and the most expensive to buy. This is because the greater part of it is not ina form to be avail- ee ae ee ee es 7 | 4 7 able, and because, when it isavailable, it tends to leach from the soil. It is available when it isin the formof a nitrate—one part of nitrogen, three parts of oxygen, united with one part of some other element (Na NO,, nitrate of soda; K NO, nitrate of potash or saltpetre; H NO,, nitric acid, etc). The" process of changing nitrogen into nitrates is called nitrification. This pro- cess is the work of germs or microbes in the soil; and these germs work most efficiently when the soil is not water-logged, and when it is well tilled. The farmer should make his nitrogen supply as he goes along; and he makes it with tile drains, plows, harrows and cultivators. But there are some plants which have the power of using the nitrogen which is in the air in the soil. These are legu- minous plants,—clovers, peas, beans, vetch, alfalfa. If there- fore, the farmercannot secure sufficient nitrogen by other means, he may use these plants as green-manures. If his system of farming will not allow him to use these plants, or if he does not secure sufficient nitrogen when he does use them, then he can go to the warehouse and buy nitrogen. 12. The sow is not a mere inert mass: tt is a scene of life and activity.—This is the new and the true teaching. Soil which is wholly inactive is unproductive. Movements of air and water, actions of heat and evaporation, life-rounds of countless micro- scopic organisms, decay and disintegration of plants and soil particles,—these are some of the activities of the fertile soil. If our ears were delicate enough, we could hear the shuffle of the workers, the beating of the hammers, and the roll of the tiny - machinery. All things begin with the soil and at last all things come back to it. The soilis the cemetery.of all the ages, and the resurrection of all life. If the soil is not idle, neither should the farmer be. NOTE. Persons who desire to pursue this subject further should procure King’s book ‘‘The Soil,’’ and Roberts’ ‘‘ Fertility of the Land.’? Pub- lished by the Macmillan Co., New York, at 75 cents and $1.25 respectively. This Reading-Lesson ts sent free to all persons in New York State who are interested in agriculture, A supplement or quiz accom- panties tt, asking questions on the Lesson. Those who answer these questions will receive subsequent issues of Lessons. These Lessons are published by the College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Address, Reading- Course, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Or, I. P. Roberts, Director College of Agriculture. L. H. Bailey, Chief of Bureau of Nature. ae and Reading -Course. John W. Spencer, Deputy Chief. SECOND EDITION. QUIZ ON CORNELL READING-COURSE READING-LESSON FOR FARMERS. ne a NOVEMBER, |898 By JOHN W. SPENCER. These questions constitute a supplement to Reading-Lesson No. 1 (‘‘The Soil. what it ts’). Sts purpose ts to induce the reader to think carefully about what he reads. Answer the questions as best you can and return this sheet to us (2 cents postage). Wewant these answers tn order that we may know what interest you are taking tn the Reading-Course and how much good you are getting from tt, and we want to help you when you do not uuderstand the problems involved. We are after results, and do not care about the hand- writing nor the grammar. These answers are for our own examination and are not to be made public. We should be glad of any comments on these lessons. [It ts hoped that readers will form themselves into little clubs, to meet once or twice a month to discuss the problems ratsed by the lessons. Those who answer the questions will receive future lessons. Have you ever observed the influence of weather upon soft, slaty rock jutting out on embankments and in railroad cuts? Have you ever taken a glass of muddy water from a flowing stream and allowed it to stand until the sediment had settled? What.is this sediment ? Imagine a branch of this stream bringing rotted slate rock and another bringing fine sand. When mixed in the main stream and deposited on some bar or overflowed field, what kind of soil would the mixture make? What is inorganic matter ? What is organic matter? Why are soils from which a thrifty forest growth has been removed capable at once of producing good farm crops? Have you ever observed lichen (sometimes called ‘‘ moss’’ growing on bare rock or on a tombstone? If any great amount of lichen should become mixed with the disintegrated rock, would it be humus and form a weak soil that might produce an order of plants a little larger and stronger than lichen ? As the higher order of plants come in and die down and mix with the soil, would the process increase the productive power of the soil? Im instances in which soil has been removed by grading, coulda new soil be well made by adding commercial fertilizer alone? What would you apply first to such land? 3 If humus in soil under cultivation is perishable; ought it not to be the farmer’s first care to keep good the quantity first found in the virgin soil ? In addition to the humus returned to the soil in manure, from forage fed to stock, and by plowing under stubble and roots, do you think it a good plan to sow some cover-crop in corn rows at last cultivation, and on oat and wheat stubble as soon as the crop is off, for plowing under the following spring ? What are good crops for this purpose ? Which of these are leguminous plants? Nameall the kinds of leguminous plants you know? Why is it advised to plow under the green-crops as soon as the land can be worked in the spring ? Do you think a rotation of crops helps the soil to bear the strain of successive cropping? If so, why? Are you aware that plant-food exists in the soil in both avail- able and unavailable forms, and that when plants have used up most of the available portion we call the soil worn out? Is it true that your soil is capable of being made an active laboratory in which changes will take place and some of this unavailable plant-food be made usable? Are you aware that when the texture of your soil is poor, or, in other words, when your laboratory is out of order, the best com- mercial fertilizers or stable manures will not give the best results? Do you know that heat and air are important agencies in the — changes going on in the soil, asthey also are inthe changes in a barrel of cider or in the yeast in a pan of dough ? Does standing water on soil have a detrimental or beneficial effect on the heat and air? Why? s How can you make the soil laboratory do the best work? NQME ee eee Post: Offre: 42 3! wa. LB eee ac ig ae a3 ¥ . rif } GUARDEN READING-LESSON CORNELL READING-COURSE No. 2. FOR FARMERS. DECEMBER, !898. By JOHN W. SPENCER. TILLAGE AND UNDER-DRAINAGE: REASONS WHY, 1. The difference between black and white.—Two farmers are neighbors. Mr. White has made a study of potato culture for a number of years, and, as a result, now has an average yield, one year with another, of about 200 bushels per acre from a field of three to five acres. Mr. Black is considered a fairly good farmer, as farmers go, but has given potato culture no special study. He manages his crop as his neighbors do. His methods are those which have been a tradition for several generations, and they had their origin when the country was new and high cultivation was impossible on account of the stumps and lack of tools, and also because the virgin soil made it unnecessary. His annual yieldis not far from 60 bushels per acre. In other words, Mr. Black has to plow, harrow, furnish seed, plant, and cultivate about ten acres to secure as many potatoes as Mr. White does from three acres. Both men sell their product to the same dealer, and we will assume that they receive the same price per bushel. The cost of producing a bushel of potatoes must be very much more with Mr. Black than it is with Mr. White. No manufacturer or merchant could withstand the keen competition in trade if handicapped as Mr. Black is. When the respective farms were reclaimed from the forest, they were considered to be alike in character of soil, and the rain falls impartially on each. Why the difference in cost of production between Black and White? There are many points of difference in their methods, but we are free to say that one of the essential differences is in tillage. 2. The plant needs water.—When Mr. White contemplates a crop of potatoes, he proceeds to make.an estimate of what the 4 crop will require and how he can provide for that demand. Perhaps the greatest of all needs is water. By turning to Cor- nell Experiment Station Bulletin 120, page 419, it will be seen that in a dry season a bushel of potatoes requires about three tons of water for its production. If Mr. White expects 200 bushels of potatoes per acre, he must somehow manage to pro- vide 600 tons of water for each acre. He has no facilities for irrigation, and his only resource is to make the soil a reservoir. He must store the supply left by winter snows and spring rains, and also the irregular rainfall that comes during the season’s growth. Speaking in broad averages, in soils most commonly met with, this storage possibility amounts to about 300 tons of water per acre in the first eight inches of the soil. It must be understood that this amount is not in the form of standing water, for water standing in the soil for any length of time injures both soil and plant. ; 3. The most useful form of water for plants ts film motsture.— Water is capable of assuming many forms, such as steam, vapor, ice, or free-moving liquid. The condition most valuable in the soil is none of these, but is inthe form of film moisture. This film moisture can be shown by dipping a marble into water and observing the film of water surrounding it on all sides. When each soil-grain is covered with film moisture, as the marble is, the ideal conditions of soil moisture exist. This form of water is largely independent of gravitation and travels readily in all directions, as can be seen by dipping a cube of sugar into a spoon- ful of coffee. It is capable of transporting plant-food to the roots of plants from remote corners, where the roots do not reach. It will be observed that film moisture is held only on the sur- face of soil-grains. The more the soil is pulverized, the more soil-grains there will be, and therefore the greater amount of sur- face to hold film moisture. The difference in the capacity of lumpy and fine soils to hold film moisture is surprising to one who has not given the question study. George W. Cavanaugh, assistant chemist at the Cornell Experiment Station, has very graphically shown this by the fol- lowing experiment : He put some small marbles in a tumbler, as shown by Fig. 1, and the total amount of film moisture that the 3 marbles would carry is represented in the tube placed beside the tumbler. ‘The soil in the other tumbler (Fig. 2) is of the same _.. weight as the marbles in Fig. 1, and it represents the ilj# marbles reduced to the fineness of common sand. Its , | Ih capacity for holding film moisture is represented by the fv ‘i water in the standing tube (Fig. 2). The weight of i | ij] material is the same in each tumbler, and the reason why | | : | |i] one holds three times more film moisture than the other pat || is due to the increase of surface that comes by dividing | i) a coarse lump into fine particles. | i The marbles represent the careless tillage of Mr. || Hy Black, and the finer particles the thorough tillage of || Ali Mr. White. Mr. White plows about one-third deeper | )) than Mr. Black, and thereby makes another addition to | iW the capacity of his reservoir. | j) The coarse soil, as represented by the marbles, will lose | |) | || its film moisture by evaporation much more readily than | the soil represented by Fig. 2, particularly if the surface | || of the latter is covered by fine particles representing I an earth-mulch. | 4. Tillage makes plant-food avarlable.—Another differ- |) | ence inthe culture given by Black and White is that the | | better tillage enables the plant to realize more food from | | | all fertilizers which may be applied. There is also a | benefit in making avail- able some of the plant- food that nature has put in the soil. Broadly stated, the native plant- food amounts to. as | much as can be bought in $2,000 worth of com- mercial fertilizers. The finersoilhasanoth- }. 5! Water held be er advantage in afford- fine soil. ing a greater area for root Fic. 1.— Water held by a coarse soul. - pasturage. It is not uncommon for farmers to think of plant-food >in the soil as in the condition of salt or sugar which is capable of 4 being immediately dissolved by water and at once appropriated by the plant, or like potash in ashes that can be soaked out. Plant- food exists in this form only to a limited extent. A man might famish if locked up in a granary filled with wheat; yet, a chemist would say that there was enough food near him to feed ahundred men. This illustrates how nature has stored much of the plant-food in the soil. It has to go through many changes before itcan be appropriated by the plant. The soil is a factory in which the work of preparation is carried on. 5. The sow ts a laboratory.—Some of the agents employed in this factory are film moisture, air and heat ; andif these are not furnished in the proper extent and manner, the factory runs in a sluggish svay, if it does not stop altogether. Good tillage does mutch to hasten the activities of this factory by allowing free ingress to the soil of film moisture, air and heat. Air is neces- sary for a supply of oxygen, and heat to facilitate fermenta- tion and other vital processes. The importance of air and heat in the soil brings us to the question of drainage. Air cannot enter a soil freely which is filled with standing water, and growth of micro-organisms is stopped. 