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LIBRARY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL

prM

T ■n'/^TT?

No.^Q6 SF

SOURCE.

i676

DATE DUE

TWELFTH ANNUAL BEPOIM^

OF THE

jlis/£::ei:rxc}Jl.i<t

DAIRYMEN'S Association,

WITH

TRANSACTIONS AxND ADDRESSES,

FOR THE YEAR 1876.

INGERSOLL, ONT.:

PRINTED AT THE CHRONICLE STEAM BOOK AND JOB OFFICE, THAMES STREET.

1877.

in^DEx:

OF THE

TWELFTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

DAIRYMEN'S ASSOCIATION.

PAGE.

List of Officers 5

List of Members 9

Transactions — Opening Remarks 13

Application of Heat in the Dairy — A. L. Fish 14

Butter-Making at the West — John Stewart 20

Dairj' at the Centennial — L. B. Arnold 26

Leaks in the Dairy — C. L. Sheldon 37

Dairying and Fertility — Prof. E. W. Stewart 45

Manufacture of Cheese and the Handling of Milk — Thos. Ballantyne, M.P.P. 51

" Fitness of Things" — Hon. Harris Lewis 55

Advantages of Experimental Dairy Stations — Prof. Bell 58

The Dairy Interest of Canada — C. E. Chadwick 66

Refuse of the Dairy — L. B. Arnold .... .... 67

SPECIAL MEETING AT PHILADELPHIA.

Transactions — Opening Remarks 76

Dairy Stock ; Possibilities of Milch Cows— Prof . L. Wetherell 78

Butter Making — Harris Lewis 87

Philosophy of Dairying — E. Lewis Sturtevant . . 90

The Cow as a Food Producer— E. W. Stewart 107

Rise and Progress of Improved Dairying in England — J. P. Sheldon 110

Condensed and Pi-eserved Milk — E. N. Horsford 116

Use of Boracic Acid and other Materials for preserving Milk Sweet — G. C .

Caldwell 123

Utilization of Whey — Bernhard Osann 127

Address— Prof. Bell 128

PREFARA'IOKY REMARKS.

Since the publication of the Eleventh Annual Report, two Conven-
tions have been held by the American Dairymen's Association — one on the Cen-
tennial grounds at Philadelphia, the othor at Ingersoll, Canada.

The Philadelphia Convention was appointed by invitation of the
Philadelphia Produce Exchange, to meet in the rooms of the Exchange, but for
the greater convenience of persons visiting the International Exhibition, the place
was changed to Judge's Hall, on the Centennial grounds. It opened on the 17th
of October, and held one session a day for four days. It was made an international
meeting and was open to the people of all countries, who might desire to attend.
The addresses which were prepared by citizens of the United States, Cana-
da, and England, will be found able and instructive pajjers. From not obtaining
some of the addresses until after the Report went to press, the proceedings of
the Convention, first in order of time, had to be placed in the latter part of the
Report.

The active part taken in the Association at its formation and during
its earlier history, by the Dairymen of Canada, led its founders and early support-
ers to embrace the Dominion in the field of its labors, and the name given to
the organization was made to accord with this fact, though the Conventions con-
tinued to be held in the States. In view of these facts and of the efficient aid
rendered by Canadian Dairymen in sustaining the late International Dairy Exhi-
bition, through the liberality of funds contributed, their \agorous exertions, and
the high character as well as the extent of their exhibits, and in view of the fur-
ther fact that the Associatian had already held meetings on four days in the United
States, the Executive Board deemed it appropriate to accept the invitation of the
Ingersoll Board of Trade to hold the annual meeting of the current year at Ing-
ersoll, the great centre of the cheese producing district of Canada, and it was ac-
cordingly so held.

This brief Statement of the reasons for holding the late meeting on
the north side of the St. Lawrence, is deemed proper by the Secretary, as some
people in the States have, not fully appreciating all the circumstances, thought
strangely of moving the Annual Convention from the neighborhood of its accus-
tomed location.

The meeting proved a large and profitable one. The only unfavor-
able circumstance connected with it was the occurrence of an unprecedented
snow storm along the line of tbe N. Y. Central Rail Road, which prevented the
attendance of some two hundred people from the State s, who otherwise would
have been present to participate in its proceedings. But notwithstanding the
storm the Hall was well filled from the Canadian side, and the papers and discus-
sions sustained the high character of the previous meetings of the Association,
as a perusal of them will fully show, and they are accordingly submitted with
much satisfaction, to the DLirymen both of Canada and the States.

L. B. ARNOLD, Secretary.
Rochester, May, 1877.

ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION.

Whereas, It is deemed expedient to merge the New York State
Cheese Manufacturers' Association, which was oi'ganized in January,
1864, into an American Association, through which, as a medium, re-
sults of the practical experience of dairymen may be gathered and dis-
seminated to the dairying community ; therefore,

Resolved, That we, the undersigned, do hereby associate ourselves
together for mutual improvement in the science of cheese-making, and
more efficient action in promoting the general interest of the dairy com-
munity.

Article I. The name of the organization shall be The American
Dairymen's Association.

Art. II. The Officers of the Association shall consist of a Pres-
ident, Vice-President, Secretary and Treasurer.

Art. III. The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary and Treas-
urer, shall constitute the Executive Board of the Association.

Art. IV. The Officers of the Association shall be elected at the
regular annual meeting, and shall retain their offices until their succes-
sors are chosen.

Art. V. The regular annual meeting shall occur on the second
Tuesday in January of each year, and at such place as the Executive
Board shall designate.

Art. VI. The payment of one dollar shall admit any person to
all the sessions of an Annual Meeting — and the additional payment of
seventy-five cents shall entitle him to the Annual Report for the cuiTent
year.

Amendment. — The Secretary is hereby empowered to appoint an
Assistant Secretary to assist during the sittings of the Convention, and
discharge such other duties as may be assigned to him, and, in case of
the absence or inability of the Secretary to act, to temporarily discharge
the duties of that office ; it being distinctly understood that no compen-
sation is attached thereon.

[One dollar constitutes a person not attending an Annual Conven-
tion a member of the Society for one year, and entitles him to the An-
nual Report.]

OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION

FOR IS?"?.

PRESIDENT :

Hon. HORATIO SEYMOUR, Utica, N. Y.

VICE PRESIDENTS : .

C. E. CHADWICK. Ingersoll, Ont.

X. A. WILLARD, Herkimer.

T. D. CURTLS, Onondaga.

O. S. BLI8S, Vermont.

DAVID W. LEWIS, New York City.

M. FOLSOM. New York City.

STEPHEN FAVILLE, Wisconsin.

CHAS. HOUSE, Lewis, N. Y.

G. B. WEEKS, Onondaga.

Prof. E. W. STEWART, Lake View, N. Y.

C. L. SHELDON, Lowville, N. Y.

THOMAS BALLANTYNE, M. P. P., Stratford, Ont.

L. R. RICHARDSON, Kerwood, Ont.

Dr. E. G. CRAFTS, Binghamfton, N. Y.

W. L. RUTHERFORD, Waddington, N. Y.

A. M. FULLER, Meadville, Pa.

J. G. COHOE, Fredonia, N. Y.

MADISON COOPER, Evan.s Mills, N. Y.

H. S. OAKS. Cattaraugus County, N. Y.

ISRAEL BOISE, Byron, III.

C. F. VVHITTIER, Minnesota.

J. T. ELLSWORTH, Barre, Mass.

Hon. Wii. A. JOHNSON, Collins Centre, N. Y.

Dr. L. L. wight, Whitesboro, N. Y.

PETER. R. DALY, Belleville, Ont.

S. STRAIGHT, Hudson, Ohio.

CHESTER HAZEN, Ladoga, Wis.

Prof. L. WETHEREI.L. Boston, Mass.

E. CASSW^ELL, Ingersoll, Ont.

EDWARD NORTON, Goshen, Ct.

H. S. LOSEE, Norwich, Ont.

Capt. H. D. GARDINER, McLean, N. Y.

JOHN STEWART, Manchester, Iowa.

P. H. BURCHARD, Grant Park, III.

GEORGE HAMILTON, Cromarty, Ont.

BENJ. HOPKINS, Brownsville, Ont.

C. H. WILDER. EvANSviLLE, Wis.

0. C. BLODGETT, Chautauqua.

DAVID H. BURRILL, Herkimer.

J. M. PETERS, New York City.

S. A. FARRINGTON, Pennsylvania.

SECRETARY :

L. B. ARNOLD, Rochester, New York.

TREASURER :

Hon. HARRIS LEWIS, Frankfort. Herkimer County N. Y.

LIST OF MEMBERS

OP

THE AMERICAN DAIRYMEN'S ASSOCIATION,

FOR THE YEAR 1877.

Anderson, Wm., Woodstock, Oxford.

Anderson, W. H., Ingersoll, Oxford.

Andrew, Philip, Avon, Oxford.

Agur, Wm. Jr., Thorndale, Oxford.

Ashlej', H., Belleville, Hastings.

Arthur, Wm. IngersoU, Oxford.

Agur, Wm . , Verschoyle, Oxford.

Atwood, W., Salford, Oxford.

Arthur, Jno., Kintore, Oxford.

Adams, Jno., IngersoU, Oxford.

Agur, Robt., IngersoU, Ont.

Adkins, Jno., Putman, Oxford,

Abraham, Jno., Otterville, O.xford.

Allan, Sam., Embro, Oxford.

Anstice, F. G., Springford, (Jxford.

Allison, J no. , Brownsville, Oxford.

Arnold, L. B. , Rochester, N. Y.

Abbot, E.' Camden, Oneida Co., N. Y.

Andrews, J. P., Attiea, Wj'omingCo., >'. Y.

Armstrong, A. B., Dorset, Vt.

.\dam8, James C, Springfield Centre, Otsego

Co., N. Y.
.\yers, E. A., Watertown, N. Y.

Butchard, Jas. M., West Flamboro.

hallantyne, Thos., M.P.P., Stratford, Perth.

Eolger, S. C, Stratford, Perth.

Eobier, Joshua, IngersoU, Oxford.

t'ennett, G. H., Chatham, Essex.

Butterfield, D. S., Norwich, Oxford.

Beaton, Wm. L., Norwich, Oxford.

Bungay, L. F., Norwich, Oxford.

Bowman, Noah S., Haysville, Oxford.

Bailey, Jas., Inarersoll, Oxford.

Eutler, Jno., lit. Elgin, O-ford.

Brett, Wm., St. JIarys, Perth.

Bell, A., Innerkip, Oxford.

Burdick, S., Dorchester, Middlesex.

Eerry, Thos., Culloden, Oxford.

Baldwin, O. K., Vienna, Elgin.

Bri>dy, Jas., IngersoU, Oxford.

Barraclough, T., IngersoU, Oxford.

Banbury, Chas., Mt, Elgin, Oxford.

Brown, T., IngersoU, Oxford.

Bates, Ezra, Norwich, Oxford.

Bates, Horatio, Norwich, Oxford.

Birrell, D., Little Falls, N. Y.

Bailey, Geo., IngersoU, Oxford.

Bate, C., Toronto, City.

Bodwell, A.,Mt. Elgin.

Bell, Prof. James T., Belleville.

Blaoding, Wm., Haw ley town, Broome Co., N.Y.

Bonfoy, Geo. A., West Winfield, Herkimer Co.,

N. Y.
Bonfoy, Seth, West Winfield, Herkimer Co.,

N.Y.
Blanding, F., Brookfield, Madison Co., N. Y.
Brooks, M. C, Bowen's Corners, Oswego Co.,

N. Y.
Beech, E. C, Fish Creek Station.
Broadbent, Frank, Troy, 86 North M. street,

N. Y.

Bradley, E, F,. 35 Elizabeth, street, Utica, N.Y.

Brrwne, O. L. F., Syracuse, N. Y.

Baker, J. C, Corrv, Erie Co., Penna.

Burleigh, J. F., Verona, Oneida Co., N. Y.

Burgess, A. F., Eiieville, Madison Co , N. Y.

Bussy, A. P., Westeniville, Oneida Co,, N. Y.

Briggs, C. W., Sennet, N. Y.

Briggs, David, Durhamville, Oneida Co., N. Y.

Bleuis, J. W. Salisbury Centre. Herk. Co., N.Y.

Bartlet, J. W., Ava, Oneida Co., N. Y.

Baird, J., Van Hornesville, Herkimer, Co., N. Y.

Ball, S., Unadilla Forks, Otsego Co., N. Y.

Bliss, O. S. , Georgia, Vt.

Bigger, J. M., Cambridgeboro, Pa.

Blogett, 0. C, Fredonia, Chautauqua Co., N.Y.

Blaiichard, Flint, Jamestown, Chautauqua Go.

Brown, James P., Utica, N. Y.

Clark, Wm., Avonbank, Perth.

Clark, Jacob, Thamesford, O.xford.

Cornell, J. H., Washington, Oxford.

Cornell, Harvey, Washington, Oxford.

Craik, Jas., Putnam, Oxford.

Coulton, Abel, Stratford, Perth.

Casswell, Joshua G., Dounfield, Cains-cross

roads, Stroud, Gloucestershire, England.
Connelly, B., IngersoU, Oxfoid.
Cohoe, J. VV., New Durham, Oxford.
Cole, Geo., Sarnia, Lambton.
Collins, Orlando. Mt. Elgin, Oxford.
Christie, J. R., Culloden, Oxford.
Caddy, T., IngersoU, Oxford.
Cowan, Wm., Innerkip, Oxford.
Colhoun, Sam., Harrietsville, Oxford.
Clark, Orange, IngersoU, Oxford,
Clark, J. S., Wyoming.
Clyne, Jno., Avonbank, Perth.
Casey, A. W., Mitchell, Perth.
Clark, Jas., East Nissouri, Oxford.
Chadwick, L. J., IngersoU, Oxfoid.
Curtis, A., IngersoU, Oxford.
Coyne, I. , IngersoU, jxford.
Caldwell, O. B., IngersoU, Oxford.
Clalmers, D., Honey Grove, Perth.
Clements, Joel, Preston, Waterloo.
Cranston, R. R., Cranston, Brant.
Chishoim, W., Mayfair, Kent.
Cohoe. D. B., Burgessville, Oxford.
Chadwick, Chas. E., IngersoU, Oxford.
Casswell, £., IngersoU, Oxford.
Cook, G. H., Beach ville, Oxford.

Clark, H. T., Vernon, Oneida Co., N. Y.
•Cheesebro, Dennison S., Geddes, Onondaga Co.,
N. Y.
Cory, Norman, Taburg, Oneida Co., N. Y.
Cady, O., Freeville, Tompkins Co., N. Y,
Clark, J. H., South Albion, Oswego Co., N. Y.
Converse, Edward, SterlingvUle, Jefferson Co.,

N. Y.
Custis, F. H., Brier Hill, St. Lawrence Co., N.Y.
CriU, Geo. W., North Western, Oneida Co., N.Y.

10

Carroll, John, Salisbury, Herkimer Co., N. Y.

Greaser, W. L., Hecla Works, OtieidaCo. , N.Y.

Chandler, A., Berne, N. Y.

Chapman, L. P., Randolph, Wis.

Cahoe, J. G., Fredonia, N.Y.

Cald,ve'.l, Prof. G. C, Ithaca. N. Y,

Curtis, T. D., Syracuse, N. Y.

Cooper, Madison, Evans Mills, Jefferson Co.,

N. Y.
Craft, Dr. E. G., Binghamton, N. Y.
Crocker, Col. O. C, Bin^^hamton, N. Y.
Cole, Dr. G. F., Canton, St. Lawrence Co., N.Y.
Curtis. D. W., Fort Atkinson, Wis.
Chapman, John R., Oneida Lake, N. Y.
Condimental Fo(3d Co., 208 N. Front Street,

Philadelphia, Pa.

Duiidass, D. J., Beachville, Oxford.

Uanean, Gilbert, Ni.rwieh, Oxford.

Dunn, Peter, Ingersoll, Oxford.

Dunn, Wni., Injfersoll, Oxford.

Dunn, Jno., Harrietsville, Oxford.

Duini, J. P., Mosslev. Oxford.

Dunn, Larej , IngersoU, Oxford.

Downinx, Frank, Brownsville, Oxford.

Drummond, Robt. , Brirvvnsville, Oxford.

Downliani, P., Bryanston.

Deo, Chas., Avlmer, Oot.

De Lon!,% G. V., Jr., Woodstock, Oxford.

Daly, A., Ingersoll, Oxford.

Dodge, Jno., Beachville, Oxford.

Dunn, Andrew, In^'er.soll, Oxiord.

Dtnipsey, T., Co. Perth, Fairview.

Dund.iss, Wni. IngersoU, Oxford.

Dennis, J. 2d, Berne, N. Y.

Davison, J. W , Frankfort, Herkimer Co. , N. Y.

Elliott, Jas., Brownsville, Oxford.

Ellis, Wm. A., Culloden, do

Evans, Jno., Jr., Glandstone, Oxford.

Elliott, I. VV., Culloden, do

Elliott; Sam., In','er3oll, do

Ellis, R. Y. Ellis, do do

Ellis, W. E., Hespeler, do

Elliott, Jas., Mt. Eljfin, do

Ehle, M. P., Edwardsville, St Lawrence Co.,

N. Y.
Ellison, Jaojb, Middleville, Herkimer Co., N.Y.
Edwards, J. J., Canajoharie, Montgomery Co.,

N. Y.
Eaton, Aaron, Hannibal, N. Y.
Ellsworlh, John T., Barre, Mass.

Farrington, J L., Norwich, Oxford.
Farrinjjton, Harvey, do do

Facev, Robt., Harrietsville, do
Fieiheller, Cynes, IngersoU, do
Frezelle, RolU., do do

Fnwkes, T. F., do do

Farrintjton, Geo., Britcht, do
Fearman, F. W., Hamilton, Wellington.
Freeman, H. O., Sherburne Chenango Co, N.Y.
Faircbild, E. B., Fairfield, Herkimer, Co., NY.
Fols .ni, .M,, 70 Warren Street, New York City.
Fruiklin, F., Hannnond.St. Lawrence Co., N.Y
Fox, Geo. A., Loraiie, Jefferson Co., N. Y.
Fogirty, Jerry, Springfield Centre, Otsego Co.,

N. Y.
Fuller, J. E., Floyd, N. Y.
Fuller, A. M. Mcadville, Pa.
Faville, Stephen, Lake Mills, Wis.
Farrington, S. A., Cambridgeboro, Pa.

Galliver, Jno., Fingal, Elgin.
Galloway, Geo., IngersoU, Oxford.
Gr:int, Geo., Enibro, do

(irillin, Geo., Hurgessville, do
Grillitli, A., Thorndale, do

(Jurnett, G. F., IngersoU, do
Gallowav, Jno. C, di> do

Grant, Jas. M., do do

Galer. J. C. B., do do

GrifBth, J. E.. Byron, Inger.soll, Oxford.
Greaves, Thos., Seabringville, Perth.
Gillard, W., Tavistock. Oxford.
Galliver, H., Fingal, Essex.
Grier.scn, J. H., Herkimer, Herkimer Co., N.Y.
Gates, Wm. M., Whitesboro, Oneida Co., N.Y.
Golden, R.. Little Falls, Herkimer Co., N . Y.
Guller, J. M., Edwardsville, St. Lawrence Co.,

N. Y.
Guller, James, O.swegatchie, N. Y.
Gray, Alex., Rome, N. Y.
Giifford, C. O., Eavetteville, Onondaga Co.,

N. Y.
Greggorans, William, Lee, N.Y.
Gardiner, Capt., H. D., McLean, Tompkins

Co., N. Y.
Gold, T. S., West CornwaU, Conn.
Green, H. Cooley, Meadville, Pa.
Guller, Gilbert, Forestel, St. Charles Co., Mo.
Gleason, Hon. G. M., Governeur, N. Y.
Gillett, Harris, Sidney Plains, Jefferson Co.,

N. Y.

Herrich, A. J., Springford, Oxford.

Hamilton, Geo., Cromarty, Perth.

Hunter, Ed., IngersoU Oxford.

Hoi)kuis, Benj., Brownsville, Oxford.

Harrington, Jncob, Woodstock, do

House, R. H. Bookton, do

Herriott, Wm., Mt. Elgin, do

Howell, Hamilton, lona, Elgin.

Hays. Thos., Seaforth, Perth.

Heltle & Ingles, Teeswater, Perth.

Holmwood, W., London, Middlesex.

Hart, Henry, Woodstock, Oxford.

Hariand, A., Highgate, Kent.

Heatley, W. H., Brantford, Brant.

Hopkins, E. N., Tilsonburg, Oxford.

Hearn, H., IngersoU, do

Holcroft, W., do do

Harris, Jas., do do

Harris, Wm., Mt. Elgin, do

Henderson, Jno., Thamesford, do

Henderson, J, S., IngersoU, do

Huxley, Wm., Fullarton, Perth.

Heg'er, J. C, IngersoU, Oxford.

Humphreys, Robert, Jr., Prospect, Oneida Co.,

N. Y.
Huffman, H. C, Horseheads, Chemung Co.,

N. Y.
Huntingdon, Edward, Rome, N.Y,
Hannum, H. A., Cazenovia, Madison Co., N. Y.
Harris, Thomas E., West Winfield, Herkimer

Co., N. Y.
Hutchinson, Geo. W., Port Byron, Cayuga Co.,

N. Y.
Higgins, Jolin, Speedsville, Tomyiklns Co., N.Y.
Hughes, Stone Mills, Jefferson Co., N. Y.
Hays, D. A., Cedarville, Herkimer Co., N. Y.
Holmes, C. H., West Winfield, Herkimer Co.,

N. Y.
Hunt, Olin, Lairdsville, N. Y.
Harris, B. J., Antwer;), Jefferson Co., N. Y.
Htibhell, J. G., Groton, Tompkins Co., N. Y.
Hawkins, H. T., Fort Plain, Montgomery Co.,

N.Y.
HoUis, D. D , WdOihille, Jefferson Co., N.Y.
Hill, C. A., Oneida Castle. N. Y.
Hawley, L. T.. Syracuse, N. Y.
Havward, M., Weston, Mich.
House, Chailes, Houseville, Lewis Co., N. Y.
Hazon, Chester, Ladoga, Wis.
Hawkins, Edward, Stauwix, Oneida Co., N. Y.
^lills, Edgar, Vernon, Oneida Co., N. Y.

Inman, Sam., Avonton, Perth.

IngersoU, F^ D., Albion, Orleans Co., N. Y.

Ingham, A. W., Adams, N. Y.

.loliffe, H., Avon, Perth.
.biliffo, D., Ttiamesford, Oxford.
Jarvis, Jonathan, IngersoU, do

11'

Jardine, J. W., Hamilton, Wellington.

Johnson, W. C, Inuersoll, Oxford.

James, Jas. A., Nilestown, do

Johnson, Hon. \Vm. A., Collins Centre, Erie

Co., N. Y.
Johnson, A., Lee Centre, Oneida Co,, N. Y.
Jones, Jonathan, Utica, N. Y.
Jordan, Henry, Kurke, Franklin Or.,N. Y.
James, (Jhas. A., North Ga^'e, UneidaCo., N. Y.
Jemison, Lewis, Binyhamton, N. Y.
Jenkins, W. A., Sireet.>buro, Ohio.
Judson R. E., TarminiJton, Minn.

Kirkley, P., Newark, Oxford.

Keachie, Jas., Shetfijld.

Kin'j, \V. S., 1 1 t:ersoll, Oxford.

Kerr, T., Ka^^'le, Kent.

Kemp, D., Intrersull, O.'iford.

Kinyon. B. Benj., Home, N. Y.

Keeler, G. W., Malone, Franklin Co., N. Y.

Kinsbury, Euijene H., Lee, N. Y.

Lawson, Jas., Peebles, Oxford.

Lewis, J. B., Sandi skj. (Jatarapus Co., N. Y.

Lo.jsee, Jno., Bur^essville, Oxford.

Laur, J. CAvon, Perth.

Lampman, Arch., Woodstock, Oxford.

Lowes, J. H., In;j;ersoll, Oxford.

Lewis, N., do do

Logee, S. P.,, do do

Lbwis, Erwin, do do

Lambert, C. B., Dealtown, Elgin.

Little, R , Hespaler, Eitfin.

Lessee, H. S., Norwich, Oxford.

Lane, J. B., Dorchester, do

Laidlaw, L. L., P. O. Box 512, New York City.

Loucks. Geo. VV., Potsdam, St. Lawrence Co.,

N. Y.
Lazeiilie, VV. R., Ithaca, N. Y.
Littlewood, G. H., New Berlin, Chenango Co.,

N. "S.
Lockart, VV. G., Oneida, Madison Co., N. Y.
Lynk, A. M., Westmoreland, Oneida Co., N.Y.
Locke, VV. P., VVaterville, N. Y.
Laird, P. D., Woodville, Jefferson Co.,N. Y.
Lindslev, L. S., PratL's Hollow, Madison Co.,

N.Y.
Lewis, Hon. Harris, Frankfort, Herkimer Co.,

N. Y.
Lewis, J., Fredonia, Chautauqua Co., N. Y.
Lewis, U.ivid VV., New York City.
Larama, Fred., Fort Plain, Montgomery Co., ,

N. Y. !

Lewis, J . B., Sandusky, Cattaraugus Co., N.Y.

Moore, A. B., Otterville, Oxford.

Moore, VV. D., Eastwood, do

Motick, Lorenzo, Mt. El>;in, do

Matheson, Hugh, Embru, do

Marr, Gen., Ingersoll, do

Martin, Thos., Beachville, do

Mau.'han, Geo., Iiigersoil, do

Marshall, Jno., Putnam, do

Morton, D., Ratho, do

Minkler, A., Ingersoll, da

Minkler, M., do do

Muldn, Jas., St. George.

Mntt, E. E., Burgessville, do

Master, J. H., Strathallan, do

Miirrry, D. R., Bemington, Perth.

Mott, T. C, Edward, "St. Lawrence Co., N. Y.

Moore, F. W., Erieville, Madison Co., N. Y.
Mather, Luther P., Nelscjn, Madison Co., N. Y.
Miller, Levi G., Bear Hill, St. Lawrence Co.
Jleigs, J. H., Verona, Oneida Co., N. Y.
Maityn, A. T., Canton, St. Lawrence Co., N.Y.
Morely, F. 'A'., Poultney, Vt
Ma.S(in, Hin. E. D., Richinond, Vt.
Meddangb, A., Friendship, Aileganv Co., N. Y.
Miller, L. W., Stockton, Chautauqua Co., N.Y.
Merri, F. I., Verona, Oneida Co., N. Y.

McGillivray, D., Milverton, Perth.
McCabe, Geo., Newbury.
McNeil. Jno., lona Station, Elgin.
Mc.Mulii]), Jno., Lonsiance, Egin.
McKerricha-, Wm., Botany, Kent.
JlcUumbs, Jjs., Scotland, ()\ford.
JIcLean, K'bt., St. Marys, Pjr.h.
McPha I, D., Avon, Oxford.
JlcColhun, G. , do do
McCready, N., Mt. Elgin, Oxford.
Macauley, A., Ingersoll, do
McDonald, D. S., do

McEwa:i, Jno.,
McDonald, J. F.,
McDonald, Jno.,
McCaughey, Jas.,
Mac.Vdams, Wra.,
MacAdanis, Ji.hn,

do
do
do
do

Rome, N. Y
do do

do
do
do
do
do

Macadams, Alexander, Rome, N. Y.
MacAdanis, liuberi, Lee Centre, do
MacAdams, Geo. G., Rome, d^

McGuffie, .^., Herk.mer, do

MacGarm, Verona, do

McVVain, H. G., Boonville, do

McGaw, VVm., Buel, do

McLean, J. R., Elgin, 111.

Noxon, Jas., Ingersoll, Oxford.
Nellis, VVm., Salford, do

Noxon, Freeman, Ingersoll, Oxford.
NewcDiub, N., 0.-.trander, do

Nancekeivel, W., Ingersoll, do
Nagle, S., Delaware, Middlesex.
Norton, Edward, Farniington, Ct.
Niles, Edgir, Verona, Oneida Co., N. Y.
Nichols, Henry C, Norway, Herkimer Co., N.Y.
Nicholson, N. D., Oriskaiiy, N. Y.

Oliver, Adam, Ingersoll, Oxford .

U'Neil, D., do do

Osborn, S., Orange Co., N. Y.

Olds, Ottis, Schuyler, Herkimer Co.. N. Y.

Pearce, J. S., London.

Pratt, Thos., Ingersoll.

Partlow, .(no., do

Prouse, Thos., do

Patterson, Jas , Kerwood.

Pickurd, Amos. A., St. Mark's.

Patterson, F., Thainesiord.

Palmer, E. C, Norwich.

Phillips, J.,CrGm'yn.

Pesha, A. J., Shetland.

Phelan, D., Ingersoll.

Pratt, D., Spruigford.

Post, Jas., Ingersoll.

Peters. J. M., New York City.

Peck, VV. P., Winchester, Pa.

Prescott, Thomas, VValesville, Oneida Co., N. Y.

Paddock, S. D., Malone, Franklin Co., N. Y.

Powers, C. J., Hammond, St. Lawrence Co.,

N. Y.
Phillip, JohnM,, Rome, Oneida Co., N. Y.
Peckham, VV. N., Verona, do do

Ruckle, David, CuUoden, Oxford.

Richardson, L. R. , Kerwood.

Richard.son, Jno., St. George.

Robertson, Ja-^. VV., London Ea.st, Middlesex.

Richmond. R., Niie^town, do

RowVind, Harry, In(,er3 11, Ox'ord.

Root, VV. T., d) do

Rankiin, J , Rome, N. Y.

Readey, Geo. V\'., Sennett, Onei;la Co., N. Y.

Rieiiardson, C. VV., Herkimer Co., do

Hitter, John W., Ro.se, Wayne Co., do

Rockwell, H., Westmjreland, Oneida Co.. N.Y.

Reckel, Frank, Sherburne, OnoidaCo., N. Y.

Reese, G. VV.. Oneidi, .Madison Co.. N. Y.

Reall. J. H.,37 So. Water street, Philadtlph'a,

Pa.
Eeeder, Eastburn, New Hope, Bucks Co., Pa,

12

Siple, So'.omon, Burffessville, Oxford.

Sui.ul, FiMiicis, .Mt. Kiyiii, do

Sherinai), Lemuel, Thame.^ville.

Bi)niiueivi le, Thus , Hujaville, do

Stephenson, W. H., lona, Elgin.

be Is, H., Vienn 1, do

Springe;, Dr., In;,'ersoll, Oxford.

She don, U. L., L.wville, Lewis Co., !< , Y.

Spears, John, C-ii.storville, Peril .

bhaw, Rnbt., Kidgetown, Kent.

SI rapnell, G. J., Ingersoll, O.xford.

Sutton, .Jnhn, do do

S;einhuff. Wui., Norwich, do

Sniiih, Geo , Ver.-ichoyle, do

Staee.v, T., Fullarton, Pei'th.

S.»;,'e, Z., Ingersoll, dy

Smith, James, Verehovle, do

Smith, B. P., BlacU River, Jefiferson Co., N.Y.

Smith. C. \V., do do

Stiles, B., Oneida Co., N. Y.

Sbcldiin, C. L., LowviUe, Lewis Co., N. Y.

Stephens, Fred., Rome, Box I'JIJ, N. Y.

Spinnin;,', E. C, Taburjr, Oneida Co, N. Y.

Saramo, Fred., Fort Plain, Montgomery Coun-
ty, N. Y.

Stephens, Alfred, Rome, N. Y.

Saunders, A. C, Leonardsville, Madison Coun-
ty, N. Y.

Smith, P. P., CazPnovia, Madison Co., N. Y.

Smith, L. C, Cedarville, Herkimer Co., N. Y.

Slosah, W. H., Oneida, Madison Co., N. Y.

Slosah. Richard, Rid;^'-e Mills, N. Y.

Smith, C. H., North Hebron, N. Y.

Scneminerhorn, J. M., North Gage, Oneida Co.,
N. Y.

Schsmnierhorn, C, North Gage, Oneida Co.,
N. Y.

Shufelt, S. J., North Gage, Oneida Co. N. Y.

Stirling & Liin,'h im, Waiertown. N. Y.

Shiill, Hon. Joaiah, Ilion, Herkimer Co., N. Y.

Seymour, Hon. Horatio, Uiica. N. Y.

S ewiirt, Prof. E. W., Lil^e View, N. Y.

ScovJle, J. V H., Paris Oneida Co., N. Y.

Str.iight, S., Hudson, O.

Sterling. E. B., Watertown, N, Y,

Tnpp, Wm., Mt. Elgin, Oxford Co.

Trt;tf..v, G. H., Haw.ry, do

TeiiMant, J. J{., Rich wood, do

Ttilluck. \V. R.,M(>-sley, do

T;mi>leton, F. U., Verschiyle, do

T ip|)ing, Henry, Sprin,'field, do

Thompson, George, Ingorsoll, do

Thompson, Lewis, do do

Tuner, J., do do

Th imps.m, D., Florence West.

Taylor, A., Aylmer, Elgin Co.

Tucker, C. E.^ Herkimir, N. Y.

Tucker, E. B., Hannibal, Oswego Co., N. Y.

Treniain, Charles, Manlins, N. Y.

Talott, George S., S.ilubury Centra, Herkimir,

N. Y.
Trumball, S. R., Pulaski, N. Y.

Vrooman, J.. Rochester, Olmstead Co., Minn.

Weaver, Sylvenus, Otterville, Oxford.

Wilkinson, James, Veichoyle, do

Wilkinson, Wm., Ingersoll, do

Wilkinson, John, do do

Watson, W., Bookton, do

Wilson, Leonard, Ingersoll, do

Williams, James F., Cu'loden, do

Wilson, 1). G., Ridgeown, Kent.

Wood, Andrew, Wolverton, Perth.

Weeks, Nicholas P., Bi-tany, Kent.

Warned, Warren, Laurence, Elgin.

Waddeli, Wm., CuUoden, Oxford.

Wilson, John, M., Woodstock, do

Walter, Wilson, Bennington, do

Waters, H. W., 31 Front St. East, Toronto.

Wilson, Henry, Lambelh, Kent.

Webb, W., Drawer 24, London, Middlesex.

Wagner, Wm. J., Belmont, do

Williamson, Robt., Ingersoll, Oxford.

Woodroofe, R. W., do do

Walley, John, do do

Webster, Wm., do do

Wilson, J. M., do do

White, D., do do

Weaver, Jos., Otterville, do

Watterworth, Wm., Ingersoll, do

Wilson, Chas., Ingersoll, do

Watscjii, Wm., Falkirk.

Walker, Jas , Norwich, do

Woodcock, R. A., Ingersoll, do

Wilson & Robertson, do do

Wetherell, Leander, Boston, Mass.

Willard, X. A.. Fairfield, Herkimer Co., N. Y.

Whitney, W. M., Philadelphia, Jefferson Co.

N. Y.
Wilgns. M. G., Pike, Wyoming Co., N. Y.
Williams David, Rome, N. Y.
Wait, George R., Hartford, Washington Co.,

N. Y.
Williams, Roger, Briar Hill, St. Lawrence Co.,

N. Y.
Whi man 'and Burrell, Little Falls, Herkimer

C.>., N. Y.
White, Lunth & Co., Sherburne, Chenango Co.,

N. Y.
Williams, George, Whitestown, Oneida Co.

N. Y-
Waller, G. W., Newport, Herkimer Co., N.Y.
Ward, Artemas, Philadelphia, P. A.
Wilkinson, Prof. J., Baltimore, Maryland.
Wight, Dr. L. L., Whiteshorn, N. Y.
Weeks. G . B . , Syracuse, N. Y.
Wheeler, M. H., Bridge water, Oneida Co.,

N. Y.
Wriiht, George R.. Earfcrd, Washington Co.

N. Y,

Young, D. G., Cedarville, Herkimer Co., N. Y.
Y'ourdan, O., North \Vestern, Oneida Co., N.Y.

TPl-A.3NlS-A.CTI01SrS
OF THE

TWELFTH ANNUAL CONVENTION

OF

|;H^ JpiJtriciiu liiitgm^nji l0^0([iHli0tt,

HELD IN INGERSOLL, ONT.,

TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY AND THURSDAY,

JANUARY lOth, 11th, and 12th, 1877.

The Convention assembled January 10th, at Ingersoll, Ontario,
Canada, under the auspices of the Ingersoll Board of Trade, and was
called to order at 11 a. ni. by Wm. S. King, President of the Board,
who said :

Ladies and Gentlemen, — It affords me and the people of Ingersoll
and its vicinity much pleasui-e in giving a hearty welcome to our
American friends on this occasion. Everything will be done to make
this meeting a success. I have no doubt but we shall derive no small
benefit fi'om this Convention, and I tnist we will be able to ren-
der some assistance to our friends from the other side of the lines.

At all your meetings some member of the Board will be present to
render every possible assistance we can in conducting its business.

In the absence of the Hon. Horatio Seymour, President of the Asso-
ciation, the chair was taken by Mr. C. E. Chadwick, of Ingersoll, one of
the Vice-Pi'esidents, who spoke as follows :

Gentlemen, — I can only reiterate what my friend Mr. King has said,
that Ave give our American friends a most cordial welcome. I must say
I think they have exercised a great deal of taste in coming here in the
central })ai-t of the dairy interest of Canada, where we shall be able to
give them some useful lessons, I trust.

We are always ready to extend to our American bretlu-en the right
hand of fellowship, and I have no dotlbt that the holding of tliis Con-
vention on the northern side of the great lakes will prove to be a wisely
taken step, and one that will result advantageoitsly to both American
and Canadian dairymen. The Convention is now open for the transac-
tion of business.

On motion duly made and seconded, the chairman appointed the fol-
lowing Committee on the Order of Business : — Hon. Harris Lewis, of

u

Frankfort, N. Y.; Mr. Geo. Hamilton, of Cromarty, Ont.; Mr. E. Cass-

well and Mr. J. C. Hegler, of Ingersoll, Ont.; Mr. H. M. Kennedy, of

Utica (N.Y.,) Herald, and Mr. J. S. Pearce, of London. The Conven-
tion then adjourned till two p. m.

AFTERNOON SESSION.

At two o'clock Vice-President Chadwick called the Convention to
order, and said : — I am pleased to see a much larger attendance than in
the morning, and I trust this will be an interesting session. This is, I
may say, an im})ortant gathering, at which a lai'ge amount of informa-
tion may be disseminated. The interest that has been manifested from
year to year, shows that the knowledge thus disseminated has been pro-
ductive of much good, and contributed largely to our material interests.
I believe those of you who can look back eight or ten years will be will-
ing to admit that the large amount of information obtained from these
meetings, has been applied to the development of those important inter-
ests with which we are connected, and that it has bi'ought about an
almost entire revolution in the agricultural and dairy interests of our
country. It is in such gatherings as these where Ave can meet together,
and receive and impart much useful knowledge that may be applied to
the advancement of this interest which no doubt is still in its infancy.
I trust that this meeting will not be behind any other that has ever been
held in this place in interest and usefulness. We Canadians are greatly
indebted to ovir American friends who have contributed so often to the
interest and usefulness of our meetings, and when we have visited them
they have always received us and treated us in a most kindly way, and I
trust we will ever receive then! and treat them in the same spirit to
which they are entitled at our hands.

The first thing on the programme is a paper by Mr. A. L. Fish, of
Cedarville, N. Y. Mr. Fish not being present, his paper will be read by
the Secretary.

Upon coming forward with Mr. Fish's paper, Secretaiy Arnold said : —
As questions and discussions are always in order at the close of papers
and addresses, I will, if you please, in the absence of Mr. Fish, assume
the task of answering as far as I am able, such questions as the reading
of his paper may suggest. The paper is as follows :

APPLICATION OF HEAT IN THE DAIRY.

Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, — My object in selecting
heat as a subject of some remai'ks, is to imj)ress dairymen and manufac-
turers of cheese and butter, with a necessity of giving due attention to
the influence of heat as a constructive and desti-uctive agent, pointing to
its essential aids in the practical business of life when equipoised by
mediate agencies. In discussing a subj(^ct wlioso relations are involved
in a vast vax-ietyof material tilings, whose constituents are changed and
shifted from one form to that of others, Ave are Avont to inquire for a
description of the imnu^diato cause of effects avc realize. We are forced
to the conclusion that heat is the moving cause of all the ])hysioal and
mechanical energies of the universe. But the most learneil have failed
to define its materiality, oi- do more than to use the term heat as expres-
sive of condition. As a condition it is ('a))a])]e of augmentation to
destroy the work its iulluencc is required to imild (uidcss otiuipoised by

15

mediate agencies). All vegetable and animal life and growth are from the
influence of heat, acting chemically upon the constituents of matter to
fit their condition, to shift from one form into that of other forms. By
its influence the circulating elements are made replete with plant food,
and the constitution of the vegetable kingdom is adapted to select its
appropriate niitriment therefrom. Through the vegetable kingdom, and
by like influences, animal life is sustained. Excess of heat destroys its
noble work in both. A glance of the mind at our summer scenes re-
minds us of Nature's beautiful and instructive example in casting the
shades of night over mother earth, to give her time to radiate into
universal space her siirjihis heat derived from midday sun, by which an
equilibrium is presei'ved congenial to vegetable and animal production.
The gi-een fields of the husbandman, dotted with beautiful herds, and
blooming ^dth verdure ; the tasteful garden beaming with the luxuries of
life ; the fiaiit ti'ees, bending beneath their lucious weight ; oi-namental
shi-ubberry delighting the eye with its tasteful elegance ; and the horticul-
tui'al gardens, loading with theii' sweet pei'fumes the zephyrs of simimer,
bear witness to the genial influence of heat when kept in. check by
mediate agencies. Following this train of thought onward we realize
that heat nerves the arm to unearth the integi'ated minerals, and brings
them to a condition to l)e moulded into forms suited to our wants. It
builds our houses, tills the ground and matures its ])roduct, and its in-
fluence is genial aid in all the varied spheres of men while kept subser-
vient to our use. Natiire has fixed a point in temperature of the atmos-
phere and blood of animals, at which it is constriictive in pliysical
organisms. In excess of that point it is destructive to the objects it has
been efficient in consumating ; it brings solids into liquids and liquids
into vapor and mist, by insinuating between the particles of matter unseen,
and forces them asunder into minute subdivisions. It is opposed to
cohesion or unison of particles, and when in excess its influence is mani-
fest in explosions, conflagrations, withered plants, tainted meat and
cheese, and stale butter.

The chemist, the mechanic and manufiicturer, need to understand the
effect of heat in excess in each particular sphere. The smith learns the
amount of heat required to bring the metals he works into condition to
meet his handiwork, but when the shape is formed he rejects the heat entii-e
— but not so with cheesemakers. They have first to bring the fluid mass
(milk) into a temperature suited to a iiniform and efficient action of rennet,
as an accompanying agent, to effect a partial decomposition, which must
not be carried to a complete separation of constituents, because part of the
fluid portions of milk must be retained intact. If separated by the
vaporizing influence of heat they will not again unite with the curd as a
milk constituent, or component of cheese. If a thin slice of the closest
worked cmxl (after being pressed into cheese) be dried it breaks like
glass, which proves that it is retention of water that makes cheese plastic
in texture. The sugar of milk combined with salt give cheese its
aromatic flavor so much desii-ed by the purchaser. The oils being-
volatile, work oft' too freely with the whey at a high heat. The most
perfect solids are formed by cohesion acting upon particles of the closest
affinity. If a portion of milk or curd is exposed to higher heat than
other portions of the mass, it is unfit for a perfect union. The office of

16

rennet, with the aid of heat, is to bring the constituents of milk to a
common unity, which no other property will do as well.

The stomach of different animals will digest the same kind of food
upon a given piinciple. B\it the stomach of one species of animals will
not digest food suitably to foi-m the flesh and bone of other species, nor
will other properties coagulate cows milk in a manner to cheese the curd
as well as the stomach of the same species as those giving the milk.
Rennets accompanying the agent (heat) must be discreetly siiited to its
action upon the milk and cui'd. If I'ennet is weak and slow, heat must
be kept back to keep pace with its action, if strong and quick, heat may
be raised faster. As neitlier will do the work alone, their
action should be equipoised, as c\ird is a slow conductor of heat, there is
danger of exposing it suddenly to liigher heat, because the lumps will
become coated over with an impervious skin, through which the fluids
within cannot })ass fi-eely, which results in a rough, loose meated or
swollen cheese. To illustrate the })oint I wish to impress, I will relate
*n instance in my expeiience. I had marketed a dairy several years
made by an English lady of much ex})erience in cheese making, and who
was not excelled in cheese making. The next season, in May, the cheese
made by the same hand was loose meated, sour and unsalable. Search-
ing for the cause I stood mutely by the tub till the curd was worked up
all right, when two ])ails of whey, heated to 160 degrees, was brought to
poTir directly into the tub, which I stopped, and mixed a pan of the hot
whey with the surface whey at a time, till the mass was raised to blood-
heat and no more, taking an hour in raising the heat. The result was a
perfect cheese, and continued so from like apjjlications of heat. It is
evident in this case that too siulden and partial exposure to high heat
caused an uneveness in the condition of the curd. And do we not now,
in the present mode ot heating, expose a portion of milk and curd to a
degree of heat that subjects it to waste in the manipulating pi'ocess, and
unfits it for perfect coherence in cheesing the curdi Mechanics have
succeeded in distributing heat around the inner vat more evenly than
formerly, yet there is much to be gained beyond the present mode of
heating. The mechanic, in constructing cheese vats, should hold several
essential points in view : first, — that the tendency of heat in fluids is
upwards ; second, — the tendency of curd in the process of manipulation
is downwards to the bottom of the vat ; third, — the thinner the sheet of
water oi' steam between the vats into which heat is forced, the shai'per
will be the heat, and hotter the heating surface of the inner vat ; fourth, —
the wider the space between the two vats the milder and more even will
be the effect of heat through that medium. The most })erfect success I
ever achieved in thirty years of practical experience in cheese making,
was wi'ought by keeping water between the vats at blood heat, and no
more, thereby the heating surface of the inner vat was not in contact
with a ])article of milk or curd al)Ove blood heat, consequently, no lack
or excess of heat caused antagonisims to prevent })erfect union of cheese
constituents. The surfaces of e:ich lump of cui'd serves as a strainer,
through which its interior fluids nnist pass to be freed from the curd,
thei-efore, they should not be skinned over by exposure to high heat ; a
moment's reflection will point to the result. Set at 80 to 84 degrees,
till coagulation is well formed, then not expose to more tlian blood heat,

17

will retard acidulation, and favor efficdent action of rennet. To im-
prove the pi-esent mode of heating I would recommend widening the
heating space between vats, especially at the sides, to 10 or 12 inches,
so heat may be equalized before reaching the bottom of the inner vat
where the cnrdinclines to settle and rest. And instead of forcinir cur-
rents of heat towards the inner vat, I would point them outward and
downward towards the outer vat at various points. Having completed
cooking the curd (so-called) the action of rennet is checked by suppressing
heat, which should not be done suddenly to chill the curd. All changes
of temperature should be made slowly to effect the mass evenly. We
must not I'elease ourselves from diie restraint of heat while cheesins'
the curd, after it is pressed, for in this process a continuous action
of heat and rennet, with the new agent (salt), must be kept steadily on,
with unvarying tempei'ature, not exceeding seventy degrees. If too cold
fermentation ceases, and the effect of acid predominates, and hard
crumbly texture of cheese is the i-esult ; if too warm, fermentation is too
rapid for a perfect union of constituents, and the cheese swells, forming
cavities in which fluids in gaseous state collect, becomes fetid (out of
flavor), and imparts its vicious odor to the mass. Cheese, when suited to a
special demand, like luscious fruit, sliould be placed in a temperature too
low to admit of a continued action of the decomposing agents, heat and
rennet. All cheese factories should have an adjacent I'oom in Avhich cheese
can be held at a low temperature, and thus kept like canned fruit, to
meet a favoral:)le demand. As most of our curing i-ooms are constructed
and now used, it is impossible to preserve a well made cheese in them
from damage by frequent admittance of external influences. Thus a
lai-ge portion of the most protitalde product of the daily, it being made
from spontaneous forage, grass in the flush of feed, gets out of flavor,
trou]:)lesome to keep at home, and much more so in foreign markets. It
is thence crowded upon the markets in bad condition, to increase a
demand proportionate to the increasing supply. Having previously
given my views upon the proper construction of curing I'ooms, and tlie
practical relations of milk pi'oducers and factorymen, which are before
the public, I shall not i-ehearse them, but leave them with those I have
now ])resented, trusting that if in error, those errors will be corrected by
others of more skill and wider range of practical experience.

QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION.

H. Farrington — I wish to ask whether for keeping the curd from
I)acking, efficient stirring would not be sufficient, and thus save the ex-
pense of heating the extra amount of water as recommended by j\[r.
Fish?

Prof. Arnold— It is very important in raising the temperature that it
should be done very gradually, and tliis requires time. To stir for so
long a time would gTeatly increase labor and waste.

Mr. Farrington — ^The change in the vats recommended by Mr. Fish
would cost considerable. In the first place, they would have to be about
six feet wide instead of four, and would thus take up a great amount of
room in the building,

Mr. Losee — I agree with ]\Ir. Fish in having this large space at the
bottom. I have had some experience in having large space at the bottom

18

of the vats, and I find you can rai.se tlie curd with less difficulty
and a more even heat, and the additional expense was very little.

Prof. Arnold — Tliis question of raising the temperature of the curd
is an extremely vexatious one to dairymen, and it is the cause of much
trouble. If it is not raised very evenly some i)ortions of the curd pack,
become hard and advance faster than others, and will continue to keej^
ahead. It keeps tliat start, and continues lo mature faster when it goes
to press. That portion of the curd ripens earlier. If, on the other hand,
some portions of curd near the top of the vat, become cooler, they fall
behind, and never catch up. This keeps a constant unevenness, and the
cheese, Avhen it ripens, has a cloudy appc^arance. Some portions retain
their color, others become discolored, for the reason that the develop-
ment of acid destroys the influence of the coloring, and makes it lighter.
How often do we see this. We do not notice it when it is new, but
when it comes to ripen we do see it, and it injures the sale of the cheese.
My idea of a perfect method of making cheese is to apply tlie rennet at
the temperature at which you desire to work the curd, and maintain it
at that temperature all the way through. With our present notions of
making cheese this ajjjiears hardly possible ; but I believe we must come
to it. I have tried experiments pretty carefully by letting tlie curd lie
in the wliey unstirred, covering the vat so as to retain the heat several
hours, but the curd took a bad flavor from the whey. I throw out this
remark with the hope that some one will construct a vat with which you
can maintain a uniform heat, and by which you can drain oft* the whey
as fast as it is formed, tijiping the vat and letting the cuid remain at one
end, and finish it as Cheddar cheese. I saAV a vat which had sonie of the
necessary characteristics. It was the invention of a Mr. Armstrong, of
Vermont. It Avas constructed Avith an arch connecting with the flue so
that the fire traversed the Avdiole length of the vat to warm tliC arch,
Avhicli could be closed entirely so that no current of air passed through it.
Then a tight cover was-plsced upon the A^at, so as to keep the mass from
cooling on the top, and it remained in one instance six and a-half and in
another over seven hours Avithout A'arying a degree. If so constructed
as to maintain a uniform heat, I see no reason Avhy Ave may not work tlie
curd at a uniform temperature, and save all the effects of uneven scalding.
I hope dairymen will experiment on that point.

Mr. Losee — Mr. Fish spoke of a skin coating that formed around the
lump of curd by heating. Now, Avill this be more lial)le Avhen the curd
is cut softer or Avheir cut harder 1

Prof. Arnold — It is the soft curd which is more liable to the skinning
process.

