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LIBRARY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS

AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE

No.£.Q6^J

SOURCE-Ol. SF

m

V.13

I3.0n.-

DATE DUE

THIRTEENTH ANNUAL EEPP£T%-

OF THE

5(7;?

^l

MERicAN Dairymen's Association,

TRANSACTIONS AND ADDRESSES,

FOE THE YEAR ENDING

JANUARY 10th. 1878.

Seiv fork:

PRINTED AT OFFICE OF "THE AMERICAN DAIRYMAN,"

CORNER PINE AND WILLIAM STREETS.
1878.

/Vi ^ mi
H. H. ROE & CO.,

Ilaiiiilklorprs aiiii Wliolesalc and Retail DeakTS iii

APPARATUS >NDSDPPLIES

FOR THE MANUFACTDEE OP

BUTTER and CHEESE.

Factories and Dairies, of any size, supplied with Entire
Outfits of the Most Improved Apparatus at Prices that

CANNOT BE BEATEN.

We make a SPECIALTY of

GANG GHSX:S£ PREISSEiS

On which we have the LATEST IMPROVEMENTS.

These Presses are fast replacing the old style of presses in
use. We call attention to the fact that we have made
arrangements with the owners of the Patent of the United
States, covering the PEOCESS OF MOULDING CURD
IN THE BANDAGE, by which we are able to guarantee
our customers against future trouble on account of
infringement upon this Patent.

Send for General Price and Discount List, also for Special
Gang Press Circular to

H. H. ROE & CO.

Madison, OMo.

OF THE

THIRTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT

OF

>|f J[mmi)3tt J)mi|ijm0n'$ Jtssoijiniiait.

Page.

List of Officers 7

List of Members 9

Transactions — Opening Remarks 13

Oleomargarine vs. Butter — By Eastburn Reader 18

Oleomargarine— By Dr. H. A. Mott, Jr 34

Condition of Fats in Milk, and the Changes by which they are

Converted into Butter 40

Refuse of the Dairy — Its Use and Abuse. Discussion 48

Refuse of the Dairy, «fec. — Address by J. S. Van Duser 50

The Past, Present and Future of Butter and Cheese — By. J.

H. Reall 56

Resolution of C, W. Horr, Respecting Tariff 63

Address of F. D. Moulton on the Quality of Salt 64

Address of Dr. F. E. Euglehardt on the History and Quality

of Salt 71

Branding Oleomargarine 87

Temperature 'in the Dairy— By Prof. G. C. Caldwell 88

What Lack I Yet ?— By Hon. Harris Lewis 102

Soils and Grasses for the Dairy — By M. B. Bateham 106

Milk Production— By Prof. E. W. Stewart 108

Full-Cream Cheese — By S. A. Farrington 113

How Can the Profits of Dairy Husbandry be Increased — By

C. W. Horr 116

Selection of Dairy Cattle— By C. Baldwin and W. B.

Straight 127

PREFATORY REMARKS.

The undersignpd herewith offers to the members of the American
Dairymen's Association the 13th Annual Report of its Secretary for the
year endinj^ January lOlh, 1878, with ins congratulations to the dairy-
men of the country for the i)rosperous year they have just enjoyed, and
for the hopeful prospects of prosperty in tiie season now opening. VVliile
almost every other industry has been languishing or depressed, the labors
of the dairyman liave been rewarded with more than their usual compen-
sation. It is believed that never, since our interest has assumed any
con!<iderable importance, have its products brought the producer so
large a return, wiion measured by a specie value, as during the j'ear just
closed, nor has the aggregate of products ever been so large or so fine. Tlie
industry has now reached such vast i^roportions in the commerce of the
country as to make a marked effect upon tlie wealth of the nation, as
well as upon the individual producer.

The success attained siiould only encourage and stimulate to further
im|irovements. Wliilc our goods are yet confessedly a great way below
their highest po^sibilitie,-;. it is gratifying to note the increasing efforts at
reform. More is now being written and published upon tlie dairy than
ever before. Associations— the great master-wheel of dairy improve-
ment—are being newly formed every year, and seniling out new reports,
which are read and studied. The reports of our association have never
been so largely called for as at the jiresent time. Two thousand copies
— which is more than double the usual number — have been ordered, and
nearly all of them called for liefore they could be printed.

An important addition to our dairy literature has been made the past
year by the publication of the American Dairyman, a weekly journal de-
voted exclusively to the interests of the dairy — a much needed publica-
tion— which, it is hoped, will prosper and be tlie means of much good.
In the agricultural schools of Connecticut and Ontario departments for
experiments witli reference to improvements in the dairy have been
initialed, and a bill for a similar purpose is now before the Legislature of
New York. Science ami skill are constantly being more and more called
into requisition, and genius is all the time busy in turning out new inven-
tions for facilitating inid imitroving the work to be accomplished.

With the hope that this little annual volume, which contains the pajiers
and discussions of our late convention, may not be found i)ehind its
predecessors in contributing its accustomed quota toward pushing on the
spirit of reform, which seems now to be so fairly aroused, it is very re-
spectfully submitted.

L. B. ARNOLD, Secretary.

Rochester, N. Y., March Uth, 1878.

ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION.

Whereas, It is deemed expedient to merge the New York State Cheese
Manufacturers Association, which was organized in January, 1864, into
an American' Association, through which, as a medium, results of the
practical experience of dairymen may be gathered and disseminated to
the dairying community; therefore,

Resolved, That we, the undersigned, do hereby associate ourselves
together for mutual improvement in the science of cheese-making, and
more efficient action in promoting the general interest of the dairy com-
munity.

Article I. The name of the organization shall be The American
Dairymen's Association.

Art. II. The Officers of the Association shall consist of a President,
Vice-President, Secretary and Treasurer.

Art. III. The President, First Vice-President, Secretary and Treas-
urer, shall constitute the Executive Board of the Association.

Art. IV. The Officers of the Association shall be elected at the regular
annual meeting, and shall retain their offices until their successors are
chosen.

Art. V. The regular annual meeting shall occur on the second Tues-
day in January of each year, and at such place as the Executive Board
shall designate.

Art. VI. The payment of one iloUar shall admit any person to all the
sessions of an Annual Meeting — and the additional payment of seventy-
five cents shall entitle him to the Annual Report for the current year.

Amendment.— The Secretary is hereby empowered to appoint an
Assistant Secretary to assist during the sittings of the Convention, and
discharge such other iluties as may be assigned to him, and, in case of
tlie absence or inability of the Secretary to act, to temporarily discharge
the duties of that office; it being distinctly understood that no compensa-
tion is attached thereon.

[One dollar constitutes a person not attending an Annual Convention
a member of the Society for one year, and entitles him to the Annual
Report. ]

OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION

FOR 187S.

PRESIDENT :

Hon. HORATIO SEYMOUR, Utica, N. Y.

VICE-PRESIDENTS :

Charles W. Horr, of Wellington, Ohio,

R. P. Cannon, of Aurora, Ohio.

M. B. Bateman, of Painesville, Ohio.

W. B. Straight, of Hudson, Ohio.

S. A. Farrington, of Cambridgeboro, Penn.

A. M. Fullkr. of Meadville, Penn.

Eastbdrn Reedf.r, of New Hope, Penn.

J. H. Reall, of Philadelphia, Penn.

C. E. Chadwick. of Ingersoll, Ont.

Thomas Ballantyne, M. P. P.. of Stratford, Ont.

Benjamin Hopkins, of Brownsville. Ont.

E. Caswell, of Ingersoll, Out.

X. A. WiLLARD, of Little Falls, N. Y.

T. D. Curtis, of Utica, N. Y.

M. FoLsoM, of New York City. N. Y.

G. B. Weeks, of Syracuse, New York.

Prof. E. W. Stewart, of Lake View, N. Y.

Dr. E. G. Crafts, of Binghamton, N. Y.

W. L. Rutherford, of Waddington, N. Y.

Wm. a. Johnson, of Collins Centre, N. Y

Hon. C. L. Sheldon, of Lowville, N. Y.

J. B. Lewis, of Sandusky, N. Y.

Madison Cooper, of Evansvillo, N. Y.

Dr. L. L. Wight, of Wliitesboro, N, Y.

Capt. H. D. Gardiner, of McLean. N. Y.

O. C. Blodgett. of Fredonia, N. Y.

David H. Burrell, of Little Falls, N. Y.

J. M. Peters, of New York City, N. Y.

O. S. Bliss, of Georgia, Vt.

Stephen Favill, of Lake Mills, Wis.

Hiram Smith, of Sheboygan Falls, Wis.

Chester Hazen, of Ladoga, Wis.

JsRAEL Boise, of Byron. 111.

P. H. Burghard, of Grant Park, 111.

C. n. Whitten, of Minn.

J. T. Ellsworth, Barre. Mass.

Prt)f. L. Wetherell, Boston, Mass. '

Edward Norton, Farniington, Ct.

John Stewart, Manchester, Iowa.

Prof. E. J. WiGKSON, of San Francisco, Cal.

SECRETARY.

L. B. Arnold, of Rochester, N. Y.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

T. D. Curtis, of Utica, N. Y.

TREASURER.

Hon. Harris Lewis, of Frankfort. N. Y.

LIST OF MEMBERS

W}^^ J^m^Ht^HH ^Hiii^m^n $ jI$$0i]iHltan.

FOR THE YKj^^R 1878.

Arnold, L. B. . Rochester, N. Y.

Ayers & Co. , A. U, , Syracuse, N. Y.

Brockett, L. B , Saybrook, O.

Baldwin, F. H., Solon, 0.

Baldwin, F. ].., Hudson, 0.

Babcock, S. A.. Lindenville, 0

Bower, J. N.. MidfUefield, 0.

Barber, 0. P., Ellington, N. Y.

Brown, Chas., Clyde, N. Y.

Bennett, S L., Wellington. Ohio.

Bartlett, A., Collinwood, 0.

Baker, Benj. P., 129 E. 34th st., New York.

Blair, F., Mantua, O.

Baldwin, C. Nelson, 0.
Babcock, W. W., Munson, 0.

Brewster, F. H , Bissells. Geauga Co., 0.

Beecher, A. P. , Mantua Sta, , 0.

Breck, J. H., Newbuieh, O.

Buell, C. C, Rock Fall!-, 111.
Batehatn. M. B., Painesville, O,
Chamberlain, C. B., Medina, 0.
(barter, R. E., Painesville, 0.
Carter, L. B., Painesville, (>.
Carter, H. N., Perry, Lake Co., 0.

Crosier, G. W. k Co . Wellington, 0.

Camp, H. B. & Co., New Guilford, 0.

Case, <-'. N., Hudson. O.

Gaboon, J, B. , Avon. 0.

Cook, H. ('., Four Corners, Huron Co., O.

Clark, J. !»., Harvard, 111.

Cheddertou, Jos., Willoughby, 0.

Clark, C. E., Medina, 0.

Cowles, H. A., Bissells, Geauf^a Co., 0.

Clark. F. B., Medina, 0.

Cannon, K. H.. Aurora, 0.

Caldwell. Prof. G. C , Ithaca, N. Y.

Curtis. T. D., Utica, N. Y.

Crosby, A. C. Prospect Park, Dupage Co., III.

Cannon, R. P., Aurora, O.

Purkee, H. M.. Byron, 0.

Dodge. N. C. , Twinsburg, 0.

Englehardt, Ur. F. E., Syracuse, N. Y.

Ellis, E. (}., Chardon, O.

Elder, A. E., Chester X-Roads, 0.

Emery H. D., Chicago, 111.

Ferry, H. H., Madison, Lake Co., 0.

Forbes, F. J., Kinsman, O.

Farrington, H. , Norwich, Ont.

Foster L. R., Macedonia, 0.

Forbes, 0. P. , Lindenville, 0.

Forbes, C. W. , Litchfield, 0.

Fisher, C. E., Gustavus, Trumbull Co., 0.

Franks, M. L. , Chatham Centre, 0.

Farrington, S. A., Cambridgeboro, Penn.

Favill, Stephen. Lake Mills. Wis.

Gastin, 8. N., Mexico, N. Y.

Gould, John. Aurora, 0.

Gates, A L., Warren, 0.

Gifford, J. B., Cleveland, 0.

Green, Lorin, Byron, N. Y.

Gould, L., Chester X Roads, 0.

GauJt, D., r.ochester, N. Y.

Gore, 0 S , Chagrin Falls, 0.

Gardner, Capt. H. D., McLean, Tompkins

Co., N. Y.
Horr & Baker Mechanicsburg, 0.
Hull, W., Hudson, 0.
Hinman, A. M., Kavanna, 0.
Hasting.s, ct. S., Willoughby, 0.
Hawkins, A. W., Hudson, 0.
Holmes, H. A . Kipton, O.
Hackett, G. W., Twinsburg, 0.
Harris, W. E., Wellington, 0.
Hungerford, \Vm., Ithaca, N. Y.
Hedger, Chas., Nelson, 0.
Hill, W. L.. Bedford, O.
Hardy, T. F., Solon, 0
Harper, Ja.s.. North Solon, 0.
Hall, A. P., Chardon, O.
Horr, Chailts W., Wellington, 0
Klumph, II. A., Ashtabula, (i
Kuiuzley, Sam'l, Upper Sandusky, 0.
Kilham, 1) H., Turin, Lewis Co., K Y.
Johnson. W. A., Collins Centre, N. Y.
Jewett, H K., Aurora, 0.
.lacksou. C. H., Shawville, 0.
Jordan, C. R., Cleveland, 0.
Lewis, J. B., Sandusky, N. Y.
Latham, N. \'.., Haulsburgh, X Y.
Laraway. H. S., Chirdon. O.
Lewis, H. J., Wellington. 0
Lander, W E., Chu' rin Fall.s, 0.
Lander, M. A., Chagrin Falls. ().
Latham, E. P., Welshfield, (».
I,andeT, J. Q., Solon, 0
Livingston, H., Twinsburgli, 0.
Law, Robert, ilayfield, 0.
Lawrence, W. H., Cleveland, 0.
Lewis, Harris, Frankfort, N Y.
Larned, E. D.. Peruvillo, .N Y.
Lazcnby, Prof W. R., Ithaca, N. Y
Mather, F. , Painesville. 0.
Morrell, G., Chatham Centre, 0.
Monosmith, R., Spencer, O.
McAdam, A., Klyria, 0.
Middaugh, A., Friendship, Alleghany Co., Pa.

10

Masury, Jop., Willoughby, 0.

Morley, T. M., West Mentor, Lake Co., 0.

Morley, N. W. Baraboo, Wis.

McConnell, I. S., Northfield, 0.

Lawrence, M. J.. Sec. O. D. A., Cleveland, 0.

Mott, Prof. H. A., New York.

Moore, Henry F. , London, England.

Moulton, F. i>.. 580 Lexington ave,, New York
City.

Miller, Charles & Son, Utica, N. Y.

Noble, P. A., Rochester Depot, O

Norris, S. R. , Ashtabula, O.

Olds, O. D., Freedom. 0.

Osborn, E. N., Chardon, O.

Dbitt, W. H., Elyria, O.,

Osmond, S. J., Pittsburgh, Penn.

Peck, R. H., Earlville, Portage Co , 0.

Peck, C. A., Rome, Ashtabula Co., 0.

Pratt, J. L , Olena, O.

Post, Jas., Johnson, Trumbull Co., 0.

Parmely, 6. E , Twinsburg, 0.

Parks, E. L., Twinsburg, O.

Parks, W. A., Twinsburg, O.

Pettibone, D., Solon, O.

Phillips, C. F. Chagiin Falls, 0.

Pope, L. L.. Chagrin Falls. O.

Pope, D. L., Welshfield, Geauga Co., O.

Roper. Charles, Garrettsville, 0.

Rice, E. S., Greensburg, 0.

Rice, E. F., Greensburg, 0.

Reed, C. W., Chagrin Falls, O.

Ray, J. M., Lenox, O.

Reed, H. M., Remsen Corners, O.

Roe, H. H. & Co. , Madison, 0.

Root, Delos, Bissells, 0.

Root, E. W., Lenox, 0.

Reynolds. Lewis, Painesville, Little Moun-
tain, 0.

Reeder, Eastburn, New Hope, Penn.

Reall, J. H., Philadelphia, Penn.

Straight, S. & Son, Hudson, 0.

Stevens, W. W., Hiram, 0.

Saramo, Fred., Fort Plain, N. T.

Sinclair, Geo., Lenox, 0.

StevenSjS., Laporte, O.

Smith, W. W., Strongsville, 0.

Strong. Cobb & Co., Cleveland, 0.

Sherman, J. H., Strongsville, O.

Streator, I. M., North Eaton, 0.

Stewart, Prof. E. W., Lake View, N. Y.

Stone, R. R., Elgin, IlL

Sheldon, John Prince, Sherburne, England.

Sheldon, C. L., Lowville, N. Y.

Snyder, J., Tully, Onondaga Co., N. Y.

Sbull, J., Ilion, N. Y.

Seymour, Hon. Horatio, Utica, N. Y.

Thompson, S. P., Hudson, O.

Thompson, J. E., Waterloo, Ind.

Tucker, E. L., Fitchville, 0.

Tallcott, H. and wife, Jefferson, 0.

Terrell, J. S., North Ridgeville, 0.

Timan, P. S., Garrettsville, 0.

Thorne, C. E., Agl. College, Columbus, 0.

Townsend, Prof N. J., Columbus, 0.

Thompson's, Sam'l, Nephew & Co. , N. Y.

Udall, Wm. E., Garrettsville, 0.

Voscher, Wm., Wellington, 0.

Van Duser, J. S. Elmira, N. Y.

West, C. T., Wellington, 0.

Wire, T. B., Lenox, Ashtabula Co., 0.

Whitman, W. W., Little Falls, N. Y.

Williams, W. H., Chatham Centre, U.

Westcott, D. W., Geneva, 0.

Warner, S. S., Wellington, 0.

Welton, John, Penineula, 0.

Welton, Frank, Peninsula, 0.

Welton, A., Peninsula, O.

Wilbur, J. W., Wellington, 0.

Walker, R. R., Clark's Gap, Loudon Co., Va.

Willmott, Amzi, Mantua Sta.. 0.

AVanzer, I. H., Elgin, III.

Wight, Dr. L. L., Whitesboro, N. Y.

Wallace, John, Algona, Iowa.

AA^HITMAN & BURRELU

LITTLE FALLS, N. Y.

Send for Complete Illustrated Circular of all Aj)-
paratus and Furnishings for

Cheese and Butter Factories.

NEW METHOD OF MANUFACTURE GIVEN.

General Agents for the Celebrated Blanchard Churn,
French Burr Stone Grist Mills, Etc.

Supenor to others One party av D ci iedly the be t Press %n 1 Hoop I have ever

used or seen Design purchasing three more ne\t 'Spring

CHEESE VATS THAT DO NOT LEAK.

We have heard a good deal of complaint about vats leaking. Wo want it distinctly under-
stood that our vats are put toi,'other by a way of our own. and will not leak. They are made of
the best two-inch pine ,plank, thoroughly seasoned and perfectly sound, and are the best that
can be made.

We manufacture largely CHEESK-BOX HOOPS, Rims and Heaiiing, and ship in Bundles
ready to make up into CHEESE BOXES, TOBAOCO DRUMS, &c.

ECONOMIZER RETURN-FLUE BOILERS.

Fire entirely surrounded by water. ' Demand unprecedented, even in these dull times Send for

Descriptive Circular.

Fiiriii^hiii^!^ and /li)paratti!!» for I'aeiorie!^ and
Creameries a Speeialty.

All who contemplate building new Factories are invited to send for complete list of Articles

required.

WITMAN & BURRELL,

Little Falls, N. Y.

GREAT REDUCTION IN PRICES.

GET THE BEST."

We continue to offer to our customers the Blancharu Ch0RN, confident of its being
'^ihe besV in eyery particular, and without any exception.

It is without a rival for cheapness, durability, simplicity, and efficiency.

It is used by the very best Dau-ymen in the country, and its e.\tensive and increasing
sale everywhere, is the best proof that it gives satisfaction.

Cm^ HUNDRED THOUSAND

Are now in successful operation. They are for sale in every State and Territory of the
Union, and many foreign countries. They always sell the best where they have been
used the longest. They combine more desirable qualities than any other churn now
made. No other churns are made of as good materials, or as faithfully.

WE CHALLENGE COMPARISON.

They cannot get out of order, because they are so simple. Because they are so simple
and thoroughly made, they are very durable. They have no cog wheels or gearing to
wear out or break. They work the Butter free from butter-milk in the churn, without
any change of dasher, quicker and better than it can be done by hand. They work the
salt in the same way.

You need no other Butter-Worker.

IlEr>XJCEI> PRICE LIST.

Family Sizes. | Factory Sizes.

So. No.

3, for up to about 2 gal. of cream, $5.00 li^ for up to about 40 gal. of cream, $25.00

4 " '4 •' '' 6.00! 8, " " 60 " " 35.00

a' •> " 8 " •' 7.00, 9, " " 100 " " 45.00

e' " " 12 " " 9.0010, " " 150 " " 60.00

7" '• " 18 " " 11. col Power PuUey for family sized Churns, 2.00

The genuine Blanchard Churns are made only by Porter RIanchard's Sons, Concord,
K. H. Beware of imitations. You don't want a counterfeit churn, any more than you
want counterfeit money.

The factory sizes are found to be exactly what is needed in large Dairies or Factories,
where power is used.

Send to any dealer in really first-class dairy implements for our goods. Tliey all keep
them.

We furnish free, on application, our "New Butter Manual," and descriptive circulars.
Send for them. ''Get the Best. "

SOLE MANUFACTURERS,

PORTER BLANCHARD'S SONS,
CONCORD, N. H.

T 12, A. IsT S -A- C TIO IT S

OF THE

THIRTEENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION

OP

Iff littfrifaii |alrpfn'§ feorialioii,

HELD IN CASE HALL, CLEVELAND, 0.,
TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY AND THURSDAY,

January 8th, Oth, ami lOth., 1S78.

Tlie convention met at tlie appointed hour, and was joined by the
Oliiu Stale and VV^estern Reserve Dairy Associations. Secretary Arnold
called tlie meeting to order, and invited T. D. Curtis, of New York, Vice-
President of tlie American Association, to the chair. Upon taking the
chair, Mr. Curtis said :

Geidlemen of the Combined Associations : I congratulate you for the
favorable circimistances under which you meet in this beautiful hall,
which is much superior to the quarters in wliich our previous meetings
have been held. To some of you the number in attendance may seem
small, but I can assure you it is as large as usual at the opening session.
What is the pleasure of the convention?

On the motion of S. A. Farrington, of Pa., the appointment of the usual
committees was voted, and the following Committee on Order of Business
announced : S. K. Cart?:k, C. B. Chamberlain, H. B. Clark, W. A.
Johnson, J. B. Lewis.

The appointment of the other Committees was deferred till next day.

The Chairman then remarked that the balance of the time of this session
might be occupied with short addresses or conversational exercises in
connection witii the dairy business, and would be glad to hear from any
one who might have anything to ofl'er, or a questioii to ask.

Mr. Chamberlain being called upon, said : In former times we made
cheese very ditlerently from what we do at the present day. We then
thought there could be no cream taken from the milk ; but the experi-
ence of iate years has taught us that a certain pruporliou of the cream

14

may be taken away and still a cheese made, that has closer and better
keeping qualities than those made from whole milk. I recollect distinctly
when the Ohio Dairymen's Association was organized, some eight or ten
years ago, how my friend, Mr. Horr, contended stoutly for whole-milk
cheese. We have, however, experimented until we have found that when
two to two and a half pounds of butter are taken from one hundred
pounds of milk, a closer made and better keeping quality of cheese can
be made. Some, perhap?, would take more than this. We get our milk
but once a day, as our patrons think there is no other way superior to
once a day delivery. We do not manufacture the new milk with the old,
but think it is far better to manufacture the morning's milk liy itself ;
and by taking the cream from the night's milk, we think we can make a
cheese that will bear the weather and stand trans} lortation better iiian if
we put both milkiags together and left all tiie cream in.

Mr. Chas. Horr, being called for, said : It seems to me to be a very
loose statement to say that we can take from two to two and a half
pounds per hundred. You cannot take the same quantity of butter from
milk the year round. You may take in November three times as much as
you can in July or August, and if you should take two and a half pounds
in May, your cheese would not he worth six cents a pound. It is not best
to teach very dogmatically on this subject. If the cream is taken away
at all, it must be done with good judgment. He wlio manufactures this
kind of cheese must have all the appliances for handling the milk, &c. ;
he must know all that relates to the price of both butter and cheese— the
demand and supply, &c. This matter of skimmed milk cheese must be left,
it seems to me, to the good judgment of each factory. You cannot give a
rule for this as you can for making a batch of cakes. You have got to
learn by experience how much butter can be made from a given amount
of milk in each month of the year. In dropping this subject, I would
make a few remarks on farming. My attention has been called to this
subject from my recent visit to Europe, and witnessing the improved
methods of farming there. We have followed our fathers in their habits
of fanning when land was very cheap. They could keep a certam num-
ber of cows on 50 or 100 acres, and if they wished to keep more they
would buy another hundred acres, at $10 to $15 per acre, and we have
tried to do the same, when land has increased to $50 and $60 per acre,
instead of improving what we had and increasing its productive powers
by draining, manuring, etc. We are always ready in our conventions to
give and take hints on the manufacture of cheese and butter, while the
discussion of better ways to improve our farms and increase their fertility,
&c., is almost entirely neglected.

Mr. Carter :— I agree with Mr. Horr. I ought to have quaUtied
my remarks by stating that different seasons of the year require less
skimming. We may take four pounds in the Fall with as much safety as
we can one in the Spring. I also agree with what he has said in rela-

15

tion to farming. We, as farmers, are very dilatory in adopting waj's
and means for keeping up the rertility of tlie soil.

Prof. Arnold : — With regard to skimming, I would a.sk Mr. Horr kT
lie has determined how small an amount of butter may be left in the
cheese and still make a fine palatable article. This is a very important mat-
ter to know just how much must remain in tlie cheese to secure fair results.

Mr. Hoer :- To unravel that difiiculty I have spent four years experi-
menting and have found the true answer for myself, but not for thia
Convention.

Mr. W. B. Straight : — The impression has gone forth thai we make
skimmed milk cheese. We claim that we do not. We try to make a
fine article of cheese by leaving enough cream in the milk. We use
what we call stock factories— generally skimming the night's milk only.
Those who are iu the business know well enough that there is a portion
of cream that is not worked in but runs off in the whey and is lost. We
endeavor to save this loss. We have the fact before us. Cheese made
in this way goes ofl" as the very Ijest class in the trade. We make tluMU
so that they will handle safely in hot weather, working them ilown
closely. We have tried the experiment of skimming both messes, but
find it will not do, except m cold weather. We take iu the milk in the
evening, cool it down till nine or ten o'clock, then set in large vats, and
skim about four o'clock in the morning. When the morning's milk
comes, mix all together. In this way we take one pound of butler from
60 to 70 pounds of milk. I think it will be granted that this is very
light skimming. Our vats have no cream on the side. We have hud
our cheese tried by the side of whole-milk cheese, made night and morn-
ing, and no one is prepared to say that our cheese is not as good.
Others skim more, make a poor article and sutler loss. Only very late in
the Fall we take from both messes. The trouble is, in going to an excess
in this matter. The great aim of us all, as business men, is to make all
we can out of our milk.

Member : Do you keep your vats covered?

Ans. We do.

Prop. Arnold : In reference to .Mr. Ilorr's answer, p^^rmit me to re-
mark that the Executive Board of the American Dairymen's AsSiiciatioa
has accepted your invitation to come here to unite with you in the dis-
cussion of questions for the mutual benefit of the people of Ohio, and all
others concerned. Now, I submit, whether it is fair toward us who have
C(mie here at a great sacrifice of time and labor and money, t be told at
the outset by those who are able to do it, that they will neither eulighieu
their brother dairymen of Ohio nor us, but that they will keep their
knowledge as stock in trade, and gather, meanwhile, what they may
from the rest of the Ci invention. Is the policy sound? Would it be a
benefit or an injury if everybody in Ohio woald make as good butter a3
Mr. Horr does?

16

If all the goods in Oliio could be lirought up to his standard, would
it not create a rise in price and an increased demand for such goods,
similar to that of Herkimer County cheese, and, therefore, would it not
be better to instruct everybody as far as possible how to make a good
article, and as much as possible, out of his milk

Mr. Horr: There are very good reasons why I should not encourage
others to attempt the manufacture of cheese on the plan referred to by
telling them how much cream I find it necessary to leave in the milk,
unless I am certain that they possess all the necessary appliances, as
well as the skill required in its manipulation. For if he should attempt
it without the thorough understanding of the system, tlie influences of
rennet, heat, salt, &c., he will certainly have many cheese good for
nothing.

The Chairman, Mr. Curtis: The point we want to reach is what per-
centage of cream you must leave m the milk in order to make a cheese
that is digestible. Having estimated that point, I would say that
twelve per cent, of the cream must be in the milk in order to make a
digestible, wholesome cheese.

Prof. Arnold being called upon to give his opinion said: I see Dr.
Mott, from New York, who is a practical cliemist, and I would ask liini
what percentage of butter is necessary to make a digestible cheese.

Dr. Mott: I feel some hesitancy in offering an opinion on this subject,
as I have not made analyses to ascertain. It is a fact that milk varies
greatly in its composition. It would appear to me that the subject re-
quu'es more investigation.

Mr. Wire, Ashtabula: Having had considerable experience in skim-
ming milk for the last eight or nine years, I would say that we are well
pleased with the results, although ours is perhaps the poorest dairy
county that could be found anywhere. The land poor and swampy, the
cattle compelled to drink from miserable stagnant pools. The cows gen-
erally come out in the Spring, in a very poor and weak condition, and
consequently the milk is of inferior quality. We generally begin about
the first of April, and skim the night's milk. Our patrons bring tlieif
milk once a day till about the 15th of September, when they begin to
bring it every second day, and, as the weather gets cooler, once in three
days, and finally, in December, every fourth day. We could not induce
our patrons to go back to twice a day carrying.

Prof. Arnold : I am satisfied with Mr. Horr's answer. There is no
fixed standard that I know of by which we can skim and make a fair
cheese. I have made a few observations on this point, and I do not
think we can go below eight or ten per cent, of fat in tlie cheese. We
have made some very good cheese with only twelve per cent, of fat, Imi
they are cured with great difficultis as they are either too dry, with a
tendency to sour, or else, if there in water enough in it, it will part and
swell up, become rauk, and wii! soon rot if it is uot eaten up to save it

17

from rotting. By using a great deal of skill, you may, witli ten per cent.
of fat, have sufficient to get up tlie clieesy fermentation that slionl 1 take
place.

Qi'.es. By a member— Will Prof. Arnold i)!ease tell us his melliod of
making and salting, &c., with ten per cent, of fat?

Ans. The process begins with scalding the milk, the first olijoct oi
which is to preserve its keeping qualities, and the second is to get rid of
foreign odors. The increased heat drives these all out, and you get a
sound, sweet milk, almost entirely free from any putrefactive ferments.
Then the cheesy matter becomes soft by heating the milk. The reason
why the cheese of Herkimer County is usually better than that made iu
other localities is because of its superior grass, which continues green and
and fresh, makes the cheesy matter in the milk soft, and the cheese
cures readily. It don't require half the skill to make cheese in Herki-
mer County that it does in Michigan, where the cheesy matter is hardei-.
Another effect of scalding the milk is, it takes away the peculiar flavor
of buttermilk and prevents it from atlc^etins: the clieese.

Ques. To what degree of heat do yon scald?

A ns. To 130° and above.

Qnes. Suppose you reduce it to 50 ', what would be the eH'fct?

A71S. The odor would remain.

(jMes. Is cheese made by this process possessed of good keeping
qualities.

Arts. Yes. If you want eitlior butter or cheese to keep you must have
the foreign ferments out of them. 1 do not consider it objectionable to
salt it pretty high. It requires a certain amount of salt to facilitate the
action of the rennet. Just how tlie salt acts ui)ou the reimet I don't
claim to know.

Qnes. How long do you set before cutting ?

Ans. Twenty minutes. My preference is to apply rennet to the milk
at 98° to 100". When we are making skimmeil milk cheese we require a
larger amount of rennet than we do in making wliole milk cheese. So I
put in all the rennet that we can manage, provided it is sweet, so as to
induce the cheesing process.

Ques. How heavy do you salt it?

Ans. This will vary according to the dryness of the curd. If the curd
is very wet, it would require as much as three pounds of salt to the hundred
pounds of curd. I prefer to salt by the numtter of pounds of curd, be-
cause the curd does not always correspond with the quantity of milk

Ques. If you heat up to 120= or 130°, would you not lose the cream?

Ans. No.

Que.i. What quantity of cream or batter do you take from tlie milk?

Ans. If 100 pounds of milk contains 5 pounds of butter, we can take
one pound of butler from 25 to 28 pounds of milk.

I arose, in the first place, to state a little circumstance that I board of

18

the other day. It occurred in a factor}- where they carry milk once a
day. A gentleman sent me a letter, stating that by cooling the milk in
large pans, reducing the temperature down to 60°, so that it would un-
dergo very little change, it was found that milk thus cooled and skiaimed,
produced more cheese than whole milk did, and even better in quality.
Adjourned until two P. M.

Afternoon Session.

At two o'clock, Mr. Canon called the Convention to order and intro-
duced Mr. Eastburn Reader, of New Hope, Pa., who addressed the Con-
vention on oleomargarine vs. butter. Mr. Reader s]:>oke as follows :

INTRODUCTORY.

As the earth, in its allotted sphere, pursues its ceaseless march through
the regions of boundless space, so does the inventive genius of man, us
highest occupant and possessor, keep pace through the centuries of end-
less time in making provision for his sustenance and comfort. From the
time when the good old Jewish patriarch Abraham, and his beautiful wife
Sarah, entertained their angelic visitors, he, taking " butter and milk, and
the calf which he had dressed, " and she, "making ready quickly three
measures of fine meal," set before them the cakes which her own hands
had wrought and "baked upon the hearth," a period of time nineteen
centuries before the advent of Christianity, down until the beginning of
the eighth decade of this, the 19th century, in which we live, the dairy-
man, whose particular branch of the avocation is the manufacturing and
selling of a prime article of butter, has had no competition or rivalry
from outside the ranks of his own profession.

The Executive Committee of the Pennsylvania State Board of Agricul-
ture, since the meeting of the Board in May last, have drafted two bills,
one entitled "An act to prevent deception in the sale of Ijutter," and the
other, "An act to regulate the manufacture and sale ot fertilizers."
Copies of these bills have been sent to all the members of the Board, with
directions from the Secretary to submit them for examination and discus-
sion to all associations of agriculturists in their respective tiistricts,
that they may be endorsed by them, or otherwise, before the convening
of the next session of our State Legislature.

THE PHILADELPHIA PROCESS.

In obedience to these instructions, 1 submitted copies of these pro-
posed laws to the Salsbury Farmers' Club, ol which I have the honor of
being a member, at their regular monthly session in September. Pend-
ing the discussion of the Oleomargarine bill, it was deemed important by
the members to have a sample of the production for examination befoie
coming to a conclusion in regard to approving or rejecting the bill, i
went to Philadelphia to get a sample of oleomargarine, and found coa-

19

siderable difficulty in finding it. The butter dealers generally, in re-
sponse to ray queries, appeared to know but very little about it ; the
most of them had heard of it, but very few had ever seen it, and not a
man of them had ever kept it for sale. " It would be death to their trade
for them to keep it for sale." At length I found a grocer who recollected
iiaving read an article in one of the daily papers, describing the process
of manufacture, about a month previous, and he thought it was made at
a factory in AVest Philadelphia, connected with the abattoir. The next
morning I started early for "West Philadelphia, taking a Market Street
car, and getting off as soon as we crossed the Schuylkill. Passing along
the west bank of the river, through the cattle pens, I soon came to the
abattoir, where, after witnessing the wholesale slaughter of bullocks for a
short time, I was informed tiiat the " butter factory " was but a short
distance higher up the river, or just below tlie Callowhill Street bridge.
It is a low, white building, two stories high, and by the steam issuing
from its chimney, I saw that it was a manufactory of some kind. The
windows were protected by heavy wire screens, and I passed
along two sides of the building before finding a door. On the
third side a door was found, over wlilch was tlie placard, "No
admittance, except on business." 01 course I had business, and
walked in. In the first room I entered a man was engaged in stirring
a liquid in a large tub or vat. I mquired for the superintendent, and
was informed that he had just gone down to the aljattoir. I told him that
I had come there to see how they made buttei-, and to get some of it.
He told me that I could not go through the factory without the consent
of the superintendent, but if 1 wanted butter he would call the foreman.
While he was gone upon this errand, I looked around a little, but saw
nothing to note but a number of barrels tilled with what I thought was
rendered tallow. I noticed that the word "sheep" had been written
with a sharp instrument of some kind on the surface of the fat contained
in some of the barrels, while on others it was not. The foreman ar-
riving, I informed him of the nature of my business and he requested
me to walk to the superintendent's office. I followed, knowing he was
out, but thought I might have to await his return. I requested to see
a sample of the butter, which was quickly brought in a ladle, fresli from
the churn. I tasted and pronounced it good. I informed the foreman
that I was a farmer, living in Bucks County, Penn. ; that I manufactured
butter in a small way upon my farm ; that I had visited several of the
best dairies in Chester County, and some of the creameries in New York
and other States; that I had read wonderful accounts in the papers of
this manufactured butter; that I wanted to see some of it and get a
sample to take home with me, that I might show li to my friends, neigh-
bors and country dealers ; that 1 might compare it with butter made
from cream, and also test its keeping qualities. The foreman, in return,
informed me that he himself had worked in a creamery for five years in

20

the State of Maryland, and that he had made good butter there; but he
had never before produced a butter equal to this; that they were then
making 5,000 pounds daily; that they were shipping it in large quanti-
ties to Europe, and that the crowned heads over there were using it
daily upon their tables, &c.* While this conversation was going on the
superintendent returned, when the same explanations had to be re-
peated. I presented a small tin box for a sample, which he directed
the foreman to fill for me from the best and freshest butter. He also in-
formed me that they did not sell the butter at retail; would not sell in
less quantity than a single tub, containing from 70 to 75 pounds; that
they were getting all they could for it— at the present time from 18 to 20
cents per pound I thanked him for the .sample given, put it in my
pocket, and was about to depart, when he said to me he had one ques-
tion to ask, viz. : "How did you get in here?" I replied that I w^anted
to see him and walked in; to which he responded, -'That's all right,"
and we separated.

My next business was to bunt up the paper giving the process of
manufacture, which I was fortunate enough to find without much diffi-
culty. I now read from the Philadelphia Record ol Aug. -1th, 1877, an
article entitled, "Butter made from Beef Fat — Where the Londoners
best butter is made - Thirty thousand pounds of manufactured butter
sent weekly from the Philadelphia Abattoir and sold in England as
prime Somerset. — By our own reporter,'' tf-c.

