UMASS/AMHERST i>

3 1 E D b t. 0 D S 3 1 1 D E 1

LIBRARY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS

AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE

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SOURCE.-LZ 2J\

A54

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1679 60

This book may be kept out

TWO WEEKS

only, and is subject to a tine of TWl)
CENTS a day thereafter. It will be due on
the day indicated below.

m

FIFTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT

t^A

iiiiericaii Dairviiii's issociatioii,

Papers, Proceedings, Etc.

FOR THE YEAR ENDING

Jcinncury 15, 1880.

j^tica. :^. y.'.

PRESS OF CURTISS & CHILDS,

167 Geneshe Street.

1880.

4 3 7'^'°

/?7^^? c

OFFICERS

FOR THE TEAE 1880.

PRESIDENT,

Prof. L. B. ARNOLD, Rochester.

riCE PRESIDENTS,

Hon. Harris Lewis, Frankfort, N. Y.

J. G. Guthrie, Shelbyville, Ky.

Prof. J. W. Beal, Lansing, Mich.

M. B. Bateham, Painesville, Ohio.

HoLLUM Langworthy, West Edmeston, N. Y.

S. A. Farrington, Cambridgeboro, Penn.

A. M. Fuller, Meadville, Pa.

Francis Morris, Oakland, Md.

Willis P. Hazard, West Chester, Penn.

C. E. Chadwick, Ingersoll, Ont.

Thomas Ballantyne, M. P. P., Stratford, Ont.

E. A. Powell, Syracuse, N. X.

E. Caswell, Ingersoll, Ont.
Edward Burnett, Southboro, Mass.

F. B. Thurber, New York City.

Dr. L. L. Wight, Whitestown, N. Y.

O B. Weeks, Syracuse, N. Y.

Prof. E. W. Stewart, Lake View, N. Y.

Dr. E. G. Crafts. Binghamton, N. Y.

W. L. Rutherford, Waddington, N. Y.

Col. Clark M. Thompson, Wells, Minn.

Hon. C. L. Sheldon, Lowville, N. Y.

A. T. Martyn, Canton, N. Y.

C. D. Faulkner, Utica, N. Y.

Henry W. Millar, Utica, N. Y.

O. C Blodgett, Fredonia, N. Y.

David H. Burrell, Little Falls, N. Y.

Geo. Morry, Verona, N. Y.

Hon. E. D. Mason, Richmond, Vt.

Stephen Favill, Lake Mills, Wis.

Hiram Smith, Sheboygan Falls, Wis.

Dr. E. L. Sturtevant, South Framingham, Mas!>.

Hon. T. S. Gold, West Cornwall, Ct.

Israel Boise, Byron, III,

Hon. JosiAH Shull, Ilion, N. Y.

J. T. Ellsworth, Barre, Mass.

Prof. G. C. Caldwell, Ithaca, N. Y.

Hon. Gerrit S. Miller, Peterboro, N. Y.

Edward Norton, Farmington, Conn,

John Stewart, Anamora, Iowa.

Prof. E J. Wickson, San Francisco, Cal,

J. W. Lang, Brooks, Me,

Secretary,

T, D. Curtis, Utica, N. Y.

Treasurer,

J. V. H, SfoviLL, Paris, N. Y.

Articles of Association.

Whereas, It is deemed expedient to merge the New York State Cheese
Manufacturers' Association, which, was organized in January, 1864, into an
American Association, through which, as a medium, I'esults of the practical
experience of dairymen may be gathered and disseminated to the dairying
community ; therefore.

Resolved, That we, the undersigned, do hereby associate ourselves togeth-
er for mutual improvement in the science of cheese making, and more effi-
cient action in promoting the general interest of the dairy community.

Article I. The name of the organization shall be The American Dairy-
men's Association.

Art. II. The Officers of the Association shall consist of a President, Vice
President, Secretary and Treasurer.

Art. III. The President, First Vice President, Secretary and Treasurer,
shall constitute the Executive Board of the Association.

Art. IV. The Officers of the Association shall be elected at the regular
annual meeting, and shall retain their offices until their successors are
chosen.

Art. V. The regular annual meeting shall occur on the second Tuesday
in January of each year, and at such place as the Executive Boai'd shall
designate.

Art. VI. The payment of one dollar shall admit any person to all the
sessions of on Annual Meeting— and the additional payment of seventy-five
cents shall entitle him to the Annual Report for the currenf year.

Amendment. — The Secretary is hereby empowered to appoint an Assistant
Secretary to assist during the sittings of the Convention, and discharge such
other duties as may be assigned to him, and, in case of the absence or ina-
bility of the Secretary to act, to temporarily discharge the duties of that
office; it being distinctly understood that no compensation is attached
thereto.

[One dollar constitutes a person not attending an Annual Convention a
member of the Society for one yeai', and entitles him to the Annual Report.]

MEMBE RS.

Avery, B. A., Syracuse, N. Y.

Avery, C. D., Syracuce. N. Y.

Allen, M. S.. Delhi, N. Y.

Aehton, G. W. Groton, N. Y.

Arnold, Prof. L. B.. Rochester. N. Y.

Ballautyne, Thos., M. P. P., Stratford, Ont.

Bateham, M. B., Painesville, Ohio.

Blodgett. O. C.. FrcdoDia. N. Y.

Barrel!, David H., Little Falls, N. Y.

Bliss, O. 8., Georgia, Vt.

Boise, Israel, Byron. III.

Burchard, P. H., Grant Park. 111.

Brown, B. K., Nev?port, N. Y.

BrovFn, Hiiam, West Edmeston, N. Y.

Bonfoy, G. A., West Winfield, W. Y.

Brown, A. J., Vernon. N. Y.

Blanding, Wm. Hawleyton, N. Y.

Baldwin. E. D.. Perrysville. N. Y.

Brown. J. C, Skeneateles, N. Y.

Babcock, M. M., Syiacuse, N. Y.

Barker, Jf. W., Syracuse, N. Y.

Bunnell, C. S., Syracuse, N. Y.

Brace. H. L., North Winfield. N. Y.

Beal, Prof. J W., Lansing, Mich.

Burnett, Edward, Southboro, Maes.

Babcock, R. y., Afton, N. Y.

Babcock, H. C, Newport, N. Y.

Babcock. C. G., Newport. N. Y.

Bonfoy. S.. West Winfield, N. Y.

Baker, B. P., 129 E. .34th street, New York.

Brown, Joseph !•'.. Providence, R. I.

Buell, C. C. Rock Falls, 111.

Batchelor. Daniel. Utica, N. Y.

Chaffee, Barrett, Fairmount. N. Y.

Cole, Alyah F., Eaton. N. Y.

Cosoer. O. W., Little York. N. Y.

Carter, John S., Syracuse, N. Y.

Crofui, E. B. & Co., Syracuse, N. Y.

Corey, A. L., Farlie P. O., Kent Co., Md.

Curtise & Childs. Utica. N. Y.

Converse. I. F,, Woodville, N. Y.

Crozier, William, Northport, L. I.

Curtis, Frank D. Charlton, N. Y.

Chapman, John R., Oneida Lake, N. Y.

Chapman, Thos. P.. Oneida Lake, N. Y.

Combs, M. B.. Holland Patent, N. Y.

Cole, T. A. Solsville, N. Y.

Carbee, C. W., Geneva. N. Y.

Creaser. W. L.. Hecla Works, N. Y.

Clark, H. T., Vernon, N. Y.

Cannon, R. P., Aurora, Ohio.

Caldwell, Prof. G. C, Ithaca. N. Y.

Chadwick. C. E.. Inge rsoll, Ont.

Caswell. E., Incersoll, Ohio.

Crafts, Dr. E. G., Binghamton, N. Y.

Curtis, T. D. Utica, N. Y.

Chester. Prof. Albert H., Clinton, N. Y.

Childs, J. M. & Co., Utica, N. Y.

Dodge, Henry, Washington Mills, N. Y.

Dean, James, Hecla Works, N. Y.

Douglass, G. B., 86 Warren St., N. Y.

Ellis, James M., Syracuse. N. Y.

Ellsworth, J. T., Barre, Mass.

Engelhardt. Prof. Francis E.. Syracuse, N.Y.

Karrington, S A., Carabridgeboio, Pa.

Fuller, A. M., Meadville, Pa.

Faulkner, C. D., Utica. N. Y.

Favill. Stephen. Lake Mills. Wis.

Fish, J. P., Cedarville, N. Y.

French, J. D. W., Boston, Maes., P. O. Box

1622.
Fish, A. L., Cedarville, N. Y.

Folsom, M.. New York.
Faulkner. Horace, Utica, N. Y.
Field & Pennock. Utica, N. Y.
Foster. John, Little York. N. Y.
Freeman. M. W., New Woodstock, N. Y.
Gilmore, H., Utica. N. Y.
Gilbough, J. M., 37 South Water street, Phil-
adelphia, Pa.
Gates, W. M., Whitesboro. N. Y.
Golden, R., Little Falls. N. Y.
Gold, Hon. T. S., West Cornwall. Ct.
Guthrie. J. G.. Shelbyville, Ky.
Gregg, John. Kirkville. N. Y.
Gridley, D. W., Fayetteville, .V. Y.
Getman. G. II., Syracuse, N. Y., box 355.
Gates, F. H.. Chittenango. N. Y.
Giddings, D. B., Baldwinsville. N. Y.
Gillett. Harris, Silver Plains, N. Y.
Gilbert, B. D.. Utica. N. Y.
Hoxie, Samuel S.. West Edmeston. N. Y.
Hnxie, Solomon, Whitesboro. N. Y.
Hildreth, H. D.. Canton, N. Y.
Uorton, A. W.. Syracuse, N, Y., box 334.
Henderson, Joel. West Edmeston, N. Y.
Hazard, W. P.. West Chester, Pa.
Halpin, D. A., llion N.Y.
Hill, Edgar, Vernon. N. Y.
Howarth & Ballard, Utica, N. Y.
Hoffman, H. C, Horseheads, N. Y.
Hinckley. D. J., Brookfield, N. Y.
Hazard, Iraac, Providence, R. I.
Horr, Charles W., Wellington, Ohio.
Hopkins, Benjamin. Brownsville, Ont.
Hazen, Chester. Ladoga. Wis.
Hawley. Lewis T.. Syracuse. N. Y.
Isabell, C, Little Falls. N. Y.
Isabell, Taylor & Co.. Little Falls, N. Y.
Jefi'rey, J. fl.. New Woodstock, N. Y.
Jennison. Lewis, Binghamton, N. Y.
Joyce, James F.. 102 Broad St.. New York.
Johnson, Wm. A . Collins Centre. N. Y.
Jones, J. E.. South Trenton, N. Y.
Jones, Prank. Utica. N. Y.
Kirkpatrick, D. R., Syracuse, N. Y.
Knapp, James, DeWitt. N. Y.
Lounsbery, New Woodstock, N. Y.
Loomis. A. J.. Cicero. N. Y.
Law, Prof. James, Ithaca, N. Y.
Lewis, Harris Frankfort, N. Y.
Lang. J. W., Brooks. Me.
Lewis. John. Frankfort. N. Y.
Ledyard, L. W., Cazenovia. N. Y.
Lamphere, J. E., Middleville, N. Y.
Lewis, Chas. S., Oriskany Falls, N. Y.
Langworthy, H., West Edmeston, N. Y.
Langworthy, Irwin. South Brookfield, N. Y.
Libby Alonzo, Saccarappa, Me.
Lazenby. Prof. W. R., Ithaca, N. Y.
Moses, H. W., Geneseo, 111.
Merriam, Herbert, Weston. Mass.
Munson. E. S , Franklin, N. Y.
Merry, G., Verona. N. Y.
Merry, F. J., Verona, N. Y
McOomber, J , Northwestern. N. Y.
Merrell. Daniel W.. Franklin. N. Y.
Millar, Henry W., Utica. N. Y.
Martyn. A. T., Canton. N. Y.
Millar, Chas.. Utica, N. Y.
Miller. Gerrit S., Peterboro, N. Y.
Morris, Francis, Oakland. Md.
Mason, Hon. E. D., Richmond, Vt.
Moore, Wm. A., Northboro, Mass.

Nichols, Chas., Syracuse, N. Y.
Norton. Edward, Farmington, Ct.
Newman, W. W., South Onondaga, N. Y.
>ewton. Stephen, Cazenovia. N. Y.
Overacre, D. R., Syracuse, N. Y., 399 S. Sa-

lina St.
Perry & Robinson, Syracuse. N. Y.
Perkins, E. S., Cazenovia. N. Y.
Peck. Chailes, North Manlius, N. Y.
Powell. E. A., Syracuse, N. Y.
Parker's Sons, Job, Utica, N. Y.
Prindle, F.. Poland, N. Y
Purvis, Robert. Harford. N. Y.
Payne, C. O.. Oneonta, N. Y.
Page, C. 8., Earlville. N. Y.
Pope, J. L., South Edmeslon, N. Y.
Peters, J M.. New York.
Proctor. T. R , Utica N. Y.
Root, Major C. P.. Gilbertsville. N. Y.
Rich. Van R . Sand Bank, N. Y.
Rice, A. J. Sodus, N. Y.
Riggs. C. J.. Turin, N. Y.
Rutherford. Walter S.. Waddington, N. Y.
Riggs, H.M.. Turin. N. Y.
Richer, N.. Columbus, N. Y.
Rathbun. R. H., Newport, N. Y.
Reeder. Eastburn, New Hope, N. Y.
Rutherford, W. L.. Waddington, N. Y.
Reall, J. H., New York
Smith, Brown W.. Syracuse, N. Y.
Schul), Hon. Josiah, Ilion. N. Y.
Saunders, A. C. Scriba, N. Y.
Straight. W. B.. Huds^on. Ohio.
Stewart, Prof. E. W., Lake View, N. Y.
Sheldon, C. L., Lowville, N. Y.
Smith, Hiram. Sheboygan Falls, Wis.
Stewart. John, Anamosa, Iowa.
Sears, Wm. Syracuse, P. O. box 83.
Sheden, Geo. J., Canastota, N. Y.

Sackett. O. L.. Canastota, N. Y.
Smith, P. P.. Cazenovia, N. Y.
Sheldon, A. S., Baldwinsville, N. Y.
Sturtevant. Dr. E. L., Framingham. Mass.
Scovil, J. V. H., Paris. N. Y.
Schermerhorn, C. Jr., North Gage, N. Y.
Schermerhorn. J. M., North Gage, N. Y.
Smith, A P , Greene. NY.
Smith, O. W.. Cold Brook, N. Y.
Shattuck, J S., Sherburne, N. Y.
Stoddard, M. O., Poultney, Vt.
Siryker. Wm. E., North Litchfield, N. Y.
Smith. G. A., Cassville, N. Y.
Sasre. E. A., New Berlin, N. Y.
Stebbins. H. K.. Belfast, N. Y.
Sarann, F. A., Fort Plain N. Y.
Stillman, Phineas, DeRuyter, N. Y.
Stillman. Stephen, Cuyler, N. Y.
Terry. T. M., Liverpool. N. Y.
Thompson. Col. Clark M . Wells, Minn.
Thurber.F. B., 116 Read St.. New York.
Van Namee, James, Port Leyden. N. Y.
Vanbuskirk. H. T., North Western, N. Y.
Van Duzer. J. S., Elmira. N. Y.
Woodlord. E. C, West Candor, N. Y.
Wilson, Wm. R.. North Hammond. N. Y.
Wrieht, George R.. Hartford, N. Y.
Willett John A., 169 Keade st , New York.
Weld M. C. New York. P. O box 416.
Weeks. G. B., Syracuse. N. Y.
Wetherell, Prof L., Boston. Mass,
Wickson. Prof. E. J., San Francisco, Gal.
Wight, Dr. L. L.. Whitestown. N. Y.
Wheaton, Levi, Utica, N. Y.
Williams, W. P.. Bellows Falls, Vt.
Williams, Cone, Syracuse, N. Y.
Whitman & Burrell. Little Falls, N. Y.
Willetts, Wm. B., Skeneateles, N- Y.
Wright, G. R., Harttord, N Y.

American Dairymen's Association.

Fifteenth Annual Convention, at Syracuse, January
13, 14 AND 15, 1880.

PROCEEDINGS, PAPERS, ADDRESSES AND DISCUSSIONS.

[Note. — The aim of the Secretary, in gelling up this Report, has been to give as much mat-
ter as possible in the least space, and thus reduce the postage, which was complained of as too
heavy on last year's Report. This year's Report will be found replete with matter of interest
and practical value to dairymen.]

TUESDAY, JANUARY 13.

In Empire Hall, at 12 o'clock, m., President Arnold being absent, the
Secretary called the convention to ordei-, and moved that Hon. Josiah Shull
be made temporary chairman. Motion unanimously carried.

On motion, the Chairman appointed a Committee on Order of Business,
as follows: — Dr. P. E. Engelhardt, Syracuse; 0. M. Tinkham, of the Green
Mountain (Vermont) Freeman; D. H. Bruce and L. T. Hawley, of Syra-
cuse ; T. D. Curtis, Secretary of the Association, Utica.

It was announced that at the opening of the session in the afternoon,
Professor Law, of Cornell University, would read a paper on "Hygiene in
the Dairy Herd,'' and that Dr. Engelhardt would follow with a paper on
"Hygiene in the Manipulation of Milk and its Products."

TUESDAY AFTERNOON, JANUARY 13.

At 2 p. M., Vice President E. W. Stewart called the convention to order.
Prof. James Law, of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., was introduced,
and spoke substantially as follows on

HYGIENE IN THE DAIRY HERD.

He said if time would have permitted he would have been glad to have
taken up the hygiene of the herd and have spoken of the importance of
clean, well-ventilated barns, and skillful treatment. He recently saw a val-
uable imported herd in which twelve animals were suffering from consump-
tion, which is often accompanied by the premature dropping of calves.
Impure air was the cause.

He visited Delaware county, and in a herd of sixty found every one con-
sumptive and dangerous to other animals. They may spread the disease
through feeding and drinking troughs.

Sudden changes must be avoided, also bad feeding. Bran develops
gritty substances and stone in the bladder Dry material frequently in-
duces indigestion. Smutty corn will produce sores on the feet.

Pluero Pneumonia which prevails in some eastern countries is an imported
disease. It invaded this country in 1843, when an imported cow was
brought to Brooklyn by Peter Dunn, and from her the disease spread.
"Stump tail" cows in "swill milk" times showed that they were affected

by this disease; that they wei-e innoculated in their tails, which dropped
off. He briefly reviewed the history of its prevalence, and its absence from
many States, showing that it is not peculiar to the climate. Its native home
is probably in Central Asia. It seems to be communicated by contagion
only. The plague has never prevailed on the Highlands of Scotland, but is
seen on the Lowlands. It prevails on the English coasts, and adjoining
localities are kept from it, because they will not permit the importation of
cattle. Prof. Law spoke in detail of the prevalence and non-prevalence of
the disease in the various countries of Europe.

If in this country we could stamp out the germs of the disease, we should
be rid of it altogether, for it does not breed itself.

It may rapidly be spread in swill tables, when at the head of the trough
there may be a diseased animal, from which innoculating matter may be
cai-ried the whole length of the trough.

The disease is confined solely to provinces. That it has never appeared
among the buffalo, shows that it is not native here.

In most parts of Europe, herds are not kept apart by fences, and the dis-
ease spreads rapidly. It is not so here. But if it reaches Texas and the
plains, the horrors of Australia and South Africa may be repeated.

After infection, three months or more may elapse before the animal becomes
sick. Several instances were noted, in which even a longer period of time
intervened. Any plan for preventing the importation of the disease must
take this fact into account, and no animal imported should be given free-
dom in less than ninety days from the time of possible exposure. Whatever
authority is exercised in this particular should be uniform throughout the
country. He was in favor of making the period of quarantine one hundred
and four days.

The tendency of the malady is to merge into a chronic form. It is not
like an ordinary case of inflammation of the lungs. The lung becomes
clogged, the parts die and decay, and are thrown off in part ; but animals
supposed to have recovered have been found to be carrying large quantities
of this dead matter in their chests, and perhaps being milked at the same
time. The disease can only be stamped out through vigilant care and effort.

It has been proposed to quarantine certain States. Can it be done? Un-
principled dealers will not observe the law. The disease must be met in the
stable.

Prof. Law read the following form of petition, and urged its adoption by
the convention:

To the Hon. the Senate and House of Representatives in Congress of the

United States :

The lung plague of cattle, which has cost Europe losses amounting to
thousands of millions of dollars, having been imported into the United
States, and having, by reason of its contagious properties, extended from
Brooklyn — where the first infected European cow was landed — southward
as far as the centre of Virginia ;

As this disease spreads only by contagion and must continue to extend so
long as infected animals are brought in contact with uninfected and sus-
ceptible ones:

As its diffusion in the past for three hundred miles from Brooklyn assures
us that it will spread onward until it reaches Texas and the cattle raising
districts in the western States and Territories ;

As it will then be impossible to set any limit to the infection, seeing that
herd will mingle with herd and herd succeed herd on the same pastures, and
the plague will be rendered permanent here, as it has been on the open
steppes of Europe and Asia, and the unfenced pasture lands of Australia
and South Africa;

As such a permanent infection of the source of our cattle traffic will in-
fect all its channels and all the Middle and Eastern States, at a cost, judg-
ing from the losses of England, of $65,000,000 per annum in deaths alone;

And as this disease can still be easily extirpated by federal action, but is
not likely to be so by the action of individual States ; therefore.

Resolved, That we hereby petition our representatives in Congress to em-
power the Federal Executive to apply such measures as shall stamp out this
foreign pestilence and protect the country against the otherwise ruinous,
permanent and irretrievable losses.

In answer to questions, Prof. Law said that an animal may recover, and
if it does, is not afterwards subject to the contagion. Innoculation is valu-
able as a preventive. The virus will retain its power five or six months
when not exposed to the air. We should not practice innoculation ; all our
efforts should be given to stamping out the disease.

Prof. Law received a vote of thanks, and hurried away to take the next
train of cars westward.

Prof. Stewart said : I understand the professor, the foremost thing which
he recommends is to get Congress to pass a law which shall enable the Pres-
ident to take measures to stamp out the disease altogether. He has made
it clear that it is impossible to prevent it by innoculation. At the same
time it will be necessary to have the aid of the General Government, since
the disease can only be stamped out by killing all infected or suspected ani-
mals and their owners must be at least partially remunerated for their
loss, since it is for the benefit of the whole community.

Mr. E. A. Powell was called upon, and spoke of the injustice of making
a distinction in the length of quarantine required in different States. The
General Government must take the matter in hand. He suggested that his
partner, Mr. Smith, who had traveled in Europe, be called upon.

Mr. Wing Smith, who has traveled much in Holland, where the herds
were formerly much afflicted with pleuro-pneumonia, said that there is at
present but little of it. He never saw a case in that country. It was erad-
icated by the heroic method of wiping out entire herds, in cases where any
portion of the herd was affected. He was in favor of action by the Federal
Government.

On motion, the petition was temporarily laid on the table.

Prof. Francis E Engelhardt, Milk Inspector in Syracuse and Chemist of
the American Dairy Salt Company, followed with a paper on

HYGIENE IN THE MANIPULATION OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS.

Milk, as drawn from the udder of the cow, is a very unstable and ex-
tremely perishable product, which fact is due to the complexity of its com-
position. It consists mainly of caseine, fibrine, milk sugar, mineral salts,
various gasses and so-called extractive matters, dissolved in water, and the
butter fat, the globules of which are mechanically suspended throughout
the entire mass. Hence, like its two main products, butter and cheese, it
is readily affected by the lea.st external influence. Such being the case, it
shall be our object to consider for a few moments some of these external in-
fluences and their effects on milk and its products.

More than a hundred years ago, an English divine. Bishop Berkeley, used
the following words in regard to air in his "tJiris," published 1744:
" Nothing ferments, vegetates or putrefies without air, which operates with
all the virtues of the bodies included in it — that is, of all nature. * * *
The air, therefore, is an active mass of numberless different principles, the
general sources of corruption and generation — on the one hand dividing,
abrading and carrying off the particles of bodies (that is, corrupting or dis-
solving them); on the other, bringing new ones into being, destroying and
bestowing forms without intermission." And again he says, in another
place: "The seeds of things seem to be latent in the air, ready to pair and
produce their kind, whenever they light on a proper matrix. The extremely
small seeds of ferns, mosses, mushrooms and some other plants are con-
cealed and wafted about in the air, every part whereof seems replete with
seeds of one kind or other. The whole atmosphere seems alrve. There is
everywhere acid to corrode and seed to engender. Iron will rust and mould
will grow in all places." Here, then, we have the most advanced opinions
on air expressed by a deep thinking mind, without experimental proof, over
a century in advance of its verification by actual experiments.

10

From earliest times the belief seems to have taken hold of men's minds,
that living things could develop from dead and decaying matter without
parental ancestors — due, undoubtedly, for example, to the then unexplained
phenomenon of worms appearing in putrif ying meat, etc. This opinion re-
ceived its first contradiction in the discovery of the physician Francesco
Redi, of Tuscany, in 1668, when he found that the maggots appearing on
putrifying meat were the larv* developed from the e^gs of the common
blow-fly. Neadham, in 1745, published the results of some experiments to
prove spontaneous generation. He had heated hermetically sealed vessels,
containing putrescible matter, for five minutes at the boiling point, which,
after some time, contained living organisms. But the Abbe Spallanzani,
who repeated these experiments with this diflEerence — that he boiled the
vessels for forty-five minutes instead of five minutes — obtained negative
results.

As a practical application of these investigations, we have to-day the
canned goods. Appert, a Frenchman, in the first decade of this century,
preserved vegetables and meat by boiling them in suitable vessels, which he
sealed during the boiling operation hermetically. Gay Lussac, when inves-
tigating Appert's method, found that the air enclosed in Appert's vessels
was void of oxygen. Moreover, when he passed a bubble of air into some
grape juice and found that fermentation commenced immediately, he con-
cluded at once that absence of oxygen was necessary to the preservation of
animal and vegetable matters, and that this gas was the cause of fermenta-
tion. This opinion prevailed almost entirely till 1854. In the year 1837,
Schwann proved, by experiments, that fresh, cool air, if previously heated,
did not affect the juice of meat which had been boiled, and he concluded
that the principle producing fermentation and putrefaction is not due to
the oxygen the air contains, but to something else in it, which heat could
destroy. In the year 1854, Schroeder and Von Dusch passed ordinary air
through cotton wool and applied it to the preservation of various substances.
Meat, with the addition of water and beer-wort, remained unchanged even
after months, but milk soon curdled, and meat, without an addition of
water, putrefied. In 1859, Schroeder took the subject up again, and con-
cluded, from many and various experiments, that fresh air contains an
active substance capable of inducing putrefaction and fermentation, but
which heat can destroy and cotton wool arrest. Such was about our knowl-
edge when M. Pasteur commenced to investigate this subject with a care,
perseverance and skill which are very rarely equaled by scientific investi-
gators. Among the first results of his investigations were:

1. That there are present organized substances in the air.

2. That carefully filtered air, admitted to sterile solutions, produces no
organisms.

3. That near the usual surface of the ground these organisms are so nu-
merous that almost by the slightest exposure of vessels containing vegeta-
ble matter capable of putrefaction they are entered by them.

4. That they are fewer in quiet places, where no dust is floating, and in
high mountain regions far away from human habitation.