Mr. Farrington — The great ])ractical (piestiun is, Avhether the benefit
would 1)6 suflicient to involve the exi)ense when we take into considera-
tion that during the process the surrounding atmosphere is very little dif-
ferent from Avhat Ave AViuit. Tnasnuicli as the heat can be let on by
deg)'ees and can l)e shut off at will, may Ave udt heat so evenly as to dis-
pense Avith this great amount of water? We may thi^orize upon it, but
Avhat we want, as you say, is experiment.

Prot. Arnold — In reading an account of the methods adopted in
Switzerland I see it is stated that some heat the milk to 120 degrees,

19

and apply the rennet at that temperature, and tliey certainly succeed in
making a splendid cheese.

Prof. E. W. Stewart — Has that degree of heat ever been tried in this
country 1

Prof. Arnold — I think not. I have several times scalded the curd to
120 without injury.

Mr. Lambert — I have dipped curd many times when scalded up to 96,
and considered I had sufficient acid.

Prof. Arnold — The phrase " cooking and scalding the curd to i)roduce
acid," is a misnomer. The object is not to cook or scald to produce
acid, but to hasten the changes, and separate the whey from the curd.
We must relieve the curd of a certain amount of whey, else when we
ripen it in the curing room it will have a bad appearance and a bad
flavor. I do not regard acidity of much consequence in the separation of
the whey. I may not be right in that, it is a matter of theory more
than practice. I believe we can make as fine cheese without developing
acid as with it. Those cheese that Jiave the least acid have the most
nutty flavor, for the reason that the essential oils which impart the nutty
flavor are dissolved out by contact with acid. The acid " cuts " them —
so to speak — the same as alcohol is said to " cut " or dissolve oils — and
then these oils are carried off in the whey, and the cheese becomes
insipid. There is a distinction between cheesy flavor and nutty flavor.
The former is developed in the conversion of curd into cheese ; the latter
from the flavoring oils of the herbage on which the cows feed. Either
may exist without the other. Both are present in a perfect cheese.
The nutty flavor is very important in cheese as it is also in butter. It is
that for which cheese fanciers are willing to pay a high price. The
development of much acidity dissolvcfi it out and it is carried ofl' in the
whey.

Mr. Losee — Can you give any particular mode or system by which tlie
water can be extracted from the curd without acidity ?

Prof. Arnold — The action of the rennet separal • s it.

Mr. Losee — Does not the acid called Luetic acid hive tliai; cirecf?

Prof. Arnold — Yes.

Mr. FaiTington — If milk be mature by age, and tbon made into
cheese, without waiting fcr the acid to develop, in the usual manner, will
it not make far better cheese than nulk fresh from the cows 1

Prof. Arnold— It will.

Prof. Stewart — I would ask whether the advice to draw ofl' tbe whey
as soon as it is formed, is for the purpose of preventing the formation of
acid ?

Prof. Arnold — It is i'ather to prevent the foreign taints which the milk
of some seasons contain, from reflecting their Ixid influences on the ciird.
Duiing the hot Aveather of July and August, from im])ure water or un-
wholesome food, the milk and whey become tainted, so to speak. These
foreign taints develop and spread rapidly in tlie warm whey, and impart
their bad flavors to the curd that lies in it. It is to avoid the reaction
upon the curd of these foreign flavors that I would remove the whey as
soon as possible. If the milk was perfectly pure that reaction would
not produce such an unfavorable efl'ect. But if the Avhey oi such milk

20

even were left on till it becomes sour, you would not get that perfect
nutty flavor in the cheese.

Mr. Losee — Would not these taints be eradicated from the milk in
extremely hot weather if, as soon as it was taken from the cow, it was
cooled down to 60 degrees 1

Prof. Arnold — It would diminish them, but not remove them
thoroughly.

Mr. Losee — I contend that that would be the greatest improvement in
cheese making, and I tl)ink could be made at little expense.

The chairman now announced a paper by John Stewart, of Manchester,
Iowa, on

BUTTER MAKING AT THE WEST.

A few years ago it was vci-y difficult to convince our Eastern mer-
chants that fine butter could be made in the West. And we of the
West had become so accustomed to seeing Western butter quoted in the
Eastern market reports separately, and at very much lower prices, we
had almost come to tlie conclusion that the art of making tine butter was
out of our sphere. This discrimination Avas millions of dollars against
the West annually. We are free to confess that, until a very recent
l)eriod the discrimmination was just. It was thought by some that there
was something wrong with our soil or water. Others attributed it to
our wild grasses, and there were not a few who were of the o])inion that
we had not a Initter making population. I am very sure tliat none of
these opinions had the slightest f(mndation. There is no section of the
United States, and I believe in the world, that is better adapted to but-
ter making than northern TUindis, southern Wisconsin, Iowa and
southern Minnesota. Eor soil, water, climate and atnios])here, it caimot
be surpassed, and as for the ojunion that wild prairie grass is not good for
making butter it is a great mistake. Wild grass is just as good as any
other for butter as long as it keepi* green. The great objection to it is, it
only remains green from tliree to four months during the j^ear. Butter
made from prairie grass will keep longer than that made from our tame
grasses. I cannot stop to give you the theory for this, l)ut 1 know it to
be a fact. Prof. Arnold will give you the wherefore. As to our popula-
tion not being good butter makers, I will simply say thit a large majority
of the population of the sections named above are from the best butter
States in the East, and formerly uuide fine butter there, so that the
cause of our not sending good butter East in furiiuu years must Jiave
been something else. I will give what I conceive to be three principle
causes. In the first place, our farmers had not tlu, ctaiveniejices they had
East, their attention l)eing taken uj) with grain growing, raising beef
cattle and hogs, did not give the dairy interest proper attention. Very
few of them had a place fit to keep milk in. They have, however, made
a great deal of improvement in this direction in the past ten years, and
as these improvements have progressed the quality of the general make
of butter has improved projjortionately. Another great draw-back to
the butter making interest at the West was the lack of a proper system
for trans])orting butter in warm weather io Eastei'u nuirkets. If the
butter had been ever so fine before it started, it would have been so
injured by the heat by the time it reached its destination, it would not

21

sell for anythiug but loM'-grade })utter. I am glad to say this diificulty
has been entirely overcome, so that we can now have refrigerator cars
sent us on any line of railroad in the Western States, and can place it
in the Eastern markets in as good condition as when talcen out of the
creamery. There was still another thing that helped to bring our butter
into disrepute. It was the way in which it was handled by the mer-
chants. It was packed altogether regardless of color or quality, and
when a trier full was drawn it resembled Jacob's herd, " Kiusf-streaked
and striped." This evil has also been overcome, there are noAV in nearly
every town one or more men who make it their business to sort and pack
the butter, and thus an even color and quality is secured.

I have thus hinted at some of the changes that have been gradually
bringing our butter toward a level with Eastern. Five or six years ago
the creamery system was adojited by a few at first as an experiment, and
the butter manufactured was found to be superior to that manufactured
at the private dairy. As soon as it was ascertained to be a success the
number of creameries began to increase. For the first two or three
years this butter was marketed in Western cities, the prejudice that ex-
isted in the East against Western butter ])reeluded the possibility of
getting the price that a limited trade for fanc}^ butter in Western cities
Avas willing to pay. But as this make of fine butter increased it was
necessary to seek an Eastern outlet. The commission men East who re-
ceived these consignments found hard fighting to remove the prejudice
and get for the butter its real value. In some instances it had to be
repacked into Orange Co. pails to make it sell to the fancy trade. As
tiiey began to use the butter they found that in all the qualities essential
to good butter it was fully up to the standard of Eastern, and in keep-
ing qualities ahead. So that we can now announce the middle wall of
partition that has so long existed between the East and West crumbling,
and may now 1)e classed jvniong the things that have passed away. The
awards at the Centennial Exposition will confirm these statements. And
the fact that to-day this creamery butter is bringing two cents per lb.
more thou the highest quotation for Orange Co. pails, sets this question
of Eastern and Western butter at rest, so that we can for the first time
in the history of our Nation clasp hands over the bloody chasm. The
inquiry will naturally arise, Avhat is this creamery system you have
adopted that has brought your liutter so suddenly to such a high stand-
ard 1 I will answer this inquiry as briefiy as possible. As I am best
acquainted with the Iowa creameries, I will speak more particularly of
them, and I think the system is best, as cheese and butter making are
not combined. I cannot give all the particulars, but will name a few of
the ]n-inciple ones. The buildings are usually of wood, and are con-
structed with a view to a proper and even temperature. For from 300
to 4t)U cows the buildings are about 24 x 48 feet, the lower rooms are
half below and half above ground, with cement floor ; milk room 24 x
36 ; churn and work room 12 x 24, Ventilator up through the
middle of the milk room. Pans are 2 feet wide and 4 feet lon<y,
and 14 inches deep. During warm weather these pans are set in water
vats ; the water is supplied either from a flowing spring or pumped by
the same power that the churning is done. The milk is brought in
every morning and evening. Milk room kept at a temperature of 62"

22

to 65°, which will raise the cream in thirty-six hours. But in muggy
weather or when there is considerable thunder and lightning, it is often
necessary to skim sooner. This is one of the most particular points in
butter making. The cream must be taken oil" at just the right time, no dif-
ference what other work has to be neglected this must be attended to in its
season. The milk should never be allowed t(j lojjper before taking off the
cream. The kind of churns used are the square box revolving churn
with no paddles nor dash. The cream when put in the churn should be
a little acid, and in warm weather at a temjDerature of 58°, and in cool
weather G2° to 65°. The churning is done by horse power, and from
thirty to forty-five minutes is required to bring the butter. Churning
should cease the moment the butter comes before it forms in mass. The
buttermilk is then drawn off, and cool^ clear brizie tlirown in and draAvn
off' until it runs througl^ clear. The churn is kept in slight motion with
the hand back and forth until the Avashing is finished. The butter is
then put into the workei-, and the salt is thoroughl}' worked through it,
abput I oz. per lb. It is then set away twenty-four hours, when it is
asrain worked and washed withbrine until the brine in the butter is clear.
The Pkg, is soaked with strong brine twentyrfour hours before ])utting
in the butter. This creamery system is becoming very popular among
the farmers. They get all the sour milk back, which is estimated to be
worth from twenty to thirty cents per 100 lbs. to feed to hogs.

If these creameries multiply and increase the next ten years as they
promise to do at present, the bulk of the butter in the West will be
made in this way. Some are fearful that the butter making business
will be overdone on account of the inci-eased make by the creamery sys-
tem. But I take a different vipw. It is true the amount made will be
greatly increased, but it will be of such a quality that the consumption
will be increased pro})ortionately. There is no reason why we cannot
supply our neighbors across the water. Butter can be transported from
Iowa to Liverj)Ool for about 2] cents per lb., and Avith land worth only
twenty to thirty dollars per acre, there is no reason why we cannot com-
pete with a country where land is worth from hundreds to thousands of
dollars per acre, with no superior advantage in the production of grass,
and where grain is worth three times what it is in the West.

DISCUSSION.

The chairman called upon Mr. Lewis for his opinion of tlie compara-
tive merits of Eastern and Western butter at the Centennial.

Mr. LeAvis — I think that the superiority of the Western butter at the
Centennial was oAving to its being transported in refrigerator cars, and
iced tAvice over on the Avay, and kejtt on ice till just before the aAvard
was made, while the other Avas shipped in ordinary cars, ; nd stood a long
time in unfavorable conditions till examined. I think that these differ-
ent circumstances ought to have been taken into consideration in mak-
ing the aAvard. I believe that if it had been shipiied as ours Avas, it
would still have been AVestern Imtter. (liaugliterj

Mr. E. CassAvell — -I Avould ask Mr. Lewis whether the ride from Iowa
to Philadelphiii would give the color and Havor Avhich the Western but-
ter had above all others 1

Mr. Lewis — I would ask Mr. Casswell if cdloring buttei' Avith Michell's
Annatto Avouldmake it any better { (Laughter and api'lause.)

23

Prof. AniolcI^Tlie remarks made by Mr. Lewis have some force. The
butter from the West came there in better condition than that from the
East. It had the advantage on that account. They have doubtless
used more skill. Knowing that to compete with the East it was neces-
sary to use all the means at tlieir command, every new idea that comes
\\\) they are ready to take hold of, while we remain in the rut. They
Iiave thus got a-head of their ancestors. Mr. Stewart says they keep
their milk rooms at a temperature of 60 to 6-5 degrees. It is an impor-
tant item to keep the milk cool. Oar Eastern men keep the milk-room
warm and the milk cold. Not a few advocate keejjing tlie air at 70^
and the milk at 60^ or below. Tlie effect of this is to make the top
strata of the cream unduly i'i]»e, while the lower strata is little advanced,
and by the time it is taken ol^', the top exposed to the air at 70 degrees,
has become quite stale. It is a small fraction to be sure that becomes
stale and does not show itself prominently at first, but there is no doubt
that this stale cream, carried into the butter, will soon communicate its
efl'ects to the whole mass. This is one i-eason why our Eastern butter
does not keep as well as some prairie butter. It is important that the
cream should be ripened eveidy. Tlie Western butter has the advantage
on another account. Gi-ain in the West is cheap, and they feed it freely
to their cows. They feed meal even in June, and it makes better butter,
gives a higher flavor, and makes it more solid. May I offer a little light
on this subject. This Mr. Stewart who took Iowa butter to the Cen-
tennial was a niost sharp and shrewd fellow. He was as full of shrewd-
ness and cunning as an egg is of meat. He brought his butter
there at the very last, had it all the way luider ice, and kept it so, and
then put it in along side of butter that had been there three weeks or
more exposed to all the changes of the atmosphere. Had it been subject
to the trial of the Eastei'n butter thf^ result would have been quite dif-
ferent. Mr. Stewart's butter came thei-e uiuler the most favorable cir-
cumstances, and by his cunning anil sharp practice succeeded in obtain-
ing the premium, and I don't know but he deserved it. To show you
the difference I will tell you what I saw. About the last of July I had
occasion to help to open a butter car from the East. It was an ordinary
ear, and some of this butter had been tin-own down, and was strewn all
over the car floor. Now, who m the world would expect anytliing else
of butter sent in that condition and compared with butter carried with
the greatest care in refrigerator cars. 1 really think the judges should
have taken the different conditions under which the butter was shipped
in the account.

Mr. Farrington — I would ask Mr. Lewis wjiether if the Western but-
ter had not been good when it started to Pliiladelphia, it would have
been good when it got thei-e / (Laughter.)

Mr. Lewis — Mr. Farrington Ills me now. (Laughter.) I will answer.
The butter was good when it left home, and it did not lose anything in
its transit. I would here say with reference to the remarks of Prof.
Arnold on feeding grain, there is nothing under Heaven so nice for but-
ter as June grass, only get enough of it. (Laughter.)

Prof. Arnold — I beg leave to make a few remarks further on this sub-
ject. Mr. Boise, of Marengo, 111., is a high feeder. He has a splendid
June grass farm, large enough to keep a 100 cows or more, It is covered

24

with June grass, and produces nothing else Init June grass. 1 was there
in June, and it was as green as grass could well 1)e, and he fed his cows
liberally with a mixture of corn and oatmeal, wheat hran, and a small
quantity of oil cake. I visited his factories, examined the milk and
butter, as also other factories wdiere they fed nothing but grass, and the
difference was very marked. Mr. Boi.se's butter Avas selling by the
thousanil pounds at three cents a pound above tlie liighest quotations of
butter in Boston, New York and Philadelphia. Grain feeding seemed
to give a richness, solidity, flavor, and liigli color that does not belong to
grass butter.

Prof. Stewart — I think this a very inijioitant matter now under con-
sideration. It shows the commercial value of skilled labor. The time
coming Avhen skill will win. I don't think the Eastern makers ought to
complain that in the awards the different methods of transportation was
not taken into account. The consumer will pi-efer good butter to poor,
no matter hoAV many excuses may be offered for the latter. It would not
matter with him Avhether butter from good milk Avas spoiled by a bad
daily room, faulty making, or fiiulty transportation. He will give
preference to the butter having the most desirable qualities Avdien it
comes to him, and it Avas the duty of the judges to do the same. The
West have believed that they had greatly inferior grasses, Avater, and
other unfavorable circumstances surrounding them, and they determined
by extra skill to succeed ; they have done it, and they have justly earned
the award. Tt seems to me that hereafter the Avay to succeed is to make
use of our brains ; brains must Avin. If Ave coiild have all ot the best
grasses to feed our coavs, each grass possessing its peculiar aroma, and if
we could concentrate them all in our butter, Ave AA'ould no doubt liave a
most admirable article ; but if it had them all, and did not retain them
till it reached the consumer, it would l»e of no avail. The fact is, Ave
take so little pains in the manufacture of our butter, that its keeping
qualities are such that it don't retain the best flavor of a single grass or a
single kind of food. That Avhich ]\[r. Lewis calls tlie ailroitiiess or sharp-
ness of Mr. Stewart, is simply skill. We would say that tlieir success
was the result of wise judgment and care. Hereafter we must under-
.stand tliat unless Ave use the same skill and judgment we Avill be out-
strii)ped in tlie race.

Mr. Casswell — I have seen so much butter and cheese destroyed by
transportation, so mucli injury and loss through carelessness, that I feel
this matti'r is of the utmost inq)ortauce, and Avould urge tliis meeting to
do all that po.ssibly can be done to remove or lessen this evil. In almost
every instance of failure it is tlirough carelessness. I am surprised that
a country so far advanced as that in Avhich Mr. Lewis resides, liaving so
long had so many useful organizations i7i operation, that thev sliould ever
admit that they sent their butter under such unfavorable circumstances ;
sui'ely they ought to have sent it down as Mr. Stewart did.

Mr. Lewis — Tlio.se liviuL' in ('liicaLro and West of there bave the ad-
vantage of their competing railroads, and they can get an ice car to New
York city hlled three times over for less money than we can get an ordi-
niiry car from central New York. We an- \iuder the thumb of the rail-
road company. They can do with us just as they please. This is the

explanation. The Eastern exliibitors could not have obtaineil an ice car
if they had tried.

Mr. Farrington — New York State got its name up long ago for butter
and cheese making, and when their .-;ons went West they were exactly in
the opposite jxtsitiou, wanting most of tlie cunveuiences and advantages
of the East, but their spirit of enterprise being aroused, it has brought
forth its legitimate fruit.

Mr. C. B. Lambert, of 8t. Thomas, being called upon in reference to
experiments in clieese making, said : — My experience in cheese manufac-
ture dates back only four years, but I have made it a study, and have ex-
perimented as far as time would permit. Cheese makers are generally
aware that in the ordinary process a part of the natrimentin the milk- —
the albumen — i-uns oft' with the whey, not being coagulated by rennet.
My ettbrts have been to retrain this in the curd. I think I have accom-
plished this by the use of nitric acid and drawing the whey early. I
scald the curd to *J() degrees, and before grinding put it" into the hoop and
press the whey out, sunounding the hoop with water at 98°, and in this
way retain 25 per cent, more albiuneu than by the old j)rocess, making
in AiigTist a pound «f chee.se fi'om eight |)ounds of milk.

Pi'of. Stewait — Was the cheese analyzed ]

Mr. Lambert — It was not.

Mr. Losee — How did you keep water aro\ind the hoop ?

Mr. Lambert — By surrounding the hooj) with cloths aiid ]>ouring on
wai'm watei'.

Prof. Arnold being called upon said : Milk contains on an average
one half ])er cent, of albumen and three })er cent, of ca.sein. The albumen
is not subject to the action of tlie I'ennet. It remains a pei'fect fluid in
the milk under all oi'dinary cii'cumstances, and can only be coagidated
under the influence of acid, and not even then unless the heat is increased
to nearly the boiling jjoint, when it will coagulate and may be collected
in a Alter. It is like the white of an egg. I think Mi-. Lambeii is mis-
taken altogether in his idea of retaining the albumen. I can see no pos-
sible way of retaining any more albumen in the way he describes than in
the ordinaiy process. Elis mistake, I think, is attiibutable to an
increased quantity of curd and the retention of more water. As to the
curing of it I would say that when I was here in September Mr. Lambert
had the kindness to present me with one of his cheese. I kept it till
neaily Januaiy, and when I cut it it soon became quite hard and dry,
like skimmed cheese. It had retained an unusual amount of watei'.

Ml-. Casswell — What would be the effect of hot weather on such cheese '?

Prof. Arnold — It would not stand up well.

Question — What quantity of salt would you recommend'?

Pi-of. Arnold — That would depend on the condition of the curd. If it
was dry, two pounds would be enough. When there is whey in the curd
a part of the salt is washed away. Ordinarily 2| lbs. are sufiicient.

EVENING SESSION.

Vice-President Ohadwick called the Convention to order at 7.30, and
introduced Prof. L. B. Arnold, who, in coming forward, said ■ The paper
I am about to read is confined to the facts in regard to the dairy display
at Pbiladelidiia i-ather than to philosophizing upon it. If questions arise

26

in respect to the matter of tlie address, I shall be pleased to answer them
at any time.

DAIRY AT THE CENTENNIAL.

The great suscejitibility of dairy products, especially buttei', to the in-
fliience of heat and atmospheric agencies, rendered special ]>repai'ation for
their care while on exhibition a matter of necessity. This work the
dairymen of the country, under the auspices of the American Dairymen's
Association, assumed at the annual convention of that Association, held
at Rome, N. Y., in January last. f800 wei-e subscribed by the members
of the Association to begin the work with, and a Committee which had
been previously appointed was enlarged, to proseciite the work to the end.
With commendable exertions money was i-aised by pi'ivate siibscription
in New York, Vermont, Pennsylvania and Ohio, and also by legislative
aid in N. Y., and a model butter and cheese factory, with ample i-ooms
for the display of buttei- and cheese, and for a complete outfit of apparatus
necessaiy to the manufacture of both butter and cheese, was erected, at
a cost of $10,000. Of this sum !|2,000 were contributed by the Canadian
Government. This structure, which was located just east of the Agri-
cultural Hall, was 115x36 feet on the ground, with its longest dimension
lying north and south. On the east side at either end was an annex,
64x30 feet, extending out parallel to each other, giving to the ground
plan something of the form of the letter U. For the money contributed
l>y Canada, the lower floor of tho noi'thern annex was set apart for the
especial use of dairy products of that countiy, and it was occu[)ied dui'ing
the entire season with relays of Canadian cheese. The lower floor
of the south annex was devoted to cheese from the United States.

A room aboiit twenty-six feet square was partitioned oft' from either
end of the main sti'ucture, that on the south end for fancy and foreign
cheese, the one on the north end for butter. The centre of the building
between these two rooms, was occupied with two apartments for the dis-
play of dairy apparatus. The butter and cheese display looms were
tittted with a}ii)ropriate shelving, and the room for butter was supplied
with the necessary means of refrigei-ation. Against my pi-otest, and in
direct violation of a double j)ledge by D. L. Pojie, chairman of the
Executive Committee, and, as it proved, much to the injury of the display
of cheese, this necessary precaution against extreme heat was left out of
the annexes where cheese was to be shown. Though no positive injury ne-
cessarily re.sidted to the cheese placed in them from this omission, yet in
the hottest part of the summer the temi)eratuie in these rooms could not,
without refrigeration, be prevented from becoming too high to allow of keep-
ing cheese in them moi'e than a short time without Imrryiug them to
pi'ematui-e I'ipeness, and to a depi-eciation of \alue.

The danger and cost of trans])orting cheese in small (|iiantities over
long distances by rail, and of carting it to and from the Dairy Ibiilding
were too great for dairymen to aflbrd to muk(^ the fi-ecjuent vchiys of
clieese necessary to keep a contimial show. This defect worked a double
disadvantage. It gave the croakers — ahvj'vs too altuiidanl in cvory pub-
lic entei-prise — a handle foi- discouraging exiiiliits, and they used it freely
iuul eliectually, and the result was, the cheese display room lor the ll^nited
States was nearly emj>ty during the months of July and August.

The display of butter met with a similar misfortune. At the opening

27

of the special dis})lay in the last day.s of June, the authoi'ities having im-
mediate charge of tliis department, omitted to make a requisition for ice
till the moment it was wanted. The extremely hot weather which oc-
curred just at that time, so increased the consumption of ice that the
supply department failed to meet the full demands of the enlarged ordei's,
and the butter room had to wait its turn, and some eight or ten days
elapsed before the order for ice foi- the butter room was responded to, and
in consequence the butter had to l)e exhibited and examined in an un-
favorable condition and hurried out of the building to prevent fui'ther
injury. The uncertainty of ])roper care foi- their goods so discoin-agetl
exhibitors that no more butter was brought forward till cool weather in
the fall.

In other i-espects the house was well built, better indeed than most of
the factories through the countiy in which cheese is kept in hot weathei-.
It was two stories high, neatly clapboarded and painted outside, and
lathed and plastered inside, with casings painted and floors laid with
matched stuff. The walls and })artitit>ns enclosing the display rooms
were so liberally glazed as to give an almost imobsti-ucted view of the
goods on exliil)ition. without exposing them to the interference of visitors
or to the contaminating influence of the outside air. A hall eight feet
wide on the west side ])rotected visitoi's from the weather ^nd the I'ooms
within from the heat of the sun. For all other sides there was a similar
protection from verandas. A pai't of the uppei- story wAs occupied with
rooms foi' officers and connnittees ; a part with a cheap lunch room for
daiiymen and others, which pi'oved to be a much needed and valuable
auxiliary ; leaving about one third of the upper part without any special
use.

This building was designed to contain all the dairy jtroducts wluch
sliould be ofi^ered for exhibition, but it did not receive them all. It was
not ready for use till about the middle of June, when most of the foreign
exhibits had arrived and found the best location they could in Agricul-
tural Hall or elsewhere, and wei'e not aftei'ward moved to the Dairy
Building. The daily depai'tment, like every othei' department in the
great show has had its friends, its earnest and active sujiporters, its
troubles and its defaiiKirs. In Avhatever light different parties may view
it from theii' difl'erent standpoints, it has proved a credital)le and success-
ful exhibition of dairy products, as will be ap})aient fiom the following
summary of its exhibits :

The display of products connected with the dairy which we)-e sultmit-
ted to the Judges of Group IV for examination comprised Butter, .Cheese,
Condensed and Preserved Milk, Butter Coloring, Cheese C*oloring, Pie-
served Rennets and Rennet Extracts.

Of Butter there were shown a total of 291 }iackages, having a total
weight of 9,150 pounds. Of this number there were from the United
States 226 packages, weighing 7,051 pounds; from Canada, 23 packages,
weighing 1,749 ])Ounds ; from other countries, 42 packages, estimated at
350 pounds. This amount was presented in 149 exhil)its, of which 123
were from the United States, IG from Canada, and 10 from other
foreign nations, including Poi'tugal, Argentine Republic, Bi-azil, the
Netherlands, Germany, Italy and Denmark.

Butter was furnished by the different States as follows : — New York,

28

48 exhibits; Iowa, 29; Wisconsin, 18; Pennsylvania, 16; Illinois, 7;
Ohio, 2 ; Veiinont, 2 ; IMassachusetts, 1. Thei"e were 31 awards for ex-
hibitions of butter recommended by the Committee witli which I was
connected ; 22 for exliibits from the United States ; o for Canada ; one
each for Portugal, tlie Netheilands, Germany and Denmark. Awaitls m
the several States were as follows: — in New York, Wisconsin and Illi-
nois, each, tive ; Pennsylvania and Iowa each three ; Massachusetts, one.

CHEESE.

The display of cheese was much larger than that of biitter. From the
statistics at my command it a])peais that there were exhibited at the
Dairy Building and on the grounds 2,086 })ackages of cheese, weighing
55 h tons, which were ju-esented in 411 exhibits.

There were from the United States 1,018 packages, weighing over 26
tons ; from Canada, 1,003 packages, weighing over 29 tons; fi-om other
countries, 65 packages, estimated at 500 pounds. These were from Por-
tugal, Ai-gentine Republic, tlie Netheilands, Brazil, Victoria, Italy,
Norway, Turkey, France and England. Cheese was oll'ei-ed fi'om the
ditierent States as follows : — New York, 627])ackages ; Wisconsin, 284 ;
Pennsylvania, 55 ; Ohio, 48 ; Connecticut, 4. The cheese from foreign
countries were generally of small size, and embraced samples of Stilton,
Rocquefort, Edams, Switzer Case, and small cheeses from the milk of
goats and ewes. Several of these weie very distinctly aflected with a
flavor and odor resembling the perspiration of those animals, shewing
that the existence of what is known as " animal odor" is not contined to
the milk of the cow. Some of these cheeses from the milk of goats and
ewes Avere made as far back as 1872 and were still in an excellent state
of preservation, rich, clean flavored and ])alatablQ. Samples from Por-
tu"al were presented made in all the years from 1872 to 1875, inclusive,
some of which Avere well preserved and tine, others badly depreciated.

Cheese from the United States and Canada were mostly the i)roduct of
factories. Few of dair}' make were shown f i-om either country. Over
100 awards were recommended for exhibits of cheese. Of these, 45 were
for the United States, and were distributed among the States in the fol-
U)\ving order : — To New York, 21; Wisconsin, 20; Pennsyhania, 3 ;
Ohio, 1. The recommendations for Canada were 49, and tlie rest for
other countries.

METHOD OV JUDCINO BUTTER AND CHEESE.

In the usual coiu'se jmi-sued at county and state fairs of " !un\ping "
at the merit of samples witlunit any analysis or precise record of (jualities,
and carrying the degrtie of merit in the mind of the inspector from one to
another through a long series' of samples, confusion and difliculty have
often i-esulted, and the eflbrt to secure even an ap))ro.ximation to accuracy
been a tedious work, es])ecially where the goods were to be classed into
several grades. An anticipation of this dithculty having been several
times expressed, and the ipiery oft(Mi raised as to how tlie judges could,
with any sort of accuracy, distinguish between such a large number of
samples so very nearly alike, not only in appearance but in actual merit,
as were those jireseiited to the International judges for examination, a
brief st;tteiiK'iit of the method of judging adopted Uy which all confusion
and inaccuracy were avoided, and the labor of the judges greatly facilitated

29

seems appropriate. At the suggestion of the Chief of the Agi-icultural
Bureau, a scale of jioints was prepared for both butter and cheese, to be
rated by numbers, the sum of whose numerical values should, in each
case be 100, when the goods were in all respects perfect.

Tliese scales were each divided into six points, and a numerical value
given to each, according to its relative value in making up the sum total
of a })erfect sample. To make it easy for the judge the several points
were arranged in order, and a definition of the items which were most
prominent in making up the i>ositive qualities was placed aftei- each point
and followed by a definition of the chief negative qualities which enter
into defective samples.

Strictly speaking, two points cover all there is to uithei- butter or
cheese. One of them consists of the pecidiarities deriAed from the milk ;
the other depends on make. But foi' greatei- distinctness and facility in
estimating their most piominent and clearly lecognized features were di-
vided into six points.

Those scales of points with their positive and negative definitions are
as follows :

SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING BUTTER ON A BASIS OF A TOTAL

OF 100 AS PERFECTION.

DEFINITION OF POSITIVE QUALITIES.

Flavor Z5, — Agreeable, clean, nutty,
aromatic, sweet, pure,
distinct and full.

KeepilljS^ 30. — Inclined to slow chang-
ing, indicative of stability
in retaining ' good quali-
ties.

Solidity 10.— stiffness of body, firm-
ness, not easily melting
or becoming soft.

Texture 15. — Compactness, closeness
of grain, breaking with a
distinct fracture like ca.st
iron, fat globules, un-
broken and perfect, stick-
ing little to trier.

Color 15. — Pleasing, natural, not ap-
pearing artificial, bright,
even.

Ulake 15; — Includes all not included
under other points, as
cleanliness, perfect sepa-
ration of buttemiilk, pro-
per handling of milk and
butter, as churning, work-
ing, salting, skilful pack-
ing, etc.

DEFINITION OF NEGATIVE QUALITIES.

Strong, rancid, tallowy, cheeay, bitter,
stale, insipid, too salt, too fresh.

Early loss of good cpialities and as-
sumption of bad ones, indicating rapid
change.

Softness of body, unable to stand firm,
easily melting or becoming soft.

Openness of grain, salvy, greasy, stick-
ing to trier or knife in cutting, pasty,
not breaking with distinct fracture.

Excessively deep or pale, appearing ar«
tificial, dull, uneven.

Uncleanliness, imperfect churning, or
at bad temperature, uneven working,
salting, bad or mussy handling, packing
or moulding, ete.

In accordance with above scale, Judges will place opposite the points
o

30

respectively, such numbei's as will, in tlieii- judgment, indicate the merits
of the pai'ticular butter under examination.

d
.2

No. in Catalogue,

1

No. Examined,

25 1 Flavor, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

20
10

Keeping, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Solidity, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

15 1 Texture, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

15 i Color, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

15 1 Make, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

100 1 Totals, III III

SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING CHEESE ON A BASIS OF A TOTAL

OF 100 AS PERFECTION.

DEFINITION OF POSITIVE QUALITIES.

Flavor 25. — Agreeable, nutty, buttery,
fine and full.

Keeping 15> — Preservation, incHna-
tion to slow clianging, re-
tention of good qualities.

Quality 30.— Mellow, salvy, pasty,
flaky, stoky, rich, soluble,
melting on the tongue.

Texture 15. — Solid, close, firm, com-
pact.

Color 10- — Pleasing, natural ; not ap-
pearing artificial, even.

Ulake 15. — Includes all not included
under other points, as use
of rennet, proper maniiju-
lation, ripening curd, salt-
ing, pressing, curing, per-
fect rmd, cleanliness, etc.

DEFINITION OF NEG.-VTIVE QUALITIES.

Off flavor, strong, tainted, sour, bitter,
rancid, vapid.

Rapid decay, early loss of good quali-
ities, soon taking on bad ones, inclined to
rapid changing.

Tougli, leathery, curdy, sticky, dry,
crumbly, insoluble, not melting on the
tongue.

Porous, spongy, loose, weak.

Excessively deep or pale, unnatural,
uneven.

Improper use of rennet, uncA^en heating
handling and ripening curd, bad salting,
curing, imperfect rind, cracks, skippers,
uncleanliness, etc.

In accordance with above scales, Judges will ])lace ojjposite the points
respectively, such num]>ers as will, in their judgment indicate the merits
of the particular cheese under examination.

No. in Catalogue.

^

s

No. Examined.

25 1 Flavor, 1 1 1 1 1 i

1 1

15 1 Keeping, 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1

20 1
15 1

Quahty, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Texture, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

10 1 Color, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

15 1 Make, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

100 1 Totals, 11 1 ; 1 i 1 1 1

A comparison of results shows at a glance the per cent, of perfection
and comi)arative merits of each saini>le, according to the judgment of the
examiner. But it was not found necessary to go tlirough this foiTnality

31

with every sami>le. Aftei- a little experience the operator was able to es-
timate the per cent, of perfection ^vith much exactness and to set it down
at once. This was done with a short description of the exhibit following
the catalojnie number, thus, in the examination of butter : — No. 27.^.
One Firkin, June make — Fine, nutty flavor, well preseiwed, pretty salt,
bottom slightly changed from contact with wood — 90. No. 314. — Three
551tj Pails, best yet seen — 100. These descriptions and numbers follow-
ing the catalogue niunber, enabled us, by looking oyer oiu- minutes, to
laiow exactly what opinion we had formed from the examination of each
exliibit, and saved the operatoi' the necessity of carrying qualities in his
mind. Where very close discrimination were required, the })ackages
rated the highest — those which woidd stand any chance in the competi-
tion— were re-examiiied. Thus, when special prizes were to be awarded,
as in the United States butter and Canadian cheese, the best exhiliits, as
shown by our notes, were re-examined the next day in the morning, while
we were fresh and our tastes in the best condition. In this way any error
or misjudgment which might occm- from fatigue or coufusi(jn of taste, was
readily corrected. Biit it was very rare tliat our first impressions wei'e
changed by these second examinations.

The exhibits were known only l)y their numbers, and ownership and
place of production were ke})t out of sight as far as i)ossil)le, the judges
desiring to follow absolutely nothing but the quality of exhibits in mak-
ing their awai-ds. From first to last they have constantly aimed at fair-
ness and accuracy. If they have made mistakes they have done nothing
more than those who have pieceded them in such labors, but they console
themselves with the consciousness that they have done right, and flatter
themselves that in no depai-tment of the great Centennial show have
awards been more carefully or justly made than in the Dairy department.

The few samples of condensed and })resei-ved milk were examined with
much interest, as they aftbrded evidence of the triumph of ai-t and science
in countei'acting successfully the peiishable tendency of milk in its natui--
al condition, and giving to it both as a luxury and a necessity a broader
use in the dietaries of nations. The specimens shown were of various
ages but all in a high state of preservation, sweet and palatable, and in
every way suitable for food, the natural properties of the milk being \ni-
changed.

According to a paper by Prof. E. N. Horsford, of Cambiidge, Mass.,
read at the I'ecent meeting of the American Dairymen's Association in
Judges' Hall, and which will appear in the twelfth annual report of this
Association, it is just a half century since the eflbi-ts of condensing and
preserving milk in the mode now in use began. The following salient
points in the history of its progress are gathered from the paper referred
to, and may be of some interest in this connection as shewing how the
struggle for accomplishing this important purpose has progressed : The
work commenced with A. A. Malbec, of Paris, in 1826, who condensed
milk by the means of a water bath ami preserved the product by adding
sugar. Four years later Braconnet preserved tlie casein of milk after
separating it from the whey, and prepared it for use in a liquid form as a
substitute for milk.

In 1835 Wm. Newton patented a process in England for the condens-

32

ation of milk iii vacuo and by cuiieuts of air passing ra})idly over the
milk, but was unsuccessful by either method, as is ap})ai'ent from the
kind of jiatents which followed. He used sugai' to ])resei-ve the condensed
product. As late as 1847, a patent was taken out in France for the con-
densation of milk in shallow vessels over a water bath, by constant stilling
and adding sugar. In none of these proce.sses was the })ro])Ortion of sugar
definite. In 1849 Prof. E. N. Hoi-sfoi'd, of Massachusetts, determined
in his laboratory the precise })ropoi'tion of sugai- necessaiy to a })ei"fect
preservation, and the necessity of a lowei- tempei-ature while evaporating
the watei' than had been before used. These were only develo])ed as
scientific formulas, but wei-e of great pi-actical use afterward. He turned
over his advance to his assistant, Mr. Dalstou, who took out a patent in
the TJ. S. for further imi)rovements in 1854. He matle some progress
toward giving to preserved milk a commercial importance. In connec-
tion with the Messrs. Blotchford & Co., of New York, he pi-epared in
1856, 600 pounds of dry, solid milk for the exploring expedition of Dr.
Kane which sailed in that yeai'. A sample of this dry solid milk fur-
nished for Di'. Kane, pieserved by loosely wi'aj)j)ing in ])a])er, was shown
to the judges, and at the meeting of the American Dairymen's Associa-
tion on the Centennial Grounds, and altliough twenty yeai'S old, was
sound and sweet. Gail Bordin, of New York, took out a patent in 1856
for the condensation of milk in vacuo without the addition of sugar,
which was sold for immediate use. Afterwards he added sugar and pre-
ser^•ed the condensed milk foi' long keeping by sealing it uj> in air tight
tin boxes. Mr. Bordin used the process of Newton but made a much
more skilful use of the developments which had been made than any of
his ])redecessors, as he was the fii\st to make a commercial success of tlie
condensation and preservation of milk. No imjiortant advance luis been
made since the time of Bordin, his modes ot working being now in gen-
eral use both in this country and Europe. One more advance in this
Jirt is still much needed to cheapen the pi-oduct and give it greater utility.
I allude to the necessity of some mode by which it can be condensed in
smaller quantities without increasing the cost. In view of the great
value of milk as an article of food, its perfect nutrition, its wholesome
qualities, ami its agi'eeable flavor, any means which would aid in giving
it a moi-e extended use must prove to be of great value not only to dairy-
men but to the general public. But with the present means in use, pre-
served milk now forms a considerable item in the dairy interest both in
Euroj)e and America.

The sainides of cheese coloring and preserved rennets presented nothing
new. I can sim])ly say of them that some veiy tine samjdes of both were
exhibited by your enter] )rising citizen, Mr. E. CJasswell, and that they
were recommended to the commission for awards.

In butter coloring a product was presented which was new to the
judges but which we have since learned has been inti'oduced to the but-
ter makers of the country by IVIessrs. Whitman it B\niel, of Little Falls,
N.Y. I idlude to i)re])ariiig the extiact of annatto in oil, by which means
the alkaline effect of the old prt^paration is obviated. Tlie examinations of
butter during the siunmer have made apparent a fact of which we had not
before been convinced, that the alkali employed for dissolving annatto or
annattoine though ver}- small, produced an eflect upon the grain of butter

33

and ujx)n its keeping quality. Tlie preparation of coloi'ing in oil is com-
mended to the attention of Dairymen.

Two samples of i-ennet exti'act were presented from Co})enliagen,
Denmark, one of which was woi-thy of attention. It contained only the
active agency of the rennet in a very concentrated form, so that one
pound of the liquid would coagulate 10,000 pounds of milk at the usual
temperatui'e at which rennet is ap}jlied to milk. A second advantage it
possessed was perfect uniformity in sti-ength. This is practically im-
portant to the manufactui-er. The vaiying strength of ilifferent soakings
of rennets often stands in the way of best results, and is always annoying.
But the feature in the extract which made the most favoi'able impression,
was its entire freedom from odoi- and flavor. The mucilageous and other
animal matter which steeps out of the rennet skins and goes into the
cheese often prodiices sti'ongly modifying effect upon the flavor of the
lesulting cheese, and always ojjerates to its injury, and to the injuiy of
its keeping quality also. The strong, not to say offensive, odor of steeped
rennet is always a noisome pi-oduct to a tidy dairyman and often interferes
materially with the flue flavoi' of his cheese. All this is entirely wiped
out in the Danish extract. It contains nothing that can in the least
modify or warp the ])\u-e flavor cheese derives fi'om sweet ndlk. The art
of making this valuable extract is ke})t a profound seciet with the inven-
tor, and its use is conflned to the nan-ow limits his woi'ks can sui)i)ly,
and is not in iise that I am aware of on this side of the Atlantic. A})-
preciating the great utility of such products in this country, I have aj)plied
myself to the task, and in connection with Prof. Caldwell, of Cornell
University, have succeedetl in producing an extract of I'eunet in eveiy
way equal to the Danish extract and at very small cost. It will be
offered to the dairymen of the United States and Canada in the spring

INFERENCES AND LESSONS FROM THE CENTENNIAL DAIRY SHOW.

The annual production of butter in the United States is now about
710,000,000 lbs., of which the fraction exhibited at Philadelphia was
but a hundred thousandth j)art. Yet small as it is, it is laiger in pro-
portion to the auioimt j)roduced than Uie exhibits of any other agric\d-
tui'al product from the States, unless, perhaps, we except tobacco. Since
the per cent, exhibited is in excess of the average of other agricultural
products shown by the United States, the show even of butter, which was
in much smaller quantity than cheese, will not, so far as quantity is con-
cerned, be regarded as a failure by any fair-minded man. None but in-
veterate croakers will so deny it.

The quality of butter shewn has given a good indication of the progress
which is being made in its manufacture, and has afforded some valuable
lessons. I will oidy allude to one or two. With the exception of Can-
ada, the butter from foreign countries came to us from long distances.
It was neeessai-ily made a long time in advance of its exhibition and its
test by the judges. The greater part of it was unsalted, and to such as
received salt at all it W9S applied very sparingly. Yet some of these
samples were in a fine state of preservation and not at all rancid. One
of the saraj)les from Denmark had been exhibited at the Vienna Exposi-
tion in 1873, and was still sweet and little changed, while packages of re-
cent make from our country and higldy salted to preserve them, were
hurrying to destruction in a few short weeks. The long keeping of the

34

fresh butter seeuis to ])rove that salt does not preserve butter, but that
keeping quality in butter depends more on make than on salt.

A hirge share, I do not know exactly how much, of the butter of the
ITnited States, which finds its way to the large markets, is now made in
factories and creameries. The product of these establishments, while they
liave always offered to the dealer the advantages of large quantities and
evenness of quality for which he could afford to pay a premium over dairy
made butter, never uniform and always expensive to collect, have all
along been regarded, and justly too, as inferior to the best dairy make
both in flavor and keeping. At l)oth the June and Octolter disi)lays, the
most perfect flavor and the indications of the longest keeping equality were
found in the butter of factory make. The samples of butter presented at
this show liave thus evidenced an important advance in this branch of
the dairy interest.

I may mention tlie butter from the factories of Messrs. John Stewart
it Co., of Manchester, Iowa, as a model product of its kind. Considering
the large amount exhibited — 64 packages maile at different times and at
seven different facturies and every one excellent — tliey are entitled to
great credit for the superior quality of goods they have shewn. ]!^ine
packages of similar excellence — the ]iroducts of two creameries — w^ei-e
sliown by Messrs. tiooch & Barber, of Chicago, 111.

The peculiarities of factory cheese were well delineated in the exhibits
of both United States and Canada. In the June display there appeared
samples of fine cheese made from the milk of cows fed, some on hay, and
others on grass, demonstrating that it is possible, even under what are
usually considered adverse circumstances, to pi'oduce goods of high quality.
]^>ut the great bulk of " hay cheese," as it is called, was not particularly
tine. That shown in August and Sejjtember was much off flavor, the
milk of which it was made liaving been affected by excessive heat. Not
mure than 25 percent, of these exhibits were strictly fine, lait that small
fraction proved the possibility of making first-class cheese all the season,
if first-class skill was employed in producing and manipulating the milk.

The cheese exhil'its from both countries in the October display were
generally fine, and attested the superior excellence to which the factory
system is capable of reaching. Finer samjdes of cheese I have nowhere
met with than aj)peared among tliem, some of them being absolutely
faultless. Those which were the very choicest, had, so far as I could
trace, one peculiar feature in their manufacture. Those in which the
flavor was the most] aire arrd rrutty, and wliich appeared the richest and
most meaty liad tlie wjiey removed fronx the curd at the earliest i)eriodin
manufacturing. This is the essential point in what is styled the cheddar
))rocess — aird it is one which our dairymen must ado])t if they would
have the richest and cleanest flavored cheese. I'he cheese shown by the
Uirited States was not very urriform irr qualit}'', some of it being of great
t.xcelleirce, and some quite ordinary.

The chee.se of tlie highest order was confined to no particular h^c.ality
tlujugh New York State took the lead in ilie propoi'tion uf such dicese
shown by the States. Among the Ijest cheese from tlie United States
were samples from the factory of Di-. L. L. "Wiulit, of AVhiteslxiro, N. Y.;
E. C. Rice, Fairlidd, N. Y. \ G. \\ . Davis, Little Falls, N. Y. ; .M. N.
Seward, Lake Mills, Jefterson County, Wis. ; and J. G. Holman, Con-

35

nantville, Crawford County; Penn. All of wliich were alike graded at
95 per cent, of perfection. The best exhibit from the United States was
shown by C. W. Richaixlson. of Herkimer, Herkimer County, N. Y.,
and was graded at 96 per cent.

The factory cheese from Canada was also quite uneven. Some of it
ran very low and some very high, making the extremes even further apart
than in the cheese from the States, but its average was higher. From
wliat I have learned the past season of Canadian manufacture, I think
the cheddar system is practiced more with yoxi than with us, and this, I
suspect is one of the points to which tlie supeiiority of your cheese is to
be ascribed. The cheese presented in October by Thomas Ballantyne, M.
P. P., of Stratford, in which this peculiarity of make was most successfully
carried out, was tlie tinest cheese shown during the Exhibition, and Avas
graded at 100. To it was awarded the sweepstake prize for btsst Cana-
dian cheese. There were two other exhibits in October, those of Mr. I).
Chalmers and Alex. McKenzie, which di tiered but little fmm the best.

The per cent, of perfection in the October exhibits of cheese from the
individual States and United States collectively, and Canada collectively
Avere as follows : — Connecticut, 50.00 ; Ohio, 60.00 ; Wisconsin, 76.00 ;
United States, 76.82 ; New York, 79.05 ; Pennsylvania, 83.22; Canada,
87.36.

BISCUSSION.

Question — What is the best method of cleansing Imtter packages 1

Prof. Arnold — Soak first in cold brine and then in boiling hot brina,
cover and keep it hot as long as it will. In this way the flavor of the
wood will be entirely removed. We found a great deal of tlie competing
butter injured by improperly cleansed packages.

Ques. — What sized packages would you recoinmend '?

Ans. — That must depend upon the market.

Ques. — What kind of salt do you recommend I

Ans. — Any pure salt. I conclude there is nothing Ix^tter than Ashbm
salt, when pure, but Onondaga salt is most leliablc because it is least
countei-feited.

Ques. — What quantity of salt do you think is necessary I

Ans. — The smallest quantity that willsiitisfy tlie taste of tlie consumer.
The people along the sea coast require butter a little Salter than those
living inland.

Mr. Lewis — I congratidate the Canadians on tlieir success, but would
have been a little better pleased had they allowed old Herkimer county
cheese to get a little ahead of them (laughter and applause). 1 don't be-
lieve that Canadian dairymen Avill ever feel any better than they do just
now. (Applause.)

(^Hiestion — What about the sub-earth duct at the Centennial?

Prof. Arnold — There was a sub-earth duct put in fur the Dairy biuld-
ing which proved a complete failure, for wliicli T am willing to confess I
was, Avith others, at fault. It was improperly put in. The duct Avas too
large. It admitted more air than coiild be cooled by its Avails, and then
it was covered with boards: — a non-conductor — instead of stone. The
princi])le involved — making a passage under ground to cool air passing
through it before enteiing the room to be cooled — is sound and will Avork
well Avhen properly constructed.

36

Mr. Cas.swell — Did any of }'ou notice an article in tlie papers from oh6
^Ir. Oliver, an Englishman, who asserted that there was a " dairy ring "
at the Centennial, and that in consequence there were very few exhibit-
ci's and therefore no coni])etition 't.

i\lr. Lewis — This Mr. Oliver knows about as much about that as he
does about making cheese. He camy over here professing to know all
about cheese manufacture, and otiered to enlighten our tactorynien on the
subject, but in every case signally failed. Tliat sub-earth duct I consider
a dead duck. (Laugliter.) It is perfectly worthless in my opinion. Its
inventor, Mr. Wilkinson, was one of those who encouraged the charge of
the dairy ring, being disappointed because the Executive Committee of
the American Dairymen's Association refused to incur an expense of
i|7,500 in testing it. Among other disappointed aspirants who joined in
the cry were Mr. Eeall, X. A. Willard, and O. S. Bliss, who felt
aggrieved because they were not appointed judges, or to some other posi-
tion. There is not a particle of truth in the statement that there was a
" daily ring," nor the slightest foundation for such an accusation.

Prof. Arnold — I will give an instance or two, to illustrate Mr. Oliver's
skill in cheese manufacture. Re went to one of the best factories iu
Herkimer County — that of Mr. Harry Biirrell, near Little Falls — and un-
dertook to instruct the workmen in making cheddar cheese, where he suc-
ceeded in reduc-ing the value about one half. In the factory of Y>v. L. L.
Wight, of Whitesboro, he was also successful in injuring all the cheese he
made. At Fink's Basin — a creamery in which skim cheese is made after
after taking all the cream they can get from the milk — I saw some of his
whole milk cheddar cheese, whicli Avere inferior to the skims, and a few
days ago, I was informed by one of the })ro])l'ietors of the creamery that the
last one Mr. ( )liver's cheese had been disposed of by burying. I was glad
to hear Mr. Lewis' donial of those charges concerning the dairy ring, and
his ex])lanation of the conduct of those making them. It was very in-
consistent in the gentleuu^n referred to, and others who acted with them,
to do all they could, publicly and ])iivately, to discourage exhibitors from
taking part in the exliibition by advising them to keep their goods at
home, and in the next breath blame the committee because the show of
dairy goods was not nuu'e successful. But while I was glail to hear his
emphatic statement.'^ on this subject, 1 must say I think my friend Lewis
expressed himself a little too strongly in regard to the practical value of
the sub-earth duct. "Slv. Bois says it has operated to his satisfaction,
cooling the air when too warm aiid warming it when too cold, and he
certainly ought to know as he has one in constant use.