THE PHILAJDELPHIA FACTORV. — "HOW THK THING .13 DONE THERE,"

The surrounding air in the factory was free from the smells usually
found in the neighborhood of grease-boiling e.stablishments, and the
floors of the various rooms were so scrupulously clean that it was diffi-
cult to imagine that a naturally unpleasant business could be so exten-
sively carried on with such cleanly surroundings. Of late years several
patents have been granted in dilTerent countries for the manufacture of
butter from beef fat, but the process employed in Philadelphia, which had
its origin in the inventive genius of a Frenchman named Galouis, differs
from others, so it is claimed, in the fact that the manufactured butter can
be preserved for a period of six months, or four times as long as that
prepared by any other process. Tliis is owing to the fact that the whole
operation is carried on at a temperature not exceeding 125 degrees, the
minimum of other processes being 250 degrees. The fat when received
from the abattoir is first, carefully assorted and the commoner portions
which would not melt at 125 degrees is thrown aside. The remainder i,-^
then washed three times in as many zinc lined tnbs, Mien conveyed by an
elevator to the next flooi-, where it is chopped by a hasher as th)e as mince
meat, and then put into what are caJled jacketing tanks, similar to two

* In reply to the question whether sheep tallow was used in manufacturing the butter,
the f reman said, " Ah, no; we use only the best fat from the fattest beeves."

21

cauldrons, one inside the other ; the inside one having a capacity for
holding 3,000 pounds. Steam is next introauced, by pipes, into ihe
space between the inner and outer tanks, which is filled with water and
heated until they are reduced to a hquifl mass; this is drawn off into
other tanks, through pipes and a filter, lea\ing a residuum behind which
is sold for fertilizing purposes.

MAKLNG THE BUTTER.

In the second tank the same operation is gone through with as in the
first, and the oil is eventually drawn off into hand trucks, Uned with zinc,
and holding about 200 gallons. Id these it remains until it has cooled
down and become hard, when it is put up in five pound bags and sub-
jected to a hydraulic pressure of 250 tons. The oil runs from a press
into a tank at its foot, again leaving a residuum, which is called "ser-
ion,"* also largeh sold as a fertilizer. Tlie refined oil is now conveyed
to another room, where twenty per cent, of milk is added, and the whole
i,s subjected to the churning process for about twenty minutes, for the
porpose of giving it a flavor. It is then drawn off and allowed to get
hard. After this it is laid out on tables and covered with blocks of ice.
Then it is passed through a wire sieve to clear it from the milk and ice.
and placed upon tables and crushed with roUers for the same purpose.
The last operation completes the process, and the article is ready for
market.

None of the article is sold or used in this country. As fast as
manufactured, it is securely packed in tubs containing from 70 to 75
pounds, and shipped to the consignees ''abroad."

This last statement should be taken with several grains of allowance.
It is intended to allay the appreliensions of particular Philadelphians.
T feci fully satisfied that I could have purchased a single tub for 20 cents
per pound, and in large quantities for 18 cents per pound.

There are certainly two important things omitted in this published ac-
count. First — I noticed when te-ting the butter in the factory that it
was very highly salted — I should judge at the rate of an ounce of salt to
the ])0und of butter. Second— The butter was evidently colored to
resemble June butter, and I have since learned, upon reliable authorit}',
that from eighteen to twenty dollars worth of "Mrs. Smith's Perfected
Butter Color" is sold in Philadelphia daily to this one manufactory
alone. I have shown this sample of manufactured butler, in company
with other samples of genuine butter, and IS out of the 20 members
present at the meeting of our club judged correctly which was the oleo-
margarine. Desiring to be able to show, at future meetings, which I
might be called upon to attend, the exact difference, chemically, between
oleomargarine and natural butter, I wrote to Profe.ssor L. B. Arnold, of

*r presume tDe reporter has misunderstoud ilu» p. oiiunciation of the word ; douLtli.s«
" Meaiin«> " is intunilci.

22

Rochester, New York, whom I regard as the highest 'lah\v authoritj- in
America, for the information needed. I said that I wanted to t»e able to
show the difTerence, chemically, i)etween artificial and natural butter,
and as 1 am not a professor, nor a chemist, but only a plain, practical
farmer, who follows his plow in its furrow across the field, and milks his
cow mornings and evenings, as tlie days come and go, why should I be
expected to know the relative i»roportions of oleine, stearine, &c., in the
two compounds ? To get at this I must consult books — authorities. In
reply he sewt me a small pamphlet containing a "complete history and
process of manufacture of artificial butter," by Henry A. Mott, Jr.,
mining engineer and analytical chemist, of New York City. Having
now given you the method pursued in the Philadelphia factory, I will next
give the plan adopted in New York, as I have been able to learn it from
a perusal of this work, and where its manufacture has been carried on
for a longer time, and, it may be, brought to a higher state of perfection.

The New York Process.

History.

About the year 1870 we begin to read of the application for and
the grantmg of patents for various imj^rovements in the processes of
refining oils and fats ; very modest in their pretensions at first, but
growing bolder and more startling in their claims with their order of
succession. The first process was patented by H. W. Bradley, .Jan. 3,
1871. His specifications claim that his invention relates to a new com-
position for lard, butter or shortening, whereby a very cheap lard or
butter is manufactured, superior to ordinary shortening, and answer-
ing the puri)ose of lard, butter or cream for culinary and other purposes.
The product manufactured was composed of beef or mutton tallow, refined
vegetable oils, and lard or stearine. This is a very modest claim. The
next process proposed was ]tatenied by one Perouse, Nov. 2, 1871. His
claim had the one object, " to enable the application of fine fats (espe-
cially beef fat) to alimentary and culinary purposes, and make such fat
take a position between lard and butter, give it a good appearance,
smell and taste, and also give it digestible qualities far superior to the
freshest butter or lard." The product made by this patent was a mixture
of beef fat, carbonate of soda,chloride of alumina and sodium,andboreDO
resemblauceto butter. The next jirocess patented worth considering was
by Paraf, in April, 1873. The specifications and claims in this patent ap-
proach nearer to the true process for tiie manufacture of artificial butter.
Tlie product manufactured under Paraf's patent was called oleo-
niarrjarine because butter was at one time considered to be a compound
chiefly composed of oleine and margarine, but later investigations have
shown that margarine is a mixture of palmitine and stearine. Paraf
started a large Company called the Oleomargarine Manufacturing Com-

23

pany, in the city of New York, having; for its object the manufacture of
the oleomargarine, so called.

The product manufactured by Paraf's patent resembled ^mtier when
seen at a distance, but, on examination with a microscope, was seen to
have a distinct grain, which was very distinguishable on tasting; it
possessed no odor or flavor of butter, and, after keeping a short time, lost
its color, and acquired the odor of beef suet, from which it was made.

The next process, and it is one similar to Paraf's, was first patented
in England by Mege, in 1869, and afterwards in this country, in 1873,
and finally reissued May 12, 1874. This re-issue contains all the val-
uable points in both the English and American patents, and is now the
property of the United States Dairy Company. Ttiese patents cover two
principal operations in the manufacturing of butter from the fat of ani-
mals, viz.: First, the extraction of the oil at a low temperature; and
second, the converting of the oil, by churning with milk, into butter.

Prof. Mott was employed by the United States Dairy Company to
make a series of experiments for the perfecting of the artificial product
at their factory in Brooklyn, during a period of several months. He be-
came satisfied that good butter could only be made by the use of the oil
rendered at a very low temperature — below 125° F. Whenever made
at a higher temperature the oil, or the butter made from it, would smell
like tallow after standing a few days, which smell would be sufficient to
repel any butter buyer from purchasing it. This smell is occasioned by
using oil rendered at a temperature above 125°, being tainted by the
decomposition of the animal membranes. In conducting his experi-
ments his object was to make a product containing no element foj'eign
to the very best of butter. His first discovery was a process by which he
was enabled completely to remove the grain from the artificial product
of butter. This process is described in his true process of making arti-
ficial butter. How to inti'oduce into this product the true odor and
flavor of butter, without injuring its texture, was a problem of consid-
erable difticulty, but after working at it for three months, it was finally
discovered.

Another patent is yet to be considered— that of Garret Cosine, dated
February 15, 1876, for improvement in processes for making artificial but-
ter. The object of this patent is to make (wo products, one for Winter and
the other for Summer use. The Winter product consists of oleine and
frtiit, or nut-oil, flavored with milk and salt. The Summer product is
similar to that made by Paraf, and not saleable in market. This
patent of Cosine is the most startUng yet out, for even the nutty flavor of
Jersey butter is attempted. With respect to the temperature stated by
Brande for the melting point of fat being 100° F., Prof. Mott found that
he must evidently refer to fat freed from its membrane, as the fat cannot
be practically separated from its membrane under a temperature of 109"
F., and then only in very exceptional cases.

24

mott's process for making artificiajl. butter.

As in the manufacture of natural butter, when a good product is to be
obtained, the first and most important principle to be observed is entire
cleanliness.

First, the Washing Process. —The fat, on arriving at the factorj-, \s
tirst weighed, and then thrown into large tanks containing tepid water,
care being taiien to place all pieces that are dirty or bloody in a sei)arate
tank to be washed. The fat in the tanks should be covered with tei)iU
water and soaked for an hour, when the water is drawn off and the fat
thoroughly washed in cold water ; then covered again with fresh cold
water and allowed to stand aa hour longer ; the water is then again re-
moved, and the fat thoroughly washed for the last time with fie.-h cold
water, when it is ready for the next operation, which is

iSecond, the Disintegrating or Chopping Process.— This is done bv
passing it through a meat hasher or chopper, where it is cut by means ol
revolving knives very flue, and forced through a fine sieve out of the
machine into a tub.

Third, the Melting Process.— The fat is next removed to the melting
tank, care being taken to drain off all the water remaining It is heated
by means of water surrounding the tank, until the temperature reaches
116°. when the steam which heats the water is turned off. The water
surroundin;:: the lank being much warmer than the melted fat, increases
its temperature to about 122'^ to 124°, when the fat is completely melted.
During the whole operation of melting, the fat must be constantly stirred
to maintain an even temperature. The adipose membrane, called scrap,
settles to the bottom, and a clear yellow oil floats on top. The melting
process, when conducted rightly, takes two or three hours. The oil
shonhl then stand at least 24 or 36 hours to granulate, and the tempera-
ture of the room should be 80°. This is a very important operation, and
must not bo Iiurried, otherwise the siearine in the oil will not have time
to crystalize.

Fourth, the Pressing Process. — The reflned fat is now removed to the
press room, which should be of a temperature between eighty and
ninety degress. It must not be so solid that it cannot be
easily worked with the lingers. It is next packed in cloths set
in moulds, to form i)ackages four inches wide, 8 inches long,
and 1}4 inches thick. These packages are then placed upon galvanized
iron plates in the press at equal distances apart, and piled one above
another until the press is filled. They are first subjected to a slight pres-
sure, which is increased gradually until the oil begins to flow slowly.
Tlie oil is received in tin ves.sels, and the pressing is continued until no
more oil can be obtained. The jiressure is then removed, the plates uii-
l^acked, when cakes of pure white stearine, about 8 t)y 5 inches long,
and one-fourth of an inch thick, appear. The stearine is now ready for

25

sale, while the oil obtained from the press is removed to a cool place
until it reaches a temperature of 70°, when it js ready for the next
operation.

The butter thus made contains nothing foreign to the very best of but-
ter, and when thus prepared, it ha? always found a ready sale in the
market, as its keeping qualities are far superior to butter made by
churning milk or cream. The percentage of liutyrine, caprine, caproino,
&c. (essential oils of butter), that it contains is so very small (being de-
rived from the nVilk in the last churning process), are not sufficient
to make the butter become rancid when decomposed; but quite sufiicient
to give to the butter the so much prized flavor and odor.

[From this last statement of Prof. Mott I beg leave to dissent. Hia
own analysis of the two compounds shows that natural butter contains
7.6 per cent, of those flavoring oils, while the artiticial butter contains
only .26 per cent, of thpm; and this small portion, which is obtained
from the milk in the process of churning, has not much effect, upon the
taste, and cannot be expected to have. The artificial butter has been
detected at once by nine-tenths of the persons to whom I have shown it
by its tallowy taste.]

Fifth, the Churning Procf'ss.- The oil now at the proper temperature
of 70°, is taken to the churning room; 100 pounds of oil are put into
the clrarn at a time, with from 15 to 20 pounds of sour milk. About '1\4,
or 3 ounces of a solution ofannatto, to which has tieen added from i^t^
to ^ of an ounce of the bicarbonate of soda, must now be added, and the
whole churned 12 or 15 minutes, until milk, coloring matter and oil are
thoroughly mixed together, when the whole mixture is withdrawn from
the churn, tlirough a hole in one end, and allowed to fall into a tub,
containing pounded ice. As the oil flows on the ice it must be kept in
constant motion until the fub is filled with solidified oil. CrystalizatifJn is
by this simple process coint)letely prevented. The sohditied oil, which now
has an orange color, is left two or three hours in contact with the ice in
the tub, when it is dumped upon an inclined table, where it is crumbled
so that the ice may melt and leave the oil, which is crumbled by hand
fine, and about 30 pounds at a time again introduced into the chura,
with 20 or 25 pounds of churned sour milk, and churned for 15 minutes,
when the solidified oil takes up a certain perceiitage of the milk, as also
the flavor and odor, which were washed out by the ice after the first
churning, and ■pw-<^ butter is i)roduced. This is now removed to the
working table, where after draining for a time, it is salted to the extent
of three-quarters to one ounce of salt to the pound of butter. After
proper working it is packed in firkins and is ready for sale.

Prof. Molt sent a sample of his butter made by the foregoing described
process to the Hon. X. A. Willard, President of the New York State
Dairymen's Association, who is considered one of the highest authori-
ties in this country on everything connected with dairy products. Mr.

26

"Willard says of it in reply: "The sample sent is far superior to any I
have seen in flavor and texture. I have shown it to a number of experts
hi butter, and they were greatly surprised at its flavor. If you could
produce a more waxy texture in the article, it would i)uzzle some to dis-
tinguish it from genuine butter." Mott adds: "With respect to the
waxy texture — that the artificial product acquh-es this property on stand-
ing a short time. " The sample which I exhibit has been made two
months, andlieaveyou to be the judges of the waxy texture; also of
the odor and flavor.

COST OF MANUFACTURE.

We come now to consider the cost of manufacture. Prof. Mott says a
large floor should be selected in some building easy of access, having
steam power and plenty of running water. A floor .'iO by 75 feet, prop-
erly divided, is large enough to manufacture 500 pounds of butter a day.
The rent of such a floor in a city like New York should not cost over
$500 a year. The cost of fitting up such a factory will be about $2, 500.
For making 500 pounds of butter a day there will be needed one chop-
ping machine, two melting tanks, one churn, two presses, three wash
tanks, besides wash tubs, tin cans, cloths, &c. After paying for the
fitting up of the factory, there should be at least $3,750 in bank, for
several reasons. First, three days will elapse before any butter is ready
for sale, and six weeks will elapse before the first butter sold is paid for.

Butter is sold in New York on six weeks' time, while the caul fat
has to be bought for cash. The amount of fat needed to carry on
the business for 39 working days will be 691.65 lbs. per day, which,
at 10 cents per pound, amounts $69.16 per day ; and 26,964.35 lbs.
costing $2,696.43 for the period of six weeks. The tubs for the butter
will" amount to ten a day, which, at 15 cents each, will amount, in 39
days, to $58.50. The hands must be paid every week. There will be
required 1 superintendent at $50 a week; 1 butter worker at $40 ; 2
boys at $6; 1 woman at $5; amounting in one week to $107, and in
six weeks to $642 for labor. These, put in tabular form, amount to :

Fat, 26,964.35 lbs. for 6 weeks at 10c $2,696 43

Tubs, 390 at 15 cents 58 50

Labor 642 00

Milk, ice, annatto, &c 353 07

Making a total of $3,750 00

By combining the cost of fitting up a factor.y, with the amount of
money paid out before any returns come in, $2,5004 $3,750. it will be
seen that it will not be safe to enter the business witliout a capital of
$6,250. To find out the exact cost of manufacture several points must
be ascertained: 1st. The expense per day ; 2d. The amount of butter
sold ; 3d. The amount of refuse sold.

27

The following tables give the percentage of fat, oil and butter realized,
which is necessary for the calculation of cost:

Percentages by the melting process in 100 parts:

Refined fat 78.63 per cent.

Soap grease 4.31 " "

Scrap membrane 17.06 " "

Total 100

By the pressing process, in 100 parts of refined fat :

Oil 76.31 per cent.

Stearine 23.69 " "

Total 100

Per cent, of oil from 100 parts of caul fat :

Oil 60.00 per cent.

Stearine 18.63 " "

Scrap and soap grease 21.37 " "

Total 100

By the churning process, in 100 parts of butter :

Oil 83.00 per cent.

Salt, milk, &c .s.OO " "

Water 12.00 " "

Total 100

Expenses per day at factory, in detail :

Fat— 691.65 lbs., at 10c $69 16

Milk— 84 quarts, at 7c 5 88

Bicarbonate of soda, 1 lb., 10c 10

Salt— 26 lbs, at 3c 78

Ice— 60 lbs., i^c .30

Labor— (16 working days) 17 83

Rent.— ($500) proportion (259 days) 2 00

Contingencies 20

Total expenses per day $96 25

Products manufactured :

Batter made from 691.65 lbs. of caul fat, 500 lbs. at 25c $125 00

Stearine made from 691.65 lbs. of caul fat, 128.85 lbs. at lie 14 17

Soap grease made from 691.65 lbs. of caul fat, 29.81 lbs. at 5c. . . 1 49
Scrap made from 691.65 lbs, of caul fat, 117.41 Loss.

Total for products manufactured $140 66

Money realized by the business per day $140 66

Cost of manufacture per day 96 25

Leaves aprofit per day $44 31

28

Cost of manufacture per pound of butter :

This will equal the expeuses per day, minus Jhe amount realized
by the sale of other products ; tluis if the expenses per aay
are '.$96 25

And the receipts from other products sold are 15 66

Will leave the cost of the manufactui-e of the butter at $80 59

This for 500 lbs., is equal (o 16.1 cents per lb.

This calculation i.s based upon paying 10 cents a pound for the fat, and
selling the butter made at. 25 cents per pound.

COMF'OSITION OF BUTTER.

Prof. Arnold, in his work on American Dairying, gives the composi-
tion of butter as follows: "The fatty matter which enters into the com-
position of the butter globule consists of four varieties. The hardest of
them is steariue, which, when separated; is a liard, white, flaky appear-
ing fat. The second in consistency is palmitine, wliicli resembles palm
oil ; most of the coloring matter in butter is connected with this fat. Tlie
third is called oleine, from its thin, oily consistency. The fourth con-
sists of essential oils of the food of the cow. and which probably are as
numerous as the varieties of food she consumes. These constitute the
fats of which butter is made. Their origin is not perfectly clear; they
are all ultimately derived from the food of the cow, but how nmch of
them are elaborated in the body of the animal out of other elements of
food is not well established. Their charactei'istics change with the
condition and quality of food, and with the constitutional peculiarities
of cows. The fats from diflerent cows living on the same food are often
quite unlike, and in the same cow they change their qualities, such as
color, density, odor and flavor, witii the variations in food, as to its
age, succulence and abundance or scarcity of fat in it. Young food gen-
erally gives a higher flavor and color to these fats than that which is
mature or approaching maturity. The percentage of these essential oils
which enter into the composition of butter is very slight, amounting, on
an average, to about two per cent. They are very variable in butter, by
reason of feed and faulty making."

BUTTER ANALYSES.

I present first an analysis of the fats of butter by Prof. Jlott, giving
the constituents in natural and artificial butter :

_ , ■ Fats from Fnts from

constituents. Natural Butter Artificial Butler

Palmitin 20.33 22 32

Stearin 4-2.77 4(1 ;>l

Olein - 27.71 .-50.42

Butyrin.. ")

Caproiu. j Essential or g jg .^.^

Caprin . . f Vegetable Oils. • • • •

Caprylin J

Totals 100.00 100.00

29

Next is presented a complete analysis of butter :

ConstituerHs. Natural Butter. Artificial Butter.

Water 11.827 12.005

Butter solids 88.173 87.995

Total 100 100

These butter solids are :

Balmitia 16.826 18.307

Stearin 35.399 38.602

Olein 22.934 24.954

Butyrin. |

^■'P™"^- !• Essential Oils 7.606 .262

Caprin.. | •

Caprjiin J

Casein 183 .745

Salt 5.225 5.225

88.173 87.995

The difference between Natural and Artificial Butter.

By comparing the constituents of these two analyses, it will be seen
that the diftierencc' in the percentages consists chiefly in the very suiall
amount of Imtyrin and other esseutial oils in the artiticial product, and
it is for thi.s reason that the artificial butter keeps so much better than
the natural butter. There is, says Mott, " a sufficient amount of the.se
essential oils iu the artificial butter to give it the odor and flavor of
natural butter ; Itiit not sutficieut, when decomposed into butyric acid, to
render the product rancid." It is the decomposition of these essential
oils in butter that eause.^ rancidity ; and this proves what I have fre-
quently noticed, and contended for, that the best, and highest flavored
butter, possessed the poorest keeping qualities.

I have now shown, as clearly as I could, the diflerence between oleo-
margarine and butter-the artificial and the natural compounds. The
sources from wliich the two emanate indicate a wide diflerence. Natural
butter, as we all know, is made from milk which is secreted by the mam-
mary glands, while the artificial butter is first secreted in the ep-i-the'-li-
al cells, located ju.^^t uridciiipatli the derma, or true skin, and thence
taken up by the sebai-eons follicles and glands, and by them conveyed
and stored away in <lirterent parts of the animal body, ready for future
emergencies, arising either from accident or dL^easp. The two products
are secreted by entirely difl'erent organs in the a»iinai economy, and we
may reasonably expect to find as much difierence in the two products of
tallow and butter, as there is between bone and muscle; the tallow
being comparable to tht; bono while the latter is comparable to muscle
or flesh when considered as articles for human food. The diflerence in
the melting points of the two articles is another case in point Butter
melts at a temperature of 8G degrees, while tallow will hardly melt, says
Mott, at 109 degrees, a temperature within three degrees of fever
heat (112;.

30

Another great point of difference in the two kinds of butter, as we have
already seen, is in the percentage of the essential or flavoring oils, which
gives to our gilt-edged Jersey butter that highly prized nutty flavor. On this
point of difference, Garret Cosine comes to the rescue, with his patent of
Feb. 15, 1876, wherein he proposes to flavor his product of butter with
any fruit or nut oil; and we may now expect to find butter flavored with
walnut, almond, or any other nut oil to suit the taste of customers.
Prof. Mott's labors, in the flrst place, were to discover a method of
destroying the grain in. \hQ artificial product; while great care is en-
joined by our modern dairy writers on us not to destroy the grain in the
natural •product. The former, when perfect, should possess no grain,
while in the latter the grain is to be carefully preserved. Here, again,
is another striking point of difference. His labors were also to produce
an article that should contaui no element foreign to the very best butter;
but, by his own analysis, his artificial product /a^7ed to contain several
elements (essential oils) which are considered necessary to the good qual-
ities of the best natural butter.

The chief points of difference, then, between oleomargarine and
butter are, first, the former contains a much greater percentage of
stearine, a hard, white fat, and it should more properly have heen
named oleo-stearine. Another reason why it should receive the name
of oleo-stearine is because it is chiefly made at those large abattou' fac-
tories from the fat or oil of steed's.

Its chief merits I take to be:

First. Its usefulness for culinary purposes.

Second. Its adaptation for long sea voyages.

Third. By reason of its greater hardness, its advantages in excessively
hot climates, such as Texas, for example, where they ase butter in its
liquid form from a cup, as we do molasses,

EFFECTS UPON THE MARKETS.

When Mott's calculations of the cost of manufacture C*16 cents per
pound) were made, the product was then bringing 25 cents per pound.
Now the price has fallen to 18 and 20 cents, while the price of butter
made from cream has decreased in a corresponding ratio. We, as butter
dairymen, have lost fully five cents a pound on every pound of butter
we have made for the past year in consequence of the increased manu-
facture and consumption of this oleomargarine product. To sub-
stantiate this, I quote from the New York market reports. The
Tribune of November says that dealers in butter are not prepared to
make large contracts until they learn for a certainty how much their
trade wfll be affected by oleomargarine.

Quite a large quantity of oleomargarine is now being shipped abroad

* This cost was obtained at an experimental factory where an abnormal price was
paid tor lat, as also abDormal wages. The cost at a large factory would be only about
12 Q.euis.—NoU by Dr. Mott.

31

in place of the genuine article, and a good deal is consumed at home;
so that dealers can hardly be expected to buy large quantities of dairy
or creamery butter, and pay from 24 to 30 cents for it, when an article
is oflererl that answeis the purpose for 15 to 18 cents. Again, the same
paper of a later date reports that the demand for strictly first-class but-
ter is good, but medium and poor grades are unsaleable. The daily in-
crease in the consumption of oleomargarine allects the lower grades.
The latter commodity is quoted at 15 to 18 cents, while the high grades
of butter are worth 25 to 30 cents per pound.

Again, in a later date, the Tribune reports; "The demand for oleo-
margarine continues to increase. The makers of this article say that,
with their present facilities, they are wholly unable to supply the demand.
These demands are so urgent that additional facilities are in process of
construction. Oleomargarine is selling for 15 to 20 cents per pound.
Fine grades of butter are quoted at 24 to 34 cents."

We learn from these reports that oleomargarine is now selling at
wholesale in New York city from ten to fifteen cents per pound lower
than the best dairy and creamery butter.

Still later (December) the same paper quotes: "Oleomargarine is
being brouglit into notice considerably of late by the prosecution of
grocers and others who have been selling it as butter. The manufac-
turers are now churning it with cream, and making small prints of one
pound each, tastily stamped for the Philadeli)hia and Baltimore mar-
kets. Tlje manufacture is increasing, the factory at Pawtucket, K. I.,
having doubled its capacity. It sells now from 15 to 20 cents per
pound."

To sustain my position I next give the Philadelphia wholesale butter
market for the past live years :

In 1873 I sold C50 lbs. butter at an average price of 10c. during the year.
In 1874 I sold 657 " " " " 37c. " '«

In 1875 I sold 430 " " " " 36c, "

In 1876 1 sold 560 " " " " 35c. " "

In 1877 1 sold 430 " •« " " 30c. " "

The extreme range of prices during these five years was as follows:

Highest i)rice. Lowest price. Average.

Fur 1873. 50c. 25c. 40c.

For 1874 50c. 25c. 37c.

For 1875 45c. 25c. 36c.

For 1876 45c. 25c. 35c.

For 1877 35c. 23c. 30c.

The above represents the butter made on a farm which I rent, receiv-
ing one-half the butter sold. It is sent lo Philadelphia every week and
sold wholesale to dealers who retail it to their customers. We see by
an examination that the price of butter has fallen in five years 10 cents
per pound, and one-half of that Cor 5 cents) during the last year.

In the year 1876 I sold our own butter, 1,740 pounds, at a home mar-

32

ket, at an average price of 40 cents per pound ; and in the year 1877 we
sold our butter, 1, G56 pounds, at an average price of 35 cents per pound,
being regulated as to prices charged, to some extent, by the Philadelphia
market.

What is the cause of this decline in prices ? There is no efiect with-
out a cause; and the effect stands out plainly and undeniably. The
cause is over-production, and in producing tliis effect the hundreds and
thousands of pounds of oleomargarine made daily has no doubt con-
tributed its full share.

LEGISLATION.

The only question remaining to be considered is. What action do we
propose to take in the matter for the protection of our interests ? Oleo-
margarine lias been pronounced by some of our best physicians as a pro-
per and wholesome article of food; a fact, I presume, we are wiUing to
admit, for most, if not all of us, are aware that a beefsteak is much
better and more wholesome when cooked in its own fat, than it is when
cooked either in lard or butter. If the use of oleomargarine were
confined to the modest claims of H. W. Bradley iu liis first patent of 1871,
to a new composition for shortening and culinary purposes, there need
be no cause for apprehension ; but when tlm arrogant claims of Garret
Cosine, in his patent of 1876, comes liefore us with a highly colored and
nutly llavored production for table use, it is time for something to be
done. All that I ask,' is for each article to stand upon its own merits.
Wlien Paraf, in 1873, organized in New York City the large company
called the "Oleomargarine Manufacturing Company," and gave to the
Iiroduction the name Oleomargarine, they were pursuing a fair and
legitimate business, to which nu one could raise an objection. If they
can succeed in producing an article that is superior to our highest grades
of table butter, let it be done. But for some reason the use of the name
of oleomargarine was discontinued, and the article was branded and
sold under the name of butter. They had the benefit of the high-sound-
ing name and title. Why drop that and adopt tlie less pretentious name
of butter? Here is the point wherein our chief objection lies. Why
brand and sell as butter that wliieh is not butter ? We are opposed to
deception and fraud of every kind. And here is a fraud of the grossest
kind— one the perpetration of which should receive tlie punishment pro-
vided in the proposed law prepared by the Board (A Agricultm'e of our
State, approved by the Solebury Farmers' Club at their meetuig, Oct. 6,
by the Bucks County Agricultural Society, Dee. 1. and by the Doylestovvn
Agricultural Society, Dec. 8, 1877. If the manufacturers of oleomarga-
rine are able to produce from dead bullocks an article equal in quality to
anything we are able to make from the living cow, then let it command,
as it will, an equal price in the market ; if they, in tlie future, shall be-
come able to make a product even superior to ours, let that bring, as it
should, a higher price. What we demand ia, and we deem it a protec-

33

tion to wbich we are justlj' entitled, that they shall not be allowed to sell
their goods under our name and as our i)roduct.

SAMPLES OF OLEOMARGARINE.

The two .sami)les of oleomargarine which are now before us, are the
products, one of them, Sept. 27, of the manufactory in West Philadel-
phia, and the other I received, Nov. 27, from New Yorlc. Accompa-
nying this latter specimen was a circular which demands some attention,
and from which I learn that the product was manufactured at Paw-
tucket, R. I. (Reads circular.) The claims set forth in this circular
are truly remarkable ! 1. Its author claims, in the first place, that he
is now offering to the trade "a pure cream-churned butter, almost
absolutely free from stearine.'" Against this assertion I put Mott's anal-
ysis (wiiom he quotes), who gives for natural butter 35 per cent., and
for artificial butter 38 per cent, of stearine.

2. The second claim set forth, is that his product is exactly the same
as hand-made butter, except that in the refining process it is freed
from that "fibrous material existing in hand made butter, which rots
and becomes rancid, rendering it unwholesome and injurioiis as an
article of food." This term, "fibrous material," is a new one given to
those flavoring oils named by Arnold, Mott and others, butyrme, cap-
roine, &c.

3. The third claim increases our astonishment; it is: "All butter
is a fatty oil, chiefly secreted in the cauls of beeves, and brought into
existence by the medium of milk, and is perfectly visible to the naked
eye." Was there ever such profound knowledge of physiology displayed
before ! The butter is first secreted in the cauls and then afterivards
brought into existence through the medium of milk and rendered visible.
I am aware that the Tribune of Dec. 11th, tiuotes a French au-
thority, who "came to the conclusion that the milk of a cow came from
her fat." My authorities inform me that every part of an animal, includ-
ing milk, fat, flesh, bone, hide, hair and horns, are all secreted from the
blood, being taken up by different organs, and dift'ering in quality in
proportion as the constituents vary that are secreted by the different or-
gans, but the blood is the grand repository of then> all. Thus the mam-
mary glands secrete the milk, the epethelial cells, and sebaceous follicles
and glands secrete the fat, or tallow, «Se:c., &,c. My autiiorities for this
are, Jos. E. Worcester, Prof. Arnold and the family physician.

i. The fourth claim is that " the butter is made wholly by machinery
and is entirely free from the filthy hand manipulation.'' Here, perhaps,
we may venture to urge in reply, that all natural butter is not made by
iiand; some of it is made by machinery and no hands touch it from first
to last; and, in the second place, that all hands are not necessarily
filthy. But, if this argument is good as against our l)utter will it not
ap|ily with equal force against our l)read?

34

6. The sixth claim is evidently a misstatement. He quotes Prof. Mott
to prove that his product contains more of the butter solids and less
water than natural butter. Mott says in his pamphlet that natural butter
contains 88.75 per cent of solids, and 11.25 per cent of water; and arti-
ticial butter contains 87.71 per cent, of solids, and 12.29 per cent, of water.
But our hero has these tables reversed in his favor, and as the figures
copied are correct, the inference is fair that the headings were changed
intentionally.

7. We learn further, that this product is now sold in New York City
and elsewhere as the best oleomargarine or creamery butter. The word
oleomargarine is retained to comply with the law of that State, and the
term creamery butter added for two reasons. First — The ignorant
consumers are not presumed to know but what the term oleomargarine
is the proper name for butter made from cream ; and. Second- -The
artificial product is now actually mixed with genuine butter, as we learn
from the latest market reports, thus adding the crime of adulteration to
that oi deception.

We learn from the Tribune report that oleomargarine makers Imve
adopted the plan recently of mixing cream and butter with their pro-
duct. The result of this is, that the article thus manufactured cannot be
told, even by desjlers, from the genuine article. It is stated that 40,000
pounds of this butter are used in New York daily. The law in New
York prohibits the sale of it unless the packages are so stamped as to
show v.'hat it is. In marking, a small stencil plate is used, and the
name is generally placed in some obscure part of the firkin or package,
and oftentimes this is easily removed, and dealers in butter acknowledge
that they have bought it for good butter on the assertion of men whom
they thought they could trust.

The only remedy is in a strict enforcement of the provisions and pen-
alties of the law.

At the close of Mr. Reader's address. Professor Mott, of New York
City, opened with an address defending the manufacture and consumption
of oleomargarine, as follows :

OLEOMARGARINE BUTTER.

Gentlemen: In accepting an invitation to deliver a short address on
oleomargarine butter, in justice to myself I would say that I am in no
way connected with either the Commercial Manufacturing Company or
the United States Dairy Company, nor have I been for the past nine
months. Feeling a pride in the success of the process which, although
discovered and patented by Mege, was elaborated into the process which
IS now adopted for the manufacture of the artificial product by myself,
is suflticient explanation for the interest I take in this subject.

What is this cry against oleomargarine butter about? What does
it mean? It has not been the principle of those most interested in

35

this new intlustry — tbe manufacture of artificial butter — to condemn the-
product of the dairy when properly made. No, gentlemen; if it were
possible to make every dairyman in this country turn his attention to
seeing that all the apparatus he uses is thoroughly cleansed, that his milk
and cream are suitably protected from disturbing influences ; yes, and
even go so far as to see that the teats of the animal from whence
the milk is obtained are thoroughly washed before milking, then
would the country be flooded with good, wholesome butter, at a
price that the poor of the land could all enjoy such a luxury as
has been only rendered practical by the introduction of oleomarga-
rine butter. Yes, gentlemen, cleanliness is the most important se-
cret . in the manufacture of good butter. One drop of milk left in
your milk pail, your milk pan, your churn, soon becomes the proper
medium for the development of the numerous germs of life which flock in
our atmosphere— fermentation and putrefaction of this little drop of nailk
soon take place. Add now to either of these different apparatus fresh
milk or cream, and thnt which was fresh and sweet before adding is now
tainted, and itself in the process of decomposition. From such condi-
tions no pure product can be obtained. Turn, I say, your attention to
cleanliness in the manufacture, and not flood, the market, as is now the
case, with the butter which, before it has time to reach the consumer, has
undergone the first stages of putrefaction, in the transformation of its
volatile fats into rancid acids, wliich are most detrimental to health, and
are one of the causes of the majority of sickness among the poorer
classes, who are unable to purchase the pure, wholesome product, as
the price of the same is so iiigii. I claim that when Mege discovered
that a pure and healthful product could be manufactured from the fat of
the animal, to take the place of the miserable, rancid butter which now
floods the market, at a price that the poor as well as the rich could enjoy
it— that he conferred a great benefaction on the huinan race.

Is it possible, gentlemen, that you are willing to condemn the intro-
duction of this product from no higher motive than that of dollars and
cents, or because it is matle by a labor-saving process ? I look upon the
fat of the animal as the fountain-head from whicli all butter is. obtained.
This is no assertion not based on facts. Look a minute. Recent analy-
pes of blood have demonstrated the absence of fat, only fatty acids being
I)resent. From the blood, therefore, tiie fat cannot transude. Where,
then, can it come from but from the fat of the animal ? Elaborate e.xperi-
ments made in Paris on nurses, by M. Decasine, showed that when all
food was taken away from the nurses for several days they still continued
to give milk, and that the milk contained fat. Wliere did the fat come
from ? The answer is simple. It came from the fat of the nurse ; and
this celebrated chemist came to the same conclusion. In fact, he states
in as many words, that when all food is taken away from the nurse, the
infant, by act of Providence, receives milk at the sacrifice of the mother.

36-

If, then, the fat of the animal is the fountain-head from whence all butter
fat IS derived, why insist upon limiting ourselves to the milk, a menstruum
holding in suspension onlj' about 3.75 per cent, of Ijutter fat, when we
can go direct to the fat of the animal and obtain sixtj'^ per cent? In one
case the butter fat has to be separated from tlie fluid which holds it in
suspension ; in the other from the caul fat which contams it. What is
there unreasonable about this ? Why is there such a cry against this
labor-saving process ? As well condemn the results of all modern inven-
tions and labor-saving machines. Is the purity of the wheat impaired by
being gathered by the reaper in preference to the sickle, as used in past
ages, or the hay impaired by the use of the mowing machine? Have the
great mass of people to go naked from the fact that the majority of cloth-
ing is now made by the sewing machine in preference to the needle ? What
would become of our fast- increasing annual crop of cotton if we were de-
pending on the hand-shuttle to weave it into fabrics that find a market
in every clime, in preference to the modern machinery as now used in the
cotton factories of the East ? Away with such selfish bigotry as would
deprive the masses of tiiis pure and wholesome element of food, because
it is obtained by a modern labor-saving process which tends to destroy
the profits now made, not by the sale of good butter, which will always
find a market, but by the sale of that most injurious product, rancid but-
ter, which no right-minded man should for a moment countenance. I
have understood that the remark has been made that if the manufacture
of butter Irom fat continues to increase, there is a chance of extinguish-
ing the whole race of bovines. f^et us look at this : I am informed on
good authority, that within a radius of sixty miles of Chicago there are
over 30,000 calves killed within three days after birth, for the reason that
milk is more valuable to sell and to convert into butter and cheese. But
if the new enterprise of shipping beef to England and France continues
to increase, it will necessitate the raising of calves. Where then will the
butter come from ? The common-sense answer to this question is, that oleo-
margarine will have to step in and fill the demand, which it can easily
do, as the amount of fat that can then be obtained will be greatly in-
creased. This is no subject, gentlemen, to receive light attention. Look
to the figures. Since the 1st of January last year until the 1st of January
this year, there has been exported 102,138,504 pounds of fresh beef, at a
value of $10,063,302, and of head of cattle 20,057, at a value of $3,987,-
540, making a total value of beef exported amounting to $16,050,842.

Truth does not fluctuate according to our likes or dislikes. The merits
of the artificial product depend on the properties peculiar to the product.

Now, gentlemen, the properties of this product have not only merited the
attention of the public, but have mot with a hearty reception by them.
Now, gentlemen, as this product has been accepted by the public, it is
not then for the farmer and dairymen to qupstion their likes and dislikes
with respect to this subject. In my opinion there is no other way to ex-
press it. Tliey (tiie dairymen and farmers) have got to accept it.

37

With respect to the business carried on by tlie Commercial Manufac-
turing Company, the only legalized company in New York and New Jer-
sey, I have the following oflicial statement : During 1876-77, the company
disposed of, in o e large contract, 3,295,000 jwunds ; and in another in
1877 of 1,000,000 pounds of oleomargarine. Up to March 3, 1877, the
company had treated over 8,000,000 pounds of fat for use in the manu-
facture of artiHcial liutter. In 1877 contracts for live .vears for 3,000,000
pounds of the products were offered, but declined l)y the company.
Large offers are now pending the action of the company.