6. Wet soils are cold.—Standing water is a great absorbent of heat. If no provision is made to drain it away, it must be evapo- rated away. Thereby heat is lost. The soil is cold. A great many barrels of water cau be standing on an acre of ground and not attract much attention. To appreciate the amount of heat necessary to evaporate water one has only to chop, split and burn beneath a caldron kettle enough wood to evaporate a barrel of water. Every barrel that is evaporated from the soil by the sun absorbs as much heat as is contained in the wood used under the kettle. The soil and plants are perhaps chilled for want of that heat. ‘This is the reason that a wet soil is said to be cold. 7. Drained soils resist drought.—Some farmers have the notion that well drained soil will not withstand a drought as well as an undrained soil. The contrary is true. Everyone who has tilled the soil is familiar with places that are wettest in a wet time and driest inadry time. When these places dry at all, they 5 dry like a brick. A wet soil can never be tilled so as to present the greatest amount of surface for film moisture and giveit a mellow texture to receive a gentle saturation of air; and stand- ing water robs it of much heat required by the soil and plants. 8. Drainage makes a soil reservoir.—There is a place in every soil at which the free water stands. This place is called the water-table. It may be three inches down, ora hundred feet. It is the bottom of the soil reservoir, the bottom of our dish-pan. This dish-pan, or the upper and tillable soil, is the reservoir. It is the part in which the water is held as films on the soil particles. These films travel from particle to particle, the general tendency being upward because the moisture is passing off near the top of the soil by means of evaporation and appropriation by plants. Moisture is constantly supplied from the water-table below. We speak of this movement as capillary attraction. Under drainage lowers the water-table. It lowers the bottom of the dish-pan; and thereby there is a deeper reservoir above it for the holding of film moisture and the distribution of roots. But, the reader says, if the water-table supplies moisture to the upper soil, then it must be useful and necessary. Certainly . but it must not be too high, for roots of farm plants do not thrive in standing water. If the upper soil is well tilled, capillary attraction will bring the moisture up. 9. Do not let the moisture get away.—We want this film mois- ture in the upper soil in order that roots may use it. The plants do not use it, to any extent, after it has passed off into the atmosphere. Therefore, stop this water before it reaches the atmosphere. How? Puta layer of loose dry earth between the moist soil and the atmosphere. This layer will stop the upward capillary flow (see Caption 3). This layer is the earth-mulch. It con- serves, or Saves, moisture. 10. Dry and hard soils may be benefited by under-drainage:— The water-table is lowered. Airis admitted. The soil does not puddle. It becomes fine. Under-drainage makes wet soils dry by removing the free water; it tends to make dry soils moist by deepening the reservoir and fining the particles of soil. 11. What tillage tools are for.—Some tools, as plows, are to 6 meHow up the soil and to deepen the moisture reservoir. Others, as cultivators, are to tear up and to pulverize the soil to greater or less depths. Cultivators lift and turn the soil. The spring-tooth harrow is really a cultivator. Other tools, as har- rows, prepare the surface of the soil. They make the seed-bed and put on the earth-mulch. The true harrows stir the soil, but do not lift or invert it. 12. Weeds do not like well-tilled lands.—The first and greatest value of tillage is to put the soil in such condition that plants can grow, and then to keep it so. Incidentally, it prevents from growing those plants which we do not want,—the weeds. Usu- ally, the process is reversed: weeds make us till, and we get the other benefits without knowing it. The best tillage prevents weeds rather than kills them. | 13. Summer-fallowing is a means of cleaning land and of cor- vecting mistakes.—It may be necessary to fallow the land in order to clear it of stones, stumps and brush. But after the land is once thoroughly subdued, summer-fallowing is very rarely neces- sary if the land has been well handled. If the land has been plowed when too wet and thereby has become lumpy, if it has been allowed to become foul with weeds, or if it has lost heart by too continuous cropping with one kind of crop, summer-fallow- ing is a good means of bringing it back into condition. ‘The better the farming, the less the necessity of summer-fallowing. In the old days, the poor tillage tools rendered fallowing more necessary than it 1s to-day. Fallowing is tillage; and tillage liberates plant-food. Some of this plant-food may leach away and be lost, although the small rainfall of the summer months,—during which time fallowing is. practiced,—makes this loss slight. 14. The kind of tillage should vary with the sol, the time of year, the kind of crop.—Too many farmers seem to think that til- lage is tillage, no matter how it is performed. The same tool is used for clay or sand or muck, and for fitting the land for wheat or corn or apple trees. A harrow that is best for one field may be worst for the adjoining field. A man would not think of using a buggy for carrying grain to market, but he will use one tool for many kinds of work. The work is not only poorly done, { / but it is not economical. It costs too much. Persons who will economize to the smallest degree in expenditures of money, may be very wasteful in expenditures of labor and muscle. Persons are always asking if deep plowing is best. The ques- tion cannot be answered on general principles. Deep plowing may be best for one field and one crop, and shallow plowing best for another field and another crop. The same remarks will apply to fall-plowing and spring-plowing. One must first learn principles, or the why; then the practice, or the how, will come easy. Note. The reader should have other sources of information than this Lesson. He may read otr Bulletins 119, ‘‘ Texture of the Soil ;’’ 120, ‘‘ The Moisture in the Soil ;’’ 72, ‘‘ The Cultivation of Orchards ;’? and the three bulletins on potato culture (Nos. 130, 140, 156). His library should also have King’s ‘* Soil’’ and Roberts’ ‘‘ Fertility of the Land.” This Reading-Lesson is sent free to all persons in New York State A supplenent or quiz accom- Those who answer these These Lessons who are interested in agriculture. panties tt, asking questions on the Lesson. questions will receive subsequent issues of Lessons. are published by the College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Address, Reading-Course, Cornell Untversity, Ithaca, NV. ¥. Or, I. P. Roberts, Director College of Agriculture. Pee ed 5 Bassey, Chief of Bureau of Nature-Study and Reading-Course. John W. Spencer, Deputy Chief. QUIZ ON READING-LESSON CORNELL READING-COURSE No. 2. FOR FARMERS DECEMBER, 1898. By L. HH: BAIEEY These questions constitute a supplement to Reading-Lesson No. 2 (‘‘ Tillage and under-drainage- reason why’). Its purpose ts to induce the reader to think carefully about what he reads. Answer the questions as best you can and return this sheet to us (2cenXts post- age). We want these answers in order that we may know what interest you are taking in the Reading-Course and how much good you are getting fromit,; and we want to help you when you do not understand the problems involved. We are after results, and do not care about the handwriting nor the grammar. These answers are for our own examination and are not to be made public. We should be glad of any comments on these lessons. It ts hoped that readers will form themselves into little clubs, to meet once or twice a month to discuss the problems raised by the lessons. Those who answer the questions will receive future lessons. 1. What proportion of farmers in your neighborhood farm it like Mr. Black? 2. How is farming to be made to pay,—by getting higher prices or by cheapening cost of production ? 2 3. Do you expect permanently higher prices for farm pro- duce? 4. Do you set a certain yield before your mind when you are preparing for a crop? Or do you expect to be content with what comes ? : 5. An inch of rainfall weighs about 113 tons to the acre. About 300 tons of water is required to produce one ton of dry matter. Do you have rainfall enough in June, July and August to maintain a heavy crop of Indian corn or cabbage ? 6. Does surface tillage make soil moist, or keep it moist ? s b 7. Why does deep fall-plowing make soils ‘“‘warm”’ or ) “early ’’ in spring? 8. What proportion of farmers in your vicinity practice under-drainage? 9. How many of the farms need under-drainage? 10. How deep and how far apart would you lay under-drains ? 11. Do the farmers of your neighborhood have enough differ- ent kinds of tools to enable them to till their land cheaply and efficiently ? 14. Why do you till your corn leading problem in your mind ? READING-LESSON CORNELL READING-COURSE | No. 3. FOR FARMERS. JANUARY, I899. By G. W. CAVANAUGH. Fertility of the Soil: What it is. 1. Tobe fertile, a soil must contain plant-food.—A\\ plants during growth absorb certain substances from the soil. Those substan- ces which are essential for the best growth and development of the plant are called plant-foods. These are iron, lime, potash, sulfur, silica, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and six or seven more. 2. The different plant-foods are equally essential. A plant must have each and every one of the different plant-foods. Each is essential to aid in some particular function, and no one can be substituted for another. Ifa soil were to contain all the other plant-foods and be lacking in phosphoric acid it could not bea fertile soil. It could not grow plants because phosphoric acid is necessary in the development of a plant, and no other sub- stance is known that will take its place. - The same remarks might be made respecting iron, lime, silicon, or the others. 3. The different plant-foods are widely distributed in nature.— A soil on which are growing only mulleins, moss or daisies, is usually not considered a fertile soil; and yet the fact that these plants grow shows that the soil contains the different elements of plant-food, at least to some extent. In such a case, the rela- tive infertility is as likely to be due to the texture of the soil, or to its lack of moisture-holding capacity, as to a deficiency of min- eral plant-food. A soil whichis practically worn out for onions, may still grow rye or smartweed. See Lesson 1. 4. The element of which there is relatively the least, determines the productive power of the soil (so far as plant-food ts concerned) .— It may be that some one element is present only to a limited ex- tent, in which case it will measure the producing power of the 2 soil. For if all the plant-foods are equally essential, it is evi- dent that if in any soil there should be enough of all but one to produce 40 bushels of wheat per acre, yet of that one enough to supply only 15 bushels, then 15 bushels would be the largest crop possible. Hence it may be that the soil which grows sor- rel and daisies has sufficient potash, phosphoric acid and other mineral plant-foods to producea good yield of grasses, but it may be lacking in nitrogen, or may not have available moisture. 5. Plants require that plant-food be avatlable.—Not every soil that contains an abundance of the different plant-foods is a fer- tile soil. The plant-food must be in such condition that the plant can use it. Gravel-stones might contain all the necessary mineral constituents, and muck has nitrogen; yet a mixture of muck and gravel-stones would not be a fertile soil. Let the stones, through weathering, crumble and decay and become intimately mixed with the material of the muck and soil, considerable avail- able plant-food might be made. For plant-food to be available, it must be in a condition to be dissolved by the soil water. Roots absorb the soil water and obtain their food by using that which is in soltition. They never take their food in solid particles or chunks. 6. The soil water can dissolve only that part of the soil with which zt comes tn contact.—It comes in contact only with the outside of the ultimate particles of soil, and, obviously, the more numerous the particles the greater chance there is for the plant-food con- tained in these particles to be dissolved. It is in this light that » we are to look upon tillage as making plant-food available by improving the texture of the soil. 7. The proportions of the different plant-foods in the sow are variable.—Nature has supplied a superabundance of most of the essential plant-foods ; but often some of them are either lacking or are in an unavailable condition from which the plant finds great difficulty in extracting them. Of the fourteen elements of plant-food that are essential to plants, only four, and more often three, are inthis condition. These are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and lime. The term plant-food as ordinarily used by farmers inciiaes the first three of these substances only; not that they are any more 3 essential to plant growth than are the other substances, but be- cause of the deficiency of them in many soils and their corres- ponding commercial importance. 8. Phosphoric acid (P_O.) ts one ofthe prime essen- 4 cs tials.