As the discussion closed a unanimous vote of thanks to Mi. Arnold for
his excellent address on the Dairy at the Centennial was moved by Mr.
Hamilton and passed.

Prof. Arnold — 1 am very grateful indeed for this expiession of your
approbation. It gives me great ])leasure to know that my labors are ap-
preciated by this intelligent audience.

SECOND DAY.

The Convention i-esumed at 10 o'clock a.m. Vice-President D. H.

Buirill, of Little Falls, N. Y., took tlie chair, who introduced Mr. C. L.

Sheldon, of Lowville, N. Y., who delivei-ed an address on " Leaks in

the Dairy." By the request of the chairman, Mr. Shelden gave a brief

37

account of tlie great difflciilties lie and otlieis had met with in reaching
Ingersoll, owing to tlie heavy snowstorm in N. Y., and consequent block-
ing up of the railways. Such was the immense Itlockade of snow, that as
many as five and even seven engines were necessary, and then not Avith-
out considerable delay.

LEAKS IN THE DAIRY.

Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, — In apijearing before you to
discuss a theme that has claimed the attention of dairymen for years, we
are l-eminded that a path so well trodden has little to atti'act by its
novelty ; that the sobei- concerns of every day life, and the felt wants of
the industrious portion of the community at least must be relied uj)on to
give interest to what we are about to say.

When dairy pi'oducts were commanding in the mai'kets double present
piices, the need foi economy was not as ap2)a3'ent as now, and a I'equest
to sto}) u}) the leaks, would not have been as well heeded then as now.

The lessons of the past season we ti'ust have been potent in this direc-
tion ; and many a dairyman has come to the conclusion, that foi' him
there exists the necessity to stop the most trifling leak, for feai- that the
dairy slii[) will sink. We wei-e about to say (and also work (bligently
at the pumps), but we fear this advice would be heeded in a A\Tong di-
rection, in which it wouhl do moi'e to sink than to save the craft.

A gi-eat diversity of 0})inion may prevail as to what are really leaks.
For instance, should our friend Hai'ris Lewis be passing by a herd of cows
feeding upon corn fodder, he would look about, and if he came to the conclu-
sion that the soil was adapted to gi'ass he would exclaim, " What waste-
fulness I" Again, should our friend Prof Arnold l>e invited to dine with
us, and shoidd the butter or cheese be the product of rare or peculiar cir-
cumstances, he would think, " How wasteful to eat that which, if sub-
jected to the microscopic examination or chemical analysis would advance
the interests of daily science." If our friend L. T. Howley wei-e to step
into our dairy rooms, and find us seasoning our daily products with cheap
common salt, he would think, " What poor economy ; run the risk of
spoiling all you produce with impure salt, when you could have our
warranted ' Factory Filled.' " And so difierent individuals from differ-
ent standpoints or difierent exj)eriences, judge differently, and what might
be termed true economy by one, would he called downright wastefulness
by another.

Our standard of measurement is the product of our personal experience,
and is not designed to measui-e the deep and intricate parts of the subject
l)ut those simple tilings that are continually before us. With this stand-
ard we will measure, 1st, As to the jiroduction. If the price of the pro-
duct is low, we must produce more to sell or content ourselves Avitli less
money.

For the })ast five years the dairies coming to my factory have ]n-oduced
on an average per cow from 2,329 lt)S. to 2,650 lt)s. milk. This duiing
the cheese making season averaging about five months. For the past
year the best daily produced 2,923 lbs. per cow, and the poorest 1,832
lbs. per cow ; or 18 t)s. per cow each day for the best, and not quite 12
&s. per day for the poorest — 33 per cent, in favor of the best- If there
is but a fail- profit with the best daiiy, it would need a microscope of
high power to show the profits of the poorer daiiy ; but not such an in-
4

38

strument to reveal the leak ; they are very appai'ent. The ancient
dreamer of Egy})t well describes them when he says : " Poor and very
ill favored and lean fleshed." If we seek the cause we will generally
find poor and insufficient food and sometimes the same in reference to the
water.

Pastures that are just capable of feeding our stock in the flush of feed,
will be insufficient at all other times. If, on the contrary, during the
flush of feed they produce more than the stock can consume, it will soon
beome hard and indigestible ; poorly fitted to produce milk. If we would
stop this leak, we must make some provision for a constant suj)ply of
milk producing food. What that food shall be is not as important as
that there be a constant supply. Fodder, corn, rye, oats, clover or tim-
othy, anything is far preferable to nothing. But that there should be
some supply we regard as an axiom in true dairy science. Says one,
who tries fooder corn for a supplementary food, " My cows do not gain
in their milk ; I see no iise in the fodder." That the cows should gain
in their milk is not as important as that they should not shrink, and a
food that keeps the supply constant, and cows in good flesh, will pay in
the long run. This keeping up the niilk product is important from another
considei'ation ; that is, a larger pei'centage to sell when the market value
is highest.

In a climate like ours the cow must not only be well fed, but
well housed. The neat and commodious barns that are springing up
^ all over the coimtiy, attest that this point is receiving attention. Among
our earlier experiences our i-ecollections of detached, single boarded barns,
shivering cows, hay mows six to eight inches imder snow on mornings
after a blustering night. In cleaning stables an axe called into requisi-
tion nearly as much as the shovel. Added to this the fodder giving out
before the winter had passed, and hay to buy and haul (and by the way
this made a big leak in the dairy). Before I became of age the respon-
sible duties of the farm devolved upon me. One of our first efforts was
to tear down these small barns and build a larger and more comfortable
one. For twenty years the farm has carried some 25 per cent, more
stock than formerly, and we do not recollect of a single outlay for fodder.
In this saving the bai-n was an important factor. Fodder is an expensive
fuel. The effect of temperature is well illustrated in the Americayi Cul-
tivator. It says : " The food daily consumed by a Greenlander would
serve an African for weeks. The Esquimaux consumes in twenty-four
hours two gallons of whale oil, l)esides large quantities of other fatty sub-
stances, while a handfid of dates and a little fruit will answer the Arab's
daily wants. Capt. Perry, of Arctic fame, weighed and i>resented to an
Esquimaux lad at one time, 18 ounces frozen sea-horse flesh, 66 ounces
wild sea-horse flesh, 28 oinices bread and bread dust, 20 ounces rich gravy
soup, 160 ounces Avater, 1 tumbler grog, and 3 wine glasses raw spirits.
This lai'ge qmuitity of food, which the lad did not consider excessive, was
consumed by him within 24 hours." Other instances are men-
tioned. In view of this it is the dictate of pru<lence to stop \ip
the cracks in the stable ; they ave leaks in the dairythat need
attention; Imt as you stop them do not neglect the needed ven-
tilation. With these leaks stopi)e<l, your cow well feil and well housed,
you sit down to milk her. She swings her tail at an annoying fly and

39

accidentally hits you in the face ; you wish to have her well behaved, so
yon get up and instruct her ; you pat her with the toe of your boot ; you
soothe her with the edge of your stool ; you talk to her with all the ear-
nestness you can command. Again you sit down to milk her ; her
foot itches this time ; she raises it ; you try to stop it ; it itches badly
and must come up ; you and the pail are in the line of its movement ;
you get out of the way by siding over on the floor ; the pail and its con-
tents follow you ; a kind of providential provision for heated, feverish
systems. You get up and i-ejieat these lessons till you get the cow so
well learned that she is able to go through with the manoeuvi-es at nearly
every milking. You finally conchule tliat she was not constitutionally
adapted to milk, so yoii sell her t(J the butcher assuring him that if she
is not tender steak you do not know how to make it. If the Creator had
designed to have cows kicked and mauled he woiild have put a coat of
armour upon the places wont to receive such treatment ; perhaps some-
thing like the shell of the tortoise, upon which the bmtal might kick and
pound to their heart's content. As she has no such shell don't pound
her ; every blow you strike makes a leak in your dairy. 'Tis too expen-
sive ; you cannot aflbrd it. Mr. Lewis has well said, " there is no place
in God's creation for a brutal man." We do not expect to reach his ear
here ; such men do not attend these conventions. But you may have
such men in your employ, and as you value your interests here or in the
great hereaftei-, don't let them abuse yoiu- cows. If I was an artist I'll
tell you what kind of a picture I woidd i)aint. I would lia^e a herd of
cows seeking shelter from a burning sun, beneath the shade of a pleasant
grove ; I would have a hired man in a hurry to go out somewhere come
among them ; I would have him start them into a run, and follow them
at his quickest pace until he catches the hindmost by the tail ; I would
have him run them until, exhausted, the cow wdth the extra load falls and
is unable to lise. Tlien I would paint a cheese factory in one corner of
the scene ; I woidd have the o})eratives working over a tainted c\ird.
At the opposite corner I would have a dwelling with the family sittmg
down to tea ; the milk is put into the tea ; it tastes sti-angely, it smells
strangely ; it smells like the vat of tainted curd. This is my picture.
If there is an artist here to })aint it, let him make the house and family
like my house and family ; the factory and operatives like my factory
and operatives, and the hired man like one once in my employ, and let
him entitle the picture "The great leak in the dairy." Let this be hung
in eveiy dairy barn, and bind it a com])anion picture of a phantom cow
with tail outstretclied toward the palm of the hired man in the otliei'
picture, and let this phantom cow follow him through all the hot days
of life, and the hotter days of the hereafter. Entitle this piece " Retri-
butive Justice."

We have spoken of the milk product as influenced by food, shelter and
care. With the worst leaks stopped in this direction so that the dairy-
men delivers to the maufacturer a large quantity of pure, wholesome,
milk, we have next to do with the maniifacturer and manufectured pro-
duct. As in the foi-mer part of our subject we will touch upon but a few
points, where the dear school of experience has taught us important les-
sons. The leaks here mixst be corked by skilled manufacturers, palatable
products, people who relish such products, and cash that pays for them.

10

If we should visit a fiiend in early autumn and lie should treat us with
hai-d winter apples, we would tliink him extremely wasteful and slioi't-
sighted, to say the least. If we go to the grocer and ask for cheese, we
are often impressed with the belief that the same mistake is made.
Several years ago we re-shipped from New York for a grocer a few what
we thought fine cheese ; they were cut and dealt out to customers after
the usual maimer ; passing in and out .and tasting of them occasionally
we were impressed with their unlikeness to the original t-amples, especial-
1)^ so the longer the cheese had been cut. This was exactly opposite our
experience with cut cheese at home, the last pieces almost invariably
being the best, (we keep in tlie cellar) the grocer in a warm dry room,
the cheese continually shrinking in weight, and faster still in quality.
The problem of successful cheese dairying in the years to come must be
solved by the consumer. If for any cause the foreign demand ceases we
fear the leak would sink the dairy ship. Race characteristics, as Artemus
Ward said, one year ago may have much to do with the food consumed.
AVhether these race characteristics are inherent or not may be questioned.
Our bill of fare is very difl'erent fioin uur grandfather's, and we think
education and habit have exerted a controlling influence in this change.
That the American people ai'e not a clieese eating people may be due
mainly to two considerations : 1st. They regaid cheese as a luxury, not
a cheap and wholesome article of food, as it is proved to be. 2nd. Tlieir
experience of purchasing from grocers has been difl'erent from what it
need or sliould b^*. In producing a correct public sentiment regarding
the first point, this Association is entitled to the thanks of every dairy-
man ; but this lesson will be but poorly learned if dairymen do not take
the lead. Upon this priint we have a few statistics to oflTer. In 1872 my
patrons took 1,!)()4 lbs. of cheese ; the general average price for the season
was 12 8G-1 00 cents per lb. In 1873 they took 1,()4.") lbs. ; average
price, 13 13-100 cts. In 1871 they took 1,.570 lbs. ; average price, 13
30-100 cts. In 1875 they took 2,201 lbs. ; average price, li 43-100 cts.
In 187G they took 2,221 lbs. ; average price 11 4-100 cts. For the 1st
four years the families represented by tlie patrons would number 200
persons. The smallest average amount consumed per individual during
thf)se years is nearly 8 lbs. ; the largest average during any of those years
1 1 lbs. The smallest amount when the price Avas higliest ; the largest
amount when price was lowest. The past year the average consumption
per head is 14 lbs. ; the average price 11 4-100, the lowest of any of the
live seasons. From this we conclude that dairymen consume most cheese
when they consider it cheap, and that the lowest average consumption if
applied to the whole country would leave us independent of a foreign
market. In my own fixmily we use 30 lbs. per head, and a meitliant of our
jdace, whom I supply, about the same. Otlier patrons consume as low as
four pounds per heacl, this low amount we are y)ersuaded, not because
they dislike clieese, but because tiiey do not regard it as true economy to
eat it. In my factory thei'e are tliree cows to each person. If we take
the difl'erencc between the maximum and minimum consum])tion of cheese
I)y diJlerent families and apply it to the dairymen representeil by one
million cows employed in the cheese manufacture, we would liave an in-
creased consumption of nearly nine million pounds. If the maximum of
individual families is compared to the general average of the patrons for

41

five years, and the difference of 20 lbs. per individual applied to the
dairymen represented by the million cows, the consumiition would be in-
creased nearly seven million pounds. Is it not reasonable to suppose that
the shortening of the cheese crop seven million pounds would raise the
price one cent I The family of ten persons who eat four pounds a-piece at
eleven cents per pound spend i|;'4.40 for their year's cheese. If they ate
30 pounds a-piece they would reckon that all spent above the $4. 40 vvas
so luuch lost, and would figure up that they were $28.60 out of ])Ocket.
But witli tiie thirty cows which they represent yielding 250 lbs. cheese
each, they would, witli the one cent advance in ])rico, pay for the larger
amount consumed, and have $39.00 more money than in the first instance.
In this instance we give no credit to the cheese as a food, or of the ex-
ample of the dairyman to induce others to use it. Foi the cheese dairy-
man to consume cheese as freely as any other food he likes, is
the dictate of true economy. The greatest consumption and most satis-
factory prices, imply best skill in manufacture, right apjiliances for curing
and cutting at maturity. ^Vell made cheese is often damaged by imper-
fect curing. This is a leak that tells especially on late uiade cheese.
(Jne year ago we held our Sept. and Oct. cheese, (we stopped making the
'22n(i of Oct.) We sold iuFebruary to an agent of Fowler Brothers; this
agent vvas instructed to pay 13|c. for Septemljer, and 12|c. for the Oc-
tober make. As it was the best we could do we accepted the offer, but
piotested against the distinction, assuring the agent that as far as our own
judgment was concerned, the October were fully up to the September in
quality, if not ahead. To test the case still fui-ther, we sampled the early
Se])tember and late October, and handed the samples to the agent to tell
wlien made. The result was the September sam])les were called October,
and the October samples wei'e called Septembei. These cheese were cured
by the heat of a coal stove in a ceiled room. They were the first that
we had cured in a room where we could keep the temperature as we de-
sired, and they were better than any previous lot of October that we had
made. Now, here was a leak of one-half cent per jiound that we were
subjected to, because the general make of October cheese was worth that
less in the market. Here the important lesson was brought directly home
to us, that if we had any better method or practice than our neighbor, it
was for our interest to have him adopt it at once, or he would Ije drag-
ging down the j)rice of our better goods. This law runs through the
whole cheese interest ; so that the man who takes bad milk to the factory,
the manufacturer that poorly makes or cures his cheese, not only brings
down the price of their own product, but brings down everybody else's
product. Tiiat is the tendency in this direction. 8o that in a certain
sense every careless slovenly dairyman becomes a public curse.

A curing room where the temperature can be controlled so as to keep
the cheese cool in hot weather, and Avarm in cold weather, is one of the
great needs of the clieese manufacturer. Such unprecedented hot Aveath-
er as we had last season demonstrated to our satisfaction that cheese could
be carried through a hot period with but little deterioration to their quality.
Also that to sliip cheese from such a curing room to a distant market in an
extreme hot atmosphere, was a disastrous undertaking, subjecting them to a
temperature to which they had not been acclimated. Let consumers have
our goods as fast as they are ready to consume them. To throw them

42

upon the market faster than this during the hottest period of the season,
must bring down prices and load consumers with damaged cheese, making
not only a leak in the price, but also in the demand.

The proper constructed curing room, and the giving of keeping cpiali-
ties to onr cheese will enable us to cai-ry sucli portion of our goods as the
wants of the market do not recj^uire, Avill enhance the average price and
quality of our goods, and give us a ]:»osition of independence which we
could not otherwise have. But this great desideratum of proper curing
rooms must be intelligently and jnoperly managed ; it will not do to
keep them open during the extreme heat of the day, nor neglect to have
a fire when the temperature falls T)e]ow the proper cui-ing point. Of this
latter we were strongly reminded this fall. AVe had other work on our
hands and did not give as close personal attention as formerly to the cur-
ing. Some daj's were warm enougl), then for a while a little too cool.
Finally the weather was so cool that a constant hre was kept. When
we came to try those cheese in November, we found a clearly defined
mark of quality ; those cheese that were subjected to the lower and
changing operation inclined toward l)itterness ; whereas those that .had al-
ways been kepr at tlie highei and moi'e uniform temperature were of a
sweet- nutty Havor and mellow textnre.

1 have given you an account of sonie of tlie leaks in the dairy that
have come mider my observation ; I have measured them with my OAvn im-
jierfect measure, and some of them I have tried to stop up in my practice.
What commends itself to yon, adopt. We are a common brotherhood
engaged in a common calling ; our interests ai'e mutual ; the proprietj'
of one is the propriety of all. Our goodwill stops not at the line of the
lakes and the St. Lawrence ; it gi-asps in its warm embrace all who seek
excellence and improvement in our chosen calling of the dairy, regardless
of nationality.

Mr. Farrington, taking the ])latform, said : I have paid strict attention
to Mr. Sheldon's paper, and I assure you it seemed to me so jjerfectly
true in all respects, so right to the point, that I cannot criticise it at all.
I can only move a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Sheldon for his excellent
address.

Prof. Arnold. — I have great pleasiu-e in seconding that motion. While
concurring in what IMr. Farrington has said, I would also say that when
we can get Mr. Sheldon to speak, we never fail to hear something good.
I cordially second the motion. — Motion carried.

Mr. Sheldon — I feel that I am under tireat obligation to this audience
for this expression of satisfaction with my ehbi'ts to serve the cause of
the dairy, and while I tender my thanks for this, your free will oflering, I
assure you I shall feel encouraged to carry out iny resolution to continue
to apply my feeble talents to the improvement of our common occn-
{)ation.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Ashley — What means do you use for ventilation and keeping an
even tempi'rature in your curing rooms'?

Mr. Sheldon -T use scuttles which I can o])en from below for admit-
ting the cool ail-, and also make use of the windows and doors for the
same pHri)Ose. 'riicre is almost always, iluring the tweuty-foui hours, a
time when the air outside is as cool as it should be in the curing room,

even during the hottest weather. It is then that 1 open the windows,
doors, (fee, and keep them closed up wlien very warm. My cheese is apt
to mold by keeping it in a close curing room, during the heated term,
but on the whole fi'om my experience, I think it makes tlie best (j^uality
of cheese.

Prof. Arnold — Have you noticed any bad effects from curing cheese in
close rooms, indicating a need of fresh air 1

Mr. 8. — So far as my observation goes on this point I have seen no de-
leterious effects from tight rooms, or necessity for fresh air.

Mr. Farrington — I would like to ask Mv. Arnold if hurtful gases
should be exhaled from any of the cheese, if they could be re-absorbed or
taken in by other cheese in the room to their injury ]

Mr. A. — Gases have a law unto themselves by which they expand in-
definitely and become equally distributed in any given space. A thimble
full of gas let loose in a tight curing room would fill the room with its
presence and have an attenuation according to the size of tlie i-ooni.
Cheese not being impervious to gases, it would fill the space occupied by
the cheese, as well as the space occupied by the air. Experiments made
in Cornell University by putting green cheese under a perfectly tight
bell-glass receiver indicated that in the earlier stages of cuiing the cheese
gave off nothing but carbonic acid gas and water, and rapidly absorbed
the oxygen fi-om the air. In the later stages carbonic acid gas only was
evolved. This gas, according to the law of the diffusion of gases, would
penetrate the cheese as well as the open s]nice in the room, but I should
not anticipate any injury from its doing so. It is my observation that
cheese cure faster and better in close rooms to which oxygen is not freely
admitted. If the milk was perfect, and the cheese perfectly made, ray in-
ference is that they would be best and soonest cured in a close and also
dark room. If the cheese are from any cause faulty, so that offensive
gases are evolved, good ventilation becomes an absolute necessity to pre-
vent re-absorption and injury to flavor.

Prof. Stewart — I was struck with the tine illustrations in Mi-. Shel-
don's paper, particularly to those which refer to the importance of kind
treatment of cows. It reminds me of an incident. A city gentleman had
two men in his employ, John and Charles, earli of whom sometimes
milked the cow. On a certain occasion a larger How of milk was noticed
than usual, and on enquiry it was found that Charles milked the cow
then, and following up the inqiury as to the reason why Charles got
more milk than John, it was found that when Charles went to milk her,
he gently stroked her down, saying, " So mully," liut when John went
to milk her he said : " Get round, you brat I" and struck her upon the
hip. It is a fact, you cannot get good results from cows any more than
you can from human beings when you treat them ill. It is of the greatest
importance that barns and stables be made warm and comfortable for our
cows in winter. The fact that food is very expensive fuel, ought to come
home to every dairyman. It is easy to stop up the cracks, and make
warm stables, shutting out the cold and thus preventing unnecessary lo.ss.

It will require fifty per cent, more to keep cows in good condition when
housed in a stable full of cracks, with the wind whistling through than
when sheltered in a warm, comfortable one. It is easy to demonstrate
that the saving in a dairy of thirty cows in food and product for two years

u

when housed in a wa)"m stiible,*as compared with the same nitmber kept in
a cokl and comfortless pkice, woukl be sufficient to buikl a barn witli con-
crete air tight stabk^ walls underneath, with sash and double glass in it,
Avarni and comfortable, all complete. This might be constructed from
two years' savings. A cow fed all she will eat in a cold building will
give less milk than Avlien kept in a warm one. Cold tends to pre-
vent the secretion of milk. There will be a saving of ten dollars per an-
num on each cow. This will amount to six hundred dollars in the two
years. I built a wall under a barn of an octagon shajjc, Avhich Avas two
hundred and twenty-live feet in circumference, for .$250. This Avas less
than Avas saved in one season. The concrete wall is impervious to ail" and
moisture, and is the cheapest wall that can be built. It can be built for
ten cents per cubic foot, in most j)laces, Avhere sand and gravel can be
obtained. The grtat advantage of the concrete wall is that it can be
built without any skilled labor. All that you recjuire to know is what
proportion to mix the constituents, and to put it into the boxes. Take
sand and gravel, having sufficient sand to fill the interstices l)etween the
gravel, and using one shovel full of water lime to five of sand and gravel,
and you have there a concrete mixture that will become as hard as a rock.
Place the boxes and fill to the top, and then another and ancjther layer,
nntil the Avail is completed. You must not forget to always give your
animals plenty of light. We all of us like sunshine. A dog or a cat you
Avill notice alwaj^s lies down in tliat part of the room where the sunlight
falls, and a coav will do the same thing. All stables should have light,
Avhich is a very important element.

The President, INIr. Burrill — I will refer to an unAvise custom, which
has become quite common in central N. Y. among dairymen, that is of
buying niucli of their stock and produce for food instead of raising them.
I Avould urge upon all dairymen the advisability of raising their stock
and i)roduce.

Prof. Arnold — i\Ir. Slieldcn spoke of ceiled cui-ing rooms. A ceiled
room, especially if painted and varnished, Avill retain the heat much longer
than a plastered room. If you examine closely the Avail of a plastered
room, you will see that it is very porous anil alloAvs the air to i)ass through
it readil}^ and will therefore change from hot to cold, or vice versa, in a
short time. Plastering is also objectionable as a receptacle of tilth from
the air which is always straining through it.

Mr. Casswell to Mr. Arnold — If, aay, 1,000 cheeses were put in a i)er-
fectly tight curing room, without any ventilation, woidd they take havni'?

Mr. A. — I think not in the earlier stages, and perhaps not in the later,
unless some of them were otl' flavoi', Avhen the foul air Avould need to be
replaced with better. The most serious difficulty with the tight room
Avould be the great dam})ness of the air, causing the cheese to mold.

Mr. C. — If coAvs were fed whey, or anything capable of imparting bad
odor, could you detect it in tlie cheese, and ditl you detect any such odor
in the cheese at the Centennial 1

Mr. A. — Yes; feeding cows Avhey gives a peculiar flaA^or to cheese, and
in examining clieese at Pliiladelphia, we called the attention of the Super-
intendent to the fact, and found that the coavs furnishing milk to the
fictorv Avhere the cheese was made Avore feil Avhev.

45 '-^'r

' . . . . ""'^7^

Mr. C. — Did you detect carriun taint, cause i by carrion lying round 0

where the cows could breathe the scent ? > „

Mr. A. — I did. I have met with many cases of this kind. A very
strikinof case of this kind occurred in the Canadian cheese at Philadelphia.
I examined a lot of four cheeses made on four successive days. The hrst
was distinctly charged with the taint of carrion. The second Avas entirely
free from it. In the third it was again distinct, but in the fourth none.
Upon inquiring into the circumstances of tiie daily, it proved that the
carcasses of dead calves had been lying around the yards all summer.
The reason that the cheese Avere not all affected alike Avas doubtless that
on some days the Avind bleAV the scent away from the coavs and on others
toward them.

Question to Mr. Sheldon — What is the best way of heating a curing
room so as to keep an even temperature 'I By means of steam pipes for
hot water, or stoves 1

Mr. Sheldon — -I have had no experience, comparing the different
juethods, but would think steam pipes would keeji a more uniform tem-
perature. A good stove covered or enclosed Avith a metal jacket
opened at the bottom and top, Avould keep a A-ery nearly even tempera-
ture.

Mr. Farrington — I trust that we will all endeavor to put in practice
the excellent precepts we have heard, for jierhaps after all the greatest
leak in the dairy is that Avhere avp hear such excellent addresses as those
of Mr. Sheldon or Prof. Arnold, we allow the benefit to leak away in-
stead of putting them into practice. (Applause.)

On motion the Convention adjourned until tAvo o'clock p. m.

WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON.

The Convention Avas called to order at 2 o'clock, Mr. George Hamilton
in the chair.

The first paper Avas hj Prof. E, W. Stewart, on

DAIRYING AND FERTILITY.

Mr. President and G-entlemen, — It is pleasant thus to meet in fra-
ternal association. Agriculture is the basis of all hmnan prosperity, and
there is nothing in its prosecution that need hinder the cordial co-opera-
tion of our people Avith yours. This Association represents the greatest
single Agricultural interest in the United States and Canada ; the dairy
is the right arm of the great stock interest.

If we deduct the cows used simply for breeding pui-poses and furnish-
ing food for their calves, there Avill remain in both countries about
10,000,000 of COAVS, producing an annual product, at $40 per head,
Avorth in the market $400,000,000. This, although a moderate estimate,
is greater than the value of the cotton crop, wheat crop, or any single
crop save that of grass, Avhich is consumed by every class of stock, and
thus makes uo a part of the income iroui all. Tliis is the present status
of the dairy interest, l)ut it is destined to an increase year by year, until
it shall reach A'ast proportions. Throughout the dairy belt of North
America, the coav is to be the great food producer and the largest source
of profit. It then bccouies a most important problem to determine the
ett'ect of dairying upon the fertility of the dairy farm— for the dairyman
cannot afford to pursue a system that will lessen his capacity of production,
5

46

Happily a knowledge of this question is not surrounded by any insuper-
able difficulties. For if we study attentively all the facts connected with
the dairy system, we shall see, pretty plainly, the effect upon the soil.

The cow has no independent power of producing anything. Her own
body, as well as the milk she yields, is made from the food she eats, and
the most important elements of this food come from the soil. If the pro-
duct of this food, eaten by the cow, is returned to the soil, it will be-
come more fertile than before ; but if the product is largely carried off
the soil will become impoverished to that extent.

WHAT MILK TAKES FROM THE SOIL.

Milk contains about six-tenths of one per cent, ot mineral matter, and
a thousand pounds of milk would contain six pounds of ash which is com-
posed of phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, soda, sulphur, magnesia,
etc. A cow, therefore, that gave 4,000 lbs of milk, while in pasture,
would remove from the soil 24 lbs. of these mineral constituents. If a
steer is pastured during the same time and gains in live weight 300 lbs.,
his flesh, so put on, will contain two per cent, of ash, or 6 lbs of mineral
matter — only one-fourth as much as thcj cow carries off" in her milk alone.
Then if we examine the other important fertilizing matters in the milk —
the albumenoids, the casein amounts to about 4 per cent, or in the 4,000
lbs. of milk 160 lbs. of casein containing 256 lbs. of pure nitrogen, whilst
the 300 lbs. of flesh put on the steer would contain only about 10 per.
cent., or 30 lbs. of albuminoids, and 4,8 lbs of pure nitrogen, or less than
one-fifth as much as the milk of the cow.

If, then, we suppose the waste in the system of the cow and the steer
is the same, the cow will carry off', in mineral constituents, four times, and
in allniminoids five times as much as the steer or the cow if not in lactation.
Now in either case we only estimate the mineral and albuminoid matter —
taking no account of the carbohydrates carried off". These being composed
of carbon and water may be derived from the atmosphere. It will thus
appear that when the milk is sold the cow is much more depleting to the
soil than the beef animal.

But all dairying does not bear the same relation to fertility. One sys-
tem of dairying may even improA'C the fertility of the soil by constant
feeding of milch cows to the full capacity of the soil, whilst another may
surely deteriorate the same number of acres in feeding the same number
of cows— all being dependent upon the use that is made of the milk.

The best system of daiiying to preserve the fertility of the soil is

BUTTER-DAIRYING.

What we sell from the products of the farm, not what we raise and feed
to be returned to the soil, impoverishes. The more crops we grow, the
more animals we feed — if all is returned to the soil — the more fertile it
becomes. The taste of the American people renders cream the most val-
uable constituent of milk, and when this is converted into the most de-
licious butter, it brings more monoy than the whole milk made into
cheese. This has caused butter-dairying to bo tlie principal branch car-
ried on in the United States; and until the cheese factory so improved the
quality of the product as to raise the price of cheese, botli in the home and
foreign market, butter formed four-fifths uf the marketable product of the
" ifiarket.

47

It was thus from the manufacture and sale of butter that the so gener-
ally favorable impression of dairying was formed. And if we examine
the composition of butter Ave shall see that it contains no mineral matter.
It is composed wholly of caibon and water, and, if pure, is entirely combus-
tible— taking no valuable constituents from the soil ; all its elements msy
be derived from the atmospJiere. Yet carbon has its value for it assists
in the mechanical texture of the soil, rendering it more porous and friable ;
yet in selling butter the dairyman sells no mineral or valuable constituent
of the soil — nothing which may not be derived from the atmospliere.
This kind of dairying, then does not im])0verish, 1 tut when tlie refuse milk
is fed to animals, the mineral constituents nearly all go back to the soil
in a higher state of organization and may even increase its fertility. It
may be mentioned tliat the pig has the least weight of bone in proportion
to weight of carcass, and it is therefore better for the soil, to feed the re-
fuse n)ilk to pigs, for then tlie least })hosj»hate of lime is sold. But wlien
the skim milk is fed to calves only a small proportion of the constituents
of the milk is sold ; yet it is not as profitaV)le to feed calves, excepb such
heifer calves as are necessary to replenish the dairy, as to feed jngs, for the
Barae quantity of skim milk will make more pounds live weight upon pigs
than calves, and pigs are usually woith move per live weight than calves.
Sixteen pounds of skim milk will make a pound of dressed pork on pigs
from 4 to 26 weeks old, and if worth (Sc. per pound \x\\\ pay one half
cent per pound for the refuse milk, thus yielding an income of $20 pei-
cow for the season. The manure made from })igs fed upon milk is very
rich, and when this is pro]ierly deodoi'izetl with muck and re-applied to
the soil there will be little loss of fei-tility by dairying. Butter-making
is therefore the best form of dairying to perpetuate the fertility of our
fai-ms.

SKI.LING MILK.

But if the milk is sold all the mineral and nitrogenous constituents of
the milk are lost to the soil. In this case, nothing of all the food eaten
by the cows is returned to the soil, except the indigestible and iinassimi-
lated portion, together with the constant waste of their system ; and this
return of food to the soil does not exceed one-third of the food eaten by
a vigorous and large yielding cow. And it is not probably overestimat-
ing the loss of minei'al and nitrogenous constituents, when the milk is
sold, to say that two-thirds of all the cow consumes is carried off and
lost. In order to get a clear understanding of the comparative loss by
beef-feeding and daiiying, we must compare tlie dry substance in beef
and milk. If the steer lays on 300 lbs. of li\e weight during the pastur-
ing season, 25 per cent, of tliis is dry substance, and 75 per cent, water.
The steer will tlius store up 75 lbs. of dry substance. Milk is composed
of 87i per cent, water and 12^ per cent, dry substance, thus two pounds
of milk contains as much dry substance as one pound of live weight beef.
The opinion is no doubt quite general that a pound of dressed beef is equal
■ in substance to live or six pounds of milk, but it is only equal to three
pounds of milk, as the average beef u})on owy markets contains 65 per
cent, water. If, then, a cow yields 4,000 lbs. of milk during the pasturing
season, it would contain 500 lbs. of dry substance, and this is of course
obtained from the grass she eats. But, as we have seen, the minei-al
constituents, or ash, of this 500 lbs. amounts to 24 lbs., which is all taken

48

from the soil, and the casein, or albimiinoids, is 160 1V)S., containing 256
lbs. nitrogen and most of this derived from the soil.

Now, if daii-ying, accompanied by the sale of milk, is to be carried on
for a sei'ies of ^^ears it must be evident that the soil must be steadily im-
})0verished, unless the daiiy man, to guaixl against this deteiioi-ation, shall
supply this loss by the application of fertilizers containing the elements
constantly carried oif. This will not be either difficult or expensive,
costing only aboiit $2 per cow.

The points we have made will show clearly the difference between feed-
ing cows and selling milk and feeding steers for beef.

SELLING CHEESE.

But suppose the dairpuan, instead of selling milk, manufactures it into
cheese or delivers it at the cheese factory. Will this stop the drain of
mineral and nitrogenous matter fi-om the soil '? Let us see what he re-
tains to go back on his land. He takes his milk to the factory and brings
back only the whey or milk sugar. Whey is simply carbon and water,
containing no mineral elements, except in the small amount of casein and
albumen that may have floated off' in it. When for any cause the milk
contains albumen, this passes off" in the whey and adds so much to its value
as a food and as a fertilizer.

But whey has very little manurial value — its only office is to supply
animal heat and produce fat. The casein of the curd contains nearly all
the mineral matter and this is sold in the cheese — the soil gaining next to
nothing, practically, in cheese-making over selling the milk. It is tnie
that the skilful feeder may profitably use the whey as a food by mixing
with it other food, rich in albumenoids — such as oil-meal, pea-meal, oat
or barley meal, and thus add to his income. But cheese-dairying is
practically the same as selling milk so far as the loss of the fertilizing
constituents, of the soil.

We do not wish to alarm dairymen by presenting this piactical view
of the case, liut it behooves them to look the facts square in the face, and
if their })resent system is faidty, the sooner they fmend it the better.
Dairying for long periods of time in England has been found to deplete
the soil of jdiosphate of lime. Prof. Voelcker, speaking of the introduc-
tion of bones as a manure, says : '" Nor is it merely from their association
with the great and leading reform in British husbandry that bones derive
their ])osition. But in reclamation of wastes, and in the restoration of
fertility to the worn out jjasture lauds, which had been exhausted b}- the
constant removal of milk, clieese, ttc, from their surface, hone maiiure
has been scai'cely less beneficial than in turnip husbandry." Here lie
recognizes the facts which we have soiight to establish in this paper.

Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, one of the most careful of English writers,
says : " Every 40 gallons of milk contains one pounil of bone earth, be-
sides other phosphates. Estimating a cow to yield 750 gallons j)er year,
it will require 19 lbs. of ])hosphate — equivalent to 30 lbs. of bone ilust.
If the calf is sold off' we may nssumc there is a loss of 201bs. of bone, and
the waste of ))lu)S})hat('s in the urine equals 4 lbs. And thus, for every
cow a dairy farm maintains, it will lose of earthy phosphates as mucli as
is contained in 56 ll)s of V)one bust." A writer in Morton's Cyclopedia,
speaking of Prof. Johnston's estimate of the loss of \irLne, says : " The

or

49

waste of phosjthates in urine is much greater than Prof. Johnston has
here estimated. A cow not in milk gives 1,3C>0 gallons of urine, con-
taining nearly 20 lbs. of phosphates." But we understand Prof.
Johnston to speak, particularly, of what is lost to the soil in the produc-
tion of milk by the dairy system. And if it requires 561bs. of bone dust
to re])lenish what is carried off by a cow in the production of milk, then
this depletion cannot go on indefinitely without absolute impoverishment.
We have gathered these few points showing the eflect of dairying upon
fertility, as merely suggestive, and to give the dairyman notice of the
danger ahead, that he may balance his account yearly with his soil, and
not go on drawing out, little by little, all his rich resources, without ever
once making a deposit to strengthen his credit.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. Craigg — Prof. Stewart has advised artificial fertilizers to keep up
the condition of our soils. As we milk our cows but six or seven months
in the year, and in the winter feed them in addition to hay and straw,
pea-meal, corn-meal, &c., if the manure thus formed were all returned to
the soil, would not that keep up the fertility and save the expense of the
artificial manures 1

Prof. Stewart — If the dairymen have abundance of food from other
soui'ces tlian their pastures for their animals, there is no (piestion Init
they can keep their pastures in fine order for a length of time. What I
spoke of was that if the farmer is constantly selling ofi" his milk without
retiu'ning the mineral ingredients necessary for the pi-oduction of milk,
he will be constantly lessening its capacity. A provident farmer does
not want to be constantly drawing out from his bank account without
replenishing. Two doUais an acre spent in commercial fertilizers will
supply the deficiency and prevent the land from becoming impoverished.
Now, suppose you have a dairy, each cow of which will yield 4,000 lbs. of
milk in a year, you can afford to pay the paltrj)- sum lequired to replen-
ish the soil and keep it constantly increasing in fertility.

Question — What commercial fertilizers wo\ild you recommend Avhich
could be had for two dollars an aci'e.

Prof. Stewart — The best fertilizers are bone dust, German and i)otash
salts. Two dollars m tlu! jnirchase of finely ground bone dust, or wliat
is better, bone dissolved in sulphuric acid, or superphosphate, and ap-
plied to the land, that amount })er acre would replenish the soil. You
cannot pi-oduce something from nothing. Extra tillage causes the farmer
sometimes to believe that his land is improving when it is really growing
nu better. There are moi'e poor crops from poor tillage than from any
other caiise. You might go on for a few years with increased extra til-
lage without noticing the destitution of the soil, but it would be all the
moie marked when it did come. As you say, if he raises grain iipon a
certain pai-t of his farm in the summer, and in winter feeds it all to his
stock, and the manure produced be all carried back to the land, its ex-
haustion wo\dd not be so rapid, it is true. But where will you get the
mineral matter wdiich is cai-ried away with the 4,000 lbs. of milk during
the summer unless you see to it, that these extra fertilizing ingredients
ai'e I'estored to tlie land 1

The Germans have made great })rogress in agricultultTU-e and have
found the advantages of cultivating the beet. It shoves down its top

rr

50

root and brings up the fertilizers from the subsoil below. Canada can
raise all the sugar it wants, and by feeding the refuse of the beets to
the cattle carry more cattle than on the old system, and make a clear
})rolit on the sugar besides, as the Germans do, and the soil will appar-
ently be richer, but by-and-by its poverty will be seen. It pays a good
percentage to feed dairy cows highly, thereby inci-easing the yield of milk,
thus adding to the revenue and also keeping the soil in full fertility. Those
who ])urchase largely of the oil-cake and such like find a satisfactory re-
turn. I am asliamed of the want of practical talent among many of our
Americans in this respect. (3il-cake is Avorth much more to dairymen
than it costs. It seems to keep the digestive oi-gans of the cows in com-
plete order. I have used it for years and I think it has paid me twice
over. You Canadian fai'mers liave ado})ted the habit of x'aising peas,
and pea-meal is very good. When you can give a cow a quart of pea-
meal, and a quait of oil-meal you are giving a combination that will pro-
duce a laiger quantity of milk than in any other way. I want to say in
this connection that every animal should be fed intelligently and for the
})urpose intended.

Many suppose that one kind of food is as good as anothei* if they will
only eat it. You take a quarter of a pound of oil-meal, and mix it with
a gallon of Avhey and feed it to a calf or pig in that proportion and you
will find it M'ill produce the greatest growth, it will develop the bone and
muscle of the animal ; whereas, if yo\i feed whey alone, you simply give
sugar, and you cannot form bone and muscle out of sugar. Pea-meal is
also veiy rich in oil and nitrogenous matter.

Question — Wliat do you think of leached ashes as an application to
supply the deficiency ?

Prof. Stewart — It is valuable, as it contains in small ])ro]>ortion the
very elements that I mentioned as carried away in the milk. It is not
suitable, however, for land that is permanently wet, but, applied to dry
soils, it is very valuable, and attracts the nitrogen from the atmosphere,
(jras lime is also useful, but should not be applied alone ; it should lie
composted with muck and earth and allowed to stand u year, or even n
few months, when it may be apjilied with advantage.

Ques. — Wliat is your oj>inion of the practice of selling wood ashes ?

Prof. Stewart — It is \'ery foolish. Wood ashes are worth fifty cents
per bushel to api)ly to the land, and no intelligent farmer will sell them
for a few cents a bushel. I have drilled them in with oats and .spring
wheat with the best results. I never failed to get an increase of froni
five to to six bushels per acre the first crop. No man can afibrd to sell
his ashes.

Ques. — If ashes are so valuaV)le, why is not their value not more gen-
erally known by farmers 1

Prof Stewart — You might as well ask why farmers do not know more
than they do. I used to send my team and collect 1,000 Inishels a year.
The enquiry began to be made : " What does Mr. Stewait do with those
ashes'?" On Ix'ing told that he iHitthem on his lund it was said : " Well,
if it is good for his land it is good foi-mine !" (Laughter.) 1 find now that
it is rather expensive gathering them. iMy teamster gets small loads.
The potash boilers say they can got thorn. They seem to think that is
legitimate and are cautious to know what tliey want them lor. Ibi'gettiug

51

all aboxit their value. If farmers in a neighborhood would unite in
forming agricultural societies, and each member try expeiiments and re-
port the results to the little club or organization, you have no idea how
much good it would do. It wo\tld have the etiect of dispelling many er-
roneous views.

On motion made by Mr. Losee, and seconded by Mr. Craigg, a heaity
vote of thanks was given Prof. Stewai't for his address.

Prof. Stewart — I am certainly very much gratified to see the attention
paid to my lemarks, and I assure you that the most satisfactoiy pay I
can get is, to have your close attention and appreciation of them. (Ap-
plause.)

Mr. Thos. Ballantyne, M. P. P., was then called upon to address the
Convention on the

MANUFACTURE OF CHEESE AND THE HANDLING OF MILK.

He said : Ladies and Gentlemen, — ^It gives me much pleas^ire to
have tlie opportunity to meet with you on this occasion, and contribute
my mite to the discussion of those subjects in which we are interested.
I regret that my engagements have been such that I have not been al)le
to prepare a paper on the subject allotted me, namely, " The Manufac-
ture of Cheese."

I suppose the reason why I have been selected to speak to this subject
is because of the accident that the factory which I own was the success-
ful competitor at the Centennial Exhibition.

I would say then, the first thing necessary in order to make fine cheese
is to have the milk in proper condition at the connnencement of the pro-
cess of manufacture. And here it is very difficult to lay down rules that
can be applied in all cases to the reception of the milk at the factory, as
no two factories receive it exactly the sams way. Some receive it once
a day, and others twice. Some factorymen di-aw it themselves or see to
the drawing, and have the cai'e of the cows, while in other cases the pat-
rons draw their own milk, but whatever plan is adopted, it is absolutely
necessaiy that the milk should always be in gool coadition when it
reaches the factory. To accomplish this the factoiymen and all connect-
ed therewith must see to it that their arrangements are such, that ju'oper
attention to cleanhness is preserved throughout. Unless the ])ans and
utensils are properly and regularly washed, scoiued and scalded, a leally fine
cheese cannot be manufactured. Having then the first requisite milk in
proper condition, we ai-e ready for the process of manufacture.

In the first part of the season it is very desirable that the cheese be
made to ripen early ; the sooner it is ripe the better. How is this to be
done 1 By using rennet very freely. In the early pn rt of the season we
use sufficient to cause it to coagulate in 2.'i or ."'0 minutes, and draw ofi"
the whey at the approach of the slightest acidity, allowing the curd to
fall to the bottom of the vat, salt slightly and generally oljserve the jtlan
used in the cheddar process. We do not regard the keeping qualities so
much, at tliis season, but desire to have it ready early for the market.

When the season is advanced we use a smaller cpiantity of rennet ;
only sufficient to caxiae coagulation in 40 minutes, di-awing oil' the whey
on the approach of the slightest acidity, and ])acking the curd at the side
of the vat.

o2

The great question is to know the requisite degree of acidity. Tliis
can only be acquired by experience. Each practical cheese-maker must
find for himself what is necessary to make a solid clean cheese.

In the summer season we use a smallei" quantity of i-ennet and a larger
quantity of salt, say 2^ lbs. of salt to 1,000 ll)s. of milk. In the Spring
never using more than 2 oi* IJ- lbs. Of the cheese that i-eaches the early
market defective, a great proportion of it may be traceable to the fact
that rennet was not used in sufficient quantities. Another gi-eat cause
of imperfect early cheese is defective cuiving i-ooms. It is absolutely
necessary to keep up a proper temperature. In the Spring it I'equires to
be higher than in the Fall. A tem})erature of 65 degrees will be neces-
sary in the Fall, and 75 degi-ees in the Spring. The milk in the Fall
contains more butter than in Spring.

Fi-om my observations and experiments during the })ast two years, I
liave come to the conchision that a great deal of the worst cheese does not
come from bad milk, biit from carelessness in stilling the curd during the
cooking process.

While the heat is being ajiplied the curd falls to the bottom of the pan,
when the temperature is greater than blood heat, and coming in contact
with the bottom, is somewhat wilted oi' scorched, and this gives the
taste of toasted cheese.

I have not the slightest doubt that in most cases strong cheese is produced
from that cause. It is very important that the heat should be gradually
and regularly ap})lied, the water being raised to fi'om 82 to 84 and 86
degrees, during Avhich the stirring should be carefully kept up. This heat-
ing jn-ocess should be completed in from one hour to an hour and a half.

In the si>ring when the temperature of the vat is apt to become reduced
on account of the low temperature of the atmosphei'e, it is very necessary
that you keep up an equal temperature or you will have soui-, sticky,
poor cheese, if you allow the curd to become too cold when putting it to
l)ress.

I am swrry I was not able to })re])are a })a[)er on this subject. I do
not like this rambling way of speaking. I suppose I have some things
of the greatest imiiortance, and mentioned some that were familiar to all.

I would sti'ongly urge cheese makers to visit other cheese factories
whenever they have an opportunity, esjiecially those that have the repu-
tation of making a fine article. I do not know anything l>v which they
can assist themselves more than l)y tiiking that ])hin. I remarked last
year that there were sim})ly four agencies in the manufacture of cheese.
I will again mention them, and urge upon you the importance of giving
the gresitest attention to each. The first is heat. This must be a})i)lied
very gradually. The next is rennet, not merely to coagulate the mass,
but to assist in the curing process. The next is salt. Care nuist be taken
to use neither too much nor too little. The fourth agent is acid, which,
if not the most imj)ortaut, is quite as inqwrtant as any of the rest. By
the cheddar ])rocess you are better able to rt^gulate the acidity.

I do not think it is desirable to occupy your time longer. 1 will with
pleasui-e answer any question, if possible, that inay-'ari.se in this con-
nection.

Ques. — What mode of heating the curing house do you use 1

53

Alls. — By a lai'ge stove at present, but it is not very satisfactory. I
ain satistieil that coal stoves are better.

Ques. — What arrangement have you in your curing room for reducing
the heat.

Ans. — Nothing but the ordinaiy doiible wall and holes in the floor.

I would not have a second story foi- a curing room. There is usually
a difl'ei-ence of from 4 to 5 degrees between the upper and lower story. I
do not know of any better way of keeping the curing room cool in very
hot weather than by having the windows open in the morning when cool,
but closing them during the hot part of the day, and sprinkling the floor
freely with cold water. It will reduce the temperature several degrees.
"We always find in the early part of the season a great many poor cheese,
which it is my impression is caused by the use of too little rennet, and
not keeping up the temperature sufticiently.

In answer to further enquiries Mr. Ballantyne continued : We ado})t
the plan of heating up the milk for an hour or an hour and a-half before
adding the rennet. We have found the best results from allowing it to
be about three hours or three and a-half in the curd state. It may appear
strange, but it is nevertheless true, that it is impossible to make tine
cheese from pure sweet milk, and we adopt the plan of keeping the milk
heated up a while before putting in the rennet. In the Fall of the year
usually two hours. Sometimes we add a little old milk.

Ques.^^Do you advise the use of sour milk 1

Ans.— -I do not.

Ques. — Do you use dry steam or water ?

Ans. — We use water.

We regard it much safer to have the milk reach a certain stage of
ripeness than to use old milk or sour whey. Milk must reach a certain
stage of ripeness by age to make the best cheese or the best butter.

Ques. — Would it not be well to have the patrons cool the milk down i

Ans. — No doubt, but we must take thmgs as we find them. If the
patrons cool their night's milk at home, and send the night's and morn-
ing's milk in difierent cans, my experience satisfies me that good cheese
can be made from milk delivered once a day. We had a cheese fair in
8ti'atford, and the factory that took the first prize made but once a day.

Ques. — You spoke of mixing the night's and morning's milk together
when drawing once a day. Will you explain the advantage of keeping
them separate 1

Ans. — If the morning's and night's milk are put in the same cans, I
think you will all agi-ee tha*-- it will not he in the same condition when it
reaches the factoiy as it would be if delivered separately. I however
know factories not receiving a drop of milk in separate cans where they
have had exceptionally fine cheese.

Mr. Hattley, of Brantford — It would be well, I think, to consider the
advisability of making white cheese. I believe buyers have to too great,
an extent encouraged the making of white cheese. I think the demand
for white cheese is confined mostly to a small district of Lancaster. I
found that I had to take a cent a pound less for white than colored cheese,

Mr. Ashley — In the vicinity of Belleville white cheese in some case^
6

54

brought more than colored. I would think, from my observation, that
about one-tenth of the make should be white,

Mr. Casswell — I can look round on this Convention and point to sev-
eral gentlemen who, by the advice of buyers in the spring made consid-
erable white cheese, but when the time came round for them to be taken,
those buyers would not take them. A certain amount can be made with
advantage, but if any large quantities are manufactured the factorymeu
must lose by them. If made at all they must be very fine. Many a man
can make apparently a perfect colored cheese wlio can not make a perfect
white one. Before taking my seat I will say I believe if a dairy institution
were established, under the charge of practical dairymen, like Mr. Ballan-
tyne and others, where pupils could go for a month or two and receive
instruction, the results would be of immense benefit to the dairy interest.
jSTow I am satisfied that if some plan could be hit upon by our association
by which such an institution could be established either in coimection
with the model farm or otherwise, great good would result from it.