At the close of Dr. Mott's address a discussion of the question was
taken up, and the speaker was plied with numerous questions. He gave
a short account of the manufacture of oleomargarine, illustrating his
account with some specimens of the materials used in the manufacture.

Mr. C. W. Horr, a dairyman from Wellington, made some remarks, in
which he said he thought that the manufacture of artiffcial butter was
perfectly legitimate, and so long as it was a good, healthy, palatable
article, and people chose to eat it, certainly no dairyman had a tight to
say anything against it. It was no one's province to say what victuals
people sliould eat. The only redress of the dairyman was to make an
article of butter that would be an improvement over the artiflcial. .Mr.
Horr said thai he could make an article of butter that was a vast im-
provement upon the oleomargarine, and he had no fear of the
competition.

Dr. Mott said: AVith respect to the merits of the product it is,
no doubt, better than the average butter put in the market. I
refer to the oleomargarine produced by the Commercial Manufac-
turing Companj', «fec., where it is properly made. It is far more
healthful than much of the butter ottered, and is a great benefit
to the poorer classes, as they can thus procure an article far
better than the average butter, at a price within their reach. Quota-
tions from the London market show that it brings there only from
twenty to twenty-five shillings less than the best cream butter. Sup-
posing that, it would be nuerestiiig to have the exact product here for
you to inspect, I have brought these specimens of the different pro-
ducts used in the process of manufacturing oleomargarine, intending to
complete or finish the process in your presence, which would consist in
churning or agitating the oil with milk. I did my best Vj obtain
the necessary milk, making application at every firm in the City,
but failing here, I telegraphed twenty miles in the country, i)ut could
not obtain it in time. We can make butter from fresh cr.'am, but this
requires milk that is turned, and this I was unable to obtain. The manu-
facture of oleomargarine butter is a very simple and common-sense pro-
cess. I think, from what I have stated, it must appear that the fat found
in the milk came originally from the fat in the animal. In the manufac-
tory only the caul of the animal is used for oleomargarine, the other

38

part of the fat is taken to the tallow department to be converted into
tallow. It is thorou2;bl}^ washed and sent up to the top of the building and
then put into hashing macliines, when it is reduced tea pulp; after which,
it is melted at the lowest possible temperature, which is about 118°. The
adipose membrane settles at the bottom and the oil is then drawn off into
kettles below. It is allowed to remain in these kettles till all the adipose
matter is deposited, when it is drawn mto the granulating room, after
testing to see whether it is in a proper condition to be pressed. It is tlien
pressed by hydraulic presses, seven in number, each of which cost fifteen
thousand dollars. These presses press out the oleomargarine, leaving the
stearin behind. The oil to be converted into butter is then run down
stairs into the next factory room, where about one hundred pounds of
it is put into a churn with about twenty pounds of milk and agitated for
about twenty minutes. It is then run into a tub containing pounded ice,
by means of which it becomes solidiSed and crystallization is prevented.
It is afterwards placed upon tables, the ice melts ofil', and the next
morning it is put into a churn with more milk and agitated twenty
minutes longer, during which operation it takes up ttie essential char-
acteristics of the milk. It is then placed upon tables and the milk
worked out, when it is salted and packed ready for sale. This is the
process of manufacture as carried on by the Commercial Manufacturing
Company. Great care is exercised and every pound of the butter is free
from foreign substances. There are infringments of this patent, by
parties not knowing the exact process, and who are doing great damage,
not only to you but to this company which makes the pure article.

Me. Lewis : How do you know that the fat of butter comes from the
fat of the animal and not from the blood ?

Dr. Mott: We know that if a nurse be deprived of food, nature pro-
vides for the sustenance of the young by drawing upon the mother's
fat. Every deposit ot the animal is secreted by the blood, and although
no fat is found in the blood, fatty acids are, which undergo chemical
combinations by the vital forces of the body, and are converted into fat.

Ques. What is the amount of oleomargarine obtained from the caul
fat?

A?is. One hundred pounds of caul fat will produce sixty pounds of
oil and seventeen pounds of stearin.

Ques. How much would you receive from a large animal?

Ans. On an average, from forty-five to fifty pounds. This was the
average obtained from one thousand animals slaughtered.

Dr. Mott: It is no doubt the fault of the farmer that oleomargarine
butter or cheese has an existence. It was produced to take the place of
the poor rancid Imtter which is unfit to eat.

Pkof. Arnold: At what temperature do you put it to press?

Dr. Mott: At 85°. The oil is then cooled to about 70°. In a liquid
state a great deal of heat exists in a latent state in the oil which can only

39

be removed by a chill. The small quantity of essential oil mentioned,
-which it absorbs from the milk, is sufficient to give it the required odor
and render the product far superior to the average butter made and sold.

Ques. What does oleomargarine usually bring ?

Ans. From eighteen to twenty cents per pound at wholesale.

Ques. What is the expense of making it?

Ans. When fat can be bought at five cents I believe this butter can be
made and sold in the market for about eleven cents. Large quantities
are sold. The manufacturers cannot fill the orders fast enough. It is
exported by the ton. There is to be a reward of one thousand dollars
offered for the detection of infringers of the patent. So highly is it
esteemed that the name, oleomargarine, is considered an inestimable
trade-mark.

Ques. What part is the caul ?

A71S. It is the fat which surrounds the stomach of the animal.

Qiies. Does the kidney fat contain too much stearin, did you say ?

A)is. Strictly speaking, the mixture consists of stearin and palraatin.
In kidney fat the per cent, of stearin is too large to be profitable for
butter-making.

Qices. Does it have a deleterious eflect on butter if it be packed in tin
cases ?

Ans. Yes, when it comes in contact with the tin it is bleached white.
The bleaching may probably be owing to the formation of ozone, by the
tin surface acting upon the air.

Ques. You speak of running the oil on ice to prevent crystals from
forming, now, would not that destroy the grain essential to good
butter?

Ans. No ; if allowed to cool slowly regular crystals would be formed
■which are quite ditierent from the grain of butter, but by the sudden
chill, upon ice, crystals have not time to form and the product is
smooth and pliable.

Prof. Stewart: On this question of Oleomargarine, I would say, that
dairymen may as well possess their souls in patience. If they can make
a good article, that is really i)alatable and wholesome, it will be a bless-
ing— a real God send— not only to the poor classes but to the dairymen
themselves. It will prevent the manufacture of thousands of pounds of
bad butter now made that is not tit to throw to the dogs. In this way
it will encourage the making of first-rate butter and thus it will be a
blessing to dairymen. Though there may be millions of pounds of but-
ter made from caul fat it will not materially affect the price of really
good butter ; if it does at all the effect will be but small. There will
always be a market in England and European countries for a first-class
article of butter.

Mr. Horr: I would not hestitate to establish creameries on a large
scale. This article will never come in competition with crack butter.

40

If it comes in competition with butter at all, it must be with that of poor
grades. Now, if the oleomorgarine manufacturers can make it to satisfy
the people, they have a rigtft, a moral and legal right to do so. If it is
a good, healthy, palatable article, and people choose t» eat it, certainly
no dairyman has a right to say anything against it. It is not our
province to say what victuals people must eat. The only redress dairy-
men have, is to make an article of butter greatly superior to the arti-
ficial. I am certain that I can make butter that is vastly superior to
oleomargarine, and I don't care how much they make. If dairymen can-
not, from cream, make an article of butter that will compete with that
made from gut fat and shove it out of the market they deserve to be
beaten. (Laughter and applause). I have no fear of the result. Cheap, in-
ferior butter must go out of the market. We must make nothing but
the very best article. Let each be sold on its own merits. Let oleo-
margarine be sold for just what it is. If you will do that, I have no fear
of the result as to which will win in the race.

Dr. Mott: I have listened to Mr. Horr's remarks with great pleasure.
With reference to oleomargarine I can assure him that there is no
chance of its dying out. There are millions of dollars invested. Gentle-
men of known ability and extensive means are engaged in it, and there
is no chance of its falling through.

The Comuiittee on Order of Business then made their report.

After which, the next subject taken up was "The condition and qual-
ity of the fats in milk and the changes by which they are converted into
butter," regarding which Dr. H. A. Mott, Jr., read the following inter-
esting address:

Gentlemen: The subject which I have chosen to invite your attention
to, is one suggested by your most indefatigable worker — Professor
Arnold — " The condition and quality of the fats in milk and the changes
by which they are converted into butter." Let ua consider the first por-
tion of our suljject, and then proceed to the discussion of the last.
When a drop of milk is examined under the microscope, myriads of
beautifully formed globules of various sizes will be seen suspended in a
clear liquid. These gloliules are known as milk globules, are of slight
yellow color, dark around the edges, and exhibit a pearly gloss. It is
within these microscopic spheres that the fat of milk is contained. The
state in which these globules exist in milk has been a subject of consid-
erable discussion, but under the persistent endeavors to solve the
problem by distinguished microscopists, it is held now by the best
authorities that the fat globules of milk are surrounded by an envelope.
(For an elaljorate discussion of this subject see the American Dairyman^
November 20 and Decembers, 1877, by the writer.) The exact nature
of this envelope has not lieen actually determined, but experiments made
by Prof. Arnold, as also by myself, convince me that it is not of the same
composition as casein, but more probably consist of the same nitre-

41

genous material known as adipose membrane. This idea I con-
sider is botli consistent with ray experiments as also with the accepted
method of formation of the milk globules bj' a process of budding. The
experiments by Dr. W. Fleischmanu (Versuchs — Stutionen Organ xiv.,
194-245.— Jour, of Chem. Sor. vol. x., 1872, p. 258) to demonstrate the
existence of an envelope, as also the thickness of the same, are not gen-
erally known, and therefore must prove interesting. Fleischmann pro-
ceeds to treat the subject mathematically, starting from the facts that
the specific gravity of butter is .942, and the diameter of the fat globule
from .01 — -.0016 m. m., and havhig shown that the velocity of the
globule must vary as the square foot of their radius, he proves that if the
serum of milk be regarded as a perfect fluid, the whole of the globules
must rise as cream in thirty hours, even if chey were of the smallest
size known to exist, and that consequently the globules of ordinary milk
should rise in far less time than this. In practice, however, only about
eighty per cent, of the fat globules rise as cream after twelve hours
standing, and the most prolonged repose does not yield more than eighty-
five or ninety per cent. The globules which obstinately refuse to rise
have a diameter of .0038— .0016 m. m. Fleischmann concludes that
the globules are impeded by adhering matter, and proceeds to cal-
culate its quantity. Taking the specific gravity of casein as 1.486, he
finds that a coat of this substance .000053 in. m. in thickness will
suffice to prevent the globules of .0038 — .0016 m. m. diameter from '
rising, while it will allow the larger globules to do so. Further, suppos-
ing the fat to be equally distributed throughout the whole series of
globules, he finds that about 20 per cent of the fat will occur in the form
of small globules which cannot rise, which is, in fact, the result arrived
at in practice.

The following analyses I have placed together, to illustrate Fleisch-
mauu's inathematical demonstration :

Constituents. Milk. Sk. Milk.

Milk 86.82 90.52

Milk, solid 13.18 9.48

100.00 100.00

Fat 3.26 .65

Casein 4 77 3.24

Milk, sugar 4.46 4.S2

Inorganic salts 0.69 .77

13.18 9.48

If we compare the percentage of fat 3.26 per cent, in the milk analyses
to the percentage of fat .65 in the skimmed milk analyses, we will find
that .65 per cent, is almost exactly 20 per cent, of the original fat.

There can be no doubt but that good butter is to a very great extent
dejjendant upon the quality of the fats which comi;ose the fat of milk.
Unfortunately science has not as yet been al)le to plan a method of

jC H O) (

"* ( 20 40 2 [ -j

Arachinic acid. (

42

analyses so that the quantity of each constituent fat which composes but-
ter-fat can be determined, but by qualitative analyses we are informed
what fats are present, which may be tabulated as follows :

BUTTER-FAT.

Composition. Discovered by.

Palmatin Heintz (Gmehn's Handbook) xvi. 343.

O'eln Chevreul (Reserches sur les corps gras) p. 205.

Stearine Chevreul (Loc. cip.)

J Arachin ) Gossmasm and Scheven (Ann.

j Butin . . j Ch. Pharm. xcvii

Myristin Heintz (Pogg. Ann.) Ixxxvii. 267; xc. 137; xcii. 4 29.

Butyrin Chevreul (Loc. cit.)

■i Sfii^!!" i Chevreul (Gm. xiv. 485. )

j Kuiin )

Caproin . . .Chevreul (Gm. xi. 414.)

Capryhn Lerch (Gm. xiii. I'JO.)

All of these fats are composed of three parts of acid united to one part
of glycerine as a base; in such union three atoms of water are liberated.
The reaction may be represented as follows :

CHO (3H0— )CHO

3 8 3— -I 2 1-63122 6

Glycerine. ( Water. ] Arachm

The fats then, should be, more strictly speaking, called respectively,
Tri-Olein, Tri-Paluiatin, Tri-Stearin, etc.

It may be mteresting to some present to know that by actual chemical
tests I have demonstrated the presence of all constituent fats which go to
make up natural butter-fat in the fat of artificial butter or oleomargarine
butter. The great problem which now remains, since it is shown that the
artificial butter-fat contains exactly tlie same constituents as butter-fat,
is to find out the exact percentage of each constituent, a problem which,
I have already said, science has not been able to grapple with as yet.
I am, though, assisted by Professor Elvvyn Waller, attempting the solu-
tion of this most difficult problem, which I hope soon to accomplish.
The result of my analyses, I tliink, will show a difference in the percent-
age of most of the constituents, especially the fats of the volatile acids
in artificial butter-fat when compared with the average fat of natural
butter, but I do not beUeve the ditl'erence will be so great as exists be-
tween the extremes of the percentages of each constituent in natural
butter-fat. In other words, I mean to say that between the different
qualities of natural butter-fat there exists a greater difference in the per-
centages of each constituent than will be found to exists between the
percentages of the constituents of artificial and the average natural
butter-fat. This is more or less of a speculation at present, though, which.
on the completion of my analysis, will be solved.

As has been already stated the fat of milk exists in this fluid in
the form of microscopic globules, surrounded by a very thin, delicate
membrane. According to very elaborate investigations by Dr. Sturte-

43

vant, it has been shown that the diameter of the globule varies with
the breed of the animal from which it is obtained. That is to say, the
milk globules of the Jersey cow is larger than that of the Ayrshire and
the American Holstem, and the milk globules of the Ayrshire cow is
smaller than that of the Jersey and intermediate in size between those of
the Jersey and Holstein; and, further, the milk globule of the Holstein
is the smallest of the three. Further experiments demonstrated that if
samples of the Jersey, Ayrshire and Holstein milk were placed in a per
cent, glass, under like conditions, it will be noticed that the cream will
rise in each sample with a ditferent rapidity, the larger globules (as
might be expected on account of their less specific gravity, reaching the
surface first; but the rapidity with which the whole of the fat glol)ules
arise dependmg in a measure on the evenness or unevenness of thei"*
size. It is for this reason that the percentage of the cream layers can
never be a standard for its richness; for where the milk globules in
Jersey milk would rise in four hours, it would take them in some samples
of Ayrshire milk ten hours to rise, while the globules in Holstein milk,
owing to their evenness of size, rise in five hours.

The philosophy of raising cream becomes quite an interesting subject
when the above facts are taken into consideration. I wouhl say here
that in the columns of the American Dairyman for December 13, 1877,
I think this subject has been masterly handled— the views put forward
agreeing perfectly with my own views on the subject. The facts to be
taken into consideration are:

First. The milk globule has a lees specific gravity than the water or
any other constituent of milk.

Second. If the milk is allowed to stand at a high temperature, condi-
tions are immediately produced suitable to the growth of the little fungus
plant, penicillium crustaceum, and the milk commences to sour before
the cream has> a chance to form.

Third. Water and casein, etc., grow cool mucli faster than the milk
globules.

Fourth. Since the diameter of the milk globule varies in different
breeds — a system which would be practical for the milk containing the
largest globules— might totally fail if applied to any other milk. What is
needed is a S3'stem applicable to mixed milk.

Fifth. While the milk globules expand more by heat, and contract
more by cold, than the water of the milk, still they are poorer conduc-
tors of heat than the water and casein of milk^ and consequently expand
more slowly on the application of heat, and contract more slowly on the
application of cold.

It would not be difficult from these facts to reason that the proper
system to be adopted is to place the milk m a room, the temperature of
which is a few degrees below the lowest point which it is desirable for
the milk to reach. By adopting this means, the milk from a warm

44

state is cooled gradually down, which sends the milk globules rapidly up,
not only for the reason that the fluid in which they are suspended be-
comes cooled faster than tlie globules, but because at the same time it
oecomes heavier.

Dr. John Barclay and Mr. Alexander Allen, some years ago in Scot-
land, conducted a number of experiments to determine the best tem.
perature for churning creans. The following table is given by them :

'fZ

s

"o

J3

•~

a.

a

ba

a,

S

"3

^

^ 1

'o

be

3

1

<u

at

■73

.a

a

ja

b K

/3

4-"

.M ®

a

o ^

o ^

so

g

2|

^^

a

s «

o

bo 9^

aS

-se

6

'S 3

c ft

B S

o

>5

5^

H

P

1823.

lbs. oz.

Fhr.

Ct.

h. m

August. . .18

15

8 A

55

12.8

4 0

August. . .26

15

8 .2

60

15.5

3 15

August. . .30

15

8 .2

62

16.7

3 0

September 4

15

8 .1

64

18.2

3 1

September 9

15

8 .1

70

21.2

2 30

3 0

1 bs oz 1 oe. d.

.8 115 75
.4! 115 32

114

112 127
.8 110 106

The butter produced in the tirst experiment was of the best quality,
rich, Arm and of agreeable taste.

The second experiment produced a butter of good quality, but of less
consistence. The fourth experiment gave a butter soft and spongy.

The butter obtained from the fifth experiment was decidedly inferior to-
the preceding. From the preceding experiments it appears that cream
cannot be kept at a high temperature during churnmg.

In the first experiment, where the temperature was the lowest, the
quantity of butter obtained was in the largest proportion relatively to
the cream employed, and in the others, where the temperature was
augmented, the quantity ot butter diminished proportionally. In the
.last experiment, where the average temperature of the cr(!am was
elevated to 70'^ F. (21°. 2 C.) not only the butter diminished in quantity,
but was of very inferior quality to the taste and appearance. Another
result of the. preceding experiments, that the temperature on the other
hand must be kept low when the butter is churned, the specific weight of
the churned milk is diminished in proportion as the temperature of the
cream is elevated, and when the temperature is low the butter which
composes the lightest particles of the cream condense more completely,
than if the temperature was more elevated, and in which case the
churned milk has a higher specific weight. From these experiments,

45

M. M. Barclaj' and Allen came to the conclusion that the best tempera-
ture to commence churning cream is from 50 to 55° F. (10 to 12.8° C);
that in no moment in the operation must it exceed 65" F. (18.3° C).

John Ballantine, in Edinburgh, in 1825, also made some experiments.
The following table is given by him:

^

J3

g-^

.=

§

.a

o

o

O

t4

to

O o

7£_

a

£

5 t.

3

be

a
'a

6

If

cd

^ c

rt .M

<y

tH C

3

u

i^ o

c

M
g

03

5

o

O

11

J3

o

o

o a

a- 3

■3 O

c a.

-a

5

H

5-^

S

S'-'

^

18-25.

'^

F.

C. F. C.

H

(S

F

C.

a g

M o

1

Ju 13

16

56

13.3 60 15.5

16 8

IJ:!

4(1)

56

13.3

2

Ju 20

16

52

11.166

13.3

16

2

4

52

11.1

3

Ju 21

16

52

11.156

13.3

16

2

4

52

11.1

4

Jy 12

16

65

18.3 67

19.4

16 8

32

3 14

70

21.2

5

Oc. 20

16

50

10

53>^

12

15 12

3

4 1

50

10

6

Oc. 20

16

53,'<

12

5T>i

14.1

16 5

lAi

4

No. 1. Sample tiie largest in quantity produced at the degree of
heat employed.

No. 2. Butter of the best quality. *

No. 3. The savor and the quality of this butter cannot be surpassed.

No. 4. Butter less white and milky.

No. 5. Quality altered by long ciuu-nuig.

No. 6. Butter of excellent quality, of a decided savor and color, and
solid like wax.

Ballantine says: The temperature at which, perhaps, the butter sepa-
rates from the cream, is between 45 and 75° F. (7° 9 and 23° C.) But
from the above experiments it appears that the largest quantity of butter
is obtained when the temperature is 60*^ F. ( 15° C.) from a given amount
of cream, and the best quality butter at 55" F. (12". 8 C), the tempe
ature taken in the cliurn the minute the butter forms.

From the above experiments by Ballantine, it will be seen that the
conclusion arrived at by Barclay & Allan are correct. That the best
temperature to commence the operation of churning is about 55°, and
at no time in tiie operation ought it to exceed 65'', while, on the contrary,
if at any time the cream siiould be under 50" Fahrenheit, the labor will be
much increased witiiout any proportionate advantage being ol)tained.
This agrees witli the American practice. It must be observed, however,
says Will ard, "tliat the agitation of the cream, in churning, should be

46

regular ; neither too quick nor too slow. If tlie agitation is too quick
the butter will make and unmake itself before the churner is aware of it,
as too rapid action induces fermentation, which, when it has reached a
certain point, is entirely destructive of anything like the possibility of
making even good or well-tasted butter. If, on the other hand, the
motion be too slow, the agitation in the churn fails to produce the desired
separation of the component parts of the cream, and the consequence is,
that after a good deal of time spent in lazy action, the churner is just as
far from his butter as he was at the beginning of his labors. — PracUcal
Butter Book, page 137.

Cream, according to Mr. Ayton, maybe safely churned in an hour and
a half, while milk ought to obtain from two to three hours. Johnston
says that churning ought to be "slower in warm weather, that the butter
may not be soft and white, and quicker in winter, that the proper
temperature may be kept up." .Jonston, when speaking of over-churn-
ing, says : " When the process of churning is continued after the full
separation of the butter, it loses its lipe yellowish, waxy appearance,
and becomes soft and light-colored." The weight of the butter, how-
ever, according to Dr. Trail, is said to be considerably increased ; and
hence that in Lancashire over-churning is frequently practiced in the
manufacture of fresh butter for immediate sale.

CHURNING THE JVHOLE MILK.

I do not propose to discuss this subject at length here, for I have just
sent to the American Dairyman an article on the subject ; but this-
I will say, that churning the whole milk is but little known, but by those
who have practiced it, it is claimed to yield more butter and better
flavored butter than by setting the milk and churning the cream.
Mr. Dewitt, in a memoir, states that the best butter is made by
churning the milk. C. Peterson has shown that when cream is churned
it takes from 16 to 17 litres (16.90 to 17.96 quarts) to make a pound
of butter ; but when the whole milk is churned about 14 litres (14.79
quarts) is sufficient. J. Zoller, of Oswegatchie, New York, in 1861,
states that he has obtained 10 per cent, more butter by churning
unskimmed milk which has become sour, than he has obtained from
churning the cream of the same milk. Churning the whole-milk is
recommended by Mr. Rensselaer Day, Hon. T. D. Curtis, R. L. Allen,
and others. Mr. F. D. Douglass claims to have investigated into the
merits of the system of butter-making, and after advancing his views
decided not to adopt it. In my opinion, the views advanced are at best
only theoretical, as Mr. Douglass says they are not based on actual trial.
I do not find recorded any statements against churning the whole milk,
except by persons who have never practiced it, but on the contrary, by
those who have experimented, all agree that the yield of butter is greater
and the flavor and odor far superior to butter made by other methods. I

47

fully agree with Mr. Curtis, who says that more experimeuts ought to be
made with churning the whole milk, for, from a scientific stand point, I
believe it will be found that the whole-milk churning will produce a but-
ter having an odor and flavor far superior to butter churned from cream,
other things being equal.

The theory I entertain with respect to the formation of butter in
the churn is as follows : By the rapid agitation of the milk-globules
against the dasher and sides of the churn the envelopes are broken,
thereby setting free the enclosed fat, which, by the continued agitation,
provided the temperature is right, unites together to form lumps, which
are known as butter. If the milk is too cold the globules will not adhere,
and the milk may be agitated for hours without producing butter.
Again, if the milk is too warm, agitation merely produces an emulsion,
since the fat is in the fluid state and not able to unite iu lumps, any
more than you would expect an oil that is liquid at one temperature to
become solid at the same temperature.

Ques. A member: I would like to ask Mr. Horr if he churns sweet
cream ?

Am. We generally let it stand till it becomes what is called loppered.

Prof. Arnold: There is a little larger per centage obtained, varying
from five to to ten per cent, if you churn immediately, as it begins to
sour. If you wait till it sours there is a loss in quantity and in the qual-
ity of the butter also, as you might reasonably anticipate. The cream
which rises first will, from its exposure to the influence of the atmos-
phere, deteriorate if left too long. The quality as well as the quantity
of butter also depends on tiie manner in which the churning is done.
If you use a rotary churn for instance, one in which floats or paddles are
used and made to move through the milk, you will do all the churning by
means of friction. The largest globules will be done first, and tlien those
next in size, and so on. If, on the other hand, a churn were used by which
force can be applied equally to the whole mass of milk, such as can be
obtained by the use of a dash churn, the dash of which would equal
about three-fourths of a horizontal section of the churn, you will, by tlie
motion of the dash, effect the whole mass equally with the downward
pressure, and you will bring the butter more evenly and obtain abouf ten
per cent. more. But if your dash were only one-fourth the size of the^
churn and full of holes and interstices, its operation would then be that
of friction, requiring a longer time iu churning and producing less
butter.

Mr. Middaugh: In all the observations I have made,_I believe better
results may be obtained by churning the whole-milk.

A gentleman from New York lately said to me, " You may make good
buiter from cream, but if you want first-class butter you must churn the
whole milk ; you will then have butter of good keeping qualities, and it
will command a good price."

48

I find the dash churn the best, and hke to have the dasher raise about
four or more inches above the milk, so as to come down with a pretty
heavy blow. I find by that means the butter comes altogether, and is
more solid and firm. I have tried to find the comparative values of
milk from difl'erent patrons, or difiereut cows, by taking a cup of each
before the cream rises, coagulating it, and weighing the curd, with an
exact pair of scales. I would like to know whether I can in that way
really get the true value?

Prof. Arnold : You cannot manage small amounts with sufficient ex-
actness as to moisture. There is no rule, without drying it down to
absolute dryness. This is no criterion for butter.

On motion, the convention adjourned till 7 o'clock P. M.

Tuesday Evening Session.

Mr. John Gould, President of the Western Reserve Association, opened
the evening session at 7 :30 o'clock.

The Chairman announced that the next subject for discussion was
" Refuse of the Dairy — Its Use and Abuse."

The speakers who were to introduce this subject being absent, Mr.
Lewis was called upon to ofler a few remarks.

Mr. Lewis : Really, Mr. President, I did not come expecting to say
anything on this subject. The only use I make of the refuse of the dairy
is to feed it to Shorthorn calves. I take what butter I can from the milk
and the rest I feed to Shorthorn calves. I think I can get more money
out of it that way than by making both butter and cheese.

Mr. Farrington being called upon, said : I feed the refuse of the dairy
to the hogs. This is all I know what to do with it.

Prof. Stewart being then called upon, said :

Mr. President and Gentlemen — The refuse of the dairy has not been
sufficiently husbanded. It is capable of making a great many more dol-
lars than is generally done. I have experimented somewhat by feeding
skim milk to calves, taking the calf at ten days old, and feeding nothing
but skim milk, supplemented with a little oil to supply the place of the
creaiji taken off'. Allow me to say that farmers are apt to run too much
to one thing in the way of food. What you should always endeavor to
do, is to give the animal a mixed food. That will furnish all the neces-
sary ingredients. If you will take a little oil cake, or linseed, and mix
with the skimmed milk as a substitute for the cream which has been taken
away, its value will ba greatly increased. Now I am about to make a
very strong statement. If some of my friends will give me five or ten
calves, averaging with those of the ordinary Shorthorn raisers, I will
agree to make my ten weigh as many pounds in a certain number of
months as they can, and allow theirs to run with their dams, while I will
give mine no sweet milk after they are ten days old. I once took a calf,
which weighed only sixty pounds. My friend, Mr. Lewis, will say that

49

that was rather a small specimen. A good Shorthorn will weigh one
hundred pounds. This weighed only sixty pounds. I discovered that it
was a splendid eater. You cannot make a large calf, a large pig, or a
large anything, that won't eat. I fed that small calf skimmed milk and
flaxseed and when it was four months old it weighed four hundred
pounds. These statements are based upon the authority of the scales,
which is better than anybody's guess. The food was weighed and the
calf was weighed. In one ten days that calf 2:ained 37 pounds, and the
following nine days it gained 30 pounds. You can use something a
great deal cheaper than cream to feed calves. I have found that it takes
20 pounds of skimmed milk to put on one pound live weight, up to six
months, on an average. And here I want to illustrate a point. When
tiie calf is two, three, or four weeks old, say between two and four, if it
be a good eater it takes but eight or ten pounds to put on one pound of
live weight. Here you can figure for yourselves and see the amount you
can make out of skimmed milk when properly fed. I figured up the
value of the extra food fed to the calf which weighed four hundred and
forty pounds when killed, and the cost was $3.75. If it had been raised
in the ordinary way it would have been considered worth about $5,
perhaps. What cost $3.75, was made to increase to at least $10. Now
a pig takes less to make a pound of live weight. It takes less to put a
pound on a pig than a calf— less to make a pound of pork than a pound
of beef. If you feed a pig all that it can eat and digest, you will find
that an average of 15 pounds of skimmed milk is required to one pound
of live weight, until it weighs 200 pounds. It must be remembered
that whey does not of itself contain all the flesh-making and bone-build-
ing qualities that are necessary to support life. Whey contains a large
portion of sugar, but sugar will not grow muscle and bone. These must
be made out of diflerent materials. You must add a certain amount of
oil meal to the whey. Oil meal is rich in nitrogenous elements which
make muscle. You will perceive a little oil in the whey sometimes, and
a little more sometimes tlian there ought to be for the profit of the dairy.
Now if you add to one gallon of whey a half a pound of oil meal, and
feed to your calves and pigs, in health it will make up for the loss of the
constituents taken away. It shoukUje scalded either in hot whey or hot
water. Calves and pigs become fond of oil meal after using it for a
time. It is easily obtained, and will richly pay for the trouble of getting
it. In one particular case, when I was experimenting with some cows,
I boughi, a certain number of pigs and fed them with the whey, aud de-
termined how much I could make out of it, provided I did not credit
anyiiiing to any other material except what it cost. The whey was not
allowed to run into the tank. It was fed as sweet as possible. I took the
cost price of the pigs and the cost price of the other materials, and found a
balance of ton dollars in favor of every 4,000 pounds of whey. The cows
produced about 5,000 pounds of milk apiece ; the whey was about 4,000

4

50

pounds for the season. All farmers should remember that their animals
require a variety of food. They should learn how to combine the differ-
ent elements so as to make a good normal food.

Ques. Which is preferred for feeding, skimmed milk or whey?

Ans. There is a larger proportion of muscle-forming material in the
skim milk. By taking a small quantity of boiled flaxseed or oil meal,
and mixing with the milk, it will grow a calf as fast as new milk.

Ques. Will you please to state whether you feed the skimmed milk
when sour?

A71S. It is generally sour, although we try to feed it as soon as pos-
sible after it is skimmed. It rapidly ferments, and, therefore, you should
feed it as early as you can.

Ques. How do you like shorts 1

Ans. It is excellent; so is pea meal, middlings and bran. Ground
oats is another excellent food, rich in muscle-forming material.

Though read in a later date in the proceedings of the convention, the
following paper, read by Prof. W. B. Lazenby, of Cornell Universitj-,
prepared by Mr. J. S. Van Duzer, of The Hushandman, is placed in this
connection from its being a part of the discussion of the subject on which
it treats.

REFUSE OF THE DAIRY.

It has been said that a French family would live well on what an
average American family throws away, and it is probably as true that the
average French farmer would be satisfied to receive as his yearly rev-
enue what he could make out of the wasted refuse of an average Ameri-
can farm. One of our national sins is wastefulness. We are called a
money-making people. Farmers need to practice more economy in
their business and less penuriousness with themselves and their families.
I have known many farmers who would pinch a cent until it needed to be
remonetized, who were every week wasting dollars in their business
management. The sharpest business men in our cities, our successful
manufacturers and merchants, are careful and saving in their business.
They aim to utilize everything they handle and make the most of it ; for
what they have to sell tbey aim to get the highest possible price and for
what they buy they pay as little as possible. They waste nothing that
care and ingenuity can save. They realize that time is money, and
husband their own aud that of their employers. Are farmers as business-
like in their management? Have you ever stopped to estimate the num-
ber of acres incumbered with unnecessary fences? Have you thought of
the waste there is in using poor implements v/hich do work imperfectly
and vex those who use them ? Have you fully counted the cost of spend-
ing your time with poor, weak teams ? Do you know what you lose by
illiberally feeding and scantily sheltering your cows, or by keeping poor
ones ? Have you sufficiently comprehended the importance of saving all
the manure you can, and making the wisest use of it? Or do you per-

51

mit the liquid excretions of your stock to waste, and tiie solids to lie
under the eaves of your barn until their virtues are washed out? I
might continue to enumerate ways in which too many, far too many,
farmers fall short of a close, mtellig 'nt arrangement of their farms and
stock; but a special topic has been assigned me by your worthy Secre-
tary. It is " Tlie Refuse of the Dairy, its Use and Abuse." The miller
grinds the wheat and takes out the flour. That is the most valuable,
but he does not throw away the bran. The butter or cheese-maker takes
out of the milk either the one or the other or both of these valuable
articles of commerce, and has left on his hands the buttermilk or whey.
What shall be done with this refuse? How can we dispose of it to the
best advantage, with the greatest profit, is the question before us. In-
stead of deriving profit of it many factories have permitted it to go to
waste, and worse than waste. I have seen factories where the floor of
the manufacturing room was open so that the whey ran through, soak-
ing into the ground beneath. The whey is lost, but its loss is the least
of the evil consequences of the practice. The ground becomes sour.
Stagnant pools of tilth and slime are there to breed flies from, and foul
smells to taint the milk, injure the cheese or butter, making it equally
disagreeable to the manufacturers and injurious to his product. So
much has been said at our dairymen's meetings of the importance of
cleanliness, that I am willing to trust some of my friends who are to ad-
dress you to treat the subject fully, but I want to say that tlie curing
room of a factory should always have a good, smooth, light floor made
out of planed and matched hard wood. It should incline slightly to one
side, where there should be a neatly painted tin gutter to receive and
carry ofl" the washings of the floor into an underground drain.
None of the whey should ever get on the floor, but it should be run ofl"
from the vats in pipes to some convenient tank or receptacle suHiciently
remote from the factory to be harmless if it does become sour or foul in
any way. Having taken tliis precaution, it is of very little consequence,
except as regards the prolit derived from it, how it is disposed of, unless
the patrons carry it home in tlieir cans. If this practice is permitted,
then there is another claim for trouble. Perhaps three-quarters of the
patrons of a factory can carry whey in their milk cans with impunity,
because their cleanly wives will see that the cans are promptly and
thoroughly washed, scalded and made sweet. But the other quarter —
there is the rub — or rather the lack of rub, for the cans are only poorly
rinsed when the milk is put in, and it comes to the factory sour, or so
nearly sour, that it hastens the fermenting of the wnole vat, and in the
hot weather of Summer the purest can is none too good to keep milk
sweet and in good order to get the best possible results from it.

It is a much more economical and profitable way to dispose of the
whey at the factory, especially if it is to be fed to swine, for one man can
take care of all the swine necessary to consume the whey of the factory

52 '

■with no more labor than is required of the farmer, who has ten cows, in
carting home his proportion of the whey and giving it to his swine. If
the whey is to be fed to calves, the advantage of keeping them at the
factory is also great, but not for the same reason. To make calves do
well on whey feed, it should be given to them sweet, right from the vat,
with a little addition of grain ; red middlings and corn meal are good,
and oil meal, I suppose, is still better.

But the objection to feeding whey to calves are that they require much
more and nicer care than is necessary with swine. It is difficult to secure
a lot of equal age and feeding qualities. Some will eat more sweet whey
than is good for them. I lost one calf from one feeding in sweet whey.
Others need to have their appetites encouraged. To keep calves suc-
cessfully, arrangements have to be provided for keeping a few in a place,
or, what might be still better, providing stanchions in which to place
them when feeding. But one other objection is in the way of calves for
taking the refuse of the factory. They are not the staple cash article
that pork is. You can sell your hogs at any time, when you have them
fattened, for cash. With such calves as you can make on whey you
must take your chances in finding a customer. What you get for them
does not depend so much on a fixed market value as on your good luck
in finding some one who wants just what you have to sell. I fully be-
lieve that the proprietor of a factory, as a general thing, could get more
money out of his refuse l)y feeding it to calves than he could by giving it
to swine. If he expects to find his best market for calves among dairy-
men, then he should select bulls of some of the dairy breeds. If he ex-
pects to sell his calves by weight, he should secure a shorthorn bull or
possibly Holstein. It would seldom result satisfactorily to permit the
patrons of a factory to bring their calves there to be fed pro rata. Some
one person can get more out of the refuse, and with better satisfaction
to all concerned, if he has full control and a personal interest in how all
the stock IS cared for.

I have but little experience in feeding whey to calves. I have gen-
erally raised from ten to twenty heifers each year, starting them on new
milk before the factory opened April 1. Thus mixing in a little sweet
whey dipped from the vat, and after a few weeks giving them only
whey, with a small allowance of grain. Give the whey only once a day
when it is sweet. We have raised good calves in this way. My expe-
rience, however, has been only sufficient to show me some of the diffi-
culties a person would encounter who attempted to dis])0se of all the
whey to a lot of calves. Still, I believe it might be done with satisfac-
tion and profit.

I have had more experience in feeding whey to swine, and, although
the profits are small and uncertain, I doubt if any more satisfactory dis-
position can be made of the refuse of the factory. Many dairymen, I am
aware, have very wild ideas of the profits derived from such a disposi-

53

tion of whey. I have sometimes heard them estimate it to be worth $10
per cow, and often $5 per cow. The fact is, the factoryman may be
considered as pretty fortunate who has cleared a profit of $1 per cow for a
series of years from whey fed to swine. Some years he will get much
more, and some years he must give his time and trouble for nothing, and
console himself with having had the company of his swine for a season.
For instance, the present season has afforded no profit from feeding pigs
in the ordinary way at the cheese factory. T find a balance of only $75
to my pork account this year, estimating that the manure has paid for
their care. They cost six cents, live weight, in the Spring, and sold for
six cents, dressed weight, in the Fall. At the prices we have to pay for
grain in New York, we cannot afford to make jiork at six cents a pound
dressed. Had it not been for the whey I should have lost money. Last
year was a much better one. Hogs cost us about eight cents live in
the Spring, and sold for nine cents dressed in the Fall. It makes a dif-
ference whether we get nine cents or six cents for every pound of pork
we make. In the one case there is a good margin for profit on the feed con-
sumed, and in the other case nothing. Last year, with only a few more hogs
than we had this year, our pork account netted nearly $500, or about $3
per cow, and this is about as well as we have been able to do for several
years. There is one serious difficulty that we have had to contend with
in our swine feeding business. We find we can get better hogs and
more even lots by buying in Buffalo those raised in the West, but we
have several times brought a very large amount of your hog cholera,
which outgrew the swine. One Spring, out of a tine lot of 229 pigs, I
lost over 90 within a month after getting them home, and the next sea-
son my loss was l)etween fifty and sixty. Such experiences are not en-
couraging to the business. One year every factory or creamery in oar
county lost a large proportion of their hogs purchased in the West.