—Every farmer, whether he has used phos- pr \ 3 ‘ f,\_ = phates or not, has seen phosphoric acid. When f \"Ap a match is ignited the little curl of white smoke ~ which first appears is pure phosphoric acid, P,O.. The kind of match for this purpose is the old (ens fashioned one knownasasulfur match, easily reco- 4 gnized by the blue, flickering flame and the odor AN S \ 4 of burning sulfur. The kind known as crack or ee parlor matches do not show phosphoric acid. wo WM In the blue-black or red tip of this match there ) hs is a small amount of the substancecalled phos- / ,//./'/ phorus. Forconvenience and shortness this name uf is represented by theletter P. When this phos- NS phorus is warmed up by friction it burns, and in + ff burning it unites withoxygen fromthe air. Oxy- ANS gen is represented by O. The figures 2 and5 in | < this symbol P,O., mean that 2 parts of Pare united WH with 5 partsof O. The result is the white sub- Xt stance of the smoke,or pure phosphoric acid,such 4h as is sold in phosphates. ay 9. Farmers buy phosphoric acid in combinations with lime.—Phosphoric acid does not exist in the soil in the free state, that is, not as one sees it on igniting a match. It readily unites with lime to Showing what passes form phosphates of lime. The chemical name of when a blue- = : : 2 headea match 1s first of lime is calcium oxide (CaO) and the phosphates ignited. of lime are called calcium phosphates. Water is HO. Lime and phosphoric acid unite in three different proportions : I. One part phosphoric acid and 3 of lime,....CaO - P.O II. One part phosphoric acid and 2 of lime,....CaO III. One part phosphoric acid and 1 of lime,....H,O 4 These are called respectively tri-calcic phosphate, di-calcic phosphate and mono-calcic phosphate. It is in the form of these calcium or lime combinations that plants obtain their phosphoric acid. These three substances vary in the way in which they dissolve in water, and hence are not equally available as plant-food. The mono-calcic phosphate dissolves in water as does sugar or salt and consequently its phosphoric acid is directly available. The di-calcic phosphate does not dissolve in water, but becomes soluble in the soil water, which contains carbonic acid gas in so- lution. The di-calcic phosphate is therefore available phosphoric acid. The mono-calcic phosphate tends to pass into the di-calcic condition in thesoil; when so changed it issaid to be “‘reverted.’’ The total available phosphoric acid in a fertilizer is that which it contains in the forms of mono- and di-calcic phosphates. The tri-calcic phosphate is soluble neither in water nor in soil water, and is known as the insoluble phosphoric acid. 10. These phosphates are made mostly from bone (either recent or fossil.) Bones are the chief source of phosphoric acid. The phos- phate rock deposits found in the South are from ancient bone de- posits. In bonesthe phosphoric acid is insoluble: that is,it is there as tri-calcic phosphate. To make it available,the bones are treated with sulfuric acid (oil of vitrol) and water. In the action which takes place, the sulfuric acid takes from the phosphoric acid one or two parts of its lime and puts water (H,O) in their places. The lime which is taken away by the sulfuric acid, unites with the sulfuric acid and forms sulfate of lime (gypsum or land plas- ter). Gypsum is always a constituent of a fertilizer containing available (or treated) phosphoric acid. 11. Potash (K,O) ts also an essential fertilizer material.—Most soils contain more potash than phosphoric acid. The potash in soils is mostly locked up in compounds known as silicates. Pure sand is silica. These silicates are insoluble in water, and hence the potash is not readily available. Perhaps it is well that nature locked up the potash in such a strong combination as a silicate, or it might have run out, as the nitrogen has from many soils. 12. Potash is made available by tillage, and the decay of humus.— 5 Certain other substances also tend to render potash available as lime, salt and plaster. 13. Lf potash ts to be applied to the soil, tt may be had in three forms : as the sulfate of potash, muriate of potash, and carbonate of potash. The last occurs tn wood ashes. Potash is represented by two letters, K and O, to indicate that it, like phosphoric acid, is composed of two elements, i. e., potas- sium K* and oxygen O, and the figure 2 in K,O denotes that it contains two parts of K and one of O. When potash is combined with sulfuric acid, or oil of vitrol, it forms sulfate of potash. When combined with muriatic acid it forms muriate of potash. In wood ashes the potash is united with carbonic acid to make the carbonate of potash. Muriate of potash, KCl, comes from Germany, where deposits are found, about like our own deposits of common salt. The sulfate is made from the muriate, by substituting sulfuric acid in the place of muriatic acid. 14. Vitrogen ts an essential fertilizing element.—Nitrogen is the most expensive and consequently the most important, commer- cially,of the plant-foods. It exists in that part of the soil com- posed of organic material, i. e., that arising from the decay of vegetable or animal matter. There is no nitrogen in common rocks. By burning from a handful of soil all the organic part,the nitrogen will be lost. The nitrogen originally all came from the atmosphere. Four-fifths of the air is nitrogen. In the pure state it isa gas, but in the soil it is a constituent of the organic materials. 15. MVitrogen must bein combinations to be available.—The nitro- gen that exists as a constituent of any organic material is called organic nitrogen. This combinationis found in manures, green- crops and in fact in all vegetable material ; alsoin dried blood and tankage. Nitrogen is a constituent also of ammonia or hartshorn (N H,). By weight, fourteen of every seventeen parts of ammonia is ni- trogen. Hence when the odor of ammonia escaping from manure *This letter is used to denote potassium to avoid confusion with phos- phorus, and because K is the first letter of kalium, Latin for potassium. 6 piles is noticed, there isalossof nitrogen. Nitrogen in ammonia is called ammoniacal nitrogen. Nitric acid (HNO,),or aqua fortis of the drug stores, as its name indicates is alsoa compound of nitrogen. When nitric acid unites with soda, potash or lime, substances known as nitrates are formed. ‘The mineral takes the place of the hydrogen (H). With soda (Na), nitric acid forms nitrate of soda, (NaNo,.) 16. Vitrogen ts closely connected with growth and development, im distinction to stockiness or fruitfulness.—Cereals that grow too much tostalk with immature seeds, usually have too much nitrogen and not enough P,O,andK,O. A yellow color, and short growth, suggest a deficiency of nitrogen or moisture, or both. 17. Llants cannot use all formsof nitrogen in combination. They use only that existing as a nitrate.—Most of the nitrogen that is supplied to the soil in manures and green-crops, is in the form of organic nitrogen, which is not directly available as plant-food. However, in asoil in good tilth and having suitable moisture, the nitrogen in the organic material will be changed into nitric acid. The nitric acid, uniting with the potash, soda or limein the soil, forms nitrates. All nitrates are soluble in water, and thus available nitrogen is furnished to the roots. This change of the nitrogen into nitric acid and nitrates is ef- fected by germs or microbes, and is called nitrification. 18. Larn manures supply plant-food.—The amounts of nitro- gen, phosphoric acid and potash in manures are small, not enough in fact to account for all the beneficial effects obtained. Manures are particularly useful in supplying organic matter, which improvesthe condition of soils by increasing the moisture-holding power. The more organic matter soils contain, within ordinary limits, the more moisture they can hold. Compare sands with mucks. Consult Lessons 1 and 2. 19. Amendments are sometimes very needful.—Certain substances produce beneficial effects and yet supply little or none of the nec- _ essary plant-foods. Lime, salt and plaster may be cited. Crops that require potash are often helped by these materials. They contain no potash and yet they furnish it to the plants by help- ing to unlock it from the insoluble silicates. When the oil is 7 low and the wick short, the lamp may be made to continue burn- ing by adding water to raise the oil within reach of the wick. Substances acting in this way are not fertilizers in the strict sense of that term. They are amendments. ' 20. Acid or sour soils are usually unproductive.—They may be made neutral or ‘‘ sweetened ’’ by means of lime or ashes. ‘The marked benefits sometimes secured by the use of ashes are owing more to the sweetening of the soil than to the addition of. plant- food. The farmer may determine if his soil is sour by testing it with blue litmus paper. Buy five cents’ worth of this paper at the drug store. Press it firmly against a fresh, moist surface of soil. If the paper turns red, the soil is acid ; and the quicker and more completely the color changes the sourer the soil. The test may also be made by inserting the blue litmus paper in water with which the soil is shaken up. A lump of frozen soil may be thawed out in water, and the test applied. An alkali (like lye or lime) will change the reddened litmus back to blue. Notr.—For further information on fertilizers and plant-food problems, read Voorhees’ ‘‘Fertilizers.’’ (The Macmillan Co. ) Lesson No. 4 will tell how the plant obtains its food from the soil. Let the reader now place a few radish seeds between folds of heavy flannel, and keep them warm and moist. They will then be ready to show the root- hairs when Lesson No. 4 arrives. This Reading-Lesson is sent free to all persons in New York State who are interested in agriculture. A supplement or quiz accom- panies it, asking questions on the Lesson. Those who answer these questions will receive subsequent issues of Lessons. The Lessons thus far issued are : I. The soil: what zt ts. 2. Tillage and underdrainage : reasons why. 3. Fertility of the soil: what it ts. Two more will be issued this winter - 4. How plants get their food from the soil. 5. How plants get their food from the air. These Lessons are published by the College of Agriculture,. Cornell University, under the auspices of the Agricultural Extension (or Nixon) fund. Address, Reading-Course, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Or, I. P. Roberts, Director College of Agriculture. 7.11. Bailey; Chief of Bureau of Nature-Study and Reading- Course. John W. Spencer, Deputy Chief. QUIZ ON ‘ 5 3 . READING-LESSON CORNELL READING-COURSE Ge FOR FARMERS JANUARY, 1899 By L. 4. BAILEY. These questions constitute a supplement to Reading Lesson No. 3 (‘* Fertility of the Soil: whatitis’’). Its purpose ts to induce the reader to think carefully about what he reads. Answer the ques- tions as best you can and return this sheet to us (2 cents postage). We want these answers in order that we may know what interest you are taking in the Reading- Course and how much good you are getting fromit, and we want to help you when you do not under. stand the problems involved. We are after results, and do not care about the handwriting nor the grammar. These answers are for our own examination and are not to be made public. We should be glad of any comments on these lessons. Those who answer the ques- tions will receive future lessons. You may not be able at first to see the point to some of the ques- tions. It ts the purpose of these questions to set you to thinking about the problem in hand, rather than pe out all that you know about the subject. When the reading season ts over, we hope to send you a Lesson containing correct answers to all the questions in the five Lessons. Before spring opens, we propose to suggest how you can find out what fertilizer you need to apply to your land Do plants obtain all their food from the soil? What do you mean when you say that soil is exhausted,—that it has no more plant-food in it, ormerely that it fails to produce crops ? 2 May a soil fail to produce crops and yet not be exhausted of plant-food ? If there are 13 plant-foods which are positively essential, why do we speak of only 3 of them as plant-food,—of nitrogen, pot- ash, phosphoric acid ? Do you know if there is any difference between phosphorus and phosphoric acid? Write the chemical symbol for each. Is there any difference between potassium and potash? Write chemical symbols for each. Write the chemical symbols for calcium and lime. Where do phosphorus, potassium and calcium come from,— from the ground or the air? Are they gases or solids ? Where does the oxygen come from, with which they are combined ? 3 Do you know if phosphorus, potassium and calcium exist in nature in their pure state? Does oxygen exist anywhere in a pure or uncombined state? Of what is water composed ? Write its chemical formula. Of what is ammonia composed? Is it a gasor liquid? Can you buy pure ammonia at the drug store? Does the plant feed on ammonia directly ? What is the composition of a nitrate? Write the formula for nitrate of potash and nitrate of lime. In what kind of materials does nitrogen occur? Name some common things which you think contain nitrogen. Is nitrogen a solid or a gas? 4 Are nitrates of potash and soda solids, liquids or gases ? Are nitrates soluble? Is there danger of their being lost from the soil ? What is an amendment ? Is the soil in your garden sour? ‘Try it. In what materials can you buy phosphoric acid for fertilizer purposes ? In what can you buy potash ? In what can you buy nitrogen? Are there any home fertilizers, or common farm materials (aside from barn manure), in which you can get these three elements ? READING-LESSON CORNELL READING-COURSE No. 4. FOR FARMERS. FEBRUARY, |I899. By B M. DUGGAR. How the Plant Gets Its Food from the Soil, 1. Roots feed obscurely.