Mr. Ballantyne. — I have long been of opinion that agx-eat improvement
in the dairy system would be to have nine or ten factories under the
management of one experienced cheese maker. In that way uniformity
of quality woiild be secured. There is in Western N. Y. such a system
called the Clover Field Factories. The cheese from these factories com-
mand the highest prices all over England. One individual has the charge
of all of them. I confess I cannot see very clearly, under our present
system of private individual factories, how such a scheme can be carried
out. It would be a great advantage to cheese makers if they had an op-
portunity to run ofi", even two or three days, to such an institution as
recommended by Mr. Casswell. It Avould be of great benefit.

Mr. Craigg — I highly approve of those remarks Avith reference to tlie
education of cheese makers, and I also think that great good would result
from holding meetings of the patrons in different neighborhoods, and
have those meetings addressed by competent persons, and thus educate
the rank and file on these subjects.

Mr. Losee — If we devoted some of the money of the Association to
employ a talented lecturer, it would be well employed.

On motion of Mr. Hopkins, seconded by Mr. Farrington, a hearty vote
of thanks was given to Mr. Ballantyne for his excellent practical address.

Mr. Ballantyne — I thank you for this hearty vote of thanks. It is
always to me a pleasure, and I feel it to be a duty to do what I can to
improve the quality of our cheese. Poor cheese is always a drag in the
market. If one factory can make a fine cheese all c;m. We have many
things to contend with. The climate goes to great extremes. We
realized the eti'ect of this last year. During the first two weeks in August
it was almost impossible to make the finest goods. But I have no doubt
the immense quantity of poor cheese thrown upon the maiket every year
is mainly caused by carelessness in the manufacture, or imperfect curing
rooms. (Apjjlause.)

The following committees wore then appointed, viz. : Nomination,
Finance and Dairy Apparatus.

The Convention then adjourned until 7 p. m.

55

EVENING SESSION.

TLe Convention re-assembled at 7 o'clock ; Mr. Biimll occupying the
chair.

Letters were read from the Hon. George Brown, Prof. Bell, of Belle-
ville, and P. E.. Daly, President of the Ontario Dairymen's Association.

The President said that but for the storm tliat had prevailed on the
other side, blocking up the roads, a large number of Americans would
have been present. The storm had not had its equal since 1864.

Hon. Harris Lewis was then introduced who delivered an address on
the

" FITNESS OF THINGS."

He said : Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen,— In addressing
you on the subject of the " Fitness of Things," I would first call your at-
tention to the wondei'ful adajjtability of means to ends which is exhibited
in all the works of nature. If yon examinn the inluibitants of the ocean,
from the smallest, a million of which would not till a lady's thimble, to
the most gigantic monster, you will tind that each, is fitted for the exact
locality where they are to find and jirovide food for their subsistvMice,
and obtain it with the least labor and tlie greatest certainty. The same
fitness of things 3'ou will find not only in all the animal creation but also
in the vegetable kingdom, from the most tender flower and shrub to the
most gigantic ti'ee of tropical climes. So, too, man, the crowning glory of
the Creator's works, is fitted for certain conditions and duties suited to
iiis nature.

I hold that every man, woman and child is fitted bynatui'e to perform
some act or discharge some duty in life better than any other. But man
in his ignorance often thwarts nature's operations and designs, and turns
them into worse than useless puri)oses. Many parents seem to look ;ip-
on labor as degrading, ■and try to find some higher place for their child-
ren, rather than encourage engaging in useful labor. It is a sad picture
I know, but it is the ease with many in the United States. I hoj)e it is
not so on this side of the lines. Now, to succeed in any business, calling,
or profession, there must be more or less adaptation for tliat pai-ticular
business or calling and a love for it.

Now with regard to the fitness of things in connection with dairying
or farming, having determined to engage in that particular business, tlie
first thing to be considered is to secure a farm adapted to it. If you
have made up your mind to grow grain then select the best grain-growing
farm in the country. If you liuve resolved to go into dairying then get
the best farm for grass you can tind.

Having secured the farm and fitted it for business the next thing will
be to select a herd of cows for it. You should get the very best. Would
not this be sensible ] I told you last year that only one cow in three
paid her way — that all the profits were made from the third cow.

If you adopt the butter branch of dairying, then select them for that pur-
pose. The only way of testing the butter or cheese jiroducing capacities
of cows is to weigh the product. In entering upon cheese making, I
think I would recommend as the fii-st thing the selection of a partner in
the business, one who would be a proper helpmeet. This, I think, would
be according to the fitness of things. Having found such a one I would

56

make her my confidential adviser in all matters connected with my busi-
ness. Man may be right from reason, or reason himself wrong, but a
woman is impulsively right.

If you make up your mind to engage in marketing milk, your herd
must be selected for that purpose. And here I would rocouimend the
Holstein breed as the best for a milk farm. The milk of the Holstein
breed will bear transportation well, the milk globules being very small.
All these things must be considered in fitting yourself for your life busi-
ness. Then you want food for the cow fitted for her wants and condition.
You should provide the very best food you can get. Never feed your dairy
cows straAV or coarse corn stalks. I would not call that food fitted for
her wants. Then you should treat the cow with the utmost kindness,
and see tliat the help you employ are (|ualified for the business, and those
you can fully trust. If possible employ men that know more than you
do, and never tolerate a brutal man. If you should unfortunately em-
ploy such a one get rid of him as soon as possible. Fulfil your part of
the contract and let him go. I had such a man in my employ ence, who
came near ruininir one of my best cows by striking her with a shovel. It
took a long time to convince that cow that everything wearing pants was
not as cruel as that man. (Laughter.) When I am around my cows
they are sure of kind treatment. If they are not comfortable, free from
annoyance and fear, they will not yield as much milk, neither will it be
as good. Unkind treatment of the cow shows itself first in the quality
of the milk, and then in the qiiantity. God has no place on earth for a
brutal man — if he has it is not in the dairy. The implements we use on
a farm or on the dairy must be chosen in accordance with their fitness for
the purposes required.

I will in this connection relate an incident. In 1855 I i)urchased a
piece of land in the Mohawk Valley, and on this land were
a number of Mohawk Valley bogs. At that time I had a German in my
employ, a faithful and reliable man, as many of the Germans are. One
day I said, " James, you may take the bog hoe and go down yonder and
cut those bogs, and throw them into the river." " Yes, sir," says James,
and went to attend to it. Many of you Canadians may not know much
about Mohawk Valley bogs. They grow sometimes as large as a bushel
basket, the roots shootint; dovniward in tlic earth. To sav that thev are
tough would not begin to describe them. I did not notice James particular
ly until about two hours after when I saw liim coming back. His face was
red, his clothes wet with sweat, his countenance indicated disappointment,
sorrow and remorse. The secret of it all was revealed when I saw on
liis .shoidder the post-hole borer. I commenced to laugh at the
ridiculousness, the absurdity of the thing. (Laughter.) I went to the
shop and got the bog hoe, an instrument very much like the adze of a
carpenter, with which by giving a blow or two on one side of the bog
and tlnni on the other it is easily conquered. In fact, it is an instrument
fitted for that work. James went away a good deal encouraged, ami in
due time canu; back with satisfaction, joy and victory, beaming in his
countenance. " Mr. Lewis," he said, " Dish is betterish good."
(Laughter and a])plause.)

I have oftiMi rejoiced that I laughed over him instead ot storming for
I have often found myself cutting my bogs with a post hole borer, and if

57

there is a man or woman liere who has lived thus far and ntver made the
atteaipt to cut one bog in that way, let them rise up. (Laughter and ap-
plause.) Now I think I have occupied your time long enough. I thank
you for your kind attention. (Applause.)

Mr. Farrington — Mr. Lewis advises us to get the best grass farm we can
for dairy purposes. If we cannot get the very best in the country, to get
the next best. Now, if the best farm we can get is not as good for grass
as we could wish I hope he will allow us to grow some corn. There are
numerous places in the West not suitable to growing grass, and in Cali-
fornia to-day everytliiug is perishing on account oi the drought. What
must they do 1 Corn must be their dependence when grass fails. If we
could get a sufficient quantity of fine grass, timothy, or white clover, and
stow it away against a dry time, it would be preferable, but if not we
must do the next best thing. As an evidence of the great value of corn,
look at the great city of the West, Chicago. It is built on corn. Its
Avealth and superstructure is on corn. It was burnt down, being set on
lire bj' a cow kicking over a lamp.

Mr. Lewis — I don't blanie her. They were trying to make her eat corn

stalks. (Great laughter.)

Mr. Farrington — After it was burnt it sprang up almost in a night as
it were. I have no doubt that Mr. Lewis has proved many a time that
corn stalks well saved were an excellent help. When properly grown,
and cut just in the flower, they contain a great deal of nourishment, and
if all are not needed in the fall, if properly preserved they will winter our
stock better than the average hay.

On motion a hearty vote of thanks was given Mr. Lewis for his address.

Mr. Lewis — I think my thanks are due to you for your ])atient atten-
tion. Allow me to say that while we provide for the fitness of things
pertaining to this life, let us not forget to fit ourselves for the life which
is to come.

Prof. (Stewart — An old dairyman — a friend of mine — who usually keeps
from 100 to 120 cows, raises corn as one of the most important crops,
lie found notliiiig cheaper for his cows than corn cut when it was pass-
ing from the milky to the doughy state. It is equally as good for butter
making as for cheese.

Ml-. Lewi.s — The cow tells mo by actions that s})eak louder than words
thiit grass is lietter than corn.

Prof Arnold — There is no question about the value of corn, and dairy-
men generally jirize it very highly. It is not only fitted for producing
milk but also for ])utting on fat and flesh. Theie is a time in the life of
tlie growing stalks when they contain, easily formed, all the nutritive
(qualities of the future crop of grain they are capal)le of producing. This
is when the kernels are just ready to form. Since the grain of maize is
e\'erywhere acknowledged to be a valuable food for milch cows, it hardly
admits of question that if corn-stalks are cut and fed or dried, just at the
time when they hold elaborated in their sip all the nutriment of a future
crop of grain, that they are a valuable and appropriate food for cows in
milk or otherwise.

Question to Mr. Farrington — Have you noticed an increase of milk
from feeding fodder corn.

58

Mr. Farriugton — They are usually fed too late in the milking season
to produce an increase, but they keep up the flow and increase flesh.

Mr. Webb — We have adopted the plan of cutting up our stalks. The
cattle eat them more readily, and there is no waste.

Mr. Ashley — We cannot help admitting that corn is a great substitute
for grass.

Mr. Hopkins — A year ago last June I planted two acres of corn, which
did not ripen, and I necessarily fed the whole just as it was, and I never
received more benefit from any two acres of land.

The Convention adjourned till 10 o'clock next morning.

THIKD DAY— MOKNIJs^G SESSION.

The convention assembled at 10 o'clock, Mr. Ballantyne presiding.
Upon taking the chair he announced as the first order of business a
paper on the

ADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTAL DAIRY STATIONS,

prepared by Prof. Bell, of Albert University, Belleville, which would, in
the absence of the Prof., be read by C. E. Chadwick, Esq., who Avas then
introduced.

In estimating the comparative value of the several branches of industry
Avhich, united, form the wealth of the United States, it needs no exten-
sive or involved statistics to prove that the products of the cultivator's
toil hold the first and most important place ; not only as being necessary
to the very existence of the population, but in actual commercial and
pecuniary value. The cotton, sugar and rice of the South, the corn, gr*ain,
wool and cattle of the Northern, Western and jMiddle States, and tlie
fruits of the whole form a total which vastly exeeeds in value the coal
and iron of Pennsylvania and Virginia, the gold of California, the silver
of New Mexico and Colorado, and the manufictures of IMassachusetts
and Connecticut.

It Avould naturally be supposed that so vast and so valuable an inter-
est would be the object of especial care and solicitude to both the Central
and State Governments throughout the Union, and that the resjiective
rulers would earnestly promote and liberally support any institution, and
readily adopt any suggestion which had for its object to increase the
(piantity and improve the quality of the farm-produce of the whole coun-
try, or of that ]>orti()n of it which lies within their jurisdiction, and more
especially would such <;ncouragement be expected to be aflbrded in a
country where the number of projirietors farming tlieir own land is so
great, where the average acreage of the farms is so small, and where the
Governments are to so great an extent constituted b}^ the vote of the
agricultural population.

So far, however, as my information extends, this needed encouragement
has not been afforded, and with the exception of their contiibution
to the expenses of the Centennial Exhibition, a portion of which must be
debited to the Agricultural Hall, the soh' subsidy given by the Tnited
States Government for the promotion of agriculture, is the imposition of
a certain amount of protective duty upon tlie importation of agricultural
products.

In olden time, when all the farmer had to do was to sci-atch the soil,
scatter the seed and reap an abundant harvest, this might bo suthcient

59

encouragement, though then it would scarcely be needed ; but now, when
the virsin i-ichness of the soil is exhausted over the area of the older set-
tied States, and a higher order of farmins; has become necessary, in which
the science of the chemist and the physiologist must be called in to aid
and direct the industry of the husbandry it becomes the duty of those
who administer the government to apply for the benefit of the farmers a
portion of the revenue to which they are such large contributors, and this
can be done most advantageously by liberally remiinerating properly
qualified persons to conduct tliose investigations which the farmers cannot
do for themselves, and on the correct performance and results of which
the maintenance of a prosperous agriculture must mainly depend in the
future.

In order to ascertain clearly and intelligently what a government can
do, and what it may be fairly executed to do in sucii a case, we must in-
quire what has been done by the governments of other countries. In
Britain, agricultural colleges and model tarms have been established, in
which young men can be thoroughly educated in the theory, and trained
in the practical working of agriculture ; and the model farm at Glasnevin,
in Ireland, is spoken of as one of the most perfect of its class. In Ontario
we have an Agricultural College and Model Farm combined, maintairicd
at the cost of the Provincial Government, and though it has been only
recently established, and certain untoward circumstances which attended
its establishment threatened for a time to interfere with its utility, yet
there is now reason to believe that it is doing good work, and to hope that
in the course of a few years, the benefits it will confer upon the agricul-
tural population of the Province will largely outweigh the cost, though
considerable, of its establishment and maintenance.

In Germany not only are there numerous national establishments in
which instruction in scientific and practical husbandry can be obtained
at a cheap rate, but there is in each of the principal agricultural centres
an experimental station, where, for a trifling fee, fai'mers can have their
soils analyzed, commercial manures tested, and their values determined,
and seeds submitted to microscopic insj^ection, or to the practical test of
germination and growth.

I am pleased to observe that in Connecticut there is an establishment
ot this kind in active operation, from which a very interesting rejiort ap-
peared in the American Agriculturist for December, 1870, which attests
more strongly the value of such institutions than anything that I could
advance.

Thus it appears that, taking the world at large, a good deal has been
done for the instruction and encouragement of the tiller of the soil ;
while the production of improved breeds of cattle, sheep and horses, has
been substantially encouraged by the majority of civilized governments,
and I only have to express a sincere hope that these important branches
may be yet more liberally subsidized and more exterisively introduced,
until scientific agriculture, or what is commonly termed " high farming,"
shall become the rule instead of the exception, and the earth be made to
" give forth her increase" in sufficient quantity to feed the ever augment-
ing myriads of human beings who, genei'ation after generation, go steadily
on in the fulfilment of the first blessing, " Increase and multiply, and re-
plenish the earth and subdue it !" And how can man so effectually sub-

60

due the earth, in the terms of this blessing, as with the plough, the spade
and the hoe ]

But there is another branch of agricultural iotlustry which has as yet re
ceived but little notice and small encouragement from the " powez-s that
be " on the south of the great lakes : yet which, from the intrinsic value,
marketable nature and lai-ge amount of its products, shews itself equally
worthy of encouragement as the sister branches ; while, fi'om the very
nature of the substances with which it has to deal, and the extraordinary
variation v/hich favorable or unfavoraljle conditions, and pro})er or im-
pro})er treatment, cause in the (juality, and consequently in the market
value of its products, it requir-js more than any other branch of agricid-
tural work the aid of science to discover and determine what those con-
ditions are, and by what means they may be avoided or remedied on the
one hand, or induced and made permanent on the other.

Of course I need not tell this audience that it is the dairy interest
which has received so little notice from governments in general; and from
that of the United States in particular. And yet an interest which pro-
duces a total of |500,000,00;) every year, ilO,000,OOU of which are
exports, and ai'e returned to the producing nation in cash, or in goods
of a still greater value, and the full extent of whose capabilities has not
yet been reached, i:) surely wortliy of all the assistance a wise and jiatriotic
government can aftbrd to bestow upon it.

The advantages to be derived from such an establishment, when found-
ed and maintained on a sufficiently liberal scale, are of two classes, having
respect severally to the meclianical and scientific or chemical aspects of
the business. In the first place it would form a training school for first-
class operators, who would hold tlie same status in the dairy staff as
Normal school teachers do in the educational profession, whose example
and advice would be of essential service in inq^roving the manufacture in
the Avhole country, as each one of these Avell-instructed persons Avould be a
focus of valuable information for such of the neighboring operators as had
not had the opportunity of attending the institution. Next, there ought
to be provision for special inscruction so that any operator who had met
with a difficulty which unaided he could not surmount, or who founil
himself deficient in some particular point of practice, might attend for
a short time, a few days, or even hours, in which his difficulty might be
obviated, or his deficiency supplied, without detaining him too long from
his work, or taxing too heavily his perhaps slender resources.

Thirdly, a section should be devoted to the trial of newly invented or
improved utensils or ajiparatus, where they could Ije contrasted with
those in common use, and their comparative, as well as their actual value
correctly ascertained.

In the same, or another compartment, different methods of treatment,
as well as those practised in other countries, and tliose in use in the most
successful factories of this continent, as others which might be discovered
or suggested by members or ])rofessors of the institution might be put to
])ractical proof, and those taught and recommended whicli were found to
give the most satisfactory results.

The best nu'thod of dealing with floating curds, and fainted milk,

would necessarily form ))rominent suljjects of inquiry and expi-riment.

The quality of the dill'erent brands of salt, and their influence upon the

61

flavour of the cheese, the merit or demerit of the various sorts and prepar-
ations of annatto, and the (|uestion of coloured or uncolored cheese, could
also be investigated and reported thereon. The construction of curing-
houses, and the curing, boxing, and shipping, would likeAvise be attended
to, and in short, all the multifarious circumstances attendant upon the
manutacture of cheese, of greater or less importance in themselves, but
which taken together have considerable effect u[)on the result of the man-
ufacturing processes, could be taken up in their turn, and if not finally
settled to the satisfaction of the in(i[uirers, could at least be carefully and
intelligently investigated.

Nor is there less need for an establishment of the kind for the improve-
ment ot the other staple article of dairy produce, Butter, which is of
equal, or taking into account its much more general use, of superior im-
portance to its sister product. In fact tlie art of butter-making seems to
be thoroughly unsettled, both in princi{)le and in practice. Gro into al-
most any ordinary market, and try the various parcels offered for sale,
and you will find them to possess an extraordinary variety of flavor and
texture, and among the whole very little that could be rated at more than
fairly good, while really fine butter is a rarity. Or read for a twelve-
month the agricultural column of any average weekly newspaper, and you
will find probably a dozen or more directions " how to make first-class
butter," some of which are merely pufts of some particidar churn or butter
worker, while most of the others ait; so trivial as to be unworthy of notice
or so absurd as to be cleai'ly the })roductiuns of persons who know very
little about the subject upon which they write — and that little only from
books and not from practice.

The chief points to be determined in legard to buttei'-makhig are the
vexed questions of deep and shallow setting ; the form and size of pan
which shall aff"ord the greatest facility for the rising of the cream, and at
the same time provide for the rapid and complete separation of the milk
from the cream, avoiding the tedious |)rocess of skimming, which, if not
carefully done, is certain either to waste a portion of the cream, or to
take up more milk than is desirable ; the most efficient pattern of churn
for hand or power working, both for rapidity of action and complete sep-
aration of the butter from the butter-milk ; the most advantageous tem-
perature at which to set the milk, and to work the cream in the churn ;
washing, salting, jjacking, and many other matters of less imjjortance, but
which, as in the case of cheese-making ought by no means to be neglected.
Butter-workei'S and the compai-ative advantages of mechanical and hand
working would also afford scope for experiment and observation.

It would also be a jjroper subject of inquiry whether, as is strongly as-
serted by some a wholesome and palatable article of cheese could be made
from skim-milk and butter-milk. If the process were found to be prac-
ticable, the resulting product could be sold for a lower price than full-
milk cheese, and thus would be adapted to the taste and circumstances of
the poorer and more economical class of consumers, both at home and
abroad.

Another matter which is worthy of special attention is the extraction
of the butter which remains in the whey after the casein or curd is re-
moved. In England this is done to a large extent, and with much profit
to the dairy proprietois, as the whey is found to be almost as effective for
7

62

the production of pork without the butter as with it, for the substances
which mainly go to the production of muscle and fat are the albumen and
milk-sugar which remain after both cheese and butter are taken away.
Millions of dollars are annually lost to the daiiymen of the United States
and Canada by theii neglect of this source of profit.

It would also be desirable to try whether the milk-sugar can be profit-
ably extracted from the whey after the extraction of the butter. In
Germany this is done to some extent, and is found to be remunerative.
The aiticle commands a very high price, and the sale is very limited. Its
chief value consists in its not being liable to ferment or turn sonr on the
stomach, which property renders it highly eligible as a condiment foi- the
food of young children and invalids, especially those who suffei' from dys-
pepsia. Perhaps if it were produced in greater quantity it might come
into more general use, the supply, as in the case of petroleum, creating
the demand.

In the more strictly scientific department much important work re-
mains to be done. A sei'ies of meteorological observations should be
taken each day at stated hoiirs, and a register kept of the same, in which
the indications of the barometer, thei-mometer, hygrometer, and electro-
meter should be regularly entered, along with remarks upon the efi^ect of
temperature and other atmospheric and cosmical influences upon the ma-
tei'ial processes, and products of the dairy. These observations might not
give, and indeed could be scarcely expected to give, any immediate re-
sults, and it might probably be some time before they would be of much
advantage to the manufacturer ; but I am thoroughly convinced that in
the course of a few seasons their cumulative evidence would help to settle
many doubtful points, and perhaps might explain and obviate some diffi-
cidties which are keenly felt at present, and elucidate some principles
which as yet are but dimly seen.

Another important line of inquiry is that instituted by Professor
Caldwell, with a view to discover some means of overcoming the tendency
of milk to undergo ra])id decomposition ui hot Aveather, so far at least as
to keep it sweet long enough to be brought to the consumer in good con-
dition, or to be operated upon before any detei'ioration had taken place.
This is certainly a most desirable object, and the interesting and lucid ac-
count given by Prof. Caldwell of his experiments and their results, at the
Centennial Convention at Philadelphia, demonstrated to the entii-e satis-
faction of Ms hearers that the object is attamable, and that he is on the
right track to attain it.

It would also 1)6 in rule to make further observations upon the genera-
tion, propagation, and general action and efiect of the bacteria, vibriones,
fungi, and other low forms of animal and vegetable life, to which the re-
cent discoveries of eminent })hysicists have taught us to ascribe much more
important functions — a much greater effect in the reduction of nitro-
hydro-carboiiic compounds to their simple elements than we were pre-
viously aware of, and whicli are now known to be capable of aflecting the
coi'poreal fi-ame of man and his animals with painful and fatal diseases.

In the physiological and veterinary department crucial experiments
would be made on the effects of different sorts of food and management
upon the j)roduction of milk and quantity of cheese and butter to be de-
rived from their use, as well as their rc;spective influence upon the health

63

Hiul contlitiDii of the. auiinals. The coin{)arative merits of the various
breeds of cattle for dairy jiiirposes wo\rid he teste<l ; tlie length of time a
cow .should l>e milked for each calf might be determined, as al.so the nuni-
l)er of years whe might l)e jirohtaijly kept tus a daiiy cow on tlie average ;
and many other similar (|iu%stion.s woxild also receive at Icii-st a pai-tial
.solution.

An iiLstitution rapable of doing all tlie work T have prescrilxul for it,
(and nuich more tliat I liave nece.s.sarily omitttd) eJi'ejtively, and other-
wise it would be a mere sham— "a mockery, a delusion and a snare,"
would undoubtedly involve a large aiuuial outlay, for it would require for
its conduct the most skilful o])Hrators, the ablest chemists, the most pro-
fovmd physiologists, aiul the most liighly quahfied and experienced veter-
iuarian.s that could be procured, and the services of such pereons cannot
be had without ample remuneration, while the buildings, apparatus and
iiistniments must all be of the best, and consequently of the most costly
description ; and yet I have no hesitation in aftirming that the benetit to
be derived tVom such an institution would far outweigh its cost ; for it
must lie remembered that it is not the possession of a few first-rate fac-
tories, but the uniform average excellence of its jjroducta that raises tJie
reputation of a country above its i-ivals. An institution of the kind is
therefore a national necessity, and ought not to be and cannot be dependent
for its support \ip(»rj the liberality of private individuals, but if it is to exist
at all, must l>e maintainetl at the expense of the nation.

I cannot be accused of tiattery when I say that the spiiitand enter{)nse
shewn by the daiiymen of the United States, in establishing and nuiin-
taiiiing by their own exertions, and at their own expense, without aid
from either the Central or the State Governments, .so nu\ny and so eflfect-
ive associations for the purpose of imjjroving their manufacture, redounds
a-s much to their credit ixs it has redounded, and must redound in the fu-
ture to their advantage. But what they have hitherto done is no reason
why they should be left to therr own unaided resources in future. On the
conti'ary it gives them a tenfold stronger claim upon the considei^ation of
their rulers.

At the same time it must not l>e forgotten that we in Caiuula owe a
deep debt of gratitude to our American friemls for the extensive and
rapid development of dairy husbanthy in the Dominion ; for it was by
following their example»s, ado])ting their advice, and conformiiig to their
instructions that we have been able to achieve so complete and remarka-
ble a success in, and so siibstantial a commercial result from, the manu-
facture of cheese. And we should also remember that it is still to their
leading and representative men that we have mainly to look for fui-ther
research and future unprovemeut in the more recondite, and therefore
more difficult lines of inquiiy which must yet \>e pursued to solution, if
we are to attain to that certainty and uniformity in the production of
first-cla.ss articles of consumption which constitute the perfection of man-
ufacturing skill.

But it would not be right or creditable for us to sit idle, waiting to
take advantage of the .superior energy and intelligence of oiu- neighbours;
and therefore such an institution as I have endeavoured to indicate is a.s
necessary for u.s as for them. Our Governments, both Dominion and
Provincial, are providing ample means of transport for our productions,

w

64

by 8ubtddizin;g railways, and conBtructing and euJaiging caimla, witk un-
precedented liber»lity, and by-and-by they wiU perhaps ooiKjlude that tha
induatries which furniah the freight that those railroads and canak are
intended to convey, are at least equally desei-ving of (jncouragement.

Let us then hope that the elaims I fhave attem])ted to advocate may be
acknowledged and allowed, if not before, at least when statesmanship and
patriotism, instead of politics and self-interest, shall Ijecome the guiding
principles of Presidents and Governors, of Ministers and Legislators, on
both sides of the dividing line.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. CasHwell — I consider it is of great importance, as has been inti*
mated by Mr. Craigg, Mr. Losee and others, to ilrill the rank and file ot
dairymen, tliat is the patrons, in the principles and biest methods of man-
ufacture. Meetings should be held in diflFerent neighborhoods, and dairy
districts, and have them addiessed by such men as Mr. Chadwick, Mr.
Noxon, Mr. Ballantyne, and others. These gentlemen I am sure woidd
do all they could in that way, and I know that it would result in much
good generally, and when we meet in our conventions we would find
many more here capable of contributing something of intei'est on these
subjects. I will refer to another matter. I have heard something said
about the cheese fairs in a disparaging manner as though they were of
no benefit, and the money expended therein wa.sted. This is a great
mistake. I am satisfied that tiese fairs and exhibitions have done great
good, aa well as these conventions. Factorymen find that it is important
to attend carefully to all the operations of manufacturing cheese.

N^ow, gentlemen, I will say that perhaps no one has contributed more
to the advancement of the dairy interest than our friend, Mr. Farring-
ton. Hi« valuable services for many years, not only to our Association
here, but to the dairy interests of Canada and Aineri(;a generally, demand
our gratitude. I question whether there is in Herkimer County, or on
the American continent, one better qualified or more willing to give prac-
tical information in connection with dairying. He came to Canada many
years ago as a missionaiy in dairy matters, and who could be more will-
ing to imi)ai't information, or devoted more of his time to that objeet
than he.

I therefore move that the thanks of this Convention be especially ten-
dered to Mr. Farringtcn, for hia aei-vicea in connection with this Associa-
tion, and with the dairy interests of Ontario &n.d in zhe United States.

Mr. Lofiee — With great pleasure I second the motion.

Prof. Arnold — I would say that I heartily approve of this motioa on
the present occasion. I took my first lessons in dairying from Mh Far-
rington, and I am indebted to him from another caiiH*. Mr. Farrington
waa my early school-master. He was just as ex{)ert a school-master as ha
ia a cheese maker. (Applause.) I consider it especially appropriate foe
Canadian citizens to move such a vote of thanks on the occasion, of the
assembling of the American Dairymen's Association in Oxford County,
inasmuch as we feel indebted to Mr. Farrington, aa well aa you^ for the
progress made in dairying in the whole territoiy tlwj Association repre-
sents.

The vote was full and hearty.

65

Mr. Farrington — It is a great so«it;e of gi-ati£cation that I liave re-
ceiveil tliis mark of your esteem. This heai"ty manifestation of yoiir u.\>
preciation of my little sei-vices are far great-er than I deserve. I have
done no more tlian what was my duty. I thank you for yoxir kindly ex-
pressions, and in return acknowledge my iudebtedne.s.H to the j)eople of
both Canada and tlie States the very valuable aid their exi)erience and
progressive wLsdom has been to mo iu the calling Avhich has always been,
and will continue to be the busiiaess of m}^ life.

Mr, Farriiigton then gave a short .sketch of his more than 40 years
career as a dairymau. At the clo.se of his remarks, the President an-
nounced that ujjportunity woulil now be given for discussion on the sub-
ject of Prof. Bell's paper.

Prof. Stewart — Coming down to the basis of American institutions by
jjutting everything into the hands of the people and if we -wish to reach
tlairymen and benefit them by e.stablishing experimental stations, they
must be maintained by dairymen themselves.

What costs them nothing they will think little of. There is in the
State of Massachusetts an institution founded by Mr. Bussy, and called
the Bu.ssy Institution. It is intended to promote Agricultiue. From
a bulletin of that institution lately publLshed by our able Professor, it
would appear that not one in four of those whom it was designed to ben-
efit knew that there was such an institution.

,For the Government to establish such an institution without having it
brought before, and enlLsting the interest of, farmers and dairymen it
would only be ornamental, and would fail to accomplish its designed ob-
ject. Now, I would say that this matter f^hould be brought before the
factorymen and patrons in each neighboT-hcod and district, and each one
contrib\ite a small sum annually. These yearly contributions might be
collected by an agent or manager in each district. It would not at most
require more than fifty cents from each patron and facton-men to sustain
an experimental station, for they are numbered by the thousand. That
amount contributed by each one in N. Y. State woidd raise the sum of
f 15,000. Sustained in that way by dairymen themselves it would be
something practical, and would not fail to accomplish the object so\ight.

Mr. Lewis — From long experience and obser\'ation I am convinced
that any institution depending upon the voluntary contributions of farm-
ei-H or dairymen would fail. Such an iiistitution as an Experinieiital
Daily Station, T believe .should be established and maintained by the go-
vernment.

Prof. Arnold — An Experimental Dairy Station established and main-
tained by the government, would stand in a ditFerent light from that of
the Bus.sy institution referred to by Prof. Stewai-t. Dairymen are differ-
ently situated. Here we' have all over the country organizations made
up of men constantly experimenting, and woidd be in constant communi-
cation with the head station. If you shoidd get one established here, we
would be benefitted as well as you, and if we would get one on our side,
you would be benefitted as well ius we. Points of gi-eat interest in the
estimation of prtictical men, would i-eceive special attention. It is for
this reason that I am veiy anxious to see institutions of that kind estab-
lished. If we had not one but many, I have no doubt they would be very
beneficial.

66

Mr. (Jhadwick. — 1 luiai'tily :i|ij)i()vc of tliis ;uul 1 woiiKl urge iijioii you
the nc'cussity ol" using nU tlu- iuHufiicc you [»o.s.scss for tlic estal)Iishmt'nt
uf an Exj>eniiu'.iital Dairy l)<!ji;iit)iii'nt, in conntctiou with tlie Agricul-
tnral (A)lli'g(; .iiul Moilcl Faini.

Tlii.s is an iigf of ju-ogfiiss. You must ;ic(iui)-f a c( rtiiin amount of
scientific knowK'dgH if you would he successful, and I know of no more
erticicnt mode than to luivo a Dairy Dcpuvtment in connoction with the
Agricultiiral ('nlli^gc. Then- is no (luost.u^n liut it can lio done. T-et tlu*
uuitter !)(■ urged u[mii llif govcinnunL.

On motion luitlier diseussiou on tliis sulijcct was discrjutinued.

IllK DAIUV INTKIMIST OK i\\SMK\.

The rre.sideul then intioduced < '. K. ( 'liadwick, Ksij.. who delivered an
address on the .-dioxe suhjeci.

Mr. Presidknt, Ladiks anu ( i kntj.k.me.n, — 'Hie dairy intiM-iist of UanadH
is a subject with wdacli I ha\i' lieeu fauiiliai- since the lii-st introduction
of the factory system in the country, and we find a wonderful revolution
lias taken place in a. few years. Ten years ago we tiud from the letnrns
that Canada ini|iorted from fm'eign eoiwitries I'oi' home eonsumiJtiou sOilif
.S.JOd.OOO worth of clucse.

In the .short space of four years allei' the introduelion of the factory
system we ex])Orted one million di)llai'.-> woi-th. In 1N7;{ it reached three
millions; in 1^7-1-, four millions; in l<s7o, live millions: ^vhile the
amo\nit for 1N7G, though not yet a.scei-tidned. will doiditless he (^(jual +o,
if not ill excess of, the anxount for lS7"i. Butter to the amount oi' two
and one-half miJlion ilolhu's worth was ex|)orted in 1^7.0, in addition to
the cheese, while the isti mated \a.hie of the dairy products for that year
wa.s about ten nulliun dollars. We have .it the sa)ne time exported cat-
tle largely to the old country.

This surely .shows that oui- country is well adapt(;d for the production
of cattle and dairy produce. There has also heen a huge exjx^rtation of
pork and beef. All this is an encouraging exhibit of the a.gricultunil in-
terests of our countvy. The jc^.'adtsof (an- Centennial exhiliits dui'ing the
bust yeav will l)e of vei-v- great bonetit to us in removing the ignorance
and pre.jtulice pn; vailing in the Ohl Country and elsewhere in regard to
our condition and resources. One grc^at advantiige which the dairy in-
terest in jiaiticular lai-s gained from the display of chee.se at the Centen-
nial w.'us in the removal of the prejudice against Canadian cheese, on ac-
count of supj)o.sed defects in its flavor. I think T may .safely say that
our succe.ss in regard to the dairy at the ( 'eutennial is largely due to Mr,
Casswell, who.se exertions to uiak(- a guild .^jiow of Canadian cheese ha:!
been so successful.

On motion of ]Mi'. Fanington a liearty vote of thanks was given to Mr.
Casswell for his exertions to secure the success (jf tlie Canadian exhibit
in the Dairy Department at the ( 'entennial.

The Convention then adjourned until :.' p. m.

.V 1-T KRN oox sp:s.sion.

The Convention reas.seml)led at 2 o'clock, Mr. lluirill in the chaii'.
The Committee on nomination made the tollowing report v."Lic]i was
received and adopted : —

Pre.sidkm — Hon. Horatio Se\-niour. of Utica. X. Y.

67

Vice-Presidents— C. E. Chadwick, Inger.soll, Ont. ; X. A. Willard,
Little Falls, N. Y. ; T. D. Curtis, Syracuse, N. Y. ; O. S. Bliss, Georgia,
Vt. ; M. Folsom, New York city ; Prof. E. W. Stewart, Lake View,
N. Y. ; Stephen FaAdlle, Lake MiUs, Wis. ; C. L. Sheldon, Lowville, N.
Y. ; Thomas Ballantyne, M. P. P., Stratford, Ont. ; G. B. Weeks, Syra-
cuse, N. Y. ; L. R. Richardson, Kerwood, Ont. ; Dr. E. G. Crafts,
Binghampton, N. Y. ; W. L. Rutherford Waddington, N. Y. ; A. M.
Fuller, Meadville, Pa. ; J. G. Cohoe, Fredonia, N. Y. ; Madison Cooper,
Evans Mills, N. Y. ; H. S. Oaks, Cattaraugus County, N. Y. ; Israel
Boise, Byi-on, 111. ; C. F. Whittier, Minnesota ; J. T. Ellsworth, Bane,
Mass. ; Hon. Wm. A. Johnson, Collins (Jentre, N. Y. ; Dr. L. L. Wight,
Whitesboro, N. Y. ; Peter R. Daly. Belleville, Ont. ; S. Straight, Hud-
son, Ohio ; Chester Hazen, Ladoga, Wis. ; Prof. L. Wetherell, Boston,
Mass. ; E. Casswell, Ingersoll, Ont. ; Edward Norton. Goshen, Ct. ; H.
S. Losee, Noi-wich, Ont. ; Capt. H. D. Gardiner, McLean, N. Y. ; John
Stewart, Manchester, Iowa ; P. H. Burchard, Grant Park, 111. ; George
Hamilton, Cromarty, Ont. ; Benj. Hopkins, Brownsville, Ont. ; C. H.
Wilder, Evansville, Wis. ; David H. Burrill, Little Falls, N. Y. ; J. M.
Petei's, New York city ; S. A. Farrington, Gilroy, Cal.

Secretary. — L. B. Arnold, Rochester, N. Y.

Treasurer — Hon. Harris Lewis, Frankfort, N, Y.

E. W. Stewart,

C. L. Sheldon,

D. H. Burrill, j- Committee.
Harvey Farrington,
H. S. LosEE.

refuse of the dairy.

This subject was introduced by Prof. Arnold, who spoke as follows :

The refuse of the daily, its use and and abuse, is worthy of considera-
tion, especially in connection with the mangement of the tactory.

Its use consists in preparing it for food, which is the only use to which
it is applied, unless it be as a fertilizing agent, and fur tliis ])urpose it is of
so little value as not to be wortky of oui- consideration. It may be so
much better employed as food for animals, that Vi-e shall consider it in
that light.

When butter is manufactured we sim])ly take fi uin tlu; milk the fatty
pai-t. Our operation in this respect resembles that of slaughtering a fat
ox and removing the fat alone, and giving the rest to the pigs for the
manufacture of pork. The nitrogenous pait of the milk, which supports
and builds up the animal structure, bone, flesh, blood, is in the skimmed
milk. It seems a tremendous waste to feed tliis to animals instead of
making use of it for food for man. The great value of milk as food con-
sists in the nitrogenous part which is in the skimmed milk. The butter
or fatty part which we extract contains only one-half per cent, of nitro-
genous matter. This fatty part does not nourish the Itody <:»■ sustain life.
It is necessary as a means of supporting the heat of the 1:»ody, and may
aid in digestion, but Avhatever ]:»urpose it may serve in the animal econo-
my it does not support life. It seems therefore an enormous waste to
take that which does sujiport life, and feed it to animals at a great
loss.

6^

"We were told yesterday by Prof. Stewart, that we can get one pound
of the live weight in the pig from sixteen pounds of skimmed milk. This
is made at a great sacrifice. No doubt it would be worth much more, if
properly manufactured into cheese. There have been many experiments
made in this direction, and very valuable information has been gained.
►So many difficulties have been in the way and so many failures attended
the past efibrts that it has been a question whether the manufacture of
skimmed milk cheese was not detrimental, whether it would not be more
profitable to feed the milk to pigs and calves, than to make it into such
cheese as it has been made into.

Lately some have become more expei-t and have made skimmed milk
into a palatable and wholesome cheese. This no doubt can be done, but
it requiies a great deal of skill and patience to do it.

It requiies a method quite diflerent from the ordinary way of manu-
facturing cheese. I believe, however, it will not be long before those
who make butter will become sufficiently familiar with the science of
cheese manufacture to be able to make o\it of skimmed milk a cheese that
will be fairly palatable, digestible, wholesome and nutritious. The great
difficulty in maiuifacturing skimmed cheese lies in the curing of it.

If treated as in the ordinary pi ocess instead of converting it into cheese
it dries down and remains to a large extent dried curd, which is insoluble
in water, and insoluble in the acid of the stomach, requiring a long time
to digest. It is a most important item in the manufacture of cheese to
make it wholesome and digestible. If properly made and cured it almost
melts upon the tongue, and is in a condition to be readily digested and is
a wholesome and nutritious food. On the other hand it may be in such
a condition as to be incapable of being dissolved, remaining in our
stomachs a long time unassimilated. It is this circumstance that stands in
the way of the consumption of cheese more than any other thing. There
are thousands, both here and in Europe, who reject cheese for the reason
that they cannot digest it. It gives them the headache, makes them
bilious and causes all those unpleasant sensations that indigestion pro
duces. We should study to present cheese in a better condition.

Skimmed milk, as 1 said, is capable of being made into good cheese,
but is much more difficult. I will not go into the various ways by which
it is manufactured. I will only say it requires an increased amount of
rennet, an increased temperature, and a very skilful maniprdatiou of the
milk. It is extremely necessary to keej) an even temperature in the cur-
ing room. This subject of manufacturing skimmed milk into cheese . is
well worthy the attention of an experimental institution. It should
be thoroughly tested and investigated.

In the use of skimmed milk for animals, perhaps there is no better way
than to feed it to thrifty pigs. It is not, however used to the best ad-
vantage when useil alone. Skimmed milk contains an excess of nitrogen-
ous matter, and whey an excess of the supporters of respirntion, viz.,
su'i'ar. In feeding milk it is necessary to have something with it to sup-
port respiration, and for this i)urpose corn meal is e.xcellent.

In feeding whey we must add some nitrogenous substance. I have
seen on several occasions att(uuj)ts made to feed pigs exclusively on whey
but they are liable to disease of the brain. There is not enough nitro-
genous matter in the whey to support the nervous system, and other

69

tissues of the body. A little pea meal added to the whey makes an ex-
cellent food. Wheat bran or buckwheat floni" added, makes a good and
profitable food for calves. Prof. Htewart, who is to follow me, will pro-
bably give you more light on this subject than I can. I will now say a
Avord in regard to the abuse of the refuse of the dairy. I will not carry
this very far in the detail.

One gi'eat abuse is allowing the whey to be scattered about the floor of
the factory, to drip through and collect under or outside, to lie there and
taint and contaminate the air, and be carried back into the factory and
be absorbed by the curd, and milk, and cheese.

This is probably the most prominent abuse, and it is a very great abuse
to use it in that way. A man living in such a tainted atmosphere for a
season becomes so accustomed to it that he does not appreciate it, but
let an outsider approach the factory, he will very soon detect the
strong taint in the atmosphere. Large quantities of the best made cheese
are spoiled by being tainted with the same whey, so that it is a most ser-
ious abuse.

There are other ways in which the whey can be used to considex-able dis-
advantage, such as feeding it to swine in the vicinity of the factory ; hav-
ing the hog-pen or calf-yard sufficiently neai- that the wind when blowing
in certain directions, may easily bring the taint to the factory, and thus
injure the cheese. Last summer, both in the United States and Canada
through all tlie hot weather, a large amount of cheese was affected by re-
ceiving these taints. It was the easiest thing in the world to point it out,
Mr. Casswell can tell you with how much accuracy the different taints
were pointed out to him at Philadelphia.

Question — Do you think these odors and taints from dairies have any
effect on the healtli of the country ?

Answer — There is little douljt but it does. Infection may be carried
and disseminatad through the air by the vapors arising from the cheese
factory, as well as any other decaying matter.

Ques. — "What effect will saltpetre have in destroying the taint of
turnips '?

Ans. — None. The effect of turnips, carrots, &c., may be driven off by
heating the milk up to 145 degrees. It does no harm for cheese making
so long as it remains perfectly sweet, and cures all the better for it.

Prof. Stewart — There are many farmers who regard the refuse of the
dairy as of little consequence, and pay little attention to it. If they feed
their animals with whey, they think that alone is sufficient. Now, if
they should sit down to a table for dinner, and there should be nothing
but sugar on it they would think it was rather a lean meal. When you
feed a pig or a calf whey alone, you give it nothing but sugar. I would
like you to see the folly in supposhig that the pig can make bone, muscle
and everything out of sugar.

A relation of mine built a large fiictory some ten years ago. There
were a larse number of patrons connected vnth it, and many of them
brought their pigs there to feed on the whey, supposing that was suffi-
cient alone. Of course they did not do well, many died, but instead of
giving the proper interpretation, they said that the annatto killed them.
They took them away because the whey poisoned them. He wrote to
me to know Avhether there was any use he could put it to. I told him
8

70

that if he woukl put a quarter of a pound of pea meal or oil meal Avith a
gallon of whey it would not poison his pigs or calves. He followed my
advice strictly. He bought large quantities of meal and fed on a large
scale. The result was a wonderful gain. My advice nearly got him into
a scrape. The patrons thought he must have played a trick on them, for
''your pigs," they said, " come out all right." " Well," he said, '' if you
had furnished me with meal to feed then yours would have come out all
right too."

I have found that the whey of one cow's milk in a year, if she yields
not less than 4,000 lbs. of milk (and I would not keep a cow if she did
not come up to that), if fed judiciously in this way with a proper propor-
tion of meal with it, it is quite possible for you to get ten dollars in
money from the whey of that one cow. You can not do it in the oi'di-
nary way, I admit. You must feed it to young animals, and give them
a full supply of food. Eemember the profit comes always from the extra
amount of food. I have taken pigs from four weeks old, and fed them
in this way, keeping a strict account of the meal (fee, reckoning no profit
on that meal, and crediting all with the whey. I have received a profit
of ten dollars for each cow's whey. Some people starve their pigs
over winter, feeding them just enough to get them through. They
do not see how much they lose in that Avay. If you are going to make
anything out of an animal you have to feed it all it can eat. "When I
made this experiment with the pigs, dressed pork was worth eight cents
a pound, and the pigs were sold when about twenty-six Aveeks old.

It is not as profitable to feed calves on the Avhey as pigs. They Avill
do well and be very profitable if fed with skimmed milk or Avhey suppli-
mented Avith corn meal, oil meal, etc. Farmers can raise their coavs much
cheaper than they can buy them, selecting the calves from the best coaa's,
Avith proper feeding and care in twenty-four or thirty months they will
be worth more than any you could buy. Those who sell do not usually
sell their best.

Mr. Losee — If my patrons were to hear you say that each cow's whey
"was Avorth $10, it Avould set them ci-azy. I Avould be Avilling to sell
the whey for a dollar a coav.

Prof. SteAA'art — Do you mix anything Avith the whey ]

Mr. Losee — I scatter peas on the ground.

Prof. Stewart — As I told you I did not count any profit on the meal
that I mixed Avith the Avhey reckoned in that A\;ay. I found a profit of
$10 for each coav.

Mr. CassAvell — There is no more important subject than that referred
to by Prof. Arnold, in his remarks on the abuse of the refuse of the dairy.
The horrid smells that arise from many factories in consequence of the
Avhey being allowed to drip through and putrify in the air is beyond all
endurance. It is enough to cause epidemics to s])read over the country.
The injury it does to the cheese is incalcidable. I am certain that this
is one of the biggest leaks in the dairy.

Mr. Ashley — I Avould ask, are not buyers very much to blame in this
connection ? They make no difference in the cheese manufactured in a scru-
pulously clean factory, and Avliere every ]iains is taken to prevent the
least smell or taint, than that made and cured in the atmosphei'e contam-
inated with these horrid smells. They Avill pay just as much for this

71

cheese as the other, and there is therefore no encouragement given to
those who spare no pains and expense in removing the whey and pre-
venting the taints. When negligent and careless factovynien can get
just as much for their cheese as those who take the greatest care for the
cleanliness of their factories and surroundings they are not likely to make
much improvement, or go to extra expense.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON DAIRY UTENSILS.

Your Committee on Dairy Utensils respectfully report that they have
examined Lambert's Im})roved Curd Mill and Curd Cooler. We recom-
mend it for trial by dairymen.

We have also examined the Improved Union Churn and commend its
workmanship and its price as reasonable. Knowing nothing of its work-
ing we cannot speak positively of its merits. The manufacturers make
the liberal offer of allowing dairymen to test it before purchasing.

Frazer's Gang Press, manufactured by Ashley & Smith, is so well
known that it needs no commendation from us. The latest style is a de-
cided improvement.

The Curd Knives of Whitman & Burrill, both perpendicular and hori-
zontal, are the best we have ever seen.

Sell's Cheese Press for private dairies seems to be compact, easily
worked and cheap, but Avill require improvement.

Battersby's Patent Steam Boilers are so well known that they need no
comment from us.

J. S. Pearce, I

KoBT. Tracy, '■ Committee.

Harris Lewis, J

[By reason of an error in writing the name of the Chairman of the
Finance Committee, that committee failed to make a report.— Sec]

The following report of receipts and expenditures by the Executive
Committee appointed by the Centennial Dairy Committee was read by
the Secretary as follows :

Mr. President, — The American Dairymen's Association at their An-
nual Convention held at Utica in the yf^ar 1873, appointed a Committee
for the purpose of taking preliminary steps to represent the dairy products
at the Centennial Exhibition to be held at Philadelphia in the year 1876,
of which J. Y. H. Scovill, of Paris, N. Y., Avas chosen chairman. This
Committee was continued from year to yeai-, till the Convention held in
Rome, X. Y., in January, 1876, when the Committee was enlarged and
organized, and proceeded actively to the business of perfecting arrange-
ments for the exhibition.

This Committee determined to erect a model Batter and Cheese Fac-
tory, combined in one building, and to equij) it, by donations and contri-
bution, with approved implements, such as had been tested, in equipment
of a first-class butter or cheese factory. At subsequent meetings held, an
Executive and an Auditing and Finance Committee Avere appointed to
whom was intrusted all the details ot the exhibition.

These Committees proceeded in the discharge of duties, by ra'sing
moneys in the rlairy districts, and arranging for the equipments. —
Pledges were received from various localities and States to further the
enterprise, as follows : Vermont was pledged by 0, S. Bliss, for $1,000

72

and N. P. Spragae,of Brandon, Yt., pledged to donate the " Howe Scales "
as part of the equiment. The total amount received from Vermont was
sixty dollars, and seventy dollars was paid 0. S. Bliss for expenses in
obtaining the subscriptions. The scales donated by Mr. S]irague were
taken from the Association, by an order from the donor, The compart-
ment milk pans, donated by W. 0. Campbell, of Richford, Vt., were also
taken away from the Association, by an order from the donor.

The State of Ohio, through D. L. Pope, pledged $1,000, and they paid
$500.

The State of Pennsylvania, by J. H. Reall, of Philadelphia, pledged
$1,350, and paid $480.

The Canadian Commission contributed $2,000, the amount of pledge.

The New York State Dairymen's Association and Board of Trade con-
tributed $6,543.87.

New York State subscriptions paid about $430.