But Pasteur did not rest here. He found that there existed in the air
organized corpuscles exactly like germs of the lowest organisms, and that
sugar solutions with the liquor from beer yeast remained unchanged and
limpid without giving rise to organisms, when left in contact with previ-
ously heated air, at a temperature of about 80 deg. Fahr. for an indefinite
length of time. He took a flask, containing such a sugar solution, and, as
it had stood this severe test for several months, opened it with the greatest
care and put into it a plug of gun cotton, through which a large amount of
ordinary air had been passed, sealed it up again and exposed it during three
to four days to the same temperature (75 deg. to 80 deg. Fahr.), when he
found the liquid decomposing and containing the same organisms as if it
had been directly exposed to ordinary air. In his experiments with milk
and heated air he found that generally in eight or ten days the milk was
curdled. The whey was full of organisms, and in the enclosed air the oxy-
gen was replaced by carbonic acid. He therefore concluded that, while
such organisms as mucortorula and penicillium are killed at 212 deg. Fahr.,

11

there are other organisms or their germs, such as bacterias and vibrios, that
cannot be destroyed at a boiling temperature. Repeating the experiment
with milk heated under pressure at a temperature of 230 deg. Fahr., and
then admitting heated air, the milk in the flasks kept indefinitely free from
living organisms and retained its odor, its flavor and all its qualities.

Thus he proved the indestructibility of certain forms of low organisms
at 213 deg. Fahr. According to the experiments of Prof. Calvert, some of
these will bear a temperature of almost 400 deg. Fahr. before life becomes
extinct in them.

To obtain a proper idea as to what is floating in the air, allow me to re-
late to you an experiment made by Dr. Angus Smith, with Manchester air.
With proper precautions and apparatus, he washed with a little absolutely
pure water about as much air as a person actively working requires for res-
piration during ten hours, viz : 88 cubic feet. The microscopic examination
of this water, by Mr. Dancer, revealed in it :

1. Fungoid matter, spores or sporidiae in greatest abundance. The total
number of spores present in a single drop he calculated to be 250,000; and
since there were 150 drops, we have the grand total of thirty-seven and one-
half millions of spores in the 88 cubic feet of Manchester air. Many of
them were living and developed afterwards.

2. Vegetable tissue. Some of it seemed to have been partially burnt.
Perhaps it was derived from wood u?ed in making fires

3. Then there were fragments of vegetation, resembling in structure hay
and straw and hay seeds. A few hairs of leaves of plants and fibres of flax ;
cotton filaments, white and of various colors, very numerous ; starch gran-
ules, hair of animals, but very few except wool, of which white and colored
specimens were mixed up with the cotton fibres.

4. After these washings of atmospheric dust had been kept quiet for three
or four days animalcuL'e made their appearance in considerable numbers.

Similar results were obtained with Calcutta air, by Dr. Cunningham, who,
moreover, observed in it bacterias. In Paris, a few years ago, an epidemic
broke out in the Prince Eugene barracks. After removal of the inmates, a
black dust was found on the floors and window sills, which, mixed with
water, gave at once a putrid smell, and under the microscope algtes, vibrios,
bacterias and monads were very readily recognized in it.

Before leaving this subject, let me call your attention to the fact, that in
both the perspiration of the animal body and in the exhalations from the
lungs, solid organic matter is contained, sometimes in a state of decompo-
sition, when the breath is very objectionable. It has been found that if we
remove, for instance, the moisture condensing on the windows of a very
crowded room and allow it to stand for some time and then heat it, we can
very distinctly perceive the odor of the perspiration. The discomfort we
feel in an ill-ventilated and crowded room is due to the amount of or-
ganic matter the room contains. Bodies when moist will give out more or-
ganic vapors than when dry. When people are in a perspiration, especially
in summer during work, we can perceive the odors of their perspiration at
a considerable distance. A flower garden after a rain shower is much more
fragrant than at any other time. We know that water is necessary to the
spontaneous decomposition of animal matter (dried meat can be kept almost
indefinitely), and organic matter in contact with water gives off constantly
an odor of some kind. Thus it seems as if some moisture is necessary to
the escape of odors. Many essential oils, which have usually a boiling point
above that of water, or 212 deg. Fahr., are very readily distilled over at that
temperature, when mixed with the steam, from which we may conclude
that steam or vapor has especially a great capacity of taking up odors.

To prepare distilled water absolutely free from every trace of organic
matter, requires not only the treatment of the water with chemicals and dis-
tillation, but the latter operation has to be repeated over and over again,
conveying the idea that particles of organic matter rise with the vapor in
the retort.

To return once more to the absorbing power of substances, what I have
remarked about steam is true, and to a far greater extent of many animal
fats, butter and oil. They absorb odors with such avidity that a branch of

12

perfumery, the enfleurage and maceration, are depending on this quality,
and such perfumes as jasmin, violet, tuberose, geranium, etc., are pre-
pared by taking the fresh blossoms of these flowei's and putting them on to
glass plates previously covered over with properly prepared fat. The fat
absorbs all the odor of the blossoms, and the latter are renewed every day,
while the flower season lasts, and the fat is worked so as to expose fresh sur-
face to the odor. These are the perfumes proper.

Now, gentlemen, you may have perhaps been thinking it very strange
that I should thus neglect my proper subject and speak of what may seem
to have no connection with it. Therefore, let us return at once. Suppos-
ing that one of you and myself were visiting the farms of your patrons for
inspection.

The first place, very likely, we would examine is the stable. Coming
toward it we find ourselves sinking into the mud up to our ankles, owing
to the fact that our friend allows the liquid discharges of his cattle to run
into his yard through a gutter near the entrance of the stable. In conse-
quence, of course, we find the air in the neighborhood saturated with its
nasty emanations, which are increased by the large dung-heap on one side
of the barn. Entering the barn we Often find them low, ill-lighted and
worse ventilated. The air is damp and foul in the extreme, and this is the
place where the cows have to stay during milking times. These foul ema-
nations of the stable are readily taken up by the warm milk, or rather by
the fat in it. A writer in the Milch Zeitung is of the opinion that the bit-
ter taste of some butter is due to bad air in the stable and the milk-room.
But here is a case in question : While Tait was examining some milk of
the West-Riding Lunatic Asylum, he observed in the milk a peculiar smoky
taste. The cause of it was an asphaltum sidewalk in the neighborhood of
the milk-room. He made experiments with new milk, which he placed con-
tiguous to tar, turpentine, assafoetida, feces, urine, etc., and found that the
milk had taken up these odors, they being perceptible both to taste and
smell. The intensity of the smell and the taste was in proportion to the
quantity and the quality of the cream.

A high temperature in stables is very objectionable, and is the cause of
I'opy milk. A German farmer, who had 23 cows, found his milk ropy. Hav-
ing each cow milked by herself, he found a fresh and an old milking cow
causing the trouble ; reducing the temperature of the stable to about 60"
Fahr., the difficulty was at an end.

In the north of Sweden a peculiar kind of ropy milk is made in the fol-
lowing manner: A bundle of '"Taetgras" (Tinguicula vulgario)* is put
into a milk-tub with milk, and after a' few days the milk is ropy; or the
cows are fed with a little of this weed and their milk will be ropy for days.
The taste of the milk is somewhat altered, but drank by many people with
pleasure. This milk can be sent great distances without danger of souring,
since it possesses the peculiarity to keep for months.

Allowing the bedding under the animals to accumulate for days is a very
bad habit, since the air of such stables is more moist, and contains more
carbonic acid and ammonia than ordinarily. The stables must be cleaned
daily and the solid excrements removed 50 or 60 feet from the stable, and
there mixed with some absorbent, as ground plaster, muck, etc., while the
liquids should be conducted into a tight cistern, built in the ground, also
some distance from the stable. Thus two objects will be accomplished — all
the excrements will be saved, and the stable air kept sweet.

The sensitiveness of milk to outer influences is most remarkably demon-
strated by the following occurrence : Some years ago, a typhoid fever epi-
demic, of great extent, broke out in Glasgow. The health officers were un-
able to trace the cause to the water supply, the drainage, or to the sewerage.
The milk supply was now examined, and it was found that all the houses
with fever sick were supplied by two milk companies, and both received
milk from one and the sam& farm. This farm was visited and a boy with
typhoid fever found in the farm house. His discharges were poured into an
open drain that passed through the cow stable. Here, then, was the expla-

* Butterwort, grovviug on wet rocks from Western New York to Lake Superior and north-
ward—introduced from Europe.

13

nation for the epidemic. The spores of typhoid fever, emanating from the
discharges, were undoubtedly floating in the air of the stable, and on enter-
ing the milk thus multiplied enormously ; and as soon as the milk supply
from this farm was stopped, the epidemic abated.

It is very necessary for us to bear in mind that the air of the best ventil-
ated stables is to some extent impure, owing to the gaseous exhalations,
both from the lungs and the rest of the animal body, to the fungus spores,
and finally to the vapors arising constantly from the decomposition of the
animal excrements. By using an absorbent, such as ground plaster, we
may greatly reduce the latter cause. Repeated whitewashing of the walls
and ceiling of the stables, which can be done at little expense except labor,
once at least every month during the year, especially if the cows are milked
in it during the entire time, should be practiced at every dairy farm. More-
over, it would be of great advantage to disinfect the stables thoroughly, at
least four times a year ; and the best method, and at the same time the
most efficacious would he to burn a few pounds of roll sulphur or brimstone
in them, taking care to close all doors, windows, or other outlets, while the
sulphur is burning. There is not the least danger in the operation when
done with proper precautions. Where the soil is wanting in lime I should
recommend the exposure of an occasional bushel of burnt lime in the stable,
which, while slacking, serves the treble purpose of abstracting moisture and
carbonic acid from the air and supplying the land with the necessary plant
food.

Now let us go to a neighbor of your friend, who is also furnishing you
with a portion of your milk supply, and see what objectionable features we
can discover:

There we find a well — dug of course for convenience, aiid very convenient
we think it is, in the very center of his stable. Of course, he makes no use
of the water except moistening the fodder for his stock. We examine the
water and find, as we might have expected, this precious liquid highly
charged with the drainage of the stable, its color greenish yellow, and its
smell most decidedly cowish. What kind of milk you may expect from such
a source, it is unnecessary for me to say.

At the next farm, brewers' grain, or the residue of starch and grape sugar
factories, are fed. While, when fed fresh and in proper proportion with
other fodder, they are not objectionalile, they become highly deleterious,
both to the cows and their milk when sour and, as I have seen them, rotten
to such an extent in the upper layers that the disgusting emanations rising,
when in this condition, fill the whole atmosphere of the stalile and are ab-
sorbed by the milk. In consecpience of this the milk will sour very readily,
especially at a slightly elevated temperature. An excessive feeding of
either one, even if fresh, produces milk that sours very readily, as I know
from my experience as milk inspector.*

In this connection allow me to relate the following cattle-poisoning case:

In the spring of 1877, at I])penburg, in Hanover, the cows of a farmer
were suddenly taken sick. Of the severest eases, two died on the fii-st and
second day, another on the third day, and two more between the fifth and
seven til days. The rest recovered slowly, after changing the food. The
matter discharged from the nose of the sick cows contained, on examination,
bacterias and fungi. The post mortem examination proved that an infec-
tion through plant parasites had occurred: The mucous membrane was
diseased. The roots fed were covered with fungoid growth and under this
the identical bacterias were found. Moreover, the water supply had been
taken for four weeks from a stagnant pool.

When coming to the next farm, the cows just enter the barn for milking,
and we have an excellent opportunity to examine them as to that most im-
portant desideratum, cleanliness! Their udders are covered with mud or
dirt, partly owing to the filthiness— of the stables, and partly to a ditch or
swamp in your patron's pasture. The men do not wash their hands before

* To keep brewers' grain in good condition, the following process is recommended : Dig
a trench in the f,'roun(l and build the sides up with stones. In the bottom, put straw, then
the grains, and over them an other layer of straw, and above that finally two feet of soil
They will keep thus a year.

14

milking, cleaning off the bags is but improperly done, nor are the first strip-
pings kept separate from the rest. The consequences of such neglects are
familiar to you. With the dirt that drops from the udder into the milk
pail, we introduce the elements of destruction, since this mud is of yonder
stagnant pool, the water of which is alive with animalculse, fungi and their
spores. The warm milk is the very medium best adapted to their growth,
on account of its elevated temperature and the complexity of its composi-
tion. Moreover, is it not possible that some of these spores may enter the
very ducts and resei-voirs of the cow's udder, and there begin their hidden
but the more certain work of destruction of the lacteal fluid. How readily
spores will enter into vessels which are considered perfectly air tight, every
house-wife can tell us from her experience with her preserves. Why can
they not as well enter the cow's bag, when the latter comes in contact with
the medium in which they exist? Before leaving the stable, let me call
your attention to one more point worthy of your consideration. The milk
when drawn from the udder enters the milk pail in a very fine stream,
hence it must not only come in contact with a large volume of air, but also
absorb a great deal more than under ordinary circumstances, which in the
shape of foam escapes again from the milk, but not till the milk has taken
up and absorbed whatever it contains, for the reasons previously stated.
To obtain, therefore, milk that is faultless, I would advise having an open
shed near the barn, under which the cows can be milked in bad weather,
though removed far enough from the deleterious influences of the manure-
heap, the privy, the stagnant pool, the pigsty, etc., and never allow the
milk to be strained in the barn, or, what is worse yet, allow the half open
cans of milk to remain there over night. 1 might somewhat enlarge on this
subject, but time will not permit.

Having made our examination of the farms, we return to your own estab-
lishment; and while on our way we meet one of your patrons taking his
milk to your establishment. His wagon has no springs, the road moreover
is rough, and he is driving rather fast. The excessive shaking prevents a
proper rising of the cream afterwards. The covers of the cans are fastened
as tight as possible ; they have no openings or air holes ; and to avoid the
danger of losing a drop of this precious liquid, he has put a piece of muslin
over the top of the can before closing it, to be doubly safe; hence there is
not the least chance for any escape of gas. All the animal odor must there-
fore remain with the milk and cause its early decay.

But now. Sir, we are back at your factory or creamery and we shall en-
deavor to take a glance at it At its entrance, we find our first friend. He
has delivered his milk and taken back some whey or sour milk — not in sepa-
rate cans, but in the very cans he delivered the milk in. We at once object,
because the cleaning of such vessels can only be done in a proper and per-
fect manner by the liberal use of live steam. We must bear in mind that
the spores (as I have stated previously) of some organisms possess such te-
nacious lives that even steam will not kill them ; and the smallest particle
of milk remaining may become a centre of putrefactive fermentation. In
regard to the latter process, Prof. Cohn, of Bresslau, who has examined into
this subject most carefully, says: *' No putrefaction can occur in a nitro-
genous substance, if itsbacterias be destroyed and new ones prevented from
entering. Putrefaction begins as soon as bacterias, in the smallest number,
are admitted, either accidentally or purposely. Its progress is directly in
proportion to the multiplication of bacterias. It is retarded when they ex-
hibit low vitality, and it is stopped by all influences which either hinder
their development or kill them. All bacteriacidal media are therefore anti-
septic and disinfecting.

Entering your establishment we find the utensils, such as the churn, the
cheese vat, press, etc., of the latest patterns and the most approved styles.
Everything seems to be in perfect order. The churning has been finished
and the butter is being transferred to the tubs. Big chunks of the unctuous
preparation are thrown into the tub ; and while this is done we observe the
buttermilk spatter all over the ceiling, the walls, the floor, the workman,
and even over ourselves. Here again we must object, because butter, con-
taining so much buttermilk, cannot keep. The stability of the butter is

15

mainly depending on the care taken in its preparation ; and this assertion
is well sustained by the results of numerous analyses of butter, which I
have made for the last few years, viz : first quality butter always is very free
from buttermilk; hence, free from caseine, etc.

The milk room is the next place of interest to us, and in fact the most
important one in the dairy, since the milk remains in it from its arrival till
the cream enters the churn. Here, then, is the place where the greatest
care must be exercised by the dairyman, not only to preserve the milk from
outside deleterious influences, but also to arrest or remedy, if possible, the
consequences of previous injury.

It is a well known fact, that plants cannot exist without a. certain amount
of moisture. The same is true of fungi ; hence we never observed fungoid
growth in perfectly diy organic matter in a dry atmosphere. Now, the ob-
ject of putting the milk into the milk room is to raise the cream under the
most favorable circumstances, to keep it as long and sweet as possible, and
for this purpose we I'equire a proper ventilation, whereby we remove ail
the moisture escaping from the cooling milk and from the surrounding wa-
ter. Another advantage is, that the spores and germs floating in the air
have no time to settle but are carried along with the current. Moisture in
the air hastens the souring of milk and cream, which fact is well proved by
the following occurrence : At Marienwerder, the building was finished at
the beginning of winter and the milk room could not be thoroughly dried
out. Much trouble was experienced with the milk and the cream, both
commencing to sour much before the regular time. The churning had to
be done at a high temperature and entailed a loss of butter. As soon as the
room was perfectly dry the difliculty was at an end.

The worst condition of the milk room for the manufacturer, but the best
for the development of fungoid growth, is a stagnant, moist and warm at-
mosphere. A constant renewal of the air also prevents a too rapid develop-
ment of the lactic acid In fact, the experiments of Max Miiller prove that
milk exposed to pure air remains longer sweet than when kept in closed
vessels. The influence of temperature on the preservation of milk, viz : its
fermentation, is perhaps best illustrated by the action of yeast. On beer-
worts, at a high temperature, we can induce a fermentation lasting only 24
hours; at a low temperatue it will last over 8 days.

To sum up, then, the milk room must be constructed with the following
objects in view: (1) perfect ventilation; (2) independence in regard to the
influence of the variations of the outside temperature ; (3) perfect dryness.

Thus we will be enabled to remove the moisture as fast as it is given off
from the milk, keep the milk sweet as long as necessary for a proper raising
of the cream, prevent the growth of fungi on the walls, etc., keep a tem-
perature best adapted for this purpose, and produce, in consequence of these
conditions, a good cream. That the utmost cleanliness is especially nec-
essary for this room, it is almost superfluous to state. The smallest speck
of milk, if not removed, will become readily a centre of fungoid growth.
Floors with cracks into which particles of milk may find their way. or
through which the dampness from the cellar below may enter into your milk
room, are most objectionable. To have a kitchen in a creamery and cheese
factory, by the side of which the kitchen offal and the swill is piled up and
kept in open barrels, consisting of rotting tomatoes, potatoes, cabbage, etc.,
and not for one day only, but for days and perhaps for a week, the foul
emanations filling the air near by to such an extent that the salt in an open
and partly filled barrel had partaken of the smell to such an extent that
a sample of it sent to me, even after days, retained it, are things that may
seem almost incredible but nevertheless they are most true.

Some years ago, I had to wait at a little station, for several hours, for a
train. To pass my time, I looked around the place and found in front of
the first freight house and also inside the building, a great number of boxes
which, on closer inspection, turned out to be used for the shipping of small
butter packages — butter prints— to the Philadelphia market. Particles of
butter were smeared all over and had become rancid in the extreme. How
such boxes can be properly cleaned, so as to be fit to serve the same purpose
again is a mystery to me, though they are so used. The amount of bad but-

16

ter that is brought into our inland cities and country places is much more
considerable than we are apt to believe. If you could accompany me
through the city, when visiting the smaller grocery stores, as milk inspector,
you would be astonished. And mind these are not three or five pound

{)ackages, but 50 or 60 pound tubs ; hence they must have been put up on
arger farms where people should know better. I have seen tubs of so-called
butter, yet about one-thiid full, over which the buttermilk — or rather a mix-
ture of the butter with the wash water — stood almost an inch deep. The
taste and flavor of this precious mixture was anything but fine.

Some years ago we had a complaint from a wholesale dealer, that our salt
gave a fishy taste and flavor to butter. For the purpose of finding out the
cause I called on the parties thus complaining, and what do yon think I
found ? W hy, I found the dairy salt in a damp cellar, surrounded and side
by side with kerosene oil barrels, salted fish barrels, in great abundance,
some of them open, and smoked and salted fish lying on the salt sacks!
What astonished me most was that no complaint had been made that the
salt smelt and tasted of kerosene oil! What I have said about creamer-
ies and butter is equally true of cheese factories and cheese. Your product
will always correspond to the amount of care bestowed during its manufac-
ture, and seeming trifles are often of the greatest importance.

In answer to questions, Dr Engelhardt said; Salt will absorb odors just
as readily as milk or butter; milk may have an odor as it comes from a cow;
a cow drinking from a stagnant pool may carry spores into the milk.

Mr. Hawley took occasion to call attention to the fact that unpurified
salt is ground and put up for dairy purposes, and cautioned the dairymen
to buy none that does not bear Dr. Engelhardt's stamp, which is put on all
the factory filled salt sent out by the American Dairy Salt Company.

Mr. Tinkham related that a firm near Boston carried milk to Boston in
the morning that had come from the cows on the previous night, and that
the milk not sold during the day was returned on the following evening;
from this surplus milk butter was made, which sold for forty cents per
pound. He said he was surprised to see his cattle leave good spring water
and go to some distance to drink at the end of a ditch. He had known
oxen to refuse water in the barn yard and drink freely from pools found on
the surface.

Dr. Engelhardt said this was probably because the cattle liked water
which was warmer than spring water. Sometimes the remains of a dead
animal will contaminate a spi'ing, and cattle are quick to detect the fact,

Mr. Tinkham spoke of the terrible fatality in a certain school district in
Vermont, the cause being found in water which leached through a carcass.

A gentleman remarked that in his opinion the cows preferred the surface
water because it had a taste of the ground in it. Cows which are confined
hanker after a taste of the ground.

Mr. Chapman, of Sullivan. Madison county, said there was no accounting
for the taste of cattle, and instanced an illustration, where cows left trout
streams to drink from a surface pool. The milk from these cows often pro-
duce "floating curds." He spoke of cows which drink from Oneida lake,
whose milk does not produce "floats."'

Mr. Tinkham spoke in favor of washing butter.

W. D. Hood, of the Jefferson county (Wis.) Union, said, in regard to
washing butter, that there is a certain flavor about unwashed butter which
some people consider very desirable, and are willing to pay extra for. One
year he was requested by a party to make his butter without washing it to
get out the buttermilk, and he got five cents extra per pound for making
it in that way.

The Secretary read an invitation to visit the winter exhibition of fruits,
etc., by the Onondaga Agricultural Society. He also announced that an
effort would be made to organize a Dairymen's Board of Trade for Onon-
daga and surrounding counties the next day, between 12 and 8 o'clock, p. m.,
during the recess of the convention. He then read the following:

17

FACTS, FIGURES AND REFLECTIONS ON THE DAIRY BUSINESS.

No one has been selected to prepare a paper on the commercial and busi-
' ness aspects of the dairy, for the reason that about the same things have
been said year after year in regard to it, and the terrible pressure of last
season's experience has made all intelligent dairymen about as familiar
with the subject as anyone that could be secured to write an essay on it.
But in this connection, I take the liberty to submit a few facts, figures and
reflections for your consideration, and hope they may not prove uninterest-
ing if they are not instructive.

Prices were fluctuating, low, and very discouraging up to the first week
in September. From this date, they advanced to paying figures, and the
season closed with prices very encouraging. This favorable change in prices
was discounted, however, by a diminished yield, the drought having seriously^
lessened the flow of milk, so that what was gained in price was lost in qvian-
tity.

Success in the future depends materially on our excelling in quality, and
producing for home consumption and the tastes of other nations, as well as
for the palate of the English laborer, who may at any time become too poor
to purchase our products and leave us practically without a foreign market,
unless we open others.

Taking the newspaper reports as authority, we find that there was sold
at the Utica Board of Trade, in 1879, 301,559 boxes of cheese, weighing 60
pounds each. The total number of pounds sold was 18,093,540, for $1,488,-
555 53, or a fraction over 8.2 cents per lb. The average for the previous
year was 8.7 cents. About 21,000 pounds more were sold in 1878, and the
receipts of money were larger by $201,367.

At Little Falls, 244,943 boxes of cheese were sold in 1879. The weight
was 14,696,580 pounds, and the average price a trifle over 7.8. The money
value was $1,149,566.49. About 36,600 more pounds were sold in 1878.
The average price was 8.4 cents, and the excess of money receipts was
$281,447.

The year 1878 was considered an exceptional one, the dairy season being
remarkably long and the make unusually large. For this reason, compari-
sons of the last year's productions are usually made with those of the year
1877. I give the monthly receipts and exports of these years at the port of
New York :

1879.

RECEIPT S.

January 75,791

February 94,463

March 117,299

April 44,776

May 116,396

June 301,559

July 499,246

August 413,269

September 341,819

October 272,001

November 168,956

December 163,222

Total.

2,608.7S7

2,334,464

Excess of receipts 274,333

EXPORTS.

January 110,840

February 189,703

March 207,805

April 79,152

May 112,546

June 299,361

July 433,258

August. 331,326

September 227,160

October 120,246

November 74,322

December 148,745

Total 2,334,464

18

1877.

RECBIPTS.

January 24,394

February 31,009

March 16,214

April 10,839

May 165.246

June 341,924

July 416,688

August 245,187

September 261.968

October 226,560

November 264,329

December 226,539

Total.

.2,230,897
1,988,579

Excess of receipts 242,318

EXPORTS.

January 56,354

February 80,653

March 41,823

April 21,836

May 113,898

June 413,355

July 359,586

August 281,785

September 246,763

October 110,792

JSTovember 93,020

December 168,714

Total 1,988,579

The total receipts and exports at the port of New York for 1877 and 1879
were as follows :

RECEIPTS, I EXPORTS.

1879 2,608,797 1879 2,334,464

1877 2,230,897:1877 1,988,579

Excess of 1879 377,9001 Excess of 1879 345,885

In 1879 there was received at New York 377,900 boxes, and exported 345,-
885 boxes more than in 1877, which was considered a fair average year.

There is no way of accounting for this increase, except by attribut-
ing it to the actual growth of the dairy business during 1878 and 1879. Had
the yield of last year been as great as the early part of the season indicated,
we should have exceeded the i-eceij^ts of 1877 by at least 800,000 boxes, if
not a million. What 1880 may bring forth, no one can tell, but it does not
seem likely that the growth of the dairy business will equal that of either of
the last two years.

The stock of cheese on hand January 1, 1879, and 1880, is estimated as
follows :

1879. BOXES.

New York 396,467

1880. BOXES.

New York 198,758

Liverpool 63,510

London 70,300

332,568

Liverpool 180,000

London 70,006

647,567
332,568

Excess in 1879 313,909

The amount back in the country is estimated at 154,000 boxes. Some
think this is too high. But as the amount back last year must have been
quite as large, we need not consider this.

According to Mr. F. B, Thurber, the latest statistics and estimates give
the number of milch cows in the leading dairy countries as follows:

Germany, 8,962,221

France 4,513,765

Great Britain and Ireland 3,708,766

Denmark 800,000

Sweden 1,356,576

Norway 741,574

Switzerland 592,463

United States 13,000,000

The total for the European countries is 20,674,365, The United States
fall short of this only about one-third. Ours is the most important dairying

19

country in the world, and Germany is the next ; France standing third, with
only about one-third as many cows as we.

There are various estimates as to the amount of our annual dairy pro-
duets, those for 1878 being placed at 340,000,000 pounds of cheese, 41.6 per
cent, of which was exported, and 960,000,000 pounds of butter, 3.9 percent,
of which was exported. The product of 1879 must have been about one-
. fifth or 20 per cent, less, of whicli a much larger per cent of butter was ex-
ported, owing to the low prices that prevailed during the forepart of the
season— it being a law of commerce that large exporting nations pay the
productive laborer small prices, only a few traders and carriers reajsing the
profits. But the census of 1880 will give us a closer approximation to the
annual amount of our dairy products than any estimates, however carefully
made.