—The poultry yard is a proper place to observe how the chicken takes its food and drink, but garden observations alone do not furnish us equal evidence concerning the garden plant. Every one knows that the plant takes water and soluble substances from the soil by certain root structures ; but the facts about the interesting activities of these roots too often remain a secret of the soil. These activities may seem obscure, but let us handle the plant, make a few simple experi- ments, and see what the study yields. In this study we are | concerned with the one question of how the plant gets this water and other food materials from the soil, disregarding entirely the various kinds of substances that may be used as foods. 2. There are roots and there are root- lets.—In Figure 1 we have a radish plant ready for the table. It has developed no seeds, but it has stored up food; and for present purposes we may consider it a mature plant. To begin with, ob- serve how its root system is constructed. The plant has been pulled out of the soil in which it was growing. The large fleshy root terminates in a com- mon-sized root (a) to which little rootlets (6) are attached. Then there are little rootlets (4') attached to the fleshy root at various places near the base ; and this we expected, knowing that the fleshy root is nothing but the enlarged tap-root. But the rootlets which we so readily see are only intermediary, and 1. Radish. 2 there are numerous yet smaller structures which we do not see at all when we handle the plant so roughly. 3. The rootlets are clothed with hairs (root-hairs) which are very delicate structures.—Next we will carefully germinate some radish seed sothat no delicate parts of the root will be injured. For this purpose we simply sow a few seed in packing-moss or in the folds of some black cloth, being careful to keep them moist. In a few days a seed has germinated, the root has grown an inch or two, and branched once or twice, perhaps. Lift the moss carefully, or open the folds of the cloth. Figure 2 shows what may be found. Now notice that at a distance of about a quarter of an inch from the tip, the root is covered with a delicate fringe of hairs. They are actually hairs, that is, root-hairs. Touch them and they col- lapse, they are so delicate. Dip one of the plants into water, and when removed the hairs are not to be seen. The water mats them to- gether along the root and they are no longer evident. No wonder we cannot see root-hairs well when a plant is pulled out of the soil, Sigs bane be it done ever so carefully! These delicate —_- root-hairs clothe the young rootlets, and we can hardly estimate what a great amount of soilis thus brought into actual contact with the plant. The value of this contact we shall soon see. Root-hairs are not young roots. 4. The rootlet and the root-hatr differ.—The rootlet is fleshy in its way,—a solid compact structure. The root-hair is a tubular plant cell, that is, a delicate little tube, within the cell wall of which is contained living matter (protoplasm) ; and the lining membrane of this wall permits water and substances in solution to pass in by a very interesting physical process. Being long and tube-like, these root-hairs are especially adapted for taking in the largest quantity of solutions; and they are, in fact, the principal means by which plant-food is absorbed from the soil, although the surfaces of the rootlets themselves do their part. Water-plants do not need an abundant system of root-hairs, and such plants depend largely upon their rootlets. fy 5. A salt solution separated by a membrane from water absorbs some of the water and increases it own volume.—To understand better how the root-hairs absorb their water, we will study that physical process already mentioned. First dissolve one ounce of saltpetre, which we may use as a fertilizer solution, in one pint of water, calling this solution I. For use in some experiments later on, also dissolve a piece of saltpetre not larger than a peach pit (about 4+ oz.) in about one gallon of water, calling the latter solution II. Now fill the tube A in figure 3 almost full of the strong solution I., and tie a piece of animal membrane (hog’s bladder is excellent for this purpose) over the large mouth. A small funnel, with a long stem, may be used if one cannot obtain a tube like A. Then sink the tube, bladder part down- ward, into a large bottle of water until the level of liquid in the tube stands at the same height as that in the bottle C. The tube may be readily secured in this posi- tion by passing it through a hole in the cork of the bottle. In a short time, we notice that the liquid in A’ begins to rise, and in an hour or so it stands as at b, say. This is an important result: see that we . do not forget it, for it explains many things. The facts are that the liquids tend to diffuse, but the strong solution in A* cannot pass through the bladder B as rapidly as the water outside can pass into A‘. Then gr fee Oe there is evidently absorption of water and pressure in At which forces the liquid up higher thanin C. The liquid in A* would continue to stand higher than in C while this absorption goes on. Thus we know that a strong fertilizer solu- tion, or any solution denser than water, separated from water by membrane, will absorb water. This is an instance of that which physicists have named osmosis. It is osmotic action. 6. The cell sap of the root-hair absorbs water from the soil by osmotic action.—The experiment above detailed enables us to 4 understand how the countless little root-hairs act,—each one like the tube A‘, if only the whole surface of the tube A‘ were a blad- der membrane, or something acting similiarly! The soil water does not contain much of the land’s fertility ; that is, itisa very weak solution. The active little root-hair, on the other hand, is always filled with cell sap, a more concentrated solution ; hence soil water must come in, and along with it come also small quan- tities of dissolved fertilizers. 7. The plant absorbs fertilizer solutions as long as they are used for the growth of the plant.—The fertilizers (salts) which are dis- solved in the soil water also diffuse themselves through the membrane of the root-hairs, each ingredient tending indepen- dently to become as abundant inside the root-hair as outside in the soil water. Now once inside the root-hair, these absorbed fertilizer solutions pass on to root and stem and leaf to be utilized in growth. As long as they are used up, however, more must come into the root-hairs, in order to restore the equilibrium. Thus those substances which are needed must come in as long as the land can furnish them in soluble form. 8. fleshy pieces of root or stem will absorb water from weak solu- tions and become rigid ; in strong solutions such fleshy parts will give up their water and become flexible.—We have illustrated absorption by an artificial arrangement because the root-hairs are so small that they cannot be seen readily. But all parts of the root, even the fleshy part, can absorb some water; and to experiment further with this principle of absorption, we cut several slices of potato tuber about one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and let them lie in the air half an hour. Put a few of these slices into some of the strong fertilizer solution I., such as was used in A’, Fig. 3. Put other similar pieces into some of the very weak solution II. In about half an hour or more we find that those pieces in the weak solution are very rigid or stiff (turgid). They will not bend readily when held lengthwise between the fingers. Compare these slices with those in the strong solution, where they are very flexible (flaccid). This bending is evidently due to the fact that those in the strong brine have actually lost some of their water. Sothe potato tuber could take in soil water containing a small amount of food; but put in 5 too much such food material and the potato would actually lose some of the water which it held. The experiments which have been made not only demonstrate how the roots absorb water containing plant-food, but they emphasize the fact that the outside solution must be very dilute in order to be absorbed at all. The root-hairs, then, absorb water which has dissolved only a small amount of plant-food from the richness of the soil, and not such rich solutions as the sap of the plant itself. 9. The plant may be wilted, and even killed, by attempting to feed tt fertilizer solutions which are too strong.—More carefully to test this matter relating to the use of strong solutions, we may make a very simple ex- periment. Secure a young radish pla* (or almost any seedling with several leaves) and insert the roots into a small bottle con- taining some of the saltpetre solution I. In another bottle we put a similar plant with some of the weak solution II. Support the plant in the mouth of the bottle with cotton batting. After standing for a few hours or less it will be noticed that the leaves of the plant in the strong fertilizer solution begin to wilt, as in Fig. 4. The plant in the weak fertilizer solution, Fig. 5, is perfectly rigid and normal. This further indicates that the growing plant is so constituted as to be able to make use of very dilute solutions only. If we at- tempted to feed it strong fertilizer solutions, these strong solu- tions instead of being absorbed by the plant take water from the latter, causing the plant to wilt. In fact, saltpetre seems to be most available for plant-food when one ounce is dissolved in about seven or eight gallons of water. 10. The injurious effect of strong fertilizer solutions ts known in practice.—In every-day practice we are already familiar with the fact above demonstrated. Everyone recognizes the value of wood ashes as a fertilizer; but no one would dare water his val- uable plants with lye, or sow his choice vegetable seeds on an 4. Killed by too much food. 5- 6 ash bank, however well it might be watered. If there is a potted plant at hand which is of no value, we might remove some of the soil, add considerable wood ashes, water well, and await the result. Try it; or give it a lump of nitrate of soda. 11. The soil water is a very dilute solution.—In Reading-Les- son No. 2 the different kinds of water in the soil were men- tioned ; and it was stated that the water which is valuable to the plant is not the free water, but the thin film of moisture which adheres to each little particle of soil. Any one who has drunk water from a tile drain knows that at least the free water which has soaked from the soil must contain relatively very little plant-food, else our delicate taste would detect it. Perhaps the film moisture contains alittle more plant-food than the free water, but the quantity of substances in solution is generally extremely minute, so that the soil water is readily absorbed by the plant. 12. oot absorption may continue in a soil that seems to be dry.—Not only is free water unnecessary for ordinary land plants, but the amount of film moisture present does not need to be very great. It is remarkable how dry a soil may feel to the fingers, and yet afford sufficient water to maintain the plant. This may be readily studied with a potted iat Wi weak plant, or observed in the field. -13. The roots need air.—Corn on a piece of land which has been flooded by the heavy rains looses its green color and turns yellow. Besides diluting plant-food, the water drives the air out of the soil, and this suffocation of the roots is very soon felt in the general health ofthe plant. The film moisture alone (hygroscopic water) is best to insure proper aéra- tion. The value of tillage for aeration purposes has already been mentioned in Reading-Lesson No. 2. Water-plants and bog- plants have adapted themseleves to their particular conditions. They either get their air by special surface roots, or get it from the water. - 7 14. The root must be warm in order to perform tts functions.— Should the soil of fields or greenhouses be much colder than the air, we would finda very bad state of affairs for the plant. When in a warm atmosphere, or in a dry atmosphere, plants need to absorb much water from the soil, and the roots must be warm in order that the root-hairs may be so active as to supply the water as rapidly as it is needed. If the roots are chilled, then the plant will wilt. We may try this experimentally with two potted plants, as radish, coleus, tomato, etc. Put one potin a dish of ice water, and the other in a dish of warm water, and keep them in awarmroom. Ina short time notice how stiff and vigorous is the one whose roots are warm. Perhaps the one whose roots are chilled is already beginning to show signs of wilting. 15. foots excrete substances which aid tn dissolving plant-food from some soil compounds which are insoluble in water.—Ordinarily there would bein solution in soil water only those substances which are soluble in the water alone. The plant is not only pro- vided for absorbing what is already there in a soluble form, but it is also capable of rendering soluble small quantities of the insol- uble substances present in the soil, and which may be needed for plant-food. The plant accomplishes this purpose by means of certain excretions from the roots. In other words, not only does the plant absorbdilute solutions, but it gives off through its root- hairs small quantities of acids. These acids may even ete marble. Fig. 6, from Bailey’s | ‘Principles of Agri- eultiure’ illustrates this. ‘‘Ona polished marble block, place a half inch of sawdust, Giz SES es ae Bee alan ores Ci on arte he sehr hae After the plants have attained a few leaves, turn the mass of sawdust over and observe the prints of the roots on the marble.’’ ‘These prints will be very faint. This Reading Lesson ts sent free to all persons in New York State who are interested in agriculture. A supplement or quiz accom- panies it, asking questions on the Lesson. Those who answer these questions will receive subsequent issues of Lessons. The Lessons thus far issued are : I. The sotl: what tt ts. 2. Tillage and underdrainage - reasons why. 3. Fertility of the sotl: what tt ts. 4. How plants get their food from the soil. One more will be issued this winter: 5. How plants get thetr food from the air. These Lessons are published by the College of Agruuliure, Cornell University, under the auspices of the Argicultural Exten- ston (or Nixon) fund. Address, Reading- Course, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Or, I P. Roberts, Director College of Agriculture. L A Batley, Chief of Bureau of Nature Study and Reading - Course. John W Spencer, Deputy Chtef. : re |W QUIZ ON CORNELL READING-COURSE READING-LESSON FOR FARMERS NO. 4. FEBRUARY, |899. By L: 8. BAILEY: These questions constitute supplement to Reading Lesson No. 4 (‘‘ How the plant gets its food from the soil’). lts purpose ts to induce the reader to think carefully about what he reads. Answer the questions as best you can and return this sheet to us (2 cents post- age). Wewant these answers in order that we may know what interest you are taking in the Reading-Course and how much good you are getting from tt; and we want to help you when you do not understand the problems involved. We are after results, and do not care about the handwriting nor the grammar. These answers are for our own examination and will not be made public. We shall be glad of any comments on these lessons. Those who answer the questions will receive future lessons. When Lesson No.5 shall have been digested. we hope to send you a supplementary Lesson answering questions in all five Lessons, and also suggesting how you may find out what fertilizers your soil and crops need. Do the root-hairs finally become roots, or do they stay on as the main root grows ? Are there root-hairs on old roots? On what part of the roots are the root-hairs ? Where does the radish plant, which you grow in moss or between folds of cloth, get nourishment for making the root-hairs? oe 2 Why do particles of soil adhere toa young plant of wheat or cabbage when it is pulled up? What do you understand by a solution ? Give an example of a substance which will dissolve in water, and one which will not. May materials which are insoluble in rain water be soluble in soil water? Why? (Consult Less. 3.) Does warming the water increase its power to make sub- stances soluble ? Write a definition of osmosis. (Consult dictionary or some school book on physics or natural philosophy.) Why does the soil water go into the root-hair ? Why does not the liquid in the root-hair flow out into the soil ? 3 What would happen if the liquid in the root-hair and that in the surrounding soil were of equal density ? Must all food materials in the soil be in solution before the plant can use them ? Does the plant ever utilize materials which are insoluble in the soil water? How? How is it that plants can live and grow in a soil which is dust dry? Can your soil be so loose as to have too much air for the good of the plants ? Do you understand that you can smother the root as well as the top of the plant? How? At what season do you suppose that corn roots absorb the most moisture ? At what season do you have the least rainfall? arts ROU art oa ae te ase Me Lt AL : é¢ Prema: ) 4 wai oy ‘ ? “ee mye 4 “ % If you knew that you would not have sufficient 1 1 August to maintain your potato crop, how would you plan ‘ ha) aL. secure the moisture ? CJ rieke - a 2 Name one way in which plants are injured by too st ‘ c dressings of potash or nitrogen. De a i ‘ ; fA: If all the potash in your cornfield were to become § a” available, what would happen ? Ng ah : plants would be injured ? Would it be an easy matter to injure old apple trees by n m of potash? Why? READING-LESSON CORNELL READING-COURSE No. 5. FOR FARMERS. MARCH, !899. By B. M. DUGGAR. 2 How the Plant Gets its Food irom the Air. 1. Charcoaltis largely carbon, andcarbon enters abundant/y into the composition of all plants.—Half or more of the bulk of the tree, aside from water and the elements of water, is carbon. When the tree is charred (or incompletely burned), the carbon remains in the form of charcoal. The ordinary cultivated plant has but two sources from which to obtain food—the air and the soil. Ina corn plant of the roasting-ear stage, the water forms about eighty per cent of the structure. There is, then, about twenty per cent of dry matter remaining after the water has been driven off. In order to form some ideaof what portion of the plant structurecomes from the air, note that when such a corn plant is burned in air, the amount of ash remaining is about one per cent of the total sub- stance. This ash consists of practically all of the fertilizers which we found in Reading-Lesson No. 3 to come from the soil, with the exception of the nitrogen. The entire nitrogenous product forms about two per cent of the total green substance. It was driven off by the burning. Next note what happens when a plant is burned without free access of air, or smothered, as in a charcoal pit. The mass of charcoal resulting is almost as large as the body of the plant. Carbon is the element now present which was not present in the ash. Charcoal is almost pure carbon, the ash present being so small in proportion to the large amount of carbon that we look upon the ash as an impurity. The fact is that the carbon and the elements of water (hydrogen and oxygen) make up more than ninety per cent. of the dry matter of the corn plant. The percentage of dry matter which comes from the soil may Norr.—In this treatment of the relation of the plant to the air, only the higher or agricultural plants are referred to. 2 seem absurdly small; for we are constantly engaged in supplying fertilizers to the soil, and never seem to trouble ourselves about this important substance carbon. It was an interesting fact that the carbon went off asa gas when the plant was burned in air. The carbon did not go off alone, but it went off in connection with oxygen, and in a form called carbon dioxid gas, CO.,,. 2. The atr contains a small percentage of carbon dioxid, but. oxygen and nitrogen are the abundant elements.—The green plant must get its carbon from the air. In other words, much of the solid matter of the plant comes from one of the gases in the air. Carbon dioxid is only about four-tenths of one per cent in the air. It would, however, be very disastrous to animal life if this percentage were much increased. Carbon dioxid is often called ‘“‘foul-gas.’’ It may accumulate in old wells, and an experienced person will not descend into such wells until they have been tested with atorch. If the air in the well will not support combustion, that is, if the torch is extinguished, it usually means that no wise man would care to breathe such air. The air of a closed school-room often contains far too much of this gas along with little particles of solid carbon. 3. The carbon dioxid of the atr readily diffuses into the leaves and other green parts of the plant.—The leaf is delicate in texture, and often the air can enter directly into the leaf tissues. There are, however, special inlets provided for the diffusion of gases into the leaves and other green parts. These inlets consist of numerous pores (stomates, or stomata) which are especially abundant on the under surfaces of the leaves. The apple leaf contains about one hundred thousand of these pores to each square inch of the under surface. Through these stomates the outside air enters into the air spaces of the plant; and finally into the little cells containing the living matter. 4. The green color of leaves ts due to a substance called chloro- phyll.—Purchase at the drug store about a gill of the poison, wood alcohol. Secure a leaf of geranium, or of any convenient plant which has been exposed to sunlight for a few hours, and put it in a white cup with sufficient alcohol to cover the leaf. Place the cup on the stove where it is not hot enough for the alcohol to take fire. After a time the coloring matter is all dis- 3 solved by the alcohol,which has become an intense green. ‘This green coloring matter is dissolved chlorophyll. Save this leaf for a future experiment. In the living plant this chlorophyll or leaf-green is scattered throughout the green tissues in little oval bodies, and these bodies are most abundant near the upper surface of the leaf, where they can secure the greatest amount of light. Without this green coloring uiatter, there would be no reason for the large flat surfaces which the leaves possess, and no reason for the fact that the leaves are borne most abundantly out at the ends of branches where the light is most available. 5. Plants grown in darkness are yellow and slender, and do not reach maturity.—Compare the potato sprouts which have grown from a tuber lying in the dark cellar with those which have grown normally in the bright light. The shoots from the cellar are yellow and slender. They have reached out for that which they cannot find ; and when the carbon which is stored in the tuber is exhausted, these shoots will have lived useless lives. A plant which has been grown in darkness from the seed will complete its life even in its infancy, although for a time the little seedling will grow very tallandslender. Light makes pos- sible the production of this green color; and it is evident that the light and this green color together have to do with the utiliz- ation of the carbon dioxid of the air. 6. Carbon dioxid is absorbed by the leaf during sunlight, and oxygen ts given off.—Some proverbs are founded on facts. It is true that plants purify the air during the day. Under the influ- ence of sunlight and the green color of the foliage, the carbon dioxid which enters into the leaf is absorbed by the living parts, and with this absorption of carbon dioxid there is given off oxygen, which is necessary at all times to sustain life. Very careful experiments have shown that carbon dioxid is absorbed and that oxygen is given off by all green surfaces ‘during the hours of sunlight. How this carbon dioxid which -is thus absorbed may be used as food is a question of much in- terest. 7. Chlorophyll absorbs the heat of the sun’s rays, and the energy thus obtained is used by the living matter in uniting 4 the carbon dioxid absorbed from the air with some of the water brought up by the roots. The process by which these com- pounds are united is a complex one, but the ultimate result ts starch.—The snow on black soil melts quickly because the black absorbs the heat of the sun. The green chlorophyll of the leaf absorbs cer- tain heat rays, and this heat affordsa peculiar vital energy which enables the living matter of the leaf to unite carbon dioxid and water. No one knows all the details of this process ; and our first definite knowledge of the product’ 1. Excluding ight from begins when starch is deposited in the a part of a leaf. leaves. Starch is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (C,H,,O.). The sugars and the woody substances are very similar to it in composition. All these substances are called carbohydrates. In making this starch from the carbon and oxygen of carbon dioxid and from the hydrogen and oxygen of the water, there is a surplus of oxygen. It is this oxygen : which is given off into the air. The process of using the carbon dixoid of the air is known as carbon assimilation. 8. Starch ts present in the green leaves of plants which have been exposed to sun- light; but in the dark no starch can be formed from carbon dioxtid.—Procure at the drug store an ounce or so of tincture of iodine. Pour a drop or two of this iodine on some ordinary starch paste or a slice of potato. The starch is colored blue or purplish-brown. This reaction is characteristic of starch. Now pour some of the iodine on the leaf from which we : dissolved the chlorophyll in a previous , 7, effect on the leaf. experiment (page 3). Note that the leaf is colored purplish-brown throughout. The leaf contains starch. ) Secure a leaf froma plant which has been in the darkness for about two days. Dissolve the chlorophyllas before, and attempt to stain this leaf with iodine. No purplish-brown color is pro- duced. A leaf kept in darkness contains no starch. This demonstration may be made much more instructive in another way. Secure a plant which has been kept in darkness for twenty-four hours or more. Split a small cork and piu the two halves on opposite sides of one of the leaves, as shown in Fig. 1. Place the plant inthe sunlight again. After a morning of bright sunshine dissolve the chlorophyll in this leaf with alcohol, as before; then stain the leaf with the iodine. Notice that the leaf is stained deeply in all parts except in that part over which the cork was placed, as in Fig. 2. There is no starch in this area. These experiments also make it evident that the starch man- ufactured in the leaf may be entirely removed during darkness. 9. Plants or parts of plants which have developed no chlorophyll can form no starch.—Secure a variegated leaf of coleus, ribbon grass, geranium, or of any plant showing both white and green areas. Ona day of bright sunshine test one of these leaves by the alcohol and iodine method for the presence of starch. Observe that the parts devoid of green color have formed no starch. However, after starch has once been formed in the leaves, it may then be changed and removed to be again formed as starch in other parts of the living tissues. 