L. S. Hardin, of Louisville, Ky., paid $10, making the total amount
of ten thousand, nine hundred and fifty-six dollars and thirty-nine cents.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT

Of the Execntive Committee of the Centennial Committee of the Ameri-
can Dairymen's Association, of all money received and how expended in
the preparation for and display of dairy products at the Centennial Ex-
hibition at Philadelphia : —

Received from the Treasurer and assistant Treasurer $1,676 52

Received direct from contributors 210 00

Received wholesale price of implements exhibited 26 00

Received from New York State Dairymen's AssociH.tion and

Board of Trade 6,543 87

Received from Canadian Commission 2,000 00

Received from State Ohio 500 00

Total $10,956 39

Tlie foregoing amount was expended as follows :

To Wm. Blanding, for building, $9,820 00

Incidental expenses for printing and expenses of committee . . 1,136 39

There is $180 yet due Mr. Blanding on the building, the contract hav-
ing been $10,000.00 for the building.'

From a glance at the foregoing receijits and expenditures it must be
apparent that without the timely appropriation of $8,000 by the legisla-
ture of the State of New York, $6,543.87 of which were used through
the N. Y. State Dairymen's Association and Board of Trade, the entire
enterprise could not have been saved from failure at the oiitset.

The general Committee early devised that the Model Butter and Cheese
Factory, should be fully equipped with suitable and approved apparatus
to represent all the internal features of a first-class butter and cheese
factory.

At a meeting of the Executive Comiiiittee of the Centennial Committee
of the American Dairymen's Association, held at lltica, N. Y., March 17,
1876, the following resolution was adopted :

Resolved, — That Josiah Shull, of Ilion, N. Y., and Harris Lewis, of

73

Farnkfort, N. Y., be and they are hereby appointed a committee to de-
cide upon the merits of the necessary apparatus and outfit, including en-
gine, vats, &c., to be placed in the Model Cheese and Butter Factory on
the Centennial grounds.

Xo implement, machine or ap))aratus will be })ermitted to be put into
the factory outfit except it shall be first-class and such as shall be adapted
for general use in cheese and butter manufacture.

For the purpose of paying the necessary expense iu providing space for
implements, dealers in dairy apparatus and equipments will be charged
the contribution of the article or articles, or the wholesale price in cash.

All fi'eight charges on apparatus or implements, prepayment must be
made by the person or persons furnishing or sending the articles ; and all
articles requiring skill to be set up and properly arrange in position, the
parties furnishing the same, will be required to set up at their own ex-
pense or pay such expense.

All applications for space for implements in the equipment of the fac-
toiy should be made to the undersigned, as soon as possible.

JosiAH Shull, Ilion, N. Y.
Harris Lewis, Frankfort, N. Y.
April 8th, 1876.

The special committee apppointed as per the foregoing resolutions is-
sued their circular letter and sent it to manufacturers of dairy implements.
At a subsequent meeting of the Executive Committee, this Committee
were further instructed to vary the terms of the coiitributioiib as in their
judgment was thought proper.

The following arrangements were entered into for equipments —

George Plumb, of Xorth Bangor, N. Y., donated a set (four) of the
Gilt Edge Milk Pan.

W. H. Hyde, of Cortland, N.Y., donated a set (four) of the Jewett
Milk Pan.

James C. Baker donated one double walled churn.

P. Embry & Son, of West Chester, Pa., donated Embry's Eotary But-
ter Worker.

The Orange Co. Pail Company, of New York, donated twenty-five of
their Return Pails.

N. P. Sprague, of Brandon, Vt., donated a full set of the Howe Scales
as follows : — 1 eight-ton scale, 1 eight-hundred pound scale, 1 six-hundred
pound scale, 2 No. 1 I scales, 2 Xo. 9 scales.

John T. Ellsworth, of Barre, Mass., donated the value of an oscillating
churn ($18.)

Mr. R. Howe, of Brooklyn, X.Y., donated the value of one of the Howe
Churns ($8).

Frazer & Benson, of Rome, N. Y., donated one Frazer Gang Cheese
Press.

D. G. Young, of Cedarsville, N.Y., donated two sets Curd-Knives.

Speakman, Miles i^ Co., West Chester, Pa., donated a Butter Packer
and Butter Box.

John Mathews, of Pleasant Grove, Pa., donate i the Eureka Butter
Packer.

Iron Clad Can Corapany^ of New York, donated one 30-gallon can, one

74

20-galloii can, one 15-galion can, two weighing cans, two sets peddlers
milk cans (G each), four pails, three milk strainers and one skimmer.

W. O. Campbell, of Richford, Vt., donated a set (four) Compartment
Milk Pans.

A Dog Power donated Ijy 8t. John (not certain).

Of the foregoing list the (Jommittee have in their possession the
Gilt Edged and the Jewett Milk Pans, the Orange Connty Pails, Frazer
Gang Cheese Press. Butter Packer and Butter Box of Spearman, ]\Iilea
ik Co.

The double walled churn was returned to the owner.

The Compartment Milk Pans, Rotary Butter Worker, Howe Scales,
Curd Knives, dog power for churning, and Milk Cans, were carried off
by 1). L. Pope the Superintendent of the Dairj' Section. This property
carried oft' by Mr. Pope, Avas valued by the manufacturers at about $700.
He took the property on pretense of having advanced about forty dollars
in freight cliarges.

The Committee having charge of the imjdements had written transfers
to the Association, of the Curd Knives and Milk Cans ; and of all other
implements verbal transfer and by implication in accepting the terms and
placing and setting up the implements, in compliance with the con-
ditions.

The Compartment Milk Pans, donated by W. O. Campbell, had erected
over the ])ans on the wall, a sign in large letters, " JMade for the American
Dairymen's Association." All donat(n'S were allowed the privilege of
using the above inscription. Souie availed themselves of it and others
not.

The Committee feel it a duty they owe to themselves and to the dairy-
public to say that they have employed the njost efficient means they
could to procin-e the money necessary to make an appropriate display of
the dairy products of the country at the great Internationsl Exhibition ;
that they have used the means at their command to the
best of their ability for the attainment of the end in view : and that they
have, without charge, freely given much time and labor, to them valu-
able, in furtherance of the cause.

Having thus used their best endeavoi-s, if all that was anticipated lias
not been accomplished, they feel it is not their fault.

The labors of the committee have been surrounded with circumstances
which have inade tlieir ])Osition both responsible and difficult.

Raising funds for ])ublic use fi'om citizens not accustomed to contribute
to public enteipi-ises is always difficult. Dairymen as a class are not ac-
customed to T)eing called upon for public contributions, and, though gen-
erous in their hearts, more slow in responding. They seemed to require
more time to consider than the exigencies of the situation would admit of,
and this madi; the task of collecting from them the funds lequired a
difficult one.

The very short time the committee had for preparation compelled so
much haste there was hardly time for due deliberation, and the scattered
location of its members made it difficult and (expensive.

Whatever was done had to be done (pdckly or not all. In the liurry
of complying with tlie d(uiiauds of the Centennial Commissioners, some
action not strictly formal was deemed necessary by such of the Committee

75

as could most readily assemble. Every act of this kind has beon indus-
triously used to misconstrue the motives of the Committee.

A strong opposition, engendered by personal jealousies, or disa})pointed
aspirations in the attainment of positions or private ends, did the most to
injure the dairy at the Centennial. In this connection it was extremely
unfortunate for the sliow (if nut for the individuals themselves) that men
whom dairymen have delighted to honor, should, whether from personal
motives or mistaken j)olicy, prostitute their talents by using them to op-
pose through the ])ress, and in every way they could, the laudable enter-
prise of making an exhibition of butter and cheese worthy of the magni-
tude of the dairy interest of the country — an enterprise for which earnest
and patriotic dairymen uf ths States not only, but of C.inada also, were
working for and anxiously desiring to see go forward. If the display of
dairy goods at the Centennial Avas not as successful as its friends desired
and expected, its fiilure to meet their ex})ectations is mainly chargeable
to opposition of the character just alluded to.

But in the face of all the difficulties and opposition its friends have
had to encounter, the dairy at Philadelphia, botli in tlie number of
its entries and their magnitude, has more than eijualed tlie average of
other agiicultural industries of the country, and this certainly is fairly
successful and creditable.

The Committee regi'et the unfinished state of their work, which pre-
vents them from now making a complete report. ]^y the next meeting
of the Association they hope to dispose of the property thoy Ijold, and not-
■withstanding the loss of several hundred dollars slipped away by official
intrigue, to be able to satisfactorily adjust all reasonable claim upon them,
and to render a full and final re})ort to the Association.

L. T. Hawlev, Chairman.
Wm. Blanding,
j. y. h. scovill,
L. B. Arnold,
J. .Shull,

IIaURIS LhiWI.S.

SPECIAL MEETING AT PHILADELPHIA,

OCTOBER 17th, 1876.

In accordance with a resolution passed Jaiuu-ay 12th, 1876, accepting
an iiiA-itation from the Philadelpliia Produce Exchange, to meet at the
rooms of the Exchange at tlie opening of the special discussion of dairy-
products in the I'all, in connection with the National Butter and Egg
Association, the American Daiiymen's Association convened October 1 7th
in Judges' Hall, on the Centennial grounds, the Hall being more conven-
ient for the sessions of the two Associations than the rooms of the Ex-
change.

In the absence of the Hon. Horatio Sej'^mour, President of the Asso-
ciation, the Convention was called to order by the Secretary of the Asso-
ciatiation, and C. B. Weeks of Syracuse, N. Y., one of the Vice-Piesi-
dents was invited to the chair.

Mr. Weeks u])on taking the chair made a few introductory remarks as
follows : —

Gentlemen of the American Dairymen's Association, and of
Kindred Societies, and of Friends who are Interested in the great
Subject of Dairying : — It was only yesterday that I learned that our
President, Hon. Horatio Seymoui', could not be present at this meeting,
and I was requested to present a lew opening remarks as introductory
to the prepared pa})ers and discussions arranged for this gathering. I re-
gret as much as any of you can that Mr. Seymour cannot be with us on
this occasion, but the condition of his health is such that he is less able to
make jounieys and gi^ e his .strength to such work as this than he used
to be. You will miss his rare tact and ability in presiding, and his
words of cheer and wisdom in youi" discussions.

We are convened to consider toi)ics relating to the great sul)ject of
dairying. The popular notion of this subject is exceedingly crude. Most
men and women of good general intelligence and tolerably well read in tlu;
progress of events in the world of to-day would have no idea but that all
that is known, or to be known in regard to dairying could easily be told in
a coui)le of hours. You and I have even met dairymen who, in their
own esteem, knew it all, having learned it all in a single .sejuson's experi-
ence ; but to those who have given years and yeai'S t« the subject, eithei'
practically or theoretically, and by reading it seems like a stream, large,
and deep and powerful, many-branched, and which jn'omises to go on and
on, swelling in ]»ower and importance through all the coming years. We
are met to consider, from new jioints of view and new surroundings,
some of the subjects bearing upon this great branch of agiicidtiual in-
dustry, and I feel tiiat tiie oHictMs of the Association have done wisely in
arranging for this gathering at this time and j)lace. Surely, in this great

77

Exposition, where American progress in the first century of its existence
is being illustrated and made manliest to the world, that system of dairy-
ing which has called this and kindred Associations into being has a right
to assert itself and show the resiilts, albeit it came into existence almost
in the last decade of the century.

This is no time or })lace, nor is there any occasion to attempt to trace
the history of daiiying in the remote past, even in faintest outline. Since
the earliest records of sacred and profane history it has existed, and it
will exist, doubtless in all time to come.

It was early introduced into America, and was practiced essentially in
the good old primitive ways of our fathers until within the recollection of
most of us who are here assembled.

Who first originated the idea of associated dairying, the factory system,
and when, it may be diflicult to determine. Grenerally the credit for this
has been given to the late Jesse Williams, of Rome, N. Y., and it is cer-
tain that if not the author of the idea (which I do not assei't) he gave
to the system so much of success and of prominent notice, that
gi'eat numbers of daii'ymen became acquainted with it and a great
many embai'ked in it. He never concealed the details of the Imsiness,
and never withheld his encouragement to others to follow his example in
the manner of conductiiig it.

Mr. Arnold in his American Dairying asserts that seven years before
Mr. Williams began his associated dairy one on qiute a similar principle
was begun by Mr. Lewis M. Norton, of Connecticut.

That the factory system, generally speaking, is an immense advantage
over the old manner of conducting daily operations is proven in ways
too inimerous even to enumerate here. That the factory system has been
greatly modified and improved within the past fifteen years, no one who
has studied its history or been conversant with its workings ^vilI for a
moment den}^ That it is susceptible of further modifications and of
vastly gi-eater im])rovement none will question. My own introduction
to the factory plan began in 1861, and my acquaintance with it has been
pretty intimate from that time to this. As I look back to those early
days of the system I am amazed to see how profoundl}'' ignorant we then
were of systems and principles which are now deemed absolutely essential
in achieving even moderate success in the production of butter and cheese.
Then we knew little or nothing of the necessity of acidity in the curd ;
nothing of fioating curds and their treatment ; nothing of that exquisite
care which the careful dairyman of to-day gives to every condition of the
raw material with which he has to do, and to every part of the process of
converting that material into cheese and butter. Then we gi-aA-ely be-
lieved that occassional sales of cheese were better than freqi;ent weekly
ones, and it was a cardinal article of faith that the cheese made after
June 1st must all be held until autumn, so that the June cheese might
help to sell the Sept. and Oct. make ! We have reversed all that.

Then there were no books available to help the befogged dairyman nor
him who, though successful wished to know more of the principles under-
lying the whole matter. Now we have several admirable and practical
works on the subject, the latest one, by our respected Secretary being of
exceptional value.

Then the agricultural press of the country gave little attention to the
9

78

subject of dairying even in a general way, and rendered almost no help
at all in the minutiae and details of the business. Now all our leading
agi-icultural papei's have then- special dairy department, and many of
them their special dairy editors.

Then the scientific and learned men of our colleges ignored tliis whole
subject as being quite out of their line, as not being practical enough or
as being too much so. We got no help from them. Now, our gather-
ings are sure to be addressed by siich welcomed and honored men as
CaJdwell, Law, Prentiss and Brewer, and others who bring to us the re-
sults of their wide reading, their own close and accurate experiments
and tests; and the benefit of their advice founded on knowledge that is
beyond the reach of most of us.

Then we had but a meagre foreign demand for our dairy productions,
for in quality they occupied so low a place as to make it impossible that
they should be largely wanted by England or any other nation. Now
the foreign demand is so large as in fact to legulate the price of all we
make — so large as to load down nearly every steamer that leaves New
York with thousands of boxes of cheese.

Then we had no Dairymen's Associations, with their frequent meetings,
carefully prepared papers, and their equally valuable discussions. Now
we have not only this, the parent Association (born in Rome, N. Y., in
Janitary, 1863, I think) but at the East, and in the West, in Cana-
da, and in Britain, we have organizations of a like character and for a
like purpose.

We have good reason for gratification and gratulation at the progress
thus far made, at the high standard of excellence to which we have at-
tained.

No other agricultural pursuit has been so improved so changed, so sys-
tematized as this.

Ajid yet it will not do at all for us to cease our efforts nor abandon
thoughts of further and larger advances. In this, as we have seen, we
have every needed help and incentive. May the present meeting be one
of pi'ofit and advantage to iis all, and to the dairy interests of the country
generally.

To our friends who are connected with other dairy organizations, to
our brethren from Canada and those from abroad we extend a hearty and
cordial welcome and trust that one and all will avail themselves of every
privilege and benefit which is derivable from the proceedings of these
meetings.

At the close of Mr. Weeks' lemarks, Prof. L. Wetherill, of Boston,
was introduced who then read the following address on

DAIRY STOCK ; POSSIBILITIES OF MILCH COWS :

The question that lies at the foundation of Dairy Husbandry is. How
to obtain milch cows of the best, cheapest and most productive kind t
The dairyman who has learned this art and practises it, with the fulfilling
of the other conditions of this branch of faini industry is almost sure to
make his vocation not only remunerative, but highly so, just what every
dairyman desires, however indifferent and regrailless he may have been
or is to the conditions which are absolutely essential to his success, or in
other words to find how to make this department of farming pay best.

79

That breed or race of cows most desired, is the one that from a given
amount of feed or forage consumed shall produce the largest relative pro-
duction of milk for making butter, cheese, or to be sold by the can, as is
done in many milk-producing sections for the town or city supply of
milk. The cow in this her practical use comes to be regarded as a ma-
chine for chansinsT or convei'tinj? forage into milk. The breed or race of
cows to be used must necessarily vary accorduig to the use that is to be
made of the milk.

Good milch cows owned by dairymen are often procured by selection,
purchased because good milkers, quite regardless of breed or breeding, or
of race. These chance-bied cows are kept for their milk until age im-
pairs then- milking projierties and then they are sold to the grazier or
turned out to giaze for beef Suppose that the owner of such a herd of
cross-bred selected cows should prociu'e a good thoroughbred bull of some
one or other of the well-known milking breeds of cattle, whether Shoi-t-
horn, Holstein, Devon, Jersey, Guernsey or Ayi-shire, as may best suit
the farm where these cows are kei)t — -taking care that he be of a good
milking stram of whatever breed is selected — a few dollars should not be
giiidged in getting a bull that is all right — and let him run with his cows
and raise the heifer calves to replenish his herd as the old cows are turn-
ed off for beef How long is it supposed it would thus take in tliis way
to make a very choice herd of milch cows 1 Not many generations, as both
exj)erience and observation have taught many of the dairymen of the
United States and Canada. There are many such herds of cows that I
have seen in some sections of Massachusetts, Vermont, New York and
the West. There are in the aforenamed States many herds of such cows
that can hardly be distinguished from thoroughbreds, Ayrshires, Jerseys,
Devons, Holsteins or Shorthorns. Such herds can be named, were it
necessary to confirm the advantages of such a practice in breeding. To
such as cannot afford to pui'chase thoroughbreds of any breed to begin
with, as most young farmers are iinable to do, such a method of breeding
as suggested may, as it often has done, px'ove very advantageous to young
dairymen. It is not proposed to ti-eat the ])rinciples of breeding ex-
haustively now, but to touch only upon the siibject by the way of practi-
cal hints and suggestions.

Pedigi-ee breeding is the business of the few, and but few of these
s\icceed in making it profitable. As a rule the prepotency of the male of
pure bred stock greatly pre})onderates. Therefore having good cows spare
neither time }xor money in procuring the light sort of a bull, making sure
always that he is of a renowned milking ancestry. Milking qualities
like other good or bad qualities are hereditary, and therefore transmissa-
ble. The quality of milk })rod\iction may be bred out, as it were, and as
it has been done in some of the families of Shorthorns, wliile the breed
for nearly a thousand years has been known, as it still is, as distinguished
for its great milkers. Forcing or abnormal growth may destroy the milk-
ing qualities of any breed of cows so that it may make it necessary to pro-
vide foster-mothers to raise the calves of such high bred cows.

The knowledge of the laws of breeding are still quite im])Oi-tant, es-
pecially as they relate to crossing. Yet enough is known to demonstrate
its great utility in some cases and its utter failure in others. In regard
to Shorthorns, such bulls as Hubback, Favourite, Kitton First, Belvedere,

80

.Duke of Northumberland, Earl of Dublin, were all remarkably prepo-
tent in theii- influence on their progeny. The last named bull impressed
deep milking qualities iipon all liis get, this being due as it was claimed
to the influence of the Princess blood that was inherited by and charac-
terized this noble bull.

The period of the year when cows should calve deserves a passing re-
mark. If the object be both rearing calves and dairying, the cows should
drop their calves from the middle of December to March ; if for cheese-
making, regardless of calf-raising, from March to April , if for producing
milk foi- the market the cows may come in at any time when desired to
keep up the average milk su]iply. The diftei-ence between the wintering
of a calf dropped about the tirst of January and one dropped in April or
May, both being cared for alike is greatly in favor of the former.

Both experience and observation favor the l)reeding of heifei-s designed
for milch cows at an earlier age than three years or upwards, as
practised hj some dairymen. Heifers dropped from Christmas time to
March should di'oj) their first calves when about two and a half years old
and if not fully up to the size desired, then let them go farrow one year.
Heifers thus bred almost invarialily make better cows than those that do
not drop their first calves until three years old and upwards. Those that
have di-opped their first calves at the age of fifteen months have taken the
first place among first prize cows. Before calving, a cow shoxild be turned
loose into a box stable or shed. Feed with good hay but do not add corn,
or linseed, or cotton meal, or shorts, even if the cow be a great milker.
After calving gi\-e waim gruel with Rouen ov good sweet hay, for three
or foiu' days. If there he any dangei- of milk fever a moderate aperient
which tends to jn'omote excretion should be given. Linseed oil is useful
for this pui'pose, and safer than salts and sulphur. Cleansing drinks
should be given in case the cow does not clean timely and properly.

Periodically or endemically, cows abort or slip their calves premature-
ly, an evil that has not satisfactorily been accounted for nor cured. This
has been charged upon food, upon local causes, and yet it has been found
upon close and ])rofessional incpiiry and examination to occur under a
great diversity of feeding management and locality. It is the common
advice that a cow when she slips her calf untimely should at once be re-
moved from the herd and be kept apart from them for some time, and if
bred again sliould, before doing so, be kept farrow for a year. Unless
the diseased cow be thus i-emoved, half the herd may aliort within a few
weeks. Removal is considered prevention.

The statements of the possible i)roductions of cows may tend, and can
hardly fail of doing so, to arouse the attention of sluggish, indifi'erent
daii-ymen to the impoi-tanee of giving more attention to the sid)ject of the
annual yield per head of a herd of cows, as well as ot the kinds of cows
to be kept. It will be observed by the following statements that great
milkers are not confined to any one breed, but ai-e found among nearl}^
all tlie different breeds of milch cows, both with and without pedigree,
the word Ix'ing used here in its strictest technical sense as understood by
breeders. I shall fii'st call attention to Ayrshires :

" Lady Kil!)urnie," an imported cow and owned by Stui-tevant Bros.,
Ma.ssachusetts, gave in one year 7,429 iiounds of milk, equal to 3,455
quarts ; her weight was 850 jjounds. " Georgie," owned by tlie same,

81

gave 8,271 pounds of milk in a year (she was dry 22 days) or 3,847
quarts, and her weight was 1080 pounds. "Jean Armour," imported by
H. H. Peters, of Massachusets, gave for ten days in June, an average of
52 pounds a day; her largest yield was 58 pounds a day, and 14^ pounds
of butter a week ; her weight was 960 pounds. J. R. Kendall, of Mass-
achusetts had two Ayrshires, " Minnie" and "Clover"; the former gave
51| pounds a day for a week, and the latter 53| pounds a day for a week.
Wm. Crozier, of Long Island, had an Ayrshire, " Beacon Belle," an iin-
ported cow, that gave in Scotland 36 (juarts, beer measm-e daily, (equal
to 43 quarts milk measure) 92^- pounds a day, as affirmed before a Jus-
tice in Scotland.

Of Jei-seys, a heifer, " Midberry 2d," three years old, owned by Mc-
Kee, gave milk on grass that made 13^ pounds of butter a week.
"Myrtle." owned by Thos. Fitch, of Connecticut, made 15| pounds of
butter a week. "May Day, owned by J. S. Monroe, of Massachusetts,
averaged for June and July 43 pounds of milk a day, that made 15
pounds of butter a week. " Maggie Mitchell," owned })y the late M. T.
Tilden, of New York State, gave 7,500 pounds of milk in a year, and had
given 38 pounds a day, and mnde 18| pounds of buttei- a week. Her
weight was 1,020 })0unds. "Lady Milton," owaied by J. C. Converse,
Massachusetts, gave the first week in July 35 1 pounds of milk a day and
made 18 pounds of butter a week, and for 18 weeks averaged 15-92
])ounds of butter a week. " Flora," impoi'ted and owned by Thos. Mot-
ley, Massachusetts, made 511 pounds 2 ounces of butter in fifty weeks,
averaging 10 1-5 pounds a week, kept on ordinary feed. " Pansy," own-
ed by J. H. Sutliff, of Connecticut, made 574 5-16 pounds of butter in a
year. D. G. Roberts, of Massachusetts, has a herd of eight young Jer-
seys, that in 1875 averaged 239 pounds of butter per cow. The same
herd (eleven cows) in 1876 averaged 245 pounds of butter. In the
former year the average quantity of milk for a pound of butter was 20|
pounds, for the latter year it was 20.43 pounds. A herd of 14 Jerseys,
owned by Ed. Burnett, of Massachusetts, in 1876, averaged 5,625 pounds
of milk, or 2,616 quai-ts per cow ; the largest vield was by " Pink 3d,"
8,332 pounds; "Pink 4th," 8,071 pounds; ""Jiilia," 7,723 pounds;
"Susie," 7,473 pounds; " Mat," 7,276 pounds. The record of a Jersey
in England shows 1 9 pounds of butter a week.

Of Devons, " Gem," owned by E. H. Hyde, of Connecticut, made 15f
pounds of butter a week, and had made 2| pounds a day, at the rate of
19| pounds a week. Coleman, in his "English Agricultui'e," reports a
Devon cow that produced 21 pounds of butter a week. " Helena," owned
-by C. S. Wainwright, of New York State, gave 22 quarts of milk a day
and made 15 jmuuds of butter a week.

Of Shorthorns, " Oxford Lass," a Bates Shorthorn, owned by Jonathan
Talcott, New York State, gave fifty pounds of milk a day ; " Violetta,"
owned by the same, gave al)out sixty lbs. a day, in the best part of the
season ; he also reports fifteen lbs. of l)utter a week, for his best Shorthorn
cows, " Flora," a Hard-book animal in Ohio, gave 10,452 poinids of milk
in a year, and made 445 lbs. of butter. " Rosa," another Ohio Shorthorn
gave 11,705 lbs. in 1873 ; " Maid of Athol," gave 58 lbs. of milk a day
for ten days, making butter at the rate of 14f a week ; in 1874 she gave
12,875 lbs. of milk, and made 513 lbs. of butter. A cow kept by a man

82

in England gave 10,578 lbs. of milk, which made 540 lbs. of butter.
" Sonsie," owned by Gen. N. M. Curtis, of Ogdensburg, N. Y.,gavefx'om
the middle of August tUl Oct. 4 a little over 40 lbs. a day. In a week,
beginning October 4, her daily average was 37 2-7 lbs., with 16 per cent,
cream, by the cream gauge. One of Charles Colling's Shorthorn cows
gave '2Q^ quarts at a milking ; another gave 24 quarts a day ,and another
19 quai'ts ; Bates' famous Duchess gave 14 quai-ts at a milking. These
are all high bred Shorthorns. These were all beei- quarts ; wine to beer
measure is as four to five.

Coleman in his European Agriculture reports a Leicester or Yorkshire
cow that gave 44 quarts of milk a day, Mi-. Coleman being assured of the
credibility of this statement. At a milk producing establishment he re-
ported that the avei-age annual yield per cow was 8 to 10 quarts a day.
at another establishmeiit where Yoikshire cows were kept, the daily yield
was 16 quarts per cow. These wonderful messes of milk by Shorthorns
might be continued, but neither space nor time will allow it nor is it
necessary to prove that the Shorthorns are great milkers.

Of Holsteins, Prof. Geo. H. Cook, of the New Jersey State Agricul-
tural Society, wrote in 1871, i-elative to cows as he saw them in Holland
immediately after calving, which gave from 25 to 32 quarts of milk per
cow daily. He mentioned one dairy in Beemster that gave 18.6 quarts
per cow daily ; another at Haarlem, where the best cow gave 17.8 quarts
daily for 44 weeks, 11,707^ lbs. or 5,482 2-5 quarts of milk per cow.
To show more fully the productiveness of cows in Holland. Prof. Cook
further remarked that in 1864, the number of cattle in Holland was
1,333,887, of which 943,213 were cows ; of butter 32,000,000 lbs., and
61,000,000 lbs. of cheese were exported 1864. The populatiod of New
York State was then about the same as that of Holland, and the whole
number of cattle was 702,000. The amount of butter exported from the
United States from June in 1869 to June, 1870, was 2,039,488 lbs. ; and
of cheese for the same time 47,296,323 pounds. The late W.W. Chenery
of Belmont, Mass., neai- Boston, reported his imported Holstein cow,
Texilaar that gave from May 26, to July 27, a period of nine weeks, 4018
lbs. 14 oz. Her lai-gest yield 76 lbs. 5 oz., or 35 J quarts in
one day, and for ten days she gave 744 lbs. 12 oz., an average
of 74.47 pounds per d^y ; her milk showed 22| per cent, of cream
by a cream gauge; the milk of six days made 17 lbs. 14 oz. of
good butter. A ])aper was conumicated to the de]iartnumt of Agricul-
ture, Washington, from the lioyal ^Vcadtuny of Agriculture, Prussia,
written by Dr. Bhudes, of the Agricultural Academy at Eldena, from
which the following statements were oV»tained : the herd consisted of 36
cows, and in 1865 a record of nine of these supei-ior cows was ke|)t, show-
ing a yield respectively of 4,960 .piarts, 4,710, 4,620, 4,490, 4,365, 4,800,
5.016, 5,009, and 4,900 quarts, or an annual average product of more
than 4,700 ([uarts jier cow, an average of over 1,086 lbs. of cheese annu-
ally ])er cow, with the maxiuuim yield of the best cow rejiorted to have
been 1,144 lbs. of cheese. The above statement should furnish the cheese
dairyman " food for thought," when the average of our dairies does not
exceed 500 gallons of milk a year, .says Lewis F. Allen, of P.lack Rock,
N. Y., who adils, the average ol cheese dairies is only about 350 lbs. pir
cow, and of Initter dairies only 150 lbs.; and others have put these several

83

averages at a less annual product per cow, and the latter are more nearly
right botli according to my observation and knowledge of dairy literature.

" Dowager," a Holstein cow, owned by Gerrit S. Miller of Peterborough,
X. Y., produced in 365 days, 12,68H Ib.s. of milk. " Crown Princess."
gave 74|^ lb.'?, in a day, and 2,081 lbs., in a montli ; her average per day
for .six months was 50J lbs. Topsey, two years old, gave 40^ lbs. milk
per day.

John H. Cower, Gcslien, X. Y., imported the Holstein cow, "Annn,"
"weighing loOO lbs. Her record of milk for eight montlas Avas as follows :
November, 1874, 1,387 lbs. ; December, 1,^395 lbs. ; January, 187-5,
1,418 lbs. • February, 1,20G lbs. ; March, 1,368 lbs. ; A])ril, I'SSl lbs.
May, 1,349 lbs. ; June, 29 days, 1386 lb.s. Eight mouths' product 10,840
lbs. of milk.

Thus much for thoroughbreds. In respect to cross-breds, or grades as
they are popularly called, a few reports are added : A grade Devon is re-
ported as giving 60 lbs. of milk a day. A. A. Moore, East ]5erkshire,Vt.,
reported a cow three-quarter Shorthorn, and one-quarter Ayrshire that
gave 60 lbs, of milk a day, and made 16 lbs. of butter a week. The
famous " Oaks Cow," of Dan vers, Mass., made 19| lbs. of butter in a
week, and averaged 16 lbs. a week for months; her largest milk yield
was 44^ lbs. a day. A cow kept in Lewes, England, gave 10, .578 lbs of
milk in a year from which 540 lbs. of butter were made. A ^ Jersey,
and \ Ayrshire cow, owned by Henry Saltonstall, Pealiody, Mass. gave
13,065 lbs. of milk in one year ; her largest yield was 60 lbs., or 28 ([uarts
a day, 8. Crosley, of Lowell, Mass., had a grade cow that gave 58 lbs.
of miik a day for the month of July. " Old Creamer,' a grade Hhorthotr.
according to the best information that I can obtain, as repoited gave 102^
lbs. of milk in a day an average of 96 lbs. or of 45 quarts a day for the
month of June.

I give " Old Creamer's " pedigree as found in the .Tefferson County
Journal, with her production of milk as it was published on March 14,
1877. Gen. Hungei-tord, of Adams, bought her, on tbe representation
that she was pai-t Ayrshire and part Shorthorn. He L;is never nuiintaiu-
ed she was thoroughbred, but that she Avas I Ayrshire and ^ Slioithorn,
as she was sold to him for, and her prohle tends to confirm that idea.
We give " Old Creamer's " record for four days in .June, 1873, when she
made her famous yield of 400 lbs of good milk in four days. Avitli the
dates, hours of milking and weight of each milking, just as we ]»ul)lished
it in our columns at the time, and which Mr. Hungerford and the man
■who eared for the cow are willing to verify under oath.

1873.

7 A. M.

12 m.

5 p. M.

Total.

June 10th

33 lbs.

3Ulbs.

33ifts.

98 Il)s.

June 11th

33^

33j

34"

1001

June 12th

32|

341

33

100

June 13th

33

34

Uh

lOli-

Four days 132 133 135 400

It is true the yield of milk is enormous, so that even many who saw the
cow, large as she is and with an udder perhaps larger than any cow liv-
ing, doubted the story until they went and saAv her milked and saw the

84

milk weighed. Mv. Hungerford's neighbor, John C. Cooper, President
of the Agricultural Insurance Company of Watertown N. Y., was a
disbeliever, and on June 13tii lie Avent at noon and saw her milked and
saw the milk weiglied, and also was present at the milking in the after-
noon, at one of which milkings the product weighed 34 lbs. and at the
other 34|^ lbs. He with many others who witnessed the milking and
weighing at one time and another became thoroughl}^ convinced that
"Old Creamer" did just what it was stated, gave an average of 100 lbs.
of milk per day. Now as to her feed. " Old Creamer " will not noAV
and never would drink milk, and never has drank a pint of
milk since Mr. Hungerford has owned her. At the time she
made her wonderful record she was fed four quarts of ground
oats and bran mixed half and half, three times per day. She was
up to her eyes in clover and liad all she could wish to eat, and there is
every reason to believe that she peiformetl just what was claimed for her
which opinion the people of this vicinity hold and are convinced of its
truth.

A. Scott, of Craftsbury, A^t., reported a " Native" cow 9 years old, in
1876. that made 42 lbs. of butter iu 14 days, at the rate of 3 lbs. a day.
The first four months while in the barn slie made 289 lbs., and in the 8
months following she made 500 ll)s. At the end of the year, twelve
months she made 633 lbs. A few years ago he had a cow that made 504
lbs. in a year. The former of these cows was fed on hay made of early
cut grass, in Avinter with four quarts of potatoes night and morning, with
pasture range in summer, as reported. Another native cow, six years old,
in tAvelve months gave 5100 quarts of milk, 10,965 lbs., averaging about
14 quarts a day for the year. The milk was sold for six cents a quart,
amounting to .'9312.60 ; the calf when four weeks old sold for $9, making
a total of what was sold from this cow in one year, $315. The authentic
record of a coav in Sussex, England, showed a return of .f365 in gold for
one year.

Thus have I at some lengtli shown the possibilities of cows among
thoroughbreds of the different races and breeds of cattle from well au-
thenticated statements ; also of cross-l)reds and what are called " natives. '

According to the late census returns of Mass. for 1875, the average daily
product for 126,034 cows was 5.41 ijuart.s of milk, an annual average per
cow of 1974| quarts or 4255i lbs. per aniuim. The average yearly returns
per cow was $53.60, from which must be deducted the cost of feeding and
taking care of the cows per head. According to United States census for
1870, the average milk yield per cow througli the year for Massachusetts
was 4 quarts ])er day ; Vermont, 4.10 quarts per day; New York 5h
quarts; Michigan, 3.41; Iowa, the Centennial butter medal State
averaged but 2.44 quarts of niillk per cow ; Indiana, 1.93 quarts ; Illinois
2.36; Missouri, 1.20; these; lour States last named own one-tifth of all
the cows in the United States, which average but 2. 1 2 quarts daily per
cow. No wonder, from this view, that the American dairy business fails
to pay liberal dividends to tho.se who are engaged in dairy Inisbandry.

Every dairyman kiiow.s, as every breeder of thoroughbred dairy stock
will admit, that over the United States and Canada, iirobably not
one per cent, of the milch cows arc thoroughbreds, including Ayrshires,
Devons, Holsteius and Shorthorns, the most common of the imported

85

tlioroughl)reds, ami, as has been noticed, the besb for dairy purposes. Al-
lowing one per cent, for thoroughbreds, and nine per cent, for cross-breds,
that are half-bloods by crossing thoroughbred bulls of the aforesaid breeds
with the nondescripts commonly called '' natives," some of which cross-
breds, ay, many of which are good milch cows, and that leaves 90 per
cent, of " natives" which go to make up the dairy herds of the United
States and Canada. " Of this 90 per cent, of ' natives,' they fiiU below
giving three times their live weight of milk per annum," says Prof. Arnold
in his work on American Dairying. The sameAvriter says, '' An aveiage
herd of thoroughbred Ayrshires fairly fed and cared for will produce six
times their live weight (which is almost 1,000 lbs. i)er cow) in a year,
while there are cows of this breed that will do very much better, and it is
doubtful whether any other breed will make as good an average in propor-
tion to their weight. Their milk requires from 20 to 25 lbs. to make a
pound of butter. The Jerseys, if well fed produce five times their live
weight per cow — annually. It rec^uires 18 lbs. of their milk to make one
pound of butter, [Jersey cows average in live weight from 700 to 900 lbs.
and upwards.] The Holsteins will produce from 3 J to 4 times their live
weight (1500 lbs, per cow) per annum in milk." Take " DoAvager,"
Gerrit S. INIiller's Holstein cow tliat produced 12,681 pounds of milk in
a year, (her weight 1500 lbs.) making 8_^ times her live weight in milk
per annum, thus greatly beating the Ayrshires set down by Prof. Avjfiqld
as " the highest producers of milk of any breed in proportion to.their
weight." Shorthorns will equal the Holsteins in the ratio of milk pro-
duction in proportion to live Aveight.

Do not lose sight of the statement of Prof. Arnold, that 90 percent, of
the flairy stock of the United States and Canada fall below the produc-
tion of three times their live Aveight of milk, Avhile thoroughbred Ayr-
shires produce six times their live weight of milk annually, Jerseys five
times their live weight, and Holsteins 8-^- times their bve weight while at
the same time they are one thiixl heavier than the Ayrshires, and more
than that Avhen compared Avith the Jerseys. The same that is true of
Holsteins in regard to milk production is alse true of Shorthorns.

('harles M. Beach, near Philadelphia, matle a careful experiment Avliich
he reported as folloAvs : He took three pure Jerseys, three grades and
three " natives," and carefully conducted his experiment for one week.
The coAvs Avere essentially in the same condition, and Avere fed on the
same kind of food. Each lot averaged about the same time from calving.
It was found that to make one pound of butter the following quantity of
milk from each group of cows was required : —

Of 3 pure Jerseys it took 6.| quarts.

Of 3 Grades, " Sj "

Of 3 " Natives," "11
The terms, "Natives," " Grades," as ordinarily used, I have learned
from observation and conversation, signify " cross-breds," where the
breeding and blood of the bull is known, Avhile that of the cow is entirely
unknown, a nondescript, indescribable, that cannot be classified as to
blood, breeding or definite ancestry. Such cattle are called " Natives,"
and Avhen used as defined above, it signifies a large class of the stock
both in the United States and in Canada — 90 per cent. Says Prof.
Arnold, I have not unfrequently seen pens of cattle on exhibition at
10

86

cattle shows labelled " pure natives," when it was manifest to all Avho had
the slightest acquaintance with the difterent races and breeds of cattle
from the British Isles and Europe, that they were cross-breds easily trac-
ed to their progenitors. Such cattle are " natives " in the sense of the
term as I have detined. Cross-breds or mongi-els, as they are called by
some, as demonstrated by the foregoing statements, are often good dairy
stock. No dairyman should fail to remember, however, that he is in-
debted to thorough-bred balls of milking ancestry for this improvement.

I heard an old dairyman of Herkimer County say, that in that old
famous dairy section about one third of the cows kept in that County did
not pay the expenses of keeping ; tliat another third just about paid the
cost of keeping ; and that from the other third came all the profits that
accrued from dairy husbandry. Notvvrthstanding this low estimate of the
average cow in Herkimer, by one old dairyman, another dairyman equally
intelligent and well known in the same county, informed me that he had
averaged 800 lbs. of cheese per cow in the dairy season for a series of
years, and in one season his average was upwards ol 900 lbs. per cow.
These cows were cross-breds, the improvement thus made come from the
introduction of Shorthorn bulls of milking tribes of this famous breed of
cattle.

My purpose in presenting this view of the subject assigned me, viz.,
" Dairy Stock," adding thereto, " The Possibilities of Milch Coavs," was
and is to awaken an interest among dairymen ; and I concluded that I
could not do it more forcibly and eftectively than by presenting such
a view of the subject as should enable them to contrast what they have
been doing fronr year to year, Avith the posibUities that are within their
reach, as demonstrated by Avhat others have done under like circum-
stances. I trust and hope that the foregoing statemsnts collated with
care from what are deemed trustworthy sources ot recorded results among
milk producers, may awaken a deep reformatory interest among the dairy-
men of the United States and Canada in the work of improving their
dairy stock. Skilful breeding and feeding of dairy stock lie at the foun-
dation of this improvement.

Members of the American Dairymen's Association,— Will you iir-
augurate this work of improvement in breeding and feeding your dairy
stock, those who have not already done so, or will you continue in the tra-
ditions of your ancestors 1 Time will reveal yoffr answer to this question
I trust in favor of Progress and Improvement.

DISCUSSION.

Prof. E. W. Stewart of Buffalo, N. Y., was the fij-st speaker. He said
in his experience the male always transmitted improvements in stock,
Avhile the female should be selected in breeding for her conservative qu.al-
ities. Dr. Sturtevant of the Scientijic Fanner, remarked that there was
an unfounded prejudice among dairymen and farmers. He said he didn't
like a large cow ; 900 lbs for an Ayrshire and 1 200 lbs. for a Holstein
was as heavy a cow as he wanted. He found this to work most economi-
cally. Harris Lewis, of Herkimer Co., N. Y., said large cows are not the
most practicable in a hilly country. He thought there was no better and
more profitable or cheaper scope for improvement than by cultivating our
native cattle. This object could be accomplished best and cheapest by

87

selecting a pure male and the best of the native cows for breeding pur-
poses. He used Shorthorns because his farm was well suited to them.
Under some other circumstances he Avould prefer some other breed. There
was use for all the breeds, — even the natives had their uses. The Alder-
ney milk he thought would not be profitable to sell in the city markets
nor to carry to a cheese factory, is too rich to compete with milk which,
when it gets to the consumer is i water, and there is no justice in mix-
ing it with the milk of common cows for cheese where all the milk goes
in by weight.

Mr. Arnold explained that the Ahlerney milk, when used separately
for cheese, had been found to be quite as profitable as the larger yields
from other breeds. Bonfoy of Herkimer Co., X. Y., said it is wellknown
that beef characteristics were of very much easier attainment than milk
charactei-istics. Lewis remarked that, in his experience, if ever in the
life of a cow there was a period of excessive fatness that cow was ever
after prone to the secretion of fat, to the detriment of milk. Whenever
he had such a cow he turned hei riglit over to the butchers, and supplied
her place with a good milker.

There was also an abatement of the milk giving tendency by disuse —
in allowing cows to dry up soon after coming in.

Mr, Burchard, of Illinois, asked if feeding cows heavily on corn would
be likely to injure them for future usefulness!

Mr. Lewis replied that there was risk of injury. This quesrion was
further discussed by Messrs. Bonfoy, Burchard and Lewis.

Prof. Stewart compared the nutritive and respiratory matter in the
difl'erent grains, showing that corn was not so well adapted to the pro-
duction of milk as some other kinds of food, such as oats, oil meal,
bran, etc. He related an interesting account of an experiment iii pro-
ducing a large frame by feeding a calf with bone forming material, and
afterward with loading it with fat and flesh by selection of food.

Dr. Sturtevant read a statement embodying some very peculiar results
in the milk from the different teats of the same cow.

Other speak'ers participated in the discussion, which was prolonged till
adjourned to meet at 2 p.m. next day.

On Wednesday, the second day, Leander Wetherell was called to pre-
side as one of the Vice-Presidents. The first talk was by Harris Lewis,
on " Butter Making."

Mr. Lewis opened with the remark that good butter is sometimes pro-
duced under a great variety of circumstances — because each observes some
of the cardinal principles required in the art. One for example produces
milk of extraordinary quality ; another provides a choice milk room ;
another has the advantage of siiperior spring water ; another with inferior
advantages is extremely expert in obsei-ving the changes in his milk and
cream and adapting his treatmtnt to them; Avhile still another is excep-
tionally cleanly. Each excellence ovemdes the o])posing defects and se-
cures fair residts, but they must all be observed in making gilt edged but-
ter. He then proceeded to describe his own practice by which he secures
a very choice product. He does his milking at regular intervals — 5

a. m. and 5 p. m. — -and each milker always milks the same cows and al-
ways in the same order*. Or-der is said to be Heaven's first law. It is,
at any rate, so fundamental that the lower animals — coays in particulai* —

88

like to observe it. This course makes the spaces between milkings just
12 hours, which woukl not be tho case if the same order was not observed
at each milking. I consider it important that the milking should be done
quickly and quietly. Kind treatment is of the utmost consequence in
getting good milk and good butter. Fear and affection have opposite in-
fluences in milk secretion. The latter assists in making the secretion
perfect. The former always injures it and sometimes to such an extent
as to make it absolotely unhealthy, and even poisonous. I would not
have a brutal milker in my yard if he would work for nothing.

The milk as soon as drawn is strained through a muslin bag into Jew-
ett pans, Avhich are large enough to hold the whole of a milking of my
31 cows, and not be more than six inches dee]). In hot weather I turn
cold water round tlie jians and cool the milk down to sixty degrees, and
if it is very wai-ni I use ice and cool down to 5S. In cold weather I cool
to 65 only. The milk stands 46 to 47 hours before skimming, provided
it does not begin to sour before tliat time. I make it a point always to
skim as soon as acidity is apparent. I take one-third of the bulk of the
milk as cream, and let it stand 12 or 24 hours, till it all T)ecomes of the
same condition. If in this time it is likely to get much sour I stir in
salt. Cream which is just a little suur churns easier, makes the more
and the better and longer keeping butter than to churn sweet or much
sour.

I have a choice in churns. It is a singular circumstance that the
oldest churn in use — the old dash churn — was made on correct princi]>Jes.
It is as good as any in use now. All churns operating by friction injure
the grain of the butter and no remedy can restoie it. There are other
churns which work on the same principle as the dash churn and do just
as well and work eisier. I use the Oscilating churn. Butter should
not be churned too soon. Too quick churning makes poor butter :
churned in three minutes it is worth three cents a pound ; in 30 minutes,
thirty cents a pound. On no account would I put off cluirning longer
than till the cream gets slightly acid. If I had not cream enough for a
churning I would make the bulk large enough by putting in more milk.
It is a irood plan to have a good deal of milk mixed with the cream. The
more the better. The whole milk may be churned witli advantage. The
propriety of doing so is only a question of power.

I consider it a matter of much importance not to iiUow the butter to
be formed in a mass in the churn — that is it should not be i/nt/iered. To
prevent gathering I stop the cluirn just before the butter is ready to form
into a mass, and by turning in cold water reduce the contents c»f the
churn to 55 or 56 degreess and then fini.-di the churning very slowly. By
so doing the butter in A^ery small lumps, or as we call it, in a r/ramihir
form, varying from the size of peas down to grains of wheat, or smtiUer.
The temperature at which I churn varies from 58° to 64° according to
the weather — in the hottest weather at 58, in the coldest at 64. In one
case it grows warmer by churning, and in the other colder, so that tlie
mass is about 60 when done. At this temperature (60) butter will not
form in grains in the churn. It is so soft the granules will stick together
and "come in a lump. Hence the necessity of cooling down to 55 or 56
— at this low tempeiature it will form into granules which will be so hard
they can be handled without adhering, and as the insile ot these little

89

lumps is entirely free from biittei* milk without any kneading, I regard
this as a matter of great im])oi-tance, foi" it not only saves the labor of
working the butter milk out, but it avoids the injury to the texture of
the butter in sei>arating the butter milk. When the mass in the churn
has been cooled and the butter formed into granules, I draw off the but-
ter milk and churn the butter a little, slowly in cold watei' or brine, and
this does the washing pei-fectly. The watei- oi- brine turned into the
churn should be quite cold and enough used to fill the chuni about as full
as it was before the butter milk was diawn out. If the churn is not
fitted for drawing ofi' the' butter milk, the buttei- may be skimmed out
and put into a separate vessel of cold water and washetl by stii'i'ing with
a spatula or a common butter ladle. To lemove the granulated butter
from the chuiii after working, I use a wootlen dipper or ladle with holes
in the bottom like a skimmer to let the water diip away, and lay the but-
ter on an inclined butter worker so that the water may drain away from
it. This done I stir in an ounce and a half of salt for each jiound of but-
ter, This I find salts the butter just one ounce to the pound, the exti-a
half ounce being cai-ried away by the water which sticks to the butter.
This is about right for people living inland. Those living near the sea
require a little less salt. I find I can stir the salt in quicker and more
evenly than I can work it in, and thus by ijranulatiiKj the butter in the
churn instead of gatheriny it, I have the further advantage of salting
without any working. After standing for about six hours for the salt to
strike in, and for the butter to assume a tempei'ature of about 60° (the
pio])er temperatui'e for woi-king butter) a little pressing brings it to a
solid mass and expresses the excess of brine, and the buter is I'eady for
jiacking or for market. An inclined slab and lever are iised for this jmr-
pose. Butter thus made has a grain to it so distinct that at 60 degrees
it will break mth a distinct fracture like cast iron, and it will have a
fresh and rosy flavor and a keeping quality that does not belong to butter
which is worked to get the butter milk out, and worked to get the salt in,
and then worked again to get the brine out, and a good many work it a
foui-th time when packing by pawing it round with a ladle. When but-
ter is packed it sliould be pressed to its place and not pulled about, or
even smoothed down with the ladle.

i pack my butter in wooden tubs because I have nothing better. We
lack a suitable butter package. We want one that will not readily feel
the ertect of changing temperature, that will not be affected from soakage,
that will he air-tiglit, that Avill be light and neat, and so cheap as not to
require returning if it has far to go. In the absence of such a ])ackage
thi' wooden one is as good as any one we have. It does very well if
it is properly piM^oared. A great deal of butter is injured and some spoil-
ed by not properly preparing the wooden packages before using. The sap
and woody taste should all be removed from it before receiving the but-
ter. This can be done by soaking in boilmg hot brine, or, if steam is at
hand, it can be cleansed perfectly by a very short application of super-
heated steam. Wattn" alone, either cold or hot, will not do it, nor Avill
cold brine extract tlu^ whole of the flavor from the pores of the wood.

Ques. — You spoke of varying the degree for churning from 58 to 64
degrees to meet the varying temperature of the room, so that when the
work is done the contents of the churn would be at 60 degrees, If the

90

temperature of the cliurn room was at 60 degrees, or just what you de-
sired for churning, would you under all circumstances churn at the same
temperature 1

Ans. — No. The colder the milk and cream have been kept, the higher
the temjierature of the churning^ and vice versa.

Q«es. — What is the temperature of the spring water used for cooling
your milk 1

Ans. — I haA^e no spring water for my milk i"0om. I have a cistern in
the cellar under the milk room Avhich receives the water from the roof
and cools it to the temperature of the cellar which is 60 degxees. The
water fi'om the cistern is pumped up into a reservoir a little higher than
the pans containing the milk, and when desired is spouted under the pans
and then passes back into the cistern and again cooled.

But little cooling is needed as my dairy room is well protected against
both heat and cold. Its walls are tight and double with a dead air space
of 5 inches between. It is so protected against heat that when cooled by
the night air, and closed by day, it keeps quite cool and with little vari-
ation. I set the milk shallow so it cools readily. My pans are 7 inches
deep but I never fill them over 6 inches deep, and generally not so deep
as that. I w(jnld as soon set the milk deeper if I had cool spring water.