The time is not far distant when the dairymen and all other industrial
classes in this country will have to confront the question as to whether it
really pays to produce a surplus to export of any kind of article that other
nations have the same facilities for producing. If we sell such surplus in
the markets of the world, we must produce and deliver it for less money
value than other nations can produce and deliver it for at home. To do
this, we must either have superior advantages for producing, or pay less for
labor than other nations do. As a rule, it costs just as much labor to pro-
duce the same article in one part of the world as in another. We cannot
produce 1,000 bushels of wheat in this country with less labor than it can
be produced in the wheat growing regions of Europe; nor can we send it
half across a continent, and across 3,000 miles of ocean, and deliver it at
less cost of labor than those countries can. Xeither can we produce 1,000
pounds of cheese and deliver it in the European markets with less labor than
the dairymen of that continent can do it. If, therefore, we successfully com-
pete with them, we must do it by working for lower wages; and as most of
the dairymen of this country are manual laborers, less wages to their help
means less reward for their own labor. The dairyman feels this fact when
he and his family do their own work and sell their cheese at five cents and
butter at fifteen cents a pound.

We should therefore seriously consider the question whether it pays any
nation to export at less money value than other nations can produce for,
when its greater cheapness is the result of poorer paid labor. Poorer paid
labor means the greater degradation of the toiling and producing millions,
who cease to have the means of purchasing beyond what is necessary to
maintain a bare animal existence, while the profit and advantage accrue
only to a small aristocratic class of carriers and exporters. Under such a
system, a commercial nation might possess a good deal of wealth, but it
would all be in the hands of a few, while the mass of the people would be
suffering in abject misery. It was probably while contemplating such a
condition of the people, under the proposed empire which he and others are
working for, that Secretary Evarts said the working people in this country
must not expect in the future to be so mucii better off than the working peo-
ple of other countries! Do we want to fall into such a snare by depending
on foreign markets and making ourselves a great commercial nation?

We ought to develop our home markets, making our own people prosper-
ous and good customers, instead of robbing them of the power to buy and
consume, by low wages, that we may undersell in distant and precarious
markets, to the advantage of only a small class of traders and carriers. We
ought to expend some of our surplus labor in making improvements on the
farm, and public improvements of all kinds, instead of putting all our ener-
gies into producing articles to sell for the glittering dross of other nations,
and that we may ignorantly make the empty boast of a balance of trade in
our favor. We must learn to count the cost by days' lalior, instead of by
dollars, and to sell to foreign nations only when their needs will make them
give us a full equivalent in labor value for our surplus products. It is
ruin — ruin to tliem aiui to us — for us to rush into their markets and under-
sell them. We can do this only by making their laborers compete with
ours in the lowness of their wages, pitting one starving wretch against an-

20

other to see which can live and work on the meanest, coarsest and scantiest
fare, while the favored few who handle the products of their labor roll in
luxury, extravagance and dissipation. Do we want to encourage such a
course? If not, we must run less to specialties in farming, pursue a more
diversified system, produce on the farm as nearly as possible all that is con-
sumed on it, depend less on buying and selling, and do as much of our ex-
changing and trading as possible at home, in our own markets, created by
our own industry and the needs and wants of our own industrial classes.
Home industry and home trade must be our main reliance, we living within
and by ourselves, reducing oiir foreign commerce to the minimum for such
articles as we cannot produce at home, sending abroad only what is neces-
sary to pay for them, and keeping the fruits of our own labors at home for
our own use and benefit. This is the true course for every nation to pursue,
and the only one that can produce the greatest degree of prosperity and
happiness. Instead of expending their energies to produce a surplus to
send abroad, any people can do better by expending these same energies in
other directions at home, thereby securing to themselves many more ad-
vantages and enjoyments that can be bought with the sweat-begrimed and
blood-stained coin obtained by underselling their brother toilers in a foreign
market.

Mr. L. T. Hawley was fully in sympathy with what Mr. Curtis had said,
and on his motion a vote of thanks was passed.

The Secretary reminded the Association that it was invited to visit the
Salt Works and Lake View Farm, and asked the pleasure of the Associa-
tion.

On motion, it was resolved to accept the invitations of the Salt Company,
and of Messrs. Smiths & Powell. It was also moved that when an adjourn-
ment was taken, it should be till 10:30 a. m., in order to allow the members
to make the proposed visit in the morning, starting from the Empire House
at 7:30.

Mr. L. T. Hawley explained his method of making butter. He washes it
with brine, packs it as soon as possible and covers it with brine.

Dr. Engelhardt approved Mr. Hawley's method of making butter.

Mr. Tinkham said unwashed butter had taken the first premium at three
successive Vermont fairs. It is a matter of fancy whether it is washed or
not. If the tastes of all people were alike, then one mode of manufacture
would be satisfactory. In answer to a question by Mr. Hawley, he said salt
had no effect till it was in brine, and then Utile or no preservative quality.
It is the buttermilk that causes butter to become tainted, and it can be
worked out without washing. He said that in some instances unwashed
butter had kept better than washed.

Mr. Curtis thought impure water used in washing is sometimes the cause
of butter not keeping well> the organic matter in the water hastening
decay.

Mr. Chapman said he was "afloat." In Denmark butter is made of sweet
cream to keep ; here the cream must be a little sour. The more you talk
about this butter question the more we are apt to wonder what course to
pursue.

Recess till 7:30 p. m.

The Convention met at 7:30, and was called to order by Vice President.
Dr. L. L. Wight.

Mr. Tinkham inquired the value of corn-cobs for fodder.

Prof. Stewart was asked to reply. He was of the opinion that cobs had
more value than was supposed by many. The cobs should be ground with
the corn. He thought cobs were of as much value as stalks. Twelve
pounds of cobs with fifty-six pounds of pure meal was a proper proportion
to produce the best food. Corn ground with the cob will produce ten per
cent, more pork than corn alone. Cobs alone will not support life. There
is nothing about cobs injurious to the animal. They are good for horses
when properly fed. The pig and every other animal will be more healthy

21

if given some coarse food. The cob does not possess so much value that it
would pay to take much pains to grind it, but he could see no reason why
corn should be shelled before being ground. The cow has four stomachs,
and a "cud" cannot be made with meal. Meal should be fed with hay, to
make a cud. He was once feeding meal alone ; and when he added a little
cut hay, he obtained 20 per cent more milk.

Mr. J. B. Brown, of New York, was introduced, and read the following
paper:

ENSILAGE.

Any improvement in the methods by which the nutritive power of vege-
tation can be prolonged is of greater importance to the farmer who produces
it, and to the nation that consumes it than any increase of production. Popu-
lation in time adjusts itself to the average production of the land, but pres-
ervation of crops mitigates the alternation of low prices and high prices, and
insures regular food to animals and men, thereby increasing the energy and
happiness of the commonwealth. The country that does not possess meth-
ods and ample facilities for storing food is subject to famines, without re-
gard to the average prolificness of the soil. In England, in the r2th, 13th,
and 14th centuries, there occurred a famine once in fourteen years. A crop
which can be produced with most certainty, and preserved indefinitely with
little expense, either for human or bovine subsistence, is the best security
against dearth or irregularity in the supply of food. There is no crop that
can be so safely reckoned upon by farmers as the stalks of cereals, and now
we have arrived at a method whereby they can be indefinitely preserved in
a condition that is not only nutritive and healthy, but attractive to the taste
of all grazing animals, and at the same time it is a method of preservation
that is certain and economical. By means of this process the number of
cattle that can be supported upon any farm can be greatly increased, as the
> ield of nutritive matter in the stalks of cereals is greater than that in the
stalks of the grasses that can be grown upon the same space.

The comparative value of these vegetables will become a matter for dis-
cussion, but I have no doubt that it can be easily proven to be twenty times
greater. The farmers of Orange county require six acres for summer and
winter support of one cow by hay and grazing, of which seven-twelfths is
fed in a dry state. Twenty-five tons of green corn-stalks will support in
better average condition two cows for a year, with 68 pounds per day. But
it is not difficult to double this quantity of stalks per acre. One-half the
manure derived from feeding green fodder, carefully preserved, will keep
up the land. A mature or fattening animal removes none of the constitu-
ents of its food that are valuable for manure. Therefore the most fertile
farms of the Eastern States are, as a rule, those that are devoted to stock or
dairy farming. Cattle are not only the distributing resei'voirs of vegetation,
but they also may be made to increase the sources of supply. English Agri-
culture became successful and profitable through stock farming.

If there is one fact recognized by all Agriculturists, it is that a certain
quantity of grass, which, consumed in a green state represents an ascer-
tained nutritive value, loses a considerable portion of that value in passing
into the state of hay intended for the winter sustenance of animals. The
cow, which gives us in summer, while feeding on green grass, such excel-
lent milk, and l)utter of such agreeable color and flavor, furnishes us in
wiater, when she eats the same grass converted into hay, an inferior quality
of milk, and pale, insipid butter. What modification has this grass under-
gone in changing to hay? These modifications are numerous. It is suffi-
cient to cross a meadow at the time when the new-mown grass is undergo-
ing desiccation in order to recognize that it is losing an enormous quantity
. of its substance that exhales in the iiir in agreeable odors, but which, if
they remained in the plant, would serve as a condiment, facilitating di-
gestion and assimilation.

Ensilage means to pack down in a pit or bank called a silo. These are
economical words and were transplanted from the French for the purpose of

22

economy of language, and not, as one agricultural journal piit it, for the
purpose of mystifying the subject. The common sense of the nation goes
in that direction, of concise expression. "We have in New York a new kind
of railroad which we call for short L, and write it with one letter.

The subject of preserving fodder in a green state interested a French
farmer. Monsieur Auguste Goffart, as early as 1850, and after that time it
became his favoz-ite occupation. In 1852 he built four underground silos with
masonry, and for twenty-two years he filled and emptied those silos without
prolonging the presei'vation more than one month. In 1873 he first had a
real success. Having a large crop, 200 tons, of green maize in October he
went resohitely to work, in opposition to his employes and foreman, who
said that it was all foolishness, and by the means that 1 will describe he pre-
served that maize until it was all eaten in March or later, and this was the
first practical use of ensilage in the winter that I know of. In this wild
country, the wildest part of France, so wild that wild boars are one of the
plagues of it and sometimes damage the wheat, dried corn stalks were not
considered as fit food for cattle. It is the rich and productive Eastern
States of America that still discuss that question. And here is the amazing
thing about ensilage, that so simple and easy a process, far less complex than
falling over a wheel barrow, should have escaped this shrewd investigator
for twenty-two years. No doubt many farmers in this country have had an
idea, especially since the canning process has become so popular, that vege-
tation might be preserved in a similar way. Some have gone so far as to
pack some green stufi: in barrels by way of experiment— some have piled
stalks in heaps and covered with dirt. When the heat and moisture of the
season have favored vegetation and produced larger crops than could be
consumed before frost destroys it, many a farmer has doubtless revolved the
problem in his mind.

Apple pomace, turnips, cabbages, and different kinds of leaves seasoned
with celery, grape leaves, leaves of beets, beets themselves, pulp of beets
from sugar factories, some of these have been preserved in pits from time
immemorial in Europe for feeding cows and goats. Necessity has so long
compelled the efforts of human beings that we may find precedents in al-
most every line of improvement. But all experienced men who know the
great difference that separates a happy suggestion, or even a successful at-
tempt, from a practice well enough confirmed to become the base of a regu-
lar business, will admit that these precedents do not destroy the merit of any
man who, like Monsieur Auguste Groffart, has accomplished a continued suc-
cess. In 1876 the French Government rewarded him with the prize so dear
to every Frenchman, the Decoration of the Legion of Honor.

Another astonishing thing about ensilage is that having become a profita-
ble agricultural method in France, and successfully used for five years, it
should still be considered experimental in this country. In the agricultural
paper of largest circulation in this country, of January last, is an article from
the best known of American agriculturists. It is an answer to a farmer
of Michigan who writes for advice. He says, "I have twenty acres of clo-
ver to plow under. I want to put it in wheat next fall. How would it do to
drill in corn for fodder previously?" The celebrated agriculturist, and
deservedly celebrated, replies: "It cannot be cured or removed from the
land in time for wheat." He continues — "Sometime ago I made a few
stacks of corn fodder to see how it would keep. I cannot recommend the
plan. We never had a dryer or hotter or better time to cure corn fodder
than the past fall. Nicer fodder I never saw. It was as dry as we could
ever hope to get it. But I conclude that the only way to preserve corn fod-
der is to make it into large, well-shaped stacks in the field where it grew
and draw it in as wanted during the winter." So, I suppose, this farmer
let his fields lie idle under the tropical summer sun of Michigan, and did
not raise corn fodder. This I take it was at least the average state of the
art of farming in respect to pre-erving corn fodder in America in January
1879, six years after Monsieur Auguste Goffart had fed his green fodder in
a green state all winter, and three yea,rs after the French Government had
decorated him for his grand discovery.

23

M. GofEart called the attention of his brother farmers and of the agricul-
tural press of France to his discovery before he had made a complete suc-
cess, and one of the editors at Paris, M. Lecruteux, was so impressed by it,
after having visited M. Goffai't, even at that period, that he endeavored to
appropriate the credit of tlie discovery. He therefore wrote articles for his
journal with illustrations of pits in the soil and heaps upon the soil, and
directed partial drying in the field and mixture with straw, and spoke of
the steaming mass and preservation by fermentation. These premature
articles cost the French farmers who followed them much loss

It is from this journal, and with these ideas, ihat the first articles printed
on the subject in this country were copied They went out to the public
with the high endorsement of Cornell University, and such pits not being
adapted to the different kinds of soil in this country would have doubtless
caused some loss and delay to the farmers, but for M. Goffart's manual
which was soon after published in this country, and supplied to the different
agricultural papers

It is indeed a simple matter, but it requires certain conditions, in the ab-
sence of which the results will not be entirely satisfactory. A New York
Agricultural Journal stated editorially , "all there is about it is to bury it
as you do celery or caljbages."' Well ! it is not much more than that, but it
is very different from that. The three conditions are entire exclusion of air,
entire exclusion of water, and as little as possible change of temperature.
A great mass of green, juicy fodder buried in a pit in soil or masonry, accor-
ding to all ordinary experience, seems so sure to putrify that it almost makes
the proprietor nervous at his first opening, but in a few years it will be
found so uniform and safe a process that it will become as natural and life-
like as a dry hay mow.

Maize for ensilage should be drilled or planted in rows. That which is
sown broadcast does not contain so much sugar as that which has more air
and sun. It should be cut when it is in tassel, before it forms ears, and
when it is the most juicy. If for any reason the cutting is deferred until
the grain is partly formed, and a part of the leaves wither, or the frost
touches it, it can still be preserved with great profit, but the air entering the
shrunken cells of the partially dried stalk will cause it to sour more or less
in the silo, and the cattle will" not appreciate it so highly, though they will
still eat it in preference to hay. If cut at the right time and preserved in
the right manner, they always prefer it to June grass. Maize, with all its
juice, if you wish to preserve it by ensilage, the cutting can be done most
economically with a Reaper — a Champion single-wheel Reaper has been
used by Mr. Morris for the purpose.

The silo may be a trench dug in the soil, if the soil is right for the pur-
pose— the soil that is most suitable and the only kind that I have heard of
being successfully trenched for a silo — is clay above: this prevents the
down-flux of water and is porous and dry beneath. Mr. Morris makes his
trenches in a soil which has clay for a foot or 18 inches on top and a rotten
rock below. He digs 5^ feet deep, li feet wide on bottom, and 11 feet
wide on top, and any length desired— a width of 11 feet on top prevents
danger of arching. At this .slope in this soil it does not fall in, and he does
not plaster the face. The surface water should be carefully drawn from it.
But not one in ten of farmers have the advantage of a suitable soil, and
therefore they must build tlieir silos with masonry. Where they do build
silos in the soil they will almost need an engineer to give them a slope that
will remain firm without being so great as to prevent the cut fodder from
settling under pressure.

In using an earth trench the sides are lined with straw standing so that
the ensilage will slip down; the bottom floored with plank: the top when
full, rounded up and covered with a thin layer of long straw, the thinner
the better; above that a sheet of tarred roofing-felt or paper, and above that
earth piled on about two feet— the fodder to be trampled in, and rising
above the surface of the ground. The earth to be pounded or rolled with a
heavy roller and at first to lie frequently pounded or rolled. As I under-
stand it, a considerable vigilance is the price of safety with an earth silo. It

24

may be lined with thin boards, but it is not important in the right soil. Still
Mr. Morris, whose foreman, Mr. Thompson, is a practical engineer, has been
perfectly successful with one trench eighty feet long. He will now build
others radiating from a center so that he can fill all conveniently without
moving his machinery. His first experiments were with masonry silos in
his stone barn.

As to dimensions, I would say that a cubic foot contains about twenty
pounds cut green fodder, which is about one bushel. Fifty tons per day is
about as much as can be conveniently handled by one gang, and they can
get done about 3 o'clock in the afternoon, for the reason that a larger heap
drawn from the field is liable to heat before cutting if left over night, and
it must be handled in advance to keep the machine agoing. But most farmers
will at first be contented with less quantity, and I would here mention a
fact that was not known till last season when this kind gentleman, M. Gof-
fart, wrote me specially to say that twenty inches per day of cut fodder in
depth will keep sufficiently ahead of the heating, and by so filling the final
subsidence will be less. This remark, however, applies more especially to
masonary silos where the vacuum left by subsidence is a certain loss of
capital.

In either kind of silo the cut fodder should be fine enough to pack close
— the finer it is cut the better the preservation and the less labor for the
masticatory apparatus of the animals that eat it. Masticatory means chew-
ing. Mr. Curtis reminded me that there might be some dull farmers here,
but that is a gross libel. However, | inch will answer and ^ inch is better,
but if you get in a hurry and cut it longer your cattle may make faces at it
and not give you quite so much milk. Well prepared food and a variety of
diet make sleek animals as well as men and women. The masonry silo is
best to begin with. Youthen spend some real money; have, so to speak,
cut away the bridges behind you and enlisted as a practical ensilagist. You
then have made yourself liable to the jeers of your brother farmers if you
fail, and to their respectful admiration if you succeed. If you are the first
one in your town you will be entitled to a monument from your grateful fel-
low citizens, though you may not get it, and may not care for it. The ma-
sonry silo should avoid all interior angles ; rounded corners are better. It
can be built of brick, or stone plastered smooth inside, or of grout with 15
inch walls This can be made, as you probably all know, of four parts sand
to one part cement and mixed with coarse gravel, about half and half laid
on in plank boxes or troughs, about three in a day, and plastered inside
with cement. The centre wall, if built in pairs or triplets, had better be
18 inches The walls should be vertical and about half under ground for
coolness in the summer time. The covering is better, we have ascertained,
in this country without straw. (Mr. Goffart said he expected to hear of
some improvements when the universal Yankee genius got to work at it.)
A battened cover of two inch plank tongued and grooved, and in five feet
sections with length a little less than the width of the silo, so as to slip down
safely, is probably the best kind of cover. The vapor from the top surface
will pass off without making any mould, the air can escape, and thus the
ensilage itself be its own sweet preserver. When you lift the boards it will
be pale, but as it absorbs oxygen it will become green or brown. The
weight on top is the essential thing above everything else. It is this con-
tinuous heavy pressure that is the great discovery of M. Goffart and which
silenced his unfair competitor. He says: "When a silo has been filled it
not onlv answers to pi-eventthe external air from penetrating it; it is neces-
sary at once to take means to expel the air that it incloses between its disks
and in its cells. It is necessary that this compression should continue dur-
ing several months, following the maize down in its softened condition, and
to bring it to that state of density that is necessary to put it out of reach of
all alteration. He recommends 100 lbs per sq. ft., the more weight the bet-
ter, until a point where it presses out the juice. I have seen stones sized con-
venient to handle, used for the purpose, and another person has u^ed sacks
of meal which are used up about same time on his fatting cattle. The door
or post of silo is best to be of temporary measonry, plastered in, the whole

25

should be covered with a roof set above the walls, so that the air will circu-
late below it.

And then you have your fodder, no fear from rats, no refuge for tramps
or setting hens, no danger from heating or from fire or lighting, or weak
insurance companies. When your cattle need it, it will be as sure to be on
hand as death or taxes. When it is opened, the face is cut down with hay
knife or with spading forks. It stands like a wall, and the daily consump-
tion will keep pace with the effect of the air upon the face. If it is to remain
till hot weather, it is better to take out the upper half first, leaving that
which is below ground for summer use under the .same cover of plank, which
will not need to be weighted Salt is not important to the preservation, un-
less the ensilage has been frosted, but one fifth of a pound to a cubic foot
will of course improve the flavor of it— we salt our canned corn and our
celery.

Such a silo can be built almost anywhere in the Eastern States for $1.00 a
ton of contents. If built in pairs 12 ft. wide by 7 ft. deep x 44 ft. long, wiU
hold 200 tons easy with allowances for vacuum. The. filling is more or less
costly as the machinery is effective. The proper machine (which I am not
here to advertise) will cut ten tons per hour with four horse power, or six is
better. It will take five or six men to feed it from the pile of maize that is
brought close to it in the morning before work begins, It should be set as
high as the tops of the silo, an 1 have an elevator to carry the cut fodder to
the middle of each silo where it can be discharged toward each end. Four
men will be kept busy spreading and trampling it, which should l)e done as
thoroughly as possible; their boots will be wet with the juice. Of course it
can be done in a slower manner, or smaller way, with shorter or shallower
silos, but it is in this powerful manner that it can be done with the most
economy. And the machinery required is not a very great investment, and the
fact that the foder is all ready to feed without further grinding or cutting,
makes the subsequent care of the stock easier and cheaper. Harvesting en-
silage will probably become a matter for the threshing contractors to do by
the cubic foot from farm to farm with engines. As it can be done as well
or better in a rainy day, there will be less loss of time.

It is probable that a masonry silo will in the long run be cheaper than
one made in the ground under the most favorable circumstances. There is
another method which has been described and illustrated in many of the
agricultural papers, which is a dangerous temptation to the unexperienced.
That is to pile maize either cut or uncut upon the silo. Such a method can-
not possibly give good results. The compression to expel the air which is
essential to good preservation cannot be applied to such a silo. Those who
recommend this method, manifest a culpable ignorance, and cause great loss
to those who follow this advice. I have heard a man say that he had success-
fully buried whole corn stalks, but I noticed that after reading M. Goffart's
book, he built a masonry silo. The perfect ensilage is quite as sweet, I think
sweeter, as the day it was cut in the field. M. Goffartsays: "Let me taste
his butter, and I can tell how well the ensilagist understands his business.

In the matter of frost, a New England climate has not yet been tried upon
it, but it is probable that a concrete silo will prevent all danger to the
ensilage, which surrounded by cobble stones are probably not liable to be
overthrown l)y frost. Probably no other vegetable is so useful for this pur-
pose as maize. You all know how it grows, and how extensively on the
earth's surface the stalks can be grown In France, except in the extreme
south, althouirh in the same latitude with us, only the stalks can be grown,
the seed must be imported. Probably if M. Goffart could have raised 150
bushels of ears to the acre he never would have discovered the principles of
ensilage. Necessity, like nobleness, compels some people.

Probably none of you have ever seen a field of fodder corn as heavy as it
may be raised. It will grow in good land 21 feet high. I have seen it. Kan-
sas exhibited such a stalk at our Centennial. A tall man with an umbrella
could just reach the lowest ear, and all this growth can be made in 50 or 60
days, ; nd sometimes a crop of green rye can be cut from the same ground
before planting the maize, but of course that is not always safe. Nothing
is better adapted than this crop for making milk and butter.

26

Mr. Morris says: "In a very long experience in raising stock, I have
found corn fodder preserved by ensilage, ihe best food for milking cows that
I ever used." The average hay crop of this State is not equal to one ton per
acre, and every farmer knows what a costly crop it is to cure, and to pre-
serve after it is raised, though modern machinery has greatly lessened it.
It is a most uncertain crop, while Indian corn will grow and flourish and
tassel with the most ordinary care and tillage. Twenty-five tons to the acre
is a small crop. M. Goffart in France has averaged 40 tons to the acre. In
1878 he had 55 acres, and in 1879, 75 acres. In that country it is an uncer-
tain crop on account of the difficulty of getting good seed. It is a most cer-
tain crop in this country to which it is indigenous.

I think it was year before last that the farmers of Orange county lost by
drouth nearly their whole crop of hay, and a large portion of their grass.
iSuch a thing had not happened to them before for a generation. They had
to sell their milch cows and go to work to plow up their meadows They
had plenty of corn weather, but they could not compete with the West in
corn. Grass is king in Orange county. They depend upon it for milk and
butter. This reminds me of something I saw in New York the other day.
A little boy had dropped a ten cent piece through a narrow grating in front
of a store. It could be seen ten feet below. The store was closed. The little
boy was crying. Probably none of us here would have known how to ex-
tract that silver with the means at hand. But city boot blacks are quick
witted in such matters, and one of ihem came along and seeing the situation,
said: Bub, stop your crying; I will get it out for you. He had a string and
jack-knife in his pocket of course, but how with these tools could he rescue
that little peice of silver ten feet below. Well, he tied the string to the
knife, touched the end of the knife to the hub of a hand cart that stood on
the sidewalk dropped the knife upon the silver, and of course he picked it
up as easy as grease; and if the Orange county farmers had known how easy
it is to preserve green corn stalks, they would not have had to cry over their
loss of milk.

The yield of manure by feeding ensilage is very great M. Goffart says
that one-third of the manure with a little phosphate will keep up the pro-
duction of corn stalks, leaving two-thirds to spare for another crop, and that
like hemp, it does not require rotation, but as he expresses it, eternalizes it-
self, requiring only its potash back, and this is nearly all restored by the
dung heap, since animals consume very little potash. The great gain is in
what the plant absorbs from the atmosphere.

Clover, with its long tap roots drawing sustenance from sub-soil plowed
under, and barn yard manure will keep land strong for wheat and other ex-
haustive crops — such as cannot now be raised profitably in the Eastern States.

It has been said that ensilage is my favorite theme. The manure heaps
in the cattle yard should be made sloping so that it can be driven upon. It
can be kept from heating by trampling it and driving upon it and compact-
ing it. This is ensilage of the manure kept.

Ensilage should be taken from the silo the evening before it is fed — in or-
der that it may have fifteen hours to become alcoholic ; at that time it will be-
come quite warm and the cattle will eat it greedily. Eight hours later it
will have passed the proper limits and will rapidly spoil as food, 48 hours is
its extreme duration when removed from the pit. This first fermentation in-
creases the facility of digestion, and therefore the nutritive power of the
food. When cattle live on fresh maize in the summer, they eat large quan-
tities and are always big bellied, which shows that they are obliged to sup-
ply what is lacking in quality by an excessive consumption, bat when they
live on ensilage maize their bellies are smaller. There is no danger of their
becoming corned beef Dry stalks steamed are nothing to be compared with
this fodder, because the nutritious value has gone into the grain. The stalk
is in its perfect condition when it flowers, and is then especially and pre-
eminently valuable for the dairyman. Farmers of Western New York, I
hope the tasseled corn stalk will be made by ensilage a source of great profit
to you. It has become a dry subject to me; I hope it will speedily become
a juicy subject to you. I have spent many, many hours in talking about it.

I have already received the thanks of several dairymen who are now feeding
it, for having called their attention to it ; but would you believe, not one of
them said a word about sending me a tub of butter?

In the competition with the great Tenant Farmers of Minnesota, Cali-
fornia, etc., the grain producer of the Eastern States can not thrive as such,
and the smaller farmers everywhere will find that the combination of capi-
tal, machinery and cheap labor in the production of cereals will make their
business more amply unprofitable. You know they talk about raising wheat
for 20 cts. a bushel and less. But on the Stock Farm this combination has no
especial advantage ; a smaller number of farm animals can be maintained,
especially by means of ensilage about as cheap as a larger number of cows. I
mean by a small number, enough to consume 500 to lOOO tons per annum.