10. Starch isin the form of insoluble granules. Whenever the material ts carried from one part of the plant to another for purposes of growth or storage, it ts changed to sugar before it can be trans- ported. When this starchy material is transferred from place to place, 1t is made soluble, changed into sugar, by the action of a ferment. This is a process of digestion. It is much like the change of starchy foods to sugary foods by the saliva of the mouth. After being changed to the soluble form, this material is ready to be used in growth, either in the leaf, in the stem, or in the roots. With other more complex products it is then distributed throughout all of the growing parts of the plant ; and when passing down to the root it passes more readily through the inner bark, in plants which have adefinite bark. This gradual downward diffusion of materials suitable for growth through the 6 inner bark is the process referred to when the descent of sap is mentioned. 11. The food from the air and the food from the soil untte in the living tissues.—The sap constantly passing upward from the roots during the growing season is made up largely of the soil water along with the salts which have been absorbed in dilute solutions. ‘This upward-moving sap is conducted largely by cer- tain tubular cells of the young wood or of the woody bundles. These cells are never continuous tubes from root to leaf; but the water passes readily from one cell to another inits upward course. The upward sap gradually passes to the growing parts, and everywhere in the living tissues it meets the liquid product returning from the leafy parts. Under the influence of the liv- ing matter of the plant, this product from the leaves first selects the nitrogen. A substance more complex than sugar is then formed, and gradually compounds are formed which contain sul- fur, phosphorous, potassium and other elements, until finally living protoplasm is manufactured. Protoplasm is the living matter in plants. It isin the cells, and is usually semi-fluid. 12. Starch and other products may be stored up during one growing period tobe used during the next season.—Although a plant strives to make a full amount of growth each season, it must also provide itself for developing a new crop of leaves and of fruit the next year, if it is to live more than a single season. It must also provide for its offspring. ‘Tubers (white potato), stems (cacti), and roots (sweet potato) generally serve as storage organs for food. ‘Thick, fleshy, leaves, as in the century plant, which live during many seasons, may also serve as storage organs. The peach tree blossoms and sets its fruit, usually, before the leaves are open. In fact the food stored up one season has a most important influence in determining the crop of the next year. Bearing this in mind, one appreciates the value of keep- ing the leaves free from fungous and insect injuries throughout the growing season. 13. Plants need oxygen for respiration, just as animals do .— So far we have referred especially to the carbon dioxid of the air. To most plants the nitrogen of the air is inert, and only serves to dilute the other elements ; but the oxygen is very nec- | : , essary for all life. We know that all animals need this oxygen in order to breathe, or respire. In fact they have become accus- tomed to it in just the proportions found in the air; and this is now best for them. When animals breathe the air once, they make it foul, because they use some of the oxygen and give off more carbon dioxid. Likewise, all parts of the plant must have a constant supply of oxygen. Roots need it, and this has already been emphasized. in Reading-Lesson 4. The oxygen passes into the air spaces and into the living proto- plasm, performing a function of purification, asin animals. It is interesting to note that the airspaces in the leaf are equal in bulk to the tissues themselves. As aresult of the use of this oxygen alone at night, plants give off carbon dioxid just as animals do. Plants respire; but since they are stationary, and more or less inactive, they do not need so much oxygen as animals ; and they _ do not give off so much carbon dioxid. During the day plants use so much more of the foul-gas car- bon dioxid than of oxygen that plants are said to purify the air. The carbon dioxid which plants give off at night is very slight in comparison with that given off by animals; so that a few plants in a sleeping room need not disturb one more thana family of mice, perhaps. Plants usually grow most rapidly in darkness. 14. The plant has animportant connection with the water vapor of the aiy.—Inaddition to obtaining much of its food supply from the air, the plant has an important relation to the humidity of the atmosphere. Cut off a succulent shoot of any plant, stick the end of it through a hole in a cork andstand itina small bottle of water. Invert over this bottle a large-mouthed bottle (as a fruit-jar), and notice that a mist soon accumulates on the inside of the glass.. In time drops of water form. The plant gives off water from its leaves and from other succulent parts. It has been mentioned that the plant takes its food from the soilin very dilute solutions. Then much more water is absorbed by the roots than is used in growth ; and it isthis surplus water which is given off from the leaves into the atmosphere by an evaporation process known as transpiration. Transpiration takes place more abundantly from the under sur- 8 faces of leaves, and through the pores or stomates. It has been found that a sun-flower plant of the height of a man during an active period of growthgives off more than a quart of water per day. A large oak tree may transpire one hundred and fifty gallons per day during the summer. For every ounce of dry matter produced, it is estimated that from fifteen to twenty-five pounds of water must pass through the plant. 15. When the roots fail to supply to the plant sufficient water to equalize that transpired by the leaves, the plant wilts.—Transpiration from the leaves and delicate shoots is increased by all of the conditions which would increase evaporation; such as higher temperature, dry air, wind, etc. The stomates are so constructed that they open and close with the varying conditions of the atmosphere, attempting to regulate transpiration. However, during periods of drought, or of very hot weather, and especially during a hot wind, the closing of these stomates cannot sufficiently prevent evaporation. The roots may bevery active, and yet fail to absorb sufficient mois- ture to equalize that given off by the leaves. As a consequence of this, the plant wilts. Any injury to the roots, or even chill- ing them, may cause the plant to wilt. Ona hot, dry day note how the leaves of corn ‘‘roll’’ towards afternoon. Early the following morning note how fresh and vigorous the same leaves appear. The wilting of a plant is due to the loss of water from the cells. The cell walls are soft, and collapse. A grain bag will not stand alone, but it will stand when filled with wheat. In the woody parts of the plant, the cell walls may be stiff enough to support themselves, even though the cell is empty. QUIZ ON CORNELL READING-COURSE READING-LESSON FOR FARMERS. NO. 5. MARCH, |I899. By L. H. BAILEY. These questions constitute a supplement to Reading Lesson No.5 (‘‘ How the plant gets its food from the air’). Its purpose ts to induce the reader to think carefully about what he reads. Answer the questions as best you can and return thts sheet to us (2 cents post- age). Wewant these answers in order that we may know what interest you are taking in the Reading-Course and how much good you are getting from it, and we want to help you when you do not understand the problems involved. We are after results, and do not care about the handwriting nor the grammar. These answers are for our own examination and will not be made public. We shall be glad of any comments on these lessons. This ts the last regular Lesson for thts season. Next month we hope to send you a supplementary Lesson contain- ing correct answers to all the questions tn the five Lessons. Lt will also offer suggesticns as to how to experiment to find out what fer- tilizers your soil needs. Some generalremarks will be made respect- ing the results which have been attained tn the Reading Course. What proportion of its substance does the plant secure from the soil? What one substance or compound is taken in most profusely by the plant? How does the plant get its water,—through roots or leaves? 2 ey In what part of the plant does the water ascend —through young wood, or between the bark and wood ? Where does the plant get its carbon? How does it take in its nitrogen,—by roots or leaves ? Where is the starch manufactured ? From what substances is the starch made? Of what elements is starch composed ? Into what is the starch changed before is is transported? _ . What use is ane of the material after it is transported ? — oe (or ‘‘elaborated sap’’) pass? = oO The root takes in water containing food: Can it use this food material directly in making root-growth? Why? Why isstarch stored in seeds and tubers? Is starch stored in twigs in the fall ? Are the flowers of peaches, and other early-blooming plants, fed from food taken in at the root at the time, or from materials stured in the twig? (Think how the potatoes sprout in the bin.) Will mulching the roots of a peach tree with straw when the ground is frozen delay the blooming in spring? Soil water holds very little food for plants: the roots must take in enormous quantities of water: What becomes of some of this water? Is the water which evaporates from the soil of any direct use to the plant ? The plant needs water,—it sweats it out: How shall we man- age so that the plant can have all the water it needs? g St ee ee RA Sat oe ‘ so) ey. + a : 4 - . . / —— . {ten eee Ae t i cs ite ae Rot” Aver ek. on P 3 jh, : Write down all the Sdbseaabes (or materials) you know whi gs the plant must have in order to live and ‘grow. Ry 3 aoe ve 7 a cee Which one of these does nature supply in sufficient abunda without any thought on your part: ? ae Sa: ‘ain 2 What ones can you help nature to supply ? Name all the congenial conditions (or agencies) which the } D must have in order to be comfortable and to grow. fie What ones of these can you help nature to supply or maint: bat 7 Bs * ) : INDEX OF CUTS AND PLATES. Page. Annual flowers. boss enrded,s. Vig 40). c.5 ese Sos es Leth A eR ERP cA 302 emer cee SONI ORE Bg oe nica Spree ns Wea ken &. jalsls pn ¥ giles 294 CDS LPO fe 2g 2 Sa SPER ah ga ae ey Rie a 297 Pee AMOR MOWELS UN ies AE a wt 2 oy dies siniy)cit yo nimin each on aisha 297 errr LG UNG POTICES EA, BS eee ee pa cp n'a hammincs os wie «ted 298 Byeniee prinitae’ 111 SECU WIS. a ors nae paiasiem vim Hida goo is 301 Sper eencered ward. Figs 3005 <5 anism wafer al chit mais > eA ooo mn . 296 strong growing, large leaved herbs make excellent screens, Fig. 43 298 Mee wo eatOetiy BIS AZ. bog ena nA ck wate are PA ea es 302 aS SARA SNSE I 0. Laie ind 2 oa petals an, eae bp nanan ee) zinnias, often known as youth and old age, Fig. 44...............-. 300 Haewing lactis yiscosns, Plate TVs.) <5. <0 ais emia Se «en's between 394 and 395 Bee teat Co, Parcory at ome, Pid, 96. cc. saws ph cess eae is 468 Binshaniton beet. Sagar Co, Factory, Pig. 73:-.» 6. awa iedaesens vena ce, 439 Binghamton Beet Sugar Co.Factory, from southwest, Fig. 74.......... 440 Coprinus comatus. earty Giawe.of delignescence Nig. Bq.)", 3h cis st awe.sip'e Se amour 500 ERS SIE Eo ss ios ke apg a arena to maiena eS ea ban timeeeee Ra 489 later Siape or Meucqnescenece. Hig. QO... ax -2 > <:25inihe wae ees 501 EL ho Ss ca wee IS ee eae reer ea sr Stren pee Pmieenra i Tc pcre ee) ty 494 inky fluid about to fall from wasted pileus, Fig. 91 ............... 502 PIPER See ree OUR 2.5, ok At ates ek 2 blm o's atten dle alas somes are eee ne 497 reMisved renin, Pig, Oi. ago. i. ae wana sa pales hte ditaeea wale 496 BET NTE OR NE Sp ni sw ta gt a ee ons Wee Renee alec ory tel ce ies . 499 Sattar ras EIS Oe 2 oof sn oh wy 0 eee a fe op eban ee ais 498 Coprinus atramentarius. SR MN SRD OTE NGS yaa vale ign tee oo a Som mee late ager ao OR aOR SONSR AR SO a Gc poked aoe ace anak A amon ata ae mo 505 SAA ONER GIMMENIT RAE SG Og oie cee ccAte « Le ma esiauraisin Sete ae ee ee 507 Dime tiney merry * te Okie ie ky Spot a wane Sle ao aaa Ree ee a 506 Seana ALI BO inept, Wee He nee hes |e ieioee Shatehe 508 ee EMEC MREICC ESET Be acne eh ing ~% odie MANA atom es Oh Ene cea 509 Caterpillars, Tent. PE RECCEIME Shon for teeta way oe ee mae aid = tare Taya, eho we mya Pah as oaks gs 558 Ramee ENDER PRETO Ses ce a ea Pilla earns ek Eargasm tie « ms at = le a Sale 559 Peraserenerrnel Da SES OR Oto ko oi cea che aig are, | areoaie’n ayaa alee a Be 560 Resa CNR RIL) PE ENR COLNE NO eit ate ie, Sits aise te ea apastimieae ee eualg sate Mle 563 Fumigating house, adapted from Johnson, Fig. 8......... Sea te an eae 169 . Grape-vine Flea-beetle. RAT An St Re rie rt a le op 8 od af a apm dig Sn (eae oly Sheetal epee 190 Gorsalatic lateral views Gb ce ei IL Fe. oa ete 0. wo 4m a Seles I9gI epss of the Grape-vine Flea-beetle, Hig. 17 «2... ncees cc nee dienes ees 194 buds badly damaged by Flea-beeties, Hig. 15 1.2... 602.--- scenes 195 leaf riddled by grubs of Grape-vine Flea-beetles, Fig. 18....-...... 199 foliage riddled by grubs of Grape-vine Flea-beetle, Fig. 19........ 207 pupa‘and cast skim oF erably, PI TA wc pe ce ev ewes scence s eens IgI ii INDEX. Page Grape vines as they appeared on June 6, 1898, Fig. 16................ 