Ques. — What do you think of Mr. Hardin's method t I think it is a
Avoman-killer. It is such hard work to lift the pails in and out of his
cooling cupboards. I tried it and laid it by. I got more cream by it,
but no more nor any better butter tlian I could get witli much less labor
by using large pans.

Ques. — Is there any difference between tlie cream rising first and last
in regard to quality or churning 1

Ans. — The cream which rises first churns the sooner and makes the
better butter.

Adjourned to Thursday.

On Thursday met at 2 p. m., Vice-President Wetherell in the chair"
An elaborate paper was read by Dr. Sturtevant on the " Philosophy of
Dairying.

PHILOSOPHY OF DAIRYING.

BY E. LEWIS STURTEVANT, M. D., WAUSHAKUM FARM, SOUTH FRAMINGHAM,

MASSACHUSETTS.

The era of associated dairying first inauguiated by Jesse Williams, of
Rome, N. Y., in IH.')!, has had a remarkable developemental efiect upon
the dairy interests of the country. From a ])ursuit considered but as an
incident of farm ])ractice, the manufacture of milk has ])ecome a leading
industry in which a large capital is invested, and an enormous ])roduct
of manufactured goods turned out. In \H'A, but one factory in opera-
tion in the country, using the milk of but two dairies, and receiving a
fimcy price of seven cents a poimd for its cheese. In 1861, the factories
had increasful to fifty-six. In 1864, we have record of the increase to
402. In 1866, the 'number had increased to .500. In 1871, to 1281.
In 1876, according to the estimatt^ of 1^. B. Arnold, the nxnuber of fac-
tories in operation is 4500, the number of cows tributary about 1,000,-
000, and the cheese production about 180,000,000 pounds. During this

91

interval, from 1851 to date, the price of cheese has been, at times, at
twenty-eight cents a pound, or four times what Mr. Williams received.

Such a rapid and exceptional growtli could not but have an influence
on the farmer, and hence a corresponding increase in dairy farms, and a
rivalry amongst producers. Instead of the former home market at the
nearest grocery, for the cheese of the farm, the prodiice of the factories
sought central markets and points of disti'ibiition. A new class of fac-
tors sprung up, who Ijought in large quantities, and attended to the dis-
tribution of the factory yields, and thus gave a general tone of stead-
iness to the mai'ket. At times, however, there has appeared to be an
overproduction, but this mainly, perhajis, from the (piantities of poor
product forced upon a sensitive market. At such times, when })oor
cheese has been a drug, those factories which had a reputation for a cheese
of an extra quality found quick sales and a satisfactory })rotit, Jind soon
it was generally recognized that the higher success attended the better
practice.

At the annual meeetings of the Dairymens' associations, organizations
which sprung up from the mutual dependence of dairy interests, large
numbers of the most progi'essive factory men and milk raisers, met and
discussed methods and practices, and around these as a nucleus clung
manufacturers and jiatentees of dauy utensils, and dealers in dairy stock
and produce, and from this intercommunion it soon became widely real-
ized how much benefit to practice was derived from intelligence. It was
found that the mere telling of practices which were claimed as successful
by some, and denied by others, was of account in enabling the difficulties
to be met and overcome, but that facts were needed, and a special intel-
ligence directed to their study in order that the reason vjhy should appear.
Hence a call upon science to aid, and science in turn called upon the
practical man for assistance, and hence, as is iisually the result of an ear-
nest call, the man appeared in the form of numerous practical men Avith
a fail- education and a leaning towards scientific method.* ; and united
efibrt has done nuich to investigate into causes, to ex[)laiu and suggest,
and has succeeded in elevating the character of our dauy nianulacture,
and making happy the homes of our daiiy owneis.

In this manner, and of tliis genesis, was the phil>sophy vi dairying,
audits course must be traced through a study of indivitlual contributions
of what has been done in the way of reasoning fi-um causes, and of the
efficiency of their conclusions.

As we are treating of American dairying, we shall use for our purpose
the reports of the American Dairymens' Association, and .shall confine
ourselves to these volumes, ignoring the work which has appeared else-
where in strictly scientific publications, oi- in general dairy treati.ses. As
we necessarily shall have to deal with the writings of gentlemen still liv-
ing, and many of whom are within sound of our voice, \\'e must apologize
in advance for our boldness, and claim the ju.stification of an honest en-
deavor to realize the judgment of ])Osterity, for this centennial purpose.
If we overlook or misjudge any one, it is unintentional, for our personal
relations with our daii-ymen are of the friendlie ;t character, ami we desire
to do full justice.

Philosophy is the knowledge of phenomena as explained by causes and
reasons. The philosophy of dairying is therefore the reasoning applied

92

towards tlie explanation of facts obsei'ved in practice or assumed to exist,
and this explanation may originate from the effect oi- from the cause.

The first appearance of j)hilosophy applied to dairying, that we note
in our reports, is from the \)en of Anson Bartlett, of Ohio, in the first
annual ie})oi-t of the Ameiican Dairymens' Association, 1865, page 83.
He there endeavors to explain the occurrence of taint in milk from the
formation of gaseous products through the decomiiosition of the albumen
of the milk, and to support his hypothesis (we use his word,) he reasons
from the chemical analyses, and his own observations upon the treatment
of milk Avhieh had become tainted. We have here a true philosophy,be-
cause causes are sought, and an endeavor is made to connect these
with the effects. In the fourth report, 1868, page 38, L. B. Arnold, of
New Yoik, accepts the fact of there being gas in the milk which may
I'esidt in taint, and reasoning from the })hysical natui'e of gases, he sug-
gests the cause of its action. He calls this gas " odor" and says, " milk
with the odor out has, in my experience, invariably soured instead of
tainting." He proceeds with his reasoning and statement of experiment,
and theorizes that, in connection with the rennet, this " odor" or gas be-
comes a ferment, which evolves new gases, which, acted upon by the tem-
perature, swell and bulge out the cheese, Ac, &c. His conclusion is that
"it is the infectious gas oi- odor that does the destructive woi"k in new
milk, and it must be got out to l)e avoided." Dr. Westcott, of New
York, holds, on the contraiy, that " putrefactive fermentation commences
the very instant the milk leaves the cow, &c., and adduces the milk glo-
Iniles, with their " sjiecific levity," in his argument, and finally reasons
that the milk must be cooled to " kill" the changes which occur in the
milk, and the "■ coolhtg medium must he applied to tM tipper surface of
the milk to be cooled." (The italics are his.) Mr. B. B. Moon, of New
York, page Go, attributes floating curds, through a process of reasoning
and from observation, to the intioduction of ])utrid germs, and is finally
led to the belief that the ccntse is that putrid fermentation takes the lead
over lactic fei'mentation, " producing offensive gases that expand the ])ar-
ticles of curd, thus decreasing their s})ecitic gravity." Mr. G. W. Davis,
of New York, on page 67, ascribes the taint to the furnishing of stag-
nant and imimre water to the cows, but this is offerred more as a state-
ment tlian as a jirocess of reasoning.

In the fifth animal report, 18G9, page 17, Ave find an admirable address
by Professor Ueorge C. Caldwell, of Coniell University, xijion '* Fer-
mentation and Putrefaction in their relations to the manufactiu'e of
cheese." He develops the fact that every case of fermentation or j)utre-
faction is attended with the development or growth of living organisms,
and that " these organistns are the carise of fermentation and patre/action,"
and that these gei'ms of putrefying matter are contained in the (lust of
the atmosphere, itc, andtliat the results of their j)resence or. the fluid
depend more uj)on the chemical comjiosition of the substance that is de-
com}»osed than upon the species of fungus producing the decomposition.
In the course of his remarks he brings out the fact that the separation of
the butter is j)urely jdiysical, while the other changes in the milk are
much less simph^, being largely chemical ; on account, therefore, ot its
chemical nature, milk fresh from the cow requires special treatment to
preserve it in its palatable form for a reasonable length of time. He

93

shows the changes of milk called souring to depend upon the conversion
of siiwar of milk into lactic acid. He shows that this is a true case of
fermentation, and is accompanied by the presence of organisms. He ad-
vances that these organisms, called micro-coccus, are presumably always
present in milk. He shows the temperature at which these micro-cocci
best develop or grow, and hence reasons that the bringing of the milk to
a low temperature will retard theii' development, and thus assist in pre-
serving the milk. He then speaks of the curdling of milk, and the action
of rennet, and connects this action with the presence of a ferment. He
ascribes taint to similar causes, and explains the ripening process which
cheese undergoes to a like cause.

In this address we have the first appearance of a philosophy applied
to milk as a whole, and it is strong evidence of the A^alue of a trained
scientific mind to men engaged in practical pursuits.

In the same volume, page 126, appears a valuable paper by L. B. Ai'-
nold, on " Rennet, its nature and use," where by a series of philosophical
reasoning from experiments, the fact isdeveloped that rennet acts through
cells which it supplies to the milk, and is thus of the nature of a ferment.,
Thus imperceptibly has the question of taint, with which we commenced
passed into the broader one of ferment.

In the thii'd report, 1867, page 70, Professor Brewer, of Yale College,
brought to the attention of dairymen that ferment produced changes in
milk, and the reasons for the scalding of })ans.

In the second report, 1866, page 116, Mr. Anson Bartlett refei-s the
changes which so readily takes place in milk to its very complex chemical
nature, and to the liigh, combining numbers of many of its constituents,
and hence the danger in exposing milk to putrefiictive odors, <fcc. In the
first report, 1865, pages 126 and 129, he ascribes bad flavor and porous-
ness of cheese to the milk, evidently having in mind taint and its con-
comitants, and to that hurry which prevents the proper treatment indi-
cated by experience.

In the seventh report, 1871, page 99, we have given an account of the
passage of fungi spores through the blood of the animal and of their ap-
pearance in the milk, through a course of reasoning based on experiment
by Professor James Law, of Cornell University.

The conclusion from these observations must be that, in ferments, and
their methods of access and their character and history, we have an effici-
ent cause for the effects known as souring of milk, taint, floating curds,
&c. This is the result of the philosophy which has engaged many labor-
ers, but which the gentlemen above named have been active agents in
bringing before a dairy public, and to whom we have endeavored to give
the proper credit.

The first reasoning that we find before the dairymen concerning the
milk globule is by L. B. Arnold, and is to be found in the third report,
1870, page 80. Herein was an attempt to account for a practice through
a theory. In the seventh report, 1871, page 96, we find more reasoning
by this gentleman, wherein the milk globule takes part. We have prob-
ably overlooked his use of the milk globule in theorizing concerning but-
ter-making, for we have frequently heard him discuss the subject from
the globule point of view. In his late valuable work entitled American
Dairying, the fruit of his riper experience, we note an apparent abandou-

»

94

rneut of his earlier ideas, the result of greater maturity in his methods of
thought, and a uiore thorough training.

In the ninth report, 1873, page 132, occurs the most fundamental phi-
losophy concerning milk that we have seen. You will pardon the author
for referring to his own work in tliis connection, but his plan leaves him
no choice. Dr. E. Lewis Sturtevant, of Massachusetts, studies the
globule from the cow. He attempts to show how these globules are re-
lated to the breed ; their connection with the (piality of the milk, and
with the character of the butter. He has endeavored to a])ply to his dairy
studies the methods of modeni science, and the article referred to here is
but the commencement of a series of demonstrations which have appeared
elsewhere.

In the tenth report, 1874, page 39, the same writer explains the action
of cream from the physical reactions of the milk globule, and the relations
of churning to the structural elen)ent. He philosophizes on the causes
underlying the question of deep and shallow setting of milk.

In the eleventh report, 1875, page 42, occurs an article by Eastburn
Reeder, of Pennsylvania, on " Dairy Farming," wherein he philosophizes
on the relations of temperature to cream, and the effects of the expansion
thereby resulting.

In the tenth report, 1874, page 51, F. 0. Stone, of Ohio, treats of but-
ter, and reasons from experiment upon the absorption of odors, on the
treatment of milk for the purpose of the butter maker.

In the eleventh report, 1875, page 49, L. S. Hardin, of Kentucky, fur-
nishes an article on butter making, and in an entirely practical way, in-
tended to advertise his " system," claims that the cooling of milk and the
keeping of it cool, is of great advantage in butter making. He also ad-
vocates deep setting, and claims that the tight covering of the pails pre-
vents the escape of the aroma from the milk and preserves it for the
butter. This article is more a statement of claimed facts than a })hilo-
sophical one, yet it comes so near the line marked out as a limitation to
our essay, that we have concluded to mention it.

In the tenth report, 1874, page 75, Pi'ofessor Caldwell has an essay on
the " Condition of Fats in Butter and Cheese," philosophical in tone, and
of great interest. He treats of fats, and the reasons for their rancidity,
and their probable method of formation.

In the eleventh report, 1875, i)age 104, this same writer treats of the
" Preservation of milk," and shows by reasoning some of the causes of
decomposition, and how they may be obviated.

"We have now completed our survey of contvibutions to the ])hilosophy
of dairying as they appear in the repoi'ts of the American Dairymen's
Association. We feel conscious that we have overlooked some contribu-
tors, as from the difficulty oftentimes of deciding between statement and
philosoi)hy, we have had feelings of doubt. We think, however, that we
have substantially bi'ought together the class of contril)utions that we
have sought, and while on ^reflection, we feel gratified that there are so
many, yet we must confess to a feeling of surprise that they are so few.

Let us call attention again to our sid)ject^ — the Pliilosoi)hy of Dairying
(American— as afi(!cting our dairy practice.) Were we treating of the
Literatui'e or the Histoiy of Dairying we would not have omitted men-
tion of one whose influence has been paramount over the success and ex-

95

tension of the American Associated System. There are others besides
Mr. Willard, whose names, althoiigh not mentioned here as not being in-
chided within our scheme, are yet deserving of honorable notice.

Upon a careful review of the names we have presented, we would sin-
gle out Professor Caldwell, Mr. L. B. Arnold and Anson Bai-tlett, as the
three wi-iters whose efforts have been marked for originality of presenta-
tion, and as men of a philosophical tone of mind. Their ideas aie not
always new, nor are all of them original, and it would be underrating
their intelligence for us to allow for them such a claim. Their addresses
were, however, new to their audiences, many of their opinions original
with their authois, and all of benefit in influencing thought and action.
Their laboi-s have been of exceeding une, and to these, as well as to many
other dairy writers, must be given the high pi-aise of haA'ing successfully
established an American Agricultural Literature.

PHILOSOPHY OP DAIRYING THOUGHTS FP.OM THE AUTHOR'S STANDPOINT.

The subject of dairying must be studied from tlie cow, as milk is an
animal substance, formed by and for the cow. Its quality as well as its
quantity is largely governed by the individual, and by the breed from
which it is procured. The cow gives to it of its structure, as well as
serves as the medium through which its chemical elements are derived.
Hence milk has its typal i-elations. (1)

Probably no one wordd have the hardiness to claim that the milk of
the ewe and the goat, of the ma.re and of the cow, are identical, and yet
such a claim would be as reasonable as the affirmation that the milk of
all the cows is identically the same. Indeed, reason and experience com-
bine to show that milk in its various samples may be of different specific
gi-avity, may contain different percentages of cream, butter, sugar, albu-
minoids and ash ; that it varies with the individual, with the bi-eed, with
the time of calving, with the feed, and with various other circumstances.

There is a reason for all this, if we but have the patience to seek it.
This reason is in the cow and her structure. We may study either from
the cow to the milk, a priori, or froui the milk to the cow, a posteriori,
and this latter way seems preferable for our purpose.

JIILK.

Milk is a complex fiuid ; it has structural and chemical affinities, and
partakes in its reactions after withdrawal from the udder, of these qualities
which its constitution and history has impressed upon it. Its structural
element is a morphological one ; that is, it lias a form. This form-ele-
ment is mechanically nuxed with the milk, and is subject, in its )"elations
to the rest of the milk, to the physical laws attending a mechanical mix-
ture. Its chemical elements are compounds formed from elements in a
high combining number, and Avhich are readily changed from slight
causes which tend to disturb their equilibrium. One, the sugar of milk,

(1) See Milk ; its Typal Relations, 5th Rej^t. Vt. Dairymen's Ass., 1873 4, 27 ;
9th Rept. Am. Dairymen's Ass., 1874, 132 ; also Remarks on Milk, Ag. Mass.,
1873-4, 93 ; Milk : some consideration concerning its mor^jbology, ib. 1873-4, 374.
Also an unpublished prize essay of the New York Agricultural Society of 1873,
on " Milk," with illustrations from nature of the structure of milk glands. Also
Appendix to "The Dairy Cow, Ayrshire." Milk : its Formation and Peculiar-
ities.

96

is a crystalloid, while the nitrogenous materials are colloids ; this is to
say, that these two classes of bodies are acted on differently by animal
membranes. The bulk of milk is composed of water, a substance rather
inert in its chemical relations, transudative in its relation to membranes,
and influential as a media for the proper distribution and dilution of the
moi'e sought for elements.

THE GLOBULE.

The form element of the milk is the globule. This is an animal cell,
enclosing the fats of the milk, and is formed within the recesses of the
ultimate follicles of the milk gland by a proliferation and separation of
the cells which form their living. They hence are dependent for their
size, and for their number, on the size and activity and number of these
cells, and the number of the cells is determined largely by the number of
follicles contained in the gland. The milk globules, in a word, are at
one time of their histoiy, animal cells, attached to the interior surfaces of
the follicular structiires of the udder glands, and partaking of the struc-
ture, and influenced in character by the cow. These cells are indeed an-
imal growths ; they receive their contents through the vital processes of
the cow, and the mateiial of their contents comes from the blood supplied
by the innumerable capillaries which form a net work about the glands ;
and the blood in turn i-eceives its .supplies through the medium of the
stomach. Thus the forces of the herbage are passed through the agency
of the cow into the cell which is through a process of changes to become
a fat cell, a milk globule, and a component of that butter which renders
our bread so palatable.

What relations then do we expect between the milk globules and the
cow 1 Why, even this, that being a cell, structurally, of the cow, its
covering will be an animal membrane, and must vary in many respects
with the animal of which it was a part. A succulent food, which excites
all action into rapid and juicy growth, will increase the formation of
milk globules, and furnish a large percentage of butter in the milk,
(2) Food which exerts distinct action on the cells of the body, and
which has a particular tendency to affect the cell action of the gland cells
throughout the skin, as does linseed nieal, seems to exert a like influence
which is recognized in the milk. The cells of the glands swell larger
before being detached, and the milk globules are consequently larger. (3)
As we know there is a difference in the meat of cows, that is a variation

(2) For the purpose of illustration we offer some original analyses made for this
purpose by S. P. Sharpless, of Boston, the cows being No. 1 Ayrshire, No. 2
Jersey.

Pasture and fodder com. Pasture and corn meal.

Specific gravity,

Cream .....

Sugar

Casein, etc., ....

Asli,

Fat,

These analyses were pure milk of the same cows in either series, and were of
the evening's milk of Aug. 20 and 27, 1876, the cows having been kept on the food
noted for some time previous to the day when tlie milk was taken.

(3) See my experiment given in Note iu Kept. Conn, Board of Ag., 1874, p.
50, also p. 49,

I.

ri.

I.

II.

1030

1030

1030

1033

.20

.22

.5

.18

5.20

5.(57

3.94

4.19

3.34

2.G4

4.82

5.17

.00

.62

.65

.72

4.34

5.07

2.48

4.35

i

(

97

between their muscle-cells, so should we expect to find variation between
the milk cells of difierent cows, both in resjiect to size and stmcture.
In fact, the enveloping membrane of the milk globule in the Jersey
breed of cow is weaker, or moie readily bi'oken than the corresponding
globule of the Ayrshire cow. (4)

By the action of food, during the milking season of a cow, it is un-
reasonable to su})pose we can inci'ease the secreting surface of the udder,
but we can increase the i'a})idity of action, the \'itality, so to speak, of
the gland action or growth, and thi'ough this increased rapidity, and the
changes of size of the cells thrown off produce change in the product
both as to quality and quantity, until the limit of capacity is i-eached.
The amount of change must be governed largely by the natiire of the
cow, and somewhat by the character of the food and feeding. A starved
cow would be expected to furnish small globules to her milk, a well fed
one globules harmonious with the tji>e of her breed. A special food
would be expected at times to mask the typal relations, and exception-
ally to carry the size above or })elow what we should expect. Again,
just as we exjject the meat of the well fed and skilfully fattened cow to
be tenderer, sweeter, and in every respect better than ordinaiy, so shoiild
we expect tlie coi-responding changes in the character of the globules
furnished to the milk. No amount of good feeding is expected to fatten
a sleazy, ragged cow of the road, into the equal of a high bred, carefully
attended short-horn, because they are structuially different. For this
same reason, we cannot ex|)ect through abundant food to change the
structural element of the milk of the infeiior cow, so that it shall eqiial
the same element of the cow of approved excellence. Hence, breeding
for milk is no misnomer. The ex})ression is philosophical, reasonable,
and in accordance with experience.

Again, the udder is a special gland for a special function. It is under
a certain nei'vous influence and control, thi-ough which it correlates with
the womb. It commences preparatory gland action towards the termin-
ation of pregnancy, and with the apjjearance of the calf is in full activ-
ity. The vessels of supply are active, the cavities of the udder are dis-
tended, and pei'haps engorged, through the active cell, creation. The
products are })ressed u})on by the new supply, and the pressure is given
back thi'ough the i esistance of the elastic tissues. As time goes on, and
the milk is removed, the processes change their activity, thei'e is less of
ranq)ant energy, until finally all this especial action ceases, snd the glands
i-ela})se into a state of qiiiet. We recognize the result under the names
of colostrom, milk, and drying off. During this time, various elements
of distuibance may occur. Nervous influences arising from gestation, or
from causes extei-ual to the cow, i-eact upon the udder action, and there
is a constant loss of and seeking for equilibrium in the gland action.
Hence a variation in the size of the milk globules and in their number,
from milking to milking, and a change which is determinate,
and which is coincident with distance from calving, and
the presence of the foetal life. So we pass from the disturbed and over-
active condition measured by the colostrum, wherein the globules appear
attached to each other and to the basement membranes as if violently

(4) See my experiment in Ag. of Mass, 1873-4, 383.

98

torn off, and show agf^regation into clusters, and segregation from the
])arent cell scarcely complete, to the normal milk with large globule,
varying daily in size, Imt on the average decreasing in diameter with the
lessening activity of the gland action, until finally quite an uniformity
of size, and quite a comparative minuteness preceding the cessation of
the milk flow.

CREAM.

We have, in our milk, globules of different sizes and covered by a mem-
bi'ane of varying toughness. On account of this peculiarity, when our
milk is at rest, " setting" as the tei-m is, the larger globules, on accoimt
of their supeiior buoyancy I'ise to the surface tirst, while the smaller
globules may be so slow of movement as to become entangled in tlie
thickness of the milk, through the changes consequent on time. Hence,
the average size of the globules are greater on the iipper than on the under
suiface of the cream. Because of this arrangement, the globules in equal
numbers do not occupy equal space, but a cream of a million globules
more or less might occu})y a greater oi- less space than another cream of
the same number of globules, but of ditfevent size. As, however, there
is a great variation in size between the different globules in a given milk,
and in the relative number of the different sizes, one cream may contain
a gi'eatei- or less number of globules in a given space, and even a greater
or less quantity of butter. We even have other circumstances affecting
the space to be occui)ied by a given number of glolmles : this is the con-
dition of the other elements of the milk. Oftentimes cream rises entan-
gled with considerable quantities of albuminous element, and
its ap}«irent bulk is very largely increased ; often, indeed, from un-
known causes, the same milk will show marked difference in its cream
pei'centage, in difference glasses and under slightly different conditions of
setting. (5) In brief, changed conditions of the milk as a whole will
affect the action of the milk globule in lisiiig and compacting.

If we take a measure of BB shot which will weigh just 4 ounces, and
another measure of ISTo. 1 0 shot of equal weight, we will find them occu-
pying equal bidks. We can, however, pour a considerable quantity of
the No. 10 into the vessel containing the BB shot, withoxit increasing
the bulk, for the fine shot will occupy the interstices of the larger. In
like manner, a cream containing a large niimber of large and small glob-
ules mixed will contain more butter than the same measui'e of cream of
an unilbrm size of globule, and large ones at that. This is to say, that as
milk always contains globules of A-arious sizes, and of various relative
proportion^ of sizes, we should not expect any definite ])roportion toexi.st
between the percentage of cream and the percentage of butter. (G)

CHURNING.

When our cream reaches the churn, Ave should also expect to find dif-
erences of reaction dependent on the size and structure of the globules.

(5) We have in mind one case wliere the same milk wliich read iit}" 11 percent.
of cream at home, read off 25 per cent, after being transported a few miles the
next morning, an<l then sot ; in anotliur instance the reading changed from 13 to
2!) per cent., and in still another case from 10."; to ;"> percent.

(I)) Aug. 13, 187(5, I took the milk from e?.ch teat of an Ayrshire cow and this
milk kept over night, and then taken to Boston was analyzed by S. P. Sharpless.

99

The largei' globules should churn first, and also, in a competitive trial,
the weaker menibraned-globuled cream should cbnru quickei- than anoth-
er cream wherein the globules have a covering of a tougher character. (7)
We should also expect some of the membranes to be weakened quicker,by
the chemical cliauges progressing in theii vicinity, in one case than in
another. We should expect this action to occur dilfei-ently, in respect to
time, in the milk globules furnished by different breeds of cows.

As the larger milk globules churn more readily tlian the smaller, under
given conditions, that milk which contains the most uniform set of glob-
ules would be expected to churn the most butter in ordinary practice,
from a given jjercentage of fat. When the butter appextrs to have come,
the churning is usxially stoppeil, so as to avoid the evil result of over-
churning ; yet some butter, from the smaller globules, can often^ if not
\isua.lly, be obtained by a prolonged churning of the buttermilk. So also
as the larger the globule the quicker and more easy the (duirning, do we
often find our best butters produced from a lai-ge glolraled milk ; butters
which have a grain, as it is termed. A small globuled milk should be
expected to furnish a butter of less grain ; and one in which the crlob-
ules are very minute : butter Avhich is nearly salvy.

As the character of the butter depends i]i part upon the size of the
globule, and apparently upon the non-disturVjance of the natural arrange-
ment of the butter-fats within the membrane of the globide, we should
anticipate an injury from an overchurning, as an artihcial arrangement
of these fats cannot be expected, by the i)rocess gone through, to equal-
the natural arrangement. Moreover, from the difference of character
presented Vjy different globuled milk, we should ex[)8ct different results
from the churning of cream of different risings. This is to say, the btit-
ter from the first skimming of a pan of milk would be of different quality
from that made from a later skimming. (8)

In the continuation of this line of thought may be sought explana-
tions concerning the deep or shallow setting for cream, hs well as the
effect of temperature upon the risings. Butter making is largely de-
pendent on the structural (qualities of the uiilk, jjerhaps nearly entirely
dependent, consequently the study of butter making, and the explanation

No. 1 was the milk of the right forward teat, No, 2 of the left ftTv.-ard teat. No. 3
of the right rear teat, and No. 4 of the left rear te?„t.

I. II. III. IV.

Yield, in pounds 2.00 1.2.') I 05 . 1 .

>

Specific graAaty 1025 1024 1026 1028

Cream , 25 42 29 24

Sugar 4.09 1.18 3 44 4.20

Casein and Albumen 4.4S 6. 58 5.00 5.50

Ash .69 .61 .66 .67

Solids not fat 9.25 9.37 9.10 10.46

Fat 5.59 4.43 4.39 3.84

Total solids 14.48 13.80 1.3.49 14.30

Per centage of butter to cream 22 10 15 16

(7) In this connection see experiments of mine in Ag. of Mass., 1873-4, pp 378,
379, wherein the time of churning is shown to be co-related -with the f'lobule. See
aJsoib.. p 383.

(8) See Rept. Comi. Board of Ag. 1874. pp. 94, 95.

100

of the clianges whicli so frequently I'ecur in the results of the churning,
may be sought through the study of the milk, going back even to the
cow.

SUGAR OF MILK.

In sugar of milk we have a crystalloid principle which appears in the
milk, but which does not occur, so far as we can determine, in any other
fluid of the body. We know but little as to how the sugar of milk is
formed, or as to how it passes into the milk. We may probably assume
that it is separated from the blood by the characcer of the membranes
through which it passes, and that its appearance wouldbe coincident with
the presence of starchy or saccharine matter in the food. We have rea-
son to believe that the feeding of fodder corn, a food abounding in sac-
charine matter, is followed by an increase of sugar in the milk, and that
the character of the gland determines also the presence of the sugar in a
greater abundance. This is also as we should expect, because the quan-
tity of cellular tissue and membrane, both absolutely and proportionately
must vary with the gland. (9)

If sugar is the result of a dialytic action on the part of the membranes
we should expect the amount of sugar of milk, in the milk, to vary with
the food of the cow, and also to hold great constancy under like condi-
tions of feeding. Indeed, as uiilk is ordinarily taken for analysis from
the whole udder of cows under normal conditions, we Avould be greatly
surprised to find striking differences in the results of different analysis,
and yet we are prepared to look exceptionally for great variations. (10)
Especially should we expect variation caused by the decrease of
tissue activity, and as influenced by the different quantity of milk yield-
ed to the supply by the different glands.

CASEIN.

Casein, or curd, or cheese, is one of the nitrogenized compounds, and
belongs to the class chemically called colloids. As it occurs in the milk,
it is transparent, the whiteness of milk depending on the milk globules
alone. It is probably present in the milk through the action
of the membranes, although this view at present has iu)t been ex-
perimentally pi'oven or shown to be possible. It is, perhaps, a changed
form ot albumen. Indeed, its ultimate analysis differs less from that of
albumen than the analyses of the same substances often differ in the man-
ipulation of different chemists ; yet albumen and casein occur in niilk in
juxtaposition, and while the sura of these two elements may renuiin quite
constant, their relative jjroportions may vary. Accoi'diug to (Imelin,
when, milk is diluted with water, and allowed to sour, it contains
no casein, but only albumen in solution. In the j)resence of casein, as
in normal milk, the albumen is not precipitated b)'' boiling, nor docs it
usually coagulate with the casein in the presence of rennet, although in

(9) In an analysis of milk frojn each teat of an Ayrshire cow, as given in note
6, we have for our determinations of sugar 4.09, 2.18, 3.44 and 4.20 per cent, re-
spectively.

(10) Simon found that neither an al)un(lant nor an insufficient diet influence^
its quality. See Lelmum's I'liys. ("hem. i. '2()4. See also analysis of Tuilk of fast"
ing and well fed women, in Milk Journal of Aug. 1, 1872. See also comparison be"
between the milk of the African and Caucasian race, in Am. Chemist, April, 1S70-

101

the whey, when at a boiling temperature, it is readily pi*ecipitated by the
same re-agents, and also takes on different appearances when precipitated
and dried. It seems to liave a character of its own for each species of
milk, and also for each variety. Human casein shows differently and
acts ditierently from cow casein ; the casein of an Ayrshire's milk from
that of a Jersey's milk, etc. ; yet the differences are often but blight.

This substance occurs elsewhere than in the milk, notably in the inter-
stices of the muscles, and may apj>ear in the product of various glands .
It has been found in the juice of flesh. This would indicate that its ap-
pearance is due to a dialytic action of animal tissue, and that its quantity
would be determined somewhat hj the laws governing the transmission
of compounds through membranes at varying pressures.

If this idea is a correct one, we should look to the glands themselves,
to the quantity and activity of their membrane surface, and to the pres-
sure exerted by the blood and through muscular contractions, for an ex-
planation of such variations as Ave may note in the quantity of the casein
in the milk ; and if we assume that casein receives its propeities from
and by this transinissal through the membrane, (an entirely gratuitous
assumption,) we would infer that an insufficient diet for the cow
would react upon the milk by increasing the proportion of albumen, at
the expense of the casein.

From these premises we could argue that the nitrogenized constituents
of milk would be little influenced by change of food provided the food
was in sufficient quantity and of good quality. That the quantity would
be determined by the extent of gland surface,and that, accordingly, each
gland of the udder would furnish its own quota to the milk. Hence var-
iations in the quantity in the whole milk would occur from the varying
quantity of milk furnished from each gland : yet let us remind our hear-
ers that our premises are rather uncertain, and hence our conclusions
may be somewliat (juestionable. (11) Yet we will continue. We would
infer that in some cases we should find striking variations in the amount
of casein in the milk, according to various circumstances affecting them
in their environment ; yet some cows would be found in which this sub-
stance would ajipear in remarkable constancy. We Avould infer that any
stimulus to gland activity Avould react slightly on the casein element,
and as such gland activity is in a degree structural, we should expect to
find the action more marked in one cow than in another. (12) In a
word, we should expect variation in individual milk analyses, constancy
in milk taken as the average of a herd ; very little influence, on the aver-
age, from change of food or from season ; yet variation consequent upon
increase or decrease of tissue activity and influenced by pressure of the
fluids both from within, outAvards, and vice versa. (13)

(11) 111 the analysis of the milk from each teat of an Ayrshire cow, see mote (>,
the per centages of nitrogenized compounds were found to be 4.48 ; 6.58 ; 5.00 ;
5.59; the apparent average being 5.41 p. c, while the real average was 5.28 per
cent.

(12) In a series of analyses of milk from two cows on similar feed, the variation
in casein, as determined by S. P. Sharpless was as below :

Jersey cow, 1st period, 4.42 ; 2d do., 2.64 ; 3d do., 5,17.

Ayrshire coAV, 1st period, 3.34 ; 2d do., 4.13 ; 3d do., 4.82,

It will be understood that each period was on a changed food.

(13) See Kept. Conn. Board of Ag., 1874, p. 62.

12

102

The weak point of our reasoning regarding casein, however, is in our
premiaes, which are largely based on reading — quite little on our own
investigations, and which, at the best, are largely suppositive. We are
not aware that sufficient knowledge concerning this substance has been
recorded, or that investigations regarding the method of its formation
have been made. Our conclusions must, therefore, be considered largely
tentative and subject to future revision.

ASH IN MILK.

The ash element of the milk may be assumed to appear from the mem-
brane enclosing the globules, and from the albummoid combinations.
This assumption is as good as any other that we can offer until the matter
ie better understood, tor there is some reason for this belief. We but
mention the matter to call attention to how little we know about it. We
are aware that the presence of a membrane Avhich is to furnish an ash, is
denied by some, but our reason tells us that it must exist, and our obser-
vation has told us that it does. A series of studies on milk will not be
complete until this matter of ash, whence it is derived, and how it ap-
pears, is investigated.

WATER IN MILK.

Water is the most abundant portion of milk, usually comprising aliout
85 or 86 per cent, of its weight. It lias its uses in the udder, reasoning
from the structure of this organ, and from the action of membraneous
tissues, in aiding the passage of the other elements of milk through the
membranes, in lubricating the inner glands, and in removing the material
from the secreting glands into and through the ducts into the reservoirs.
It acts thus to obviate the risk of impaction of the globules. It is prob-
ably transudative in the method of appearance, and is probably absorbed
by the tissues from the udder into the circulation, as well as issuing from
the membranes of the capillaries, etc., as such is the law of osmose re-
lating to fluids of different densities, different chemical structure and
under varying pressure.

We will now proceed to philosophise concerning milk as a whole, pass-
ing by the attractive field of correlative gland activities, and the influ-
ence of localized action of one part of an animal on another, as well as
the subject of correlative structure as influencing the quality of milk. (14)
It will be necessary to repeat ourselves somewhat, but by so doing we
shall give a stronger unity to our scheme.

MILK.

From Avhat we have, already said, it will be realized that milk is a
complex fluid, with chemical and mechanical afiiaities varying in quality
from milking to milking, according to tlie breed of cow, feed,
time of milking, etc., etc., ; that when considered in bulks, that is, as
the product of irumerous cows, it shows quite a stable composition, and
varies more with the season from calving, than from sample to sample.

When milk is allowed to remain ;»t rest, we have first made evident
the .structural olement, in the rising of the cream, and the thickness of
this deposit is dependent not .so much upon the amount of butter in the

(14) For a slight discussion of this subject sec chapter on "The Ideal Ayr-
ahire" in the "The Dairy Cow-Ayrshire."

103

milk as on the arrangement of the globules, and on the condition of the
medium in and upon which they float. As the cream stands, it compacts
more or less, accoixling to its condition physically and relatively. The
globules become weakended as to their membranes. In the course of
time an acid condition of the milk supervenes, and the caseous element
of the milk separates in a white mass, known as curd. At a later date
the sugar of milk becomes decomposed, and in time an alcoholic or pu-
trefactive fermentation takes place, and an extremely otiensive odor is
evolved. The surface of the cream meanwhile, as ottering lodgment for
the atmospheric dust and fungi sporules, takes on a fungous growth, the
blue mould. Ultimately all the milk disappears in the course of decom-
position, as but a little ash is left, a mineral matter which cannot escape
into the air on account of its nature.

During the process of milking, some of the globules are liable to have
their membrane broken and the membrane is constantly weakening, on
account of the influences brought to bear on it from the medium in which
they float. Hence, fi-ee oil is often to be detected both in new and old
milk, and it is in reason to suppose that conditions could be so framed by
which this process of membrane disappearance coiUd go on apart from
the action of churning, and butter could be produced. Under the ordi-
nary process, however, through the mechanical agency of the churn, these
globules are broken, and their contents aggregated into mass, and thus the
butter of commerce is produced. That churn which best effects tills
action is the preferable one, but as these globules are not of one size in
all milks, and as the membrane is not of ''t'<iual strength in all milks, the
difticiilty of deciding upon the best churn is great. The large globules
always break first, presumably from ottering greater resistance to the
currents carried by the dasher, or by its blow, and also presumably be-
cause the larger globules have a more tender covering. At any rate, the
smaller globules churn later, and many are so minute as to remain be-
hind in the buttermilk. The fats of the globules are of diff'erent kinds,
and, we may presume, have a certain arrangement and proportion of
their own. When we interfere with this arrangement, through overspeed
of our implement, or through overchurning, we must anticipate a deter-
ioration in the quality of the butter, because of the disturbance of this
arrangement, and the substitution of a different and less perfect one.
These things being so, it is obvious that a different problem is presented
to the manufacture, Avhether he churns milk or cream, or fresh or rather
old cream , also whether he uses milk of one character or another.

Should milk be skimmed while sweet or after it has soured 1 If we
reason upon this, according to the facts presented passim, we should say
that the answer depends on the character of the milk ; that while one
milk will give satisfactory results when skimmed sweet, or just as it com-
mences to lobber, another milk would require to remain considerably
longer, so that the tougher membranes of its globules should be weakened
equal to those of the fresh.

Should we advocate deep or shallow setting of milk 1 The reply comes
to hand that either way may be the better, according to circumstances.
Let us consider the matter at the ordinary dairy temperatures, and we
would expect a deeper proportional thickness of cream on the deep set
milk, for as we increase the depth through which the globules are to rise,

104

we offer greater opportunity for them to become of assoi'tecl sizes. Yet
as the globules are scattered all through the milk at the time of setting,
we cannot expect absolute regularity of arrangement, nor in all cases very
marked proportional increase in cream percentage unless we know our
milk. When skimmed at the same time, and churned, we should expect
a greater weight of butter taken from the shallow pans, while the qualitj^
of the butter made from the cream taken from the deep cans should be
sligbtly better. Yet pi-actical experiment might give apparently a differ-
ent, or at the least contradictory results, as the Avater percentage in the
butter niade by the diilerent processes might vary sufficiently to carry
the quantity from one side to the othei-. This question deserves a practi-
cal study, through the process of the churn and through chemical analy-
sis. Pure reasoning based on such premises as we have, would lead to a
recommendation of deep cans for the use of fancy market butters, which
reach the customer soon after being made, and shallow pans for those who
pack their butter and market in bulk at a date distant from the making.
The question to be decided, however, is which makes the most butter, not
which pound of butter contains the most fat ; which butter will keep the
better under the conditions asked for by the maker, not which will keep
the longer. If 13 or 14 ounces of butter will sell for a pound and bring
the price of the best pound, this is certainly an important fact for the
dairy farmer to know how our best butters, even when apparently dry,
contain considerable water, even at times as much as 20 percent, or more.
From certain Engiisli analysis it would seem as if the better the butter
the more the water ; the more the water naturally entangled with the
fat, the better suited the buyer, and the more profit to the maker. Reason
Avould suggest that butter rightly made from a large globuled milk would
contain more water, under the circumstances, than a butter made
from a small globuled milk. A farmer cannot always afford
to get too much butter from his milk, for it is usuall}^ at the expense of
quality ; so likewise, paradoxical as it may seem, by obtaining the most
fat from his chuiniing, he may be obtaining the less butter,

Milk is a complex fluid ; do not let us forget this. Hence, at what
temperature we should keep our milk for the purposes of the butter maker
is a difficult question to answer. As an animal product, milk is exceed-
ingly subject to decomposition, and readily offers a nidus for the gro-w-th
and developement of fungi sporules always present in the atmosphere,
and usually in its own mass. These spores do not develop as rapidly at
a low as at a high temperature ; hence, when the milk is kept at a tem-
perature which least allows of the growth of these spores, the longer it
remains sweet, and the longer opportimity for the' rising of the ci-eam. —
The expansive and contractive action arising from changing temperature,
however, present a different ratio for the structural, as distinguished
from the lluid elements of the milk. It is probable that the increase in
density of the fluid portion, through the lowering of temperature, allows
a quicker rising of the cream, for its globides are not affected proportion-
ately with the rest on account of their form being spheroids. We may
also consider the effect of the temperature at which the milk is kept up-
on tlie condition of the fat enclosed in their cells. It is probable that
milk set at 40° and 100" or even 120° would make different quality of
butters ; in what these differences would consist we can hardly predict

105

in the present state of our knowledge, yet, should we venture a half-
opinion, it would be that the cooler milk would furnish a cream that
would churn a butter of a moi'e decided grain. Then we would expect
that these buttei-s made from milk set at ditif erent temperatures would
possess diflferent keeping qualities. The hai'der fat of the cooler cream
would naturally be supposed to present a different surface for the entang-
lement of water than would the fat softened by heat. As it is found that
butter deprived of its water of union by being melted and then tightly
corked, is not subject to ready decomposition, but will endure unchanged
the temperature of the tro])ics, we could leasonably infer that butter
churned from milk kept at a warm temperature would preserve its char-
acter better than butter made from a milk kept cool. Yet such reasoning
as this should be checked by experiment before being considered satisfac-
tory.

On account of the similarity of casein and albumen in elementaiy com-
position, it would be reasonable to infer that, under the action of chemical
changes in the fluid wherein they occur, that the one might increase at
the expense of the other. Indeed Lehman remarks that " casein appears
to us to be a highly transmutable substance, often undergoing change on
the application of the mildest re-agent," and Gmelin asserts that casein
disappears from watered and soured milk, and albumen takes its place.
If these opinions of noted chemists be correct, we must expect that our
milk, under process of manufacture into cheese, must contain at different
times variable quantities of caseiai. Very likely many factories lose casein
when a slight modification of their processes of making would retain it.
The imjiortance to the manufacturer of a thorough and scientific exam-
ination of the changes which may occur in milk should be realized and
acted on by a class of men who have seldom in the past neglected to act
for their own interest.

In treating of milk from the cheese making point of departure, we
must again refer to the globule, as influencing the character of the cheese.
It is but reasonable to infer that the larger globules, which have the low-
est specific gravity, must be more difficult to i-etain mixed with the milk
than the smaller globules. Hence more waste of the fat, in the ordinary
working of the factory of one milk over another. As the globules, on an
average, decrease in size as the season advances, (most of the cows calve
in the spring months,) we should expect a smaller quantity of milk to be
required for a pound of cheese in the autumn months than in midsum-
mer or spring, and this cheese of a superior quality. As some herds of
cows have smaller globuled milk than other herds, we would expect that,
the percentage of casein and f\tt being the same, the small globuled milk
would give larger amounts of cheese than the large globuled milk, and,
under the ordinary piocess of manufacture, of a better qxiality.

And why of better quality ? During the ripening of cheese, a
portion of the casein or curd suffers decomposition, and is partially
changed into ammonia ; this ammonia, however, does not escape, but
combines with the fatty acids j)roduced in course of time from the butter.
Such being the case, an even distribution of the fatty matter through the
curd is desirable, in order that each particle of ammonia as set free, may
at the moment, be in contact with the fatty acid which is supjjlied
from the fat globule ; now a small globuled milk must furnish more glob-

106

iiles, and these more evenly distribnted tlirongh tlie curd, than will a large
globuled milk equally rich in fat.

Can skim-milk cheese ever be maimfactured of a quality that will meet
approbation ] Reasoning from the fact that casein during putrefaction,
which is at first ripening, develops at the first carbonate and hydrosiil-
jihate of ammonia, and, after a sj^ace of from two to five months, furnish-
es ammonia, valerianic acid, htUyric acid, etc., we would infer that a
cheese deficient in fiits, if })roj)erly made and handled, might be ripened
into a fair, even jirime article. Indeed, by the application of an alkali, it
is possible that the casein might become more cpiickly broken down, and
the pi'ocess of ripening intensified, legidated and made more complete.
Here again we must refer to the seeming advantage to dairymen were
proper experiments initiated and pviblished for the benefit of whom it
might concern. What changes could be produced in cheese making by
a proper understanding of causes cannot be definitely stated, but can be
conjectured as of vast importance to the dairy interest.

CONCLUSION.

We have now presented an absti-act of our philosophy of dairying. —
Wliether the lesults claimed are coi-i-ect or otherwise, must be determined
by actual experiment. We cannot expect to treat of such a difiicult sub-
ject as this without falling into some errors, and it is not usually the part
of wisdom to predict i-esults in advance, yet it has seemed to us that this
occasion demanded some such ti'eatment as we have given, and we can
only hope that our erroi'S will be brought to light through the research
and study of others, and that we may receive the credit of initiating a
i-enewed interest in dairy studies.

What the dairy interest imperatively need.^, as it seems to us, is an ex-
perimental station, wherein a practical worker and a scientific worker can
unite their forces and investigate the abstruse and the practical in com-
mon. The benefits of such an alliance properly carried out can .scai'cely
be over-estimated. It is the peculiarity of modern advance that it seeks
instruction from the past ; that it utilizes experience. When we consider
the advantage already derived by dairymen through associated etfort, and
how much assistance they have alreaily gained through study and reason
as encouraged and developed by this and kindred association, it needs not
a prophet to ])redict that a still greater advantage would occur from a
more systematic and more definite action continued under the auspices of
our associations. Cannot the Dairymen's Association influence sucli
work ] Cannot it originate, even if on a small scale at first, an experi-
mental station, wherein (piick and ))racticf»l results shall not be demand-
ed, but simply the accumulation and testing of tlie facts of experience to
be disseminated among those who lu-e well fitted to api)ly these teachings
to j)ractice ] When causes are under. stood, aud the reasons »'/<// appear,
we may hope for inniicnse advance in practical manufacture, and jiraoti-
cal milk su})[)ly. Why should not this Association have a professor of
chemistry and a professor of dairying appointed, whose duties Avould be
similar to those of the professor of botany and tlie professor of entomo-
logy of our liorticultural associations ? the chemist a, true chemist; the
dairyman not a manufacturer but the theoretical worker. This would be
a beginning; the ariangement (or work to be done at some of our colleges,
aud the assignment of material, space, and assistance by these institutions

107

Would come in course, and rather speedily with a slight money assist-
ance, and a full encouragement from our leading associations.

There was a good deal of interesting discussion following this and the
subsequent address, while the Secretary was laboring under too much
fatigue to record, and hence it has not been pi-eserved.

The next paper was read by Prof. E. W. Stewart, of Erie Co., N. Y.,
on

THE COW AS A FOOD PEODUCEE.

The great end and aim of agi-iculture is the production of Imman food;
and the scientist of alimentation seeks to adapt that food to the higliest
development of the race. If a full history of the food used in the [)ast
by the human race were written, it would be a comj)lete history of its
difierent stages of development and progi-ess. Indeed, a statement of
the food nsed by the different peoples of the earth to-day, would be an
index to their present civilization. Look at the peoples avIio subsist al-
most Avholly upon vegetable and imjierfectly nitrogenized foods. They
are characterized by a want of enterprise and energy, seek isolation and
non-intercourse — boast of an ancient civilization, Avhich has made little
progress in the last 3,000 years. They make little use of domestic ani-
mals as a means of })roducing food. The advancement of the race depends
primarily upon its aliment. The nniscles, nerves and brain power of
man must be suppoited and vitalized by nitrogenous food, and the more
progressed and highly organized this food is, the more pei'fect will be the
muscular power, the more delicate the nervous sensations, and the keener
and deeper the "^mental peneti'ation.

We find, therefore, that those nations noted for enterprise, energy and
scientific research are large consumers of animal food. Even the nitro-
genous elements in vegetable food ln.ve not the potency and energy of
the same elements when derived from the animal kingdom. Wlien used
as food, the gluten of wheat and the legumen of the bean and pea, have
not the same force as the fibrine of meat or the casein of cheese, although
isomeric and almost chemically identical. Every element that enters into
and constitutes animal bodies is progressed and of higher potency than the
same element obtained from the vegetabh'. This is the law of develop-
ment.

The vegetable feeds upon the primitive elements of the soil, and pre-
pares them for use by the animal ; and the animal advances them to the
highest potency for human food. The tiesh, then, of our healthy domes-
tie animals is the highest type of human food ; and the milk of the cow,
being formed from her blood, and containing all the elements of meat in
an equal state of advancement, has the advantage of meat by being in a
soluble condition, and therefore more easily digesteil. We thus find the
milk of the cow to be the elixir of life. And when we consider this
humble domestic animal as supplying a large proportion of human food,
— her product swelling our commerce and returning a flow of gold half aa
large as all our mines — and considering its immense increase in the near
future, we shall not greatly err if we crown her the queen of our agricul-
tural temple.

Nearly all writei's upon hygiene regard milk as the best standard of
human food. And our theme requires us to examine the quality of this

108

food and the capacity of the cow for its production as compared with food
of the same quality in the form of flesh meat. ■

We shall only have space for mere mention of many points. Milk
chemically consists of :

Water, 87.20.

Butter, .'195.

Casein ai.d Albumen, 4.00.

:Milk Sugar, 4.20.

Ash, 65.

100.00

This is about its average composition, and will be a fair basis upon which
to judge its relative value. We see here that there is 12.80 per cent, of
dry substance in milk, and tli;it 4 per cent, is casein and albumen —
muscle -forming matter. The milk sugar is an admirable supporter of
respiration and animal heat, and the oil or butter performs the same
office when required, buc is primarily used to cushion the tissues with fat,
round up and give plumpness to the body. That profound animal chem-
ist, Liebig, speaking of the adaptation of milk as a food, says : — " The
young animal receives in the casein the chief constituent of the mother's
blood. To convert casein into blood no foreign substance is required ;
and in the conversion of the mother's blood into casein, no elen\ents of
the constituents of blood have been separated. When chemically exam-
ined, casein is found to contain a much larger proportion of phosphate of
lime or the elements of which bones are composed, than does blood, and
in that very soluble form, capable of reaching every part of the body."
We find the elements of nutrition more evenly balanced in milk than
in meat. Take ordinary beefsteak, and we find water 70 to 75 per cent.;
albumen 18 per cent, and fat 7 per cent. ; the muscle foi'ming elements
are in too large jiropoi-tiou (nearly three to one) for a single food, and
must be eaten with vegetables. In milk, the proportion of albuminoids is
only one to three — making it a com})lete food in itself.

The most oliserving physicians find milk the most admirable food to
restore an impaired vitality. In fevers when it is so difficidt to keep up
the vital forces on account of the danger of increasing the unnatural ex-
citement of the system, milk is toimd the least irritating and the best
adapted to assist nature through the struggle.

If we com])are milk with the average composition of meat, (lean beef
and fat beef, lean ])ork and fat pork, lean mutton and fat mutton,) we
shall find meat to contain about 46 per cent, of dry substance, including
ash ; and milk about 12| per cent.