Col. H. C. Hoffman, who runs the largest creamery in our county,
feeding annually al)out 200 hogs, informs me that the average profit from
the refuse of his factory, taking losses into account, has not exceeded $1
per cow. He says he estimates that the refuse will just about double the
weight of his hogs. For instance, his hogs weigh 110 pound.<5 each on
May 1 ; at the end of the season they would weigh 220 pounds as a result
of feeding the refuse. What lie makes them weigh more than this, he
Itelieves is due to their grain feed. Then, on this basis, with 200 hogs he
would have made eleven tons of pork, live weight, from the refuse, worth
this year say five cents a pound, or $100 a ton, or $1,100. He has the
milk of 550 cows. This would <rive him a profit of $2 per cow. But, in
order to fatten his pork well nnd make it tit for market, he feeds some
gram, and when i)Ork is worth only five cents, live, and he losses on the
grain, he feeds to make the other hundred pound.s, which secures his
profit of two dollars on a cow. He probably has not received a net profit
of one dollar per cow this year, and still, as far as losses from disease

54

and the condition of the weather are conceraed, the season has been a
very favorable one.

The Colonel thinks, and he is verj^ right, that if we were so situated
that we could lay in store hogs, and, after feeding them for five or six
weelcs, ship them ofi', we might largely increase our profits from the
refuse. We would have to feed a little grain, but the hogs would make
good return for it. Store hogs, wintered as they are in the West, almost
exclusively on grain, will gain more pounds during the first six weeks
than during the next twelve on the same amount of feed. Much of this
more rapid gain, as I have hinted, comes from the condition and peculiar
manner in which the hogs have been fed. A steer, if weighed in the Fall
when taken from pasture, and again in the Spring, after a liberal feeding
of hay and grain all Winter will not always show a gain in weight ; but
if he has been at good pasture for five or six weeks, if he is weighed
again, he will be found to have made wonderful gain. But there ai'e
other considerations in'this problem ot pig-feeding : A young animal
will make more pounds in proportion to the feed consumed than an older
one. An animal thin in flesh will also make more pounds than after it
has become pretty well fattened. These are statements which farmers
can test for themselves. If we can not get more per pound for a well-
fatted steer or pig than when he is partially fatted, we are the losers on
the latter feeding. Professor Miles, in his carefully-conducted experi-
ments in pig-feeding at the Michigan Agricultural College, brought out
these lessons very plainly. He had twelve pigs of diflerent ages and dif-
ferent breeds, in twelve separate pens. All were fed exclusively on un-
bolted coi"n meal. Commenced August 30, and continued sixteen weeks.
In two pens were two Essex pigs seven and a half months old. They
weighed on August 30, 155 and 157)^ pounds respectively. After the
sixteen weeks feeding they weighed 3i6 and 318 respectively, gaining 160
and 160)^ pounds. At the beginning of the eighth week,when these two
pigs weighed 232 and 236 pounds, an Essex sow four years old was in-
cluded in the experiment. She then weighed 438 pounds. In the nine
weeks she ate 641% pounds of meal and gained 88 pounds in weight, re-
quiring 7 28-100 pounds of meal for every pound of gain in live weight.
The two young pigs consumed 455% pounds and 475j^ pounds, and
gained 84 and 82 pounds, requiring 5 42-100 pounds and 5 79-100
pounds of meal for every pound of gain in live weight. The younger pigs
ate more in proportion to their size and gained more pounds in propor-
tion to feed consumed. The first four weeks that the four- year old Essex
was feeding she made rapid gains, viz. :

lbs.

First week 3^

Second week 41

Third week 17

Fourth week 19

Fifth week 4>^

55

Gainine: more in the second week than in the last four together. In
the first four weeks after she began to gain she required four pounds of
meal to produce one pound of gam. During the last four weeks 273^
pounds of meal to one pound of gain.

The young Essex during the first period of four weeks consumed 329
pounds of meal and gained Si}4 pounds, requiring 3 87-100 pounds of
meal for every pound of gain. During the last four weeks they con-
sumed 411 I/O pounds and gained 58 pounds, requiring 7 9-100 pounds of
meal to every pound gained. In every one of his twelve pens, includ-
ing diflerent breeds, ages and condilious, there was better returns for
the feed during the first period of four weeks than the last four weeks,
and in every pen but one there was a steady increase of amount of
meal required to produce a pound of gain as the pigs approached ripe-
ness.

The dairy farmer whose i)roduct is butter can take advantage of the
lessons taught by Professor Miles' experiments. He should not think of
feeding mature swine. Young pigs will do well on buttermilk and skim
milk, and will make much more profitable use of such food than older
swine. The dairyman who has a good home market can find advan-
tage in selling his pig pork from lime to time through the early Fall,
generally getting better prices than if held until Winter. The butter
dairyman who feeds the refuse of his dairy to swine should raise his own
pigs. He should aim to have his sows farrow in March. I believe
he should select large sows of the coarser breeds and a boar of the finer
breeds. He will then have the advantage of prolific breeders and good
nursers, and the pigs will be good feeders and mature early.

The refuse of the creamery, as generally managed, is worth more than
that of the ordinary cheese factory. But at the creamery and cheese
factory I believe it is not advisable to try to feed young pigs. Pigs from
eight months to one year old at the beginning of the factory season are
better suited to this under such conditions.

The practice in our Eastern factories is to buy Western hogs late in
April or early in May. We prefer tliose that are not fleshy, but that liave
been so well cared for and fed that they have not been starved, Imt are
healthy and vigorous. Such as we buy generally average about 110 to
120 pounds each.

About one hog to every two and a half cows will take tlie refuse. We
feed a little grain during the wliole season, using for the first months
bran or red middlings. By judiciously feeding lliis the hogs may be
induced to consume more whey and they will make far better use of it,
for the bran supplies the elements in which the whey is most deficient.
It is folly to suppose that any one plan is the best one for all factory men.
Each man must study his own circumstances, taking into account the
character of his feed, his facilities for feeding, the wants of his market,

m

etc. I have aimed only to give a few hints which I hope may be the
means of calling forth those of still greater value from the intelligent and
practical dairymen of this convention.
After which Mr. J. H. Reall, of New York, apoke as follows :

THE PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE OF CHEESE AND BUTTER.

Whilst general business still languishes and the past year shows an in-
creased number of mercantile and banking failures over the previous dis-
astrous period, though many branches of manufacturing continue at a
stand-still, labor remains unemployed, and general farming has not
become remunerative, dairying, in the face of all this, has not only sus-
tained its position as the most profitable of all agricultural pursuils, but
it has, perhaps, upon the average, shown increased profits over other
years. Considering the greater purchasing power of the national cur-
rency, both cheese and butter, at the prices now ruling for fine qualities,
are dearer than ever before, while a larger production has resulted this
year than usual in almost every section.

The receipts of cheese at New York in 1876 were 2,165,573 ; ex-
ports tiie same year, 1,817,955 boxes. Receipts m 1877, 2,443,922
boxes ; exports the same year, 1,988,580 boxes. An increase in the re-
ceipts of 278,349 boxes, and in the exports of 170,625 boxes, and the
home trade, at least in the interior, was also increased.

ENCOURAGING.

These are gi-atifying facts, and prove conclusivcily that we cannot pro-
duce too much cheese, unleess we fail to keep up the standard of quality.
Owing to the severity of the times, the domestic trade upon the seaboard,
in 1877, was light, otherwise prices would be even higher than they are.
If consumers of all classes understood that cheese at any price under
double the cost of meat, was a third the cheaper while much more whole-
some and nutritious, treble the quantity would be used in this country.
Unfortunately, through avarice, we have always given the most inferior
cheese we produce to the home trade, going so far as to practice this
shortsighted policy with the very people who furnish the milk from which
the cheese are made — hence it is only from sheer compulsion that our own
nation eat ainy cheese at all. If we gave them the best, which, by the
waj^ the foreign consumer gets as cheaply as our own people do the re-
jections, we should soon have such a demand for cheese in America, that
we should not depend so largely upon the foreign trade for a market.
Our people like fine, full-cream cheese as well as do our English cousins,
and they should no longer be put off with skimmed and half-skimmed
goods. If we give them a fine article, they will soon learn that cheese is
a most digestible food, and that it is a want of quality which makes the
kind they have been used to eating lie like grindstones upon their
stomachs.

57

SKIMMING.

I have not changed my views upon the question of skimming from
years ago, when I said it was impolitic to malie sliimmed cheese, and
that the practice would result in permanent injury to the trade, but the
greed of patrons and the verdancy of the American consumer has kept it
in vogue, while the average country buyer has too generally made no
discrimination between the factories making the two kinds. This has
done more to encourage the manufacture of skimmed cheese than any-
thing else. I know many factorymen who have made honest efforts to
break up the system by beginning on full-cream cheese themselves, or
changing from skimming to that plan, but when they came to sell their
products they met with no encouragement from the buyer, who paid only
the same price as for the inferior kind, and hence they were compelled to
return to their false gods out of self-defense. The manfacturers, who,
as a class, are insufficiently paid, are compelled to take advantage of the
smallest point that will increase their dividend in order to retain their
meager patronage. Dairymen are to blame for many of the evils that have
crept into the manufacture of cheese. Whilst the pennies are important,
some dairymen value them too highly, often to the loss of dollars. I
know that the profits of all branches of farming are very light, and that
it is only by unceasing labor and untiring watchfulness that the husband-
man is enabled to live and accumulate something for himself and loved
ones. I know that both the farmer and his wife are compelled to labor
from early dawn until the sun has sunk in the west, and to practice the
severest self-denial in order to make both ends meet. If he succeeds in
accumulating something for the future, it is only after years of unremit-
ting labor. The rapid accumulation of wealth by the fortunate mer-
chant, manufacturer, and professional man, is beyond his power. He
has few of hfe's comfort's much less of its luxuries. The pleasure^ of the
city folk and their social advantages are unknown to him. Even the
thousand comforts enjoyed by those of moderate means in the city are
denied the average farmer, and yet all classes are primarily indebted to
the toiling husbandman for all they have. I can appreciate the hardships
of the pioneers wlio turned a wilderness into a paradise, and God bless
thorn for their noble endurance and self-sacrifice. They did more for the
advancement of our country than all others besides. Their sufiTerings,
their toil, and their life-service has given us a land of unequaled advant-
ages. Though all these things are true, the farmer should not depreciate
the quality of his product in the hoi)e of realizing larger results. The
grain producer aims to raise the best corn, the best cats, and the best
wheat. The stock-raiser spares no effort to produce the best cattle and
the finest horses. The fruit-grower cultivates the choicest varieties of the
apple, peach and pear. Each strives for excellence, and why ? Simply
because the best, besides yielding as much or more than the inferior
article, brings the largest price. This is a universal law, and though

58

there has been a time when the manufacture of skimmed cheese was the
most profitable, it is going by. I grant ttiat there are instances in which
the skimmed cheese of one factorj' is of better quality than the full-cre.im
product of another, but the reason is the former was made skillfully and
the other was not. There are too many poor cheese-makers and too few
good ones, and the reason is that the importance of making cheese right
is not properly appreciated. Learners do not serve as apprentices long
enough ; too generally persons receive charge of factories after but a few
months' experience at the vat. This should never be allowed. Few
trades are more difficult to learn, and none require more skill in their
successful execution. A higher class of cheese-makers is greatl3' needed,
but in many districts the price of manufacturing has been reduced so low
that skilled workmen are not encouraged. For a few dollars less a
month, or a fraction per hundred pounds difference, incompetent hands
are employed, and hundreds of dollars are lost to the patrons thereby.

SELLIiNG.

There is great objection to the manner in which the selling is managed
in certain localities. Instead of a comraitLee of three, only one man
should do the selling for a factory. This plan is followed in Pennsyl-
vania, New York, Illinois and Wisconsin, with excellent results. Where
the milk is made up on shares the most suitable person is the manufac-
turer, who is constantly informed, through circulars and correspondence,
of all the markets. Coming daily in contact with buyers and having
made the cheese he knows what they are worth and when he gets their
value. If he has not sufficient brains to manage the sale of his product
he is not tit to make cheese. It requires intelligence to make cheese as
well as to sell it.

THE FREEMAN PKOCESS.

The process of manufacturing cheese, originated by Mr. Henry 0.
Freeman, is attracLing much attention and is not without merit. The
milk is set in the usual way, where creamery butter is made, at about 50
degrees temperature, and held from tvventj'^-four to thirty-six hours,
when it is skimmed, heated to a temperature of 1)2 degrees, and sweet,
clean beef suet raised to the same temperature is substituted for the
cream, and sufficient rennet is used to cause coagulation in from ten to
•twelve minutes. Every particle of the cream is taken from the milk that
it is possible to obtain, and the fat is used to enrich the then almost use-
less curd. The product is a good, wholesome article of food, and I re-
gard the process as one of great value to the public, since a larger
supply of fine butter is imperatively needed, while the milk would other-
wise be worthless (for when made into cheese it has only a commercial
value of from two to four cents per pound, and none as food), it is by
this process converted into a palatable and nutritious cheese, worth
double to quadruple the price it would otherwise command. The butter
produced by this plan is solely from cream, and iias, throughout, brought

59

the highest prices in the New York marlcet. Great pains is taken in
the manufacture of the article. The product meets with favor both in
this country and in Europe, but is mainly exported. As there is no
adulteration or deception practiced. I approve the system, and favor
radical skimming, if skimming must be done, but 1 give preference at
all times to full cream cheese. The owners of this process do not claim
to make as good an article as fine full cream cheese, but to greatly en-
hance the value of skimmed milk. Thus far I endorse them, but only
after carefully investigating the subject, and visiting tlicir factories,
which are models it would be well for many to copy after.

RICH, MILD CHEESE DEMANDED.

It is well for producers of cheese to note the growing demand for
fresh goods as well as for superior quality. Cheese are wanted mild,
but rich, and unless factories have facilities for holding their early make
possessed by very few, the sooner they market their cheese, after it is
cured, the better. Greatly improved curing houses over those now
generally in use are much needed. Already many have realized the
importance of this, and have lined or plastered parts of their factories.

Close made cheese are growing in favor with the home trade, while
the foreign consumer has always demanded them, and I trust, sooner
or later, all manufacturers will be more friendly to acid.

BUTTER.

The butter trade in general was not encouraging last year, though
that produced upon the creamery system did not rule unreasonably low.
Worth from twenty to tw((uty-five cents per pound during the Summer,
and now commanding thirty-tive to forty, there is certainly no cause of
complaint among producers of this kind, but dairy butter has done
badly for several reasons: (^1). The general taste of the public has be-
come so well cultivated that all classes want a fine article. (2). Butter
being more or less of a lu.\ury, those in reduced circumstances have
largely denied themselves its use. (.3). The large quantity of imitation
butter that was manufactured during the year took the place of much
of the low grade natural butter.

THE REMEDY.

To meet the first requirement, we must produce more tine butter and
market it while fresh, atd by increased attention to Winter dairying,
which has proved the most profitable branch, be prepared to supply it
fresh at all seasons of the year. The preference for fresh butter has be-
come so great that in the Winter, when tine stock cannot be had suf-
ficient for all, the masses take late made butter, however characterless,
in preference to the finest early made New York dairies, which formerly
commanded much the highest price in Winter, of any kind. The time
when New York dairy butter would bring from tive to tifteen cents per
pound more in the Winter than in the Summer when made, has gone
by, and instead of yielding a protit by holding, it generally i)roduces a

60

loss. The time to market butter, therefore, has come to be when it is
fresh. Large quanties of fine butter were exported to England this
Summer, and it is demonstrated that she will take any quantity of fine
butter, as well as cheese, if the price be moderate.

The creamery system of making butter must supplant the dairy plan to
a very large extent, and the result will be a great saving in waste and
labor to the milk producer, besides yielding him a larger return.

The price of creamery butter last year will probably average thirty
cents per pound ; New York dairy, say twenty cents, and all dairy not
over fifteen, for the poor farmer of the far Western States only realized
ten to twelve cents for his product throughout the Summer, and then
the buyer worked without profit. It will thus be seen that there is a
large diflerence in price in favor of creamery butter; but, beyond all
this, is the fact that all classes of our people should have the oppor-
tunity to obtam first-class food of all kinds at reasonable prices. Re-
turning prosperity will secure a larger home consumption. The oleo-
margarine plague will work its own cure. The law of New York State
compelling the article to be branded with its true name is now being
rigidly enforced by the American Exchange of New York City, through
its able and energetic Secretary, T. Mortimer Seaver, Esq., who has
done more to protect the interests of the producer and consumer in this
mutter than any man in the country. Having their eyes once open to
this greatest of American frauds, the people will not henceforth be hood-
winked with an article of food that is liable to be dog fat or refuse from
the slaughter house, especially when the natural article can be obtained
at the same price.

The predictions as to the growth and extension of the dairy industry
are being largely fulfilled, and tlie future is one of great promise. Its
followers have, as a class, prospered above all others. The finest parts
of our country are those devoted to dairying. The land is the best im-
proved of any, and its thrifty cultivators deserve their well-earned suc-
cess. The natural pursuit of man, dairying, affords him both physical
and intellectual food. No clasf of men think more and experiment
more or discuss more. These conventions attest this, and they should be
still more largely encouraged. Not only must we sustain the national and
State organizations, but increase the local societies. They have been of
vast benefit, not only to their members, but to the entire dairy commu-
nity, and excellent results may yet be realized from them. Increased
support of the dairy press, which has done so much to forward the great
cause, is your interest and your duty.

DAIRY FAIRS.

An important feature of the industry last year was the successful in-
auguration of dairy fairs. Besides the large exhibits of butter and
cheese that were made at the New York, Wisconsin and Illinois State
Fairs, and at the annual St. Louis Exposition, which has become noted

61

for superior displays of tliese articles, distinctive dairy fairs were lield first
at Meadville, Penn., under the auspices of tlie Pennsylvania Dairymen's
Association, and second at Chicago, under the combined auspices of the
Northwestern Dairymen's Association and the National Butter, Cheese
and Egg Association. The Meadville Fair was a most creditable one, ana
the Chicago Exhibition was of surpassing excellence. The display of
cheese and butter represented every section ; and while the former was
very meritorious, the latter exhibit is pronounced by all to have been
the finest ever made. The particulars of this fair are doubtless familiar
to all, as they have been fully published. Largely attended meetings
were held at the same time for the discussion of dairy matters, and ad-
dressed by leading men of the trade. These fairs are of vast utility, and
should be largely encouraged. Having been successfully inaugurated,
a national one should be held every year at somi' central point.
Through their instrumentality cheese may be popularized as by no other
means, l»oth at home and abroad. I hope to see a National Dairy Fair
held in New York next Autumn, and trust this association will take
action in the matter at the present session.

DAIRY FAIRS IN GREAT BRITAIN.

Great Britain has for many years given much attention to dairy fairs,
and is now displaying increased interest in the subject, having held two
very important ones last 3'ear, one at Fronie and tlie other in London.
Frotne is in the County of Somerset, the great Cheddar cheese district of
England. It is a quaint old town, nestling among the hills. The fair
was estaijlished there seven years ago, and when I visited the comely
village in '74, a commodious building had just been completed especially
for the accommodation of the annual dairy fair, so much interest did the
dairymen and citizens take in the matter. The fair had just closed, but I
remfember wiih great pleasure the privilege I enjoyed while there of ad-
dressing a meeting of leading English dairymen on the subject of dairying
in America, and of forming some very pleasant acquaintances. Each year
since some kind friend sends me an account of their annual fair. This
year it was held the last of September. The town was beautifully deco-
rated, three large arches adorning the entrance ways to the market
place, and four others gracing dilTerent par'.s of the village. " Banners,
wreaths of flowers, devices of dirterent kinds and mottos were all called
into requisition." Indeed the whole town was gorgeously arrayed in the
brightest holiday costume, the banks, public buildings and private resi-
dences being decorated also. A brass banti discoursed music throughout
the day. Two hundred and sixty-six lots of cheese and eighty-one lots of
butler were exhibited, and between two hundred and thirty and two
hundred and forty tons of cheese were placed on sale. Dairy imple-
ments and farm machinery were also exhibited. The receipts for admis-
sion amounted to about seven hundred dollars, and the visitors num
bered about four thousand. The prizes aggregated over $1,200. A

62

grand banquet was held in the evening of the exhibition, and thus the
festival of the occasion closed.

THE LONDON FAIR.

The second English dairy fair of the year was held in London in Octo-
ber, under the auspices of the British Dairy Farmers' Association — a
new organization, whose Secretary is Henry P. Moore, Esq., of the Lon-
don A'/r/cuflural Gazette, a gentleman who has labored assiduously to
promote the dairy interests of Great Britain, and who takes a deep inter-
est in American Dairying. The fair was a great success. The large
buildmg in which it was held was filled with samples of cheese, butter,
dairy implements, goats, mules, donkeys, and poultry. It was a national
fair, and all sections participated in the display, our own country sending
gheese which received prizes. A noteworthy feature was the exhibition
by Thomas Nuttall, Esq., of Beeby, Leicestershire, of 4,000 Stilton cheese,
in four great pyramids of 1,000 each. The Agricultural Gazette de-
scribes this as a marvelous display, and estimates the value at $5,000.

Both the practice of dairying and dairy fairs receive the attention and
support of the titled classes in Great Britain. At theFrome banquet the
Duke of Somerset, who is President of the Association, presided, and
lords and Members of Parlitment participated. Her distinguished men
take a pride in dairying and agricultural matters. They realize that
there is no nobler calling, and that intellect can be as advantageously
employed in that which our own pubUc men too generally regard as be-
neath their attention. The Pnnce of Wales prides himself on having the
finest dairy in Great Britain. Some day our people will realize tnat dairy
meetings and dairy fairs and general agriculture atibrds the most inter-
esting subject for thought and discussion. That great and good man,
Horace Greeley, understood this, and he will long be remembered as the
friend of the farmer. We need more like Mr. Greeley, and the distin-
guished gentleman who presides over this Association, America's lead-
ing citizen, Horatio Seymour, whose name is known and loved in every
home in America, and its possessor is an ornament to our country. We
need more Arnolds, Williards, Greenes, Curtises, McGlincys, Hoards, and
Wicksons ; men who have done everything for the advancement of this
great and growing industry. The press has done its full duty toward it,
and some day the world will appreciate its importance in the great
economy of nature, and our leading men will be glad to be known as the
promoters of dairying.

In the Spring a large dairy fair was held in Hamburg, Germany, of
which Henry F. Moore, Esq., said at the Frome banquet :

"He attended the dairy show at Hamburg, and tliere saw some cheese
exhibited by Russians who years before were sent over to Cheshire and
Derbyshire l)y the Czar to see the systems of cheese-making here. After
one season in England they returned to Russia, and last year they sent a

63

large quantity of cheese, made upon the Cheshire principle, to the Ham-
burg show. A thousand pounds' worth of the cheese was bought by a
dealer at 72s. per cwt. He believed that foreign competition in cheese-
making had produced a higher average quality than in this country."

A new era of prosperity seems to be dawning upon our country, and
soon our factories and mills will be in operation again and suffering
labor employed. Business begins to show signs of revival, and altogether
we have reason to expect a future of prosperity rarely equaled. It will be
enduring because moderate. By misfortune we have leai-ned the evil of
overdoing things. We are once more a reunited people, and no efforts of
the political triclcsters, who are a curse to the country, should be suffered
to interfere. It is the duty of every citizen to uphold the President in his
patriotic course, and the man who, from factious opposition, stands in
the way, is an enemy to the public weal. The North and South, East
and West, ha't'e a common destiny, and each should aid the other in its
development and progress. Congress will fail in its duty if it does not
encourage this principle and aid in the development of our great re-
sources, by providing every proper facility for the largest exchange of
products between the different sections. Greater facilities of intercourse
with the South and Southwest are needed. Those sections deserve well
al the hands of Congress. The South is entitled to support in her great
railroad scheme, and its completion will benefit every industry of the
country in a wonderful degree.

At the conclusion of Mr. Real's address the Secretary read, by the re-
quest of this Convention, a proposed act requiring oleomargarine to be
stamped, and a motion was introduced recommending the dairymen of
Oliio to petition the Legislature to pass a similar act.

On motion, the discussion of this subject was postponed till 10 o'clock
on the following day.

Mr. C. W. HoRR, Esq., offered the following resolution, which was
adopted :

Resolved, That inasmuch as the product of our dairies is shipi)ed to
England in large quantities, to the great advantage of the dairy interest,
and inasmuch as we use a large amount of English salt in the manufac-
ture of cheese and butter, as an act of comity and justice we recommend
our National Congress to repeal tlie present tariff on salt.

Francis D. Moulton : 1 am in entire sympathy with the motion that
has just been read. It is only a few years ago when there was but one
house on the site where Syracuse now stands. Now, her salt manufac-
tures cover acres and acres of property, and large quantities are im-
ported, to supply the demand, and on this a tax of fifty-four cents in gold
is [)aid on every sack, or $'i.6!) in gold per ton. This heavy tax is paid
by the consumer.-. Tlie people object to this tariff. Wliat we want is
liberal legislation on this question in connection with our free canals.

64

DAIRY SALT.

The followiug paper, on the above subject, was then read by Francis
D. Moulton, Esq., of New York. He said,

Mr. Chairman and Gentlemeyi :

It is not surprising that many of the ablest writers and most thought-
ful men of the country occupy themselves to-day in undertaking to de-
termine how to enhance the value of its dairy product, when we are
brought face to face with the fact that this product equals annually in
value at least six hundred and ihirty millions of dollars, and the subject
will continue to be of great interest until that day, in the millenium, per-
haps, when the wise man will speak who shall have mastered all the
questions that agriculture involves, from the turning of the furrow to the
successful marketing and consumption of the earth's product. The
reasons that justify the wisest among us in considering all questions that
relate to the interests before us, sufficiently justify even the humblest in
contributing any and all facts within his knowledge or observation, for
the same beneficent purpose.

One of these questions is — which is the best salt to use for the manufac-
ture of butter and cheese, in order to secure the best quality and realize
the highest prices for these articles ? — ^and as it is now agitating all inter-
ested, from the farmers and makers to the dealers and consumers, with
your indulgence I will give the subject a few moment's attention.

It has been said by a chemist in the employ of two Dairy Salt Compa-
nies, at Syracuse, that " prejudice that is fostered by certain interested
parties, has more to do with the question than the quality of the butter
salted." If this criticism is just, and Prof. Francis E. Englehart ought
to know, for Syracuse has furnished to many conventions gentlemen pre-
eminent in their advocacy of Onondaga salt, I shall at lea^t endeavor to
make myself an exception to it by asking you to pay attention, not so
much to my opinion, as to the judgment of those whose experience and
integrity entitle them to credit. I find, at the threshold of this question,
two statements sufficient to convince any reasonable man that the inter-
ests involved are too important to be treated either from the standpoint
of prejudice or personal interest.

1st. The production of butter is estimated at one tliousand millions of
pounds, and the production of cheese at about three hundred million
pounds per annum, at an aggregate value of about three hundred mil-
lions of dollars, and it has been asserted by one of the best informed
men in the trade, Mr. M. Folsom, who was Chairman of the Committee
appointed by the Butter and Cheese Exchange of New York to investi-
gate and determine which salt was best to use for making butter, that
the larger portion of the make of butter and cheese has been spoiled by
the use of improperly manufactured salt.

I am of the opinion that, notwithstanding the importance of the ques-

65

tion, in view of the enormous money value mvolved, its solution is quite
simple if the mtikers of butter and cheese will give heed to a few facts
■which I shall present for their consideration.

I may be pardoned, for the present, at least, if I leave the scientitic
department of the salt quesdon in the tangle which I shall not, in this
brief discussion, attempt to unravel, for I And, according to one
authority (Schleiden), that chemically pure salt will not preserve butter,
and, according to another, who advocates the use of a certain brand,
that on analysis he hods "a quantity of impurity so small that a homeo-
pathic physician would almost doubt its eflect, even if it was one of his
most potent remedies. " "Who shall decide when doctors disagree?"
My answer is, those who have had occasion for years to judge of the
effects of the use of any particular brand or brands of salt in the making
of butter and cheese, whether as dealers in salt or as dealers in butter
and cheese, or as manufacturers of these articles.

A few years ago Orange County was celebrated for the high quality
of its butter, which always brought the highest market price. What salt
did the butter-makers of Orange County use 1 They used the Ashton
Factory Filled Salt, and although attempts were made to introduce other
brands, as is the case at present, to the deterioration of the product,
practical experiment demonstrated tiiat Ashton's Factory Filled was the
best, and the following letters, which we find in the report of the National
Batter, Cheese and Egg Association, from parties whose responsibility,
experience and integrity are well known, attest its excellence:

Newburgh. N. Y., Jan. 10, 1877.

Gentlemen : It is our opinion that Ashton's Factory Filled Salt is the
best salt imported into the United States, and we have no doubt that the
excellence of Oranue County Butter was and is maintained through the
almost exclusive use of this brand of salt.

Very truly yours. Homer Ramsdell & Co.

. Newburgh, Jan. 13, 1877.
Gentlemen: Your inquiry with reference to salt used for butter pur-
poses is at hand. On account of our experience witli Ashton's and
other brands of Liverpool salt, we should not consider it right or even
prudent to recommend any brand except Ashton's Factory Filled for
butter manufacture, because in weight and quality it never varies,

Very truly yours. W. 0. Mailler & Co.

Newburgh, Jan. 15, 1877.
Gentlemen: I have not tlie slightest doubt that the superior quality
of Orange County t)utter was and is due to the use of Ashton's Factory
Filled Salt, which I consider the liest and only safe salt to use in butter-
making, and I cannot recommend any other brand. Several years ago
I tried to iniroduce domestic salt against Ashton's, but complaints
against butter made with it compelled me to abandon the attempt, and
go back to Ashton 3.

Yours truly, E. T. Skiumore.

New York, March 1, 1877.
Gentlemen: Yours of the 25th ult., inquiring which, in my opinion,
is the best among the brands of salt for the manufacture of butter and
cheese, referring also to my experience with foreign and domestic salt, is

5

66

before me. My opinion is tliat Ashton's Factory Filled Salt is the safest
brand to use for dairy and household purposes. This opinion is based
on my commercial experience in this country, and my observation of the
manufacture of salt in England.

Very truly yours, Samuel R. St. John.

New York, March 1, 1877.
Gentlemen: I beg to say, in reply to yours of the 26th ult., that in
my opinion Ashton's Factory Filled Salt is the best salt imported into
this country. Farmers and manufacturers of butter can use it without
risk, on account of its uniform texture and quality. I have not heard a
complaint from any source in 25 j^ears of experience in the salt business
against its weight and quality.

Yours truly, Franklin Woodruff.

During the year 1875, the question, which salt was best to use for
butter, was presented for the consideration of the Butter and Cheese
Exchange of New York City, and a committee was appointed to investi-
gate and determine it. The letter of Mr. M. Folsom, the chairman of
the committee, I quote in full, because it bears directly and fairly upon
the subject before us.

New York, Oct. 26, 1877.

Gentlemen : In 1875 the New York Butter and Cheese Exchange ap-
pointed a committee of which I was chairman, to investigate and
determine which salt was best to use for making butter. Samples were
selected of Onondaga, Higgin's, and Ashton's, with the understanding
that they should ()e used separately and the butter forwarded to New
York to be examined by a committee of experts, each package to be
numbered and a record kept, which was to be secret until the final meet-
ing of the committee. ATter receipt of the butter I called the committee
together, and upon careful examination they each separately selected
which butter they considered the best, and the butter so selected proved
to be that salted with "Ashton's Factory Filled Salt." Therefore, the
committee unanimously reported "Ashton's Factory Filled Salt" aa
being the best salt to use in the making of butter. Since then, the com-
mittee, together with the experts, have signed a recommendation favor-
ing the Ashton Salt as the best and virtually the only salt to use in butter
and cheese. Yours truly,

(Signed) M. Folsom.

I will also read to you several letters, valuable because they give the
experience of able men, who are large and careful manufacturers of but-
ter and cheese, and of others who have for years been well known
throughout the country as dealers in these articles. The first is from Mr.
Henry O. Freeman, of Sherburne, Chenango Co., N. Y.

Sherburne, Chenango Co., May 24, 1877.

For the past fifteen years I have allowed no other salt than Ashton's
Factory Filled used in the butter department of creameries under my
charge, except when forced to, by being out of it, and unable to secure it
in time. Upon these occasions I have tried either the Onondaga, or
Higgin's brands, neither of which gave satisfaction ; the latter falling
far short of the peculiar "Ashton" qualities possessed by that
salt for making fine butter. For the past fifteen years my make of cream-
ery butter has stood second to none received in New York City, running
in a season to 300,000 pounds. I consider its quality, in a measure, due
to the persistent use of " Ashton's Salt in its manufacture."

Respectfully, Henry 0. Freeman.

67

The second is from a tinii who, after careful experiment, have reached
a conclusion which is simplj- and forcibly stated:

Newark, Dec. 14, 1877.
Dear Sirs: After using several different brands of English and Amer-
ican salt, we have finally settled on Ashton's and use no other at our
creameries, near Rome and Utica, New York, and have been doing so for
the past year. Yours, &c.,

Wilkinson, Gaddis <fe Co.

The third is from Wisconsin, and the suggestion of the writer with re-
gard to the repeal of the tariff on salt is of too much importance to es-
cape your attention :

Office op the Fulton Creamery, )
Edgerton, Wis., Dec. 27, 1877. f

Dear Sir : I thought it best to drop you a line on the salt question. I
have now been using Ashton's Salt entirely, in preference to all other
kinds, in my creamery. I have tried different brands through the sea-
son, and find my butter gives a iiood deal better satisfaction since leav-
ing off all other kinds of salt. We have made since May 1, 1877, thirty-
six thousand Dounds of butter. I do not make any cheese, and I have
made several tests with different brands of salt, but shall use no other
than the pure Ashton's for the future, as I find we can make a better
quality of butter from it. You will please excuse my long letter on this
subject, but I think it is a great object, which must be made known to
the dairymen of the Northwest, and I hope you vvill make every exertion
to remove ibe duty from the same. Respectfully yours,

James Clough.

The fourth is from Wellington, Ohio, and it loses none of its force from

brevity :

Wellington, Ohio, Jan. 3, 1878.

Dear Sir : We use only Asiiton Salt, and will use no other. Higgin's
Salt does not give satisfaction in this section.

G. W. Crozier & Co.

The fifth is from Mr. P. E. Sanford, of Warwick, New York, and relates
to a very important part of the question before us. I introduce this letter
because I find that the question of which salt is best to use for stock is
commanding the attention of herd owners, on account of a belief that the
quality of the salt has a relation to the quality and quantity of milk which

a cow will give :

New York, Jan. 5, 1878.
Gentlemen : Your inquiry with reference to salt used in feeding our
stock, for the production of the I)e3t quality and quantity of milk, is
before us. We feed only tlie Ahston Factory Filled Salt to our cows, l)e-
cause we are convmced, from experience with various brands of salt,
that this brand ol salt is the best, being almost immediately soluble, and
leaving no sediment. We believe tiiat the best salt is as essential to cows
for the best milk as it is to butter-makers for the best butter.

P. E. S-ANFORD, Warwick, N. Y.

The sixth and last paper to which I invite your attention, needs no
emphasis from any word of mine :
To Makers of Butter and Cheese :

New York, Jan. 5, 1878.

The Butter and Cheese product of the country has been injured by the
use of salt not suited to its manufacture, and believing tliat the value of

68

these articles will be greatly enhanced by the use of Ashton's Factory
Filled Salt, we earnesily advise its use in the interest of Manufacturers,
Dealers and Consumers.

Hunter. Walton & Co., 164 & 166 Chambers St.

Mackenzie, Newman & Co., 92 Warren St.

Smith & Underhill, 74 Broad St.

R. Bamber & Co., 77 Broad St.

Porter & Wetmore, 69 Broad St.

Joyce & Billings, 102 Broad St.

Belt & Cilley, 154 Chambers St.

M. FoLSOM, -70 Warren St.

M. D. CoNKLiNG, 161 Chambers St.

P. I. RoNK, Son & Co., 155 Cliambers St.

N. D. Hare & Co., 299 Washington St.

W. Windsor, 299 Washington St.

J. N. Seymour & Co., 159 Chambers St.

Henry Welsh, 345 Washington St.
And many others.

I think I have ofiered for the present, at least. sufHcient evidence to
show that manufacturers of butter and cheese can make no mistake
against their own interests by using Ashton's Factory Filled Salt, if they
take care to purchase the genuine brand from responsible merchants,
and I utter this caution because it is a fact that the brand has been coun-
terfeited, and that salt inferior in quality lias been put into the empty
sacks, purchased for the purpose of making money by fraud ; but I am
of the opinion that complaint on this account will be less fref^uent here-
after, as several of the parties to this fraudulent business have been suc-
cessfully prosecuted.

During the past year the importation of the ordinary brands of salt has
been very great, and prices have ruled low, so that many dealers have
l)een induced to handle them, and in instances that I know of, represen-
tations unwarranted, and untrue with regard to their quality, have been
made in order to effect sales. In many cases a consideration much larger
than the ordinary or average profit on salt has been offered (and espe-
cially to the dealers in the country who supply the dairy districts), to in-
duce parties to market certain brands, representing them as good as the
best for the making of butter and cheese.

The diflerencein price .between Ashton's Factory Filled Salt and any of
theother brands is too small for consideration when compared to the value
of the product into which they enter; and the injury to the reputations of
manufacturers of butter and cheese, as well as the great loss in money on
their product, is so serious a matter that experiments in salt, at their own
expense, to save not over a cent or two on one hundred pounds of cheese,
and a very small fraction of a cent on a pound of butter, are, to say the
least, imprudent and unwise.

The manufacturers of the best butter and cheese use Ashton's Factory
Filled Salt, and the most responsible merchants of New York, Philadel-
phia, Boston and Baltimore, who buy and sell, or handle on commission.

69

the dairy proc^uct of the country, have recommended its use over their
own signatures.

The attempt to introduce other brands than Ashton's Factory Filled,
representing them to be just as good for dairy purposes, has been made
during almost every year that I have known of the salt business, and
many eflforts have been made to injure it by using the name Ashton
to cover the sale of salt in barrels totally unlit for butter and cheese-
making. There was a time, many years ago, when the attempt seemed
to promise success. Cai)tain Hunter, now of the firm of Hunter, Walton
& Co., told me, a few days since, that many j^ears ago he and his part-
ners thought that one brand of salt was just as good as another for the
preservation of butter, and they were not particular which brand they
purchased for a standing cask of brine that tliey kept for use in their
business, until they found a deposit live or six inches deep in the botlom as
hard as a stone, so that they were obliged to destroy the cask to remove it.
Captain Hunter says that they had a new cask made in which, for six-
teen years, they have used nothing else than Ashton's Factory Filled
Salt, and that during all that time there has been no deposit of sediment
and that the brine has been perfectly clean, clear and sweet.

Captain Hunter is al=o my authority, and I can have no higher, for
milking this further statement: During the past season he found that the
buLier product of Delaware and Chenango Counties, of New York, had
greaily deteriorated in quality, and that, on inquiry into tiie cause, he
founci that certain manufacturers, whose produuct he had handled, and
which had always been of the best quality, and in which Ashton's Salt
had been exclusively used, had been experimenting with other brands.