In order to convince you that it is not worth while to speak of it any more
as a mere experiment, I will read you a report in December from Winning
Farm, Mass. Cost of keeping 30 head cows and 100 sheep per day ;

1,350 lbs. Ensilage at $ 2.00 Ton, $1 35

90 " Shorts " 18.00 " 80

50 " Hay " 15.00 " 37

$2 52
Without Ensilage . the cost was as follows per day :

800 lbs. Hay at $15.00 Ton, $6 00

160 " Shorts at 18.00 " 144

$7 44

Balance in favor of Ensilage, $4 91

If we count 100 sheep as 10 cows, the average cost per cow is 6i cts. per
day.

Since they were fed on ensilage the cattle are gaining, the milk increased
25 per ct in one week. The butter is yellow without any coloring. The
stock will all leave the best of hay to feed on ensilage. Here is the weekly
account of six cows that came in last March. They are fed 1,80') lbs. ensi-
lage and 90 lbs. shorts per week :

Shorts per week cost, $2.70

Result: 22 lbs. butter at 35 cts., and 240 lbs. skim i in 10 '
milk at 1 et., j " '

Profit one week, .$7.40

on 6 cows, that, without ensilage, would have been dry.

Last July Monsieur Goffart wrote me and said, 63 Horned cattle are now
living at Burton, on maize ensilage. In October last, the preservation of
which is as perfect as the day of ensilaging it — as can testify numerous visi-
tors each day.

On accepting the invitation to read a paper to the Association. I asked
from Monsieur Gotfart his latest words on the subject of Ensilage, that I
might give them to you. I have his letter, dated Dec. 17th, with which I
will conclude:

•'The longer experience that I have in feeding ensilage to stock, the more
I am convinced of the great service that it will render to agriculture.

From October 1878 to Oct. 1879, I have fed the hundred animals in my
stable exclusively with ensilage maize during the winter, and concurrently
with fresh maize at the time when I had it. The animals have always en-
joyed the most excellent health, and I can assure you that they have more
appetite for the ensilage maize than for fresh fodder, whatever kind it may
be. Cows fed upon fresh maize give excellent milk, which yields first qual-
ity butter and of exquisite flavor. Fed upon ensilaged maize, the milk is
still very good, and I have not noticed that its quantity diminished, but the
butter, while still being of good quality, is however inferior. But what
ever may be the diet of the cows in winter, the butter made at that season
is always inferior to that made during the fine weather. I have caused to be

28

taken from the account books of the expenses upon my Domaine the cost of
the culture and ensilage of maize during the past season. I hope to be use-
ful to you in sending it herewith. You will observe how small a cost for
the food of the animals. Indeed, in reckoning 6 percent., the weight of the
animal for its daily food. I arrive at an expense of 3 3-5 of a cent per day to
feed an animal of 1.320 lbs. I know of no fodder of which the ration costs
so little a< my maize, which only costs me 90 cents per ton ; and this not-
withstanding the year has been unfavourable for maize, the wet spring and
part of summer having injured the plant. One corld see at a glance in my
fields that the stalks had not reached their normal heights, except in the
middle of the beds where they were high enough to escape injury by
the wet. Besides I was compelled to commence my operations too late,
and the result was an increase of expenses in cutting and ensilaging in the
shorter working day. Finally the high price of wine this year has increased
the cost of labor in a considerable degree, I was cmpoelled to cut down the
stalks by hand, but I aught to advise you of the great economy of cutting
them with a mowing machine, as is practiced already by several of my desci-
ples, (you see this gentleman introducednot only ensilage, but maize itself to
Central France. He also many years ago had the good fortune of being the
means of saving, to France through LaMartine,the beet sugar industry, which
was about to be abandoned and aboli-hed). I have built near my silos and em-
bankment, forming a platform, accessible from two sides by a gentle slope,
for the easy ascent of carts loaded with maize. Upon this platform I have
established an engine, and my stalk cutter, which are level with the upper
part of my silos. The elevator carries the fodder over the center of the
middle of one of the three silos, and it falls into all the silos in diverging
streams. I have obtained thus a noteworthy economy, by avoiding moving
the machines, and by saving valuable time at a season of the year when the
working days ai'e so short.

I thank you for the kind words you have sent me. I consider them as a
recompense for the efforts that I have made for so long a time to make my-
self useful to agriculturists I trust that your fellow-countrymen will be
glad to enter in the path which you have indicated to them. — Say to them
that those of them who desire to come to study the subject of ensilage upon
the ground, may rest assured of receiving a kind reception at Burtin."

Mr. Powell asked for more particulars about the covering of the silos.

Mr. Brown — We first cover with a foot of straw, then with short boards
laid lengthwise, then with two inch planks laid crosswise, and made short
enough to slip down as the mass settles. On top of this we put a foot of
stone for weight. The straw absorbs moisture. In order to use the fodder,
we take out the door and cut straight across the face. If there is more than
enough to last through the winter, we cut only half way down and cover
again. But the simpler, and quite as good a way. is to use only the cross
planks, tongue-grooved and battened together, with the weight on top.

Dr. Wight — Will the fodder by this means be kept entirely free from
frost ?

Mr. Brown — The experiment has not yet been tried in a severe New Eng-
land win er, but a concrete wall would guard it completely. Ensilage may
be said to be sour-kraut without the cabbage and without salt.

Mr. W. Brown Smith asked Mr. Brown if the fodder would ferment, like
sour-kraut ?

Mr. Brown said: "If you will tell me how it is made, I will tell you if
there is any difference in the process." [Laughter.]

Mr. Smith then explained the process of making sour-kraut, and when he
had finished, Mr. Brown said no salt need be used in preparing the fodder;
no fermentation takes place till it is removed from the pit ; it will then be-
gin to ferment, but it will not smell.

Mr. Stewart was much interested in the subject and thought it deserved
the attention of dairymen everywhere. He would build the pits of concrete;
such a wall is a poor conductor of heat and cold, and is the cheapest. This
discovery seems to have solved a problem. With this fodder, cows may be

29

milked profitably all winter, and little or no meal need be used. It will not
cost as much to build trenches or "silos" as to build a barn to hold the same
amount of fodder. The wages of a tender to a mason will build a concrete
wall. Refuse stone may be used. No skilled labor is required. Erect
standards a certain distance from the walls of the trench, lay plank inside,
and fill the space with concrete. He then ininutely explained the process
of building such a wall. (See his address elsewhere.)

In relation to feeding oil meal, Mr. Stewart said he had made experiments
and found that a quart of meal per day was about the right quantity.
More than this will injure the flavor of the milk.

Professor Arnold, President of the Association, was not quite so clear on
the ensilage question. If feed undergoes alcoholic fermentation, it must
injure the quality of butter, and have some effect upon meat. He gave
other reasons for his unbelief. In this climate stock should have dry food
in winter, and he feared the effects of so much succulent food in cold

ERRATA.
In the article "Ensilage," page 21, in second line from bottom, for "bank"
read 'tank.' Page 23, in 14th line from bottom, for 'drawn" read "drain-
ed." Page 24, last end of 7th line from top, for "twenty" read "fifty."
Same page. 25th line from bottom, for "three in." read "one foot."
Page 25th, in I6th line from top put the full point after the words "in pairs."
and for "7 ft." read "17 feet." Pago 26. at end of 18 line from bottom, for
"kept" read "heap." Page 27, from 26th line from bottom, omit all before
the word "cost;" in 23d line from bottom, read " nearly " before the word
"dry," and from the 20th line omit the full point after "ensilage," and con-
nect the sentence with a comma. Page 28th, 5th line from bottom, for
"but it will not smell." read "and take an alcoholic odor." There are some
minor errors which the intelligent reader will correct for himself.

mc ueiit iui uiisiiig LiiB ieiiq.)eraLure zt is savea, oesiaes a gi'eat cieai or ais-
comfort to the cow. The cost of warming this ice water during a winter is
much greater than dairymen generally suppose. If cows are kept in a cold
barn they must eat extra food enough to overcome this cold. The cost of
this extra food should be saved by providing warm barns or stables. It costs
much less to maintain warmth in good stables than to burn food in the
cows' stomachs to warm cold ones.

As I wish to show dairymen how they may construct warm stables in the
cheapest manner and save the buildings they now have, I will first show
how they may do this. Suppose now you have a barn 40x00 feet filled with
cows in the upper part. The manure is thrown out at the side. It is a cold
barn. Now raise it up eight feet and put under it a concrete wall. This
can be done at a cost of ten cents per cubic foot after the barn has been
raised. Raise the barn with screws on blockings. Level it carefully. Now
set 3x4 scantlings under the middle of the .sill edgewise, place them at such
intervals as to furnish support, taking care not to set one so as to interfere

30

with doors or windows. Then place shores so as to hold the barn firm.
Take out the blockings, and the standards will be in the middle of the pro-
piosed wall. Make boxes of straight-grained hemlock sixteen feet long, four-
teen inches wide. Set up standards outside of sill of barn, at end of plank,
and one in middle. Then place an inner standard in same way, fifteen
inches apart, on inner side of sill. This will give a wall one foot thick. Fill
in the boxes with concrete, made as described. Put the concrete in, layer
by layer, up to the sill, making an air tight wall. In a short time it will be-
come like a huge stone set up edgwise under the sill. It will cost not more
than ten cents a cubic foot, not more than stone alone ready for a mason to
lay. While building the wall, place inside of the box a piece of earthen
pipe six inches in diameter, thus leaving a hole in the wall. Get a tin cnver
to fit the pipe, and thus you have ventilators which can be opened or closed
at will. Or make Ox 12-inch boxes of matched stuff and run them up to the
plate of the barn at top, letting some come into the basement at the ceiling,
others near to the floor. This will produce a constant circulation without
much perceptible current. The cost of this basement wall, 200 feet in cir-
cumference, will be f 160. It will save food enough in one winter to cover
the whole expense.

HOW TO BUILD THE CONCRETE WALL,

The advantages of this mode of building walls are not sufficiently known,
for when fully understood this wall must come into more general use. In
many parts of the country suitable stone is not to be had. and, where stone
is plenty, this mode of using them is far preferable to the ordinary way of
building a wall. The concrete which would build a wall alone, may be used
to cement the stone together, and thus save the cement which would occupy
the space of the stone. In many parts of the country, small flat stones are
thrown out by the plow and need to be gotten off the field. These will
work into the concrete wall and make an excellent job. They will have a
firm bearing upon each other and thus render the wall strong before it sets
hard. Care should be taken not to let stone come quite to tue surface of
the wall, but cover their edges with concrete. Concrete is more j^orous than
stone and will not conduct heat and cold like stone. A concrete wall will
show no frost on the inside in winter, is drier and cooler in summer, and
warmer in winter, than stones, and, therefore, it is well not to let the stone
come within three-fourths inch of the outside. You can use any kind of
cobble or irregular hard stone in this kind of wall, but it may be built of
clear sand, or sand and gravel, the gravel being large or small, and stone
may be mixed with the sand and gravel.

WATER-LIME CONCRETE FOR FOUNDATIONS.

If there is moisture to come to the wall, waterlime must be used, and it is
well to carry two or three feet above the ground with concrete, and perhaps
for basement walls it is as well to use concrete wholly. The place should

also be excavated one or two feet beyond the proposed wall, so as to leave
an air-space on the outside, giving the wall a chance to dry and become
hard. If, in any case, you go into the slate rock, which is always full of
seams charged with moisture, you must not allow the concrete to be built
against this rock, for the moisture in the rock coming into the thin mortar
will cause the milk of lime to run out and leave an infi^nite number of fine
pores through which water will run ; but if no water is allowed to come to
it while drying, it will be water and air tight. It is also well to have a drain
cut lower than the bottom of the wall on the outside, to carry off any water
that might otherwise come against it, which will render the basement dry.

PROPORTIONS OF WATER-LIME CONCRETE.

If you have only sand to use, mix five parts with one of water-lime, thor-
oughly, while dry; then wet into a thin mortar and use immediately. But
if you also have gravel, mix the sand and water-lime, four to one, then mix
into this five or six of gravel, make into thin mortar and use at once. This
will make a concrete of about nine to one. If you also have stones to lay

31

with it, put these stones into the boxes after a layer of mortar, bed them in
and cover with this mortar, and all the stones you put in will save so much
mortar and make your wall stronger while new. If you use only sand and
stone, then mix the water-lime five to one, lay the stone with it. The way
is to put a layer of an inch of mortar in the bottom and then a layer of stone,
then of mortar, and so on, letting the mortar come over the edge of the stone,
and tamping the mortar well into the boxes. See that every crevice is
filled.

PROPORTIONS OF QUICK-LIME CONCRETE.

If only a basement wall is built, you may use water-lime for it all; or
when you get so far above the ground that moisture will not affect it, you
may use quick-lime, which is cheaper, and goes farther. If you live near a
lime-kiln, it will be cheaper to get the fine air-slacked lime about the kiln,
which will answer just as well, if you estimate only the fine lime and not
the small stones in it. In mixing this concrete take si-ven of sand and one
of lime, slaking the lime thin before you mix in the sand; now mix in ten
or twelve parts of gravel, fine and coarse, and use this as a mortar to make
the wall or lay the stone. Mix it all well together, and then wheel in a bar-
row, and shovel into the wall boxes. The sand and lime will fill all the
spaces between the gravel and the stone, if you have any stone, cementing
all together. The quick-lime may be mixed some time before using, as the
the mortar is all the better for it; but it does not set so quick as water-lime,
and must have more time between layers. But a quick-lime concrete is more
porous, and consequently, drier and cooler in summer and warmer in win-
ter. The proportions will vary according to the strength of the lime.

CONSTRUCTING THE BOXES FOR THE WALL.

Having determined the place and excavated for the wall, construct the
boxes as follows: Take 8x4 scantling for the standards, a little longer than
tile wall is high ; place these on each side of the proposed wall, as far apart as
the thickness of the wall and the thickness of the plank for the boxes. The
plank are better to be fourteen inches wide, one and one-half inches thick,
and of a length to accommodate the wall. If the wall is thirty-two feet
long, then sixteen-feet i)lank will be the right length. These standards
would thus be placed fifteen inches apart; placing the plank inside the
standards would leave twelve inches for the wall. These standards are held
the proper distance at the bottom by nailing a thin piece of board across
under the lower end, and the tops fastened with a cross-piece. The wall is
built over these pieces at the bottom, and they are left in the wall. The
standards are plumbed, and made fast by braces outside. Now, it will be
seen that these plank can be moved up on the inside of the standards as fast
as the wall goes up. The plank on the outside of the wall will, of course,
be longer than those on the inside by the thickness of the wall. The door
frames will have jams as wide as the wall is thick, and will make standards
for that place. There will Ije a pair of standards at each end of the plank;
but the pair in the middle of the wall will hold the ends of both plank. To
hold the plank from springing out between the standards, take a piece of
narrow hard wood board, two feet long, bore a two-inch hole at each end,
having fifteen inches between them; put a strong pin. two feet long,
through these holes some ten inches; now these pins will just fit over the
outside of the box plank, and by putting a brace between the upper ends of
the pins will hold them tight against the plank, preventing their springing
out. Two of these clamps will be required for each set of plank sixteen feet
long. Now, when the box-plank are placed all around the wall, begin and
fill in the concrete mortar and stone, as described; and when you get round,
if water-lime is used, you may raise the plank one foot aiid go around
again, raising the wall one foot each day, if you have men enough. You
will place the window frames in the boxes when the wall is raised high
enough to bring the top of the frame to the top of the proposed wall. The
jams and sills of the window-frames will be as wide as the door-frames.

32

COST OF THE CONCRETE WALL.

The cost of the concrete wall for the basement of the 80 foot octagon,
hereafter mentioned — 265^ feet long, 15 inches thick at the bottom, 13 inches
at top, containing 3,535 cubic feet — was $350; the items being as follows:
water lime 65 barrels, |9U.35, lumber for door and window frames and
board on top of wall, $19.84, carpenter work, making window and door
frames, fitting and plumbing standards, fitting plank boxes for wall, &c., $41 ;
getting material, and the labor of laying the wall, $99.31, or about ten cents
per cubic foot. This was the cost of a water lime concrete; quick lime costs
less. In this case the old wall was used as far as it went, but it costs extra in
labor of preparing it, as much as to have obtained new material. Of course,
the cost of concrete wall will depend upon the convenience of getting sand,
gravel, stone and lime. It would take more lime to build altogether with
fine sand, as the fine grains have so much greater surface to be coated with
lime, but with sharp sand, one of water lime to six of sand makes a solid
wall, great care being taken to mix the sand and lime well together while
dry. Mixed in this proportion, it would cost about six cents per cubic foot
for the lime, but quick lime, for the wall above the line of moisture, would
cost about half as much. Yet it must be remembered that flat stone usually
cost about ten cents per cubic foot, or the full cost of a concrete wall.

In building a concrete wall the labor is very much less, as the help re-
quired to tend a mason will build more feet of concrete than the mason
and tender both, on the common wall.

But if the dairyman is to build a new barn then he will find it more con-
venient and economical to build an

OCTAGON BARN.

This form is most admirably adapted for enclosing the greatest space
within the shortest line of outside wall. The circle is still more economical
of outside wall but would be more expensive to build, while the octangle is
as easily and cheaply made as the rectangle. We had four barns consumed
by fire covering about 7,000 square feet, which we replaced by an octagon,
eighty feet in diameter, enclosing only 5,350 square feet, and yet has a ca-
pacity much greater than the four barns enclosing the larger area, because
this has outside posts twenty-eight feet high, while the others had only six-
teen to twenty feet posts. This octagon has an outside wall of 265 feet,
while the other four barns had an aggregate of 716 feet of outside wall,
showing the great economy of this form in expense of wall and siding. If
we compare it with a single barn 50x108, the latter will enclose the same
number of square feet and have the same capacity at the same height, but
requires fifty-one feet more of outside wall. The rectangular barn will also
require many more interior cross beams and posts, which are in the way,
besides adding to the expense. The long rectangle requires, for convenience,
two cross floors, which take up more room, and being separated, are less
convenient than the single floor through the center of the octagon. The
long barn requires posts and purlins to support the roof, which are obstruc-
tions in filling with hay and grain, while the octagonal roof of one-third
pitch is self-supporting, resting only on the outside plates, and may be
safely stretched over a diameter large enough to accommodate a farm of
1,000 acres, or say 150 feet in diameter; but with the latter size a sexdeca-
gon (sixteen sided) barn would be better. The plates perform the office of
the bottom chord, and the hip rafters of the top chord, in a truss. The
strain on the plates is an endwise pull, and if they are strong enough to
stand the strain of the push at the foot of the rafters, the bottom of the
roof cannot spread, and the rafters being properly bridged from the middle
to the top, cannot crush, and the whole roof must remain rigidly in place.
Its external form being that of an octagonal cone, each side bears equally
upon every other side, and it has great strength without any cross ties or
beams, requiring no more material or labor than the ordinary roof. The
plates are halved together at the corners and the lips bolted together with
four half-inch iron bolts, a brace 8x8 inches is fitted across the inside angle
of the plate corner, with a three-fourths-inch iron bolt through each toe of the

3a

brace and through the plate, with an iron plate along the face of the brace
taking each bolt, the nut turning down upon this iron plate. Now the hip
rafter, 6x12 inches, is cut into the corner of the plate with a shoulder striking
this cross brace, the hip rafter being bolted (with three-fourths-inch iron
bolt) through the plate into the corner post. Thus the plate corner is made
as strong as any other part of the stick. There is a purlin rim of 8x10 inch
timber, put together like the plate rim, bolted under the middle of the hip
rafters, which supports the intermediate rafters. The hijjs may be tied to
the intermediates by long rods half way between the plate and the purlin,
if deemed necessary from the size of the roof. It will be noted that, in this
form of roof, the roof boards act as a powerful tie to hold it all together,
each nail holding to the extent of its strength, thus supplementing the
strength of the plate-rim or bottom chord.

There is a drive-way fifteen feet wide through the center of the principal
story from north to south, and a line of "big beams" on either side of this
drive-way, thirteen feet high, acros- which a scaffold may be thrown to
enable us to occupy the high space over this floor. The posts being 28 feet
high and roof rising 22f feet, the cupola floor is 50 feet above the drive-way
floor below. The space abovg these "big beams" is quite clear of any ob-
struction, and a horse pitching fork may be run at pleasure to any part.
The bay for hay on the left side of this floor is eighty feet long, and has an
area of 2,030 square feet, and is capable of holding, when filled to the roof,.
160 tons of hay. This bay, extending along the floor eighty feet, may be
divided into as many parts as required for difterent qualities of hay, and
each part be quite convenient for filling and taking out.

On the right hand side of the floor is a scaffold, eight feet high, having
the same area (2,0^0 square feet) for carriages, farm tools and machines be-
low, and above this scaffold is— a hight of 18^ feet to the plates— a large
space for grain, affording ample room for the separate storage of each kind
to the aggregate of 3.000 bushels or more. It will be seen that the large
space in this barn is all reached and filled from one floor, saving much labor
in changing from one floor to another. In our other buildings we had six
places for hay, holding less than this one bay, requiring the moving of the
horse fork and tackle to six difterent bays, while in this bay the haying will
begin and end, with room to spare.

THE BASEMENT.

The drive-way through the basement is from west to east, being the feed-
ing floor between two rows of cattle, with heads turned toward the floor.
The floor is 14^ feet wide, out of which come two rows of mangers two and
a half feet wide, leaving a space of ten feet for driving a wagon through or
running a car carrying food for the animals. There are places for twenty
cows or other cattle on each side, leaving a space of eighteen feet at the west
end to drive a cart around behind the cattle on either side to carry away the
manure and pass out at a side stable door, eight feet wide. The horse stalls
are arranged on the south side, but may be placed on either of several other
sides, or on all. By placing tails to wall and heads on an inner circle,
drawn twelve feet from the wall with feed-box room three feet wide for each
horse, with am)>le room at the rear, sixteen horse stalls may be arranged on
southwest, south and southeast sides. But for 200-acre farms, generally,
no more than forty head of cattle and six horses would be kept, and for such
our ground jjlan would be most convenient, because it furnishes,easy access
with a cart, both for supplying fodder and carrying away the manure. On
our plan, we have much space on the north, northwest and northeast sides,
which may be used for various purposes, such as root cellar, siicep fold for
fifty sheep, or for stowing away tools, working wagons and implements.

Our basement is not sunk in the earth, but on the north and south sides-
it is graded up to the floor of the second story, so as to make an easy drive-
way into the barn. The base line is four feet below the general level of the-
land on tlie north side, but there is an oj)en channel of water, into which
every part is drained, on the south side. The earth on the east and west
sides is scraped upon the north and south sides to grade up the drive-ways
C

34

into second story. This basement is lighted by six windows of tweiity lights,
8x12 glass, and six of ten lights each.

THE OCTAGON ADAPTED TO ALL SIZED FARMS.

A little examination of this form of barn will not only show its adaptation
to large farms but to all sizes — from the smallest to the largest. A farmer
has but to calculate how much room he wants for cattle, how much for
horses, how much for sheep, how much for hay and grain, how much for
carriages, wagons, tools, or any other purpose, and he can enclose just the
number of square feet needed, and with the shortest outside wall. He may
be liberal in his allowance of room, for it costs less, in proportion, as the size
is increased. Suppose he requires for a fifty-acre farm, 2,090 square feet of
room; this would require a fifty-foot octagon or a 40x52 rectangle. Now he
would require timber forty feet long for the latter, while he could build the
octagon with timber for the sills and plates only twenty-two feet long, and
this would be the longest timber, unless he wished his posts higher. Each
side would be only 20f feet, and the wall for the basement 165 feet long,
whilst the other would be 184 feet long, saving 19 feet of wall and siding by
the octagon, requiring but eight corner posts, and no intermediates, as the
girts would be less than twenty-feet long. He would require no interior
posts or beams, except those for scaffolds. All the ordinary purlin posts
a,nd beams would be saved, and the labor on them. It is easy, also, to see
that a few feet added to each side would furnish room for another fifty
acres, and so on to any size desired. This form of building, properly under-
stood, would lead farmers to abandon the building of a separate barn for
each specific pui-pose, and to providing for all their necessities under one
roof. If several barns are pla ed so as to be convenient, the danger, in case
of a fire, is about the same as in one barn, for all would burn in either case.
The economy of roofage is exhibited strongly by a comparison of my four
barns with the octagon that takes their place. One hundred thousand shingles
were required to roof the former, while sixty thousand eoverd the octagon.

SELF-CLEANING STABLE.

Automatic platforms, by which the stable may be made to clean itself, can
be made. He has had one in operation for more than two years. Not five
minutes of time have been expended in his stables in two years in cleaning.
Let the fore feet of the cattle stand on a wooden platform and their hind
feet upon an iron grating, made of wrought iron bars three-eights of an inch
thick and one and one-half inches wide. The bars of the grates are placed
one and five-eighths inches apart, and rest upon iron joists | inch by 2, these
resting on an angle iron sill at the back of the platform, and the other end
resting on the wooden platform. Through this grating the droppings fall.
Harris Lewis once said "cows cannot be kept clean unless you set up all
night with them." This plan sets up with them and keeps them perfectly
clean. There must be a receptacle below the grate, wbich must be cleaned
when filled; but this cleaning is no more labor than when the manure is
thrown out into a pile. Gratings can be put in for about six dollars per cow
and will last a life-time.

The cattle stand upon these bars with ease. Their feet stand across the
bars. The gratings cannot be used in barns in which the manure freezes.
No wood-work comes in contact with the manure, and therefore there is no
wood to be rotted. If winter dairying is to be inaugurated, cows must be
kept clean. The platform costs no more than the bedding of a cow for one
season.

This platform saves all the liquid as well as solid manure in the gutters
under the platform. This saving the liquid manure is equal to the whole
cost of the grating in a single year. In B^landers the liquid manure of a
.cow is estimated at $10 per year.

COLD STORAGE.

The cheapest store room for dairy purposes is to go down into the earth
for it. The right temperature can be reached anywhere by going down fifteen
feet, walling the excavation and covering it. It is not to be recommended
for setting milk, but for ordinary cold storage it is valuable. It would no

35

be sq_ easily cleansed as a room above ground, and therefore would not be so
convenient for setting milk, but a temperature of 60 degrees or under, may
be reached at 15 feet, which temperature will be even, and therefore better for
storing butter, or even meat for short periods, than in an ice house. For
such purposes this excavated room would be cheaper than in any other
form. It would furnish an excellent temperature for ripening cream. It
might be made very useful in the Southern States, where a high temperature
is so destructive to dairy products.

The President announced the committees as follows :

Committee on Nominaions — Josiah Shull, Ilion; Hugh McDowell, Syra-
cuse; E. A. Powell, Syracuse; E. W. Stewart, Lake View; C. G. Babcock,
Newport ; S. Hoxie, Whitestown ; David H. Burrell, Little Palls.

Committee on Dairy Apparatus — Dr. L. L. Wight, Whitesown; L. T. Haw-
ley, Syracuse; G. Merry, Verona.

Committee on Resolutions — B. D. Gilbert, Utica; John S. Carter, Syracuse;
C. D. Avery, Syracuse.

Recess until 2 p. m.

WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, JANUARY 14.

At the hour named, the President called the Convention to order and in-
troduced Prof. G. C. Caldwell, Agricultural Chemist of Cornell University,
who read an interesting and instructive paper on

METHODS OF TESTING MILK.

At the meeting of this Association in January, 1872, I gave, as a part ot
my address on the chemical analysis of the dairymen's raw materials and
manufactured products, a brief account of such quick methods of testing
milk as then seemed worthy of notice. This subject has received its due
share of the attention of chemists since that time, and it appeared to me
that I could render no better service to the members of the Association at
this time than to report progress on a matter of so great practical importance
to them.

In regard to the method so familiar to all dairymen of testing milk by the
lactometer, the situation remains pretty much unchanged. In the address
above referred to I gave an account of the weak points of this method and
of the precautions that must be observed in using the instrument in order to
avoid falling into error. The method has, I think, gained rather than lost
in strength. The reliability of its indications as a basis for legal prosecu-
tions has been tested in the courts, both here and abroad, and has in some
cases been sustained, provided, of course, that the work was properly exe-
cuted.