Thus, allowing no waste of food i'lxnn bone and giving the odd fractions
in favor of meat — 4 lbs of milk will equal 1 lb of meat. And taking
the avarege yield of a cow to be 4,000, the food vali;e of the milk of a
cow for one year is equal to 1,000 lbs of meat ; and this, we are sure, is
not depreciating tlu^ comparative value of meat.

We have thus far s})okeii of milk in its complete form, but we must
mention briefly the products derived from it.

The first and most familiar product is butter. This amounts to about
4 percent, of the milk ; yet so popular is this product, that a great ma-
jority of the cows in this country are kept simply for its production. —

109

Biitter, which contains only one element of the milk, when made by an
expert, will produce a gi-eater income than the whole milk made into
cheese ; and the refuse milk containing the mostvaliiable element — casein
and the milk sugar, or whey, — when properly utilized in feeding pigs or
calves, will produce 200 lbs of pork or young beef for each average cow,
per year.

And the remarkable point is here to be made, that the food in the re-
fuse milk of a cow, after taking off the cream, will produce in a year as
many pounds of meat, or calves, or pigs, as the average growth of a
steer for one year.

The next important product of milk is cheese. This is now mostly
made on the factoiy system, and is therefore of much more uniform qual-
ity and bears a price 50 percent, higher than under the old dairy system.

Cheese is a most valuable article of food, and not sufficiently appre-
ciated by Americans. The average composition of good cheese gives 72
per cent, of dry substance, all of it being nutritious, and as compared with
good beef, is found to contain twice the nutriment in the same weight.
It is now conceded that one pound of good cheese has the same nuti'itious
value as two pounds of butcher's meat.

If then we compare the yield of food by a cow in the form of cheese,
in a year, with the growth of flesh in a steer duiing the same time, we
iind that an average cow will produce 400 lbs of cheese, which has a food
value equivalent to 800 ll)s of dressed beef, and this 800 lbs of dressed
beef requires three-and-a-half to four years to produce in the gi-owth of a
steer. Thus tlu; food in the cheese product of a cow, in one year, is equiv-
alent to the food in the beef product of a steer for four years, and this
makes no account of the milk sugar or whey, which is more than one-bhii'd
of the dry substance of the milk.

This ih an extraordinary result, but we see that it is even less than a
comparison of the food value of the whole milk with the growth in beef
of a steer for the same time ; for in that case, 4 lbs ot milk was equal to
1 lb of beef, and it requires 10 lbs of milk to make 1 lb of cheese, but
comparison gives credit for tlie milk sugar. We made the comparison of
the cheese product of the cow with the beef product of the steer in a
papei written by us some years since ; but we mention it in this connec-
tion to call attention to a remarkable fact that the cow, duiing lactation,
seems to have greatly increased digestive power and capacity for utilizing
and assimilating its food, over that of the steer or herself when not in
lactation. It has often been estimated that the food eaten by a steer
during the four years (under ordinary feeding) required to produce a dresss-
ed carcass weighing 800 lbs, was about equal to the food required by ai^
ordinary cow to produce 400 lbs of cheese per year.

This gives the cow a cheese product of 1,600 lbs in four years^, et^raaling
a beef product of 3,200 lbs produced upon the same food as ^i& required
by the steer to grow 800 lbs of beef. It must be borne ia mind aba,
that the cow must supply the waste of her own system ajid keep up ani-
mal heat, besides producing 4^000 lbs of milk upon the food which she'
eats. And to show that this difference does not apply merely to the- slow
growing steer requiring four years to produce 800 lbs of beef, but applies
aa well to the most skilfully fed steer of the most approved breed, Trhigii
can be made to reach 800 lbs of dressed beef in 24 to 30 moatbs ; becftuee
13

no

when the latter is compared with the best cow, fed in the most skilful
way, it is found that this cow produces 8,000 lbs of milk, and 800 lbs
of cheese, instead of 4,000 lbs of milk and 400 lbs of cheese. There
seems to be the same comparative difference in each case.

Now, it must be evident that, if the steer eats as much as the cow, he
must very imperfectly digest and assimilate his food, or it requires twice
as much food to make a pound of beef as a pound of cheese. 'We should
also expect to find the manure of the cow comparatiA'ely poor with that
of the steer. And the facts seem to prove both of these points ; for it has
been found, without explanation of the reason, that the manure of the
steer is very much richer than that of the cow during lactation. Market
gardeners have often mentioned this fact to us, as proved by their trials
of the two kinds of droppings. We also, personally made
an experiment to test it, and found a large per centage in favcr of
the manure from steers over that of milch cows. I regard this as a very
interesting question to dairymen and well worthy of discussion before
this Association. I have not been able to solve the reasons for the facts
to my own satisfaction, but the facts nevertheless remain, and afford an
interesting field for research, which I hope may be thoroughly investiga-
ted by the members. It shows also, how the dairyman may turn his farm
crops to the best advantage ; for if a given amount of food will produce
twice the result when fed to a milch cow as when fed to a steer for beef,
he can easily determine the most profitable road to travel.

Prof. Stewart's paper was followed by one from J. P. Sheldon, of
Sheen, Ashbourne, Derbyshii-e, England, on the

RISE AND PROGRESS OF IMPROVED DAIRYING IN ENG-
LAND.

By many practical men it is disputed that there has been any improve-
ment made in English cheese-making, and they declare that our cheese
is now no better than it was a century ago. This latter statement is in-
capable of proof, but still it may be quite tiue if we look only at the av-
erage quality of the cheese now made and comjjare it with that made
even so far back only as our own memory carries us. But no Qne can
deny that great imjirovements have been made in the appliances of the
dairy, and in general and scientific knowledge of tlie subject. In the
olden times, say a century ago, very little cheese Avas made at all iii Eng-
land. The population was then small, and lived principally on breftd and
other kinds of simple food, whereas now they live to a great extent on
sti'onger food, such as beef, and butter and cheese. The bulk of what
are now oiir fine old pasture lands was given up to corn gi'owing, and
cheese was scarcely an article of commerce at all. The farmer in most
cases made no more cheese than sufficed for the consumption of his own
family and dependents. On a farm near to me, where about six tons of
cheese are now annually made, no more used to be made, or at all events
sold, in one year than was cariied away on four " packsaddles," — and this
in the days of the present owner's grandfather. But for nuxny yeai-s past
large qiiantities of cheese have been made in England, ami for an equal
period it has been an important item in our insulai- commerce ; there is,
however, now less of it made than there was a few yeai-s ago, and this is

Ill

partly owing to so miicli excellent clieese coining to us from abroad,
especially from America. Our dairymen now turn theii* attention more
to feeding of cattle and sheep, to butter making, to the raising of stock,and
to the milk trade.

My own memory serves me for a quarter of a century, at the com-
mencement of which time the mode of making cheese was, except in a
very few instances, most primitive and rude, and the vitensils em|)loyed
were perfectly innocent of any pretension to being the best and handiest
jx)ssil)le ; nor were they ever replaced by othei-s so long as they could be
made to answer at all satisfactorily the purposes for which they were
made. At that time the milk was set for coagulation in the most hap-
hazard manner imaginable ; no thermometer was used, and a disparity of
six or eiglit deg. Fali't was complacently deemed to be a matter of supreme
indiflerence, and was treated with corresponding unconcern. The action
of acidity was as little understood by clieesemakers as were the works
of Tacitus or the orations of Demosthenes, and any approach to system
or regularity in treating the milk, .salting the curd, and curing the cheese,
was constantly avoided as useless. After coagulation had advanced far
enough, as was thought, the dairymaid would sit down l)y the cheese-tub,
and with a wooden l)Owl or dish would b)-eak the curd gently or other-
wise, according to her disposition, into irregularly sized lumps ; these she
would keep in motion until they had lost a good portion of their whey
and began to sink more and more to the Ijottom of the tub. Then the
whey would be ladled ofl' and a piece of perforated tin or wood, fitting
the tub moderetely well, would l)e lowered on the curd, and Aveighted so
as to express more whey. Next a " ladder" Avould be placed across the
top of the tub, and on the ladder a " vat," a cloth was spread over the
vat, and the curd then placed in it in lumps. Then a flat piece of wood,
not perforated, was placed on top of the curd ; on this piece of wood
weiglits or pressui-e would be put, and I have often seen the daiiymaid
herself mount on the board and by her own weight assist in pressing out
the whey — and the heavier the maid the faster flowed the whey ! Again,
in some instances a long pole would be used instead of weights either
living or dead ; one end of the [)ole would be thrust into a hole in the
wall and on the other sat a boy or the dairymaid — the vat containing
the curd being about the middle between the boy and the wall, and the
pole acted as a lever. This was an advance on the system of putting on
weights, or the dairymaid getting on herself. Afterwards, two upright
wooden screws were attached to the " laddei-," and between them a
piece of wood, which passed oaxi- the vat of curd ; these screws were
turned downwards at intervals by hand, and were undoubtedly a great
improvement over the former plans. Last of all, the " lever press"
was invented, and perfection was supposed to be attained ; but this was
followed by its adaptation to various uppaiatuses which were much dis-
cussed at the time, and were more or less valuable.

During the progress of these mechanical improvements in cheese-mak-
ing, no advance was made in knowledge of the chemical laws which were
unconsciously employed, nor were the properties of milk any better un-
derstood by the dairymen at large. Playfair and Voclcker had indeed
recently demonstrated the chemistry of cheese-making and the laws which
govern it, and they had done this in a manner which has since received

112

ample confirmation at the hands of other practical and scientific men,but
their reseai*ches had never been appreciated except by a few of the more
enlightened and progressive dairymen. Under the old system the curd
was first manipulated in the manner described, and was then put under
large stone-pi'esses, in order to extract the i-emainder of the whey, and
to press the curd into compact cheese. During the time it was passing
through press a period of about four to six days, salt was daily applied
to the outside of the cheese, none having been mixed with the curd pre-
viously. It was thus a matter of accident whether the cheese were under
or over salted. They were also " cby-clothed" twice a day, the cloths ab-
sorbing the whey as it left the cheese.

The first decided improvement in cheese-making is mainly due to what
is called the Cheddar method, with which the name of Joseph Harding,
of Marksbuiy, is honorably and inseparably connected. In this method
acidity is brought to beai- through the medium of heated whey, which is
applied to the cuixl in the cheese-tub. The curd is cut with a single
blade to and fro throughout its depth, foi'ming a 4 inch mash upon the
surface, and is afterwards tui-ned over from the bottom with skimming-
dish and hand. Tlie whole mass is then stirred about and broken into
smaller pieces with a " shovel-breaker" — a foui'-fingered paddle, with
Avires across the fingers, — great cafe being taken to do this gently, so as
not decrease the quantity of curd and make the whey white. A quan-
tity of whey is next taken from the tub and heated to 1 40 degrees, during
which the curd is broken into small pai'ticles like rice, and then sufficient
of the heated whey is returned to the tub to raise its temperatui'e to
100°. During the pouring in of the whey, which is not done too rapidly,
the mass is kept in motion by the shovel-breaker in order that none of the
curd-pai'ticles shall be scalded. When the mass has attained a tempera-
ture of 100° no more of the heated whey is poured into it, biit it is
kept in motion half an hour longer, until the curd has acquired a proper
degree of consistency, which is indicated by a certain elastic granular
feeling, on its being grasped in the palm of the hand. The agitator is
then withcb-awn, and the mass allowed to settle. In a short time the
curd falls to the bottom, almost entirely separated from the whey, without
])ressure or mechanical force. The addition of the heated whey is tech-
nically termed "slip-scalding." Presently this heating was found to be
better accomplished by hot water,or steam, instead of hot whey, and this
was made to operate around and below the mass of curd and whey,tln'o\igh
the agency of a cheese-tub having a space between the inner and outei-
shells, after the manner of the factory vats now in use in America, Eng-
land, and elsewhere. But even now, though acidity was employed in
the process its beneficial efi"ect was scarcely ever suspected. The whey
was not drawn off" when acidity had advanced to a given point, for this
was not ascertained ; but, without any guiding data, it was tlrawn ofl'
when the makei-'s judgment dictated it. In the North of England I
knew an extensive and very intelligent dairy farmer who effected a won-
derful improvement in his dairy of cheese by the, witli him, purely ac-
cidental expedient of keeping some curd ovei' each day to mix with that
of the following day. This kept curd acquired certain acidity during the
24 hours, and communicated it to the new curd with which it was mixed.

In the ohlen limes wlien, us is claimed by some, cheese was made of a

113

quality superior to that made now-a-day«, the farmer's wife was invar-
iably the dairymaid, where there was a wife at all, unless one of the
daughters was old enough to relieve the mother of the burden. In more
recent times the cheesemaking has been commonly left in the hands of
hired dairymaids,who may be pertinently supposed to take smaller inter-
est in their occu})ation than the farmer's wife did, and who are less solicitous
about the result. Xo doubt there is a strong /;?-('TO«/ocie truth in this
argument, but it does not sufficiently exjdain the difference, for I have
known many hired dairymaids make finer cheese than did the mistress
to whose duties they had succeeded. I think a stronger reason for the
average deterioration which lias taken ]}lace in English cheese, during
the last quarter of a century more particularly, lies in the system of
" high-farming" which ^jas been so commonly in vogue in this country
during that jjeriod. By the use of various artiticial fertilizers, and by
the consumption by the cattle of linseed cake and other feeding stuffs,
the herbage of our pastures has been quite changed in character, and has
become possessed of certain qualities which have prejudicially affected
the quality of the cheese wlu-n it is continued to be made on the old sys-
tem. It has passed into a proverb, in this part of the country at all
events, that " the poorest land makes the best cheese," — so deeply are our
farmers imbued with the belief that improved farming out of doors has
resulted in disasters in doors. And it is emphatically true that the know-
ledge of handling milk most profitably lias not advanced correlatively
with the knowledge of producing it.

It is, however, true that there now is cheese made in different parts of
England, and pei'haps a greater bulk df it, which is of a quality quite
equal if not superior to any cheese whicli was made in the olden times,
either in this or any other country. It is the lower qualities which have
so much increased in bulk, and these have lowered the average. And
even now it seldom happens that a dairymaiil who gives lier naud to her
work, and wh© is addicted to scrupulous cleanliness with regard to the
milk-room and to the various utensils, fails to produce a very good quality
of cheese. The fault lies in the fact that there are so few dairymaids
who answer to this description.

In districts whei-e cheese factories are in operation the average quality
of the cheese has been considerably raised tlirough their agency. The
cheese made in them is itself far above the average quality of the cheese
which was beforetime made in the farmers' own homes ; and they have
acted as a stinnilous to those who continue to make their cheese at home.
In this latter respect they have done considerable good. But the factor-
ies themselves vary considerably as to the character and quality of their
goods. Each factory manager seems to have a method of his own, to
which he is wedded through preference or habit, -and tliis method seems
also, each successive year, to establish itself more lirmly in his mind, so
that if he is travelling down a wrong path it becomes increasingly diffi-
cult for him to leave it for a better one. I attribute this divergence of
method in the different makers to the fact that they do not confer to-
gether and compare notes as you do in America, in your various dairy-
men's associations. An additional evil attached to this matter lies in the
fact that the more they hold aloof the more suspicious and jealous do
they become of each other. This is disastrous, and it involves heavy

114

losses to the farming coininuriity, more especially in some instances. To
obviate this state of tilings we are attempting to establish a British
Dairymen's Association, from which we pertinently expect to derive
many important advantages. Notwithstanding the great improvements
in cheese-making, which the factory system has undoubtedly largely aided
in developing, things are yet in a chaotic state, out of which I suspect we
shall find some difficulty in disentangling them. We are in a probation-
ary condition, but the objects to be accomplished, though difficult, ai'e
not insuperable.

Thei'e are noAv some thirty cheese factories ninning in England, and
you in America are probably surprised that they do not multiply more
rapidly, in view of the very great impi'ovement which they have brought
about in the cheese of your country. I must n6Av tell you why they do
not.

Since the Adulteration Act came into force, the supply of milk in its
natural state to our towns and cities has become an important factor in
the calculations of all our dairy farmers who live within an easy distance
of a railway, and now that cheese, more particularly than butter, is so
much lowei- than it was in price, the STiperior returns derived from the
sale of milk are naturally claiming increased attention. Our urban pub-
lic can now obtain, when they ask for ]nilk, an almost pure and unadul-
terated article. A few years ago, and with sufficient reason, the public
had come to sus])ect that they were imposed on by every imaginable kind
of adulteration, amongst which water was the least objectionable, and
the con.sequence was that every faniily used as little of the so-called milk
us possible. But since the passing of the Act in question the con.sximp-
tion of milk has enormously increased. It now enters largely into the
food-list of every houseliold, and is used in preference for many purposes
from which it was er.stwhile scrupulously exclvided. It is daily increas-
ing in j)opularity, and will continue so to increase so long as our law re-
quires the supply of a pure article. At the present time the cheese trade
is veiy much depressed, and theie is every symptom that it will for some
time continiie so. It has gradually been going downwards for the past
two years, and it is now supplied to us from abroad at prices which, to
the English cheesemaker, are simply ruinous. As contrasted with milk,
cheese is not a perishable article, and it can be conveyed long distances
over sea without injury of any kind. Indeed it is by some stated that a
voyage impi-oves the flavor of cheese. In some cases this is no doubt
true, while in others the opposite holds good. It follows, then, that as
we cannot obtain fresh milk from other countries, while cheese can come
to us from the antipodes, if need be, our dairy farmers will turn their
attention more and more to the milk trade with the cities. And it is
fortunate there is this alternative open to them, and that the demand for
milk goes on, and will go on, rapidly increa.sing, or English dairy faiuuers
must inevitably go to the wall. In course of time, not very far hence,
I believe there will be vei-y little cheese made in England, except in dis-
tricts througli wliieh no railway )>a.sses ; and it is more than probable tliat
even in these, butter-making and the raising of stock will to a great ex-
tent displace cheese-making.

At pi'est'nt there is a ditierLiice in price between good English and sood
Am.eiican cheese of about four cents a pound in our markete. Your

115

cheese is as good as ours in every respect, and still there is this disparity
in price. I can only account for it by atti'ibuting it to the prejudice
which yet remains in the average English cheese-consumer's mind against
American cheese, but this prejudice must inevitably die out with the
present generation — probably with the older and stupider part of it.
Such being the prospect for the early future, American agriculturists
may with confidence go on reclaiming lands from the prairie and the
forest, and devoting them to dairy purposes. Ninety per cent, of the
cheese which our joopulation will consume in yea^^s to come is destined to
be supplied to us from America. It is true that you are now realizing
very low figures for your cheese which is sent to us, but then all our trade
throughout the kingdom is in a very depressed condition, and our work-
ing classes are earning very much lower wages than they wei'e a year
ago. Hence it follows that they have much less to spend, and when
such is the case they cut do"\vn the commissariat, rather than relinquish
various reckless pleasures and extravagances.

The conclusion I arrive at from the foregoing eonsiderations is that
cheesemaking in England is in a transitory state, and somewhat chaotic ;
so unsettled indeed is it, as to the position it will assunip. in the future,
that means advanced expressly for its impro\'ement and development are
received by our dairymen in a half-hearted and perfunctory manner.
But, in any case, there is still an amazing quantit}' of milk anniially
spoiled in this country by improper management, and any improvement
which will obviate this national loss, be it the milk trade or improved
cheese and butter making, will be a great boon to us. The cheese fac-
tories have done and are doing great good in teaching men how to handle
dairy produce ; but, for the reasons I have given, they are not likely to
become very numerous in this country. Some of our existing factories
are, however, at the present time, lending theuLselves very conveniently
to the exigencies of the milk trade. In the summer, when the flow of
milk is greater than the demand, they work up a portion or tlie whole of
it into cheese, more conveniently than could be done under tlie same cir-
cumstances by individual farmers, while they act, in seasons when there
is a demand for the whole or a part of their milk, as convenient receiv-
ing houses from whence can be despatched a grt'atei or less ([uantity, as
may be desired, to the wholesale dealers in our cities. It is already cus-
tomary for the dealers to telegraph their re(|uirements to the factoiy
managers, who then send off the exact quantity of milk required. Con-
fusion and loss are thus avoided. The price the factories now receive for
fresh milk sent off to the cities is Sd. per gallon, Avhereas I doubt if any
of them, had they made up the whole of their season's milk into cheese,
could have paid at the end of it a dividend of more than 6(/. per gallon
to the contributors. An additional profit of twenty-five ])er cent, is an
inducement worthy of notice, and it is probable that, in the future, all
dairy-farmers who can, will dispose of tlieir milk in a more profitable
way than that of making it into either cheese or butter.

J. P. Sheldon.
Sheen, Ashbourxe,

Derbyshire, England.

Convention adjourned to meet on Friday, at 2 p.m.

116

FRIDAY AFTERNOON.

The Convention met at tlie a]:)pointed hour. Owing to the atti-actions
on the centennial grounds from public displays, the attendance was quite
smcall, biit the papers and discussions were intei'esting and animated. —
Tlje first paper read was an interesting history of the origin and progress
of the Industry of Condensed and Preserved Milk, by Prof. E. N. Hors-
ford, of Cambridge, Mass., as follows : —

Some months since I addressed the following letter to L. B. Arnold,
of group IV., with whom I had the privilege for a brief time of serving
as Judge in the groiip of conserves : —

" In any account of the industry of condensed milk which may be
expected at the conclusion of the labors of the Judges of Group IV., it
m.ay be thought not to be amiss to include a glance at the action of the
corresponding jury at the Vienna Exposition, where, in defending the
claims of America in this field, I was made through accident to receive
a larger share of credit than was my due, and where I did not lay claim
to any.

" To place myself right in the matter, 1 addressed a letter to Dr. Thiel,
Juror of the IVth Group, from the Grerman Empire, which letter he has
caused to be published in Dingler's Pol. Journal, and the substance of
which I herewith enclose to you for such use as may seem proper to you.
The day of awards at our Centennial is passed, and there can be no im-
propriety I conceive in the course which I pursue.

" In the discussion before the International Jiiry of the IVth Group
at Vienna, in 1873, as to the propriety of awarding the Grand Diploma
of Honor to the Anglo-Swiss Condensed milk Company, of Cham, Canton
Zug, Switzerland, the fact came out without any preconceived purpose on
my part, that I had independentlj'' solved the problem of preserving milk
for commercial pui'poses, by condensation at a low temperature, with the
addition of sugar. I was endeavoring to show that the credit of the in-
vention as between Euroi>e and America was due to the latter countiy,
and that the pi'oduct had been a commercial success in the Western
Woi'ld years before the foTindatioir of the works at Cham.

" The Council of Presidents acting on the recommendation of the IVth
Jury — a jury upon food — decided to awai'd the Grand Diploma to the
Company at Cham, and that the Dii)loma should state that the invention
was due to Prof. Horsford, of America. Since the date of this award
the justice of this decision has been called in question, and, as I think I
have been credited Avitli moi'e honor than I deserve, I beg to place in
your hands the following conniiuuication, which I believe jii-esents a sum-
mary of the history of the subject, which I will thank you in any proper
way to communicate to the public."

E. N. Horsford.

On i-ecei})t of tlie foregoing, Mr, Arnold, your Secretary, did me the
honor to suggest tlmt T should submit my communication to the Ameri-
caiv Dairymen's Association ; and in accordance with this suggestion I
have presented myself to vindicate, perhaps I may say, the claims of
America to the great industry of commercial milk condensation.

117

CONDENSED MILK.

At the time I began the investigation of the problem of presei'ving
milk in 1849, I knew nothing beai'ing upon the subject except the ex-
j>eriment of Gay Lussac, mentioned in one of Liebig's lectures, by which
milk had been kept sweet through a period — if I remember aright, — of
more than one hundred days, by simply heating it to the boiling point
each succeeding morning. There was then little of the literature of the
Science or Technology of Europe readily accessible to me. The earlier
numbers of the Annales de Chimie et de Phys. of Dingler's Poly,
Jour, of the Pharm. cent. Blatt., of Buchner's Repertorium, and the
Records ol the French and English Patent Otfice, were not at my com-
mand. I was of coui'se familiar with the use of sugar and syrup in the
preservation of fruits, and Appert's exclusion of the air and sealing at
the boiling point, were well known to me. I proceeded in my experi-
ments upon the idea that if I could px'event molecular movement among
the particles of the milk, I could prevent decomposition — prevent putre-
faction and keep the milk sweet. Simple as this seems it was a long
time before I succeeded in obtaining a preparation in the form of paste —
or as a dry granular non-hygroscopic substance, or as a solid block, that
would practically meet the wants of a commercial product. The necessity
of conducting the evaporation at a low temperature was one of the first
results at which I arrived. The reason is obvious. With a heat that
would expel the water from the milk with the formation of bubbles of
steam rising from the bottom, the caseine would adhere to the evaporat-
ing vessel and incipient destructive distillation would set in, imparting
an objectionable, hoAvever slight, empyreumatic odor to the condensed
product AVith the addition of sugar and the gradual removal of the
Avater any desired degree of viscidity might be imparted to the milk, and
with the removal of the water carried sufficiently far, the pro-
duct might be carried to the pasty, granular or solid con-
dition. When I had established the two points of evaporation at a low
temperature, and the requisite proportion of sugar to be added to the
milk, I gave the invention to my assistant, Mr. Dalson, who soon after
resigned his situation an<l turned his attention to the development on a
working scale of the art ot condensing milk. He devised an apparatus
for evaporating by a current of air applied to the surface of the liquid
kept constantly in agitation and heated by a steam jacket. After some
year or more of experimenting, Mr. Dalson brought the subject to the
attention of INIessrs. Blatchford and Harris, of New York, who had, I
think, been already engaged in experimenting upon milk, and who estab-
lished extensive works in one of the milk districts within easy access of
New York. Mr. Dalson patented his apparatus in 1854. The Messrs.
Blatchford and Harris employed it. They paid the usual exaction for
attempting to convert a mere scientitic invention to practical use and
working success : they lost a large amount of money, but they produced
among other considerable amounts 600 lbs. of solid condensed milk for
Dr. Kane's Arctic Exploring Expedition. TMs contributed, according
to the testimony of Dr. Kane, to the most noble end of preserving the
health of the officers and crew in their daring attempt to reach the North
Pole. Of this quantity, fortunately, a small block in a condition of per-
fect preservation, though wrapped only in a loose paper, has been kept by
14

118

Mr. Blatchford, and now lies before me — twenty yeai's since its prepar-
ation.

Mr. Blatchford devised improved apparatus involving the use of the
vacuum pan, and the preliminary specifications for an application for a
patent were drawn up by Judge Blatchford, now of the United States
Supreme District Coui-t, l)ut want of funds prevented the further pi-os-
ecution of the business.

In the same year, Aug. 19th, 1856, Gail Borden obtained a patent for
a particular use of the vacuum })an for preparing condensed milk with-
out the use of sugar. Mr. Borden prepared soon after, with the aid of
a vacuum })an, and for years has continued to prepare large quantities of
condensed milk, in the form of a thick-flowing semi-liquid mass, without
the use of sugar, the article being designed for comparatively immediate
consumptioir. It is not sealed up, but is transported in open cans and
distributed like natiiral uncondensed milk to customers. At a later per-
iod JNIr. Borden, also on a very large scale, put up condensed milk pre-
pared with sugar and sealed in cans, for use at sea and general commerce.

In the discussion before the Jury of the IVth Group, at the Vienna
Exhibition, in 1873, that accompanied the award of the Grand Diploma
of Honor to the Anglo-Swiss Condensed JNIilk Co)npa.ny, of Cham, Can-
ton Zug, there was some misapprehension of what I said in support of
the claims of America to the honor of having been the first to introduce
condensed milk as a siiccessful commercial product from the similar sound
of the names Dalson and Borden. The former was my assistant. The
latter was at no time my assistant, though I find I was understood to say
he had been.

To the former I gave the resiilts of my experiments in preparing con-
densed milk with the addition of sugar and the evaporation with constant
stirring at a low temperature and in the open air, and he proceeded to
devise apparatus on a working scale for producing a commercial pi-oduct.
To the latter is due the first successful use of the A-acuum ])an in a })re-
pai'ation on a commercial scale, of condensed milk without the aid of su-
gar, for convenient transportation without sealing, and for speedy use,
and also at a latei' period, of condensed milk with sugar and with the aid
of the vacuum pan and sealing for indefinite preservation.

To myself is due the credit, whatever it may be, of having worked out
as an original investigation the conditions and ^jroportions of ingredients
that had the fortune throi;gh my assistant Dalson, in the hands of Messrs.
Blatchford and Harris to yield the first commercially successful condensed
milk.

I am not aware that any commercial })roduct, proved to be of permanent
unchangeal)ility, was in existence at tlie time my investigation commenced
or for some half-dozen years thereafter, other than that based upon my
researches. De Lignac's preparation, for some reason, seems to have
failed of success, though in reading the account of his process it is not
easy to see why, exce])t that the times may not have been ripe for its
successful introduction.

Since hearing the interest tliat has been taken in the subject, I have
looked through such journals as are now but were not in 1849 accessible
to me, and find in general a large meas\ire of inventive efibrt and re-

119

search hacl been bestowed u\>on the problem of milk condensation and
preservation before I undertook the investigation.

I give beloAv a glance at the history of the invention, commencing
with the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company, of Cham, Canton Zug,
Switzerland, which, according to the Swiss catalogne prepared for the
Vienna Exposition, was the Jirst establishment for the condensation of
Milk in Europe, and was founded in 1866.

Gail Borden's patent according to the Records of the United States'
Patent Office, was taken out Aug. 19th, 1856, and was for an Iinprove-
ment in C oncentratio7i of Milk. The Records say : " The nature of this
invention consists inkeepingthe sweet milk to l)e concentrated in a vac-
uum vessel C, to keep the milk out of contact \Ai\\ atmospheric air, and
in then concentrating said milk in a vacuum vessel B to prevent incip-
ient decomposition in the constituent elements of the milk during the
process of evaporation."

The inventor says : "I am well aware that sugar and vaiious extracts
have been and are now concentrated in a vaccum under a low degree of
heat to prevent discoloration and burning.

" I am also aware that scalding milk tu improve its pi-eservative
qualities has been long known, and that it litis been kejjt in hermetically
sealed vessels. I do not claim these processes.

" I am also aware that William Newton and many others since have
obtained patents for concentrating milk by vaiious modes of evap-
oration, and combining it with sugar to rendei- it soluble and preserva-
tive. I do not claim this as my disco^'ery or invention.

" But I claim producing concentrated milk by evaporation in vacuo sub-
stantially as set forth, the same having no sugar or other foreign matter
mixed Avith it."

This ])atent was also taken out in England, under the title, " Improve-
ments in concentritin"- milk and obtaining cor.centi'ated extracts from
coffee and chocolate."

The next preceding patent was taken out by my assistant, Augustus
F. Dalson, aiid is as follows :

"U. S. Patent Office Report for 1854, p. 458, No. 11,19:5, Augustus
F. Dalson. Apparatus for Dessicating Alimentary Substances. Patent-
ed June 27, 1854.

This apparatus consists of a circular shallow evaporator, A. A. The
substance treated rests in the circular border, depression, and an agitator
t. and roller r. constantly produce a fresh surface of the lifjuiil during
eva])oration. To aid in the latter, currents of of air are constantly drawn
or forced over the surface of the liquid between the evaporator AA and
the cover CC, and down tlir(jugh the central pipe P. The liquid is
heated by the steam jacket BB. or steam-pipes j). or otherwise blown.
The combination of the shallow p;in X. with a rapid current of air under-
neath the cover C, and thence through the central draught pipe P., to-
gether with the apparatus for continual stirring by means of the revolving
cover C, and its fixtures tr substantiallv as described.

Under this patent the condensed nulk, in solid blocks, was prepared by
Messrs. Blatchford & Harris for the Ar-ctic Expedition of Dr. Kane,
which sailed in 1856, as already mentioned. It was sent out for trial
to California in 1852 and was successfully employed. It was proved by

120

Col. Eaton, of the U. S. Army and Commissary Ceneral in the late war,
at the station of Albuquerque, in the Plains, in 1854. It was tried on
shipboard and orders were filled from Liverpool.

The next preceding patent was the following :

Felix Louis took out a patent in England, May 6, 1848. He prepared
solidcakesof condensed milk, adding 1-40 per cent, of siigar and concen-
trating at a temperature of from 176° to 194° Fahr.

Thomas Shipp Grimaud patented an invention in England. Nov. 13,
1847.

" Said invention consists in boiling milk in vacuo, so as to deprive it of
the greatest portion of its aqueous pai'ticles while at a low temperature,
having previously added a small quantity of saltpetre, and after it has
been so boiled in admitting it into and confining it in bottles or other re-
ceptacles from which atmospheric air had been previously extracted, and
in then securing the said milk I'rom any readmission of such air into the
said bottles or othei- receptacles until opened for use, and in then mixing
the said milk with as much pure water as had been extracted from it, or
other suitable fluid, and so making it fit for the purposes of nutriment
again."

Li October (7) of the same year (1847), J. J. B. M. de Lignactook out
a patent in France, which was also taken out in England, March 10, 1848.
De Lignac's process was warmly commended by Payen, after pronouncing
adverse opinions upon the process of Bracomiot in which a part, of the
milk was lost, upon that of Millenenoe in which the butter was liable to
se})arate, upon that of Affert for the same reason, and against that of
Bobiuet which was to be regarded as that of a laboratory preparation
rather than a commercial industry.

De Lignac condensed milk with constai\t stirring in shallow pans (3
inches depth of liquid,) surrounded with a steam jacket aird heated with
l-16th of its weight of sugar, at a temperature from 186 to 195 degrees
Fall., to one fifth of its volume. This preparation would keep sweet in
open cans through fourteen days, and thereafter the interior would be
found good after removing the outer layer.

The English patent provided for a concentration to one sixth of its vol-
iime. The formation of scum Avas dispersed with a spatula. Any splash-
ing on the sides was not scraped back into the concentrating liquid. —
The prepai'ation had the consistency of honey.

Searles' Patent in 1843, (Repertory of Patent Inventions), Dinglev's
Pol. Jour. Vol. 89, j). 398, remo\'es the cream and mixes l-40th per cent,
of sugar to preserve solubility, and evaporates over a water-bath, ob-
taining a perfectly dry product.

In March, 1835, Grimaud read a paper before the Academy of Sci-
ences of Paris, upon Lacteine. His process of preparation consisted in
letting the milk flow in a tliin stream over a steeply inclined surface,
against which a stream of air was forced to carry off by evaporation the
water until only one-tenth remained. (Dingl. 1835, vol. 56, p. 474.) It
is suggested in a note by the Editor of Dingier, that (iriniaud is the
foreign inventor in whose interest Wm. Newton took out in his own
name the following jxitent : —

Sealed 11th March, 1835, by a foreigner through Wm. Newton. " I in-
troduce into the milk a small quantity of pulverized loaf sugar, say from one-

121

liftiethtoone-liimdredth in weight of the whole quantity of the milk, wliicli
quantity may however be greater, dependent upon the desii-ed sweetness of
the preparation when completed. On the sugar becoming perfectly dissolved,
I subject the milk to tolerably rapid evaporation, either by l)lowing
thi'ough the milk warm or cold air, by means of suitable apparatus of any
convenient form, such, for instance, as those at })resent in use for evapor-
ating syrups, or by means of external warmth in connection with a
vacuum above the surface, produced in any of the ordinary ways as applied
to evaporation. By whatever process, however, the evaporation is carried
on the milk may Avitli advantage be subjected to a gentle warmth to
quicken the operation ; but that warmth Avill be best obtained fiom hot
water, or from steam or heated aii- applied to the outside of the vessel
which contains the milk, as the direct action of tire upon the vessel may
tend to injure the propeities of the milk, and perhaps give it an unpleas-
ant flavor. By evaporating the aquious parts of the milk in this way its
nutritive or essential parts may be concenti'ated, and its substance reduced
to the consistency of cream, honey, or soft paste, or even into dry cakes
or powder ; and may in the latter states be kept ex]:)osed lo the air for a
length of rime without being impaired, the sugar tending to preserve it,
In this specification we have, so far as I have been able to ascertain,
the first recorded use of the vacuum pan in the condensation of milk.

Newton's principal used it, or contemplated using it, — for it seems to
have passed out of recollection, without having been brought to a practi-
cal woT'king test — in a manner so thorouglily scientific, that it seems now
to have required only a little practical exjierience to render it wholly suc-
cessful.

Kirchoff evaporated milk to dryness and then rubbed to powder. This
preparation stii'red with water gave a fiuid much like milk, though not qtiite
equal to it. The editor of Dingier tried the method but without suc-
cess. (Dingl. Pol. Jour., Vol. 40, 1831, p. 62.)

Gay Lussac observed that where milk is heated to boiling daily it may
be kept without change for months. (IJuU. des. 8ci. Agr., Aug. 8, 1830,
p. 524.)

The following is taken from the IMiarm. Cent. Blatt. for 1830, and is
accredited to the Ann. de Oh. et de Ph. XL, III.

Braconnet took 2^ litres of milk exposed to a temperature of 45°C.,
and with repeated stirring, added from time to time diluted hydrochloric
acid, which separated all the caseine and butter fron) the " Serum " (the
whey), that scarcely i-eacted upon blue litmus paper. To the so separ-
ated coagulum he added in successive ])ortions 5 gratumes powdered and
crystalized neutral carbonate of soda, and gently lieated when a rapid
solution fallowed. The fluid had about the same acidity as fresh milk,
and yielded aboub i^ litre of a kind of cream, or r:ahcr of ai'tificial milk
(f ranch ipane).

Braconnet prepared from this, aromatic cream uf the most acceptable
taste. Add to this kind of franchipane a quantity of water ecjual lo that
separated in the strum — the whey — and a quantity of common sugar,
one obtains a fluid perfectly resembling milk, except that according to
uniform judgment it has a more pleasant taste.

By heating the concentrated milk-like fluid with about an equal weight
of sugar one obtains a remarkable fluid — an excellent, perfectly homo-

122

geneous tnilk syrup. By dilution with a pretty large quantity of water,
one obtains a white, opaij^ue tiuid, quite like milk to wliich su-
gar has been added only of preferaljle taste. By concentration with con-
stant stirring to a degree which avoids the separation of the hutter,there
is obtained a white confection, which, in an imperfectly closed can, will
keep for a year without the slightest change. Dissolved in boiling water
it serves at breakfast for coffee, A\'hich has a much more agreeable taste
than that prepared with the best of milk. The process of Braconnet was
not, properly speaking, a process of milk condensation. It was a meth-
od of utilizing the caseine and butter of milk, and converting them into
a substitute for milk, which might be condensed with sugar, and in that
condition kept without sooiling, for use with coffee and otherwise.

In 1826 Adolphe Anoclet ]\Ialbec, of Paris, rue da Foin Saint Jacques,
No. 28, patented an invention of portable viilk. The Records of the
French Patent Office contain the following : " Milk to which one-six-
teenth of pure sugar had been added is condensed in a silver vessel over
a water l)ath under constant stirring v>fith a wooden spatula, until a proof
on a cold surface l)ecame hard and brittle. The whole was then allowed
to cool and was wrapped in lead foil, or otherwise enclosed for keeping.
It kept without deterioration for years. In order to use the preparation
it was dissolved in hot watei- over the fire, in the proportion of three
ounces or six table spoonfulls of substance in thirteen ounces of water."

The Fiench Patent Records running back from 1826 to 1791, contain
no other mention of a process for condetising milk. It is highly prob-
able, therefore, that this invention of IMalbcc in 1826 is the first for pre-
serving milk Ijy concentrating with the addition of sugar. It was ob-
viously a purely laboratory experiment, and no attempt was made to give
it the proportion of a commercial production.

In summing up the work in this field it is projier to mention that the
Carlsruhe Agricultural Union tested and apjtroved many years ago a pro-
cess devised in Bremen, in which the milk was concentrated to only half
its volume. In each jxiund of milk |- to Jth of a pound of sugar was
dissolved, the product bottled, corked and wired, and then heated in a
pan of boiling water for two hours. When wanted for use it was diluted
with an ecpial volume of water.

It is proper to refer also to the ]u-ocess of Bethel, who .saturated the
milk with carbonic acid, bottled and corked ; also to Fadeuilhe's prepar-
ation in solid form by steam heat, witli constant stirring, with carefully
regulated heat at difterent statres of concentration, from 160° to 17U"
Fall., aiul the addition of small (juantities of sugar and gum arabic ; also
to Madru's jn-ocess of filling bottles with milk by pouring through a fun-
nel, with long neck reacliing to the bottom, soasto exi)el all the air, then
covering the milk with a thin layer of oil, and applying heat.

In h)oking over these various records, it is not difiicult to believe that
success might have come to the unknown inventor, whose invention of
J8i55 Newton ])atented in England, if lie had had the means, business
ability and patieiice to keep his ju'oduct before the public till the value
and convenience of the condensed milk were fully ajipreciated. In a
certain sense the invention was made too soon.

The use of sugar witli the milk and the evajioration at a low tempera-
ture with agitation t.) prevent coagulation of caseine at the surface, and

123

separation of the butter from its superior levity, seems to have been re-
cognized as essential by almost all who tried to impart pieservative qual-
ities to the milk by condensation. ]^ut the publications in which the
invention appeared had but a limited circulation, and the same invention
continued to be repeated, each invention being quite independent and
original so far as his predecessors were concerned.

It was perhaps at the best' my good fortune to li^'e nearer the period
when the invention was called for, l)y the wants of increased connnerce
at sea,, and the necessities of exploring parties, than tliose laborious invest-
igators who preceded me in their study of the same ]jroblem.

It hap})ened to me to be instrumental in determining the conditions of
success and to have them demonstrated through a successful cummercial
venture, and to possess a still preserved sample of the condensed milk
made by my process after twenty years keeping Avithout other protection
from the air than a simple envelo})e of tin -foil.

E. N. HoRSFOllD,

ADDEESS ON" THE USE OF BOKAOICACTD AND OTHER
MATERIALS FOR PRESERVING MILK SWEET.

BV PROF. G. C. CALDWELL, OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y.

During the hot season of the year there appears to be a need of some
means of keeping milk sweet for a few hours longer than it will natur-
ally remain in a good condition, especially in the case of the transporta-
tion of milk from the country to the city.

In a short contribution to the proceedings of the American Dairy-
men's Association last winter I gave a very brief account of the use of
Salicylic Acid and of Borax for the preservation of milk. The papers
of Kolbe and others on the powerful antiseptic properties of salicylic
acid, have been very widely noticed in the scientific and popular journals
and have excited much interest, especially since jiuie salicvlic acid has
neitlier taste nor odor, so that it can be used for the preservation of arti-
cles of food, as its nearest associate, carbolic arid, cannot be, unless very
pure. Some quite remarkable results have been obtained in resi)ect to
its application to the preservation of milk; ii sanjple of milk with
l-2500th of its weight of the acid added to it remained sweet ?>() hours
longer than milk without such addition. In 'another experiuient the ad-
dition of one part of the acid to 5,000 of milk, retarded its souring for
the space of fiom 20 to 24 hours, and when one part of acid was added
to 2,000 of milk it remained sweet, at a temperature of about (i.i Fahr.,
from 2 to 4 days longer than did a similar sample with nothing added.
But in some experiments of my own that I perfuruied last winter, where
the milk was kept at about the same temperature, I could not get any
such favorable i-esults although the trials were re})eivted several tiuies ;
even when one part of acid was added to oOO of milk it turned sour in
48 hours, and when the proportion was 1 to 12-30 the milk soured in 36
hours.

Soxhlet, a prominent investigator of the [)roperties of milk, seems to
have obtained results similar to mine, for he gives it as his opinion that
if the proportion of the acid added is kept so low as to avoid communi-
cating any taste to the milk, its preservative action is of no account. It

124

may be that those experiments which, resulted so favorably wei'e made
with the pixre acid. I used the commercial acid, for the chemically pure
article would be too costly to be used on a large scale for any such pur-
pose as this.

I might add that I found that it made no difference whether I added
the solid acid and stirred it into the milk, or whether I used a solution of
it.

But even those who have obtained such good results in applying this
antiseptic to the preservation of milk do not speak with a corresponding
degree of favor of its use in practice, for the reason that it is but little
more effectual than other substances that are much cheaper ; the one
thing that they do say in its behalf is that the cream from milk to which
salicylic acid has been added is better in consistency and taste than that
from pure milk.

It has been known foi* a long time that borax possesses I'emarkable an-
tiseptic power ; for a substance witli such mild properties, it appears to
be singularly destiaictive of the life of the minute organisms that are
sujiposed to be concerned in the processes of fermentation and putrefac-
tion, similar to those which go on in milk as it sours and becomes offen-
sive with age. In the case of some recorded exj)eriments, grapes kept in
a solution of boi*ax suffered no fermentation for two years ; meat in a
solution of borax remained unaltei'ed for a very long time, so far as the
putrefactive changes are concerned, which attack such a substance very
speedily if left to itself. It would be natural to expect that the changes
Avhich milk suffers spontaneously would be opposed in a similar way.

In one experiment, milk to which 1-I30th of its weight of borax had
been added retained the odor and appearance of fresh milk for months,
and it did not become sour. But no such proportion of this substance
can be used in actual practice, for it would communicate a disagreeable
alkaline taste to the milk that would be no less objectionable than the
taste of the sour milk. In some experiments of my own I found that
1 part of borax could be added to 500 of milk without notably affecting
its taste, and that at a tem])erature of about 65 or 70 Fahr. Milk contain-
ing this proportion of Borax remained sweet 40 hours in one case, and
56 hours in another ; in two other experiments, in which the proportion
of borax to milk was 1 to 1,000, the milk remained sweet 48 hours, and
with the proportion of 1 to 250 the milk acquired a disagreeable alkaline
taste but remained sweet 96 houre.

During the hot weather of last summer I repeated some of my experi-
ments with borax, and at the same time I made some further experiments
with boracic or boric acid. In the tirst series of experiments the tem-
perature ranged trom 80 to 86 degrees in the day-time, and milk without
any addition turned sour in from 20 to 22 hoiirs ; I found that under
these circumstances, if the quantity of borax added was kept as low as
was necessary to avoid affecting the taste of the nulk, the souring was
retarded to some extent, but not greatly ; on the other hand, milk
with 1 -500th of its weight of boracic added to it remained sweet 50 horn's,
and the taste of the milk was not affected at all by the substance added.

In another set of experiments with boracic acid alone, with the tem-
perature ranging from 72 to 79 degrees, and with pure milk turning sour
in 24 hours, 1-1, 000th of boracic acid added to the milk caused it to I'e-

125

main sweet 42 hours. In most of my experiments with this antiseptic
the addition of a smaller proportion than 1-1, 000th appeared to have but
little effect ; in these same ex]:)eriments, for instance, where the addition
of 1-1, 000th nearly doubled the time that the milk would remain sweet,
the addition of 1-2, 000th retarded the souring by only 3 to 7 hours, or,
in other words the time that the milk would remain sweet was increased
by only from l-3rd to l-7th of the length of time that it would ke^p
without any addition.

On the other hand the addition of more than 1-1, 000th served to in-
crease the time that the milk would keep, somewhat in proportion to the
amoTuit added ; for instance, in the case of the experiments where the
addition of 1-1, 000th nearly doubled the time of keeping, the addition
of about l-650th nearly trebled the time, making it 66 hours instead of
42. "^

In the last set of experiments that I made, where the milk was put in
a warm place in my laboratory, the day tempei-ature ranging from 61
to 78 degrees, and probably not falling below 60 in the night, the milk
without any addition soured in 40 hours ; with 1-1, 000th of Boracic ad-
ded it remained sweet more than 72 hours, and at 90 hours it was sour
biit not curdled ; with l-800th of acid it was only just beginning to turn
at tK) hours, and with 1 -650th it was still sweet at 90 hours.

The boracic acid used in these experiments was the ordinary acid of
the druggists costing 50 cents a pound ; it occurs in the form of pearly
crystalline scales which are not readily soluble in cold water, but are qixite
soluble in hol^'ater ; the solution has a very feeble acid taste, and is in
fact almost tasteless. In all ray later experiments, the milk taken while
still warm from the cow, was divided into portions of about 1-1 0th of
a quai-t in some of the series, and in others about l-5th of a quart. The
acid was added in the solid form, and well stirred in to make the solution
as complete as possible, the dishes were loosely covered to keep out the
dust, and were then set aside in a warm place ; the milk in each dish was
tasted from time to time, and as soon as the first semblance of a sour taste
appeared in any case the time was noted ; I did not wait till the milk
curdled, as did most of those who have tried similar experiments before
me, for my object was to determine how long the milk would retain its
natural taste under the influence of the various antiseptics that were
tested.

For the purpose of comparing boracic acid and borax with some other
substances that are sometimes used as antiseptics, I made some trials with
salt, with sulphate of lime and sulphate of soda, in different proportions ;
but none of these substances were found to exert any notable action in re-
tarding the souring of the milk.

It may be said that the addition of any of these preservative agents
to milk would be equivalent to an adulteration of it, and that the prac-
tice would therefore be a censurable one ; but it seems to me that, pro-
vided the substance added is one which of itself is quite harmless, no in-
jury is inflicted on the community by its use ; as long as the milk retains
the normal propoi'tion of each of its ingredients, and is sweet and good
to the taste what difference does it make whether it is 5 or 50 hours oldl
I am not aware that milk becomes any less digestible or healtliful as it
grows^ older ; I can see no i-eason why it should not be just as fit for coi\~
15

sumption when old as when new, as long as it is sweet and its cotaposi-
tion is essentially unchanged.

To my mind then, the answer to the question whether it would be a
crime to add borax or salicylic acid or boracic acid to milk, turns upon
the other question whether these substances are entirely harmless.

Both l)orax and salicylic acid are used as medicinal remedies, but it
may well be questioned whether the small quantities that would be taken
into the system in all the milk preserved with their aid that one could
drink during the short hot season when, and when only, there would be
any need of using them, would have any noticeable effect. Since, how-
ever, the most useful agent for this purpose seems to be the l>oracic acid,
I have confined my attention in this respect entii-ely to that substance.

In considei-ation of the rather high price of the acid it is not likely
that the milkman would use any more than just about enough to accom-
plish his object in adding it to the milk — ^that is, he woiild not be likely
to add more than from one to two parts of the acid to a thousand of the
milk. We will take an exti*eme case, and suppose that a man could con-
sume in one way or another a gallon of milk a day, which is certainly a
liberal allowance for those who have to buy all their milk, and that this
milk was kept sweet and good with the aid of a proper dose of boi-acic
acid ; in this case the man would consume with the milk a quantity of
boracic acid ranging from l-14tli to l-7th of an ounce, according to
whether one or two parts of the acid was added to a thousand of the
milk. Can this or even a larger quantity possibly affect him in any way 1

In all the accounts of the properties of boracic acid K the works on
chemistry, no mention is made of any effect that it produces on the ani-
mal system ; hence it caimot be a poisonous substance : no mention is
made of it in the dispensatory, and hence it has not yet been found to
■possess any medicinal virtues ; if it has any medicinal properties they
cannot be the same as those of borax, in which the acid is combined with
the base soda, forming a compound with strong alkaline properties ; the
medicinal action of borax is attributed, at least in part, to this alkaline
property. In the absence of more positive information in regard to the
matter in question, I have made a few experiments on myself with the
acid ; during the past two weeks I have taken several doses of about
l-9th of an ounce, and I was not able to see that it ])roduced any effect
upon me ; I remained just as well as ever, and none of the vital processes
appeared to be interfered ^dth in any degree. The common opinion that
the acid is perfectly harmless when taken internally may therefore be re-
garded as correct.