One word more and I have done. It is with reference to the care used
in the manufacture of Ashton's Salt. With every care possible used in
its manufacture, fully 25 per cent, of the salt is regarded as unfit to go
into bags; whereas, every other maker sends away the whole product of
his boiling pans, be it good or bad. In the manufacture of salt, the
purity of the brine is of prime importance. Many of the Cheshire brines
contain large quantities of earthy matter, and all of them contain lime in
a greater or less degree. The Asiiton brine is of full strength and freed
from gross impurities by passing through two settling pits, or reservoirs,
before passing into the pans. Before the brine boils, and previous to
any salt being formed, any remaining impurities in the brine are removed
by a process peculiar to and known only to the manufacturers of Ashton
Salt. Some of them are thrown to the surface of the pan and skimmed
ofl", while others are precipitated to tlie l)Ottom of the pan, and form
what are known as "pan scales." When salt is formed in
the pans it is not allowed to remain there, but is removed
frequently and placed in moulds, and thus uniformity of grain
is secured. Any salt not up to the standard is put aside,
and the worl<men (boilers) suffer by l)eing paid at a lower rate

70

for the salt they have siioiled. The Ashton stoves are unique, and
in them the heat is so distributed as to insure an equal temperature-
The salt is placed in them and allowed to remain till every particle of
moisture is expelled. Everything done in this department is such as
long experience has taught to be most conducive to the proper prepara-
tion of salt, and of its being thoroughly dried in every part. When the
salt is thoroughly dried in the stoves, it is removed to large rooms, kept
at a temperature as hot as will permit of men working. Here every
lump is carefully broken by havd, and any particles of pan scales or
other foreign matter which escaped the notice of the boilers or stovers are
carofiilly picked out. Any lump of salt found not up to the standard is
rejected, and only such as are suitable are broken up. The broken salt
is then stored in this warm, dry and perfectly clean room, until it is
wanted for shipment, when it is carefully filled, by hand, and the salt being
thus again passed in review, any scale that escaped tlie '• ureakers " is
picked out. N<j machinery is used, because any impurity in the lump
cannot be detected where machinery is used, as the lump is passed into
the machine, crushed and sacked, the attendant having no opportunity
of seeing the condition of the salt. The outside of a lump may appear
all right, yet, through the carelessness of the boiler, the inside may con-
tain large quantities of pan scale. .Should a boiler neglect his pan by
allowing it to cease to boil and then lire up and make it lioil, the sudden
expansion of the bottom of the pan will detach large quantities of " pan
scale," which will tind then- way ioto the lumps, and their detection is
impossible where machinery is used.

The Ashton 's Salt is made by men who have passed their wliole hfe-
time at the works, and whose steadiness has in a great measure secured
for the salt its great reputation. The methods of the manufacture are
handed down from father to son, and thus perfect regularity is secured
at a cost considerably over what is paid by other manufacturers. No
other munufacturers of salt pay as much for the work done, and conse-
quently none hsive such a stall of men to whom constant employment at
good wages is insured. Hence their carefulness. By the use of ma-
chinery the i)roduction of Ashton's Salt could be cheapened, but its
quality would be deteriorated. Tiie bags are of the best quality and in
every department of the works the most scru|>ulous cleanliness is en-
forced. No manufacturers of salt except Ashton's confine themselves to
the manufacture of one description of salt. For more than half a cen-
tury they have devoted their entire time and attention to a salt suitable
for the manufacture of butter and cheese, and have succeeded in pro-
ducing an article which, upon its own merits, defies competition. The
isolated position of the works attords an opportunity for cleanliness pos-
sessed by no other makers of salt, whose works are, without an excep-
tion, surrounded l)y other works, and are pervaded by smoke and soot.

71

At tne conclusion of Mr. Moiilton's address, a member said :

" Mr. Moulton, I would like to know whether you are the af!;ent of any
particular brands of salt?"

Mr. Moulton : I am the distributing agent of Marshall's, Evans, and
Ashton's Factory Filled Salt. I am willing to guarantee Marshall's and
Evans' salt as good for every purpose as any other brand, except Ashton's,
now, or heretofore, ofi'ered to consumers. I have been honored by the
privilege ol addres.sing this convention, and have spoken only with refer-
ence to the interests of the great industry it so fully represents.

Prof. F. E. Engleh.ardt, of Syracuse, then followed with an address on
the same subject :

SALT— ITS HISTORY, OCCURRENCE, USES AND MANUFACTURE.

He spoke as follows :

The u.^e of salt as a condiment must be very ancient indeed, since we
have no historical record either of its discovery or its first use by man.

Tiie necessity of salt for the animal body, is clearly seen in the instinc-
tive desire of the wild bea,sts, especially of those that live on vegetable
food, for salt, hence they frequent the so-called salt licks, and it is very
probable that our earlie.^t ancestor.^ became thus Srst acquainted with
salt.

Both constituents of salt (salt being a chemical compound of the metal
sodium and a greenish gas called chlorine"), sodium and clilorine form
parts of the elements of the animal body, and are usually not yielded in
ordinary food (except it be flesh food) in sufficient quantities, hence the
natural craving for more. Dr. Ed. Smith, of England, says : That "the
immediate use of salt appears to stimulate the sQnse of taste and to in-
crease the flow of saliva, but its preserving action is dae to its power to
attract moisture, liy which it tends to harden whatever moist substance
is brought in contact with it, and when it has obtained moisture it be-
comes soft and loses its flavor. There is no other compound of chlorine
which ellects both of these purposes or could supplant common salt."

The first mention we have of .^alt in historical times, is in the descrip-
tion of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. Under the Jewish dis-
pensation tiie use of salt was necessary for all sacrifices in the temple.
In Leviticus it is called a preservative. Christ said to His disciples :
" Ye are the salt of the earth." It is also used in the Bible as an emblem
of eternity, wisdom, and reconciliation. Eiisha employed it to sweeten
the fountains of Jericho, and the Israelites rubbed their new-born
children with salt. In no less esteem was salt held by the rest of the
world. Pythagoras called it "a suijstance dear to the gods and the
symliol of justice." Homer, divine, and Plutarch "a symbol of the soul,
the spice of all spices." Plinius remarks : " Verily, without salt it is
impossible for a human being to live," and Horace that "bread and salt
best satisfy a barking stomach."

72

la Lhe Orient the eating of bread and salt together was as much as
making the most secret contract, and even now the Arabian princes
make their treaties by sprinkling salt over bread, exclaiming, "Peace I
I am your friend's friend and your enemies' enemy."

Dschellar-eddin sent to the Chazars, who had united with his enemies,
bread and salt to remind them of their old contract, and at once they re-
turned to him. The Greek poet, Archilocus, says : " Broken have you
the solemn oath, you have violated salt and table." Bread and salt were,
and still are, tokens of hospitality with the Bedouins and Druses.

Jacob-ben-Laith, while breaking into a house over night, came against
a hard substance, which he took up and tasted, and when he found it
was salt, he left the place at once, without taking with hira the already
secured booty, because he had tasted salt in the house. Salt also served
as money. Thus Marco Polo relates of the jiroviuce of Kaiiidu, that the
smallest piece of money is salt. The brine is evaporated in small pans
and formed into cakes, which are dried on hot bricks and stamped with
the Emperor's seal; 80 pieces of it are valued at one-half ounce of gold,
and in the mountains 40 of them are equal to the same. A Duke of
Bavaria oflered the heiis of Amorbath, in Basel, 2,000 tons of salt for
a Christ by Holbem.

Southeast of Tadshura (Africa) is the salt lake Ossal, where the salt is
made in tlie shape of grindstones and sent to the Abyssinians, who call
them Amoles, and carry them wherever they go, oflering them to their
friends, when meeting, to lick.

Salt also played a great roll in the superstition of our ancestors. Thus
it was believed that salt, when thrown down the back of a witch, would
prevent her from rising, and destroy her powers. Salt was considered
antagonistic to the devil; he did not eat salt, hence the custom, when
young cidldren were abandoned by poor parents, they put a little salt
next to the child to prevent the devil having any power over it; for the
same purpose, a handful of salt was thrown into the lire whiui a person
was in the agony of death, and placed on the body after being laid
out. Salting a new house, or a house being entered by a new tenant,
for luck.

That the use of salt, wliich is the only mineral substance we partake of
(an exception is some uncivilized tribes such as the earth -eating Ottomacks
and those Norwegians who bake rock meal, a species of carbonate of
lime, into their bread") must have been introduced gradually, is evident,
first, from the fact tliat there vvere people living in historical times who
did not use salt. Homer sings, therefore, "tra\>^el till you reach those
mortals who know the ocean not, and never partake of salt-seasoned
food. ' ' Secondly, salt, especially rock salt, and that which covered ex-
tensive plains as a tliin crust, is very unevenly distributed over the
earth, they are found only in certain localities; hence, salt soon became
a most important article of commerce, as in Northern Africa, in India,

73

etc., where il was found in great abundance, and yielJed to the Kings
of those districts large revenues. India bad a cit}- called Lavauapura;
that is, Salt City.

From the harbor of Rome a street called the Via Salaria, or Salt
street, served the Sabines, according to an old treaty, for the conveyance
of their salt, and the same city had a salt commerce already in the
times of their kings. Plutarch tells us of salt ships, and the noble
Romans had a servant called the salinator in tlieir households, whose
business it was to care for the salt.

Where salt could not be secured, or only at great expense, the ashes of
seashore plants were substituted, as is related of the inhabitants of Um-
bria, while others prepared their necessary salt by pouring sea water or
salt brine on to a burning fire, whereby they imagined that the coals
also changed into salt, hence the careful selection of the wood.

The most ancient information that we possess of the use of sea salt
made by solar evaporation, comes from Dioscorides. Ancus Martins,
according to Pliny, first introduced the so-called salt gardens, Sali-
nas, where sea water separated from the ocean was evaporated by
the sun. He gives many places where they existerl, as at Taraiit, Sicily.
Creata, Ulica, Egypt, etc. In Cappadocia, even salt brine was thus made
into salt. Both Aristotle and Pliny mentioned Epirus (Chuocia) as a
place where salt was made of brine from springs by boiling, and from all
we can learn on the subject it seems very probable that an Indo-germanic
tribe, the so-called Kelts, were especially engaged in the manufacture of
salt, which opinion is strengthened by the fact that many of the works
now relating to salt and its manufacture, are of Celtic origin. Having
thus given the main feature of the ancient history of salt, I will now
proceed to give its constitution, character and occurrence.

Salt is a natural compound of a soft white metal called sodium, and a
greenish very irritating gas, chlorine. Every 100 parts of pure salt con-
tains 39.3 parts of sodium, and. 60.7 parts of chlorine. It was Sir
Humphrey Davy who first explained the true nature of salt, which, up to
that time, had been considered a compound of soda and muriatic acid,
hence its former name muriate of soda. Salt chrystalizes in the cubical
form, and is thus often found native, but usually it is massive, some-
times granular and columnar. Its cleavage is cubical, hence, when we
break a natural cube of salt very carefully, it yields a numl)er of smaller
ones. Its hardness is 2.5, whde its specific gravity varies from 2.1 to
2.25. The lustre is vitrious, like that of broken glass. Tlie color may
be white, yellow, red, blue, purple or colorless (the reddish appearance
of the Cordona rock salt, in Spain, is due to infusori;^}. Salt offers very
little rL'si;l;ii!ce to the rays of heat ; 100 parts of heated rock salt will
transmit 92 per cent., while a plate of glass of equal thickness will
transmit only 24 per cent.

74

The taste of pure salt is agreeably saline. Exposed to moisture it
seems to be slightly deliquescent. In regard to the solubility of salt in
water it has been found that there is very little difference with cold and
boiling water. At 32° F. 100 parts of water are capable of dissolving
35.52 parts of it, while the same quantity of water at 212° F. dissolved
only 36,46 parts. At a common red heat it melts, and at an increased
temperature it is volatile.

Oar salt resources are either solid or dissolved in water. Of the
former we have two kinds, the rock salt and the salt incrustations of
some of the high plains and of the deserts, which are often literally
covered with a thin crust of salt, like a vast snow-fleld of the cold zones.
Of salt solutions there is, first, the vast extent of the ocean, whose pecu-
liar color is due to the salt contained therein ; and secondly, the numer-
ous salt lakes and salt springs.

The land, with its various mountains, hills and valleys, by the force of
inner disturbances rising gradually out of the universal ocean, cut off
portions of the water, and formed in this manner immense salt lakes.
The burning heat of t!ie sun and the inner heat of the earth produced an
evaporation of the water, and the salt remained in a solid form. Heavy
rains dissolved the saline matter out of the soil and carried the loose
-debris of the mountains on to this salt, the mechanically suspended ma-
terial settled to the bottom and formed a layer of clay, while the water
above, evaporating, left a second layer of salt, the lowest portion of
which, if the water contained gypsum in solution, was formed of this ma-
terial. Hence, we find usually in rock salt mines layers of clay, gypsum
and salt alternating with each other. We also find gypsum as an almost
constant companion of brines, and as it is a never wanting ingredient
of all sea water, wt^ may conclude that the sources of the many rock salt
lieds and brine springs are entirely due to sea water. Rock salt and salt
springs are found in almost all the various formations of our earth's
crust, as recognized by geologists, from the oldest to the j'oungest. Thus
we find in South America salt springs coming from granite at Retico,
near El Quarzo; also at Navarre, in' Spain. From horn-blend rocks at
Saline; from syenite at Cuaco and Rio Grande; from porphyry at Azuelo
and at Kreuznach in Rheinish Prussia; from trachyte atPuravi; from
mica slate at Quayeval in New Granada. Ou,r Syracuse brines and those
of Canada are in the upper Silurian. The well at Staraja, Russia (Gov-
ernment Novgorod, Russia), comes from the devonian, while those of
Michigan are found in the carboniferous limestone down to the de-
vonian. Western Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and
Kentucky are furnished with salt from the lower coal measures. Russia
has its main salt mines and springs in the permian, while the triassic
period yields the rock salt and brine springs of the greater part of
Europe, especially England, Ireland, France and partly Germany. The
newly discovered immense salt resources of Northern Germany, at

75

Stassfurt, Leopholdshall, Segeberg and Sperenberg, near Berlin, are all
in this formation. Oolitic formation of the Juanssic period contains the
salt of tlie Austrian Alps. In the cretaceous we have a salt mountain at
Cardona in Spain, and another in Africa at Biskra; also the salt of the
Pyrenees belongs to this period. The celebrated rock salt deposits at
Wieliczka in Galicia, and the rich mines in Sicily, are in the tertiary,
while the rock salt deposits upon the Petit Anse Island, in Vermillion
Bay, Lousiana, is considered as belonging to the post-tertiary. The
position of these ditTerent salt sources, as compared with the sea level, is
varied indeed. Thus, in the Austrian Alps, we have rock salt 3,000 feet
above, and in Savoy even 7,000 feet above the sea, while at Wielczka
salt is found 800 feet, and at Sperenberg, near Berlin, over 3,000 feet
below the sea level.

A description of the various rock salt deposits, salt lakes and brine
springs with which we are at present acquainted, is beyond my present
puri)Ose. I shall content myself with giving the most remarkable ones.

The most important salt deposit that has ever been discovered is that
at Stassfurt, in Germany. After passing the shaft through about 558 feet
of other material, the salt rock was reached, the upper portion ot which,
f(5r about 500 feet, contains an almost inexhaustible supply of potash, in
the so-called Stassfurt potash salts. The next, 1,000 feet below, consist
mainly of rock salt of good quality. The importance of this discovery
for many industries, and especially for agriculture, cannot be estimated.
The production of the various mines in the neighborhood of Stassfurt, from
the commencement, in 1S60, up to the year 1876, was, of rock salt, about
thirty million, an'1 of the raw potash material no less than one hundred
and seven million bushels. Near Berlin, at Sperenberg, in 1867, borings
were commenced, and salt was found at a depth of about 283 feet.
These borings have been continued until 3,7()9 feet of rock salt has been
penetrated, without reacliing the end of the salt. Laugro, in Calabria,
possessed a salt mountain with 1,200 steps cut in solid rock salt, whereby
its lowest workings are reached. The salt mountain at Cardona, in
Spain, was worked more than 2,000 j'ears ago, and wliat is most remark-
able about this salt deposit is its gradual moving toward the opening of
the valley, like an Alpine glwcier, which led to the former l)elief that the
salt grew as fast as it was taken away.

In the immense plains of tlie Kirgis Steppes, near Fort Hezkaga, sud-
denly rises an enormous salt rock, only covered on its surface with drift-
aaud. St. Domingo has a salt mountain at Neyba, and Arizona and
Nevada are claiming several. The Wieliozka deposit, in the Austrian
Empire, which has been mined almost a thousand years, could alone
provide the world with salt for centuries to come ; it has over sixty rooms
cut m salt, some of them very large ; the dancing liall has a fine gallery
extending around it, an immense Austrian eade and several chandeliers.

76

all cut out of salt ; its height is 150 feet, the other dimensions in propor-
tion. The galleries are no less than 30 miles in length.

In the Carpathian range of mountains, which extend almost without
interruption from Moldavia to Suabia, about 200 geographical miles, are
the salt mines of Wallachia, Transylvania, Galicia, Upper Hungary,
Upper Austria, Styria, Salzberg, and of Tyrol Brogniart counted no less
than 59 rock salt mines, 15 of which are worked, and 430 brine springs.

SALT LAKES.

Salt lakes are found in great abundance in various parts of the world,
especially in Persia, Barbary and Russia ; in the Province of Astraclian,
one of the latter country, no less than 129 are found ; we meet them at
different heights, as compared with the level of the ocean. Thus, the
Lake Titicaca, in the South American Andes, is 18,000 feet, theWausee, in
Kurdistan, 5,4G0 feet, and the great salt lake in Utah 4,200 feet above the
ocean, while the surface of the Dead Sea, according to Humboldt, is 1,230
feet below the level of the Mediterranean. The Caspian and the Aral
Lakes are the two largest ones in the old world. Best known, perhaps, is
the Alton Lake, in Saratov, Russia, yielding annually no less than 100,000
tons of salt. In the Podolonian Desert is a lake near the river Dneiper,
whose water evaporates during the Summer months to such an extent
that people ride into it with horses and wagons, cutting; salt in blocks
and carrying it away m the same manner as our ice dealers cart away
their stock in the Winter time. Utah's great salt lake, 120 miles long
and 30 miles wide, was already known to La Houtan, the French Lieu-
tenant-General of Newfoundland, in 1689. The salt deposit on its banks
was estimated by Captain Stansbury at 10 miles in length by 7 mlies in
breadth, and as containing no less than one hundred million bushels of
salt. The South American Pampas are shallow salt lakes, extending
from Fort St. Julian, in Patagonia, to Chaca, in the Argentine Republic.
The Dead Sea, on the south side of which, at Usedom, are extensive salt
rock deposits, formed in most picturesqe shapes, is gradually decreasing in
size, since at the time of Josephus It measured over fourteen geographi-
cal miles in length by four miles in breadth, while to-day it is only ten
miles long and about two and a half miles wide.

The gradual filling up of salt lakes by salt deposits in historical times
gives us another explanation, and, undoubtedly, the most probable, of
the formation of some of these enormous salt deposits I have mentioned
previously. Generally these lakes have no outlet, and they are supplied
by rivers, which, in their course over salt-bearing rocks and through
salty soils, dissolve and carry it into these lakes, especially during the
rainy season of the year. The mechanically suspended impurities of the
river water, such as clay, Marl, etc., separate, first forming a layer at the
bottom of the lake, which is often colored reddish by iron, if the latter be
present in the water ; next, the less soluble salts, such as gypsum, sepa-

77

rate, forming a second layer ; and, finally, the salt, which forms the
third Isjyer. Year by year this process is renewed, and thus gradually,
but certainly, is a rock salt deposit formed.

Goiiel, in 1805, sunli a well some miles from the Elton Lake, and found
forty-two separate layers of salt from one to nine inches thick. At a
depth of 12 feet the salt was so hard that the iron tools broke.

The amount of salt that the ocean annually receives from salt springs
lliat are not made use of, is a great deal more than we usually suppose.
Mitcherhch has calculated that the river Saale, in Germany, receives an-
nually from the salt springs at Durrenberg, 3,000,000 bushels of salt,
which quantity is almost imperceptible in the water of the stream.

The amount cf salt in the water of the ocean, which is our third
source of supply, is about 2.7 per cent, la 100 of tlie water, but the
quantify of salt made from it, especially in the Southern parts of Europe,
is very large Indeed. France alone produces 400,000 tons annually. In
the United States the lirst sea salt was made in Virginia, at Cape Charles,
in 1620. The most celebrated varieties are the St. Ubes, the Turk Island,
and the Trappaui sea salts.

SALT SPRIXGS.

When the rainwater, during its passage from the surface through tfie
various formations of the earth, comes in contact with such of them as
contain salt, before it issues again as a spring, it dissolves more or less,
according to the tune of contact with the salt- bearing strata. Syracuse
possesses the most prolific salt wells, within the smallest territory, known
in tiie entire world. The presence of natural salt springs in our neigh-
borhood is first reported in the so-called relations of the Jesuits, by the
French Missionary, Jerome Lalement, in 1645-46. In 1788, one of the
Indians discovered to Col. Comfort Tyler a salt spring at the foot of
Sahua Heights, and in the same year, on the 12th of September, the On-
ondagas sold to the .State of New York the so-called salt reservation,
comprising the lands for one mile around the lake, more than 15,000
acres, for the purpose of making salt. Since 1793, tlie State has had the
supervision of our salt sources, and from that time till now, no less than
256 million l)ushels have been made, to which we must add the loss of
leakage, blocking, etc., so that the grand total in 80 5'ears can not have
been less than 300 million l)ushels. In China, in tlie province of Sza-
Techhouan, are a number of salt wells which evolve so large a quantity
of intlammahle gns, that it is employed in the evaporation of the brine.
Mons. Imbert reports that there are several thousands of these wells in the
vici4iity of the town of On Thouang Kheas. It is impossible, in the short
apace of time at my disposal, to speak of other brine springs, suffice it
to say that, with very few exceptions, almost every country on the globe
possesses salt in one form or another, tlie source being inexhaustible.

There are no relial)le statistics on liand that give the actual amount of
f^a\{ anmially produced on the earth, but England, which possesses by

78

no means the largest resources, is, nevertheless, the largest producer at
present, on account of lier commercial facilities ; she made in 1876 no
less than two million tons. The uses of salt are so manifold that only a
few of the most important ones can be mentioned here. It is employed
in the manufacture of soda ash, sal-soda, baking soda, glauber salts,
soap, bleaching powder, pottery, and in many njetallurgical operations.
For the conservation of fish, meat, hides, butter and cheese, etc., large
quantities are annually used. It is estimated that a human being uses
from 10 to 15 pounds per ye^r, whicli, for 1,000 millions of inhabitants,
taking the average at l'i}4 pounds for each person, would amount to no
less than 225 miUion bushels, or over six million tons. If we add to this
the amount given to domestic animals (Spain uses alone over four million
bushels of salt for her Merino sheep), also that employed in tiie dairy, for
packing meat, fish, hides, hay, etc. (the proprietor of one packing house
in Kansas City told me last year that he alone used over 120,000 bushels
annually), that used as manure, and finally that which is used in the
arts and in the various manufacturing enterprises, the grand total can-
not be less than ten million tons.

The familiar saying of Liebig, that a nation's prosperity and its state
of civilization might be measured by the quantity of soap it uses, I
think is much more applicable, as Schleiden remarks, to salt.

Before the year 1789, in which Leblanc made his immortal discovery
of making soda ash from salt, the necessary demand was made partly
from the water of the so-called soda lakes, found in Egypt, Hungary,
etc., and linown under the name ©f troma; another supply was derived
from the ashes of seashore plants (which were cultivated especially for
the purpose in Spain, etc., the product being called Barilla or Rochetta),
or from seaweed ashes; in France they call it Varec, while in Great
Britain it received the appellation of Kelp.

Thus, gentlemen, have I given you, as far as t^me would permit, the
main facts relating to the history, the composition, the character, the
occurence and the uses of salt, and will now enter on the second part of
my remarks, the manufacture of salt, thee oncluding portion of which
will be devoted to the dairy salt, in which you all take so deep an
interest.

THE MANUFACTURE OF SALT.

The direct production of salt for domestic purposes from rock salt is
only possible when the latter is sufficiently pure. If such is the case,
various mechanical means are employed to reduce the lumps of salt as
they are brought to the surface from the mine to the required state of
fineness, in accordance with the uses for which it is intended. Dairy
salt is, I believe, rarely made of it, although I know from very good
authority that it is done in Boston, and an addition of carbonate of soda
is made to the salt, because it contains some chloride of calcium and
magnesium. The usual method is to dissolve the rock salt, either di-

79

rectly in the mine or after bringing it on tlie surface, for tlie purpose of
separating from it the uaechanical impurities, as clay, marl, etc., and
then to evaporate it in the usual manner by artificial heat, in pans or
other suitable vessels. In Belgium and Holland sea water is employed
for the solution of English rock salt ethese countries have no salt re-
sources of any extent). The refined Dutch salt is preferred in Ireland
for flavoring the celebrated Irish butter; the Liverpool pan salt has
proved to be not well suited for the purpose. If this is due to Irish
prejudice, or founded in fact, I am not able to decide; it may be possible
that Aghton Salt has had no proper trial in Ireland, or the Irish butter
may have partaken of some of the Irish hatred against England, and.
therefore, will not allow its being kept by the English product, even if it
should be Ashton.

SEA SALT.

The manufacture of the greater portion of the sea salt is carried on
in the so-called Salt Gardens; a system of deep and shallow earth reser-
voirs, clayed on the sides and bottoms. They are generally situated on
the shore in the most advantageous position, and so connected with each
other that the water, by its own specific gravity, can pass from the first
through all of them into the very last one. The sea water enters from
the ocean through a flood gate, at the time of the tide, into the first
reservoir, which is from four to six feet deep, covering often several
acres of ground. The mechanically suspended impurities sink readily
to the bottom as soon as the water becomes quiet therein. This having
been accomplished, the second gate is opened and the water flows into
more shallow reservoirs, in which it remains till all the less soluble salts,
such as the carbonates, the sulphate of lime, etc., have been removed,
as far as such is possible, and the water has become saturated, when it
contains from 26 to 27 per cent, of saline matter in 100 parts of water.
Thus purified and<concentrated, it enters a third set of yet more shallow
reservoirs, in which the salt crystalizes out. The latter, if in sufficient
quantity, is removed upon the banks between the reservoirs for drainage,
while a new supply of saturated water takes its place to furnish new
quantities of salt. Since the water that remains after the removal of
the salt, and which is called mother liquor, contains, besides salt, the more
soluble salts, such as the sulphate and chloride of magnesium, and their
quantity increases with every new addition of pickle, it is occasionally
removed, thereby preventing a deterioration of the product. Precisely
the same process is followed by our solar salt manufacturers, with only
this ditlerence, that wooden vats, with movable covers, are substituted
for earth reservoirs, which has this advantage, that a considerable-
amount of the obnoxious chlorides of calcium and magnesium — they
possessing great penetrating power — pass through the wooden bottom of
our vats.

80

Boiled salt is usually made from the salt brines, either as they come
from the bowels of mother earth, or if too weak to be thus remunera-
tive, they are concentrated by the so-called gradation works, which are
very extensively used in Germany.

Brines, as they come from the wells contain many impurities, such as
traces of iron, lime and magnesia, as carbonates or as chlorides and sul-
phates. Since the carbonates readily separate, either by an exposure to air ,
or after an addition of a little quick lime, one or both of these methods
are employed together. The brine, thus prepared, is now evaporated in
shallow iron pans over fires, or by the application of steam, or in kettles.

All good brines contain gypsum, a substance less soluble in hot and
saturated brines than in cold and weak ones; it is, therefore, customary
to heat the brine in one pan until it commences to boil and is fully satu-
rated, and then to discharge it into others in which the salt is made. In
accordance with the use that shall be made of the salt, it is either boiled,
whereby a line grained salt is the product, or it is evaporated at difl'ereat
temperatures below the boiling point, whereby larger grained varieties
are the result. To give to the salt a very fine grain, the salt, in the lan-
guage of the salt-boilers, is cut by the addition to the brine of substances
considered harmless in themselves, such as soap, gelatine, wax, butter,
lard, resin, white of eggs, calves' and cows' feet, ale, flour, alum, etc.,
which assist somewhat in clarifying. The scum that appears on the sur-
face after these additions, is removed by skimming.

Our kettle method diflers from the preceding in this, that we accom-
plish the separation of the impurities and the salt in one and the same
vessel — our kettle.

DAIRY SALT.

Since, I hope, gentlemen, that 3'ou accept the invitation and will visit
the mill, my description of our process shall be very brief.

The salt, in a proper state of sub-division, usually accomplished by
crushing the raw material (either common, fine or solaf), is subjected to
a process of washing in washing machines, with a pure salt pickle, which
contains the necessary amount of carbonate of soda for the decomposi-
tion of the chlorides of calcium and magnesium, the resultant carbon-
ates of lime and magnesia, and a portion of the gypsum contained In the
raw material run oflT with the wash water. After a proper drainage
of from 10 to 14 days, the salt is dried in large iron revolving cylinders,
and then ground to the desired fineness. In regard to other processes
employed in the manufacture of dairy salt, I can state nothing fi-om
personal observation.

Of late a great many attempts have been made, long articles have been
published in various papers, and especial refereirce has been made to the
New York salt test, made two years ago, for the purpose of convincing
the dairy community that only English Ashton salt can preserve butter

81

and cBeese. F may, thtrefore. be justified in cailiug your attention to t he
subject :

In the second annual report of tlie American E\cliauiie for 1875, ]>au;e
14, the committee on the dairy salt test reports :

" The result of these tests suggests thai some differences are possibly
detectable iti l)uttei- Salted with American and the various foreign salts ;
but it is evident that the difference is much less marked than has
been popularly supposed, and only becomes apparent after long and very
close observation of the form of the gram of the different salts, and other
minute variations that would l)e noticed by very few of our most expe-
rienced buttei- men. Chemically, it has l>een shown by a series of analy-
ses, made under the direction of the committee, that there is very little
difference in the amount of chloride of sodium (pure salt) contained in
any of the competing lirands. Samples of nine 'n-ands were selected by
your committee from the stocks in warehouses here, and were intrusted
to Messrs. Walz and Stillwell, chemists of high standing, by wlioni the
analyses were made, and the above result reported."

Again I quote from the same page :

" It is this system of fraud that has done much to injure .-everal of the
brands shown by the analysis to be very jture, especially the Onondaga
salts.

•' The very slight differences in th*- chemical purity of the competing
salts suggest that there should be less inequality in the prices of these
salts than has existed for some years past. It would seem that the
prices of all the principal brands should be the same, and it is hoped that
the result of the committee's laljors may aid the dairymen in breaking
down the excess that lias been for so loiiir a time chai-ged for the sup-
posed superiority of s(ime brands."

From a comparison of the analyti(;al results of tiie above named
•chemist, as reported on page 12 (contiiiing myself to English Ashtou
and the two Ononddl!g:a8), it is evident that, while ihe differences are but
small, tlie Onondaga samples contained (ess insohible matter, less sul-
phate of lime, less cMortdeofmagnesimn, and one sample three-quarters
and the otht^r over one-half of one per cent, more pure salt tlian English
Ashton. Both American <amj)les contained a trace of chloride of cal-
cium (0.0473 and 0.0296),* which was ab.sent in the English Ashton. Ac-
cording to Professor Goessman, chloride of calcium is less injurious to
the taste of butter and cheese than chloride of magnesium. Ashton.
moreover, contained sulphate of magnesium, which has a bitter taste like
chloride. Adtling the various impurities tojrether, the Enghsh Ashton
contained, in the analyzed sample. 1.4198 per cent., the Excelsior 0.7609
of one per cent., and the Onondaga Asnton 0.8B of one per cent., from
which it follows thai our salt samples were superior, both in quantity of
sail and absence of impurities. The chairman of the Salt Committee,
at their final meeting in New York, as reported in the American (h-ocer,

82

April 10, 1875, commented on the general hli^h character of all the
samples and the comparative absence of deleterious matter. From the
results or the practical tests on January 18th, 1875, and April 6th, 1875,
I quote the remarks of the examiner upon condition :

m'allister.

Onondaga, No. 1. — January 18th. 1875, "Not much ijody and rather flat

in flavor;" April 6th, 1875. "Butter mild, fine flavor and well kept."
Onondaga, No. 5. ^January 18th, 1875, -'Quality good;" April 6th, 1875,

"Can taste a little more undissolved salt, but good flavor."
Onondaga, No. 10 — January 18th, 1875, "Better qualit\', and more body

to the butter."
English Ashton, No. 6. — January 18th, 1875. " Quality good, little best

flavor;" A])ril 6th, 1875, "Butter, mild flavor and in good condition."

BLODGETT.

Onondaga, No. 2. — January 18th, 1875, "Harsh, with undissolved salt;' ^

April 6th, 1875, " Butter very high salted and harsh."
English Ashton. No. 1. — January 18th7 1875, "The mildest and most

pleasant flavor;"' April 6th, 1875, "Good flavor and well kept, but

too salt."
English Ashton, No. 4. — January 18th, 1875, " Best flavor and high

quality;'' April 6th, 1875, "Bottom half cheesy and not well kept;

the top half good color and flavor, and can taste more salt."

I suppose that neither English Ashton nor Onondaga can be held re-
sponsible for the excess in salt. In the test, on April 6, 1875, where no
excess of salt was used, they were in one instance alike. Onondaga
" Butter mild, fine flavor, and we'l kept." Ashton English "Butter mild
flavor, and in good condition." But in No. 4 Ashton, "Bottom half
cheesy, and not well kept. The top half good color and flavor, and can
taste more salt." If the salt is responsible in this instance, then, gen-
tlemen, I am satisfi'^d that Ashton is not superior to Onondaga in keeping
q ualities !

Two years later, at the fourth annual convention of the National
Butter and Egg Association, Iftld at Chicago, March 7, 8 and 9, T7ie
United Slates Butter, Cheese and E/g Reporter (Now The Ameriow
Dairyman) attributed the following remarks to the late Chairman of the
New York Committee on the Dairy Salt Test: "From personal ex-
perience he (the former chairman) testified in favor of Ashton salt, as
being the best adapted to dairy purposes. Tii^diff'erence in the branl of
butter, where inferior salts are used, can at once be distinguished.' From
10 brands of salt, the Ashton (English) had been selected as the best salt,
by the best chemists."

Again, I find in the New York Com>mrGial Advertiser, December 1,
1877, in the article on butter and salt, the following paragraph :

" And therefore, " says Mr. Folsom. ^' the committee unanimously re-
ported Ashton'' s factory filled salt as being the best salt to use in the
m aking of butter. ' '

It is unnecessary, on my pirt, to comm ent on the differences between

83

the results and statements of 1875 and 1877. Gentlemen (such facts
as these speak volumes), you can draw your own conclusions.

(I do not intend to say that Syracuse salt is superioi' to other dairy salt
of equal purity; all I claim is, that it is as good.)

My idea in regard to making a proper test to settle this question would
be as follows :

Samples of salt prepared by a good chemist, which contam the various
•impurities usually met with in dairy salt, should be employed to salt
equal quantities of butter, all made at one churning. Thus one sample
should be salted with chemically pure salt (the experiments in Denmark
with chemically pure salt in the salting of butter, according to Schleiden,
proved that it will not preserve butter), another with salt containing
sulphate of hme, another chloride of calcium, another chloride of mag-
nesium, another sulphate of magnesia, and another sulphate of soda,
etc. A sample ol the butter, ijefore dividing it in eijual parts, must be
taken out for analysis, to determine tlie amount of casein and sugar. x\ll
the sam])les kept under precisely the same conditions and tested from
time to time, would soon show which impurities in dairy salt are most
deleterious to butter. Manufacturers would then be enai)led to use their
skill in removing them.

The impurities found in dairy salts are so small, when we compare the
amount of salt employed with the amount of butter salted therewith,
that they can have, in fact, no deleterious action. Thus an average
analysis of our dairy salt, taken from my daily samples of both mills for
an entire season, gave the following results?

Pure Salt— Chloride of Sodium 98.3098 i)er cent.

Chloride of Magnesium 0.0.S6a "

Sulphate of Lime 0.0474 "

Chloride of Calcium 0.0169 "

Moisture, Indissoluble Matter and loss.. . . 0..'3670 "
Now let us make a little comparative calculation. One pound of but-
ter, 1() ounces, equals 7,000 grains. One ounce of salt used for salting,
equals 437^ grains. These 437)^ grains contain of impurities:

Chloride of Magnesium 0.1378 grains.

" Calcium 0.0739 "

Sulphate of Lime 4.2438

Total injurious impurities 4.3555

This ounce of salt, mi.ved with 16 ounces or 7,000 grains of butter, the
impurities in the 17 ounces will l)e, in per cent..

Chloride of Magnesium 0.00185 ]^er cent.

" "Calcium 0.00099

Sulphate of Lime 0.05571 "

Total impurities in 100 butter 0.05855

Hence, not quite 6-100 of one per cent, of impurities, a quantity so
small that a homeopathic physician would almo.st doubt its effect, even

84

if it was one_,[of iiis moat potent remedies, in the opiniuu of every
chemist, the chemical composition, and it alone, is the proper standard
to judge dairy salt by. The required grain has nothing to do with the
antiseptic quality of salt, and can be given to it in accordance with the
use that shall be made of it.

The letter of Professor Arnold, on salt, that appeared in tlie Amer-
ican Grocer of April 10th, 1875, addressed to O. C. Blodgett, Esq., the
remarlcs by Professor Groessmann on the same subject, at the New York
meeting, before the Butter and Cheese Exchange, in December, ISTi,
and, finally, the paper of Mr. Blodgett on "Butter-Making," read before
the American Daiiymen's Association, at Utica, in January, 1875, con-
tain all that need be said on the subject of salt. Prejudice, that is fos-
tered by certain interested parties, has much more to do with this ques-
tion than the quality of the butter salted. When two samples of salt are
equal in chemical composition and grain, they must be equal in their
preserving qualities. To talk of secrets tliat shall impart to salt higher
preserving qualities, which chemists cannot detect by analysis, or that
only one establishment in the world has brine pure enough or workmen
skilled enough to make a proper dairy salt, might have answered 50
years ago.

At the close of Prof. Englehardt's address, a brief (hscussion fol-
lowed.

Ml'. Lewis: Perhaps I can throw some light on this question. 1 am one
•of the four who voted against the resolution that passed, for the reason
that I will never crush a domestic enterprise for the sake of building up a
foreio"n one. t found that this New York butter committee attributes
every defect whatever to the salt that had been used. In some cases
examiners declared that they did not know anything about it. On one
occasion a very confident examiner, being presented with samples from
the same tub, side by side, declared the one to have been salted with
Onondaga salt and the other Ashton's, and afterward reversed his
decision, by examining the same samples, not knowing that they came
from the same package each time.

Mr. Moulton: Salt eflects the flavor beueticially or otherwise? I have
two samples of salt in the room, and would be pleased to have them
tested and compared, good samples of Onondaga salt, and let the ques-
tion of flavor be submitted.

Mr. Fabrington: If the statement of Mr. Moultou is correct, and I
have no reason to doubt it, that the city of Syracuse was built upon salt,
and in consideration of the immense interests connected with this ques-
tion, it seems to me to be of far too much importance to be disposed of
in a hasty manner. According to Squire Lewis' statements, it would
appear that no sufficient systematic tests have hitherto been applied. 1
would think it was time this question was settled. Its importance is
guch that there should be a series of systematic scientific exi)erimentx

85

made that this question may be settled more satisfactorily, being, as it
is. so intimately connected with the interests of domestic enterprises.