194 Kate, two years of age, Fig. 99. sccnue cesses see 5s tr 000 tet 527 Lettuce, damping off by sterile fungus, Fig. 54............... ae) va Mushroom, shaggy mane, Fig: 89. ..057. : .... »jeusie» 18 4alate 494 buttons;of Fig. 4% 7. eames. - sos sla ew let ery en 495 Mycelium of Cercopora beticola, Fig. 61.........5..01+ssceesee. geen 357 Orchard, clean tillage in, Fig; oo... 5...» scedns~ ee age elk pee 112 Oyster shell bark louse, natural mime, Pig. [O...5. seis salen . 168 Peach leaf-curl: 2.5.05 cts ages 4 ooo one a's vce eo eo branch sprayed early with Bordeaux mixture, Fig. 69......... ... 381 branch sprayed late with Bordeaux mixture, Fig. 70. ............ 383 cross section ‘of leafy Wiig s67. . 22.3 ad 376 shot hole effect on Japan’ plum, Fig. 71 .....-... 2.5 sen 385 shot hole effect off peaeh, Fig. 72... << 2... «s0=>s es ae eee ee 387 curl atid pimmosis Pig. 65 ... 2 ss ois tas nes gee ge oe 70 result of spraying with Bordeaux mixture, Fig. 68................ 378 twig affected by the fungus, Fig. 64.20... .. = seen eee 374 POtHIHES SCADOS, Pets: se pe eG ae eee gale ws pi) ana 360 Radishes, affected with soft rot of crown, Fig. 55..........+..--+0+0-- 349 Ruby ten years of age; Pig. 100... onde wine 0 or ¥ an ay ages ae 528 Ruby two years of age, Fig. 98......... oa 4d ca esi 0s 6 Fae ee 526 Gan José. Scale, natural size, Fig..9 |....i 5s 1.2.25 si. os. coe 168 School grounds, fints’on rural. 2.6.5. 235.3... ae aes pee border: planti#@-of trees, Fig. 30. 2.5 2.2 snes s2 0 anne 282 blackboard pie Hie. 28) ye cngple a2 cle oa od mae ee 281 clump of weeds ina corner, Fig..36 05. 0.66.05 ieee ee 288 dainty bit of flowers against a background, Fig. 37............... 289 easy to make 4 yard as good as this, Fig. 35........-2.-22 =< 288 five years growth upon the area shown in Fig. 33, Fig. 34..... ae newly made latidscape garden, Fig. 33..... 0000-5. . +s se 286 picture of which a schoolhouse is the central figure, Fig. 25....... 279 planting, common or nursery type of, Fig. 26.............-...-.. 279 proper or pictorial type of, Pig! 2722.7. 0.3 < can eee ‘asec ean 280 a school-yard, suggestions for, Fig. 20... 2s. <5..:0/00s see 281 sug restiON MIF1g. 22.60.02 ae ten eee soe te 274 suggestion for asimple schoolhouse, Fig. 24 .........-.+-.: 276 the beginning and the end, Fig. 23............. 259 ae 275 trees enough in the center, but no background, Fig. 31...... 283 where children are taught, ‘Fi. 21. .s... .....2- <> 2s ee 274 willows, a row of, makes the place attractive, Fig. 32........ 283, Section of teat and udder of cow, Plate III... ....... between 219 and 220 Separator, the AquatieoBig. 6. 0. ieee ces aes ne aces ache 2 en 42 Stave silo, frontispiete ioe... . . os oc ke ce oe Se pees een 471 eross section of, Fagi77...... 2.0224 e050 g ese secs ne oe one oni 479 setting up a silo, Bigs 78... .. 6.2.0 s aw aele. =e an aint 480 hoops, how secured, Fig. 79.....0c00e0.-00. 0.2000.) 55en en 482 doors, Fig. $0.2 7am ow ws se Sons vy as eee ee 484 plan of .construction,- ee oe 566 Appendix ITI, Teachers leaflets on nature study ...................-. Reading Course for farmers. ..... 2... <0. 0-5 «een Nature study bulletin No..1.......... ««< se ae Aquatic Creanit Separator... 00.2. 0i6e.. i. on ses oes se oe 42 Atkinson, Geo. F., Botanist, Report of... 6 0.655..3 5.5 oe sie x-xi Dithletiia TEBE Be soso cb nie ese nate into Caso wl meets ps cu ee 489 Bacillus coliicommuunis. ...2 2.25 2. Uv ei. aes a Pee rics 228 lactis ViSCOBHS (0.:. hee SS ioe ss te oe .. 396 Bailey, 1)... ,Horticuiturist, Report of .\. 02.2.1)... se ee eee XVii-xViii Pntatletima rsa yk oe les a ae heel ot win oat wo ee 109 bulletin 160, Hints on Rural School Grounds....... ........... 271 Bang, on channels of infection, tuberculosis .............-.2.s5-000% II Barlund, on channels of infection, tuberculosis ............. ...--:- II Binghamton Beet Sugar Co., records of... 2.00.20. 5.6) 0's. aed se 421 Bordeaux mixture; tormula for... 60 Dees c eda oeen rs ee eee .« aug Rotanist; Report, Ofer... ©. 6.5. ee 0 ie ao Leia oe wo X-x1 Botanical division, bolletin 163.......05 5052.20.01 550-5» go 335 bulletin 164.2 gosees es... EE OS Re a 367 bulletin: 168).5 fees. eo a wh ny Lasalle ow ec ee 489 Bronwier on channels of infection, tuberculosis ..............e++..-- II Bulletins, list of, published June ’98 to July ’99........ ..........-.- xxi fon year lic SCR Ses ae « « « 0. a\cupela wicun wets wie lwlnty © 1s epele ea vi Matare-stuGy: : cis cace = +. os ve we owe ww 0 bm nS we 0, ot aes ee vii Caldwell, G. C., chemist, Report of. ....51... 02. bs) «<2 = sen oe ix Caterpillars, tent, emergency report on, bulletin 170................. 559 tent-caterpillars, the apple tree ............4....0.0 sd. eee 557 destroying the e995 15 0... 62sec ce sone dew se sn olen oe 558 spraying orchards .......... 1 eiela,e dp ecw din said mtaiwceivors Salt oe 558 the life-story of the [os. .. «ua ne vee nemn teen Ae On 559-560 methods of combating the forest tent-caterpillar............. ~ i et Cavanaugh, G. W., assistant chemist, report of .....-........0..--ss000- ix Cercospora beticola; Sace i204... = cis bee 2)c ie Sole 20 os 352 Cheese curd, gas and taintin, bulletin 158... 0... .... 2.2.24. eee 221 bacteriological. examination. .....%.0)..... 205 ssl oss +s 5 el 224 Curtice; Dr. :Cooper,citeds 2.0) 0... ee: 2 c+ ee INDEX. Vv Cheese curd—continued. Page. description of gas producing bacillus. .........................4. 234 SERS or het ocr See be > Ee me ico ee cdM AM yr ELL cL tt 222 UDESEIGATIOMG otis ieteee em CTT Oooo o's ove Ss vi Sige ee be 222-225 ESWC ALIONS, Faas ats e ce eS wee ts 60 5 8 8k TH ote a ae hee nae 233 pronuetiond Olvtie TAD eect cee eet eas CP arcane 236 Russell, Wis. Agl. Exp. Station, ened s 505) VA Ae ee 224 SUSE Eg Abas goals: Sly ci AAS Ag cargo eA rt. aon LAOS s 232 SEMEN WISION, IMEI TIM lo See oe ses a oan eee Pee ee eee 415 _ Chemist, cep ee ee I mE RON TL Cy eS ix Clinton, L.A _ agriculturist, WESMOIIGE® Se os de ee eee XV-Xvi and I. P. Roberts, bulletin 156, Potato culture, third report on. ... 173 bulletin 166, Part II, Experiments with sugar beets at Cornell WeeiwCeele ye atte LOO: oo | calc Sen beac oon. oe oes Se ee 441 bulletin 167, Construction of the stave silo.................... S4azs ne AMET AEMCRUE A 6950 pid os we Re ddd eRe ME es oe os Dainese. Whe 559 PRSEADMO ee ls ack ieee arta vatdra cee AD AAR fc ee ee ST Rea Coprinus OSCE CR siehacny Monro tas "eas Cuter ak ey Rega tee 505 OMIM os 5 dios Be af cra FAG a oa ale ie ae mae ed lees AR i ee 493 AMM UI Speen GS NA Ata Beh a Bs Se a te Aas Rad CA ee eo ie hE Ae 508 Cows, period of gestation, bulletin 162 ............. ... ..... 325 comparison of twin gestations with others of same cow, table II. 332- 333 aeeervanone in the-University herd)./5i seis; ors ee, 324 suuimsaty of fable Vil). 2 220 2ese « CP Gee gS dete hes broth ly ee 1 aa spencer, Riout-Hon. Marl quoted). 24) fvau oo. 5h. .n eee aet 326 6 CLE inet oe a ee Dee ee Pore Meera a's Utah ey ae renga Si ai 324 CARE yr gb ew edad oR Ode Se ih a so eh Ree ee ee SER ee 328-332 Seti SE te a 3 RODOFE- OL. setae ded ls harem ee es Deeg fg aa Dairy husbandry and animal industry, Report of Asst. Prof. of... .xix-xx Rumer Vy ial Visio, Dt lett TGE ie ria cs Dasa al ot ene ence Pe eee ore 391 bulletin 169 ee pag MO DER EAL Lee CROP YT Pe ah eG hey Kh el ie. 517 Bmee tor URepOrt [OF io oo 4ai2 cakes pba ee ote oe ee eee eee iv Duggar, B. M., bulletin 163, Three important fungous diseases of the SPURANEEEE poesia eee aes ee Lees ah eee ee ee pee eee 335 palletin- No? 164, Peach -leafcurl yc 225 niece a: iC Penomolosist, Repart of -. 6 bi 5532254 2s ade pte ace ee eer ste ee xli-xiv Piomoldcical division, bulletin 157 2. os Se rye eo eee 185 balletin.17es ss ae te ae ep re ee ree Evergreens and how they shed their leaves, leaflet No. 13. . Appendix ae Extension prtile, GUIBARY OES ee tain Es eta Ae hee eee ee REIS ERASED COMTECL oF irae iutpiataie a clehe Sirtene Cale ae Mh aan oe Vv i Spee ties Coutse fot. en ae, hsv Seer ste as Appendix III Parmet an enor to help the, bulletin 159... -5 <2) OC: Soe le 239 RAMSAR EO RAPES 608, 1.7 tat ciy techs tat gt, Hib “na Soe ei ML I gO cle ae mee 245 RIRUURR eT MRE eevee, Bilan © cee: wl btang a ae ae Pe ie aa 242 bailetias issued. wader the Nixom, Dill ss 2. 2 ccf ies ee Eee 243 hy Sta 2 it ig Mies A Al ee A cea BUREN i mR a Rice ton eae 249 dairy. poisonous cheese itivestimated...(.% 2 5%'.).2.: si oA eA aah hata eae Hace 70 uaa eee MO AL 5 pee ees po ion ORE Tal ee a Ronen e GS 247 experiments and’ bulletins rerermed 160%) Poy O03. Nee eee 244 HeweLrs “atl letine issued Ott, 2> 6: ton PP Seta et Aig imme, we! . 244 PEARSE ion tar Anshan Mews oe ea a eS eae 243 WORE ENE: 42S 2 25 ae ante Ee Po ete ee angi ea Sie Ws Coe tle 250 experiments with friite aud lowers::. ...\).4 00 hie eek 251 iinerant teachiog sae eee et ee ae arc pina 252 PISCEES Glee Sb nis ig ee keg entore Or me ey ct, ls DO ie Ree esas 251 vi INDEX. Farmer, an effort to help the—continued. Page, inecots Tings ys 6:s5%>'es siete bo ROO Ae b:tco.0 a.0 6 acaba sees Jy 24g nature-Stud ys as ssc s cipnsne Apel e's s+ + 5 m+ o> ».i0 a eee 255 H. E. Winship of Boston, quoted... ....:.5.1...00 ccna 264 general results... 5... aawee o's ee ocean § ntele eine een 262 summer schools, 2.5.3.0 c6eces. 202+ oe ou ee pled opi sive « Gente 262 personal work at the teachers’ institutes............ .......5. 259 Junior Naturalist clubs... ..........see02 0855 s0e 0 one 259 sample letter to the clildren... ....2:.52:38 4.0 «eee organizing the children,...............0:-»» sss Seen 258 home making «. fswegas +s... <'s\0el ie b saa nen lee ee 257 sample letter to Geachers.......554.95.' 12. eile ee ee 257 leaflets issued cewe. i... -..-ss%5 de nentde, Li eee Bef a 5 256 plant diseases... csapie ns i... seein d gle pie aleiaiets wie es een 252 POtatOes... os... 6! op we ae = ++ «sw oe bite Bw ies eat ka 248 bulletins referred to... .......5. cc sn. naw ways mbitie 244 present day Jmoplems. .. .. 1.2 \.2ciee0 50 ane fie an oe 242 reading COUTSE, THE... .... 2. 2 nae we c's ou wes 5s abs pie 265 how to mMaHage it... eee ws nt void oceinse steals eine 266 how MaimtaiHea........sceeencnciesnevs sn nap nutes 265 what if 1S: een: |... os ate Bape eine oun uote a ee 265 WES PULPOSEis con... we aie sia nla ia pag a ies 4s lee 265 Secretary of Agriculture, quoted..........5.2..3:.55 >on" ae 263 Siigat Deets cass ass. - » = one sie es once ovale o l=, 2idpeua see ee 246 chemical investigations. . - ..).2.0:.s. +000 « «s+ seeelnee ee 247 amount of seed distributed ........0.6...0008,cenuw ease eee 247 Circulars tested... 2. Se ece occas wien 0 mn, coed pon ee 247 Visits by Pile expert ooo s.6 sien oie v5 0in'sidie n/n oe oie ee 247. bulletiamsAssiied on. ...62.2. ste eden iotyp as 244 Spraying, bulletins issued on... . 2.0.5.2... .24 se s0i pee eee 244 veterinary SCIEHCe).. . ..L. oe bee nee 6s 20 jane open 250 vegetables, bulletins issued... 2.2.2. 26.....i.1..0. dine ee 244 remarks by te Director, . ..05 6055 ..:cds) «abs See eee ee 267 Eisancial Statetaeeiie. . 6. oso ob Sian nee oe oe eee PO . Appendix II Flowers, annual, bulletin 161 . 2. 2... 14.400 0.504 505 «2 eo 295 a Gower Sarde ce: sw sa eine + a ove emia ues, eho 297 a word with the boys and girls 5... .2...220..005%. o2)seeute pete 300 explanation of /table..........2.... sie 0: 2ethee +45 eee 304 flowers should be accessories. . ........ 4). jes se Yb 2/0. See 296 general retiarks, fo... 6 oes p us ses o's nn dl) ole 295 how to grow annuals........ hapa Ss eae ais é wd bites Seale 298 kinds of annuals 422%... ... 2.6 ous onus ne os a neeh okt beeen 299 plants for screens 2256... 0. sss ss es bare o's) PO al ote, de Sr 297 preparation of the sronnd .....5.....205--505 +20 < «2% a = as eNews NS vi Beeranid ath it CE ESe NUE a cg ire ae eco. cicid a 2 bd eyo eae Oe a, | ae ee Grape vine slea-beetle, tHe, DMIIetiN, 157.2... 6... ene se venta eee 189 CE ropes ice TVR et Ls EE MORE AV EINE oon are Scab) w 6 0 nn, dc 8) vad om thine 189 SSS LIEN ie eee Bee ee OS awa wc ote ela Xo 0, 0a! stviere cloonpis SAS eee 193 Soe aye shitetea bral h as Sos S00) 019 | | dae aan reais epee eee . 196 Ree ee Re eas aie ¥ 9.0 viz © 04's. o oidaet oie RE 193 ERE OREIS ea) Bis Ot Ba [1 a 1 Ra or a ni RRP 2 194 he LenS ity ose yet a, MSR: SINE osha een ee .. «209-213 WADERS OPC cs 5 air 28 no pois oe a ate k Brig cats cia Son her a2 eg es 198 Sam nace tera ias. Poth ne apg ORM pyre aisle recs +S Rigs Ceo Se guna 198 eseriett. Ol Ee THSECL ise. 0 aiek oc We cerpyneh ean ted nin, . eae eo +o 85-91 food, amount and kind consumed, table IT... ....- 2... 68-74 Consumed, : Thine... +e nlnan de eo oe oes ein oe ee en 66 faod tests eroneiateeoee 3... 2.5 2s tee ee sa bale” en 82 milk, quality of, when cows were milked at equal intervals, table V 95 records of cows which have been tested more than once, table Vil. 0... Sse ss ko ge 99-101 Milk s-cretion, studies in, bulletin 169......:.-. 02:21 .-.. ae 519 average production, table TT... 225. 42. ee 529 average of records shown in table IIT...... .....-. ag average daily increase or decrease in yield of milk and fat after cows were turned to pasture. ......2...0.....2.5.4 +. == ee 545 eoitiparisou ‘of results. > Miko. os. SLSR oe acre ee 541-542 cost of milk production............ ee Face lee bi chetnaees ae Ee 548 . cost of ‘food: milk and fat table VI... eee ple ee as eee effect of change from barn to pasture...0..,. 2... 2. <2) ee 542 INDEX. ix Milk secretion—continued. Page. effect of change from barn to pasture, table V..... 2205.2. 