To sum the matter up, I have shown that the use of either the salicy-
lic acid or borax for presei'ving milk is not practicable, while boracic acid
added in proportions at least as large as l-l,(^00th l)y weight is very ef-
fectual as a pi-eservative — that added in this pro])ortion it will usually
serve to keep the milk in a good cou<lition about twice as long as it will
remain sweet witliout any preservative, but kept uiulor the same circum-
stances otherwise— that this acid can be added in still larger proportions
without affecting the taste of tlie milk, and that its preservative effect
increases somewhat in proportion to the quantity of acid added — and
finally that a much larger quantity of the acid than any one would be
likely to take with a most liberal consum])tion of milk that has been kept

127

sweet by means of it, would produce no perceptible effect on a healthy-
person.

The following paper was read by Bernhard Osann, of New York City :

ON THE UTILIZATION OF WHEY.

In Switzerland, Germany and other Avhey producing countries, all or
nearly all the whey is converted into lactic acid, sugar of milk, &c. The
method there employed is to evaporate or boil down the wliey until a dry
resicbuim is obtained. This crude product is carried to some centially
located refinery to be purified. Why could not this be done Jiere also ?
All large cheese factories pi'oduce large quantities of whey, most of them
have steam heating appliances and could easily condense the whey in a
steam kettle or vacuum pan. If, after filling up the kettle, as often as
practical, the remaining liquid were boiled down till a thin skin formed
on the surface and pieces of string hung therein, upon being alloAved to
cool, the sugai of milk would crystalize upon the strings like rock candy.
These crystals could then be removed, allowed to drain, and would be
tolerably pure. The remaining liquid could be used in future condensa-
tions. If this operation were conducted over an open fire instead of in a
steam kettle, frequent stirring would be necesbary. Will it pay 1 Milk
for cheese manufacturing is worth about $1.00 per hundred lbs. Ordinary
milk contains about 5% of suear. Say, that one hundred lbs. of milk
would yield 4 lbs. of purified sugar : this is worth at least 15 cts. per lb.
or 60 cts. A very high estimate for the purification of the crude sugar,
obtained as above described, would be 10 cts. per lb. or 40 cts. Thus
leaving 20 cts. to be added to the dollar obtained for cheese. It seems
plausible that crude sugar of milk can profitably be made for 5 cts. a lb.
when salt is produced from a much weaker solution, for less than 1 cent.
It needs only to be added that the consumption is large and increasing,
while the above estimate assumes a mininmm standard of value through-
out. In order to make a practical test of the feasibility of the above
plan and with the hope of creating a universal interest and promoting
investigation of the matter among dairymen generally and cheesemakers
specially, Smith's Homreopathic Pharmacy, of 107 Fourth Ave., New
York, a firm engaged in purifying and pulverizing the imported sugar of
milk, will make the following ofter : Let any one with the facilities at
their command, make, in the above described manner, a quantity, be it
large or small, of crude sugar of milk, send the same to the above ad-
dress, and they will pay the freight upon the same and credit the sender
with 15 cents per lb. for the material. The cost of purification, which,
they guarantee, shall not exceed 10 cents per lb., Avill be charged to each
lot, and the balance be subject to the order of the sender. They" hiake
this offer to demonstrate their faith m the plan, not presuming that there
will be any immediate material benefit to either of the parties interested.
Hoping that this will receive your careful consideration, it is respectfully
submitted by the undersigned, "

Bernard Osann.

The following address was delivered by Prof. James T, Bell, of Belle-
ville, Ontario :

128

ADDEESS.

It seems to me almost an act of presumption in myself to stand up to
speak in this place, where my liumble effort will be brought into contrast
and comparison with the finislied productions of some of the ablest and
most acute minds, delivered by some of the most eloquent orators of this
great country, and I much fear that most of my hearers will entertain the
same opinion ; but my fi'iends and fellow-countrymen have assigned to me
the duty of addressing you, and I shall ])roceed to obey their behest to
the best of my knowledge and ability, trusting to your kind consideration
to overlook any deficiencies, and pardon any solecisms that you will
doubtless discover, and to accept what I have to say in the same spirit
of candor and kmdliness in which it is oftered.

The co-operative or factory system of dairy husbandry in Canada is
the offspring of that of the United States^ and though it has yet scarce-
ly reached its adolescence, it has already attained such proportion3 as to
give fair promise of becoming a child not unworthy of its distinguished
parentage, and perhaps it may be as interesting as anything else that I
could advance if I recapitulate the cavises which induced and the circum-
stances which accompanied its adoption into the system of our agricul-
tural industry and its rapid development after its introduction.

Some twenty years ago a gentleman from the dairy district of the
State of New York purchased a farm in the "Western Section of what
was then known as " Upper Canada," and established a cheese factory on
a small scale. Others in the succeeding years followed his example, and
several factories were successfully brought into operation, but the move-
ment was for a long time confined to the locality in which it originated
and its immediate neighborhood, and it was not until 1865 that the joint
stock system became generally adopted throughout the Provinces of the
Dominion.

When your Government, in a moment of irritation, annulled the
treaty under whose provisions the commercial relations of the two
countries had been conducted during the preceding decade, the effect of
their action was directly contrary to what they intended and expected.
Instead of reducing Canada to an abject dependence upon the commercial
policy of the United States, it taught her people to feel and recognize
their own strengtli and capabilities, and to make the grand discovery that
they had within themselves all the elements of commercial success. Be-
fore the abrogation of the treaty, our merchants were content to do their
trading chiefly with and through the merchants of the United States ;
but when the support of your strong arm was withdi'awn, and Canada had
to guide her tottering footsteps without its powerful aid, she quickly
found, to her own astonishment, that she could go alone, and her
strength increasing by its exercise, that she could even compete in the
n:arkets of the world with her former patron and supporter.

At first, however, the announcement of the action of Congress was
received by our population with feelings of doubt, and almost of dis-
may, and it was only a few far-foi-seeing and sagacious individuals who
could appreciate the real bearing of tlie situation, and recognise in it an
opportunity of securing for Canada an independent position in the com-
merce of the world ; who saw that as the relaxation of the chain that
had so long bound the commerce of her dependencies to that of Brit-

129

aiii, had resulted in immense advantages to those of her colonies which
were strong enough and wise enough to profit by the liberality of their
mother country, so in like manner was it certain that the termination of
our connection with, and consequent subservience to the commercial sys-
tem of the United States, aflbrded an opening which, properly cultivated
and improved, would tend to establish the commercial autonomy of the
Dominion on a broad, a firm, and an infrangible basis, and elevate our
country from the semi-dependent position she occupied undei- the treaty
to the pliice which alike from her ancestral traditions, her natural advan-
tages, and the enterprise and energy of her i)eople, she is qualified to as-
sume among the mercantile communities of the world.

Do not, however, suppose because I speak thus, that I or any of my
fellow-countrymen are averse to the holding of friendly tiade-relations
with you, our nearest, and indeed oui- only neighbors. On the contrary,
we are sincerely desiious to trade with you on terms of mutual advan-
tage, and are ready to enter into treaty stipulations to that effect ; but
those terms and stipulations must be such as it may become a free and
independent people to enter into with a free and independent nation.
Terms and stipulations not negotiateil in a petty spii-it of bargain-making,
grasping at undue advantages on either hand, but conceived and canned
out in that grand spirit of honor and rectitude which for so many ages
marked the course and stam]>ed the renown of the merchant princes of
that country from which we deiive c)ur common origin, and whose repu-
tation we ought equally to cherish as a precious heir-loom to be presei'ved
from diminution or disgrace.

Previous to the year 1865, as I have already stated, there were several
cheese factories in operation in that part of Ontario which lies west of
Toronto ; but up to that time none had been estal>lished in that part that
lies east of that city. In the agitated state of })ul)lic feeling occasione«l
by the abrogation of the treaty, which caused our faimei's to fear, not
without apparent reason, that they would be thereby deprived of a mai-
ket for a large jjortion ef their ])roduce, at the same time that they ob-
served a manifest falling off in the productive poAver of the soil in many
of the older settled districts of the Province, one of our prominent public
men, the Honorable Robert Read, lesolved that he woiild endeavor to find
some means of reviving jjublic confidence, which had been rudely shak-
en by apprehensions of approaching evil, and of mitigating any ill effects
that might aiise from the sudden disturliance of our commercial connec-
tions.

Having on a previous visit to the northern section of the United States
observed the operation of the cheese factories, and justly appi-eciated their
impoi'tant beaiing upon the condition an<l ]>i'Ospects ot the agricultural
portion of the community, so highly had he estimated the advantages they
afforded, that on his return he had made a standing otter of a bonus of
.flOO to any per.son or company who should establish a cheese factory on
the American plan in the County of Hastings ; he therefore came to the
conclusion that the introduction of that system was more likely than any
thing else that he could think of to effect the end he contemplated.

He next consulted with Mr. Ketchan Graham, who subsequently re-
presented the West Riding of Hastings in the Legislature of Ontario,
und the result of their conference was that Mr. Graham, in company with

130

Ml". Read, Junior, took au extended tour through the dairying district
of the State of New York, in the course of wliich they made themselves
thorouglily acquainted with tlie constitution of the Dairy Companies
tlieie existing, and with the practical management of their factories.

On the return of these gentlemen, Mr. Read, Senior, and Mr. Gi-aham
resolved to try the experiment of establishing a model factory on the
American plan, with such modifications as might be required to adapt it
to the circumstances of our own country. They therefore procured a
suitable building, purchased the necessary apparatus and utensils, engaged
a skilful operator from the States to conduct the manufactiire, pro\dded
])etween them one-half of the number of cows necessary to supply the
requisite quantity of milk, and the " Front of Sidney Cheese Factory"
went into operation in the year 1866.

The example thus set was quickly followed. The farmers of Hastings
l)ecame aware of the benelicial etfect of cooperation, and cheese factories
sprang up in all directions, all of which are now working successfully ;
and the movement is still spreading every year shewing in increase in
their niimber, until at the present time there are over one hundred factories
in operation in the Belleville district, which comprises the counties of Has-
tings, Prince Edward, Northumberland, andLennoxand Addington. There
are 50 which ship their cheese from Kingston and Gananoque, and at least
100 around Brockville and Prescott. Between Belleville and Toi-onto there
are fifty more ; and I cannot Obtiniate the number in the section of the
Province lying between Toronto and the shores of Lake Huron, in which
are situated the head-quarters of the business, at less than those of the
eastern section, which would make a gi'and total of GOO cheese factories
in active operation in the Province of Ontario at the present time. Of
course the factories vary very much in extent and capacity, ranging from
60 to 600 cows, or more. Take for instance the report of the " Sweet
Briar" Cheese Factory, situated in the sixth concession of the Township
of Rawdon, in the County of Hastings, for the year 1875, which I select,
not because it is the best I can lind, but because I consider it to be a
fair avei'age examjde of oui factory re])orts, and the readiest to hand :

" Number of cows, 360 ; milk received, 850,121 pounds ; cheese man-
ufactured, 91,912 pounds ; average price received 10^^ cents per pound;
taking about 9]^^ pounds of milk to make one pound of cheese. This fac-
tory is private projierty, and the cheese was manufactured for a cent and
a-half i»er pound."

It is too early in the season to ascertain, or even to estimate tlie extent
of the make of this year ; but the qiiantity of Canadian cheese sent to
market in 1875, as furnished to me by the shii)ping agents at the various
stations along the Grand Trunk Railway and the steamship agents dt
Montreal, was as follows :—

East of Toronto, ... . 246,154 boxes, weight, 16,000,000 lbs.

Toronto, 73,251 " " 4,966,808 "

West of Toronto.. .. 424,824 " " 27,613,560 "

744,229 " " 48,580,368 *'
Value at an average of 10c. per lb $4,858,036

131

Ko better illustration of the great and growing importance of the Ca-
nadian cheese nianufactui'e can be adduced than that att'orded by a com-
parative statement of the quantity received at Montreal for export in the
years 1872,-'73-'74, and '75, which is returned as follows: — 1872,
195,031 boxes; 1873. 383,721 boxes; 187-1, 375,903 boxes; 1875,
5-12,140 boxes ; shewing the receipts of last year to have exceeded those
of 1872 by 347,009 boxes, or taking the average weiglit of each box at
65 lbs., that the quantity of cheese i-eceived at Montreal lias increased
from 12,677,015 lbs. in 1872 to 35,239,100 lbs. in 1875; that is, an
increase of 178 per cent, in three years, or two and three ipiarter times
the quantity exported in 1872.

It must also be remembered that the shipments from Montreal do not
include the whole of the cheese made in the Province over and above the
home consumption. In "winter, Avhen the navigation of the St, Lawrence
is closed for several moutlis, all the cheese freights per the (I rand Trunk
go to Portland, and throughout the season a considerable amount of our
western cheese tuids its way to the sea-board by the United States rail-
ways, so that we cannot err in stating the total increase of the three
yeai's at 200 per cent on the export of 1872.

Our trade in butter, though it has been vastly outstripped by tliat of
cheese, is also growing gradually larger, tlie increase from 1872 to 1875,
being from 142,380 packages in the former year to 157,097 in the latter,
or at the rate of 24 per cent, in three 3"ears, or 8 per cent, per annum.
As the packages vary in weight from 60 lbs. to 120 lbs., the larger ones
predominating hoAvever, if we average them at 100 lbs. each, we shall
probably be nearly correct, and the quantity for 1875 will be 15,709,700
lbs., which, at 18 cents per lb., will give $2,827,746.00, and the total net
cash value of the two articles will be

Cheese, 48,580,368 lbs. at 10 cents per lb., $4,858,036.00.

Butter,.... 15,709,700 " 18 " 2,827,746.00.

$7,685,782.00

A very pleasing and beneficial feature connected with thj dairy bus-
iness, for which we are also indebted to the example of the dairymen of
the United States, is the holding of annual conventions, in which all
parties interested in the business, whether as producei-s, dealers or con-
sumers, may meet together to interchange opinions, relate experiences,
discuss points of practice or questions of piinciple, give and receive in-
formation, awake emulation and enthusiasm among themselves, anil in-
terest the public in their pursuits, and finally insure that whatever im-
improvements or discoveries may be made by individuals may become
the common property of all.

In the year 1868 some of the chief promoters of the dairv movement
in Western Ontario, having observed the advantages attendant upon such
conventions, formed a society foi- the purpose of promoting the interest
and extending the knowledge of the art of cheese making. They adopted
the style and title of " The Canadian Dairymen's Association," and ob-
tained a grant of money from the Ontario Government to aid their en-
deavor. They held their annual conventions in the Town of Jngersoll.
In 1872 the cheese-makers of the Eastern section of the Province formed

132

tkemselves into a similar society under the name of the " Ontario Dairy-
men's Association," established their head-quarters in the Town of Belle-
ville, and a])plied for a similar grant. The Hon. Minister of Agricul-
ture and Public Works was, however, unwilling to subsidize two rival
associations, and under his advice the two societies coalesced in 1873, and
became united under the name of " The Dairymen's Association of On-
tario," the annual conventions of which are held in rotation twice at Ing-
ersoll and once at Belleville in every three years.

For myself, I am disposed to assign a very high value to the efiect of
these conventions upon the successful cultivation of the manufacture of
dairy products, and I tldnk that upon a candid and impartial review of
what has been done in our own Canadian conventions, most intelligent
j)ersons will be disposed to agree with me in that opinion ; and of coui^se
the same estimate a])plies in a still higher degree to the larger assem-
blages you command on this side of the boundary line. The money value
of any commodity depends largely upon its reputation for superiority
over others of the same class, and such a reputation is only attainable
by excellence of quality. This it is that causes certain brands of cheese
and butter to command an extra price in the markets where they are
known, and makes buyers anxious to secure the products of some factories
rather than that of others. Hence it appears that in order to attain
•A national i-eputation, a reputation which shall extend to the whole pro-
duce of a country, the quality must not only be excellent, but it must be
uniform in its excellence, so that the consumers may feel confident that
in purchasing a certain brand of goods, they will be sure of getting an
article which will suit their tastes and fulfil their expectations. And
when we consider that a reputation of this kind is not a mere matter of
sentiment, of emulation or vaunting among the makers, or even of a gold
medal or certificate of commendation at an Agiicultural Fair, but that it
carries with it a hard cash value of from one to three cents a ])Ound up-
on millions of pounds, that is from ten to twenty-five per cent iipon the
whole product of a country, we shall begin to understand how desirable
it is for any ])roducing country to possess a merited character for luii-
formity of excellence in its staple commodities, whatever they may be,
and how advisable it is to employ every means that may promise to work
effectually in that direction.

Not only have these meetings proved instrumental in promoting this
great direct benefit, the means and proofs of which I shall presently con-
sider, but their influence has extended beyond the circle of those imme-
diately interested in the business, and created a constantly increasing in-
tei'est in dairy afiairs among the public at large. As an impidse com-
municated to still water s})reads and widens, until the whole surface of
the pool is agitated by nund)erless rip])les, so the pi'oceedings of these
conventions have aioused in the p\d)lic mind a deeper interest in the i>ro-
gress of the manufacture, and a more critical appreciation of the quality
of its products, which has induced a larger consumption of its staple, and
a greater readiness to i)ay a corresponding price for a first-rate article.

r shall now enumerate some of the means by which these desirable
results have been striven for, and partially attained, tdthough in doing
so I shall be obliged to repeat miich of what I have already said in our
own conventions. In the first place, the o])eratoi-s aiid patrons of our

133

factories have had the advantage of listening to addresses from the Hon.
X. A. Willard and Professors Ai-nold and Caldwell, gentlemen who pos-
sess a thorough knowledge both of the practical and scientific aspect of
the manufacture, so that in their teachings they can not only describe
with unerring accuracy the several processes and their noiTnal results,
but can give the ratios and explain the reactions which occur during the
conversion of milk into cheese and butter, and thereby enable our oper-
ators bo combine theoretical intelligence with their practical skill. Who
can indicate the difficulties and troubles which our operators have to en-
counter, and the most approved methods of averting or overcoming
them ; and who have defined the natui'e and traced the development of
those obscure microscopic organisms, the moulds and ferments, bacteiia
and vibriones, which occasionally oppose such formidal)le obstacles to the
success of the operator, and even imbue his wholesome and nutritious
products with the seeds of disease and death.

In addition we have enjoyed and profited by the shrewd remarks and
genial luuuor of the Hon. Mr. Lewis ; the keen observation and business
tact of Mr. Burrell, of Little Falls ; the lucid and able exposition by Pro-
fessor Wetherall, of the physiological peculiarities of the different breeds
of cattle, and their comparative value for dairy and other purposes ; the
broad coimnei'cial views of Mr. Peters, of the " New York Grocer," and
the valuable experimental results, detailed with logical precision, of Mr.
Hardin, of Kentucky ; while on our own side we have had displayed the
practical knowledge and experience of Messrs. Ballantyne, Noxon, Chad-
wick, Casswell, and. others, and I myself have had the opportunity of
adding my mite to the fund of information which, has flowed as freely
from the platform of these Conventions as water from a spring.

In order to prove to the complete satisfaction of any reasonable person
the beneficial eti'ect of these meetings, I need only to enumerate the sub-
jects which in turn occupy the attention of the audience, and narrate the
manner in Avhich they are treated. Fii-st comes the reading of an official
address, in which is reviewed the business events of the year ; next the
discussion of subjects selected bj' the Council of the Association, which
are generally assigned in the first place to persons who are known to be
qualified to treat them intelligently ; but which discussions are after-
wards open to all who have a remark to make, a suggestion to ofter, or
an item of information to obtain. This is a very valuable feature, as in
these discussions the more important and critical processes and operations
are described by practical men, and the principles on which their success
depends are explained by their more scientific coadjutors ; and it must be
remembered that to obtain the best possible results in any opei-ations
which are based upon chemical affinities and combinations, theory must
regulate practice, and practice must be guided by theory, and that opera-
tor will be most successful who has the most thorough knowledge of the
nature and composition of his materials, and the effect produced upon
them by his processes, for he will perform his operations with confidence,
and will obtain the desired results with certainty, subject only to the de-
rangements of accident, or the mysterious seasonal and atmospheric in-
fluences which occasionally defy and defeat alike the skill of the operator
and the knowledge of the philosopher.
16

134

It Is clear then tbat tlie more widely we can diffuse correct information
the more thoroughly we can combine scientific knowledge with practical
skUl among our dairy population, tlip higher we shall raise the grade both
of operators and patrons, and the higher degree of excellence, and of uni-
formity in excellence, will be attained by the products of tlieir labours,

A very interesting, and by no means the least instructive, and profit-
able part of the proceedings, is the question drawer, to which every one
who has a doubt to solve, a difficulty to surmount, or a special piece of
information to gain, may contribute his query, with the full assurance
that it will receive due attention, and that all tha t is known by those pre-
sent respecting it will be brought out without further trouble on his part ;
while if he still requires further explanations, he is in the best possible
position to put such questions as may elicit the information lie may re-
quire to satisfy his mind, or to guide his practice.

I shall now endeavor briefly to recapitulat e the work that has actually
been done towards this end ; for it is useful in science and art, no less
than in morals and religion, to make an occasional retrospect of what we
have done, in order that we may be able to ascertain clearly the progress
we have made, and to estimate correctly the deficiencies we have yet to
supply. And here I would premise that although my experience has been
confined to our Canadian conventions, I do not doubt that my remarks
will apply in an equal, or perhaps in a greater degree to those which you
have been in the habit of holding in your more extensive and older es-
tablishtd dairy districts.

In our conventions then, the chemical, physiological, mechanical and
commercial aspects of the business have all in turn come in for a share of
attention. The nature, composition and constitution of milk have been
fully and exhaustively explained. The various influences wliich afiect it,
eitlier for good or evil, and the effects they induce, have been discussed
and made known ; the fungi or moulds, and other minute organisms,
which have the power of producing such unexpected, and in some cases
such prejudicial ett'ects, have been systematically described, and their
forms and transformations, as displayed by the microscope, have been
made palpable to ilie eye in well executed diagrams. The several pro-
cesses used in the factories have been thoroughly and critically discussed,
and the methods and observations of some of the ablest and most success-
ful operators have been fully and freely related. The ditticulties met
with in the course of the manufacture have been pointed out, and the
most likely methods of avoiding or overcoming them have been indicated :
especially that great bugbear of the factories, " floating curds," has re-
ceived a large share of attention ; its causes have been investigated, and
precautions to prevent its occurrence, and remedies to remove its presence,
have been suggested. Tlie effect of temperature u}>on milk, the most ad-
vantageous way of cooling it down to a ])roper pitch, and of keeping it
cool ; the best mode of conveying it to the factories, and the proper de-
gree of heat at which to ai)ply the rennet, have all been considered. The
curing and keeping of the rennets, i\w. prepai-ation of the solution for
curdling the milk, and the proper quantity to use have l)een dilated upon.
The consti'uction of the curiug-roouis, and the management of the cheese
upon the shelf, as also the size and color suitable for different markets,
have been debated. Opinions have been expressed as to the best kinds

135

of annatto, and for and against its use. The properties and capabilities
of various pieces of machinery and apparatus have been canvassed, and
their comparative merits estimated. The selection of dairy-cattle, both
with reference to breed and individual qualities, has received marked at-
tention. The food of the cows, both liquid and solid, as well as their
general treatment, and the manner in which they are housed in winter,
and the effect of these circumstances on the quantity and qiuxlity of their
milk, have been expiated upon at some length, and the danger of allow-
ing them to eat mouldy, half-decomposed food, or to drink foul and stag-
nant, or other unwholesome water, has been strongly insisted on.

The reciprocal duties of the fnrnier and the factory operator have been
clearly defined. Of the farmer to supply his cattle with a sufhciency of
good and wholesome food and water, to provide for them proper shelter
in winter, and shade in summer, to avoid all harshness or cruelty in their
treatment, and never to suffer them to be hurried and hunted with dogs,
or by idle boys, to and from their jjiistures, so that their milk may be
sweet, pure and natural, and free from any feverish or unwholesome taint
or tendency, and especially from the germs of those dangerous and insid-
ious animal and vegetable organisms which, when they occiu', induce
such loathsome and deadly diseases. To observe the utmost attainable
cleanliness in regard to all cans, pails, strainers, dippers, and all other
utensils used about milk ; to wash them very clean with a warm water
softened with soda or potass every time after using, and after such wash-
ing to scald them thoroughly with water at a full boiling heat, letting
them be cool and thoroughly dry l)efore again putting milk into them. — ■
Above all to practise the strictest honesty in dealing with the milk ; to
send to the factories no skimmed or watered milk ; not to keep back
the strippings ; and rigidly to refrain from mixing in the cans the milk
of any animal which shews the slightest symptom of disease ; remember-
ing always that if you desire to attain the best possible results, that is
to obtain the highest market price for your manufactured article, you
nn;st supply your operator with the best and purest material Avithin your
capability, and then if he fails to produce a satisfactory commodity, pro-
nounce him incompetent, and employ a l)etter qualified person ; but do
not condemn any one for a failure the cause of which lies in your own
act and deed. Tlie duty of tlie operator has been deiined to be to use
the best processes he can learn or discover, and to keep himself so well
posted in the knowledge and principles of the business as to pronounce
intelligently upon any so-called improvements, so as to determine whether
or not it is Avorthy of being adopted ; and generally to use the materials
supplied to him to the greatest possible advantage, so as to improve the
qualit)^ of his cheese and establish the reputation of his factoiy.

It is more difficult to define the duties and responsibilities of the deal-
ers ; but there can be no doiibt that they are also bound by the ordinary
rules and maxims of commercial honor and personal morality. In an
address which I delivered before the Ontario Dairymen's Convention at
Ingersoll, in February of the present year, I felt constrained to advert
to the relation existing between the dealers and producers, by a statement
which appeai'ed in the correspondence column of the Toronto Monetary
Times, an ably conducted and influential journal, to the effect that the
Dairymen of Ontario had held over a large quantity of cheese, in order

13;e

to enhance its price, until it had become " wasted and partially spoiled,"
and that 75,000 boxes of such cheese had been thrown on the market, to
the manifest injury of the reputation of Canadian cheese, and consequent
diminution of its price.

This allegation was positively contradicted by a correspondent of the
Mail, who asserted that there had been very little complaint of overkept
cheese, and that in his opinion the statement arose from the fact that a
Montreal merchant or merchants, not being able to get in Canada a suf-
ficient quantity of cheese to fill their orders, Avent over to the State of
New York and purchased 65,000 boxes, which they shipped to England
as of Canadian make ; but most of it turning out to be of a low grade,
they attempted to account for its inferiority by asserting that it had be-
come deteriorated by having been too long kept. On this the Montreal
Star commented editorially as follows : —

" We incline to the opinion that ' Dairyman,' as the writer signs him-
self, is correct about there being little holding over by the cheese factories,
as the cheese-makers know the gain in weight by selling their product
when new, instead of when dried up. Besides, the different farmers who
contribute the milk to the factories on a partnership system, aie not like-
ly to agree to a serious delay in receiving their respective shares. The
holding over, if any there is, chiefly rests with the commission merchants,
who will know better than others whether there is any and how much
truth in the story al)Out their buying skim-milk cheese from the Amer-
icans, and selling it in England for ' Canadian.' It is to be earnestly de-
.sired that if any of our merchants engaged in such an operation, they
lost so heavily by it as to prevent a repetition of it, especially of tlie dis-
honest palming off as old Canadian cheese, the poorest article of Ameri-
can. Such conduct is in no ordinary degree re])rehensible, being a
fraud upon the consumer, and a serious injury to the Canadian dairyman
by detracting from the high reputation of Canadian cheese in the English
market."

When I state that I have been assured by a gentleman upon whose
veracity I place the most implicit reliance, and who got his information
on the spot, that the story of the Mail's correspondent is absolutely true.
I need scarcely say that I most heartily concur in the condemnation pro-
nounced by the Editor of the Star upon this flagitious proceeding, with
this addition that any party found guilty of such a glaring breach of
public confidence should be expelled from the cheese market, like a lame
duck from the Stock Exchange, or a defaulting black-leg from the lietting
ring. The ))roducts or our factories should not ])e subjected to such de-
traction by those who act as middle-men between the producers and the
consumers, Avho should rather be glad to have it continue to deserve the
high encomium passed uj>on it by Professor Arnold, who is reported to
have said in the American Dairyman's Convention held at Rome, in Jan-
uarv last, that " Canadian Cheese had met with an enlarged demand, and
the reason was that this product was uniformly good, and no skimming
was practiced in Canadian dairies."

If such a transaction did occur, I trust that it was an exceptional one,
and that it Avill not be repeated ; for though unscrupulous pei-sons are to
be met with in all the walks of life, and in every line of business — dirty
birds who will not scruple to befoul their own nest upon very alight

137

temptation — I jet feel assured that the gentlemen "R-ho come across the
ocean to relieve us of our surplus pi-oclucts in exchange for their welcome
cash, are possessed of too much honor to jjractice such petty roguery, and
of too much common sense to destroy their own hopes of protit by de-
liberately discrediting the very commodity in Avhich they are investing
their money.

I do not intend, nor indeed is it desirable for me to dilate upon the
scientific aspect of the dairy business ; that has been ably and exhaust-
ively discussed both in our conventions and in yours ; but there is one
subject to which I feel it incumbent ujjon me to direct the attention of
chemists and physiologists. I mean the possible efiect of the electric state
of the atmosphere upon the operations performed in the factories. This
subject was suggested to my mind by the complaints made in 1875 botli
by dealers and consumers, of the inferior quality of the cheese made in
Ontario in that season. So far as my own observation extended, I must
say that those complaints were but too well founded, fori failed to find
in the cheese of our district the rich, savoury, delicate flavour I had been
accustomed to since the introduction of the factory system into our dis-
trict. Even in Marmora and Madoc, where the cows feed upon the rich
and succulent grasses of the Laurentian hills, and drink the pure and
limpid Avater of their crystal spi-ings and creeks, the factories did not at-
tain the flavour and texture for which I have often commended their pro-
duce.

Now it is evident that so remarkable an efiect, traceable over so exten-
sive an area, must have a common cause ; and that cause ought to be in-
vestigated so far as is possible, with a view of discovering some means of
prevention or cure. Various causes were suggested : increasing dishonesty
among the farmers ; carelessness and remissness in the operatoi\s, and the
habit of drawing the nuJk only once a day. For my part, I do not be-
lieve that our farmers wei-e more dishonest in 1875 than they were in 1871:
or than they are in 1876. I believe that the operators, with very few,
if any, exceptions, are and were as earnest, as zealous and as attentive as
they ever were or could be, and I know that the |)ractice of drawing the
milk only once a day could effect those factories alone where it was in
use ; those causes, therefore, could not have produced so general and wide-
spread an effect, and we must look beyond them for another and more
potent influence, and I am inclined to think that influence may be found
in the electric state of the atmosphere. We know that thunder-storms
affect composite liquids, such as beer and milk very powerfully, and ac-
celerate the decomposition of organic substances in a remarkable manner ;
and we also know that the unobtrusive and invisil)le current of voltaic
electricit}' possesses a similr decomposing power, though its action is not
instantaneous, like that of the lightning-flash ; and that if not identical
with galvanic electricity, the electro-magnetic current is closely allied to
it ; and finally, the earth itself has been conclusively proved to be a large
electro-magnet. It will also be recollected that the year 1875 was re-
markable for the frequency and activity of its electric and magnetic dis-
turbances.

I should like if this matter were taken up by some gentleman who has
more leisure and better means and appliances for research than I have.
Experiments might be made in this manner : Vats might be placed in

138

different positions with respect to tlie magnetic meridian, parallel to it,
at right angles with it, and at various inclinations towards it. Some of
the vats might he isolated by placing the feet upon glass supports, while
others might V)c connected electrically with the earth by wires attached
to iron pins driven far enough into the ground to come into contact with
the damp subsoil, which wires at their other end might be made to dip
into the vat, or be soldei-ed to its metallic lining. Besides these many
other experiments would no doubt suggest themselves to the practical
philosopher, the result of which might be either to resolve the question
in the negative, and thus set it at rest, or to discover some means of con-
trolling these subtle influences, and preventing or palliating their evil
effects. The ([uestion I propose is an abstruse and a com olicated one, and
by no meairs easy of solution, but we ought not to be deterred from in-
quiry because the investigation may lie atteirded Avith difficulties; but
our energies should rather be roused to encounter, and, if possible, to
surmount thorn, and it is certain that an ample reward, both in money
and fame, M'ould await the fortunate jierson Avhose genius or whose per-
sevei ance should effect so valuable a discovery.

My task would be but partially fullilled if I neglected to say a few
words about the other staple article of dairy produce, namely, butter.
Up to the close of the year 1875, although a considerable quantity of
butter was exported from Canada, the export of that year alone being
15,700,000 lbs., it was all, so far as I can learn, made in private dairies,
and I am not aware that a single butter factory exi.?ted in the Dominion
before that time. Conse({uently the qualit}^ was far from uniform, and
very little hue, or, as it is termed here, gilt-edged butter has been made
in our dairies. Indeed so little care is exercised by some of our makers
that I have tasted five different rpialities of butter in one and the same
basket on Belleville market, and all of them only varying from bad to
worse. I do not see why tlie (piality of Canadiarr butter shoirld not be
as good as that of Cairadian cheese, aird in some of irry addresses to Dairy-
men's Coirventions, as well as in contributions to the Press, I have ad-
vocated the establislrment of butter factories as a means of ioiproving
the qirality and securing the uniformity of our butter, and corrseqirently
raising its character and enhancing its price in the English market. One
suggestion I have frequently offered is, that as cheese is only made dur-
ing a portion of the year, the factory buildings might be utilized during
the other portion, or at least a part of it, for the manufactui-e of buttei',
at a very trifling additional expense.

The question as to whether it is more advisable to invest in the making
of cheese or butter depends for solution upon the comparative protit to
be derived from each. If ten pounds of milk will make one pound of
cheese worth ten cents net, and it takes twenty-toirr ])Ounds of milk to
make one pound ot butter, worth twenty cents, it would seem at tirst
sight tluit it would be more profitable to make cheese. But we must con-
sider that the nraking of birtter costs less than that of cheese ; that the
process is shorter and simpler, and the apjiaratus less costly ; that there is
no rcmnet required, and very little, if any, annatto ; that the skim-milk
and butter-milk are much more valuable for making pork than the whey;
and that the butter is i-eady for market as soon as made, and does not re-
quire time to ripen, and that consequently the juterest upon the capital

139

IS saved, and perhaps we may find that butter-making is the more profit-
able employment of the two. It is true that I have allowed only twenty
pounds of milk to the pound of butter, when it is generally found that
from two to five pounds more are required, but in compensation I have
rated the butter at twenty cents per pound, when good butter will bring
from two to four cents, and tine from live to seven cents more, and butter
made in the factories ought to be of such a quality as to command the
liighest run of market prices. I am also inclined to believe that l)y a
careful selection of cattle, and the adoption of Mr. Ilarden's principle of
deep setting at a low temperature, with such modifications as might better
adapt it to a larger scale of manufacture, a much greater yieUl of butter
in proportion to the quantity of milk employed might he obtained ; and
if by the method of Mr. Jocelyn a wholesome and palnt-ible description
of cheese can be made from a mixture of skim milk and butter-milk, the
combination of the two manufactures will add largely to the profits of
the farmers and the prosperity of the country. On the whole then, in
view of the unprecedented increase in the number of cheese factories,
and of the recent course of the trade, if I were about to engage in the
dairy business, I would be inclined to make butter rather than cheese.

The commercial aspect of the business has strong claims on our atten-
tion, as upon a right understanding of the laws of supply and demand
depends the success or failure of all manufacturing and trading enter-
})rizes. The English market for cheese is one which it would be difiicult
])ermanently to overstock, as its capacity has been reckoned at 800,000,-
000 of pounds annually, and not more than one-half of that quantity
has hitherto been available from all sources. But even this larsfe market
may fluctuate from time to time, anil suffer glut now and then, if the
mass of the producers hold back their cheese for a time, and then
pour in a large quantity all at once ; and especially is the regular course
of trade liable to be interrupted 1 )y the occurrence of periods of manu-
facturing mactivity and commercial depression in the inqiorting country.

It is not advisable, then, for proprietors of factories to hold back their
stock with the idea of raising the piice. In the face of tlie competition
they have to encounter, they can never hope to control the market, and
the attempt to do so will infallibly end in loss ; for cheese as made on
this continent soon comes to perfection, and in a short additional time be-
gins to deteriorate, and becomes almost unsaleal)le, just when English
cheese of the same age is coming to its highest degree of excellence. So
far as my information extends I have reason to believe that those per-
sons have obtained the most satisfiictory results who have sold their cheese
at regular intervals, accepting the ruling price, whether high or low. —
The dealers can, of course, only give such a ])rice as will afibrd them a
reasonable prospect of a fair commercial profit, ami from the keen com-
2)etition which exists among them, there is no fear of the farmer V)eing
deprived of the best price for his goods that the quality of the article will
warrant, and the state of the market will allow.

Much of the time of the conventions has been occupied in the discus-
sion and explanation of various matters of science connect(Hl with the
management of milk, and the manufactm-e of cheese and butter, which
must certainly redound much to the benefit of all parties concerned, by
giving them clearei' and more con'ect views of what ought to be done-

140

and what ought to he avoided, and of their own diities and responsibili-
ties in respect to the business. Some persons, however, have not been
able to see it in this light, and have asked of what use is so much scien-
tific disciission ; and of what advantage is scientilic knowledge in com-
mon life and ordinary business 1 To this question I reply that the same
methodical vigilance, the same habit of systematic inductive and deduct-
ive reasoning, tracing eftects back to causes, and arranging and classify-
ing the facts and inferences derived from close and attentive observation,
which are the peculiar characteristics of the true man of science, cannot
fail, when applied to ordinary circumstances, to elicit principles and max-
ims, a consistent adherence to which on the part of our producers and
dealers will go far to ])revent, or at least to modify and mitigate, the fre-
quent vicissitudes which in too many instances prove so disastrous to those
who are engaged in commercial or manufacturing enterprises, and which
are more frequently occasioned by ignorance or disregard of the laws
which govern the relations of producer and consumer, of buyer and seller.

It has been said, and I believe truly, that the Americans are not a
cheese-eating people ; that the quantity consumed is smaller in proportion
to the population than in any other country. This is not difficidt to ac-
count for. The abundant supply and reasonable price of butcher's meat,
the quantity of game, both four-footed and winged, to be found in the
forests, and on the prairies, the numerous species of lish which swarm on
the coasts, and in the magnificent lakes and rivei'S, together with the
variety and excellence of fruits and vegetables which the fertility of the soil
and the geniality of the climate produce in luxuriant superabundance,
have hitherto prevented the use of cheese as an ordinary article of diet ;
but as the population becomes denser, and the wild animals, birds, and
fishes ai"e driven out or exterminated, or their numbers so reduced as to
render them mere objects of sport, it may be expected that the prochicts
of the dairy will come into more general request as an important part
of the ordinary food of the people. In the meantime the way to pro-
mote their consiim])tion is to strive to produce them of such a quality as
to make them sought after as a delicacy and a luxury, and thus create a
taste for their use, and mcrease the demand for them in the market.

I have been aware for some time that some enterprising persons, in
accordance with my advice, established in the beginning of the present
year, a butter factory in the Townshij) of Hungeiford, in the County of
Hastings ; Init as I had no infoi-mation as to how they were likely to succeed
I did not think the fact woi'thy of mention. At the last moment, how-
ever, I have learned that their success has far exceeded their expectations,
their butter having from the first commanded 25 cents per ])ound, and
that they ex})ect to get a still higher price as their lu-and becomes better
known, the quality being sxich as to warrant them in entertaining such
expectation.

Finally, I would repeat in tliis place tlie advice 1 ha\e uniformly given
to my hearers whei'ever my voice has been heard upon matters connected
with dairy management. Farmers ! practise the virtues of honesty,
cleanliness, and kindness to your cattle, and send to the factories none
but the best material your cows supply. Operators! continue to exert
the same care, assiiluity and intelligence, which have already sectired so
favorable a reputation for your prodixcts. Dealers I be always ready to

141

give a fair price for a good article, according to tlie state of the market,
and send no poor American cheese to England as over-kept Canadian, or
poor Canadian as ovei--kept American ; or rather, send thither no poor
cheese at all — refuse to bii}^ it at any price. If the maker of such cheese
has to consume it himself, he will be likely to be more honest and moi'e
painstaking in his future proceedings. By carrying out these principles
in your mutual intei'action you will raise the reputation of your commod-
ity to the highest possible pitch, and materially increase at once your
own respective emoluments and the wealth and prospei-ity of your coun-
tiy at large.

And now, from the stand point of a steadfast English Canadian, and
a loyal subject of my Gracious and virtuous Queen, whom may Almighty
God long preserve to reign over her loving subjects in every quarter of
the globe, permit me to say a few words respecting the occasion which
has caused so vast a concourse of persons from every region of the habit-
able world to assemble and meet together in this place, to join with you
in celebrating the hundredth anniversary of the birth of your nation.
When your forefathers, on the memorable fourth of July, 1776, declared
the thirteen rev(jlted colonies independent of the Crown and Parliament
of Great Britain, it was not their own autonomy alone that they asserted,
for their action vindicated the right of every community of British sub-
jects to self-government, which right, though recognized and acknow-
ledged, and established in theory at least within the British Islands, had
never been practically allowed in the colonies. When they encountered
the soldiers of Britain in the field, although neither of the contending
parties was cognizant of the fact, or able to appreciate the ultimate bear-
ing of the struggle in wlucli they were engaged, it was emphatically
Britains own battle they were waging^the battle of the British people
— -for they fought to maintain that great and equitable principle, the key-
stone of the glorious old British constitution, that no people shall be
taxed unless with their own consent, expressed through their lawfully
chosen representatives.

When in 1812 your Government again declared war against England,
it was still the freedom of the British subject, for which your citizens
fought and bled, the broad principle of the right of every individual man
to choose his own nationality, and the assumption against which they
contended was the right claimed by potentates and governments to hold
their subjects bound to a perpetual and slavish allegiance, because they
happened to be born within the territorial area over which their sway ex-
tended.

When in 1861 yo\ir people again engaged in warfare ; the contest was
waged between tAvo sections of your own population, and confined within
your own boundaries ; and although it Avas begun and carried on for a
time upon another issue, yet the struggle soon resolved itself again into
the combat betAveen liberty and slavery, and thoiigh the conflict Avas se-
vere, and the cost both in blood and treasure heavy and exhaustive of
the national resources and energies, yet the result was Avell worth the-
price paid for it ; and let mc, in the name of my felloAA-^-countrymen,
congratulate you, or rather let us rejoice together, that the inherited stain
has been finally wiped from the fair field of your national escutcheon,
that the anomaly of the highest liberty and the deepest slavery existing

142

together in the same community has been extinguished for ever on both
sides of the line which divides our respective countries, and that we can
stand up together before God and the world, and proclaim in the noble
words of your first national document that before our laws " All men
are free and equal."

Although our fathers declined to join yours in their struggle against
British power, or to cast in their lot with them after success had crowned
their efibrts, preferring to stand upon the old ways, and to i-etain their
attachment to the ancient flag, and their fealty to the ancient crown ;
and though we, their children, follow their example, and are resolved to
maintain our connection with our parent country, and our allegiance to
our beloved sovereign aud her dynasty, yet we can join heart and hand
with you in this commemoration, without a shade of jealousy or heart-
burning, of vindictive remembrance of your past triumphs, or desire of
vengeance for former injuries, and can even freely acknowledge that we
owe many of the most valued privileges we enjoy to the manly stand
your ancestors took against arbitrary power, and that the blessings of
free thought, free speech, a free press, free religion, and freedom from un-
represented taxation, which we, equally with yourselves, possess, were in
great part bought and paid for Avith the blood shed on their battle-fields.
Do not think, therefore, that because we do not choose to join ycur
union, but persist in remaining steadfast to our connection Avith our
mother country, and even desire to assume still closer relations, as an in-
tegral part of that mighty empire whose possesssons girdle the earth, and
to which, equally with yourselves we owe a common origin, do not think
I say, that that determination and that desire spring from any hostile or
unfriendly feeling towards yourselves or your institutions : on the con-
trary we frankly hold ont to you the right hand of fellowship, and should
be glad to cultivate the most friendly relations with you, our only neigh-
bors, in our mutual social, moral, intellectual and commercial intercourse,
and to maintain with you such such a permanent interchange of good
feeling and good oflaces as a common origin, a common language, a common
religion, and a close similarity of social and political institutions ought
to create between two peoples whose territories lie for so many degrees of
longitude in such close proximity to each other.

If the spirits of great men departed are permitted to observe the
events that occur in this transitory sphere, which they have left to enjoy
the delights of a happy eternity, and the soul of William Penn is cogniz-
ant of what is now transpiring in the city of his living love, how must
the spirit of the grand old philanthropist rejoice to behold the triumph
of those principles of brotherly love and universal good-will, for the sake
of Avhich he left the home of his fathers, and the amenities of civilized
life, to encounter the storms of the ocean aud the ]ierils of the wilder-
ness, and to erect a new home in the society of the savage, beneath the
gigantic shadows of the jirimeval forest.

That simple home, by the blessing of J)i\ine Piovidence upon the prin-
ciples under which it was founded, has expanded into this noble city, re-
plete with all the comforts and luxuries of life, adorned with the tri-
umphs of art and the achievements of genius, aflbrding the most refined
delights of social intercourse, and welcoming to its embrace the devotee
ot art, the student of literature, and the culti\ator of science. A city

143

whose wide extent can accommodate, and whose warm liospitality can
welcome the representative men of the human race, who have been at-
tracted hither by the grand display of the productions of human ai-t, hu-
man skill, human knowledge, human industry, and human ingenuity, so
largely accumulated within its walls, and so worthily conmiitted to its
guardianship.

The occurrence of this celebration necessarily recalls the recollection
of that unhappy time when our fathers and yours met each other in lios-
tile array, and fought with the embittered animosity which attends fam-
ily quai-rels, and becomes fiercer as the relationship is closer. Let us,
however, be thankful that the hmidred years which have elapsed have
healed the wounds reciprocally inflicted in the strife ; and let us hope
that ere another century shall have glided into the bosom of eternity, by
the exercise of mutual consideration, mutual concession, mutiial good-
will, and mutual good offices on both sides, the verj'^ seal's of these wounds
may be effaced, and nothing remain of the past but the remendarance of
our common origin ; and that in the near, as well as in the remote future,
wherever an American and a Bi-iton shall meet, either in an individual
or an official capacity, they may feel and act towards each other as friends
and brothers.

ft

THE BLllHARD CHil

As now offered to the Trade and to the practical Dairyman, is the result of over

twenty-live years experience and experiment. It has been pftiveil, and

improved, and «^>proved during the past quarter of a century,

and is now unquestionably

The Leading* Chiini of the Countzy

NEAELY ONE HUNDEED THOUSAND

Are now in successful operation. They are for sale in every state and Territory
of the Union, and many foreign countries. They always sell the best where
they have been used the longest. They combine more desirable quali-
ties than any other Churn now made. No other Churns are
made of as good materials, or as faithfully.

They cannot get out of order, because they are so simple. Because they are so
simple, and thoroughly made, they are very durable. They have no cog-
wheels or gearing to wear out or Ijreak. They work the Butter free from
butter-milk in the churn, without any change of dasher, quicker and
better than it can be done by hand. They work in the salt
in the same Avay. They are

Perfect Automatic Butter Makers.

SEVEN SIZES 3.IADE.

No. 3, for about 2 gallons of Creain -S 6 00 | No. '7. for about 18 g-allons of cream $12 00

No. 4, " 4 " " 7 00 ; No. 8, for from 50 to 75 gallons of cream . . 40 00

No. 5. " 8 " " 8 00 I No. 9, for from 76 to 160 " " 45 00

No. 6, " 12 " " 10 00 I Power Pulley for any size Churn, 2 50

If they do not give satisfaction, or prove to be as represented, they may be re'
turned to the Agent of whom they are purchased, at our expense.

The Factory sizes (Nos. 8 & 9) are found to be exactly what is needed in large
Danes, or Factories, where ])OMer is used. They have the unqualified commenda-
tion of every one who has used them.

Send to any dealer in really first-class dairy implements for our goods. They
all keep them.

We furnish free, on application, our ' ' New Butter Manual, " and descriptive
circulars. Send for them. "Get the Best."

SOLE MANUFACTURERS,

PORTER BLANCHARD'S SONS,

aOITCORI3, IT. H,

OI^.4l.TVG^E OOXJIVT^^

tier Pais !

THE POFTTLAE FACHAGE.

Received the only award given at the Centennial on Butter Pails.

These Pails are the favorite Package for shipping line Butter.
They have had a five years' trial on the market, and are acknowledged
to be the best in use. The style (as it is the NeAv York Package for
Gilt Edge Butter), commands the first a'jtention of buyers, and se-
cures the Highest Price. We are the sole Proprietors of these goods
and will prove to you, on request, that they ai-e the cheapest package
you can buy. We supply Dairy Utensils in general at market prices.

AVE ARE SOLE AGENTS FOR THE

f tai

mmM

PAILS, BOWLS. BASINS, SPITTOONS,

FOOT BATHS, CAPvPET, ETC.

Our OIL CANS are the only ones made that are impervious to

KEROSENE OIL.

These goods wg warrant to be suj^erior to rubber, wood, tin, or any
metal yet introduced.

The Carpet is Handsomer, Better and Cheaper

Than Oil Cloth. Write to us for full particulars, and state Avhere you
saw advertisement. Address,

14« Bestle Street,

OEANQE COXTNTY PAIL CO.,

State Rights for Sale.

WHITMAN & BXTHHELL,

LITTLE FALLS, N.Y.

Send for Complete Illustrated Circular of all Ap-
paratus and Furnishings for

CI

JIIUU

n
(

ll

11

]0

NEW METHOD OF MANUFACTlTllE GIVEN.

GENERAL AGENTS FOR THE CELEBRATED BLANCHARD
Churn, French Burr Stone Crist Mills, Etc.

Cheese Vats That Do Not Leak.

We have heard a good deal of complaint about vats leaking. We
want it distinctly understood that our vats are put together by a way of
our own, and will not leak. They are made of the best two inch pine
plank, thoroughly seasoned and perfectly sound, and are the best that
can be made.

We manufacture largely CHEESE-BOX HOOPS, Rims and Head-
ing, and ship in Bundles ready to make up into CHEESE-BOXES, TO-
BACCO DRUMS, &c.

3,000 llDS. of Milk Yield $5^.20.

New Method of Manufac-
ture Given.

Apparatus and Fiiriiisli-

ishings for Cheese and But-
ter Factories.

Economizer Return-Fine Boller.s.

Fire entirely surrounded by water.

Present orders, Feb. 5, 1877, we are working on :

Two 30-Horse Power Boilers, and One 25 H. P. Engine. Two 12-Horse Power Boilers and Engines.
One iO-Horse Power Boiler. One C-Horse Puw er Boiler and Engine.

One 10-Horse Power Ag'l Boiler and Engine on wheels. Two 4-Horse Power Boilers and Engines.
One 10-Horse Power New Economizer Boiler and Engine on wheels, for Illinois.

The demand is unprecedented, even in these dull times. Send for

WHITMAN & BUEEELL, Little Falls, N. Y.

1^^ Hubbell it Co.'s New Gang Clieese Press, Avitli i-ii^ht to use the
Bandager Patent.

THE

PAIBT-BSSll

OF THE WORLD,

AND

The ONLY PERFECT SYSTEM

OF

Cooling in Summer,

WARMING IN WINTER,

AND

Automatically Ventilating with Dried and
Purified Air, of any Temperature Re-
quired in the Manufacture and
Preservation of

Without the Us© of Ice or Water.

There arc two patents, and seven claims for tlie devices used.

J. WILKINSON, Patentee,

BYRON, ILL.

This Bystem is in \ise in Six States, and is giving satisfaction where-
ever it is used.

A Pamphlet, description of it, sent by mail for 2.") cents. Address
the Patentee, as abo^•e.

1