Mr. HoRR : When we consider that those Englishmen are nearly four
thousand miles away, with the Atlantic between them and New York,
our Syracuse manufacturers haviu": all this in their favor, it seems to me
that they ought to take care of themselves, without a protective tariff. I
like honest square competition. I am not afraid of the Englishman's
salt any more than I am of the New York man's oleomargarine. If they
can produce it and bi'ing it from across the water, producing a better
and cheaper salt, I say let our home industry take care of itself, ft can
do it and it will do it.

Mr. Farrington: There seems to be two questions in this subject of
salt. The tariff question is an abstract one. and should be discussed in-
dependently of the merits of salt. Some dairymen in Canada having
experimented, say that Liverixiol salt is the best, others prefer Canadian
Goderich salt.

A Member: Can Mr. Arnold tell u.s what are the usual impurities of
salt, and their effects ?

Mr. Arnold: The largest impurity is usually sulphate of lime, which is
chiefly objectionable simply on account of its being a foreign substance.
It can do very little harm, since it is so iiisolulile as to require +00 times
its weight of water to dissolve it. Another impurity is sulphate of mag-
nesia, or ep.som salts, which is found, I believe, in pretty much all salts
but the Onondaga factory tilled. Tiii;* gives butter a i)eculiar flavor, but
not a very disagreeable one. Another is chloride of calcium, which has
a pungent flavor, and causes salt to become wet in damp weather. The
most disagreeable impurity in salt for butter and cheese is chloride of
magnesium which imparts to both butter and cheese an acrid, bitter taste.
that renders them untoothsome. and depreciates their market value.
Sulphate of soda is also sometimes present, and also some in.soluble
matters which are presumed to have litlle or no effect..

Second Day.
Wednesday Morning's Session.

The convention resumed at 9:30 o'clock, R. P. Cannon in the chair.

The first subject discussed was whether additional cream can be
worked into whole milk cheese, and the mode of doing it.

Mr. Chamberlain introdued the subject by givhig his method. He
said :

I get the milk ready to set, then I take the cream that I intend to add
to it, and first mix it with a small quantity of milk, agitating it all the
while, until the cream is sufficiently dissolved. Then I pass it through
the strainer into the milk which is ready to set. Then add the rennet,
agitating the milk continually until coagulation takes i)lace. By so doing
I get a {lerfect cheese.

86

Ques. Did you work iIih cream ia the cheese, or diil it escape with the
whey?

Ans. i tliink tlie cream was mostly saved in tlie cheese. In tact 1 am
satistied it was a success ; still I would not recommend it for general
practice. There is cream enough in the milk.

Qnes. Where did you get the extra cream from ?

Ans. From the milk of the day before.

Mr. Adamson, loiliana : Previous to our State fair I tried an experi-
ment, mixing six pounds of cream, taken from the night's milk, with one
hundred and forty four pounds of new milk, and made it into a cheese. We
had often heard it remarked that if cream gets separated from the milk,
it is almost impossible to get it to unite again. The result was tiiat we
foun 1 little cream went oft" with the whey. From the 150 pounds we had
a cheese, when cured, that weighed 15i^ pounds, and was considered, by
all who saw it, to be a little nicer than anything they had seen in the
shape of cheese.

Ques. When was it made?

Ans. On the 20th of August.

Ques. Do you think that it cream is separated from the milk it can all
be retained in the cheese?

Ans. I do not think it can be retained as perfectly as when not sepa-
rated. I merely give that as my opinion.

President : I think if you use a large percentage of cream, there will
be a little more waste ; that is, if you use a rich material, the percetitage
of loss will be greater than if you use a poor material.

Prof. Stewart : I have had no personal experience with reference to
this matter of working in an extra amount of cream, but have made
cheese from the milk of Jersey cows which contained a large proportion
of cream, and the waste was found to be less than ordinarily is the case.

Mr. Rice : We have had some experience in this matter of working in
the cream that has gathered on the night's milk,and have found that if
the cream was not allowed to get too thick, we could work it in
eflectually.

Mr. Wire : I think it is generally conceded by all cheese-makers that
the richer the milk the greater is the percentage of loss. My idea of
working in all the cream is, that it depends altogether on the manner of
handling. We are satisfied that the cream will not produce a firm curd
if the rennet be added while the cream is separate from the milk. All
cheese-makers know that the cream is continually seeking the surface of
the vat, and the difficulty is in haying it perfectly incorporated. If left
but five minutes the cream will be found at the top. Sometimes it rises
more rapidly than at others. If the temperature of the room be below
the temperature of the vat, coagulation \\ill be imperfect. Cold opposes
the action of the rennet. I practice covering my vat if the temperature
■of the room be below the temperature of the milk. When ready I cut it

lengthwaj-s of the vat and allow it to settle without cutting it any more,
cover the whole. I find thai the curd is firm and in better shape to
handle than by cross-cutting. As regards adding an extra amount of
cream to the milk, I have never done it.

BRANDING OLEOMARGARINE.

The chairman announced that the time had arrived for the discussion
of the question whether or not the General Assembly of Ohio shall be
petitioned for the passage of a bill requiring the manufacturers and
dealers in oleomargarine to brand it, so that people will know what they
are purchasing.

The discussion was opened by R. P. Cannon, who said :

If this bill is passed it will re(|uire the manufacturers and dealers in this
imitation butter to brand it with "Oleomargarine.'" The manufacture of
this article has been brought prominently before our attention here, and
we are doing it no injustice by passing this bill reciuiring it to stand upon
its own merits, and branding it so that people will know just what it is.
This bill is in force in New York State, and I trust a similar one will be
passed by the Legislature of Ohio. As Dr. Mott rejoiced in the name and
said it would be an inestimable trade mark, the resolution proposed
throws no discredit upon the product.

Mr. Arnold: When this resolution came up last night, I understood it
to be otiered for the consideration of the American Dairymen's Associa-
tion, and for that reason 1 opposed its introiluction. We have called
here both the friends and opponents of oleomargarine and invited the
fullest discussion of merits and demerits. It has been the poUcy of the
association, since I have been connected with the Executive Board, to
pursue this course with all the novelties of whatever name or nature,
whether patented or otherwise, being satisfied to bring out such facts as
we could Ijy discussion without espousing either side of contending parties.
From what has been developed, we find oleomargarine a competitor with
2d and 3d rate butter, and I am averse to having the xVmericau Associa-
tion depart from its usual rule and take sides with either of these compe-
titors. But now, I understand, the resolution is offered solely for action
by the Ohio members — the members from other States remaining silent
when the vote is taken — and to this I have not a word to object. It is
legitimate and proper for Ohians alone te decide on what relates especi-
ally to their State, without action by the American Association.

Mr. Curtis: It would appear that the convention is in somewhat of a
muddle with reference to this question. None but citizens of Ohio, who
are members of the Association, should vote on the resolution.

Dr. Mott: The object of science is to find out the truth, to ascertain
the true nature and constitution and merits of what we use. This pro-
duct contains nothing unwholesome, has met with a hearty reception
with the people. I would like to know why the supporters of this resolu-

88

tion do not also require the makers of oleoniarjiarine clieese to Viraml it
Oleomargarine.

The bill should certaiiil}- be amended so far as to prevent dairymen,
who make a poor article of cream butter, from forcing it on the market
by labeling it oleomargarine butter.

Prof. Stewart : As a citizen of New York, I would say that I fully en-
dorse the act of our Legislature in passing the bill requirnig this product
to be stamped oleomargarine. They claim that they make a good article,
but that is no reason why they should call it butter. There is not the
same reason for requiring oleomargarine cheese to be so stamped, be-
cause it is made principally of milk with a slight addition oi oleumagarine.

This, however, is made wholly out of fat. with a small addition of milk
to give it the flavor.

Rancid butter is, however, butter, thougli it is poor butter, and any-
body can detect it by its smell, taste, etc.

Agricultural interests demand that if a person make something that
they say is as good as butter, but is not butter, they should be required
to stamp it with just what it is. Have they a right to complain ? Now,
it appears to me that the objection to their being required to stamp it
with its true name is, because they wish to get it in under the name of
butter. If it is going to be a splendid trade-mark, why not sail under
their own colors. I am glad to see the Ohio Association taking this
stand. They should be required to put their name upon it, and if it is a
good one, it is all right.

Dr. Mott: •£ am surprised to hear Pi-ofessor Stewart si)eak in this man-
ner, when the two products are identical in their constituents.

Mr. Straight: I am decidedly in favor of this resolution, and hope
every factoryman and dairyman will vote for it.

I have no controversy with Dr. Mott, but I met a most enthusiastic
gentleman, who was going to dish us up in fine style. According to his
statement, oleomargarine is taking the place of butter everywhere. It
was bomid to do it. It was the most wonderful invention of this century.
The telephone was nothing compared to it. Cows would be of no value
only as a means for raising calves. He did not talk like Dr. Mott. I
was not frightened, however, not one particle. I believe I can find
enough customers in the United States for all the fine butter I can make.
All I ask is, that the oleomargarhie sail under its own colors. This
gentleman said he was selling it for from 20 to 40 cents a pound, when
butter was bringing only from 18 to 20 cents.

1 understand that in New Orleans consumers are very much put out
about it, because of tlae imposition. I think we have reason enough for
<lemanduig that it should sail under its own flag.

Mr. Wire: I have only one objection to the bill, and that is that cheese-
is not also included. I do not see why the argument is not as plausible
for tlie making of oleomargarine cheese.

89

Ft was moved by Mr. Wire that cht'ese be included.

Mr. Foster: Wliy should our Western Reserve dairymen feel afraid of
the consequences, it is acknowledged that this oleomargarine is not to
be compared with the prime article ; it only comes in competition with
cheap, rancid, inferior butter. Let us make nothing but a superior
article, and stand our gi-ound Ijeside the oleomargarine without the aid
of the Legislature.

Mr. Straight: This man that 1 referred to, made the statement that
the product was being used by every first-class hotel in the country. If
this is true, it is competing with the genuine first-class article.

The resolution was then suttmitted to the Convention, the Ohio mem-
bers alone voting.

A standing vote being calleil for, the resolution was declared carried.

The Chairman then announced as the next topic for discussion, Tem-
perature in the Dairy, and introduced G. C. Caldwell, Professor of Agri-
cultural Chemistry. Cornell University, who addressed the Convention a.s
follows:

TEMPERA1TIKK l.N THE DAIRY.

The prdper regulation of the temperature is, as every dairyman knows,
a matter of the highest importance throughout the whole series of opera-
tions in the dairy, from the time that the milk is received till the manufac-
tured product leaves the factory for market. It is not impossible, there-
fore, that we may find some material for proQtal)le instruction in bringing
together the varied ob.^ei'vatioiis tliat have been made on this suliject and
finding out just where we stand, and wherein we are groping somewhat
blindly for want of more light. I shall not be able to fully occupy so wide
a field as this, if I keep my papei- within such limits as not to trench upon
the time wanted for discussion of other and more important subjects to
come l)efore the convention ; but a small beginning on my part may open
the way for someliody else to make a good ending. This matter of tem-
perature forces itself on our consideration even l)efore the milk reaches
the dairy, where it is to be manufactured into butter or cheese, or both.
The milk is drawn from the cow at the temperature of blood heat ; what
shall we do with it? Cool it quickly by artificial means, or let it take
its own time for cooling ?

So far as I can gather information on this point from the recorded ex-
perience of dairymen, It conveys but one lesson, which is, that the imme-
diate cooling of the milk down to from 70 to .'iO'' greatly improves its
keeping quality without in any degree unfitting it forsub.seiiuent manufac-
ture into cheese or butler, or condensed milk. Tiie manufacturers of
condensed milk include in the well-considei-ed code of rules that they im-
pose on their patrons the immediate cooling of the milk as soon as
drawn, as one of the most imjiortant of their regulations ; and it is as-
serted by cheese-makers of experience that the cooling of the milk before
sending it ofl' to the factorj', or before setting it aside for the night, pre-

90

vents the occurrence of some of the most serious troubles that beset the
cheese manufacturer, such as lloatini;; curds, oft-flavored cheese, and the
like. Only one objection has been raised against the rapid cooling of the
milk to a low temperature. This objection is based on the supposed
existence in all freshly-drawn milk of a certain something that communi-
cates to it a disagreealjle odor, and unless removed, a disagreeable flavor
to the products manufactured from it ; that this "animal odor," which
can be easily expelled by heating the milk to 100° or 110°, or by stirring
the milk while cooling it, is retained in the milk if it is rapidly cooled, and
being thus converted from an odor to a flavor, it is sensible only to the
taste in cooled milk ; but when such milk is heated, it is asserted that it
gives off" an odor again, and skilled dairymen claim that they can detect
this flavor in butter made from milk that was rapidly cooled. That there
is something of this kind in milk would appear to be very positively indi-
cated by the strong disagreeable odor that comes from the condensing
pans of the condensed milk factory. All the milk taken to these facto-
ries is rapidly cooled to about 50*^, so that this supposed animal odor
has little or on chance to escape, and all of it is driven oft' when the milk
comes to be heated. The existence of this odor, or ftavor, is alsf) indicated
by* the fact that freshly drawn rhilk has a very unpleasant taste to many
people — a taste that is persistent in the mouth like that of a disagreeable
medicine, such as castor oil. But further than these indications, we have
no proof of the presence of such a substance in milk, for it has never
been separated out of the milk and studied by itself. It is not mentioned
in any of the older works on physiology, nor in some more recent works
devoted to milk f.xclusively. In the latest work on this subject by Dr.
Fleischman, which is being issued from the press now, the author alludes
to the statements made in America as to this animal odor, and is inclined
to ridicule the idea, since such a thing has never been mentioned in
Europe, where the products of the dairy have the best reputation for deli-
cacy of flavor. It must be confessed, I think, that further observation ia
necessary to establish the fact of the existence in normal, healthy milk of
this substance, this gas or volatile oU, with the properties that have been
attributed to it, which may be transferred to the butter or cheese made
from the milk, and will communicate to either of these a flavor percepti-
ble to the average sense of taste.

It can hardly be questioned but that excellent butter has been made
-Om cream obtained by such a process as that of Hardin's, in which the
milk is put at once in tight cans and silrrounded by a very cold atmos-
pliere, and quickly cooled. In such a case the animal odor is very
effectually shut in, and should unmistakably show itself in the flavor of
the butter. It is claimed by many who have tried other methods similar
to It that no such flavor is to be detected.

As to the beneficial effect of the artificial cooling of the freshly drawn
milk but one explanation of it is to be given : It puts a check on the

91

teiulency to lerinentutiou, wbioh, like all fermentative proces:?es, goes on
much less rapidly in a cold liquid than in a warm one. I i;eed not dwell
on this point, and I hasten to the consideration of another matter, in re-
gard to which there is no little ditlerence of opinion — the most favorable
temperiiture at u-hich to .<^et the milk for raising the cream.

In treating of this part of my subject, it will be convenient to designate
by the term serum the liquid containing the casein, sugar and saits, in
which the globules of fat are suspended. Now, independently of the
disputed (luestion as to whether each globule is enclosed in a mem-
braneous sac or not, we are justified in drawing the inference from well-
established physical laws, and from the results of many careful ex-
periments, that there is around every globule a layer of this serum, which
has a density greater than the average density of the whole serum, just
as in any vessel of water or other liquid there is in contact wiih the walls
of the vessel a layer of the liquid possessing a g;reater density than that
of a layer taken at an almost insensible distance from the walls, this con-
densed layer of serum will accompany the globule in all its movements, and
it is the friction between this condensed layer of serum and the main body
of the liquid which constitutes the obstacle to the passage of the fat
globule to the surface. It also follows from the laws of physics that the
smaller the fat globule the greater this frictional resistance will be in
proportion to the tendency of the globule to rise to the surface; in the
case of the largest globules the resistance is smallest in proportion
to the tendency to rise, and these globules reach the surface
first ; smaller globules come up later, and in the case of the smallest the
resistance is so nearly equal to the buoyant force that they will not rise
for weeks.

Changes in the temperature of the milk may affect the manner in
which the cream rises to the surface in several ways.

As is well known milk at all times possesses a certain viscocity or ad-
hesion of its particles to one another, which distinguishes it from water.
This viscosity is greater at low temperatures than at high, and as a con-
sequence the friction that opposes any iBovement of the particles of the
milk among one another is greatest at low temperatures. If no other
effect than this were produced by lowering the temperature, the cream
should rise more slowly at low temperatures.

All bodies, solid, liquid, or gaseous, expand when heated, but not to
the same extent ; 100 cubic inches of water expands Ity 0.045 of its
volume; when heated from 32° to 112, or the 100 cubic inches will be-
come 104.5; 100 cubic inches of olive oil, on the other hand, would
expand to 110 cubic inches, or the rate of expansion of the oil is about
twice as great as that of water. As bodies expand given volumes of
them become lighter; a cubic inch of water at 100'^ is lighter than a cubic
inch at 40°. The more they expand within the same limits of tempera-
ture the lighter the cubic inch becomes; therefore the upward push of

92

the fat globules should be greater at higher temperatures than at low^
because the difference between the specific gravity of the fat and water is
greater at high temperatures than at low; but milk is not simply a mix-
ture of olive oil and water; it is made up of butter fats and serum, and
the serum contains casein in solution, and probably in suspension also,
and sugar and salts in solution, and we know nothing about the rate of
expansion of this eomplex mixture, and consequently we can draw no
safe conclusions from these data as to the comparative rapidity with
which the fat globules should move upward at low and high temperatures.

As a liquid changes in temperature the cooler and heavier portions
tend to move to the lowest part of the vessel occupied I»y the liquid,
while tlie warmer and lighter portions are crowded to the uppermost parts
of the mass ; currents within the liquid are thus i)roduced which may or
may not retard the upward movement of the cream. In a wooden vessel
set in the atmosphere of a cool room, the cooling will take place mostly
at the surface, the cooler particles will drop to the bottom, producing a
continuous downward current along the sides of t)ie vessel, where the
liquid is cooler tlian in the middle, while in the central portions of the
mass there- will be an u|iward current; the natural result of tliese currents
will be,like that of any disturl>ance of the perfect quiet of the liquid, to retard
the collection of the cream at the surface; if, on the other hand, the milk
is cooled in a metallic vessel in a bath of cold water, the coldest portions
are to be found along the vertical walls of the vessel from tO}) to bottom,
and on the bottom, the heat being readily conducted away through the
metal to the water; as the upper part of this layer of hquid along the
walls of the vessel is no cooler ihn^i the lower part, there is no tendency
for it to drop to the lowest part of the vessel, Ijut rather to simply slide in
towards the inner and warmer portion of the liquid, making a slight
downward and inward motion at the same time; the same movement will
take place throughout this outer layer from top to bottom ; there will be
no continuous currents running from top to bottom and vice versa, as in
the wooden vessel and cooled in the air, and it is manifest that the quiet,
steady, upward motion of the fat globule.^ will lie interfered with to a
much smaller extent than in the other case. When the milk is set to cool
in metallic vessels, in a cool atmosphere, the condition of the currents
will he midway between the two cases already cited; there will be less in-
terference with the upward progress of the cream than when the milk is
set to cool in wooden vessels in the air, and more than when cooled in
metallic vessels in the cold water bath.

In a metallic vessel set in cold water to within a few inches of the
top, in a room where the temperature of the air is higher than that of the
water, we would have, according to these principles, the most favorable
conditions for raising the cream while the milk is cooling down to the
temperature where we wish to keep it; we have then the least possible
continuous upward and downward movement of the serum to interfere

98

with thf upward passage of the cream globules; the uppermusl layer
<jf the liquid above the cold water will be warmest, and specitically
lightest, so that there will be no downward current started from the sur-
face by cooling there to drag down the fat globules that have already
risen, and what cream reaches the surface will remain there.

Further than this I do not think we can safely go witli our ihe'orizing;
if, indeed, we have established anything with certainty by the specida-
tions already ventured; we must wait till we have further and more care-
ful determinations of the rate of expansion and contraction of the milk
serum and the fats of milk with changes of temperature; we know that
water expands more rapidly at higher temperatures, nearer its boiling
point, than at lower temperatures; we know that milk, as a whole, ex-
pands more rapidly when heated than water does; but we know nothing
as to the rate of ex)3ansion of milk serum, nor the manner of its expan-
sion, whether uniformly or not, as the temperature rises; nor do we
know whether the exjjansion of the buttei- fats is uniform or not; there-
fore we do not know whether there is a divergence between the specific
gravities of the fats and the serum, as we go up or down in temperature,
or whether the difference between the specific gravities is about the same
at all temperatures within the common limits at which milk is hamlled;
if this divergence increases as we lower the temperature, the upward
push of -the fat globule should increase as the temperature falls; if the
divergence increases as the temperature rises, the upward push should
lie greater at higher temperatures; but where we kjiow so little with
positiveness, we can only guess, and guesses do not make a safe founda
tion for rules (jf piactice.

Let us, then, turn our attention to tht^ results of experiments on the
influence of temperature on the rising of cream. I must, liowever, con-
fine myself to the indication of the general dVift of these experiments,
except in the case of some raoie recent ones, where it may besutiiciently
interesting to go somewhat into details, to compensate for the time
consumed.

Thei'esults of all laboratory experiments and of all experience agree
in support of the law that the highei- the temperature of creaming the
thinner is the layer of cream, the more compact it is and the richer it is
in fat; when, however, we come to consider the relative coniiileteness
of the .separation of the fat from the seriun, we tind no such unannnity
ill the indications of the results (jf experiments, or in th<- cuirent state-
ments of experience. There is no temperature uniformly indicated as
the Iwst foi- the most complete separation of the two parts of the milk.
It is only within the last fifteen years that any careful experiments iiave
been made with respect to this matter; and it mu>t be confessed, on
looking over the records, that there is room yet for further investigation;
but, so far as the results of these experiments go, thoy seem to show very
phiinly that the separation of the fat is more rapid and more complete at

94

low tenfiperature?, in the regiou of 40^ Ihaa at higher temperatures.
TJiis would seem to indicate either that the greater friction that, as
shown in the tirst part of this paper, should retard the motion of the fat
globules in tlie colder milk, is really of no account, or else that, for some
reason, the upward push of the globules is so much creater at the low
temperatures as to more than counterbalance tliis increased friction. A
French chemist, Tisseraud, has recently performed some experiments
bearing on this point that liave attracted considerable attention. In the
first place, lie found that the greatest density of miilv is at a point a little
below the freezing i)oint of water; this point has been confirmed by
Fleischmann; therefore, the behavior of milk is different from water,
which contracts as the temperature falls to 39^ and then, as it cooled still
further down to 32°, steadily expands. Tisserand found also that, while
the fat globules are of an oily consistence at 98°, at 64° they are semi-
fluid, and at about 54° they begin to harden, but witliout any percejjtible
change in volume accompanying these changes from the liquid to the
solid state. He concluded, on the basis of the results of a large num-
ber of experiments, that when the milk was quickly cooled to 36°, the
separation of the cream was almost complete in one hour. The cream
thus obtained was very bulky and thin, but on further standing it con-
tracted in bulk and became thicker. So quick a sepai-ation of the cream
was obtained, however, with a very small quantity of milk, that could
be quickly cooled down; with more milk, 40 quarts in one vessel,
twelve hours were required for the cream to rise to the same extent as
in the smaller vessel, while thirty-six hours was required for the same
quantity of milk to send up its cream at 60°. Tisserand found also that
while milk standing 52 hours at 60° retained 17 per cent, of the fat in
the skimmed milk, milk which stood for the same length of time at 36°
retained but 6.5 per cent Df the fat; all the rest was thrown up in the
cream. As might be expected, then, he obtained a much larger yield
of butter from the same amount of milk standing at low temperatures
for the cream to rise, as shown in the following table; the milk in all
the trials was allowed to stand 36 hours, the quantity of milk is given in
quarts required for one pound of butter:

Temperature. Quarts Milk.

No. 1 36° 10-10.5

2 39° 11-11.5

3 43° 12

4 48° 12-12.7

5 52° 13-13.5

6 57° 14-1.5.4

7 72° 16-17

The butter made from cream from the cold milk was finer and of a
firmer consistency, possessed a more delicate flavor, and kept belter than
that made from milk which was kept at from 55° to 68° for the cream to
rise; and the cheese made from the skimmed milk in the former case was

95

belter, and kept better. These results obtained by Tisserantl add con-
tirmation to those ol)taiiied by other investigators, while they extend the-
range of observation on tins point of the influence of temperature on the
rising of the cream, to a lower degree than before. It is hardly to be
wondeied at that Tisserand urges French dairymen, wjio are accustomed
to set their milk at 54 , not merely to adopt the Swedish system of set-
ting the milk at a lower temperature, but to go even further, and cool
the water of the coldest spring with ice, so as to bring tlie milk down as
near the freezing point as possible. One of our own dairymen, and a
careful observer, expresses it as his opinion that the nearer the milk is
brought to 32^ the more rapidly the cream collects at the surface. The
view ])revails among many German dairymen that when the milk is
cooled down to from 35.5" to 36^, all the cream rises in 12 hours, or that
at any rate so little rises after that, that it does not pay to lei the milk
stand longer.

Fleischmann gives his full adhesion to the view that it is better to set
the milk at very low temperatures, partly because it appears to be very
plamly indicated that the yield of butter is greater, and partly because
the evil results of any failure in perfect cleanliness in handling the milk,
or any defect in the (luality of the milk itself, is so much less liable to
manifest itself to the injury of the butter: and at such low temperatures
there is very little danger of any putrefaction to give rise to products that
might taint the butter.

I think that the experiments of Tisserand need to be repeated before
we can fully believe that it is best to resort to cooling down so near the
freezing poiut, since in other experiments performed by a Swedish chem-
ist, no cream at all rose in the first six hours when the milk was reduced
down to 320.

It appears from what has gone before, that while laboratory experi-
ments have given us certainly some very valuable hints in regard to the
solution of tlie important question as to the best temperature at
which to set milk for cream, they do not enable us to solve it to our
perfect satisfaction. Are we able to till the gap by reference to the re-
sults of experience as applied in the current modes of practice among
dairymen ? Tlie controversies of the day in which these dairyman are
engaged, and the discussions in the dairy columns of agricultural papers,
and in meetings of dairymen, answer my question. From tliese discus-
sions it appears that dairymen may be classified as Iiigh temperature
and low temperature operators, and that all the high teini)ertiture men
do not set tlieir milk at the same temperature; they range all the way
from 58" to 68^, But wliile a 68° man, no doubt, sticks very carefully to
his temperature, and the 58° man to his, I think it is an open question
whetiier between these limits it makes much difference how warm or cool
the milk is, otlier circumstances being the same. Of course, the low
temperature men make strong claims for the advantages of their process,

96

and they lind abundant support in the adoption of the Swedish system
in Germany and other parts of Europe. But there are high temperature
men there as well as among us, nor do they agree together any more
closely than do ours.

Among the different systems prevalent in Europe, we notice the Dutch
method in which the milk is cooled down to 60"" in a water tank, which
requires usually from one and a half to two hours, and the milk is then
set to the depth of four or five inches in a room where the temperature
ranges from 54' to 60^, and I'emains about twenty-four hours ; the Hol-
siein method, in which the milk is set at about the same temperature,
without being first cooled in water, to the depth of one and one-half to
two and one-half inches; the Devonshire method, described as long ago
as 1784. where the milk is put in a cool room, standing at a depth not
greater than from three to four inches for twelve hours; the vessel con-
taining it is then set over the fire and heated till blisters begin to appear
in the cream, or to about 200^, when it is set aside again for twelve
hours; the cream is very firm in consistency and can be made into butter
by simple kneading, and has a sweet, pleasant taste. Mueller states that
the skimmeil milk does not retain more than one per cent, of cream ; the
Gussandei- method makes no account of the temperature, except that it
shall not exceed 61', so that no milk cellai" oi- but only a light, di-y and airy
room is required; the milk is put in large shallow pans, filling them to
the depth of not more than from one to one and one- lialf inches; the
milk is skimmed after twenty-three hours; in sucli a thin layer the milk is
so well aerated that it remains sweet to tlie end, and the cream is sweet
and very rich in fat.

As to the methods of the low temperature practice I need say but little,
as all its details have been rendered so familiar to you in the course of
the past few years. Fleischmann observer, in regard to it, that the
temperature of the milk is usually kept between 30 ' and 42.. )0 and that
in some dairies the best results are obtahied at about 45.50 — that the
temperature of the room should be higher than that of the water of the
bath, but should be reduced in temperature as rapidly as possible.

It is plain enough that out of all this diversity of opinion and pj-actice,
it is impossible to select any one temperature and method of setting the
milk that all will agree upon as best; but never before was this import-
ant subject so widely discussed as now, or so much careful investigatio n
devoted to it, and even if in our day no agreement should be reached,
these discussions and investigations cannot but lead to some progress
toward better methods.

The temperature of churning would naturally come next for cou.slder-
ation, but we find here but little opportunity for such discussion, nor ie
any such wid« range of variation of temperature found in practice as in
raising the cream. Without doubt the use of the thermometer in churn-
ing is as important as in setting the milk for cream, and without doubt

97

there is a certain temperature to which it is best to bring the cream at
the beginning of the operation, so that the inevitable elevation of
temperature, produced by the friction in the churn, shall not have
reached too high a point when the butter comes. This temperature, as
Fleischmann states, depends on four factors:

1. The nature of the material from which the butter is to be made,
whether sweet or sour milk, or sweet or sour cream.

2. The season of the year.

3. The form and arrangement of the churn,
■t. The quantity of material in the churn.

For the allowable limits of temperature of the material when beginning
to churn, he gives the following figures:

Putnge of
Temperature. Average.

Sweet Milk 45.5 -47.75 46.25

Sweet Cream 52.25-59. 55.6

Sour Cream 45.5 -68. 61.25

Sour Milk 59. -70.25 64.6

He allows but little weight to the estimate for sweet milk, because so
few experiments have been made in churning this material; nor have the
figures in this case much importance anyhow. The other numbers are
based on the actual practice in various localities.

[t hardly need be stated that the temperature of the cream should be
from two to four degrees lower for churning in summer than in winter,
partly in order to keep the final temperature dov.-n sufficiently low in the
warmer summer atmosphere, and partly because the butter fat produced
on the summer's green fodder has a lower melting point than that pro-
duced on the dry feed of winter. To get butter of the same degree of
firmness the temperature at which it comes should be lower in summer
than in winter. During the churning the temperature rises, it was once
supposed, because some chemical change took place in the material
churned, but, as is now understood, only because of the friction between
the cream and the sides of the churn, and between the particles of cream
itself. Mueller churned some water half an hour in a churn in a cold
room, and the temperature of the water was raised by seven degrees.
Since it is the final temperature of the contents of the churn when the
butter comes that is of great importance, care must be exercised to pre-
vent this elevation of temperature from exceeding certain limits, three to
four degrees in the case of sour milk or cream, or four to six degrees fur
sweet cream.

Beyond these few considerations, there seems to be little of interest in
regard to temperature in the manufacture of butter that has not already
been presented in the meeting of yesterday. The factoryman sometimes,
at least, has occasion to test the milk that is brought to him in order to
assure himself that it is genuine, unskimmed and unwatered milk. No
method of doing this short of a chemical analysis has yet been proposed
7

98

that is not open to some objections, but of all the quick and ready
methods that have been contrived, none, after all, gives such trustworthy
results for the small amount of manipulation and trouble as that in
which the density of the milk is determined by means of the lactometer,
together with, if occasion requires, the estimation of the quantity of cream
thrown up in a cream guage.

The defects of this method I have already considered in a paper read
before a meeting of this association ; but since ihe information gained by
it can, within certain limits and under certain conditions, always be relied
upon, it will undoubtedly be used by dairymen in preference to any other
method jet known, because of its simplicity. The examination of the
milk of some thousands of cows in this country and in Europe has shown
that the milk of a healthy cow, brought to the temperature of 60°, has a
specific gravity not less than 1.029 ; if, therefore, with the aid of trust-
worthy instruments, the specific gravity of a sample of milk, and espe-
cially of the mixed milk of a herd, such as is brought to the factory, is
found to have a lower specific gravity than this temperature, there is but
one conclusion to be drawn from the result.

Some liquid lighter than milk has been added to it ; such a liquid may
be cream, it may be alcohol or whisky, or it may be watered — -least likely
the first, most hkely the last. Thus the lactometer, with all its defects,
can tell us nothing but the truth when it indicates a density of the milk
below this standard. But it may often be inconvenient to bring the milk
to this temperature before testing it, particularly as the test must be ap-
plied without delay, and not to milk that may have been standing quietly
for any considerable length of time, so that the cream has begun to rise ;
therefore, in Europe, where the lactometer is much used for testing the
milk that is brought into the towns and cities, the test is applied at what-
ever happens to be the temperature of the milk ; and then, by means of
a little table that is sold with the instrument, the corrected reading is
easily and quickly found for the standard temperature. It seems to me
that such tables should be prepared for our dairymen, to correspond with
the Fahrenheit thermometer, used here instead of the centigrade ther-
momter, for which they are now calculated.

For this test especially, as well as in the case of other applications of
the thermometer, a fair degree of accuracy in the indications of the in-
strument is desirable, if ndl almost necessary. Believnig it would add
somewhat to the value of my contribution to the proceedings of the con-
Tontion if I could give some authoritative statement in regard to the ac-
curacy of the thermometers in common use among dairymen, I have care-
fully compared twontj'-two instruments, selected at random from the
slock of a large dealer in dairy supplies, wiih a standard thermometer re-
cently imported from Paris, and with the following results :
1 at very low temperatura

99

standard.

Dairy.

Standard.

Dair

35.8

37

38.5

41

35 8

37

39

40

36.5

38

39.2

40

37

38.5

39.2

.39.2

40

37.4

39

40

37.4

38

39.6

41

37.4

40

40.3

42

37.4

40

40.6

42

37.5

40

40.6

42

37.9

40

41

42

38.3

40

41

42

Not one of the theremometers, therefore, indicated the correct tempera-
ture, all being too high, two of them indicating a temperature 2.5° too
high ; that was the widest variation from the correct standard.

At other points where tests were made the temperature of the water
was constant.

Standard thermometer 59°. Dairy thermometers — Three indicated the
temperature correctly, two very nearly so — 59.5; 14 stood at 60, 1 at
60.5, 2 at 61, 1 at 61.5, and 1 at 62.

The widest variation was three degrees, and all the thermometers in-
dicated too high a temperature.

Standard thermometer, 89.6. Dairy thermometers — 4 correct or
nearly so; 11 stood at 90-90.5, and 7 stood at 91.

Standard thermometer, 149". Dairy thermometers — 1 stood at 146 ', 1
at 147, 3 at 148, 1 at 148..^, 6 at 149, 1 at 149.5, 4 at 150, 1 at 151.5,
3 at 152, and 1 at 152.5.

At the highest temperature tested some of the thermometers indicated
too high temperatures and some too low; and lietween the lowest and
the highest there was a difl'erence of 6)^ degrees; the widest variation
from the standard was 3.5 degrees (above).

These tests go to show that if dairymen believe that their milk must
have a certain temperature to within a degree or less when it is scalded,
or the rennet is added in making cheese, or that the cream must have a
certain, precise temperature in churninir, they must demand greater ac-
curacy in tlie thermometer furnished them. But I doubt whether a varia
tion of two or three degrees from the true indication is of importance
enough to make up for the higher price that must be paid for better in-
struments. Such as are now used are as good as they can be made for
so little money.

Discussion at the conclusion of Prof. Caldwell's address:

Mr. Farringtox, Jr., Pa.: Wliat is the reason that mdk taken fresh
from the cow and made up is not as good as tliat which has some age —
say ten or twelve hours ?

Prof. Caldwell: I do not know that I can answer you. I suppose
the process of ripening goes on like that of cream. It requires a certain
age. Perhaps it is to allow the animal odor to escape.

100

Mr. Farrington: I wish to state a fact in connection with this sub-
ject. It is asserted by some that butter made by Mr. Hardin's process
receives no deteriorating effect from the milic being confined. I have
examined samples of butter made in that way, and while in its texture,
and in every other respect, it was almost faultless, it smelt of animal odor.

Dr. Mott: There can be no question at all but that animal odor is in-
jurious. I have known several to pronounce it cow dung. Analysis
sliows that the gases of milk are composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen
and nitrogen.

Prof. Arnold: If you take warm milk, fresh from the cow, and cool it
down, the animal odor will entirely disappear; but on heating it up
a<j;ain it will at once be manifest. There is an advantage in heating it,
and that is to get rid of this animal odor. No person cares to eat a
product having a cowy flavor.

With regard to the animal odor of milk, its condition and effects, I
have probably spoken and written more on this subject than any other.
It will not, however, be inappropriate to refer to a very Interesting ex-
periment in connection witn it, and the conclusions to which it led.

Professor Caldwell suggested that its action was that of a volatile oil
rather than a gas.

To test this suggestion 1 took a quantity of milk, and confined it a long
time in a close vessel, that the odor might accumulate as much as pos-
sible. Then by carefully distilling and condensing in ice water as low as
35 degrees, I obtained glol)ules of the oil, which at that temperature
was as fluid as water, and emitted no odor, but on warming it a little it
assumed the aeriform condition, and threw out a strong, genuine
animal odor.

It satisfied me that the animal odor is very volatile. I will here refer
to a method of testing or distinguishing between pure and diluted milk.
Our present method is by comparing the specific gravity of whole milk
with that ot milk from which cream has been taken or to which water has
been added. Dr. B. W. Franklin, of Ithaca, N. Y., has recently dis-
covered another mode of distinguishing between pure and watered milk
by means of the difference in conducting power between fat and water,
fat being a feebler conductor than w^ater. The following letter will ex-
plain his mode of operating:

Ithaca, N. Y., Jan. 1st, 1878.
Prof. L. B. Arnold, Sec. A. D. A.:

Dear Sir, — I have been experimenting for a few days in testing milk,
In looking for a test by which I can invariably distinguish watered from
pure milk I reason thus: The butler globules in milk being solid bodies
of fat, must have a power for conducting heat different from that of the
water in milk, and this diflerence of conducting power might be used to
determine quite closely the relative quantities of fat and water in a given
sample of milk. I have experimented on this hypothesis, and, if I am
not mistaken, have found an easy and inexpensive way of distinguishing
between pure and watered milk.

101

My first experiment was thus made: I took a spirit thermometer aud
three common tumblers, tiUe'l one hall" full of water, one half full of
milk (which I knew to be pure), and tiie other half full of milk and
water equally mixed, and reduced the contents of all three to the tem-
perature of the room, which hap;->ened to be 60"; then, over a moderate
flame of a spirit lamp, I warmed the bull) of a spirit thermometer till it
indicated 80 , and then plunged it into the water. In two minutes it sunk
to 60". The bulb was ajj;ain warmed to indicate 80' and this time
plunged into the milk and "water, when in two minutes it fell or.ly to 62 .
or fell 18'' in two minutes instead of 20'', as before. Warmini!; the bulb
as before and plunging it into the pure milk it fell in two minutes to 64 ',
or only 16 in two minutes; the loss of temperature being governed by
the amount of cream as compared with the water. I have repeated this
experiment several times with a wonderful uniformity of results. I wish
you would experiment and let me know your conclusions. It is essential
that the temperature of the room and the conients of the tumblers be
alike. This evening I shall test cream, when I shall expect to find aeon-
ducting power varying with its amount of fal.