The most important case in this country was that of the Board of Health
or New York against certain milk dealers of that city ; the position was tak-
en by that board that the specific gravity of normal, healthy milk, at 60"
Fahr , never falls below 1.029; though hotly contested by prominent chem-
ist of that city, it was supported by the testimony of several other experts,
also well-known chemists, and sustained by the court. In a recent legal
case in Germany, out of nine chemists, nearly all of whom had themselves
rflade a large number of tests of milk, when asked to state their opinion as
to the lowest allowable limit for the specific gravity of unadulterated and
healthy milk, eight gave 1.029, at least for the mixed milk of not less than
four cows, and the other one gave 1.028 to 1.029

It must be conceded that in rare cases the milk of single cows may fall
below 1.029 in specific gravity, but such cases are so rare that it is almost
universally allowed that in the mixed milk of several animals there will be
such a small proportion of tiiis milk of low specific gravity, while the gene-
ral average specific gravity is nearer 1.031 than 1.029, that the specific grav-
ity of such mixed milk, if unadulterated, will never fall below 1.029. For
the reason, probably, that a sample of milk brought into a town or city may
occasionally he the product of less than three or four cows, the indications
of the lactometer, .sometimes resrarded as sufficient srround for confiscation

3(j

of the whole quantity of milk thus shown to be deficient in quality, are not
always taken as sufficient ground for prosecution of the suppo.-ed offender.
In Paris where, probably, as much trust is placed in this instrument as any-
where, the milk is tested as adulterated on the strength of low specific grav-
ity alone, and the punishment is administered only in case the supposed of-
fender does not protest; he can demand an analysis of the suspected milk
by acurate chemical methods. The same is the case in Berne, Switzerland,
where the lactometer is held in equally high esteem. In other cases its
readings of low specific gravity are simply taken to indicate a suspicious
character of the milk, and the necessity for further examination.

The highest limit of specific gravity, allowable for pure and unaltered
milk, is put by nearly all chemists at 1.033, and by very few at 1.084.

Several of the more noted experts in the examination of milk agree that
before adopting any standard of specific gravity and composition of the
milk of any particular locality, a large number of samples should be care-
fully analysed, and that on the basis of the data thus obtained the average
standard of composition for that locality may be fixed; but it is questionable
whether average market milk of difl'erent localities difiiers sufficiently in
composition to justify the demand for such an expensive preliminary exam-
ination as this, except in the case of cities of considerable size.

The matter of the accuracy of the instruments used is regarded by all ex-
perts as an important one. The question was asked these chemists in court,
in Germany, in the case above cited, whether the indications of a lactome-
ter, which had not been tested, and which was not known to be made by a
reliable manufacturer, could be used safely in a legal prosecution, and the
answer given by all of them wds, no. It is also claimed that an instrument
should be tested once a yeaV.

Besides the allowable range of variation in specific gravity, the allowable
range of variation in respect to composition has also been made the subject
of some discussion in the past few years. In the above case tried in the
German courts, it was allowed that four per cent, of fat was too high a
claim; some of the experts considered 3.5 per cent, as none too high, while
others thought the pure unadulterated milk might in some eases contain nO'
more than 3 per cent. Others who are largely engaged in the examination
of milk brought into cities agree that 2.5 per cent, of fat should be the low-
est allowable limit for pure milk. This is also the limit adopted by the so-
ciety of public analysts in England. In Paris, Querenne gives 3 per cent,
as the lowest limit. As to the proportion of total solids, 11 per cent, is
the lowest allowed in Germany, 9 per cent, in England, and 12 per cent. in.
Paris.

It is evident that if the lowest limits above specified are to be generally
admitted to hold good for pure milk, very poor stuff may be brought into
the cities and dairy factories and sold as unadulterated milk, while it is easy
for any farmer to produce much better milk by proper and reasonable meth-
ods of feeding, and I think the point is well taken, that while it may not be
possible to prove that a sample of milk has been watered unless it contains
less than 2.5 per cent, of fat and 9 per cent, of solids, the law may with per-
fect propriety say that good milk shall contain at least 3 per cent of fat and
1 1 or even 12 of solids ; it would only be saying to the milk producer, that
it is as much of a crime to water your milk in the cow, by feeding her with
poor watery fodder, as to increase the quantity that you have to sell by tak-
ing your cans to the cow with the iron tail before going to market.

This comparatively wide range of variation in the composition of genuine
milk, it must be allowed increases the importance of care in taking the
samples to be tested; the whole quantity brought in by one producer or pa-
tron of the factory should be thoroughly mixed together, if possible, before
taking out the sample. In the ease in court, above referred to, all the wit-
nesses agreed in a negative answer to the question, whether the contents of
one can, comprising the milk of only three cows out of thirty, will give a
reliable test of the milk of the whole herd. In answer to the question,
whether the contents of any particular can would be sufficiently well mixed
by the jarring and shaking which they receive while on the way, the unan-
imous reply was no ; that tlte upper portions may be richer in cream, and

37

that the reforethe contents of the can should be well mixed together just
before taking out the sample to be tested.

In regard to cream gauges, there has been no modification of the opinions
that prevailed eight years ago, as given in my paper at that time.

As to the so-called optical methods of testing milk, of one of which I gave
an account in my former paper, two new forms of apparatus have been devised,
one of which merits notice here. It will be remembered that the optical
method, described at that time, was based on the principle that the richer
a sample of milk is in fat, the less of it will be required when mixed with a
given quantity of water to make the liquid so opaque that the light of a
candle put at a certain fixed distance from the observer cannot be seen
through a layer of this mixture of milk and water of a certain thickness.
Of this method, as devised by Vogel, I said at that time: " It has been
highly commended for its accuracy by good authorities; but others do not
get satisfactory results with it. There appears to be reason to hope that a
simple and at the same time trustworthy practical method for testing milk
may be developed on this plan." Some progress has been made in this di-
rection, although perfection has not yet been attained. Prof. Feser, of the
Veterinary School in Munich, has constructed a piece of apparatus which
consists simply of a glass tube, twelve or fifteen inches long, and made
somewhat narrower at the lower end for the space of an inch or two ; inside
of this narrower portion a short cylinder of white glass is so placed that
there shall be a space of a certain width between its outside walls and the
inside walls of the glass tube; a series of black lines is engraved on this
white glass; these lines are, of course, plainly visible when the lower end of
the tube is filled with water ; they are, of course, not visible when it is filled
with an opaque liquid like milk; but on adding to a certain quantity of
milk a certain quantity of water, more or less according as the milk is more
or less rich in fat, the lines become visible. The tube is so graduated as to
show at once the per cent, of fat in the milk by the amount of water which
it is necessary to add in order to make these lines so plainly visible that
they can be counted.

The simplicity of this piece of apparatus is one strong recommendation in
its favor. As to the accuracy of its indications, opinions difl'er. Feser him-
self does not claim that they will certainly come nearer than 0.5 of one per
cent, to the true per centage of fat; that is to say, if a test with the instru-
ment indicates 3 per cent, of fat, it may be 2.5 or 3.5 per cent. ; if such a
large allowance as that must be made for the defects of the process, it can
possess but little value; and it is not a matter for surprise that, in the trial
already referred to several times, the chemical experts should agree that the
method is unreliable. But much better results than this are generally ob-
tained with the instrument; generally they are within 0.2 per cent, of the
truth, and one chemist who made nine tests with it got results which were
in all cases within 0.3 per cent of the truth, and in seven cases within 0.1
per cent. ; in other words, most of his results were as good as would gener-
ally be obtained by any metho I, even an accurate chemical one. What I
said of Vogel's method, I think I am justified in saying more emphatically
of this, which, if properly executed, appears to be capable of yielding accu-
rate results very quickly. It yet remains to show how the method must be
applied, in order to obtain such results every time.

Passing over other new methods of testing milk which have merely been
proposed, and have not been tested, I proceed to consider the use of Marc-
hand's Butyrometer. The application of thi- instrumeut depends upon the
principle that when milk is thoroughly shaken up first with an equal vol-
ume of ether, and then with an equal volume of alchohol of a certain
strength, all but a certain small fraction of the fat is collected in an etherial
solution in a layer at the top of the liquid ; if the tube is properly graduated
at this place, so that the thickness of this layer of fat can be measured, the
per cent, of fat in the milk can be readily ascertained by a simple calcula-
tion, or can be read off at once from tables which accompany the instrument.
The method was first proposed more than twenty years ago, in a form
slightly different from this by Morehand, a French chemist but has not re-
ceived much notice, especially outside of France, till within a year or two

38

past, when it was taken up by two German chemists, Schmidt and Tollens,
tested, and somewhat altered, and it now constitutes, I think, the best
method for a quick and easy approximately accurate determination of the
fat in milk : the apparatus required is simple and inexpensive, and the ma-
nipulation is of such a character that any intelligent and not over-clumsy
person can execute it; its results come almost always within 0.2 per cent, of
the truth, and usually much nearer than that. In the case of thirty-nine
determinations of fat in milk of all degrees of richness, made by the chem-
ists just named, including some to which cream was added, in no instance
was the difference between the result obtained by this method and by the
more accurate chemical method greater than 0.2 per cent., and in all but
fourteen tests it did not exceed 0.1 per cent. In twelve cases the two meth-
ods of analysis gave almost the same results.

I had an opportunity to test this method to a slight extent last fall when
it became necessary to make some analyses of milk in the laboratory in con-
nection with f eediug experiments at the barn ; out of thirteen determina-
tions, the results of nine came within 0.2 per cent, of those obtained by
accurate chemical methods; two of the remaining four determinations gave
results that were a little over 0.2 per cent out of the way; the remaining
two differed by 0.3 and 0.4 per cent, from results obtained by the other
method. In all chemical analyses where the.results are important, we make
two determinations of each kind : if the work was properly executed, the
results of the two determinations will agree closely: sometimes they do not
agree, and it is thereby shown that somewhere in the course of the opera-
tion we made some mistake, and lost a part of the substance that we desired
to weigh or measure, or got something mixed with it which should not be
there ; thus we should get too small a measure in one case and too large a
quantity in the second. For good and sufficient reasons we did not take
these precautions in this series of analyses ; if we had, it is more than prob-
able that we should have found some error either in the determinations by
the accurate chemical method or by the butyrometer. In those cases where
the results given by the two methods differ by more than 0.2 per cent, a
repetition of the analysis would probably have exposed the error and led to
a closer agreement.

Therefore I think I have reason to be satisfied with the process, and with
the reasonableness of the claim made for this method of testing milk that
its results, provided that they are duplicated and agree closely with one
another, may be relied upon as sufficiently accurate for all technical pur-
poses ; and at present I think it a much safer method than any optical one ;
it has the advantage over the lactometer that it not only serves to detect
adulterated milk, but poor milk also, in that it gives a quantitative deter-
mmation of one of its most important constituents; this cannot be accom-
plished at all with the lactometer or with the cream gauge.

It seems therefore well worth while to make you acquainted with the
method, which I propose to do more effectually by a practical illustration,
after giving a description of it. As this description, together with the table
giving the real per cent, of fat in the milk corresponding to the thicknesss
of the layer of fat solution, will be given in full in the annual report of the
Association, any one having the apparatus and the report can try the pro-
cess for himself.

In the lactobutyrometer, a glass tube closed at one end provided with a
short graduated scale near the open end, I put, first, exactly ten cubic cen-
timeters of the milk; this is done by filling the pipeste marked millc with
the milk to be examined up to a short distance above the mark on its neck,
by suction at the upper end while the point is dipped in the milk, then re-
moving the pipeste from the mouth and quickly closing the open end with
the ball of the fore finger before enough milk runs out to bring the level
below the mark 10 c c. ; then holding the jjipeste with the other hand so
that this mark is on the same level with the eye, slowly and slightly raise
one side of the finger closing the opening till the liquid begins to drop out
at the lower end ; when the level of the liquid just reaches the mark, close
the opening again, hold the point of the pipeste just over the middle of the
mouth of the lactobutyrometer and remove the finger from, the upper open-

39

ing; when all the milk has run out, allow about a minute for the pipeste to
drain while held in the same vertical position, and finally blow out the last
drop that remains adhering in the narrow opening below; during this oper-
ation it is best that the lactobutyrometer should be supported in an upright
position so that it will not be necessary to hold it, and both hands will be
free to manage the pipeste; and care should be taken not to touch the sides
of the graduated tube with the point of the pipeste, lest some of the milk
which should go into the tube may remain adhering to its mouth. Exactly
ten cubic centimetres of milk being thus successfully transferred to the tube.
next put into it exactly ten cubic centimeters of pure ether, with the aid of
the pipeste marked ether, then close the mouth of the tube with the cork
that accompanies it, and grasping the lower end of the tube in one hand
and the upper end in the other with a finger over the cork to keep it in
place, give the contents of the tube a vigorous shaking, lifting the cork two
or three times to allow vent for the ether vapor that accumulates in the
tube ; when the liquid presents the appearance of a uniform creamy con-
sistency, without any visible clots, remove the cork and add by means of
the pipeste marked alcohol exactly ten cubic centimetres of this liquid, close-
the tube again and at the same time pour some of the alcohol to the depth
of about half an inch into the saucer at the base of the brass cylinder which
also accompanies the apparatus, and which has been previously about two-
thirds filled with water, and set fire to this alcohol; while the water is-
thus being heated, give the contents of the tube another vigorous shaking-
in the same manner as before, with the same precaution in regard to open-
ing the tube two or three times, till all the coarse clots formed when the al-
cohol was added are broken up, and the contents of the tube presents a uni-
form fine granular appearance. When the temperature of the water in the
brass cylinder reaches 40° Centigrade, or 104° Fahr , blow out the flame of
the burning alcohol, remove the cork of the lactobutyrometer and put it in
the cylinder of warm water. The solution of fat immediately begins to
gather at the top of the liquid, where, after five or at the most ten minutes,
no more fat globules appear to rise, and the layer of the solution does not
increase iri thickness, the lactobutyrometer is put in the glass cylinder
which has already been nearly filled with water at a temperature of 20° Cen-
tigrade, or 68° Fahr. ; the fatty layer will become turbid and generally in-
crease slightly in thickness, and finally it becomes clear and is then ready
for measurement.

The number of degrees is then read off on the scale on the tube, at
which the lowest point of the meniscus or hollowed surface of the liquid
stands, and also the degree at which the lower level of the fatty solution
stands, where it meets the liquid below it, and from which it is distinguished
by a sharply marked line ; subtract the second number from the first ; search
for the number expressing this remainder in the column headed ether-fat
solution in the following table, and against that figure, in the column headed
per cent, of fat, the corresponding per cent, of fat in the milk will be
found.

<a o

CJsJh

a> o

Ether-fat
Solution.

1^

P-i

1

1.84

11

3.38

21

6.02

31

11.00

2

1.54

12

3.58

22

6.52

32

11.50

3

1.78

13

3.79

23

7.02

33

12.00

4

1.95

14

3.99

24

7 51

34

12.49

5

2.16

15

4.20

25

8.01

35

12.99

6

2.36

16

4.40

26

8.51

36

13.49

7

2.56

17

4 63

27

9.01

37

13.99

8

2.77

18

4.96

28

9.51

38

14.49

9

2.97

19

5.31

29

10.00

1 39

14.98

10

8.17

20

5.66

30

10.. 50

40

15.48

40

I have described the operation in all its minutiae, and as is quite common
when one goes so much into details, the manipulation is made to appear to
be a more formidable affair than it really is ; the execution of the analysis
is a simple matter, as any one will soon learn who undertakes it. The proper
cleansing of the milk pipeste and lactobutyrometer is quite as difficult as
the analysis itself, and as that is simply a matter of thorough washing with
hot soap suds, and as thorough rinsing afterwards with clear water, the
analyses cannot be a diflficult piece of work; both instruments should be
allowed to drain out as completely as possible after having been washed,
and if the pipeste is not quite dry when it is to be used again, it should be
filled three or four times with the milk to be examined, and each time com-
pletely emptied before finally measuring out the ten cubic centimetres for the
analysis. If the test is an important one, two analyses should be made at
the same time, and as two lactobutyrometers are included in the set of ap-
paratus, the two portions of milk can be measured at the same time, one
into one tube and the other inio the second tube; and while the first test is
receiving its hot bath after the shaking, the second can be taken in hand
for its shaking. In this case the water should of course be re-heated for
the second tube, as it will fall in temperature while the first tube is in it.

As to the apparatus, it is furnished in Germany in a case like that which
I have here, containing the two lactobutyrometers, the brass and the glass
cylinders, three pipestes, a thermometer, a bottle of ether and one of alcohol;
the ether and the alcohol will need to be replenished from time to time, but
this can be done at the nearest drug store. The alcohol, which, as stated
further back, must be of a certain strength, should be as nearly as possible
91 per cent, alcohol ; the druggist can furnish it of this strength.

The set of apparatus as imported costs, with the duty, about eight dollars.
But there are manufacturers of apparatus in New York who could prepare
the whole set. and I think furnish it at a lower price than this, especially if
there should be any considerable demand for it

When we consider the magnitude of our dairy interests, and the import-
ant increase in the value of dairy products which would result from a gen-
eral improvement in the quality of the milk, such as would be represented
by an increase of even only 5 per cent, of fat, and the strong probability, to
say the least, that some such improvement would follow a more careful
scrutiny of the composition of the milk received and worked up by dairymen,
it seems to me to be quite fitting that they should give due attention to this
subject, and should seek to take advantage of all that chemists in their labor-
atories ase doing to bring reliable methods of milk-testing within their reach.
I hope, therefore, that this brief presentation of the present condition of the
matter will not be without value to the members of this Association.

The Professor analyzed a sample of milk from the table of the Empire
House, furnished by the Onondaga County Milk Association. The result
showed the percentage of fat to be 3.39, which, the Professor said, indicated
a very good sample of milk. He called it pure milk.

Prof. Engelhardt stated that he had made thousands of tests of milk and
he would call it good if it showed more than 2^ per cent, of fat.

Prof. Caldwell responded that he was surprised such a low estimate should
be given. He had never heard of so low a one.

Dr. Wight asked Prof. Caldwell whether a dairyman who had cows furn-
ishing milk containing four or five per cent, of fat could not water his milk
down so as to contain only 3^ per cent, without being detected?

Prof. Caldwell replied that there w;is no doubt about it. A dairyman
having cows of the kind described, he thought, had a perfect right to go to
the pump.

In answer to a question by the President, Prof. Caldwell said milk should
be analyzed within twelve hours after being drawn.

Prof Engelhardt thought specimens of milk could be put in small phials
and transferred for chemical examination.

Prof. Caldwell thought that all the analysis necessary was to find the pro-
portion of fats and solids in milk.

41

The SecrQtaiy asked if it would make any difference for analysis about
the age of the milk, provided it had not begun to acidulate? and the Pro-
fessor answered that he did not think it would.

Hon. Josiah ShuU was called to the Chair, and President Arnold pro-
ceeded to read his paper on

IMPROVEMENTS IN CHEESE MAKING.

Agricultural products are seldom very uniform in quality. Those which
are derived directly from the soil and depend chiefly on the soil and the sea-
son for their development, approximate nearer than those which, besides
these agencies, require skill, judgment, attention, and animal life to be com-
bined in their production. Hence animal products are more variable than
those derived more immediately from the earth. Butter and cheese being
of this class, they must be expected, even under the most favorable circum-
stances, to vary considerably in their characteri'^tics. There are too many
conditions involved in the conversion of grass, first into animal structure,
then into milk, and then into butter or cheese, to allow of a close similarity
in final results.

It is not strange, then, that these commodities should be found so dissim-
ilar as to vary widely in their commercial and food values, however much
we may regret the fact. Cheese differs less than butter in its extremes, but
it differs too much to allow of paying dividends from the lower grades If
the quality of cheese could become uniform, and all as good as the best, or
as good as the circumstances under which it is made would permit, the pro-
duction would become greatly enhanced both in extent and profit. Animal
food is a necessity and must be had, and it can be produced in the form of
milk and cheese, cheaper than in the form of flesh. The food which would
make 100 pounds of beef would, in approximate numbers, make 200 pounds
of cheese or 2000 pounds of milk. Each pound of cheese would equal at
least two pounds of beef in nutritive value, if it could only be utilized as
well as the beef. It is now hardly equal to one. A defect in the availabil-
ity of its nutritive value is an acknowledged characteristic of cheese. It is
not all faulty in this respect. There are exceptions, and these are an evi-
dence of the possibility of making all as good as the best.

To make cheese of uniform quality which would be as healthful and be
as easily and perfectly utilized as other animal food, would be a most desir-
able attainment to reach, and of immense importance. Toward the accom-
plishment of such an end I have earnestly labored, especially for the past
two years, and as I believe with a fair measure of success. The effort made
lias attracted some attention, and as along with the queries which have been
raised and answered through the press, statements have been published
which have occasioned some confusion in regard to the nature and prosper-
ity of my endeavors.

I have been requested to make to this convention a more precise and full
statement of what I have advised in the way of manufacture, and in what
respects, if any, the process I employ differs from modes previously in use.
While complying with this reasonable request, I propose to go a step further
and exj)lain some of the reasons which have led to i he changes proposed, and
in the mean time give a brief history of the progress of events connected
with the work. To do this I will go back to the leading occurrence that
induced me to step out of the beaten track in the line of cheese manufac-
ture. In the summer of 1877, while experimenting to perfect a cheap and
pure extract of calf's rennet, the fact was developed that the strength of
the extract invariably, and soon entirely, disappeared when in the presence
of any alkali. This being established, the inference was plain that the in-
troduction of an alkali into any process of cheese making, which depends on
the action of rennet, must be detrimental. Subsequent observations have
verified .such an inference. It has appeared that even ihe small quantity of
potash and sal .soda used in the preparation of annatto for coloring depresses
the quality of the cheese and shortens the time of its keeping, and when
more alkali of any kind has been introduced into the milk of which cheese

42

was to be made, the cheese has suffered injury both in quality and keeping.
In the experiments referred to another fact of greater importance was de-
veloped, viz., that acids as well as alkalies invariably act unfavorably upon
the strength of rennet, and that only neutral substances can be applied to
it without injury. This at the time was a surprise. I had often observed
that when an acid was added to the steepings of dried stomachs, coagulation
was accomplished quicker, and more milk was Gurded with a given number
of rennets, when used in connection with some acid, than when used alone,
and the inference was made that the two agents aided each other, or at least,
worked well together. But upon a careful investigation it turned out that
the coagulating power of t he rennet and acid, counted together, always fell
below the sum of both, and that the strength of the rennet had been injured
by the added acid. The influence of acid upon the strength of rennet ex-
tract was different from that of the alkalies. The latter was more rapid and
destructive A very concentrated extract of rennet would soon be entirely
destroyed by making the liquid in which it existed even feebly alkaline.
Acids on the contrary, in most cases, acted slowly and a few wholly destroyed
the rennet power by their presence. Generally, they only abated its strength.
But in no case, whether of animal, vegetable, or mineral orign, did they fail
to weaken it

Similar results, I have since learned, have been noted by the German
chemists, Flieschmann, Soxhlet, and Hammerstien. In the light of these
facts, the free use then made of acid in the manufacture of American
cheese, became at once very questionable. The action of rennet, I knew,
after congulating the milk, played an important part in the conversion of
the curd into cheese, and if its action was injured by being immersed in an
acid liquid the curing of the curd must be seriously interfered with. It is
known to be a common result of employing acid in cheese making, whether
it is put into the milk with the rennet or developed in the whey while the
curd is lying in it, that it counteracts the curing process. As soon as the
fact was settled that rennet was injured by contact with acid I made a
series of experiments to determine the comparative solubility of matui'e cheese
made with and without acid, and found a marked difference in favor of the
latter. Observations upon the use of acid cheese also made it very plain
that the more acid there was employed in the manufacture, the more diffi-
cult of digestion it was in the human stomach, and that where it was most
freely used, the cheese took on the characteristics of veritable skims, ai d
were often mistaken for them in the market, and were, in fact, but little
better than skims in actual value. So many facts all pointing in the same
direction amounted to a demonstration that acid was not only not necessary
nor desirable in cheese making, but that it stood gi'eatly in the way of the
prosperity of the dairy interest, and I resolved to make a stand against its
use, and did so in an address at the first annual convention of the N. Y.
State Dairymen's Association, held at Syracuse in December, 1877.

The main point in what I then advanced, being new, was not at once fully
appreciated, and consequently failures were often made by those who at-
tempted to adopt it. This was nothing more than what was to be expected.
The Cheddar process is now, I believe, over forty years old, and I am told by
parties familiar with the cheese made on that plan in England and Scot-
land, that but a very small per cent, of it is really fine. The great bulk of
it is decidedly faulty and sells at a low price, the dairies which bring the
high figures quoted being very limited. It is very doubtful indeed whether
the average price of all the cheddars made would make a better showing
than our American cheese with all their faults, so very poor is much of it
said to be. If an excellent mode, so long in use and often explained, still
fails in a great majority of cases, it ought not to be wondered at if a new
idea is not put into perfectly successful operation the moment it is born and
christened.

But certain parties assert that nothing new has been advanced ; that all
I have put forward is but a repetition of old ideas and practices ; represent-
ing in one breath that it is the old American dairy system in use before the-
adoption of factories, and in the next that it is the Dunlop, Wiltshire or
Gloucester, and again that it is only the Cheddar presented over again.

43

Since the question of novelty has been raised, 1 may as well explain, in-
this connection, just what is new in it and what is not. No one, that I am
aware of, has claimed that every step in the process is new, but only that
the distinctive features are new, which are : i'ird. That the use or develop-
ment of acid in any part of the operation of cheese making is injurious.
This, I believe, at the time it was advanced, was new. Dr. Voelcker had,^
at a previous date, stated that acid is unnecessary in cheese making ; but
we have the emphatic declaration of Mr. VN illard that he did not claim it
is hurtful. Second. Ripening the curd up to a certain stage in the pro-
cess of curing, or, if you please, cliecainx), before pressing or salting. In alL
the other modes, that I am aware of, some other standard than that of chees-
ing is made the rule for determining when to salt and press. TJiird. The
recognition of the digestive action of rennet as an important agent in the
process of curing, or more properly, cheesing. The idea that rennet has a
digestive action has been discussed before, but as it has not, to any extent
at least, been recognized as an essential agent in the ripening of cheese, I
class it as a new feature. The process consists of the most effective and
available means, from whatever source derived, for carrying out these main
ideas. Old modes of working have been adopted as far as they could be in ex-
ecuting the work; and hence, perhaps, the various opinions as to an absence
of novelty. My process is similar to the old American private dairy system,
in this: that in both, the whey is drawn sweet, but in the dairies, the curd,,
when separated from the whey, was at once salted and pressed. But 1 give
an extensive ripening of the curd after it is out of the whey before even ap-
plying salt. Here is an important difference. I make the same difference
with those who use the D.unlop, Wiltshire, &c. They draw sweet, and ap-
ply rennet at as high a temperature as I do, but they also press too soon.
The Cheddar process comes nearest my mode, but the two separate at an-
important point. The Cheddar men (about one-half of them) draw their
whey sweet, as well as I. They make it a point to ripen the cui'd after it is
out of the whey, and so do I. They drain their curds and pack them in tha
make-vats, turn them occasionally to keep them warm alike, and let the
whey run off; and at first 1 did the same. But the polar stars toward which-
we travel lie in opposite sides of the heavens. The (.'heddar men, accordr-
ing to Prof. Willard, work on an acid basis; I on a sweet one. They ripen
their curds to a certain stage of acidity; I bring mine to a certain stage in.
respect to cJbeesing. If the milk is suspected of being too sweet for them,
they put sour whey into it with the rennet to hasten the souring, and they
work all the way through with a view to encouraging and cultivating acid
at about a certain time, and their manipulations are all shaped to that end.
I, on the other hand, avoid the use of acid in any and every way, and work,
to put it off as long as I can, and, if possible, to steer clear of it entirely.
Milk is never too sweet for my process, though but one minute from the
cow.