855252 bands 544 qari Ct: OR Amis Atle, Tate Ne oes cin. }0:s) «) wre: «ays tna oe eae a 521-524 production as Tau MenioeeMmecatre. oS... Soe os ee ee 530 fer COT Wee SC aac eM EOS fie cose. dre 59, 4 nwa a hv, aes ana gp teh aay 534 BECO ON, MIN, HON eB or ciens is rhe 4 vari la tsy a ce eecne ee a eee 520 results with the two herds ETT) 7 6 ee ae eR oecmneer Tice ROSE A 546 eT LV arte sean Ges ee ee ens «slg plotcan's aoa cypher ten bcen = shee eae 537 aay alk AMET Ch nN GRENIER 6.05, hve oe 4 cod v 74 s/o. we dh nib nach nen hes 519 how composed Pe CEVEIOIC oF ceca tecnic bh ly eee ee , hag variation in yield of milk and its fat content as lactation adv ances, 535 Semi, COMines ETc RCMMSAMIe PEEIOUS 2 «ood v5.2), \o Sats nid Bone tepeae ag 545 NEUEN ORK EOE OME AE ROT ae Oo eccdh Via Sime Sco otca e+ we hnitew apacieeg Meats 546 yield of milk and fat compared according to age of animal, table iL, 9%, RE en SR See Nien omen Se Rtsetpte btbemrnrcl- lee tne poe om Pe hn 531-533 bom Nees td. ie WV TCL, PRETEND, ERO. oe colts abo © assire, Sion ise wane Mushrooms, studies and illustrations of, bulletin 168................. 489 Pee Ce SUCCES Le acraze, HAS Chana aha Make CER fave Bisine Sas he wise sods 493 DRM eR ERIE ORD AN EL anf, 20 cnt os me aaa SER doe Rost ink he AT SHU ip. ei cie' is 493 Mimgier OF, CIssemiINALION OF SCCG hs fie. «knoe + 'oc = lest hin lctinals- 493 eres: Ot ELMER rc 25 230 oct oaks Secale ft Ae ie ee hes ais linctanh | 494 Cornell Mycological Club, formation rules, etc................ 512-513 Pram PRT smd TUNIS NEON 5k Sata IE at NENT WgatepRe ph. Pondvts atte EAs tase 516 Cio RTE I A TAT 8 oe TOM BRO 8 ak YD PRS NM bane A ea Py EN 505 where found...... Su cnintn weil cat ere We ASR noe tee aap OM aa Bella 505 PROC ELON oo 5 scl'oir a eta Gea a ar amine Oop thee Ak ae ees 506-508 ine Hee ne -s listeitisas (Sopris a ers tie pid of te Eich once earkhgiehs 508 Pee CSAS LAS TR) 205 4: ces ee eke tetany. inetiaas ME ore os 509 BY ATE ECHUEELUL Cn che nei cow) ohne chs ocd WaT ITS SOY «Wn A SA gegen aie tal is Lag 508 WatMet Of, TLE PAtALlOn Or. TOON: noni kon) a heim cite aR ate tune ts 511 Myeniarical Clips LOCATION OL, 6. viss oe Pai neta) cme aE pe Las 512 MOU tat LOSER: TITIES 5 ee AK 8 a gt Lode As a Pe 513 wWihhOtd cOr SCidid GSGCCIBICIB, 3.0." .f05 fi,aps ws segue vhre ta hares NO ae data led 515 ve Ey Tings S67 fyi ey Fo et an ee Ren dP OT APR ne My pe et ee Appendix III Hobe tls ad Sy «|= ae: ee emetic aie aes MeN ae pags IONE. Appendix III IPospota -Seauies, © MATEY -5 lal. os pine eas a MR cal oe LR res BRS RP 359 Pench leat-curl, otlletia 264s Sons saad nna Se ea oe eae ae 371 appearagaee Of The GIsSedSe. 23 Guts 2 utes mest tiaras Liane ee MOLI dp 371 As Loop, Ol Worth. Mast Pa.,’ Gaorea.. cc. t 05+ + ses eae muse a ee 381 EES Zak Se DE-aB ie bly a ch ores Wma a er Nine Or Ace iow ear cea Nha SUDA TOR gn ys | Woy on 383 conditions affecting the abundance of the leaf-curl............... 376 PscisnioOn. Of TECOMIMENOATOUS Qvud s7 oe Wee. nearer eae oe ee 383 SxMMEMINEHLS With. Spraying’ MIXCUTES oi oe, ys Sh aon tat oe aon 379 PRE Geall PEATE Kft ee cielay lente awe cay See AY Ute agian ta Senet Cre bale 371 Pie SRE CE PETES 62 oats Aiea sant ean ty Dies huh 2 ata doeiel + ine 375 SEN TEV EIT IES Nn I Gate ses eae i eS ES Re Sk Re aOR 277 ests tGlr COKE Ne TEES. DEVEL Lai Se eS le a selws Sisley Beds mil BVP 380 BRC rea Re COMmMCN Gal IOl. 2a y ar 2 incite tel sofe'e Maths, 4 Encl hn MPRA ype - SHOROL GCC OL PEAC LES AiG selUMIes 8:95 )o 0.05). 254 feeb die oo epa heaps 2 385 shot hole effect, experiments with Bordeaux mixture ..... ...... 386 sot Hole: elect) experiments by tier. Gould? :\ 2. bc eelede tay eo 386 shot hole effect, varieties most liable toinjury by spraying ....... 388 aetIEeS SITSC COL Le LGrelie: Mise AeN ko). wil) 1s oo ac teseidacgede RE mPa: 425 Potato culture, third report on, bulletin SINS senses ae cuted ets ae ss eee ee 175 conclusions PP ee EY aot ac yas 3. ELae pee Ney RLM WEAN SS a ES Beer ce yc ke 175 x INDEX. Potato culture—continued. Page. details of. experiments (00. 050 ions soc 00 0 bss o> eck pe ee 176 directions for making Bordeaux mixture.................+.+e0ce: 179 experiments 111: T3898 \'.'.5)'.'. e's ewe os os oon ees tens 22 ee hi 175 field: potatoes. <2 5 i100 335.5 5.25 ade ss 6s 5 om emnieeaiee gine 183 lessons drawn from the: acre of potatoes........... 0. «3.450 eee 183 lessons drawn from the experimental plats in 1898................ 181 most satisfactory varieties... lea cdis .. 2 oid bs ck eam een 182 previous ‘treatment ot the soll nbecn....... caesemeee © «ope 176 preparation of ‘the seed... svemeekecs..-.+sn+k ooo bea 183 record of the crop for 1808... con ees... on ve ee 177 records of plats’ for 16603.:;..°. seen sos 2 Dene a» oe 9m teen spraying operations. > 40 eb ee 147 miscellaneous, table ID sii... ss hapa eae ok oes oe pe ae 150 WULTILIVE TATION. Ls he cc ee DE ey. ES hie eee 138 principles of feeding 760 fo foie fet hs + oes oppo te 135 roots atid tubers, table. TI... . 0. 0... oii es. sos oe eee 143 sotline: Tedder, table Tio o po Nee Pies a eee . tr 142 system of feeding explained: ...5.35...0'.. 200.5). ease oe 152 Reading course for farmers. . 0.052250 0.02 oa Ob es ts op ee vii Report of Acting President. T. F. Crane...... ...<..5 = 0-5 15 ili OL ASTICUINTISE, 3/2 b+: 1: ae tae hee tecs eadie ie eee ....XV-xvi of Asst. Prof, of Dairy Husbandry and Animal Industry........ xix-xx OL BOtaitists 061355. = his e Sra bey vn ee es py 9 5 1e 0) Sosa oe x-xi Of Chemist: | hai sc fms steieinie ny 0 o's oe os 9 Ais ee . snp GE THGGCEOR ai ik oe Sook an 0 = #2 im syevecet > wi oye oe iv GE TEGTOMIGIOR ICE So oo soos waa woes ss oop on te 5. auton eas ate xii-xiv On TECASHVEN, CLG so aiken tae bucaw vk noe ee ese al eee ‘vili Rhizoctonia betae Kila ~--: i oi.0c os oe as os ob te ole 0,5 oo 339 Rieck on channels of infection, tuberculosis...........-...... -seene II San José Scale, second report on, bulletin 155 ............1:5.s5eeeeeee 161 CAULION +5 co ois ipa. p eee Std he 2 op wen odie oS ie 0 cp pn 167 conclusions from our experience, practicability of spraying....... 164 conclusion... . once poe Se os be el ee 167 experiments in 1898: 20.5 5255. .).. .- os ee 161-162 effects of whale-oil soap; i. i... . 02s. se ae ean s 163 OF Kerosene si... aes oo ave ole 0 2 am bpm a belonc a es ee 163 of kerosene on peach and apple trees... .......::.--) 7-2 169 Prmtigating. so. oo. os oS ee ae ee ee ae ee oo vo ays ie Oe en 165 house, adapted from Johnson, drawing......-...........s55ee 166 inepection dawsi.... 3. 23d ees $3 ne tons i dies peeps eee ea . 160 natural-size, drawil? .20 5 ssa5 5c. .' «+. nbs bee Oe 168 oyster-shell bark-louse, natural'size ...).):.. 2.002... .s =. eee 168 San José scale—continued. Page. TEGULLS (Ol rey re ee eter > s 5-2 so aa SOME vee ee ae 162 SWiEiober esha gee Latent SE): cS 99 ano RE lo 171 WE TPE TY: (OSS ey ert i cele isin cececs) 3 5s 3.8 we: «oles etann we Rhccoiapepeee ae 164 School Grounds, lintsion sural, bulletin 160: ....0. 00.5.0 5). eee ee 275 begin with the fundamentals, Hot with details... eee ee BES [Not aeleneal gy Gb Cye Sheu” C5 thee a aren set 5 280-281 committee of twelve om tural Schools. ... 0... 0.0. un cela 277 general remarks..... MMM ESET A Hie Soe! s, oo «vied apy teed 289 Rp! DEON tied Wee tera Sen Sa Niel so ee ld Oa oe Oe 277 how to make the inipeovemients. 2.5... 6 etewe se rived Wea ene 2 282 die tO tHawe Tie Mater Piatt os 2. ss lk oe Oe 285 Eas Of Pees TON: PIE COTARION ec AL ia) sicla'a sci atets tole sales Lae eeemeane 288 ise Oe pints tar, the. aaits Pinned oe kaa les Cee ee 285 Pee metorrirer Ol tite Pisce OPH as... sass) Sa. eee ee 279 STEVES Nay I 6 6 NS anh DEEL ots > 75, | AO a a eee pr 8 284 plan Gf the place... 2.0. wes ew tes etc te eee etdeeacaees 278 eenatsiors, eravicy or dilution, balletin T5iy 22)... .i s6)2~saales a Sheree 35 “oft scl VE CE A aeRO aN rg 7) SO Nec oe Bera) car rh eee naan Mee ae oe od 47 BeceRtiatis, LOE mie itiie., Le ata wae kis eae hw aioe Sok > a)nctina Year Ae 38 PAGE SA PITOVER, Vet UMALCOi: 2~ochtin.d seagate vnield vem ste Wales nee 39 PRR EeS AQUATICS PESPRICHE LEIA ci es ysia neces aoc Siolee me hole he Pee omnes 43 fanie SuOWIne Tesule Of “tests al farms. Jfcb oy ates a Dips 45 Eaple-snowitre result Of test of Aquatiew i's hc inati. so ehinci te Rowe 45 tables showing comparative results with.................... ae 44 SAP EMEC oOo) SiG dn aia wav avin Gia amen ALA ae A of wales ROR Me ee 42 gravity or dilution, viscosity in milk........... ... telah hi Mie Le Rae: 37 Werle Ss: SPA yity WenOGMIEN 4, ST isos sap wctaely aM emt pe hace Se St are oe ial ery 36 Slingerland, M. V., bulletin 157, the Grape-vine Flea-beetle.......... 185 Tent caterpillars, emergency report on, bulletin 170.............. 553 est. Entomologist; TepOFt- Of. abt fAnwaie sere ene ont ns sera X11-xiv sanw, Geo. .C. on Grape-vine Bléa-bectle sc. on sacle s sh eaca smereiepee ieee 481 OMT PEOMISE LG Aes ne calc oe ase eee ata aal o: ail a main wes Ulcers + A76 PGE ALOtiemt Leathe. 205 ot 2 ay seacha Gala cee sete a a alereate She sieht ae eisai 474 Piet biy WISETO: SLAVES 1 ioe co een oo ole de ha ogee ads eee 478 PUM Re Ee ala) pi: tte he ean nh Ale Cee ee satan lan eee Biepatauodr ine: staves dor tle Silo fo55.00 sc eS Eee 478 ree US STO 4... ae eo lee ele! otitis va eats MA atte Pe eee 478 Sizer 1SllO tO CORSLENCE .., . 0. 55S ath en ee em EN Ie eee ega AS ibe 475 Saraaiiee SUR URUIMS TS REIOST OA e edie sweet Who betehe prow’ *eionsy Adena a} Seas, ate a eee eevee 480 table showing approximate total capacity of cylindrical silos for mellaiatured corn stlage: 11 L008). 05. 0 8 bs om ie P eee 475 PEE RES pln OR erst SOR he a pee PRPS URAC ae nek AS ASS Stone, J. L., Computing rations for Farm animals, bulletin 154..-..-. 133 bulletin 166, Sugar beet investigations for 1898...: .......... ... 415 Sugar Beet, three important fungous diseases of, prilletin FOSG Cea 339 appearance of affected plants Reha Sah 2'3 Sythe Rigi Se ee 342 SSE ORCL EDGE LOE. opro ccs ve ciaecy eile o «02 e Dla ie aim ahd eg fe eed ene 343 EACLE S OLA GAULT TES”. fee oie Gil af ik. 5) vv x inet whim o Oe ta aha, Seeker 355 Kuhn and Pammel, cited... ......... 20. eee cnet e cece nese enes 350 Xii INDEX Sugar Beet, three important fungous diseases of—continued. Page. occurrence of the disease . 2. syess .. «++ aa ane ot eine en 339 POOL TOL Of DEST iii: iis sie dic' b's Sepl hits b>. + 2s be nc Peele a 0 339 FOMICAIES 5-0 5-5 vis is esin oo bn oe te REM MEN ee > » 0 6 viele Qa ee men 350 special characters of the fungus). 2.2... . 2... 05.dile MED ae ae 345 getietal account, .5.i)cias ciety emp aie ala +... 2 a's ciao 352 Part II, Leaf spot of the ,beeticscis.. 2... 1.0.0. oa 352 TRMNOGIES 555 5: 5:,5 sini ¥i4 ime Pa Sk, 4's 3 5 «7 “ora Pay ee A fe) eater eNO TWEE He CE ALIN cope, Pose estado sxe ck 3 os S vA Se a 8 IOCHIAUION 4. WHMCS. ois-5 ip acs 20 doh © oo RE PRED oe A= 9 Rbtee ata th TOOARUED EAINAO TE Ss RG Wic's os Alyy Hix Sear 3a Re 9 Pao e Ih S5Ns MRR IS SERA TIEN 2 2p ny Gyles SN Peters Ph» ain imo dL Slate we ae fe) through sexual organs ..... aay beth wie al Od ee Pear ateltn= 0 cette IO ELE ES Ee ite te Pade sr ees Oe aes Recaro eee ee ely 11 ea AEMR OE CRE ao Sig ewig tal Sapa eld Wn aT Wig SM NT pod Sm eS ak II JERSEY 2g oe 2 2 5 ee aE a ss ee pieces tee Ge ATS AM OES, MRP OIL 5 SUA Mie EE TRIOS, HEUER a, 5 cig a) ance ocs aces SSeS AIC at RE PRA aoe ay, Ne II WL pliner, PALES gens aoa 0 38S a i cis 6 slew EM EE eine tat, Sey II Riel WE he 5h fra tate ke weve etic wt te at ee ES oe 1 ae 8 Oma AOS WLECH fA VOR sx. £5 ct ksnacn cetete sha ei OR eae Wns Seles II CEA TOG: gt eet Sea xd ae cw pe aioe se Fez a ete Me ole idk shaw 5 PRG, MOC Hy MEIEER Cte es ete ts cremate ee Meahte- shin) Ls Fe 5 NASD Le tages SACLE OED Se Dae Aan re) Grate ctr ce tay 5 Ruhling, Krunitz, Fromage and Huzard, cited......... ..... Morgagm Laennec, Cullen, Wickman, Valsalvi and Sarconi, SLOM ste cig otis ohne a ne ea LEN rae Stee Sette ee. LN ; drawing, showing tubercules from lung of acow.. .............. i drawing, showing tubercules from omentum of cow.............. 17 extinerion i” with, fae aid: of ‘tiubereulin: io..06ccc Gens boty Sak ele 27 extinenon.o1, without the tuberculin test... 0.2.5 eos. hen. ce eee 26 Sap taemate eh, Py rake ACLION. 2 Ostet say ins ou ele Vos eee SO 29 SM ANINERIE IN one ST cc RN Ug NO tans Mh dia U Lig ates 2 iat a oes 4 PRI SEMPRE EP Ee (ACTS or oooh pate elnwie oe ke hee ee II latent, breeding healthy stock from parents, with ........... Ses ae res Oty EE CE AUMCAPIORE OR oe aug alS sc ev xe wy wees ERE eee 23 Seeeeeuver, SoleeH aie Panerede 2 ooo. cg blo es bole ok ane ans 14 eeereeeee TA AIP OWENS 2h Zeng irs ot nts ., 15% fo c.0c2 pee asc sdva noche Some 14 Bere MRE RU IAT IS AINE OVATION). C20 ie ee Soh, on od nde sw te Med saa ae 14 ane IRM ie oe dime he arene eID iy Was Pad ae eae ee eae poems 15 Mermie ACE Arlo ote owe RA ch, sieve ear'e Bienen eee Oe ae 15 of the throat and pharyngeal lymph glands ...................... 15 ree PCH AEE AOMIU Set mete re: aise 2 a's 1S aps gms say im Wenn ee 16 proportion of occult cases. ........ 2.1... cece eee te eee ee eee rene 16 eee Ri Sic EEE ENH Dr erie. xo =. wh sak od hie aid este tere Seme mae 217 Ward, A. , bulletin 165, Ropinessin Milk and eee EE UE ee ace le 391 Xiv INDEX. Page Wilson, Hon. James, Sec’y. of agriculture, on nature-study ........... 263 Wheeler’s Gravity Cream Separator........ 0002s. ssenssececsseneeen 38 Wing, H. H., Asst. Prof. of Dairy Husbandry and Animal Industry, Report ME xix-xx Gravity or Dilution Separators, bulletin 151... ......c.setecceuws 33 and Leroy Anderson, bulletin 152, Studies in Milk Secretion. 49 The period of Gestation in Cows, bulletin 162..............+..- . 323 and Leroy Anderson, Studies in Milk Secretion, bulletin 169... 517 Winship, A. E., Boston, Editor Journal of Education, on nature- SES choo sh aio Up NBA coos Be leo! e ole oo ed aig 264 4 »! EP a ea ee Fg Sa Lee eros some =o Fs ee 2 ey ‘ Loe ey eH Age Mirah s rb > > ariel qulane Ce An) Pig ae * te 3 5185 00258 5410 Ae. Cara Oe ne eet eS oN es kate t f ‘