Respectfully, B. ^V. Franklin.

Mr. Farrington, Pa. : The question of testing milk has long been a.
hoi)by of mine, as all who are acquainted with me well know, and I
believe that every factoryman here feels ihat it is a vital question. Some
ten years ago, in connection with the trial of a man accused of watering
his milk, of whose guilt there was little doubt, although he was ac-
quitted by the jury, every factoryman 's good sense was insulted by
the report that was published all over that the lactometer was a failure.
Since then, however, otiier trials have taken place, at which intelligent
jurymen have acce|)ted ihe indications of the lactometer as evidence suf-
ficient to convict: and I believe that Prof. Caldwell, and all who have
examined the question, accept, for all practical purposes, the indicatitms
of the lactometer as reliable and sulticient without any corroborative
testimony.

Prof. Englehardt: I would ask Prof. Arnold whether the compara-
tive specific gravity method is reliable.

Prof. Arnold: I hope gentlemen will not be led astray. The limits
of variation of whole milk is known to range from 1029 to 1032. If the
specific gravity of milk tested was between these limits it would not con-
vict a man.

At this stage of the proceedings Mr. Wire suggested that siHiie action
be taken with reference to the death of Colonel Harris, and moved that
President Cannon, etc., be apjiointed to dralt resolutions with reference
to the death of that lamented friend. The resolution was adopted, but
the proposed resolution was not presented to the convention.

On motion, the convention adjourned till 2 oclock P. M.

Afternoon Session.

At the appointed time the Goavention re-assembled, with .Mr. Cannon
in t he chair.

102

"WHAT LACK I YET?'"

The firsi subject of the afternoon was the one entitled " What Lack I
Yet?" upon wliich an address was delivered by Hon. Harris Lewis, of
Frankfort. He said :

When our Lord was ou earth a young man came running to Him, and in
apparent deep concern asked the question: " VVhatgood thing shall I do
to inherit eternal life?" Our Savior answered, " Thou knowest the Com-
mandments: Thou slialt not kill; thou shalt not commit adultery; thou
Shalt not steal ; thou shalt not bear false witness; honor thy father and
thy mother, and love thy neighbor as thyself. This ruler in Israel, con-
scious of his integrity, and self-satisfied with his morality according to
law, answered, "All these things have I observed and kept from my
youth up. 'What lack I yet?' "

It is well for us to pause and ask ourselves, as dairymen, " What lack
we yet ?" Although the past has been a season of general prosperity to
farmers as a class, and to cheese dairymen ui particular, yet we may not
contmue to receive paying prices for our surplus productions, as we have
during the past season. Do I lack a love for my business ? If I do I lack
the foundation of success. No man can fully succeed in the conduct of any
business, in the pursuit of any profession or object, without that degree
of love for which it carries with it enthusiasm. The details of any business
we dislike will be neglected, and never attended to when they should be,
nor in a proper manner. How often do we see men of more than
ordinary intelligence leave their business to the care of others (however
incompetent) or to care for itself, while they seek for company in places
where intoxicating drinks are sold, and where games of chance are
played? We often find men not in love with their occupation ma king i he
most flimsy excuses for neglecting it.

If we lack a love for our occupation we lack nature's qualification,
which is the gift of God. I lay it down as an axiom that a qualification
by nature, aided by study and practice, is necessary to success in any-
thing we undertake. If I lack a love for my occupation I shall not be
inclined to give it much study; and as proof of this, many dairymen,
during this meeting, within the radius here represented by you, will spend
their time sitting on drygoods boxes, in stores, on sugar barrels at the
groceries, lounging in saloons and in bar-rooms, or what is worse, play-
ing games of chance for drinks !

Ask those men to attend the meeting, and they will tell you they can-
not for want of time, or that they can read the report in the papers, or
perhaps they will say they understand the business well— know all about
it—and that what they don't know ain't worth knowing. I have heard
all these reasons given by dairymen who did not love their business, for
not attending these meetings, where they might obtain the most knowl-
^Ige of their business in the shortest time, and for the least money.

We all know these same dairymen have lots of time to spend from

loa

home, especially jast at milkiug time, and that they never take a paper.
If they read one it i3 i)orro\ved. Of theii- knowledge we have nothing to
say — modesty forbids; but we may quote what another said: "Seest
thou a man wise iu his own conceit, there is more hope of a fool than of
him."

Again, if I lack a love for my business, I lack all system in its manage-
ment. Whatever I do I do it because it must be done, but never do it
until the last moment in which it can be done, atul do it then in a care-
less, slip-shod manner. If I lack a love for ray occupation to that ex-
tent which renders its study irksome and its necessary labors onerous, I
belong to tliat class who are commonly known as unlucky. As dairy-
men and dairywomen, it is well for each of us to ask ourselves the ques-
tion, '-What lack I yet 7"

Does the farm upon whicii lam conducting the dairy business lack any
essential thing to make my business, if properly managed, a reasonable
success? Will it produce an abundant crop of good, nutritious grass? or
does the soil lack some element which I ran easily and cheaply supply,
thereby rendermg a good crop of the nutritious grasses almost a cer-
tainty in good, favorable seasons? Do I, in my practice, make ample
provision for unfavorable conditions beyond my control, such ae
drouths, &G. ? Does my farm lack an abundant supply of good running
water, from springs or brooks, easily obtained by the cows. Winter and
Summer ? Or do the cows wallow through tilth and mud to obtain their
drink in Summer, and stand on their heads to obtain it at the spring, or
brook, as the snows accumulate during Winter? If my farm lacks the
elements for the production of good grass, and is destitute of good pure
water, to that extent that a reasonable outlay will not supply the one
and provide the other, it will be better for me to change my business, or
exchange my farm for one better suited to me.

Do I lack a herd of cows best suited for that particular branch of the
dairy business hi whicIi I am engaged ? if I do, that lack can be easily
and chea|)ly supplied by the introduction of that particular breed best
suited to my wants.

These various breeds have all been brought up to their present state of
usefulness and perfection at a great cost of time and money, and can be
obtained now by dairymen at very moderate prices.

The Ayrshires, Alderneys, or Jerseys, the Devons, Holsteins and
Shorthorns, each and all have their special and particular value and
fitness for the ditlerent branches of the dairy, and a special adaptation
for various localities. The Native cows ( so called), constituting about
nine-tenths of all our dairy cows, will, from their cheapness and numbers,
constitute the principal foundation for improvement in our dairy stock.

Calves, from our best native cows, got by thoroughbred males, of that
breed best suited to our respective wants, will cost but a trille more, per
head, than the natives, pure and sim|)le. In presenting to you the im-

104

portance of improving our native stock for dairy purposes, I do not
ignore the fact, that we often find among them individual cows of supe-
rior excellence; but when we attempt to breed from one of these superior
cows with like stock, she seldom transmits to her offspring her own good
qualities. Hence, it is often remarked, that good cows produce poor
calves. When the superior cow has obtained her excellence from some
near or remote class, it is not sufficiently inbred or fixed to enable her to
transmit it to her progeny.

I do not urge our dairymen who never attend a dairymen's meeting
to attempt any improvement in their herds. The effort would be useless,
the time and money thrown away. The natives are best for them, as they
will live on the smallest amount of poor food, endure the meanest treat-
ment ever bestowed by the most brutal man upon his animals, and still
some of the most hardy live and make some return.

Does my herd lack an abundant supply of good nutritious food? or do
I seek to winter and summer my cows on food from which good pure
milk cannot be produced.

Do I lack that skill and care, in the manufacture of butter and cheese,
that secures for them the iiighest price on the markets ?

It is unfortunate that some cheese makers can and do make good fair
cheese from poor milk; but it is a much greater misfortune for us that so
many cheese-makers can and do make poor cheese from good milk. The
very fact that some persons do make better cheese from skim milk than
others do from whole milk, has demoralized a great many cheese-makers,
and hafe a tendency to depreciate the value of all the cheese made, by the
too generous use of the everlasting skimmer.

Do we lack a market for our constantly increasing dairy productions ?
Have I done, and am I doing, all I can to establish and sustain our
boards of trade? Do my dairy products possess those qualities that at-
tract buyers at the highest market price?

If they do not, it will be better for me, and for the general interests of
darying, to abandon the busmess, or improve the quality of my goods.

Do I as a cheese-maker lack a full set of skimmers, by which I can
skim my milk at the top, at the bottom, and all around the sides before
making it into that quality of cheese which nobody likes ?

Let us bring this matter of skim cheese home to our very doors. Is
there a man, woman, or child in this assembly, in this village, in this
county, in this State, that prefers skim milk cheese to whole milk cheese?
If I were to make a cheese lor any one of you here to-day, would you
ask me, as a favor to you, to take all, or any part of the cream ofi' the
milk, so that you might be sure of a good cheese ?

I do not know a man or woman in this wide world who prefers a poor
skim cheese to a good full milk cheese. I go further. I never knew a
rat, or mouse, so destitute of good sense, sound judgment or refined
taste, as to prefer skim cheese to whole milk cheese.

105

We do lack a sufficient quantity of good cheese to supply the foreii^n
markets and home trade, and while as a rule the best is sent away, the
poorest is kept at home, and sold to dealers at a less price to be used
here. This practice may be continued until we wholly lack a home
market.

While we have made a great improvement in the quality of our butter
and cheese within the past fifteen years, we do not lack the oppor-
tunity for much greater improvement.

Many of our clieese makers still lack a knowledge of their Ijusiness,
and proper curing rooms in which to ripen their cheese. Many of our
butter makers lack a knowledge of their business to that extent that
their butter is not good when new, nor does it improve its quality with
advancing age. Finally, the greatest lack found at our butter and
cheese factories is pure milk, delivered in its best condition for the manu-
facture of butter and cheese. This lack can be traced to the ignorance,
imllBerence, or want of care, found chiefly among that class of patrons
who never attend a convention like this, who never buy or read a news-
paper or book devoted to their calling, and published for their especial
benefit. Would it not be right — -would it not have an enlightening efl'ect
upon these patrons to divide the milk and make up the good by itself and
the bad by itself, so that each class would have the just reward of its own
care and labor. Under our present system of l)utter and cheese factory
management the careful, painstaking patron is grossly ignored by mix-
ing his good milk with tliat which is good-for-nothing, and ought not to
be received. At the same time, and by the .same operation, the patron
furnishing bad milk is rewarded for his want of care. I know there are
patrons located between two factories where both managers bid for the
milk, where the patron is astride the fence, ready to go either way with
his milk, yet apparently indifferent in regard to which way he goes until
he gets the highest bid. These patrons are the masters of the situation,
but would not be if I was in place of either manager.

How long will our factory managers lack the nerve and backbone to
do right between their patrons? How long will tliey fear to hold the
scales of justice evenly balanced between man and man?

The Chairman then announced the following committees:

Committer on Nominations — Harvey Farrington, Canada; R. P. Can-
non, Oliio; Eastburn Reader, Pennsylvania; Lorin Green, New York;
W. B. Straight, Ohio; Wm. A. Johnson, New York; J. B. Lewi.s, New
York.

Committee on Finance — E. G. Ellis, Ohio; .S. A. Farrington, Penn-
sylvania; F. E. Englehardt, New York.

CoMMrPTEE ON Dairy APPARATUS— Alexander McAdams, Ohio; S. E.
Carter, Ohio; S. A. Farrington, Pennsylvania.

106

SOILS AND GRASSES FOR THE DAIRY.

A letter from Prof. N. J. Townsend, of tbe Ohio Agricultural College,
who was expected to read a paper on this subject, was read by Mr. Horr,
in which he regretted his inability to be present.

Mr. HoRR made a few remarks in connection with this subject. He
said: In riding through the country I have observed innumerable patches
of thistles, docks, and weeds of diflerent kinds, in fact, in some cases
almost as many weeds as grass. What a tremendous waste? These,
with proper exertion, could be eradicated in two or three years. Such is
the apathy and mismanagement displayed that in some localities the
business is almost ruined.

Mr. Cannon introduced Mr. M. B. Bateham, of Painesville, who, he
said, had long done good service in the promotion of agriculture and
horticulture in Ohio, and would say a few words about pastures and
grasses.

Mr. Bateham said :

" All liesh is Grass," and President Grant uttered a plain truism when
he said "agriculture is the groundwork of our national prosperity.
And so our dairy pastures are the basis of prosperity in the business
which this convention is aiming to promote, and improvement in the
production of the raw material is quite as much needed as in the finished
article of commerce. For several years past he had heard dairy farmers
of the Western Reserve say that their business was becoming unprofit-
able, owing to the gradual decline of the pastures and the increasing
severity of drouths, rendering it necessary to use nearly twice as much
land as in early times for a given number of cows. Having occasion the
past Summer to spend some time among the farmers in the older dairy
sections of the Reserve — the Counties of Ashtabula and Geauga, with por-
tions of Lake, Summit, and Portage — he made particular examination
and inquiry respecting the extent and causes of the decline in the pro-
ductiveness of the pastures, and what he learned fully confirmed what had
been told him as to its extent and the meagre profits resulting to the
generality of the farmers; and he was convinced that the chief reason why
no larger number of the dairy farmers were present at this meeting was
the fact their means are too small to allow of such expense as would be
incurred in coming and spending two or three days in the city.

In confirmation of what had been told him by dairy farmers, he found
that the statistics of the several counties, furnished annually by the as-
sessors, showed a large decline in the productiveness of the pastures.
Commencing only nine years ago, wlien the amounts of pasture land be-
gan to be reported along with the number of the different kinds of stock,
we find that while the number of cattle at that time was nearly the same
as now, the number of sheep was from 20,000 to 60,000 per county
greater, and yet the number of acres of pasture at that time was much
less than now, the returns showing an increase in eight years of about

107

20,000 acres in Geauga Coanty, au(i 30,000 in Ashtabula. If we count
eight sheep as equivalent to one cow, we find by the statistics that eight
or nine years ago the average capacity of the pastures was one cow to
three acres, and now it is only one to four acres — a very large decline for
so few years.

These dairy, lands are generally level, or slightly undulating, the soil
clayey and not deep, though originally quite rich with decomposed vege-
table mutter on the surface. Grass flourished finely so long as this sur-
face fertility lasted, and while the roots of the forest trees which per-
meated the soil were gradually decomposing, allowing the grass roots to
descend in their places. But after a period of eight or ten years these
sources of fertility became exhausted, and the tramping of cattle, while
the clay soil was wet in Spring, caused It to become very hard when dry,
and the roots being unable to penetrate downwards, or finding no nutri-
ment there, could only spread near the surface, and hence perished in
times of drouth.

Another cause of the failure or decline of pastures is the common prac-
tice of over-stocking, turning on the cows too early in spring, and keep-
ing them on too late in the fall, besides feeding ofl' too closely all the
season, thus allowing the grass plants no opportunity to make good
foliage or strong roots. Every intelligent farmer understands that leaves
are necessary for the growth of roots; and even Canada thistles are soon
killed by keeping the tops cut ofl. Then, who can wonder that these
bare and hard-tramped pastures soon fail in times of drouth, or that the
nutritious grasses are so largely supplanted by weeds or " poverty grass "
{Danthonia), which cows will not eat.

Most of these pastures have never Deen plowed, as this cannot be done
with advantage without a good deal of enriching before re-seeding.
Hence it is not jjossible that the soil has been largely robbed of its
mineral elements of fertility, excepting at the surface. And it is found that
all of these clay soils can be made highly productive, and kept so, by a
judicious system of tillage and rotation of crops, with moderate manur-
ing. Some experiments have been tried with various kinds of fertilizers as
top-dressing for pastures and meadows, as lime, ashes, superphosphate
and bone-dust; and from all that had been learned of the results, but
httle benefit had resulted from lime; ashes had done much good where
the soil was less compact and clayey than the average ; superphosphate
was quite beneficial on meadows, and when seeding with wheat and
grass, but on the whole, did not seem to pay as well as the bone-dusL
This last, when pure and finely ground, like the sumple exhibited here,
from the mill at Salem, O., had been tested by a number of dairy-farmers
and others within the past two years, with such obvious results as to
clearly indicate that the mineral elements most wanting in the old dairy
pastures is phosphoric acid; and when we consider that this is a constant
ingredient of milk and cheese, as well as the bones and flesh of animals,

108

it IS easy to see how the Utnited supply hi the soil may become exhausted
— shipped off to Europe and elsewhere in the twenty million pounds of
cheese annually exported from our State.

The remedy for this wearm^ out or decline of the dairy pastures must
of course be found in plowing and enriching the soil, along with more of a
mixed style of farming, and the use of green crops, as clover, etc.. as
manure, when the soil issufficiently deepened and drained. Partial soiling
of cows in summer will also need to be resorted to as a means of avoiding
too close feeding and injuries from drouth.

A MIXTURE OF GRASSES,

when seeding for pasture, will be found of much advantage, instead of
using Timothy and clover alone, and trusting to the more durable kinds
to come in of themselves. English dairy farmers understand this, and
use from 10 to 1.: kinds of grass when seeding down pasture lands.
Grasses difler in their roots as much as in their tops; some being very
fibrous and creeping, near the surface, and others going more downward;
so that a thicker and better turf is formed by a number of kinds together
than by one or two alone.

Some kinds of grass start earlier than others in spring, and some are
better than others in the fall, or stand heat and drouth better on account
of deeper roots. The speaker advised sowing the following six kinds,
as known to be adapted to clayey soils, and to the climate of northern
Ohio: Timothy, Blue Grass, Red Top, Orchard Grass, Meadow Fiscue
and English Rye Grass — addnig white clover if desired. If either kind is
omitted, it should be the rye grass, as it sometimes winter kills on flat
clay soils. The fescue grass, though foreign, has been steadily intro-
ducing itself along the clay roadsides in northern Ohio for some years
past, wi'.hout human aid, and flourishes finely in moist places, if the soil
is not too poor. It is esteemed as one of the best of pasture grasses in
England, thougli cattle do not seem quite as fond of it as of Timothy or
blue grass.

MILK PRODUCTION.

Professor E. W. Stewart then proceeded to deliver an extemporaneous
address on this subject, as follows:
Mr. President and Gentlemen —

I wish to direct your attention to some specialties.

First — I would impress upon all dairymen the necessity of believing, as
firmly as a churchman does his creed, that something never comes from
nothing.

If they could only believe that whatever is produced in beef, milk, or
wool must be producetl from the food which the animal eats, a very great
change would at once take place all over the country. There is not a
movement made by any creature that is not compensated for by the
food. This matter bears directly upon dairymen. If you allow your
cows to go two miles, or one mile to pasture, or if you allow any one to

109

misuse them, you must pay for it in food. Every intelligent dairyman
knows tiiat claasing or dogging cows changes the quality of the milk.
It becomes poor, defective in oil ; the nervous excitement uses it up.

This illustrates the doctrine that all exercise must be paid for in food.
There is not one degree of heat that is not produced by the food. If you
expose your cows to a temperature fifteen degrees below zero, you must
burn food enough in the stomach of the animal to overcome this intense
cold. I want to impress upon you this great law of equivalents.

There must be something paid for everything. You cannot produce
something from nothing. You mtist know that you have to support the
cow lirst. She must live before you can produce any milk whatever.
Some seem to think that if their cows live poor during the winter they
will pick up in the spring, but this is a great mistake; it will require
nearly all that a poor cow can eat to supi)ly the wants of' her own
system.

Now, gentlemen, I want to call your attention to a fact that is of gen-
eral interest, whicli is, that it takes two-thirds of the food you give the
cow to kee)) her in fair condition — her food of support — before you get any
milk production. This lias Iteen tested. I have tested it in a number of
instances. I do not mean to say that all animals thus use up two-thirds
of their f(jod ; Ijut as a general statement, two-thirds of the food goes to
keej) Uie animal alive. Up to that point you make nothing.

A growing animal, that weighs four, five or six hundred pounds in the
Fall, and weighs the same, oi- perhaps a little less, in the Spring, is more
than unprofitable. The food required to keep it over is utterly thrown
away. You have as ell'ectualiy lost it as wood that had been burned m
your stove. All you have left is its droppings, as also the ash from the
wood. Now, you must remember that all your profit, if you get any, must
come from the extra third of food you give the cow, and if your are so
stingy as to refuse that, besides the cost of keeping the cow, you lose all
profit.

In regard to milk jn-oduction ihecowis simply a machine to produce
milk, precisely as much so as a steam engine is a machine to produce
motion or power.

If you give the steam-boiler no more than enough fuel to just warm
the water, you get no power. Your boiler must have fuel to produce
extra heat before you can do any work.

It certainly makes considerable difference what kind of a cow you use to
produce milk, just as it does the kind of boiler and engine you use to pro-
duce motion and work ; and therefore it is iinpurlant that in purchasing
and breeding cows for dairy purposes that you look to the capacity of
the cow to turn food into milk. But without generous and judicious feed-
ing breed is of little consequence. If your cow produces only 3,000
pounds of milk a yeir, the cow is kept at a loss.

Thirty or thirty-five dollars will only pay for the food she eats. It costs

liO

about seven-eiL^hths as much to keep that cow as it would one that woul^
produce 4,000 to 5,000 pounds. So that a man who neglects to select bis
cows, and refuses that extra one-eighth, loses all chance of making a
profit. Unless abundant food is given, you will not receive anything
worthy of your labor. Dairymen do not study this question as they
should. Full feeJing requires that the fanner shall provide some green
food to carry him over a dry time, when the pasture becomes short. This
he may do in one way by sowing corn. It is, no doubl, one of his best
reliances. My friend, Mr. Lewis, raises a large amount of mangels. They
are very succulent roots, and I would recommend them wherever they
can be produced cheaply. The great advantage of corn is, it will grow
almost anywhere. With respectable cultivation you may raise 24 tons
of green fodder an acre on an average.

Ques. What kind of corn would you recommend ?

Prof. Stewart: The different varieties of sweet corn, and also the
common kind, I would recommend an early sweet corn for early use, and
then Stowell's evergreen will come in last. It is very succulent and full
of sugar, containing the elements to produce milk, though not all in the
right proportion; in fact, we have no one food which is perfect in nutri-
tion, containing all the qualities necessary to make it normal food.

Oats and peas combined are nearly a normal food. The pea is very
rich in albumenoids, as well as oats; although they do not ripen pr^isely
together, yet they mature near enough together for green food. I would
begin to feed them just when the pea is forming in the pod, and continue
whilst it remains green. You will And the cow will vote for this green
food every time.

Hungarian grass is an excellent milk producer. To do, well, however^
it requires a finely pulverized soil.

I want to impress upon you the importance of using oats and peas.
Corn meal is an excellent food to produce milk if you combine with it a
portion of oil meal to balance up the constituents. Carbon and water
alone will not grow bone and muscle, you must have more albumen.
Oats and corn ground together, bushel for bushel, forms an excellent ra-
tion. You can scarcely find a better food. There is a great deal of loss
m feedmg the cow as if she had but one stomach instead of four. If
you feed meal alone it will probablj' go at once into the fourth stomach
and will not be raised for re-mastication, and you will find a streak of
yellow in her manure. I once tried an experiment with ten cows, giving
each cow three quarts of corn meal per day, fed alone. This was con-
tinued for a month. For the same length of time I fed them the same
quantity of meal, mixed with one peck of moistened cut hay. In both
cases they had all the hay they chose to eat. I weighed the milk and
the result showed a gain of 2.5 per cent, in favor of mixing the meaF
with cut hay.

Ques. Was it fed raw or cooked ?

Ill

Prof. Stewart: It was raw, and fed wet. I am always ready to ac-
knowledge my mistakes. I will say here, that if meal is fed alone, it is
better to feed it dry than wet, as it becomes better mixed with the saliva,
which is an important agent in digestion. By mixing the meal with cut
hay, it ail goes to the lirst stomach, and is raised for re-mastication.

By cooking hay you bring it back nearly to its original condition i>f
grass. For the encouragement of those who keep a large stock, I would
remark that you can cook the food at a very small percentage of cost to
each animal. It would not pay if you have but live or ten cows, for
nearly the same labor is required to cook for ten as for thirty or forty.
If you have suitable arraiigemeutjj, by the aid of machinery, one man
alone will cut, cook and feed the fodder required for one hundred cows.
It would require an engine of, say, eight horse-power.

You may have your straw, clover or corn fodder conveniently stored,
so that one man can feed and cut, and by a very simple carrier it can
be conveyed to the steam -box, which is in the form of a barrel, hung
on trunnions at each end, so that it can be revolved.

The fodder is carried and falls into a mixer over the steam-box below,
and when the box is full, it is pressed in solid, water being supplied
from a pipe at the rate of two gallons to every five bushels of straw or
hay. The meal or grain is conveyed in a spout from an elevated bin, in
-just the proportion desired. The mixer mixes hay, water and meal to-
getlier, and it falls into the steam-box below. It is all done by ma-
chinery. In one hour, one man can cut and mix and fill a steam -box
large enough to feed one hundred cows; and in another hour, or hour and
a half, he will cook it.

A gentleman who raises much corn, told me that he made an experi-
ment, in order to find out how much an acre of corn was worth. He fed
it when soft, in the roasting state, to one hundred and four cows, in Octo-
ber, in stables, and it lasted them four days. That is equal to feeding
one cow four hundred and sixteen days. If you have a cooking ap-
paratus, I will give you another good way of using corn, after it is ripe,
without husking, shelling and grinding. Take it from the shock, run it
through this jlraw-cutter, stalks, corn and all, cutting it very sliort, a
thin shaving of an eighth of an inch in length, run it into the steam-tank,
mixed with water, and steam it til! it is soft, and you will get all tiie
profit from it that you would after husking, shelling and grinding.

Qites. How much does it cost to raise an acre of corn?

Prof. Stewart : It depends very mucli upon circumstances. Some
say they can raise it at a cost of ten dollars an acre. I never could do it
for that. It costs less money to winter your cows upon corn in this way
than upon hay or any other food that I know of. The day is certainly not
iar distant when all enterprising farmers will soil their stock to a great
I'xtent. The best way to soil is to begin raising grain. Make a calcula-
tion as to how much corn and other grain crops you will require, raise

112

good crops, and you will soon see the folly of using three to five acres to
pasture a cow, when she can be soiled on a half acre.

Ques. Have you had experience with rye ?

Prof. Stewart : Rye is a little better than corn for green fodder, but
not as good as grass ; not as good as clover. It, however, comes earUer
in the Spring than corn, clover or timothy, and it may be cut several
times in a season. I believe in saving labor when it is possible or judi-
cious. I have contrived a self-cleaning stable, which so far appears to
work well. It certainly is very satisfactory to the men whose business it
was to clean it. An iron grating is put in for the hind- feet of the cows
to stand upon. The fore feet stand upon planks. This grating is com-
posed of bars of iron resting upon iron joists. The iron joists rest on an
angle iron sill, at the back side of the platform, and the other end upon a
wooden joist under the plank. The bars lying across these are an inch
thick and 13^' inch wide, and are placed 1^ inch apart. The plat-
form is raised 12 inches, and the gutter sunk 8 inches. The droppings all
pass through into the gutter below. No manure or urine remains to soil
the cows. The manure which had previously accumulated on their
flanks, began at once to disappear. I was afraid the cows might slip on
the bars, but my fears were unfounded.

Ques. What was the cost "?

Prof. Stewart : For twenty cows the iron, ready fltted, cost f 70 only.
I consider it will save that in labor in two years.

Ques. How do you fasten your cows?

Prof. Stewart; For a long time I have been convinced of the
barbarity of the method of fastening their heads between two sticks or
stanchions, but always practiced it till lately. I think I have now the
best method. It costs but little.

Erect posts, 4 by (5, between each two cows, on each side an iron
staple, 12 inches long, is driven hrmly in. This staple is composed of '^
inch rod. The cow is fastened in the center of this space by means of a
stout iron chain, each end of which is attached to the staple, and slides
up and down. The chain has a ring in the middle, and is fastened to a
leather strap about the cows neck by means of a strong snap. By this
arrangement the cow is able to lick any part of her body, and she does
not plunge against the stanchions when she lies down or gets up. As far
as I can see by their looks they give me an unanimous vote of thanks.

Mr. Lewis: Will not the manure in the gutter ferment, smell, and be
very unhealthy?

Prof. Stewart: In the winter, as a matter of fact, there is no fermen-
tation in cow manure during three weeks whilst the gutter is being filled,
and in the summer I shall mix dry earth with the manure to prevent all
odor and increase the value of the manure.

Ques. How do you ventilate the stable 1

Prof. Stewart: By having several spouts, 8 inches by 16, running

113

below the floor over the hasement, and then up to the plates of the barn.
Ever}' other spout running down to within a foot of the floor of the base-
ment, discharging cold air, and the upper ones warm air.
The Convention then adjourned till 7 P. M.

Wednesday Evening Session.

The Association resumed at 7 o'clock.

Mr. Real ofl'ered a resolution in favor of the remonetization of silver.

Prof. Arnold: I shall oppose this resolution on the ground that it is
not an appropriate subject for discussion i)y this convention. Our asso-
ciation being nonpolitical ni its nature, including among its members
persons adhering to diff'ereut political parties, all united here on a com-
mon ground, to advance the great agricultural interests of the country.
It is, therefore, very inappropriate to introduce such a resolution.

On motion the resolution was laid on the table.

The chairman then announced the next subject for discussion:

FULL CREAM CHEESE,

And introduced Mr. S. A. Farrington, of Pennsylvania, who, on coming
forward, addressed the convention as follows :

Mr. President and Gentlemen,— In justice to myself, I will inform
you that until a few days ago I had expected to address you on another
subject; I have, therefore, no written manuscript, and my remarks will,
perhaps, be more or less incoherent.

I will IJrst briefly trace the cheese manufacture from its infancy to the
present time. Our exports of cheese, in 1840, amounted in all to about
5,000,000 pounds; the best dairies in Herkimer County receiving 41^
cents a pound. In 1845, some dairymen not being satisfied with the
price received, formed a sort of Granger organization and sent a man to
New York to learn the wants of tlie trade and sell their goods. That
organization was successful and resulted in a complete revolution in the
manner of manufacture and quality of the cheese. Their agent, who
went to New York, found that much could be saved by making the
cheese so tliat it would be ready for market in twenty or thirty days.

Cheese-makers were anxious to obtain a price equal to the best, and
thus a healthy competition and enterprise was excited, and its manufac-
ture and exportation greatly increased, so that in 1852 our exports
amounted to 15)^ millions, against five millions in 1845. Mr. Williams
established the first factory west of Connecticut, in i8o2. Between this
date and 1863, many more came into operation. Up to this time
the manufacture of chee.se from sweet curd was mainly used. Acid was
not practiced to any great extent. The acid tlieory was first discovered
by accident. The cheese of one factory was found to pass through tin-
hot weather and keep its place, remaining e'olid. Others were troubled
more or less. The question arose, what made the difference ? It was found

IM

'On an investigation being made, that the factoryman whose cheese kept
its place had fed his whey to the cows, and the experiment was made of
putting the whey into the milk, when the same result followed. This
was the origin of the acid system. The manufacture and exportation
has increased every year, until last year, from the 1st of May until the
30th of December, we exported over 103,000,000 pounds. This is indeed
remarkable, and, at the same time, remunerative prices were obtained.
The great improvement in the quality of the goods is, without doubt, the
cause of this increased exportation. The English consumers have told
us during all these years, " You can manufacture and furnish us cheese
cheaper than we can for ourselves ; and if you will only give us the
quality we want, we will take all you can make." Canada, which thir-
teen or fourteen years ago was importing chiefly, from New York State,
$200,000 worth annually, in 1875 produced 49,000,000 lbs. Put that with
our own production, and you will seethe immense increase since tlie factory
system was organized. In regard to the quality of the goods produced,
we find that English consumers want a close, firm, nutty, mild, well-
Uavored cheese, and they will take all that we can make of this class.
But much of our cheese is inferior, do not satisfy English taste, and
becomes a drag on the market. It is certainly suicidal for us to make
such an article.

We should not only produce an article of cheese that will satisfy the
foreign demand, but will also suit our own people.

It is stated ou good authority that England consumes ten pounds of
cheese to each inhabitant, while we consume only from 2}4 to 3 pounds
each.

Prof. Arnold andProf.Caldwell willtellyouthatthereisasmuch nourish-
ment in one pound of good cheese as there is in two pounds of butcher's
meat. If our people could be impressed with the fact that cheese is not
only one of the cheapest, but also one of the most healthy articles of diet,
how soon would the demand for it increase. We seem to forget how
much we might do to increase the demand by making nothing but agood
article. We seem to look too much for the present sixpence, instead of
waiting for the future shilling. There is a wide diflerence between cured
and dried cheese.

For some time after the factory system was established, the general
opinion seemed to prevail J'that the rennet was simply a coagulating
agent, and curing rooms were called drying-rooms. These being the
views entertained, it is easy to conceive what the result would likely
be. More recent researches, however, have shown that the influence of
this coagulating agent goes on through the process of curing; that we
are to depend upon the rennet as the digestive principle, operating upon
the curd, very similarly as the milk is operated upon when received into
tlio calf's stomach. It is therefore very important that the conditions,

115

favorable or unfavorable, for the proper influence or operation of this
agent be properly understood'.

Many manufacturers think that if they receive pure, clean milk, and
use the best of skill in its manufacture, their work is over. If, however,
the best manufactured cheese be put into a cold, damp curing-room, it
will produce a poor product every time. I will now briefly describe the
manufacture of whole milk cheese, first remarking that the amount of
heat, and quantity of rennet used, will depend upon whether it is wanted
to go into immediate consumption, or whether it is required to possess
long-keeping qualities. The first condition is that the patrons of the
factory bring good, sound milk in good condition, whether it is carried
twice a day or only once. The practice used to be twice a day, almost
entirely; now, in some localities, it is taken but once a day.

Night's milk, if not manufactured till morning, is cooled down to
about 70°; some reduce it to 80°, and others as low as 60'.

The cream that rises during the night is taken from the vat before any
of the morning's milk is put in, and run through the strainer with the
warm milk, tliat it may be properly incorporated therewith. The whole
is then heated to 84^, and sufiicient rennet added to cause cogulation to
•commence m fifteen minutes, and the curd to become firm enough to cur
in forty-five minutes. It is then cut by horizontal and perpendicular
knives, which leave it in cubes one-half mch square.

Ques. Is that fine enough :

Mr. Fakrington: This is the general practice. I "have heard of fac-
tories where they cut it as fine as wheat. After cutting the curd, heat is
gradually applied. This is done sometimes by ai)plying dry steam be-
tween the vats; sometimes injecting the steam directly into the milk or
wliey; others fill the space between the vats with water, and heat the
water by discharging steam into it.

In any case, it must be applied very gradually; no portion is allowed
to advance faster than any other. The curds float around in the whey
like feathers. After raising it a few degrees, the steam is shut ofl' ten or
fifteen minutes, when it is agaui applied. The whole mass must be con-
tinually agitated. Some use the hands alone for this purpose, and some
a small rake. Tiie heat is tlius gradually applied until it is raised to
iJ8« or lOO'^.

Ques. Is not 94^ sufliciently high to scald?

Mr. FARRiNdTON: My experience is, and It agrees with what I was
taught, that 98° is nearer the temperature of the not-mal condition of the
milk, and, therefore, the more natural it works.

When working it as low as 92° or 94^ I thought I lost cream from the
curd being too soft. It seemed to retain too much water. I believe it is
the generally received opinion that a given amount of heat is necessary
to expel the water, and also, that in the manufacture of skimmed-milk
cheese as much heat is not required as in that of whole-milk cheese. It

116

requires from an hour and a half to two hours to raise the temperature to
98°. The stirring is kept up and the wh6y kept on till, as we used to
say, the acid is developed. The curd is tested from time to time with
the hot iron. I am of the opinion that the acid has nothing to do with
the stringing principle, but that it^is simply the digestive process going
on all the time.

Having determined when the curd is ready to take out, it is dipped
into the sink and carefully stirred, enough to prevent its adhering, till it
IS sufficiently drained for salting. I would keep the curd as near 98° as
may be, not letting it drop more than a degree or two, if possible, be-
fore salting, and in hot weather I seldom let it get below 80° before
putting it into the hoop. I use a sink,, cooler and drainer, with a wood
bottom, the, central portion of which is covered with perforated tin. It
is then pressed about two hours, sometimes bandaged and dressed and
left till next morning, when it is taken to the curing room, where it is
turned, rubbed and greased, as occasion requires, till it is cured for
market.

Ques. How much salt do you use ?

Mr. Farrington: From two and a half to three pounds to the 1,000
pounds of milk.

Ques. What test do you prefer to ascertain when the curd is ready
to dip ?

Mr. Farrington: I would recommend going by the hot iron. I have
not a more reliable test, especially if your milk is faulty.

Ques. How long v/ould you have it string out?

Mr. Farrington: From one half to tl^ree-quarters of an inch.

Ques. Do yon take the milk once or twice a day ?

Mr. Farrington: We take the milk once a day. When it is proposed
to make butter the cream is put into separate pails and weighed, and the
patrons are allowed the same as milk. Most of the factorymen in Penn-
sylvania determined not to take any cream oti'.

Ques. How much salt would you use in spring ?

Mr. Farrington: Probably 23^2 lbs. to the 1,000 lbs. of milk would be
sufficient, provided the curd was reasonably dry. In the Fall we use
salt sufficient to flavor the cheese.

On motion, further discussion of this subject was postponed till the
morning session, when Mr. Farrington would describe the Cheddar pro-
cess.

Mr. C. W. Horr, of Wellington, was next introduced, and spoke asfol
lows upon the subject:

"HOW CAN THE PROFITS OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY BE INCREASED?"

I have studied with some care the papers that have been read at the
regular sessions of this Association and other similar ones during the
last twelve years.

117

While I have becD gi'eatly interested and profited by the hints and in-
formation that I have tlius obtained,! have felt that too much time has been
occupied in discussing different theories as to processes of manufacturing
butter and cheese, and sometimes even in the discussion of questions that
are theoretical rather than practical. Too little attention has been paid
to the simple naked, inquiry, " How can the individual dairyman obtain
a better profit from his business ?"

It seems to be taken for granted that but little energy and skill are re-
quired for the judicious selection of a dairy of cows, or for the economical
and successful management of the farm upon which they are to be kept;
that a very little experience, intelligence and information will quite
sufficiently qualify a man for the management of the cows after they are
selected, and for the decision of all questions as to the character and
quantity of food that will insure the most profitable results.

If the dividends of a cheese factory for a single season are lower by 10
per cent, than those of a contiguous one, the patrons of the former are
enraged; and unless great inducement is offered them to continue their
patronage another year, a rival factory is straightway organized,
probably on the Grander plan, or else the milk is scattered to other fac-
tories. I do not mention this to complain, because success should
always succeed, and I am not much in favor of forgiving poor work be-
cause of good excuses; but I mention this fact to increase your astonish-
ment when I say to you that quite frequently dairies kept side by side,
for a succession of years, annually show a uniform difference in yield of
milk, both to the cow and to the acre, of 50 per cent., and occasionally
of 100 per cent.

Yet the wife of the man whose cows are only yielding one-half as
much milk as his neighbor's, still lives with him and seems to retain her
affection and devotion. His children do not abuse him, but remain
obedient. No application is made to the court to have a guardian ap-
pointed for him, nor to have him declared " no7i compos me^iiis."
While the factoryman who, for a single year, falls behind his competitors
even by a small per cent, is condemned without trial; his patronage un-
ceremoniously taken from him; his business ruined, and his buildings left
to be the abode of bats and owls; the farmer, for ten years, may conduct
his business with so little skill, energy and foresight as to produce 50 per
cent, less milk to the acre, and to the cow, than his neighbors, without
drawing upon himself the criticisms of his family or his friends, and
without causing him to question his own industry, knowledge or
capacity. • However reflidy he may be with criticisms on the management
of the factory to which his milk is taken, his own self-complacency will
remain undisturbed.