These two conditions of cheesing and souring have no necessary connec-
tion with each other. The former depends on the action of rennet and oxy-
dation; the latter on fermentation. They may or may not advance alike..
Either one is liable to be in advance or behind the other by a variation in.
the condition of the milk. If it has a certain condition, they may advance
alike, that is, when the souring has reached a certain condition assumed tO'
be the proper one for salting and pressing, the cheesing will also have-
reached the stage for salting and pressing, and a favorable result will be
had. But if the milk is too sweet or too stale, the acid will be either be-
hind or in advance, and in either case, a balk will result.

By the Cheddar process (and the same is true with the common process),
cheese can only be made uniform by having the milk all tlie time in a cer-
tain and uniform condition. Otherwise the souring will occur at the wrong,
stage; and this is the reason why Cheddar cheese varies so much, and so lit-
tle of it is fine; and this same dithculty lies in the way of the common acid
process, and all others also which do not have regard to the advance of
cheesing in treating the curd, because it is extremely difficult to get milk
which will run all the time alike.

44:

In the new departure the ease is materially changed. We can bring the
curds to a uniform condition, though the milk from which they are derived
•differs quite widely, and thus secure a closely uniform result in the mature
-cheese. There is no other process that I know of which can do this. The
reason of this wide difference is that the old practices are empirical, while I
work in accordance with natural laws and have a sound reason for every step
in the process.

At the time I took a stand against acid the manufacturers were" all leaning
•on it as a si7ie qtia non, the trade were fairly sour with it, and it was drip-
ping from the pen of every dairy writer in the country. With a full knowl-
edge of the certainty that all these parties would "sour on me," and in view
of the strong hold which our sour goods had obtained in the British market,
and the large and profitable trade going on in them, it seemed a bold un-
dertaking to stand alone on a platform of one's own building with a view of
holding out against the opposition which would certainly be encountered.
It required some courage, but being "■sure I was right I went ahead." The
suggestions offered at the Convention above named, and at others later in
the winter, were approved by many, and several attempts were made the
following summer to carry them out, in which the failures were more nu-
merous than the successes There was nothing in these failures, however, to
militate against the principles I had adopted. They were occasioned by
some defect in the mode of working. Enough were successful to give en-
couragement for further effort. The first cheese maker to whom an expla-
nation of the process was given took it from a verbal statement and made a
•complete success of it.

Though in a bad location for milk (Farmington, Michigan,) where, by the
acid system, failure had been the rule for three years in succession, upon
the adoption of the new plan the failures ceased, and not another one has
occured since, the factory having now run two full seasons after discarding
the acid. In the season of 1878, I spent some six weeks in Pennsylvania,
working one day in each factory, and carrying out the non-acid principle as
nearly as the circumstances would permit. Though not in every instance
successful, the result went strongly to sustain the correctness of the posi-
tion at first started with. The obstacles in the way were sometimes slight
•and sometimes fatal. Two serious difficulties were pretty sui-e to be encoun-
tered in every factory. The first was in respect to the rennet. The uni-
versal practice was to soak rennets in sour whey, large quantities being used.
To curdle milk for a sweet curd cheese with a liberal use of sour whey was,
in effect, throwing a wet sheet over the result. But there was generally
nothing else in the factory that could be substituted, and it had to be used.
The other difficulty was that the workmen had so long depended on acid as
an absolute necessity that they could not give it up. The hot iron test had
been the only guide for dipping, and it seemed almost impossible to lay it
aside. The operator felt so much at sea without it that the iron would be
thrust in the fire and the curd tested till it would ''just start." By the
time the curd could be got out of the whey it would be distinctly sour, and
the result would be one more step further "from a sweet process. But gen-
'Crally, doing away with even a part of the acid made an improvement in
the cheese. As a whole, the result encouraged further efforts to give the
■new system a foothold in other localities.

Last summer, a few months spent in Canadas proved more successful.
Better rennet was furni-hed, generally rennet extract or good rennets
soaked in weak brine. For the most of the time, three days were spent in
■each factory, and this gave the makers, who were present, an experience
that seldom failed to make them so familiar with the process that they
could execute it successfully without further aid. A few failed and fell
back upon their sour whey and hot iron. Those who have mastered it are
highly pleased with it, and would not, on any account, return to their
former mode.

The better success in Canada was due also partly to better curing rooms
and partly to improvements adopted in carrying out the system. Starting
off on a new track without any experience, it would have been a marvel if

45

every step had proved to be the best that could be taken. The plan
adopted at first was to draw the whey sweet and then pack the curd against
the sides of the vat, after the manner of the Cheddar practice: and this
worked very well, but had its objections.

Though the plan of handling the curds first started out with proved supe-
rior to any other in use, it was not in all respects satisfactory. By packing
the curd in the vat it had the advantage of retaining heat well, but if kept
as warm as it should be, the gas would form inside of it faster than it could
escape, and the curd would become full of holes, like dough when rising.
The holes did no hurt of themselves and the gas that was in them was
harmless, but they made a receptacle for catching and holding the whey
and water which were always separating within the solid curd The whey
thus enclosed being in a warm corner would quickly sour, and, according
to the amount retained, would harm the curd by its contact just the same
as would the sour whey in which curd might be lying. Upon grinding, a
part of it would escape, but most of it would remain in till pressed out.
While enclosed in the gas holes the retained whey was clear and would drain
out clear if left to itself, but when by heavy pressure it was forced out
through the walls of curd, it would carry cream along with it and become-
"white whey," diminishing both the weight and richness of the cheese.
Though the curd when packed, as in the Cheddar process, would, at the
same temperature, ripen faster than when enveloped in whey, it would have
ripened faster still if more exposed to the air. The handling of the curd
was therefore changed, and instead of packing, it was kept fine as well as
warm, improving the cheese while it hurried the work. It obviated entirely
the occurrence of white whey and gave a more complete oxydation of the
curd, and kept it sweet for a much longer time.

In 1878, in connection with Dr. F. E. Engelhardt of Syracuse, I followed
up the investigation of cheese, as affected by acid, in a series of experiments
by digesting it with gastric agents analagous to human gastric juice, mak-
ing near one hundred experiments, embracing every variety, foreign and
domestic, we could obtain, the results of which were presented to the Asso-
ciation last year. By these experiments it was clearly established that the-
cheese made With the least acid digested soonest and most completely. In
several samples, like the Roquefort, English dairy, and others made entirely
sweet, not only was the digestion of the cheesy matter perfect, but the fats
were also acted on and entirely disappeared in the clear chyme. The sam-
ples which had been most freely treated with acid digested very slowly and
imperfectly; sometimes not more than one-tenth of the caseine being dis-
solved, and the fats not acted on at all. The contrast was most remarkable,
and was enough to set at rest forever the deleterious influence of acid in
cheese making. But from the first, other evidences have been multiplying
and still continue to accumulate. Recently, a little book on milk, by Dr.
Flieschmann, was handed me by Dr. Caldwell, in which there is an inter-
esting account of some experiments upon the solubility of caseine made by
Hammerstien of Germany. It appears from them that the solubility of'
caseine depends largely, if pot wholly, upon the presence of phosphate of
lime, a substance which constitutes from one-half to three-quarters of the
ash of milk. He found that when it was present in curd in the largest pro-
portion it was not completely soluble, and that when it was removed the
caseine became insoluble. He found also that when milk was coaguLated
with rennet the phosphate was all retained in the curd, but when coagu-
lated with acids a large part of it was separated and passed off with the
whey, leaving the curd insoluble. Analyses of the whey showed about
three-quarters of the phosphates in its ash.

These developments explain .scientifically the cause of the indigestibility
of our acid factory cheese, the facts concerning which I have so often
noticed and published. They explain what must take place in a common
jiractice I have long and earnestly objected to as injurious to the curing
and digestibility of cheese. I allude to the use of sour whey in the pre[)ar-
ation of rennet. They show that whoever soaks his rennets in sour whey,
or puts it in his milk to hasten a hot-iron test of acidity at a certain time,.

46

.does an irreparable injury to the digestibility of his cheese, and becomes an
active promoter of the steady decline in its home consumption which has
•been going on since the introduction of the factory system. People like
.ours, who have the liberty of choice in their food, will not select indigesti-
ble cheese. Those who have no choice, will take what they can get.

The experiments of Hammerstien do not go quite far enough to cover all
the trouble from our acid cheese making. They leave out the effects of let-
ting good curd made with rennet lie in the whey till the latter ferments and
ibecomes sour. Seeing this omission, I have just begun making some tests
in Dr. Caldwell's laboratory, to determine what effect the acid thus devel-
oped has upon the separation of the phosphates from the curd They are
not yet completed, but one of them is so far along as to show that cui'd made
with pure rennet and left in the whey till it became sour, as in the common
practice of making in the factories, had 14 per cent, less ash than curd
taken out of the same batch while it was sweet. As nearly all the ash of
-curds is phosphates, the 14 per cent, can be counted as so much affecting
solubility. More experiments are necessary to a full determination of the
loss in phosphates by souring in the whey; but this one being in accord with
ithose of the German chemist and with the practical effect such souring has
..upon cheese, is strikingly corroborative of the position I have maintained in
regard to letting curd lie in whey till it sours.

In the fall of 1875, I asked Dr. Caldwell to make some experiments to de-
termine, if possible, the changes which occur within a cheese while cur-
ing. He consented to do so if I would furnish him cheese of suitable size for
his apparatus, and would call at his laboratory as often as I could to keep trace
of the work and to indicate just what it was desired to have done, and to
offer any suggestions that might occur; all of which I was very glad to do.
I applied to Wm. A. Johnson, of Erie Co., N. Y., and he kindly made three
cheeses of the desired size and form, and sent them fresh from the hoop to
the University, generously donating them to the cause of science. One of
these, after analyzing, was put into an air-tight enclosure, and the air
within it tested from time to time. The enclosed air began to change right
away, and in a few days the oxygen was all gone, and in its place were
found cai'bonic acid gas and the vapor of water. After determining the
water and gas, the vessel was exhausted and refilled with air, the oxygen
-disappearing and the gas and water reappearing, as they did before. These
tests were repeated till the cheese became cured, the loss of oxygen and de-
velopment of gas and water decreasing gradually as the ripening of the
.cheese went on. A second cheese was treated in "the same way, with simi-
lar results, and a third, after it had begun to cure, was put into confined
.air and left some three or four months (the exact dates not being kept), and
at the end of the time was f oimd to have made no perceptible change.
Analyses were made from time to time and the loss of substance noted.
The estimation of the water which escaped and the amount left in the
vcheeses when cured, showed that a considerable increase of water had been
going on while the cheese were curing. The results here determined were
important, for though the experiments so far noted did not decide just how
the oxygen was used in the cheese — whether it was taken up by the fats,
the sugar or the caseine — they demonstrated the fact that oxydation was a
necessity in curing cheese, and paved the way for more definite knowledge.

Without intending to follow these experiments through, I have given so
much of what was done, because it will be easily understood and because it
will show the origin of the first positive knowledge we have that the curing
of cheese is an oxydizing process.

The importance of oxydation in cheese and in curds in the process of
manufacture is a new feature in cheese making. It has, it is true, often
been noticed by ob.-;erving dairymen that cheese is improved by airing the
curds when they are about ready for pressing, but no explanation was ever
given or known as to the cause or the nature of the changes which take
place. Its importance is generally supposed to consist in cooling. Though
it is always interesting to know how any valuable discovery originated, to
the public it is of much less consequence than the fact of the discovery itself
and the use which can be made of it.

47

For the last two years, and particularly for the past year, I have been
studying up the significance of the facts developed in ttie University, and
have found that the oxygen is largely taken up by the fats ; that under the
influence of the rennet used in curding the milk the oxygen combines more
readily than it otherwise would with the carbon of the fats, forming car-
bonic acid gas and liberating heat and water, leaving a residuum always
differing in flavor and odor from the original fat and with a greater levity.
I have traced this oxydation from the cheese in the curing room through all
the changes of the curd in manufacturing, and in the milk back to the time
it came from the udder, and even before, and found it to be the cause of
the peculiar and increasing odors which develop in warm milk when agi-
tated in conflnement and which have erroneously been supposed to come
from putrefaction.

To know what agents are at work upon his milk and curds and cheese, is
of vast importance to the cheese maker, because it enables him to know how
to counteract or to facilitate changes to accomplish desired ends. It makes
him master of the situation. It has enabled me during the heat of summer
— in July and August — and often out of milk which cheese makers have
condemned as unfit for use, to make as good cheese as at any time in the
season, and as firm and durable and with as much certainty in results. It
has given every cheese maker who has become acquainted with the facts
the ability to remove, with ease and certainty, all undesirable odors from his
cheese, such as those coming from so-called tainted milk, or from strong
flavored or oderiferous herbage consumed by the cows, as the odor of turnips,
cabbage, tares, strong weeds, and even leeks — all of which he effects by
simply keeping his curds, after dipping, sweet, fine and warm, to facilitate
their oxydation. The change in manipulation is but little. The difference
comes from knowing what agencies to employ and how to make them avail-
able.

The discovery of the part which oxygen plays in the changes of milk,
curd, and cheese appears to me to be of more importance than any other
event in the history of cheese making, though much that relates to its action
is yet to be studied out. This we have reason to believe will be done. The
investigation started in 1875, and suspended for some time, has been re-
newed again, and is now going on with a fair prospect of further develop-
ments in this direction.

In conclusion, I will describe some of the leading items which have been
adopted to carry out in manufacturing the principles explained. The mode
of working now. as I have already said, is different from what it was two
years ago, and will be changed further should new discoveries be made, as
doubtless there will, for we are yet a great way from perfection in any of the
arts relating to the dairy.

CONDITION OF MILK PREFERRED.

Milk for the non-acid process is best when sweetest and newest. Milk of
any age, even to incipient souring, is best worked by the new mode, but it
appears that the cheese looses something in solubility by increased age in
the milk. The earlier it is worked the higher the flavor, the richer and
more digestible is the cheese.

TEMPERATrRE FOR APPLYING RENNET.

As rennet acts most rapidly and efficiently at about blood heat, that tem-
perature is preferred wlicn all new milk is to be used. Experience has
shown that when milk has been transported, as in transit to factories, and
become ten or twelve hours old, if treated to 98 the cream is apt to l)ecome oily
enough to escape so as to make tlie wliey a little roily. To avoid this I have
adopted the rule, when night and morning's milk arc to be mixed at factor-
ies, of adding the rennet at 90" instead of .98'. Milk which is pretty stale may
require a still lower temperature. It is always desirable to shorten the la"-
bor of the manufacturer as much as we can, and as rennet acts slower as we
go from_ blood heat down, the general rule I adopt is to set as high as the
milk will bear, on account of roiling the whey, and without hurrying the

48

ripening of the curd faster than it can be properly cared for in the earlier-
stages, as when milk becomes stale. The effect of high or low setting upon,
the quality of cheese is more imaginary than real.

RENNET AND ITS PREPARATION.

Besides coagulating the milk, rennet affects the curing of cheese. The
quantity used should have some reference to that end. For this purpose
the quantity which will cause coagulation to become apparent in average
milk in 15 minutes at about 90° is about right. Milk which is very new will
require more to effect coagulation in a given time than when it has stood
several hours. As it grows stale it will curdle with less rennet in a given
temperature and time, but it is better to use the full amount and set lower,
if necessary, to secure efficient curing.

Rennet extract is always preferred when it can be had. When rennets
are used they are soaked with a weak brine — never in whey either sweet or
sour. Whey is always stale when separated from the curd and is generally
more stale than the milk from which it is derived would have been at the
same age. Whey once out of the curd — whatever its condition — has no fur-
ther business in cheese-making.

CUTTING THE CURD.

I prefer to cut the curd, as cheese makers would think, rather early and
pretty fine. The whey separates more readily and more perfectly when cut
early and fine than when left longer and in larger pieces. I adopt this rule;,
count the minutes from the time of putting in the rennet till curding first
appears, and multiply them by two and one-third, and it will give the best
time for cutting. To illustrate, suppose curding begins to appear in fifteen
minutes after the rennet is applied, we have 15x2^=35=the number of
minutes from the time of putting in rennet to the time for cutting. If the
milk begins to thicken in twelve minutes, then it would be ready in twenty-
eight minutes to cut, from the time of setting, and so on for longer or
shorter curding.

Whether the cutting should be done all at one time or at intervals, and.
the kind of cutter best to use, are questions which have the same bearings
in the sweet curd process as in any other. The operator may suit himself..
It facilitates the work to cut right along till it is done, and I like to do so,
that the days work may be as short as possible.

STIRRING THE CURD AND HEATING.

In this operation nothing special is required. What would be best in any
other process would be best in this. When it has settled and before it ad-
heres it should be stirred enough to keep it from matting together. As soon
as it is firm enough to stir steadily without roiling the whey, say in 20 min-
utes after cutting, heating begins, and stirring and heating continue till
warmed to 98°. As the whey separates more rapidly and perfectly at blood
heat, the sooner that temperature is reached the better, but the heating-
must not be so rapid as to bake on the bottom. The heating and stirring
should correspond so as not to heat unevenly. It is not safe to heat more
than a degree in two minutes. This would be too fast for the acid process
in which it is important to keep the inside and outside of the lumps alike.
In the non-acid process, there being no fermentation, the average condition
of the curd need only be considered.

DRAWING THE WHEY.

This is done when the curd becomes so firm that when moderately pressed
in the hand it will spring apart when the hand is opened. When the whey^
is once out of the curd tfie sooner it is taken away from contact with it the
better, and I make it a point always to dip as soon as I think I can keep-
the curd fine by stirring. It must have some solidity or it will pack as soon;
as the whey is off — but in the acid process it is never allowed to run till acid-
becomes apparent.

49

AFTER TREATMENT OF THE CURD.

As soon as the whey is oflf, instead of packing in the vat as was formerly
done, the curd, in warm weather, is put into a sink with a slatted rack bot-
tom covered with cloth, and on this cloth it is stirred to keep it from adher-
ing. The better exposure to the air hastens — not the acidity — but the chees-
ing. While in this situation, it is constantly taking in oxygen and giving
off carbonic acid gas and liberating whey and water from its interior. The
rapidity with which this goes on depends upon perfect drainage, atmos-
pheric exposure, fineness, temperature, and freedom from acid and salt. In
this way the curd is kept lying in the sink, fine and warm, till moisture
enough has been separated to give the desired firmness to the cheese and
until the oxydation shall have gone on so far that when its activity is
checked by cooling and salting, the gas which it occasions will not form in-
side of the cheese faster than it can escape from the curd, so that the pressed
cheese shall remain solid and compact. If we fail to carry on this oxyda-
tion sufficiently far before pressing, or fail to check it with sufficient salt,
or excite its activity by pressing the curd too warm, then the oxydation will
be so rapid that it will liberate gas faster than it can escape, and the new
cheese will huff and be full of holes. It is a very important item to be able
to decide when the ripening has gone far enough to ensure a safe and desir-
able condition in the mature cheese. Experience has developed the follow-
ing rule: Keep the curd fine and warm (at 90" or above) and thoroughly
drained and well stirred till it begins to break down, and instead of feeling
harsh and rigid, it begins to feel plastic and silky when pressed in the hand,
and to have a distinct and clean cheesy odor and flavor. If there is any strong
smell about the curd it must remain till that disappears or nearly so before
either pressing or salting. If from any cause the curd becomes packed, or
forms into lumps too large for the air to penetrate easily, it should be ground
as finely as possible and the airing continued and the grinding repeated, if
necessary to keep it fine, till it is properly ripened. Should the mass become
too cool, so that the separation of whey ceases too soon before moisture enough
is expelled or its separation too slow, it may be warmed and the work hasten-
ed by poui'ing upon it warm water (from 100° to 120°) till the desired tempera-
ture is restored. This will very much facilitate the ripening and will do no
harm. This question of keeping thu curd fine all the way through, instead of
packing or heaping in the vat, after the Cheddar mode, gives some important
advantages. First, it hastens the ripening and shortens the time in getting it
ready for the press. Second, it .saves all the waste from white whey, as none
will occur when the curd is kept fine. Third, it insures a more even salting
because there is little or no variation from day to day in the whey retained
in the curd, which is not the case when curd is packed on the bottom of the
vat. Fourth, it affords a much more complete and ready drainage of whey
which, if retained, would soon sour to the injury of the curd it might be in
contact with. Fifth, the more complete exposure to the atmosphere when
granular than when packed, disposes of any taints, or foreign odors or fla-
vors, more speedily and completely than could be done if the curd were in
a compact form. It has the single disadvantage of cooling the curd faster,
which, in cool weather is of some account.

Some special provision has to be made for keeping the curd warm in the
cool weather of spring and fall, especially where the make rooms are open,
as they often are. For such occasions I have resorted to constructing a
temporary sink in one or more of the make vats by supporting a slotted rack
ten inches from the bottom of the vat, the rack being made in sections con-
venient to handle and covered with a cloth. The curd of an adjacent vat
with plenty of whey is dipped onto the rack, the whey all dropping quickly
below into the vat, where it remains under the curd. The curd being ele-
vated is convenient to stir and whenever desirable, the whey below it can
be warmed to about 120°, when heat enough will rise to the curd to keep it
warm as desired, by proper stirring.

Coloring and pressing I omit as they require nothing different from other
processes.
D

50

SALTING.

"When the curd has become properly digested, ripened, or cheesed, which-
ever you prefer to call it, salt is applied according to the time desired for
maturing. In spring and fall, when rapid curing is desired, two to two and
one-half pounds of salt for each 1000 pounds of milk are used. In mid-
summer, from two and three-fourths to three pounds will be required to carry
the cheese safely through the hot weather. I have generally used a little
more salt than in the old process, especially when I followed the Cheddar
mode, but I am not sure that it is required when the curd is kept fine.

By following out this process as described, several important advantages
are secured over the common mode of souring in the whey, or of packing in
the vat and seeking for acid in ripening the curd after it is separated from
the whey, while there is no excellence in either of the other modes which is
not as easily attained in this. Any degree of firmness, or softness, or early
maturity, or long keeping, or variety of flavor can be secured as well and
with more certainty than by the old modes. The maker is relieved from a
deal of anxiety about the condition of his milk. If it is from animals in
fair health and is clean and sweet, he has little to fear from anything else.
By keeping his curds fine and warm and sweet, and well drained and stirred,
he can, with a little experience, bring them to an almost perfectly uniform
condition and secure even results, though the milk from which they were
derived was quite unlike.

The address was listened to with great interest, but provoked no discus-
sion. At the conclusion of its reading, several cheeses were brought for-
ward by the Secretary, who announced that they had been forwarded to the
Association by Messrs. H. K. & F. B. Thurber, of New York. The lot in-
cluded Stilton, Edam, Gruyere, English and Canada Cheddars, and Roque-
fort. They came from the exhibition made at the International Dairy Fair.
They were soon cut up and distributed among the members.

Recess until 7 o'clock.

Note.

The form containing most of Prof. Arnold's paper was printed before
his proof arrived. We note the more important of his marks : On page 43,
the 17th line from the top, after the sentence ending, "as a new feature,"
read: '■^Fourth. Removing from curds by oxydation milk odors of all de-
grees of intensity, known as animal odor and taints, and all vegetable odors,
as of turnips, cabbage, tares, strong weeds, leeks. &c., carried into the curds
through the milk . This is a recent achievement, giving complete control
over tainted milk so called, and is peculiar to my practice. I know of no
other process in use by which either milk or vegetable odors are removed
from curds. Acid is much employed to hold milk odors in abeyance for a
time, but it neither removes nor destroys them. Their removal is counter-
acted by developing acid."

Page 45, the 13th line from the bottom, omit the word not between "por-
tion it was" and "completely soluble."

Page 47, the 27th line from the top, to the sentence ending "their oxyda-
tion," add "and holding them so till the odors are gone."

Page 47, the 8th line from the bottom, for "treated," read "heated."

Page 48, the 2d line from the bottom, omit after " — but," the words "in
the acid process."

WEDNESDAY EVENING, JANUARY 14.

The President called the Convention to order, and the Committee on Sta-
tistics, through Mr. J. V. H. Scovill, of Pari.s, N. Y., reported progress, and
were authorized to add four to their number.

Prof. Caldwell. Prof. Arnold, and Mr. Curtis were added to the Committee
on Resolutions.

Solomon Hoxie, of Whitesboro, N. Y., was introduced and read a paper
on

51

MILK RECORDS.

The selection and breeding of dairy cattle at the present time is largely a
matter of chance. There is no system of well established principles by
which breeders and dairymen are or can be guided. In view of this fact, it
has been suggested that the American Dairymen's Association inaugurate a
system of observations and records, with a view to the discovery and estab-
lishment of scientific principles of breeding, selection, management and
feeding of dairy cattle. If such a movement could be made practical, and
if any respectable number of breeders and dairymen would engage in it, its
importance can scarcely be over estimated. There is no other way of de-
termining the merits of different breeds, or the merits of their crosses upon
our common native cows. The controversy upon which is the most econom-
ical milk producer, the large or the small cow, can be settled in no other
way. The Guenon system of judging, and all other systems and signs,
would find in such records either positive proof or certain refutation. The
comparative merits of high feeding and more moderate feeding would thus
be determined, and many other questions suggested to the minds of think-
ing men would find in such observations and records practical solution.

Within the last four years, two distinct movements, having in view ex-
tensive milk records have been inaugurated. These have both originated
upon the idea of making milk records the foundation of herd book registry.
The first suggestion of this idea, at least in one of these movements, must
be credited to Prof. Roberts, of Cornell University. In an address before
the New York Dairymen's Association and Board of Trade, at its con-
vention held in Utica, February 6th and 7th, 1878, he advocated such
a movement. On inquiry, we learn that he had advocated this idea before
his classes in the University, and probably on other occasions during the
preceding two years. The thought was taken up a few days after the meet-
ing of the Utica convention ;:nd put into practical operation by the Dutch-
Friesian Herd Book Association, an organization aiming at a high standard
of merit, but comparatively weak in numbers. This measure at once gave
vitality and wide influence to that association. Leading agricultural jour-
nals published its rules and earnestly advocated them as a step in the right
direction. Public sentiment approved, and is to-day demanding a similar
movement of every herd book organization of the milk breeds.

It appears that the same idea has also taken form in the minds of other
men ; among which we cordially mention the celebrated breeders, Messrs.
Rutherford, of St. Lawrence county. We understand they sugj^ested it to
Mr. L. S. Hardin, of New York. From this direction has sprung the
National Dairy Cattle Club, organized about a month ago in New York city.
These two organizations have their respective fields, and should receive the
encouragement of the public ; yet we think neither of them contemplate
scientific investigation. They have commendable, yet other objects in view.
This part of the field seems to be still unoccupied. The American Dairy-
men's Association, "having no axes to grind," and interested to learn the
exact bottom facts, seems to be the proper organization to occupy this field.

Allow me to read a few extracts from letters that I have received referring
to these movements. A prominent breeder writes: ''The idea of having
such registry under the auspices and control of the American Dairymen's
Association is correct." Another breeder, also an author of valuable works
upon dairy cattle and kindred subjects, writes; "The American Dairy-
men's Association should be the party to occupy this field. They are already
organized, and should do effective work. Their ramification would war-
rant this." Another gentleman, one of the foremost scientists of our coun-
try, writes: "The American Dairymen's Association should assume the
work. To this end it should shape its constitution and by-laws, and its list
of ofRcers." We might continue these extracts, but we have already given
enough to show the drift of public sentiment. Not a word have we heard
in opposition to such a work, and we have no doubt if it were judiciously
undertaken it would not only result in universal good to the dairy interests
of our country, but would give still greater vitality to this organization.