Now, I wish, in plain language, to call the attention of dairymen to
a few points that they have not hitherto properly considered. Tlie real

118

difference in value between a good cow and a common or poor one is not
generally understood, and certain Ij' not fully appreciated.

A record should be kept by each dairyman, with his individual cows,
so as to ascertain detinitely the value of the product yielded by each.
This is seldom or never done. Cows are bought hap-hazard, with too
little pains, and after they are bought, they are milked till they fall from
old age, without regard to whether they are worthy of retention or not. I
milked last year seven cows, and weighed the milk from each enough times
to ascertain with sufficient accuracy the amount of milk yielded byeacii.
By an examination of my account, as shown on the books of Horr, War-
ner & Co., I find that I shall receive for the milk furnished from these
cows, during the eight factory months, a little over $440 ; and, by figur-
ing, I see that my various cows contributed to this result substantiaDy as
follows: Best cow, $92; second best, $80; third best, $75; fourth l)est,
$60 ; fifth I lest, $50 ; sixth best, $43 ; seventh best, $40. The two poor-
est ones, however, were two-year old heifers. Leaving these out, there
was $42 difference Ijetween the value of the milk yielded by my best and
by my poorest cow. and both of them are young. The one giving the
least milk looks to be worth the most money. But what is the realdifler-
ence in their value ? The average man, knowing all the facts that I do,
would probably say $25, certainly not over $40. But I maintain that
the cow that yielded $92 worth of milk is worth at least $125 more than
the one that yielded but $50 worth. These cows can doubtless be milked
six years longer, and during that time, should the same diflerence continue
— and I see no reason why it should not — I should obtain from the one cow
$250 worth of milk more than from the other. And one-half of this sum, it
would seem, can reasonably be added to what would be the fair value of
the cow, providing she was no better milker than the one with which I
have compared her. If we contrast dairies instead of cows, we will find
a striking, though perhaps not quite so large a difference, as when the
comparison is made with individual cows. I will rema.rk that dunng the
past twelve years, the firm with which I have been connected has received
the milk of a large number of dairies, probably three hundred on an
average each year. As we have charged the milk-handling by the cow,
we have known the number of cows kept by each patron. I have taken
great pains to ascertain the average, the minimum, and the maximum
yearly yield to the cow of our various dairies. A trifle over 6,200
pounds to the cow is the maximum, and somewhat less than 2,700 the
minimum. Ten years ago the average was about 3,500 pounds to the
cow. It is now just about 4,000; possibly a little over. The average
value of the milk during the last five years has been about a cent a
pound, so that our best dairies have produced over $20 worth of milk to
the cow more than the average, and fully $35 more than the poorest. If
you make the comparison by land instead of by cows, you will find
a still greater variation. I know of one dairyman who, during the last

111}

year, obtained o^er 1,200 pounds of milk to tlie acre, couating every acre
of his occupied land; he bought some feed, but he produced fully SIO
worth of milk to the acre, after paying for all feed purchased. In con-
trast with this. I can find within ten miles of Wellington, tifty dairymen,
whose whole farms are devoted to the dairy business, wiin did not produce-
over $5 worth of milk to the acre during the same year. Counting the
cleared land alone, I should think the average value to the acre of the
annual product for the last ten years has been $6.50. To illustrate tnis
point more fuUj^ T will give from our books the proceeds of the milk of
two 200-acre farms, lying within one mile of each other. Both have been
wholly occupied with the dairy business during the six years covered by
my figures, and neitlier has any natural superiority over the other. From
1872 to 1877, inclusive, the net proceeds of their milk sent to our factory

were as follows:

Mr. W's Dairy. Mr. — 's Dairy.

1872 $2,106 58 " $1,200 73

lS7;i 1.646 94 S72 95

1874 1,605 17 776 29

1875 1,556 76 367 12

1876 1,510 36 854 16

1877 1,609 04 923 38

Total $10,124 85 $5,494 63

This statement shows that the one farm, during the six years, is
$4,630.22 ahead of the other, or $771.70 per year, or $3.31 per acre, an-
nually.' The milk from both dairies during all this time went to the

same c!)eese factory. Mr. has had as many years of experience as

Mr. W., and is a maa of more than average abilit.y, and is highly re-
spected as a neighbor and citizen ; but is in easy circumstances, and unlike
most Americans, not very anxious to get rich, and hence he has not put
the energy and the etlbrt into his businp>s that his neighbor has. I would
add, that I could show much larger contrasts by selecting from our books
extreme cases. This great difference in the yield of milk to the cow, and
to the acre, is mainly attributable to the following causes :

First. Difl'erence in milking qualities of dairies.

Second. Difference in the milking and the care of cows.

Third. Difference in water and pasture.

Fourth. Difference in feeding, not only in Winter, but in the Fall and
Spring months.

No farmer should buy a cow that, after careful investigation, he does
not believe will bring him at least $50 worth of milk during the season.
He had much better give away a cow, if he owns one, that does not give
over $40 worth of milk per year, than to keep her during a series of
years, even if he has to pay $70 or $100 for a five year old cow that will
give $70 worth of milk a year. Poor cows are dear at any price ; really
good ones, if young, are never sold too high. Great pains, then, should be
taken ip the selection of cows to obtain natural milkers.

120

But no matter how good cows the farmer has, unless they are carefuUj'
quietly and regularly milked, only indifferent results will be obtained.
The utmost care should be exercised to avoid exciting the cows, either by
blows or by the use of loud and angry words, or harshness of any kind.
Fast driving, just before milking, should be avoided. It is much better to
have the cows milked in the stanchions than in the open yard. In the
barn, milking stools will less frequently be thrown at excited cows by
more excited men. Although I am aware that many good dairymen will
not agree with me, yet 1 protest against the use of dogs in driving milch
cows. They certainly cause more excitement and running than
would an intelligent, good-tempered man; and it is as difficult for a
quick-tempered, ugly man to become a good dairyman as it is for a rich
man to enter the kingdom of heaven. I will only add, in reference to
milking, that cows should be milked quickly, but very clean, and special
pains should be taken to strip the last drop from their bags, in the
Fall.

Not only should the bull be kept in the barn or a separate pasture, but
as soon as a cow is observed to be in heat, she should be put by her-
self; of course, she should be Uberally fed, so as to prevent, as far as
possible, temporary shrinkage of milk.

But little need be said in reference to water and pasture, for we are all
reminded about three limes a day of the physical necessity of eating and
drinking; and it is quite as necessary that a cow should have abundance
of good food and water in order to do her woric of producing milk well,
as it is for a hard working man to have wholesome food and drink.
Even the best cows cannot make milk out of air and parched herbage.
They have none of them the trick of converting thistles, mullen-stalka
and wheat straw into milk; nor can cows fultill their mission fully as
milk producers, if they are compelled to exhaust their physical energies
in seeking their food or drink. Abundance, then, of good wholesome food
and water should be furnished your cows, without compelling them to
spend the whole day in traveling for them. If your pastures, by reason
of drouth or for any other reason, fail to supply both of these, you must
furnish them at your barn.

This leads me to the fourth topic: Feeding, not only in the winter but
in the fall and spring months. I have not the time to give, as fully as I
would like, the facts upon which I base my conclusions as to feed-
ing, but will briefly state my conchisions and a few of the
facts upon which I base them. It is very important that cows be
wintered in warm barns. At least one-third less feed is required to win-
ter a dairy property that is well stabled, than one that is not housed.
Farmers will tind it more profitable, I think, to feed more grain and less
■coarse feed in the Winter than is the usual custom.

Cows should be generously messed from the time they calve until flush
^f feed, and for the good of the pastures as well as their own, they should

121

not be turned out till the grass has a good start. A moderate mess
should be fed as soon in Julj^ or August as the cows begin to shrink,
•either on account of dryness or insufficiency of pasture. As the season
advances, and the value of the milk increases, both the richness and
quantity of the mess should be increased, Of course, as long as the
pastures are sufficiently succulent and plentiful to prevent shrinkage of
milk, messing is unnecessary. But this is not generally the case after the
middle or last of July, and almost never when the farmer has as many
cows as it is profitable for him to keep. I recommend for July and
August the feeding of bran alone, and later on a mixture of bram and
middlings, or a mixture of bran and ground corn and oats. As to
whether it will pay to mess cows in the Fall that are poor milkers, there
may be some doubt ; but there is no doubt about the profitableness of
liberal Fall feeding with a dairy of good cows, such as every farmer should
have. This is a fact that 1 have settled by actual experiment myself be-
yond all question, and also by the testimony of scores of the patrons
of our various factories. To give you an illustration of the
character of the testimony upon which I rely, in so confidently asserting
this fact, I will copy from the books of Horr, Warner & Co., the milk ac-
counts of two patrons for the past season. The first dairy, that of Messrs.
Nooney & Fhelon was messed during the latter part of the season ; being

fed, all told, about $125 worth of bran. The other, Mr. 's, had a

good fair range of pasture, bat were given no other feed. Both dairies
had, in the latter part of the season, the same range of pasture that they
had in the early part, with about the same amount of meadow in addition.
In neither were milked any more cows in tlie late months than in the
•early ones :

yooney & Phelon. Mr. 's.

Poinds. Pounds.

April 12,638 1.'?,.312

May 17,564 20,599

June 19,807 22,369

July 20.244 19,310

Vfdue. Value.

August 15,794 $165 83 14,539 $152 65

September 15,.-)72 194 65 13,099 163 73

October 15,958 223 41 9.028 126.38

November 13,553 216 52 4,953 79 24

Taking the June milk furnisiied by botli as the Itasis of our calculation,
by careful computation you readily ascertain tliat by Mr. — '■ — 's dairy
not doing as well proportionally in the last four months as it did in June,
he has lost as follows : August, |34.64 ; September, $56.09 ; October,
•$125.91 ; November, S165.2 8. Total, $381.92.

Deducting the $125 paid by Messrs. Nooney & Phelon for feed, you

have $256.92 as the amount lost by Mr. by not messing his cows.

However, I am informed by Messrs. Nooney & Phelon that their Decem-
ber milk netted them enough to fully pay their feed bill, while Mr. 's

J 22

cows were nearly dry before the end of November. The cows of the
latter are to-day worth $5 a head less than they would be had they been
as well fed as the other dairy. Taking everythino; into account, then, is
it not fair to say that Mr. loses fully $393 by not feeding. I will re-
mark that in figuring the problem whether it pays to mess cows or not,
dairymen usually leave out several imj^ortant factors, among which are
the following :

1. Less pasture will be required to keep a dairy that is messed than
one that is not ; that is, if you keep twenty-five cows during the Fall in
good flesh, relying upon your pastures alone for feed, you could surely
keep thirty-two, equally well, by feeding say six or eight pounds of bran
to the cow per day.

By pursuing the latter course you would get a much larger yield to the
cow than if you kept a less number and gave no mess.

2. Your cows will enter the Winter in much better heart and flesh, if
generously messed, than if not messed at all. Indeed, dairymen have
repeatedly told me in the past month, that their cows are worth $10
a head more than they would have )>eeu if they had relied upon their
pastures alone during the Fall. Besides, by keeping a few more cows on
your farm, and regularly buying enough feed, together with what your
farm produces, to give them a generous diet, you would I)e constantly en-
riching your land. This, in the long run, is a matter of no small import-
ance. I maintain that you can stable cows the year round, buy all their
feed, and produce milk profitably at a dollar a hundred, provided :

1st. That you keep none but first-class milkers.

2d. That you buy your feed at times of the ytiar when it can be pur-
chased at best advantage.

3d. That you select the kind of feed judiciously.

4th. That your cows are handled and milked with the utmost attain-
able care and skill. I have now on my place three cows that cost me an
average of $55 a head. These cows, if allowed to go farrow, milked
and cared for in above manner, would surely give, in twelve months,
$360 worth of milk. These are not blooded cows. I know of a number
of dairies of thirty cows each, that, managed as indicated above, would
surely yield $3,000 worth of milk in a year.

The object of this paper is to stimulate dairymen to put more life, more
thought, more energ}', and more enterprise into their business. Compe-
tion compels factorymen to do their very best in handling the milk after
it is delivered to them. Darwin's law of the survival of the fittest cer-
tainly holds good with cheese-makers and factories, whether it does in
the animal kingdom or not. It would be better for the dairy interests if
the same law applieil with equal force to farmers. No man has a moral
right to waste either God's blessing or his own opportunities. It is a
moral crime to produce only $5 worth of milk to a cleared acre of land,
when it is quite possible to produce $10 worth. It is an outrage against

123

intelligence to milk a cow year after year that gives only $30 wortli of milk
per year, when some can be found that will give three times that, more
that will give twice, and very many that will give $50 worth. God in-
tended a cow that gives only 3,000 pounds of milk in a season for the
butcher's shambles, and not for the milking-yard ; and He intended the
farmer who will continue to keep such a cow, year after year, for a
milker of goats in some benighted land, and not for a milker of cows in
this enlightened country and age.

Dairymen of Ohio and of the United States, you have great reason to
be thankful for your prosperity during the past three years of financial
storms and disasters. Cheese and butter, during all this time, have found
ready sale at remunerative prices. The oft- feared danger of over pro-
duction still remains an unfulfilled prophecy. You have been especially
favored by fortune, and have been able to clear your farms from debts,
and beautify them with improvements, while many of your fellow
countrymen, engaged in other avocations, have, by depreciation of
values and prostration of business, been reduced to poverty and bank-
ruptcy. If you would retain this jirosperity, you must deserve it.
Those of you who have lacked in thoroughness must wake up from your
Rip Van AVinkle sleep, dig out the stumps, and cut down the straggling
trees that mar your pastures and greatly lessen their growth of grass;
ditch or underdraiu all your low and svvaley ground; plow deeper, culti-
vate more thoroughly, and seed down with more care; break up your
hide-bound meadows; kill the weeds, thistles and briars, and grub out the
shrubs and clear up the underbrush that deface the beauty and destroy
the productiveness of your fields; save, utilize and conserve better both
the solid and liquid manure of your barns and barnyards; buy cows, and
only those that are lirst-class milkers; sell your inferior ones to the
butchers, and. if you can't sell^theni, give them away to your brother-in-
law; winter your herds in warm barns, with generous feed; have your
cows kindly, quickly, carefully milked, and by the same hands during the
entire season; feed them so well in the Fall that j'our November milk will
bring you more money than your June or September. Do all this, and,
'f there should be a decline of 20 per cent, in the ^■alue of butter and
cheese, j^our prosperity will continue. There are great possibilities yet
undeveloped in your business: achieve them. There is too often a mean
rivalry between cheese factories ; let there be a generous one among dairy-
men. At the end of each season compare results with your townsmen,
and let the golden medal be given to him who has produced the most
milk to the acre, with the least expense for feed; and the silver medal be
given to him who has produced the highest average to the cow.

Permit me, in conclusion, to suggest for the ])enefit of any one who
may think it impossible to accomplish all that has been recommended,
the following sentiment uttered l)y Ga^he: "Energy will do anything

124

that can be done in this world; and no intellect, no circumstances, no
opportunities, will make a two-legged animal a man without it."

Discussion on Mr. Horr's address.

Mr. H. Farrington, Canada: I would ask Mr. Horr if dairymen take
his advice and sell or give away their poor cows, how or when are we to
get good ones ?

Mr. Horr: When you find a man that wants to sell, compare their
milking capabilities by using the milk-pail and steelyards.

Many don't know the value of their best cows. When you find a really
good one, get them to put a price on her, and buy her at almost any
price, and you will buy cheap.

Mr. Farrington : We are required to do to our neighbor as we would
wish to be done by. I don't see how we all could do that and supply
our dairies with good cows by following Mr. Horr's plan. Much might
be done, however, if dairymen Xvould carefully breed from the best milk-
ers.

Most breeders breed for beef, scarcely any for dairy purposes. The
only way for ail to obtain proper cows for the dairy is to breea from the
best milkers, without regard to blooded stock.

Or. motion, the Convention adjourned till ten o'clock ne.xt moi-ning.

TMrd Day.

TJiursday morning's Session.

The Convention resumed at 10 A. M.

R. P. Cannon in the chair, who announced that Mr. Farrington, Pa.;
would now continue his subject of "Full Cream Cheese," and give the
Cheddar process.

Mr. Farrington: First, then, we take the milk, set it, cut, heat, and
manipulate up to a certain point, just as any other kind of cheese. As
soon as the curd is sufficiently solid, or matured, so as to run together
and pack, when the cheddar system is carried out in its fulness, the
whey is entirely run off from the vat; immediately all that can be taken
ofi' with the syphon Is first done ; then the balance is removed by tipping
the vat and packing the curd at one side, draining of! the whey by taking
a large strainer and holdin<r up the curd to one side. One object of
running off the whey is to remove any defects of the milk, animal odor,
or anything that has developed while carrying to the factory. I^
you have milk somewhat badly tainted, you may still have a fair cheese.

The curd remains fresh all the time, while the whey is taking on an
acid. I am not sufficiently scientific to know whether the curds sour or
not. If it is likely to show too much sourness in the early stage, that
condition is removed with the whey.

The more compact the curd is kept at the side of the vat, the warmer
it will keep. I have practiced keeping a small stream of steam running
under it to keep it warm.

125

When the top gets cool, di\ade the curd in parts of conveuieut size to
^um without breaking, and tui'n it over as you would a pancake, so that
all parts will be affected alike. This is repeated as often as necessary,
at intervals of twenty or thirty minutes, until it is advanced to the proper
stage for salting and pressing. This stage is determined by the appear-
ance and smell. It becomes tough and stringy when pulled apart ; then
there is a pecuhar odor attached to it at this time, and in fact it is in-
separable. This odor is difficult to describe. It is n combination of
odors, like the perspiration of the cow, or decayed animal matter — sick-
ening like. When sufficiently advanced, it is run through the curd mill,
and for this purpose I prefer those that cut into smooth pieces, rather than
tear or bruise. It will not require as much salt as that which is not ched-
dared, from the fact that much more moisture is expelleil. From 2y^ to
23^ pounds of salt to the 1,000 pounds of milk will be sufficient. When
removed from the press it should be kepi in a uniform temperature till it
goes to market. In my observations in Catiada, Pennsylvania, New
York, and this State, I tind that some practically cheddar, though they
think they do not. When dairymen become convinced that the ched-
daring principle is the correct one, it will no doubt become the practice
of all. The best cheese at the Centennial was Cheddar cheese, and com-
petent judges tell me that Cheddar cheese invariably takes the preference.
I don't mean to say that because a man Cheddars he will always make a
good cheese ; but it requires less skill to make good Cheddar cbeese
than it does to make good American cheese. This system is being
adopted by a good many in Canada, and Canada cheese is certainly tak-
ing the preference in England. Their dealers tell us that Canada cheese
possesses longer keeping qualities.

A. few weeks ago a Syracuse paper advocated the making of cheese
without acid. Prof. Arnold and others say that we don't want a bit of
acid.

I am ready to adopt this idea thoroughly. I believe it is sound, prac-
tically correct, and useful to all of us. It is also said that cheese mak-
ing is not one of the exact sciences. If you want to make a plow, o
mowing machine, etc., you go to work and make each part in the same
way, and you will make the machine every time. In cheese making,
however, you cannot say that the milk should always be heated to just
such a temperature, run off the whey in so long a time, etc. If it were
worked in one way invariably, you would have just as many different
kinds of cheese as there are days in the season.

The whole theory and practice depends upon chemical processes-
chemical action.

You must take all these circumstances into consideration, and aim aL
nothing short of making the best article' that is attainable. In regard
to skimming, I will say a few words.

126

Those factories that expect to possess and retain the name of making
tirst-class cheese, will no more take to skimming than one of you would pass
counterfeit money. There appears to be very little difference in the
amount of cream that goes over, whether it is skimmed or not. There
is a peculiarity that I have never been able to explain. In making par-
tially skimmed cheese there is still a certain amount of cream that passes
oft in the whey.

I am acquainted with such a factory, where there is invariably more
cream on its whey vat than on those of whole milk makers.

It is a much nicer point to determine the amount of heat, rennet, the
length of time required for the changes to take place, etc., in making
skimmed cheese.

There was no inducement to make a prime article when your neighbor
could realize as much as you. A different practice has been adopted the
jijissed season. Pennsylvania cheese has been quoted at extreme New
York prices. Mr. Reall will tell you that Pennsylvania cheese took the
second and third prizes at the Chicago Fair. Ten cheeses, made in ten
days, received the second premium.

Mr. J. H. Reall, of New York, offered the following resolution, which
was adopted :

Resolved, That a committee of eleven be appointed to organize a
National Dairy Fair, to be held at some central point during the present
year; that said committee shall have full power to select place, raise
funds, pay premiums, and make all arrangements necessary to the
largest success of the undertaking; that said committee shall adopt
rules for its government, and have power to till vacancies in its own
members.

Mr. Frank Moulton said :
Gentlemen and Members of the Association, —

I am glad that this matter has been brought up at this stage of the pro-
ceedings. I have just been conversing with a merchant from New York
City, who has been an attentive listener through all the sessions of this
convention. He said that if a Dairy Convention is held in the City of
New York, he will give one hundred dollars toward defraying the ex-
penses. Now, I want to say a word in regard to this committee and its
appointment. It commends itself to my reason as well as to my feel-
ings. Coming, as it does, from such a convention as this, it carries no
uncertain meaning or emphasis. I am a new hand at these dairy con-
ventions, although I have had something to do with other conventions.
But this convention, it seems to me, transcends them all in the spirit
which actuates those who govern and present their ideas to it. There is
a spirit manifested, and an intellectual power exhibited, that commends
Itself to our highest admiration. When such men as Mr. Curtis, Professor
Arnold, Professor Stewart, and many others (I do not wish to make any
invidious distinctions)— when we see such men as these giving their time
and talents to the discussions of this convention, certainly more than

127

•ordinary importance ought to he attaclied to the appointment of this
committee.

The committees generally appointed by your dairy conventions have had
a professional and literary signilicance, on account of the character of
the men who have given direction to your convention, but their business
significance has generally not been valued, for no effort commensurate
with the importance of the interests represented have been made to im-
press the business community. I hold that every effort should be made,
now and henceforth, to make upon the business community that Im-
pression justly due to the extraordinary commercial values of the ideas
enumerated and the practical thoughts suggested. The idea of circu-
lating only 500 copies of Prof. Arnold's report of the proceedings, con-
sidering its value and importance to the country, is preposterous. A
very little effort will circulate .'i,0(iO, and if proper effort is made hi the
representation of the business interests involved, 10.000 could be circu-
lated with the greatest advantage. New York is the proper place to hold
the American Dairy Fair to secure for it that continental and world-wide
siirnificance that should attach to the industry it represents.

Your committee should not come with distrust to the work before it.
Its importance is worthy of tlie utmost att?ention which the best mer-
chants of the country can give to it. Your influence should not be like
t-hi' murmuring brook over a meadow, but flow with the rusli of a river,
and make an ocean that should wash all the shores of the world.

In conformity with the above resolution, C. Horr.- Hon. Harris Lewis,
atid J. H. Reall were appointed to nominate the committee.

SELECTION AND BREEDINO OK HAIRY CATTLE.

The President announced this as. the next subject, and introduced Mr.
OoRXELius Baldwin, of Nelson, Ohio, whi> addressed the convention ay
follows :

Mr. Presidknt and Gentlemen : The (juestiun of selecting and breed-
ing dairy cattle is a very important one, and yet no subject has been
more neglected. How much more time and money has been spent to im-
prove the breed of animals comparatively worthless. Look at the success
that has attended the labors of dog breeders. With what uniformity is
produced each succeeding generjition of the different breeds, such as
the greyhound, foxhound, coach-do:;, etc. The same remark may be
made with reference? to tiie success of poultry breeders, and also breeders
of bet'f for the shambles. But where will you tind a Ijreed of dairy cattle
in which the milking qualities are so well established that you can, t)y
resorting to it, get a desirable animal witiiout being a judge of milking
qualities. The mo.st that can be said of any of the different breeds is, that
in the one you will find a larger percentage of good milkers, or a smaller
percentage of poor ones, than another. \ believe a larger percentage of
good dairy cattle will Ije founrl among the Ayrshires. For butter making
^he percentage will be found in favor of the Jerseys. The Holstein will

128

average proba1)ly equal to the Ayrshire id quaoiity. Among the Devon-
shh-e and Herefoidshires, the percentage of goo* ones is small. The situ-
ation and climate must be considered in making a choice of any breed.
If the farmer lives in a comparatively cold climate, he will not select from
the Shorthorns. If situated in a warm climate, on river bottoms or level
lands, Shorthorns and Holsteins would suit. It would be very difficult to
find good dairy cattle among Herefords, although they are fine for beef.
There are certain marks or indications, points or principles, some 45 or
50 in all, which may be noticed, and when these points are always the
same, when they have that fixity of character, they are thoroughbreds, and
under favorable circumstances they will be reproduced. There are
about forty-five different points noticeable in dairy cattle, which are
more or less indicative of value. A portion of them I regard as infalliljle,
others more doubtful. To illustrate : Dairy cattle usually have dishing
faces, but sometimes we find others have the same form, but are not good
milkers. They have a certain symmetry of form, a wedge shape ; but
sometimes inferior ones have this shape. ■

In order that the animal may be termed a thoroughbred, she must
carry all the points, having that fixed character, which indicates that
she will certainly reproduce her own good qualities.

If we are looking only for*the quantity of milk, then we need not take
into consideration all the points. The milk veins are always an infallible
indication. Now I insist that these points in all superior dairy cattle are
the same, of whatever breed they may be.

The property of fleetness is exactly the same, whether we see it in a
greyhound or in a horse

I will briefly enumerate these points, making use of these illustrations,
which are copies of photographs of superior and inferior animals, so that
when I describe a desirai)le point in the one you will see the reverse in
the other. This one, No. — , produced 64 pounds of milk per day in the
best of the season: has averaged that for some days. This one, No. — .
produced 58 pounds. She was not fed quite as well as the other.

This one, No. — , produced 18 pounds a day. We will begin at tiie
liead, which should be short and small, and the bones throughout the
frame will correspond, as dairy cattle are always fine bon^d. The heail
is rather long from the eye downward; lips and mouth thick and
strong, and broader sideways, giving the muzzle a somewhat flattened
appearance, as you stand in front of the animal.

From the horns to the nose it should have a concave shape. A Romai;
nose is not a good point.

From one eye to the other it should be concave or dishing.

This poor one you see is the reverse. The eyes should be large, show-
ing considerable white in the inner corner.

The horns should have an upward and forward direction, and not too
deeply corrugated with rings; in fact, the rings sometimes are not very

129

distinguishable in the best i9f cows. The horns should also have a waxy
appearance; not too dr\'. The head is neatly joined, with no loose skin
hanging, litiie or no dewlap under the neck, the neck having a rather
short and neat appearance. The shoulders are generally lower than the
hips, and rather thin at the top, with good breadth at the bottom, indi-
cating room for the vital organs, and vigorous constitution. The ribs
somewhat flattened rather than spread out.

Good dairy cattle are nearly always low sided and saddle backed. The
hips are higher than the shoulders, the cow being generally wedge
shaped, whether you take a side view or from top to bottom. Another
peculiarity of dairy cattle is that they nearly always carry light flanks, as
you will see in the Jerseys and Ayeshires. The udder may be of a variety
of shapes, and still be good ; usually in good milkers it hangs pretty low.
The hind legs of dairy cattle are generally more crooked. The tail is
long and tapering down to the brush, wbere it should be small. These
points which I have mentioned are variable and have exceptions.

The other class, which are considered as reliable, and to which I shall
now call your attention, consist of, first, the escutcheon or milk mirror;
second, lacteal or milk veins, and, third, or next in importance, is the
chine; and to this last I will first direct your attention.

This consists in the peculiarity of the vertical column, wliich you will
notice on the top of what is usually culled the backbone. This is either
single or double. When double, it is thickened or widened by a sort of
cartilaginous growtn, and will feel ii.s wide us the thickest part of your
wrist.

A cow possessing a double chime is sure to i)e a good one, though
not necessarily remarkable. She may be a good cow and possess the
single chine; but in that case you will fiml what are called cups, or hol-
lows, along the vertebrae, very distinctly, unless she is very fleshy, when
they may not i)e very easily found.

Next, the milk veins, obsei-ved in front of the udder, after passing
through it, iiass along the itelly and enter Iht; body through one or more
holes on their way to the heart. If these veins are large, divided, and
crookeil and tortuous, increasing in size as they extend, you will have
a remarkable cow. Sometimes they are covered with a thick coat of
hair or flesh, in which case they cannot be so easily seen.

In regard to the veins on the udiier, they are very diflerent in difJerent
animals. The larger and more numerous they are and more distinctly
seen, the better.

The escutcheon, or milk mirror, was discovered by a Frenchman in
1831. There has been a great deal of controversy about it; and while all
consider it of more or less importance, I am one of those who believe it
to be strictly reliable. It is that portion of the rear part of the animal
between the thighs on which the hair is growing upward or reversed.
If the space occupied by this upturned hair is large and broad, so as to
9

130

extend outward on the thighs, it indicates a large flow of milk.
There is also a front mirror, like the rear. Whenever you find a front
mirror, you will always;,flnd a rear to correspond.

If the upper part of the rear mirror is broad and smooth, it indicates
a prolonged flow of milk as maternity approaches. You can also judge
of the quality of the milk. When there is a sort of greasy dandruff" on
the back part of the udder and between the thighs, this indicates rich-
ness of milk. The whole mirror should be as free as possible from coarse
hair.

Ques. Can we judge of the prospective value of a heifer calf?

Mr. Baldwin: It is the best time as soon as the calf is born, before
it is dry, and the same remark applies to the bull, the double chine, the
mirror, the lacteal veins— all those points should be carefully scrutinized.

Mr. W. B. Straight being called upon by the President, spoke as
follows :

Mr. President and Gentlemen : As I came from the city about
twelve years ago, my attention has not beea given to these subjects for
any great length of time, and what little I shall say may be considered
as mere theory. In regard to where to get this dairy stock, my opinion
is that the best way, and the surest way, although it may not be the
least expensive, is to raise heifer calves, retaining only such as possess
dairy qualities. In this way to keep up our dairies, and to supply those
who wish to purchase. A year ago I employed a gentleman, a good
judge of cattle, to purchase sixteen first-class cows, giving him the
money, and telling him not to be particular about the price. Out of
those sixteen which he selected, I think there are ten or eleven that it
will pay to keep. I think it depends vastly upon the feeding also, as
Mr. Horr has so well shown. In regard to the soiUng system, I am satis-
fied it would be a great advantage to a large portion of our farmers
were it practiced by them. I tried it to some extent last year, and was
so thoroughly satisfied that it does pay, that I shall go into it more fully.
With my comparatively short experience, I am fully convinced of the im-
portance of underdraining, manuring, and thorough cultivation.

The committee appointed to nominate a committee of eleven to organ-
ize an American Dairy Fair, sul»mitted thefoUowmg names : T. D. Curtis,
Syracuse, N. Y. ; Francis D. Mnultori, New York ; T. G. Alvord, Syra-
cuse, N. Y. ; Harvey Farringtoii, Norwich, Ont. ; Hiram Smith, Sheboy-
gan Falls, Wis.; Geo. E. Gooch, Cliicago, 111.; R. P. Cannon, Aurora,
Ohio ; W. E. Smith, New York ; A. M. Fuller, President Pennsylvania
Dairymen's Association, Meadville ; D. H. Burrell, Little Falls, N. Y.

RESOLUTIONS OP THANKS.

The following, introduced by Mr. Reall, was adopted :
Besolved, That thejthanks of this Convention be and are hereby tendered
to the newspapers of Cleveland, and to all the journals represented, for

131

their full and comple reports of each daj's proceedings. Especially are
we indebted to the press representatives who have prepared the matter
for publication for their pains-taking labor and accuracy.

Resolved. That we tender to the officers of the Convention our thanks
for their labors which have made the meetings successful, entertaining
and mstructive.

Resolved, That we hereby desire to express our very high api)reciation
of Professor L. B. Arnold's services to the dairy industries of America
and of his earnest labors in promoting the interests of the American
Dairymen's Association.

Resolved, That we wish him God-speed in his efforts, and bespeak for
him a large measure of future usefulness.

At the conclusion of the adoption of these resolutions the Convention
adjourned for dinner.

Afternoon Sessioit.

The afternoon session was opened at 2 o'clock, Mr. T. D. Curtis, of
Utica, occupying the chair.

The President announced that as Mr. J. S. Van Duser, who was to give
an address on "The Refuse of the Dairy," was not able to be present,
he had sent a substitute with his paper, which would now be read.
He then introduced Prof. W. R. Lazenby, of Cornell University, who
read the address, which is placed in connection with the discussions on
the refuse of the dairy.

At the close of the address, the reports of conmiittees were called for,
and a special committee made the following report:

The committee appointed to consider the proposition to unite the Ohio
and Western Reserve Dairymen's Association have had the same under
consideration, and beg leave to submit the following report:

Your committee, after full consideration of the subject, is of the
opinion that in a territory of the e.Ktent of the Reserve, where most of
the dairy interests of Oliio lie, the best interest of said dairy farming can
be better served by the formation of one principal society, with the recom-
mendation that auxiliary societies be organized in each town through
farmers' clubs, the grange, or such other organizations as localities may
choose; said auxiliaries to hold frequent mecjtings as tliey may deter-
mine, and meet to form central societies in an annual meeting.

That the officers of the central organization shall consist of a president
and four vice-presidents, a secretary, corresponding secretary, and
treasurer. That the president and vice-presidents shall constitute an
executive committee of said society, who shall decide time and place of
holding meetings, fill vacancies in offices, and take the general manage-
ment of all the atl'airs of the society.

That we recommend that the central association be known by the
name of the Northern Ohio Dairymen's Association.

132

We recommend as officers of said association for 1878 the following
gentlemen :

President — Hon. S. S. Warner, Lorain County.

Vice-Presidents— C. B. Chamberlain, Medina; J. B. Weir, Ashtabula;
A. S. Beecher, Portage; W. B. Straight, Summit.
.Secretary— John Gould, Aurora, Portage County.

Corresponding Secretary — M. E. Williams, Cleveland.

Treasurer — W. W. Stevens, Portage County.

Upon motion, the report was received and adopted.

Mr. Lewis ; I would suggest to our friends of Ohio, in connection with
their State association, the establishing of county associations. In St.
Lawrence County, N. Y., we organized a County Dairymen's Associa-
tion, which holds monthly meetings in difierent parts of tlie county. By
this means information is carried to the very doors of the patrons, and
great good can be accomplished.

Prof. Arnold : I submit a resolution to amend article 3d of the arti-
ticles of association, by inserting the word "first" before "Vice-Presi-
dents," and dropping the final "s" from the word "Presidents," so that
the article as amended shall read as follows : The President, First Vice-
President, Secretary and Treasurer, shall constitute the Executive Board
of the Association.

The resolution was adopted.

The report of the Committee on Nominations was received and
adopted, as follows :

President— Ron. Horatio Seymour.

Secretary — Professor L. B. Arnold.

Treasurer — Hon. Harris Lewis.

Vice-Presidents— Charlies Horr, R. P. Cannon, M. B. Bateham, W. B.
Straight, Ohio ; S. A. Farrington, A. M. Fuller, Eastburn Reeder, Penn-
sylvania ; C. E. Chadwick, Ingersoll, Ontario ; Thos. Ballantyne, M. P.
P. Stratford, Benjamin Hopkins, E. Casewell, Ontario ; X. A. Willard,
T. D. Curtis, M. Folsom, G. B. Weeks, Professor E. W. Stewart, Dr. E. G.
Crafts, W. L. Rutherford, WiUiam A. Johnson, C. L. Sheldon, J. B.
Lewis, Madison Cooper, Dr. L. L. Wight, Captain H. D. Gardiner, 0. C.
Blodgett, David H. Burrell, J. M. Peters, J. H, Reall, New York ; O. S.
Bliss, Vermont ; Stephen Favile, Hiram Smith, Chester Hazen, Wiscon-
sin ; L Boise, Illinois ; C. F. Whitten, Minnesota ; J. T. Ellsworth and
Professor L. Wetherell, Massachusetts ; Edward Norton, Connecticut ;
John Stewart, Iowa ; P. H. Burchard, Illinois, and E. J. Wickson, Cali-
fornia.

The agent of D. A. Healy, of Syracuse, N. Y., exhibited samples of air-
tight tubs for packing butter, which were examined and approved, with
some suggestions for an improvement in strength of hoop for top of tub.

133

Ques. What is the best timber for butter-tubs 1

Mr. Lewis: We have found wliite oak to give the best satisfaction
and spruce, we think, the next best.

Prof. Arnold : There is no timber like white oak for butter. It has
very little sap, imparts no unpleasant flavor, and in the third place the
grain is tighter than any other wood. These three reasons make it one
of the least objectionable for packing purposes. If the tub is properly
prepared you may use ash or almost any timber. First soak them in
cold brine'; then in boiling hot brine. You will thus soak out all the
flavor of the wood. I have heated butter-firkins with steam, inserting a
rubber hose through a hole in one end of the firkin and connecting it with
the boiler. The hot steam being turned in, the wood will swell and the
steam will push its way through tlie joints and pores. By letting it stand
fifteen minutes the sap will all be taken out. But that don't do every-
thing. You want to fill the pores so full of salt that the air cannot pen-
etrate througli and act on the butter next to the wood. But by soaking
them in boiling brine they become effectually saturated and impervious to
air. A gentleman of my acquaintance packed some in tubs thus pre-
pared in 1873, and kei)t it till 187.5, when it was good and sweet, and
that at the edge of the lirkin was as sweet as it was anywhere.

Qnes. How does bass wood do for covers?

Pruf. Arnold: Almost anything else is better. It imparts a disagree-
able smell to the l)utter in a very short time, and shrinks and swells too
much. Oak is as good as anything. Maple is very good. In Tompkins
County there is a large factory in which maple is used altogether.

The Committee on Finance reported that they had no financial report
to make.

The Committee on Dairy Apparatus made a report, recommending
certain machinery and apparatus to the convention, as follows:

We have examined the following dairy im|)lenient3 on exhibition, and
find that—

Hannan & Obits exhibit a self-healing vat, which we recommend as
simple, etlectual and economical.

Reed's Improved Steam Boiler seems to be economical of fuel and
easily cleaned and rei)aired. It is novel in its constructioti and worthy
of examination.

Guslon's Butter Package, exhibited by S. M. Guston, Mexico, N. Y. ;
neat, light, handsome and serviceable.

E. L. Church, Harvard, 111., Hay Elevator and Carrier; simple and
cheap, and worthy of examination and trial, and is ofiered on very low
terms.

AUison's Patent Tub. Syracuse, N. Y., exhibited by A. D. Ayres <fe Co..
is sightly, and is claimed to he perfectly air-tight.

Whitman & Burrell, Little Falls, N. Y., exhibit a Curd Mill, which is,
simple and easy to operate, cutting the curd instead of mashing or

134

bruising it. A good curd mill we consider essential in every factory, and
is becoming decidedly popular among the best cheese-makers; also a
very fine sample of Bavarian Rennets, at bed-rock prices; a fine sample
of Annaloine; a vat with a cooler in it, which seems to do the work
simply and efl'ectually, and a superior Curd Knife, combining lightness

and strength.

Alex. McAdam,
S. A. Farrington.
The convention then adjourned. S. E. Carter.

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