52

The paramount object in view should be scientific observation and investi-
gation. To this end it should invite the active cooperation of every cattle
club, agricultural society and agricultural college in America. The plan of
observations and records should not be complex, but they should be minute
and exact. Not a thought of partiality should hinder the closest investiga
tion. The unselfish character of this organization ought to be a guarantee
against any thought of making such a movement the instrument of anyone's
personal ambitions; and, if such a work is undertaken, every prominent
breeder and dairyman should feel that it is his duty to give this organization
his records and support. If such should be the case, it would result in
gathering together a mass of facts that- would be invaluable. It would be
superior to any local experiment station in the broadness of the field of ob-
servation. From the data thus gathered, we might reasonably expect care-
ful students would at no distant day deduce general principles; in short,
that there would grow out of it a science of dairy husbandry.

Mr. Hawley spoke in favor of the plan.

Mr. Burnett, of Massachusetts, remarked that he had kept such a record
for years. He had five Jersey cows that had given each about 8,000 pounds
of milk per year.

Professor Caldwell thought that the mat er of the composition of the milk
should receive equal consideration with the mere amount. He thought it
is not necessary to examine the milk further than to determine the amount
of solids and fats it contains. He said that milk could be preserved sweet
by the use of prussic acid.

Professor Engelhardt was of the opinion that milk could be put up in
small tubes and siibmitted to the chemical analysis ten days after it had
been drawn.

The President said he had long thought that such a move was necessary.
The motion was carried.

The Secretary moved that a committee of seven breeders be appointed to
consider the project suggested by Mr. Hoxie's paper. The motion was car-
ried, and the following committee were named: Messrs. S. Hoxie, Whites-
boro (representing Holsteins); W. R. Smith. Syracuse (Holsteins); Edward
Burnett, Southboro, Mass. (Jerseys); and Prof. B. W. Stewart, Lake View,
N. Y. (Grade Jerseys); B. A. Avery, Syracuse (Ayrshires).

On motion. Profs. Arnold and Engelhardt were added to the committee.

Mr. ShuU, of the Committee on Nominations, reported, and the report
was accepted and adopted. (It will be found on page i'..)

Mr. Edward Burnett, of Southboro, Mass., was then introduced and read
the following paper on

SEPARATING CREAM FROM MILK BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.

Ladies and Gentlemen and fellow Dairymen : With great apprehension I
accepted the invitation of the Secretary of the American Dairymen's Asso-
ciation to read before so many prominent men a short paper on the new
method of separating cream from milk by centrifugal force, and to-night I
beg that you will look upon me more in the light of a student who is trying
to solve this wonderful and rapid process, and who is here to give you a few
simple results of the past six months' study and observation, rather than as
a professor trying to teach and introduce any new principles.

The results obtained during the past decade by our dairymen show great
improvements not only in quality, but also in the manufacturing of our
butter and cheese. This grand stride is due partly to the demands of the
public and partly to the study and determination of those interested in fur-
nishing the supply. My own short experience perhaps poorly illustrates
this. Graduating from college, ten years ago, I took possession of a 300-acre
farm in Worcester county, Mass., which supplied Boston with a fancy lump
butter at 75c. per pound. I was very confident and started under the most
favorable circumstances. Beginning by taking the entire charge of ray own
dairy of twenty cows, I soon found out that it was no child's play, and that

53

butter was fearfully and wonderfully made. Within twelve months I dis-
carded the old-fashioned small milkpans and put in the large Orange county
pan. This was a great saving of time. My next step onward was the deep
pails set in cold water. Two years later I adopted the Hardin method of
refrigerating ; the next a contrivance designed by myself for cooling with ice-
water about one-third of the top of the can. Last June Mr. Weston sent me
a centrifugal machine, and this process, as I have already mentioned, is the
subject of my paper to-night.

The process is very simple and, like most ^reat inventions, easily ex-
plained. All dairymen know that the separation of cream from milk is the
result of gravitation ; the fat globules being of less density than the watery
portions of the milk, rise to the surface. Now the centrifugal machine pro-
duces a very powerful and forced gravitation, which developes this separa-
tion almost instantly and with great rapidity. At 120 revolutions per
minute a weight six inches from the shaft would be equal to two and one-
half times its specific gravity.

At 600 revolutions per minute= 61^ times its specific grav.
" 1,000 " " " 170 " " "

" 2,000 " " " 684 " " "

•♦ 3,000 " " " 1,537

As early as 1859 Prof. C. I. Fuch, of Carlsruhe, Germany, experimented
with a centrifugal machine for separating cream from milk, but it was not
until 1877. nearly 20 years later, that Ledfeed developed and patented a
machine for the purpose. This excited much interest in Europe, and later
machines were built in Denmark, Sweden and Norway, differing, however,
only as to their method of obtaining the final separation of the cream from
the skim milk. In this country ten years ago Rev H. F. Bond, of Northboro,
Mass., worked out this problem and obtained cream in about one hour with
a small, crude hand machine, consisting of two glass jars attached to a
spindle and making only 200 revolutions per minute. After months of hard
study in perfecting the little machine which I have here to-night, he found
to his surprise, in applying for a patent, the Germans already in the field.

My own machine, patented in September, 1868. by D. M. Weston, of Bos-
ton, has probably the largest capacity of any in the world, the basket being
about two feet in diameter with a 12-inch opening on top and a depth of
about ten inches. It is constructed in every particular like a centrifugal
hydro-extractor, with the exception that instead of the cylinder being per-
forated, it is perfectly tight, with a top flange extending inward towards the
center. In this cylindrical basket are ten floats or dams from top to bottom,
for the purpose of compelling the fluid or milk to travel with the machine.
This is substantially all, and it can be used for separating various fluids or
solids of different specific gravities. Our first experiment was at 1,200 revo-
lutions a minute, running about twenty minutes, then stopping the machine
slowly, and when at rest skimming off by hand the cream which lay on the
surface in large, thick patches, and of the consistency of clotted cream. At
a subsequent trial we used a bent tube, and scooped off the cream while the
machine was in motion. Now I have adopted a simple arrangement by
which I catch the cream thrown over the flange already described in a sta-
tionary pan, on top of the curb, which surrounds the basket, and lets off
the skim milk l)y valves designed by Rev. Mr. Bond, in the perpendicular
wall, which are perfectly controlled, even when at full speed. This enables
me to u.se it as a continuous machine, and I now handle with it about two
tons of milk daily. Having increased the speed to 1,500 revolutions per
minute, we run about eighty gallons per hour.

The most favorable results are obtained when the milk is warm from the
cow; it then throws off the thickest cream in the shortest space of time.

Let me here state that the pressure exerted on the walls of this cylindrical
basket is 200 pounds to the square inch, or fifty pounds greater than a gov-
ernment inspector requires on a new high pressure steam boiler, so that a
machine must not only be con.structed of the best material, but in the most
thorough and workmanlike manner. Mr. Weston is still experimenting and

54^

hopes to improve on this simple method which I am now using ; and lately
I have seen one of his new continuous machines for delivering both the
cream and skimmilk at the bottom.

With this short description of the machine I will now give you a few re-
sults from my various experiments. On the 4th of last June, mixing thor-
oughly all my morning's milk, 704 pounds were run into the centrifuge
and yielded 35 pounds, 8 oz., or 1 pound of butter to 19.8-:3 pounds of milk.
This was churned in an old-.fashioned barrel churn after twenty-four hours,
at a temperature of 50°, and the butter came in exactly seventeen minutes.
660 pounds of the same milk set twenty-four hours in deep pails immersed
in water at 45° and skimmed very carefully by hand, yielded 32 pounds 4
oz , or 1 pound of butter to 20.46 pounds of milk. This was churned after
standing twenty-four hours at 60°, and it took fifty-three minutes to bring
the butter. I wish to call your attention to the difference of temperature in
the churning of the two different lots of cream, 10° in favor of the centri-
fuge ; and the length of time occupied with that cream only seventeen min-
utes, against fifty-three of that fiom the pails. About these same results in
favor of a slight gain for the machine were obtained from many subsequent
experiments, but a neighboring farmer and butter-maker, who had rather
laughed at " Burnett's new-fangled machine," after a good deal of persua-
sion on my part, this winter divided his milk, setting one-half, or eighty
quarts, in small pans twenty-four hours, his usual method, and placed these
in a cold, damp cellar at a temperature of about 55°. The other half in ten
or fifteen minutes was separated by my machine and yielded eight and
three-fourths pounds of butter against five and one-fourth in the pans.
Making a second experiment at my suggestion and using a tank and some
of my deep pails with the same quantity of milk (eighty quarts,) he obtained
six and three-fourths pounds of butter from the machine and six and one-
fourth pounds of butter from the pails. He also found, on churning, a great
saving of time with the machine cream, which occupied only eleven min-
utes against one hour with the cream set in deep pails. I can not vouch
for the accuracy of this experiment, but will simply say that he is a very
good fanner, and one that naturally would take great pains in doing it
thoroughly. Wishing to try the effect of old milk I took July 1st and set a
portion of the morning's milk thoroughly mixed in pails in a tank, the water
at from 45° to 50°. The next morning, twenty-four hours afterward, 165
pounds run through the machine yielded eight pounds, or one pound of
butter to 20.62 pounds of milk; 126 pounds skimmed carefully in the pails
by hand yielded six pounds, or one pound of butter to twenty-one pounds
of milk.

As you will observe in all my trials there is a slight gain in favor of the
centrifugal machine over the ordinary methods, and the Germans with their
repeated experiments have also invariably found a gain of from three to six
per cent.

The cream obtained by this method is remarkable for its peculiar sweet
flavor and smoothness. Running it off slowly, then cooling below 50°, it is
even thick enough to cut with a knife. I have obtained a ready sale for it
in Boston at an advanced price, and send it down every night in glass pint
and quart fruit jars. From the London Farin July 2, 1877, I obtained the
following analysis ;

Water, 29.546

Fat 67.638

Caseine, 1.174

Sugar, 2.247

Ash 122

Albumen, 248

The skim milk is very thin and blue, and has a hard peculiar flavor al-
though perfectly sweet and remarkable for its freshness, like the cream.

56

My chemists, Messrs. Lawen & Terry of Boston, report the following analy-
sis *

Water, 89.68

Fat, 90

Caseine, etc., 4.24

Milk Sugar, 4.44

Ash, 74

100
After running off the last of the skim milk we find a most offensive and
greenish slime on the rear walls of the centrifugal basket, from 1-16 to ^ of
an inch thick. I have here to-night a sample bottle, which later I shall be
pleased to show with the cream and butter. I have too the following analy-
sis:

Water, 67.38

Fat, 3.25

Ash, 3.88

Caseine, 25.49

Decomposed products, etc., 100

The letter from my chemists accompanying this analysis struck me as rather
amusing, and I take the liberty of reading it:

Mr. Burnett, Dear Sir: I do not know in what quantities you get this
refuse, but the best use of it I should think would be for fertilizing purposes,
as it is very rich in nitrogen and phosphate of lime. Yours, etc.

A. D. Lawrie.

From Dr. Fleischraann's paper published in Germany, I find he also speaks
of this slime as follows :

"Although the milk treated in the various experiments was always passed
through four fine metal sieves before being passed into the machine, more
or less dirty matter was invariably found on the side of the drum at the
completion of the process. Hence it appears that the rapid centrifugal mo-
tion cleanses the milk or cream far more effectually than the best made
sieve could do, and it is only natural to suppose that butter obtained from
such cream should be proportionately finer,"

Thinking, perhaps, that by the great force by which the cream is thrown off
from the machine a l)reaking of the globules might take place, which would,
in theory, account for the rapidity of churning, I asked my friend and most
obliging neighbor. Dr. E. L. Sturtevant, to come up with his microscope
and spend the day at my dairy. His report, which also contains an exam-
ination of the refuse already spoken of, received by mail a few days ago, I
read with great pleasure :

"The centrifugal cream examined January 7. has certain peculiarities as
examined under the microscope.

First. — Its absolute purity, each globule standing out distinct and round
and no foreign material of any nature to be detected.

Second. — Contrary to ray expectations there are no ruptured globules.

Third. — There was a noticeable uniformity between the sizes of the glo-
bules of each sample. The first cream taken from the machine having
larger globules that the last cream. When, however, the machine was run
continuously this should become not .so evident. My figures are as below:
(" signifies 'of an inch.')

1. Cream set in ordinary manner j Y:il% ^:^S: S"

2. Cream from eentritngal, first rnnning, j L'g-'^ f^£- Jg:

I Largest globules, 2700"

3. Cream from centrifugal, first running, -; Average globules, 6290"

( Average globules, 6410"
. /-, , 4. •« 1 1 i. • i Largest globules, 4500"

4. Cream from centrifugal, last running, -j ^^^^^^^ liobules, 6895"

56

Nos. 1 and 2 are comparably, as in each case the sample examined was
from the top of the cream. In number 3 we have two determinations for
the average. In number 4 there was but one globule seen as large as noted,
the next largest being 6,500".

The specific gravity of the centrifugal cream as taken from jars prepared
for market was 1,014. It seemed to me, however, quite evident that this
specific gravity could be greatly reduced by allowing the cream to remain
under centrifugal force influences a little longer before removal. Whether
this idea is correct, or not, I had no opportunity for verifying, as the cream
is taken dense enough for every purpose desired.

After a large quantity of milk has been passed through the machine, a
quantity of dirty, greenish, offensive slime is found to accumulate, as I am
told by Mr. Burnett, upon the circumference. Some of this was brought
me for examination. It appears to consist, as the microscope afterwards
verified, of the impurities which existed in the milk. When we consider
the extreme cleanliness which exists about the Deerbrook farm, cattle and
appliances, the almost unnecessary precautions, as it would seem to an ob-
server, for preserving the purity of the milk and its products, it must seem
probable, nay certain, that there is far less of this filth in Mr. Burnett's milk
than in ordinary milk.

This slime appeared to contain an occasional pus globule, yet it is quite
impossible to assign characters by which this globule can be unerringly dis-
tinguished, and I had no chemicals with me to apply further tests. I can
not be certain that pus globules were there. These were, however, in small
proportion, even in this concentrated extract of foulness, and it maybe well
to remark that cells agreeing in microscopic character with the pus globule
are not unfrequently found upon the surface of a mucus membrane, with-
out its functions being seriously impaired. There are also to be detected
epithelial cells, appearance of fatty matter in a molecular state (of which not
applying ether to determine I can not speak decisively :) one fragment of
basement membrane (?) with polyhedral elongated cells attached, occasional
fibers which were curled suggesting the fibers of fibrous tissue and globules
in great number, resembling the fat globules of the milk, except that many
of them were bulged, or as they revolved under the microscope would show
irregular outlines under direct light and the presence of a tubercle under
side-illumination. I could not but suspect that many of these were incom-
plete milk globules, and that in some must be recognized the parent cell
overtaken with separation from its membrane, while in the act of giving ori-
gin to the fat cell of the milk. Thus far I have confined my enumerations
to the morphological products I deem to have been derived from the cow.
There are also to be seen the various fragments which constitute dust. As
this slime dried it formed a substance of a bony appearance, resembling
dried mucus, which it probably is, in large proportion. The power used was
813 diameters. The average size of the globules was determined by count-
ing the globules in roiv, in ten different places, of the specimens as they
appeared against the divisions of the micrometer eye-piece. In all cases
duplicate observations were made when practicable.

E. Lewis Stuetevant,

South Framingham, Jan. 9, 1880.

Dr. Sturtevant as well as myself was rather disappointed at the result ob-
tained of the specific gravity, but I find that the remarkable result obtained
by Dr. Fleischmann, of 949.6, was from a small portion of dried, thick cream
taken from the uppermost surface of the contents of the German machine.
Dr. Sturtevant's own result with ordinary cream of 988 was taken under the
most favorable circumstances. Arnold gives his as 985 ; Hanneberg, 1004 9
to 1005.5; Voelker, 1012 to 1019; Letheby, 1013; Berzelius, 1024.4.

The butter obtained from the centrifugal cream is like any other good but-
ter, except that we have noticed a slight loss of color.

An important fact lately developed by Dr. Sturtevant is its melting point,
98°, being remarkably high. He found exactly the same result, however,
from my own dairy as from that of my neighbor's, which furnished two sam-

■ 57

pies from the same milk treated by the machine, and by the ordinary process
and was 98° and 94° respectively.

During the past few months 1 have had constructed a perforated basket
for extracting the buttermilk by contrifugal force, and now treat all my but-
ter by this method most successfully. After two or three rinsings in brine,
it is removed from the churn while in small pellets and placed in a cloth.
It is then put in the basket of the machine, which, in less than a minute
after full speed is obtained, is brought to a standstill. The texture of the
butter is fine and the grain uninjured and very solid.

Carrying my experiments still further I am able to show you to-night
round pats of "butter with my own private stamp ou them, molded in this
same machine, and I think more perfectly than could be done by hand.

A telegram received from a late sample of centrifugal cream (sent by Dr.
Sturtevant) gives specific gravity as 963.

At the conclusion of the address specimens of the cream and butter pro-
duced from the use of the machine were tested by those present, and found
to be of most excellent quality. A few questions were asked the speaker,
but none that did find their answer in his paper.

[Since the Convention, the Secretary finds in the American Daiiyman a
memorandum of results obtained in a competitive tiial between the Laval
cream separator and setting milk in pans, at the dairy show of the British
Dairy Farm Association, London, October, 1879. 60 gallons of milk were
divided into two equal portions, 30 gallons each. One portion was placed
in the separator, the product churned at a temperature of 56°, and yielded
16 pounds 7 ounces butter; the other portion was set in pans 12 hours, and
then skimmed again; left another 12 hours and skimmed again; the product
then churned at 56°, and yielded 18 pounds 13 ounces butter. The skim-
med milk by both processes was then set in pans 24 hours; that from the
separator yielded 17 ounces additional cream ; that from the ordinary method
of setting" yielded 38 ounces addi ional cream. To complete the test, a
bottle of each skimmed milk was taken by Dr. Voelcker, consulting chemist
of the Royal Agricultural Society, to ascertain what amount of fatty matter
still existed in the skimmed milk. The ga Ions were imperial gallons, con-
taining obout one-fifth more than our American gallon. A letter from
Thomas Nutall, dated London, Januarys, 1880, says he had mislaid Voelck-
er's figures of the analysis, "but the milk that passed through the separa-
tor contained the most fatty matter, and proved that the cream globules
had been so broken into the watery part that they would uot again collect
by standing and so were practically lost for butter purposes."].

The Committee on Resolutions, composed'of B. D. Gilbert, John S. Carter,
C. D. Avery. Prof. G. C. Caldwell, Prof. L. B. Arno d, and T. D. Curtis,
reported, and its report was unanimously adopted, as follows:

Resolved, That the thanks of this Conventio:i are extended to the Ameri-
can Dairy Salt Company for its invitation and generous furnishing of facil-
ities for visiting one of its salt mills in operation in the manufacture of Fac-
tory Filled Dairy Salt; and that in the judgment of those who made the in
spection of the mill, the process for purification used in the manufacture of
this kind of salt must and does render it as pure and suitable for the season-
ing of butter and cheese as any salt known to the market, either foreign or
domestic.

Prof. Arnold, in speaking on this resolution, said the Association did not
wish to endorse anybody's salt. But he said that within another year, the
whole question must be settled, as none but clarified salt is fit for dairy use,
no matter where it is made. The experience in Canada, during the last
season, had been such as to cause the rejection of unrefined salt, and conse-
quently little Canada salt is used in Canada.

Resolved, That we hereby extend our thanks to Messrs. Smiths & Powell,
of this city, for the invitation and facilities afforded by them to inspect
their large and valuable herd of Holstein cattle, and also for an opporttu-
nity to see some of their noble Clydesdale horses. Their enterprising efforts

68

to iiuprovo tho iltiiry stuck of tlio country dosorvo the rtH'ognition «ml on-
i'ounii;vinout of tlio dairy [lublic as woll as of tliis Association.

Hfso/ird. Tliat this AssociatiiMi returns its hearty thanks to Messrs. H. K.
& F. n. Thurlier & Vo., of New York t'ity. for their kindness and conerosiiy
in present inu- it witli the various kinds of cheese wliich we have to-day had
the privilege of testinir

'rite petition to Oonuress, which was drawn and read befoiv the Convon-
tion by rrt>f. Law, was taken up aiul ailopted unanimously. Tho Conven-
tion directed tliat it be sii;ned by the Presiilent anil Secretary and sent to
Oonsjivss.

Mr. lloxie stated that Gerniai\y luid proliibited tlie movement of eatth'
fivm the portions of Uollaml wheie the plaijue existed until the evil was en-
tirely stan\ped out. The dan-^er in our country is not fivm importation so
much as frv>m the spread of the disease already introduced.

Tpon the sugiivst ion of Mr. Kiiuvlliardt a motion was carried to appoint
a committee to submit a resolution to the Ijecislature to change the present
law in ivfeivnce to milk, and to tix, if possible, upon some standard for pure
milk. The followiiij; is the comu\ittee: L. B. ArnoM. Ithaca; G. (.\ Tald-
woll, Ithaca; Francis K. Kuirolhanlt, Syracuse; K. W. Stewart, Lake View:
B. l\ Gilbert. Utica.

The (.Vnveniion took a nvess until eiarht o'clock the next moniing, to
meet at the rooms of tho Onondjvira IMilk Association, to witiu>ss the opera-
tions of the centrifuiTO, and then ivturn to Kuipiiv Hall ai ton o'clock to
ivsume rcii'ular pivceediuij^J.

TIIURSUAY MOUNING. JANUARY 15.

Some of the nienilHM-s went on a visit to the Salt Mill and Messrs. Smiths
& Powell's stock farm, and ot hoi's to the Onondaga Milk Association Hooms,
\vhorx> the openitions of the contrifuiral machine in sopanitiuir cream fn>m
milk weiv witnessed. The machine was a foreiirn one and imperfect, but
illustrated the principle sjitisfactorily to all.

The Convention was called to order at ten o'clock, by President Arnold,
who announcovl the additions to the Committee on Dairy Statistics, which
now strtuds as follows: Horatio Sevmour. Oeertioid; T. D. Curtis, Vtica;
J. V. 11. Scovill, Paris: L. B. Arnold. Rochester; Dr. li. L. Wight. Whites-
town; lion. .1. Shull. lliot\; B. D. Gilbert, I'tica.

Tho Socivtm-y then road the following paper by Truman A. Cole, on

WINTER BUTTER MAKING.

The Bt>st(ni Oiiltiixttor conoludos a lengthy article with tho snggostivo iv"
marks; " Attractive packagt^s of fresh butter in winter, as woll as during
otlier seasons of the year, are daily coming more into demand in city mar-
kets and by a class of peonlo who atv willing to nay an extra price for such
pi\Hlucts. F.spocially to tne New England and New York dairymen this is
a matter of importance, since it is likely to be tho most remunerative branch
of dairying, and the only one beyond tho roach of western competition.
Smaller farmers, not too far rvMUoved fnun city or village markotvS, will find
in tho prvuluction of tine, fivsh, well-tlavonHi butter, a field in which they
can compete successfully with tho larger dairies and still inoiv pxvtontions-
creameries."

This prv>sents a subject which must sooner or later ongagt^ tho serious at-
tention of tho dairymen of the Fast. Winter butter making opens tho only
way for successful competition with tho West. In no other way can butter
jWfoi'tly frx>sh and sweet bo placed upon thet.ablesof consumers; and .nt no
season v^f the year does butter bring so gvxxl a price or is butter making so
prv^titablo, if prviporly pursued, .as ui tho winter. And yet our dairymen
arv> slow to see the fact.

Within the past five or six years thort^ luis been a gr\\it change in the
dairy industry of the United States. It hsk? been proven that tho gi-eal

59

Northwest can produce butter find choose, as vvell as f^rain, and tho Kast
has found a successful rival in the Now York iriarkols for both th(!so articles.
Would it not he well for us to note sonic of Ihe causes that have boon instru-
mental in j^ivin^ the \vest(!rn dairynusn their truly enviable reputation, es-
pecially as butter makers?

From tim(! immemorial, it has been the (Mistoni of our dairymen to have
their cows come in during tho spring — usually in March and April; and as
a matter of course, about the first of November the cows begin to grow dry.
This loaves our groat cities without a supply of fresh liutter nearly four
months of the year. The woslorn dairymiui at once took in tho situation.
Th(!y had their cows come in during the fall. Thoy made a choice article
of butter aiul sent it to nuirket as fast as made. Our city friends wore not
slow to appreciate this, and gave them th(! reward they so riirhly deserved —
a good prici!. Each year Uk; demand iiu^roasos as well as th(? supply. The
consumer no longer lays in a supply of winter butler, but gets it fresh as
often as needed.

All this tinu! the dairymen of the P]ast have been looking on. They care
for their cows through the wintisr, anxiously hoping for tins spring, that they
may b(!gin to get some remuneration from th(im. At last it comes — but it
comes to the whole country as well; and almo.st Ix'fore the dairyman real-
izes from his first sliij)mont, tho market is bi-oken, tlu^ sup[)ly has proved too
great for thi; present demand, and for months he markets his ju'oduce for
less than cost. It does not occur to him to have his cows come in during
the fall, with an oc(;asional out; through the winter. He does not seem to
know that his dairy of cows, if fresh m Novcimber, with a little extra feed-
ing, would not him more in four months than he gets now in the whole sea-
son. He does not believe that a pound of butter can bo made cheaper in
January than in June, and— on an average for tho four months — a lietter
article than he could product! in the .sanu; length of time in the summer.
He forgtsts that two-thirds of his farm is in [jasLun; and oidy sujjnorts his
stock five months out of tw(;lvo, while tho one-third in meadow and grain is
expected to feed them the reiniiiniug seven months — and generally does it.

Let me briefly sum up some of the retpiisites for making butter success-
fully in winter.

Firnf. The first and great consideration is feed; assuming, of course, that
whoever undertakes butter making at any season of the; year has a butter
dairy. For this purpose, there is nothing bettor than early-cut grass,
well cured, with a litth; meal — corn and oats mixed. Of all the
grasses, 1 prefer orchard, though Juno, Timothy and clover are good,
if cut and cured early enough. Clover is dilTicult to cure, and if not
permitted to get overripe before cutting, is often spoiled in the curing,
or put into the mow in such condition that it moulds and blackens,
and loses much of its nutritive value. People too often judge of after-
math for dairy purposes by their second crop of clover, which is badly
cured and of comparatively little value. Few Americans cut their grass
early enough, it should be cut itefore the blossoming, or the head is quite
matured. It will then make the most profitable and nutritious feed, and
the best for ))utter making, and do away with the necessity of coloring.
Roots may be good, and even necessary, to the health of the animal, if it
has only ordinary hay — the dry, fibrous, late-cut stuff that is found in too
many mows. But I have found them of no advantage when fed with early-
cut, properly-cured grass and meal. Such grass should l)e wilted, and then
cured in the cock, as too much sun expels the finer oils and flavor.

Second. It is important to have plenty of good clear water convimiently
accessible, so that cows will not become chilleil in getting it. The necessity
of a good supply of water will be seen when we reflect that 87 per cent, of
milk is water. But the effect of letting cows get chilled is not so apparent
to the casual observer. A little experiment and close observation, however,
will show that it lioth diminishes the flow of milk and depreciates the
quality.

Third. Warm, comfortable quarters are an indispensable requisite. The
importance of perfect comfort to the cow is not sufliciently ai)i)reciated.

60

This requires that the stable should be warm— say at 60 deg. ; that it should
be clean and free from bad odors; that it should be thoroughly ventilated;
that the platform on which the cows stand should be of such length and
slope — not too much slope, however — as to keep it perfectly dry. My plat-
form is five feet long from the staunchions. It is laid on the ground and
two feet of the five— the two next to the staunchions — are bare ground for
the fore feet of the cows to rest on This is kept covered with a thin layer
of saw dust. The other three feet of the platform are plank, slightly sloping
back to the gutter and the forward edge, toward the staunchions, beveled
off, so as to get rid of the sharp corner, lest the cow's knees might come in
unpleasant contact with it. For ventilation, a tunnel I'unsfrora the feeding
space in front of the cows to the top of the barn, and at each end of the
space is a window. These I open and shut, according to the direction of
the wind and the amount of current. As an absorbent, I use sawdust,
though dry earth is perhaps equally as good, and plaster is never misapplied.
It is an excellent deodorizer, and fixes the ammonia; and I am inclined to
think this is the best way to use plaster, if not the only way in which plas-
ter should be used— it going on to the land with the manure. The comfort
of the cow in having her fore feet stand on the ground is very great. The
ground is always a little moist, is at an agreeable temperature, and affords
a soft and natural place for the cow's knees to rest on when she gets up and
down.

Fourth. A proper place in which to set milk must be provided. This
you must have at any season of the year; and it is quite as easy to control
the temperature in winter as summer. I would not have the temperature
run very low ; not below 50 deg. ; nor would I have it go much above 60 deg.,
but keep it even and regular. The milk must not stand on a rack in the
kitchen, nor where the odors from the kitchen, or sitting room, or sleeping
room, or any other source of foul or tainted air, can reach it. It should have
a room by itself, and this room must be kept clean and s\^ eet. But these
conditions and those of churning and packing are essentially the same in
winter as in summer, and I need not further particularize.

Now, having pointed out some of the leading requisites of successful
winter dairying, I will refer to some of the advantages :

First — It meets the increasing demand for fresh-made, sweet-flavored
butter.

Second — It turns out the product in the season when it brings the highest
price, and is therefore the more remunerative.

Third — It gives us an income from the cow when it is generally conceded
to be the most expensive keeping her, and it does this with very little addi-
tional expense for feed or care.

Fourth — It gives remunerative and pleasant employment to the dairyman
and his family at a season when it is difficult to find paying work to do, and
it is often disagreeable to do out-door work.

Fifth— The cow not being heavy with calf, it leaves her nimble and free
to get through the snow and over the ice, if need be, without incurring the
•danger of abortion.

Sixth — It enables the cow to go dry and avoid all extra drain on her sys-
tem during the hottest and dryest months of the year, when it is the most
diificult to make a good article of butter, and when it seems to me the most
natural for a cow to go dry.

Seventh — It enables the cow to come in during the cool fall months, when
after-feed begins to be luxuriant and flies are less annoying — when, too, it is
getting to be time to feed her more hearty food.

Eight — The first flow of milk comes in the winter, when we usually get
the last and the cow is rapidly shrinking her mess ; and it brings the last of
the flow of milk in the spring and early part of summer, when grass is the
best, and the mess is thereby increased and the flow prolonged.

Nine — By affording proper shelter, it is easier raising calves in winter
than in summer, when heat is excessive and flies cruel. I give mine a tight
barn, that does not freeze and a large floor covered two feet deep or so with
broken corn cobs. On these they caper and enjoy themselves, and thrive

61

finely, keeping both clean and healthy. In the spring, when ray fall calves
are old enough to turn out to grass, there is grass of the best kind for them
and they grow right along. But spring calves do not get advanced enough
to eat much grass before the grass gets old and tough and soon disappears,
or they are left a few dry, frost-bitten stalks to eat. They go into winter
quarters on dry feed, and need a good deal of care and nursing to get them
through the winter in good condition; whereas, calves that have lived on
grass all summer and become yearlings in the fall, are prepared to take any
winter fare and thrive on it.

A few more words, and I will close. It may be said that if all went into
winter dairying, or it should become generally adopted, winter prices of
butter would not be so high. This is probably true; and lam talking
against my own personal interests in urging my fellow dairymen to adopt
winter butter-making. But there is no danger of a very rapid change from
present practices, nor that butter-making in summer will ever be abandoned.
The true method appears to be to make butter the year round in large dai-
ries, leaving small ones to make butter in either summer or winter, as may
be most convenient or profitable after the change I have indicated. But it
should be borne in mind that, if winter butter-making puts down winter
prices, it would also correspondingly put up summer prices by preventing
the over-supply of the markets in summer— an evil from which we now suf-
fer greatly. It would also increase the consumption of butter by preventing
the marketing of so much poor butter, it being a well known fact that a
family will eat more good butter in a given time than they will poor. It is
also a well known fact that much butter that is passable when first made is
spoiled by the attempt to keep it for a future market, instead of marketing
it at once. This loss would certainly be obviated by marketing the butter
as fast as made, the year round.

Under the head of advantages of winter dairying. I might have mentioned
the fact that a dairyman with a small farm, desiring to raise fruit or grain
in conjunction with butter-making, could make his butter in winter, and
leave the lightest part of the season, and the season when his cows go dry
for the summer months, when he wants the most of his time for his other
work. This could be regulated by the time he had his cows come in. Now,
all the work is crowded into the summer months, and the markets are
crowded as well, to our sorrow. I will add. that a dairy of twenty cows or
upwards should yeld a continuous income the year round, by having the
cows come in from October to April, thus avoiding the hot months. I pre-
fer to have the majority of the cows come in before the 1st of December, the
rest to come in at intervals during the winter, to give freshness and newness
to the milk and keep up the color of the butter, for it is a fact that the lon-
ger the cow is in milk the harder and whiter the fats in the milk become
and this can be in a good measure obviated by the constant addition of milk
from new milch cows.

With these few hints I close my paper, hoping they may be of value to
my fellow dairymen, and that winter butter-making rnay prove as profitable
to them as it does to me.

After the paper, a tin box was opened containing some beautiful speci-
mens of Mr. Cole's butter, which was distributed through the audience.
Mr Cole's milk comes from a choice in-bred herd of Holderness cattle.

The Secretary then read the following report of winter dairying in Pieas-
ant Grove butter and cheese factory, Marengo, McHenrv Co., 111., sent by
Mrs. F. G. Harkley:

"Our November dividend was $2.0o per hundred pounds, of milk. Our
butter contract runs until next April, at 38^- cents per pound; cheese, 9^
cents. Four pounds of butter and a little over seven pounds of cheese from
every hundred pounds of milk."

Prof Arnold then stated that the committee appointed the previous even-
ing to discuss the matter of "Milk Records," met after the adjournment of
the Convention, and named a sub-committee, consisting of E. W. Stewart,
T. D. Curtis, and L. B. Arnold, to frame such a blank record as they should

62

•deem most suitable for the purpose, together with rules and regulations for
the guidance of those who wished to join the movement, and to call a meet-
ing of the entire committee at such time as should seem to be necessary. It
was also recommended that the general committee should be increased from
five to nine members. In accordance with this recommendation the follow-
ing gentlemen were nominated by the Convention, and elected: Harris
Lewis, Frankfort, N. Y. ; E. Lewis Sturdevant, Boston, Mass. ; Willis P.
Hazard, West Chester, Pa.; Prof. S. W. Beals, Michigan University.

Dr. L. L. Wight, of the Committee on Dairy Apparatus made the follow-
ing report :

Your Committee on Dairy implements would respectfully report : They
find quite an interesting display of utensils, especially from the firm of
Lighthall & Carter, of this city. A refrigerating Milk Can exhibited by
D. T. Moore & Sons, Northborough, Mass., seems to merit attention.

Although your committee would not recommend the artificial coloring of
butter, still, if butter is to be colored, we find no article on exhibition supe-
rior to that of Chr. Hansen, of New York.

The Centrifugal Cream Separator, exhibited by Edward Burnett, South
boro. Mass, excites much curiosity and appears to do its work thoroughly.
In the opinion of your committee, these machines may prove advantageous
for large private dairies and small factories, provided they can be manufac-
tured witnout incurring too much expense.

We find a fine collection of grasses exhibited by Perry & Robinson, com-
prising over fifty specimens.

We would also call attention to a churn exhibited by P. R. Hawley, which
, seems to us to have a very powerful concussion.

The square rotary churn exhibited by Isbell, Taylor & Co., of Cortland
-county, is worthy of trial.

L. L. Wight, j

L. T. Hawley, [• Committee.

E. W. Stewart, )

Mr. John R. Chapman, of Sullivan, N. Y., was then introduced and read
the following paper on

THE INTERNATIONAL DAIRY FAIR OF 1879.

This address is intended to convey to you the mental results of my exam-
ination of some of the articles and methods of manufacture exhibited at the
International Dairy Fair, held last December at the American Institute in
the city of New York. I must say that the time and money which this
journey cost me, was not thrown away. I know a great deal more now than
I did before I went to the exhibition. My business is a compound of dairy-
man and cheese maker. The largest class of visitors to the fair, I was sorry
to see, were city people, and a preponderance of them were evidently rich,
who watched with keen expectancy the processes of cheese and butter making
at Messrs. Whitman & Burrell's part of the exhibition. An oil merchant in
London told me 45 years ago that there were thousands of full grown people
in London, who did not know whether butter grew on trees or was dug out
of the ground. From the simplicity and innocence of the questions asked
at Messrs. Whitman & Burrell's stand, I was reminded that "like causes pro-
duce like effects," and that although New York was neither as old nor pop-
ulous as London, there was but little difference in the amount of general
knowledge possessed by men, whose birth, education and business runs in the
rut of a great city. I was sorry to see so few dairymen from the State of New
York, being a reminder of the old remark, "we cannot induce dairymen to
come to a cheese convention." This to me has always been a deplorable
fact, for a man cannot obtain any knowledge, except from what he sees, from
what he reads, or from what is told him; and it is incontrovertible that what
an every-day practical man sees, impresses him more vividly and permanent-
ly than what he reads or hears of I am happy to say, however, that three
of my factory patrons attended this fair. The price for admission for one day

63

was only 25 cents, a very small sum even for a simple sight-seer to pay. The
first object I noticed on entering the Hall, was an immense circular pyramid of
Cheddar shaped cheese, built upon a square pediment of cheese, each weigh-
ing 1,500 lbs , and this was the splendid contribution of the Messrs. Thurber.
Messrs. Smith & Underhill exhibited a structure of different kinds of cheese,
and although not very large, it was in my judgment the most elegant in design
of any. The great rival salt firm representing the Ashton and Higgins for-
eign salt, had each an immense pryamid of sack salt, and the Syracuse Co.
a small one. The salt question is now blown out, and we shall have a lull,
unless some one starts again to indirectly tell cheese makers that a certain
kind of salt will make a quarter of a pound of cheese more to the 1,00U lbs.
of milk than any other. I threaded backwards and forwards and around
numberless cheese tables, noticing the classes and feeling the cheese, a very
unsatisfactory business for a cheeese maker. I would have given something
handsome for leave to bore the cheese, properly armed with the names of the
factories. This reducing me, a cheese maker, to be a compulsory "looker
on in Venice," was the only disagreeable thing, tome, in the show. After tak-
ing a general view of stands and articles for exhibition, I went for the butter
department, so far as methods of setting milk. First, was the Cooley sub-
merged system, and an endless variety of deep setting coolers, circular and
rectangular; and also a variety of cold air setting cupboards and bureaus,
and all of them supported by certificates from purchasers, of being indivi-
dually the best they knew. Honest enough, no doubt, because the one they
cenified to was the only one they knew anything about; the only comparison
they had was with the common twelve quart pan. 'I am now coming to
the first part proper of this address, "what I thifik I know about butter
making." I say think, to avoid the pitfall Horace Greeley fell into when he
said, "What I know about farming,"' for practically like most editors he
knew but little, but theoretical. y, and as to conclusions, a good deal.
"Young man, go West!" has bettered the condition of thousands. Some
four years ago I first saw Mr. Hardin's cold air cupboai d, with the milk in deep
circular tin coolers with tight covers — all the cream did not rise much un-
der thirty-six hours; but everything bemg cool and sweet from the effect of
ice, the butter from fine milk was very good indeed. This method of setting
was practicable for dairies, but not for large creameries The milk in cream-
eries, then and now, is set in deep coolers without covers, in pools of running
water, or in open cheese vats, large and ^raall, and the product is generally
both butter and cheese. The most radical change in milk setting was the
introduction of the Cooley submerged ice water system. It spi'ead, and is
spreading rapidly, because all of the cream can be taken up in twelve hours.
Shortening time in raising cream decreases the first cost of plant, and also
the repairs, which make large holes in the profits of all factory operations.
In the exhibition were a great many plans for cooling milk without sub-
merging, consequently the cream could not be all raised as quickly as in the
Cooley system. Of the class, "Clark's Improved Revolution Milk Pans,"
were in my judgment the best adapted for both dairy and creamery purposes.
It is claimed by some of the owners of these pans, that by them all the cream
can be raised in twenty-four hours. The arrangement for pouring out the
skim milk is very simple and ingenious, and I think it did not receive as
much commendation from the judges as it is entitled to. It is manufactur-
ed at Manchester, Iowa. There is one great point in which all these sys-
tems of setting milk for butter are deficient. I mean the aeration of the milk
which will take from it all the natural and unnatural odors which may be in
it before it is strained into the coolere. Now just here comes in a very wide
difference of opinion betwixt dairymen about milk odors and milk taints.
I have heard men over fifty years of age solemnly assert, that milk will keep
just as well as water. Others say it is nothing but animal heat, some one
thing, some another thing, but all deplorably ignorant of the real facts of
the case. Professor Arnold in his work on " American Dairying," article
"Milk," has, so far as my experience guides me, described the causes and
effects of natural milk odor, and unnatural odor, or what cheese makers call
"taints," in strict consonance with truth as to their causes and effects. On

C4

page 194, the Professor says: "The principal causes which produce bad odors
in milk, before it is taken from the cow, and which afterwards become the
cause of taint, are oppressive heat and stagnant water."

"Of the causes which increase the odor m milk after it is drawn, the prin-
cipal one is keeping the warm milk closely covered, so that the odor that was
in it when it was drawn, and that which afterwards forms, cannot escape."

Some ten years ago, I made an address before the American Dairymen's
Convention, on tainted milk and floating curds. I there stated that the
principal cause of floating curds was the drinking in hot weather of stinking,
stagnant water by the cows. I also pointed out the evils arising from con-
veying the milk to the factory with a tight can cover; to avoid which I pro-
posed to punch four one inch holes through the top of the can cover. I
never in twenty years' experience, as a cheese maker in my home factory,
ever had a "jumping floater," and only three "dilatory floaters" so named
by Professor Wickson. What I know I obtained from close observation in
other factories. I know, if I know anything for certain, that you cannot
obtain from twenty patrons or less in a cheese factory, as pure and as good
milk, as you can from your own 50 cows.

Some of the deep setting men discard the idea of injury to the cream, and
consequently to the keeping qualities of the butter, that may arise from
straining the milk warm from the cow into the cooler or other vessel in which
the cream is raised. The bureau and cupboard men say there is no such
thing as milk odor. Whether they really think so or not, it suits their side,
because deep setting without cooling, airing or heating, must retain the
whole of it. I am of opinion that if the milk was either heated and aired,
or cooled and aired, and then put into a Cooley submerged cooler, the pro-
duet would be a finer article of butter than is made under the present sys-
tem. At the fair T mixed and conversed freely with anyone, and I was told
by several visitors from the Eastern States, that the Boston Commission
Mer^-hants reported that the butter made from the Cooley system would not
keep as it ought to. I have lived long enough to know that you cannot, and
ought not to believe all you hear, because it may come from interested par-
ties ; but I am satisfied that some plan must be devised so that this odor,
natural and unnatural, must be got out of the milk before the finest flavored
and longest keeping butter can be made from it. I must say something to
farmers' wives who are making dairy bu.ter. In fact this opportunity ac-
corded me is the main motive in making this address. 1 am a New York
State Madison County man, and the grass power of this county is about as good
as any in the State. I have lived thirty-eight years in the northern part of this
county, and I will venture to assert that not more than one farmer's wife in
twenty does make, or knows how to make fine butter; not because there is
any thing necessarily wrong in the cow or milk, but simply because she does
not know how to handle and churn the cream, and make, salt, and work the
butter. George Stephenson, the father of railroads, was wont to say that
"gab" was the greatest power on earth, but "gab" won't lift an old cheese
maker or dairy-woman out of a deep rut. They must see it done, and some-
body get 8 or 10 cents per pound more for his product than they can for theirs.
That will raise a blister when nothing else will. I could goon and tell them
how to make fine butter; but I should lose my time and patience If any of
them had been at the fair and seen Messrs. Whitman & Burrell's butter
maker make fine granulated butter in a Blanchard factory churn, get out
all of the buttermilk and caseine shells without working it at all. and then
put in the salt with a rolling cylinder, they would have seen the folly of
churning their butter into two sollid leaves in a hand Blanchard churn, en-
closing nearly all the caseine shells and some buttermilk; and afterwards
in order to woi"k out what ought never to have been in, smash the grain,
and make grease of it so far as texture is concerned. To show what can be
done, I will give an example of what has been done. In the Spring of 1878,
Mr. Beebee, a young man living in Sangerfield, Oneida Co., N. Y., bought
a Cooley rig for 17 cows, and made butter according to correct teachings,
and sold it all the season for 7 or 8 cents per lb. more than his neighbors
who were making butter in the old rut. In the Spring of 1879, the neigh.

65

bors induced him to put up a creamery and stock with the Cooiey apparatus,
they warranting him 300 cows for 5 years. He does not make cheese, the
patrons taking home their share of the skim milk. He has been successful .

In one corner of Whitman & Burrell's stand I came across Dr. of

Norwich, Chenango Co., N. Y. He is at work trying to scheme something by
which all the cream can be raised in three or four hours. He had a small
model about thirty inches long, eighteen inches deep and six inches wide, a
simple box of tin. The cream is induced to rise by an upward current of
milk on the outside, produced by ice-cold water near the centi'e of the milk.
If he succeeds on the large scale necessary for practical purposes, he will
sweep away all other systems for combined butter and cheese factories. I.
being by education a civil and mechanical engineer, told him that a small
model was not always a correct indication of the expected effect in a large
engine. He said, if you take equals from equals, equals remain. This is
true in figures, but I could not see its application to his invention. The
Doctor has close powers of observation, and catches quick at anything like-
ly to effect an invention, in the same manner, although in a smaller matter,
as Mr. Edison appears to.

At one of the foreign butter stands I came across a young gentleman from
Holland who was too late for entering his butter in class F. of Foreign But-
ter. I tasted the butter which had taken first premium; the salt cut and
I'aked my tongue and gagged my throat when it melted down. His butter
smelt like a posey, had no rake of salt on the tongue, and disappeared down
the throat as smooth as a lump of ice-cream — this was butter, and on ques-
tioning him he said it was made from sweet cream. In a pamphlet of Chris.
Hansen given me at his stand, I found a description of the methods of mak-
ing butter in Denmark. He states that there the butter intended for the
London and home market is churned from slightly sour cream, and that for
tropical climates put up in one-half to eighteen pound tin canisters, it is
churned from sweet cream, and the butter is not washed with brine or wa-
ter. When talking to Dr. , a young gentleman came to me with a

square chunk of butter on a half sheet of note paper, and requested the
squire to taste it. I smelt of it and said. " Suet, it must be Oleomargarine."'
This was the first time I had ever knowingly seen this style of butter and it
looked good enough to be eaten, but I did not taste of it. I had .seen Oleo-
margarine cheese some years ago and it had every quality fair, except the
smell. I do not intend to enter into the merits of the Oleomargarine ques-
tion for Oleomargarine butter will certainly be made and sold and eaten so
long as our old-rut butter-makers make greasy, cheesey, frowey butter.
Any man of sense knows that no law can stop its manufacture, sale, and
consumption, so long as it is sold on its merits as Oleomargarine. The onlv
question tliat really affects the public, are the materials good, sweet, and
clean, and the manipulation cleanly V I can easily imagine that a manufactory
of Oleomargarine, and Oleomargarine Butter can and will be as cleanly and
well managed as a creamery, and more so than a great many farm dairies.
A suet inspector would soon have the same value as our country game con-
stables. My remedy for this poor buttei'-making amongst the country far-
mers would be a school in the spring of the year in each school district,
showing how fine butter is n)ade by an expert. Our people catch quick
when they see a thing, but upon them print and pictures are thrown away.
I think it would pay such a firm as Whitman & Burrell or Jones & Faulkner
to send an expert out, say try one county, it would be a noble advertise-
ment.

Messrs. Whitman & Burrell had a large vat two-thirds full of milk ran
up every afternoon, but there could have been no satisfaction to the cheese-
maker in working up milk of which he knew simply nothing. I found that
the product was a sweet tasting curd, and as the maker said. " that was all
there was about it." At the "American Dairvmen's" news stand I was
given a copy of that paper of the 18th of December, 1879, and about the
first thing I saw was an article headed "Sweet i:s. Sour Cream." The wri-
ter gets outside of the record at the first jump, and instead of sticking to
his premises and talking butter, goes into the "acid" and the so-called
E

66

" no acid " of Professor Arnold with a vim simply exhilerating. He is cor-
rectly posted in his general statements, but he fails to tell us what Professor
Arnold really claims in his process of "no acid" cheese-making. I have
practiced nearly all the known methods of making dairy and factory cheese.
I remember reading of Mr. Harding's, (of England,) method of making cheese,
simply a dry Cheddar, and if my memory serves me right, he took off all
the whey when both the curd and whey were sweet, and all this long before
Alexander Macadam came into Montgomery county, N. Y. I may be wrong
about Mr. Harding's process, but Robert Macadam can set me right. The
writer of the "Sweet vs. Sour Cream " article has the boldness to tell us
towards the close "that his (Professor Arnold's) jsrocess is different fi'om
any before suggested or tried is apparent to all who have witnessed it, and
from the fact that it is difficult for many to understand." The italics in the
last section of the quotation are mine, and it may be read to have a double
meaning. Does the writer intend to say that the skilled cheese-makers of
the State of New York cannot understand a simple routine process of mak-
ing cheese in any legitimate, determinate method? I pause for an answer.
The first time Cheddaring was practiced in this country, to my knowledge,
was when Alexander Macadam hired a number of cheese factories in Mont-
gomery county, New York, and neighborhood. This method spread as
everything spreads in this country by one copying from another, and at the
present time Cheddaring is very generally practiced in central New York.
But several of the first-class factories do not Cheddar. Mr. Merry, of Ver-
ona, does not Cheddar, but in the hot months, he keeps the whey down close
to the curd, and cools in the cooler before salting, "oxygenizing " his curd.
His cheese sells on the Utica Market on P. T. Dolly Sternberg did and
may now run the Plymouth Factory, near Norwich, Chenango county, N. Y.,
and she did not Cheddar. I saw her run up three vats of milk some six
years ago, when her cheese was selling for one cent per pound more than
the leading factories on the Utica market. Dolly then was in a very deep
rut. She made her coloring from basket annatto and lye leached from ashes
in a barrel. She cut her curds as fine as elderberry blows and did it when
heating up, and the temperature was 88°, and made some very white whey
for a lot of the fattest hog.s 1 ever saw in a factory yard. She did not keep
the curds loose after equalizing, after the heat was run up ; she did not
"oxygenize " her curds when the "peculiar smell came on the curds which
denoted a development of acid," but she got them into the cooler in lumps
as large as geese eggs, and the salt was worked in as quick as plenty of good
help could do it. She was salting three pounds of Ashton salt to the 1000
pounds of milk, and the youngest cheese in a sale was always thirty days old.
Her cheese were close, but what the texture and flavor could have been at
sixty days old I have no means of judging. What was the secret of this
uniform make of good cheese? Simple enough. The ndlk smelt like a
June posey, and she never had to handle anything otherwise. I should like
to have seen her handle a "jumping floater" or a stinging taint that did
not float.

In Professor Arnold's work on Dairying, page 339, article, "Working
Tainted Milk," he says. "The other "method — that of getting rid of the
taint by getting rid of the whey which contains it— has been for several
years carried out successfully by Mr. Farrington, of Pennsylvania, and is
done simply by ripening the curd in the vat as extensively as possible with
the Cheddar process, by running off the whey just as soon as the curd will
pack. He proceeds upon the theory that the "taint is in the whey, and reacts
upon the curd, and that by getting" rid of the whey he gets rid of the taint,
leaving the curd unhurt and sound. His theory seems to be supported by
the fact that the cheese he has made in this way, when ready for market,
can hardly be distinguished from that made from ordinary milk, though it
will not keep so long." It is a well known fact that our best cheesemakers
can and do make cheese from tainted milk and " jumping floaters" so per-
fect in all respects that no expert buyer can pick them out when on the
table ready for sale — and this is not the product of any particular method
of making cheese. A year ago, at Utica, in company with some of the best

67

cheese makers in the State, I asked what Professor Arnold claimed as new
in his "no acid process." I could get no definite information. Mr. Merry
said the Professor had been to his factory in the summer and run up a vat
of milk, and as he described the working, I took for granted that the Pro-
fessor had been wheying off sweet, and in the same manner as he describes
what Mr. Fan-ington had done as above in order to tight taints. But inas-
much as Mr. Merry did not know at that time anything about Cheddaring, I
may have got a wrong impression about the process.

I know one thing certain, that the best cheese-makers at this present
time have to fight taint with acid, in whatever way it is made, and this
taint is the greatest trouble of cheese-making. Some determine the amount
of acid necessary for the solidification of the curds by the hot iron solely,
some by the peculiar acidity of the whey then leaving the curd, and some
do both, and also chew and taste the curds. If I have a curd of doubtful
working to the hot iron, I always use the three methods. The true acidity
of some curds can not be correctly determined by the hot iron, and most
cheese-makers know it But when a curd shows, a two-inch string, and the
whey and buttermilk sour, the curd cannot be a "no acid curd." I wish to
record my opinion about the use of acid in cheese and butter-making. No
more acid should be used than will make a cheese solid enough to meet the
requirements of the market it is intended for: for more acid than is neces-
sary for this purpose takes away the true cheese flavor. I have made cheese
on the Cheddar plan for several years and I have studied the system thor-
oughly, and the main results of my practice is to let the curd remain in the
whey in the cool months till it will string one-fourth to one-half an inch; in
the hot months I whey off and pack the curds when both whey and curds
are sweet, and let them sour as much and no more than my judgment tells
me is sufficient to make a close cheese. It is a singular fact that in some
parts of the country the whey will invariably sour first, in others the curds
sour first. As a matter of course all first-class cheese-makers keep the whey
down as much as possible.

There are some fine points in cheese making that many do not know, and
some if they did, would not practice, because their soul is not in their pro-
fession ; for profession I call it. I once heard Robert Macadam say that the
requirements, natural and otherwise, for a first-class cheese maker are of the
very highest order Mr Curtis once asked Mr. Mei'ry what was the great
point in cheese making? He answered, " Knowing when to dip." By that
he meant to say, "when to salt." i think there is another point equally es-
sential, and that is to get the whey out of the curds, and also out of the
cheese. The first can be done by fine cutting and a few other close points ; the
second by proper hooping and pressing, both of which are much neglected.

Outside of the dairy exhibits, I noticed an iron mill for grinding
grain, entered by Chapin & Newell, foot of West 19th street. New York.
The certificates of its bushels of corn grinding power are astonishing. One
gentleman, of the name of Phillip H. Gill, millwright and mechanical en-
gineer, certifies that he saw the grinding of 1,470 lbs. of corn, bolted through
a 13 mesh for fine feed and bagged up, all in ten minutes. The product
was not heated and there was no waste in weight. It will grind anything,
from mustard and flax seed up to quartz rock. It is well worth the atten-
tion of large farmers and dairymen, many of whom have power in the shape
of tread, sweep, windmills or steam. It is small and simple, and not more
than three feet square at the bottom. I think it did not receive as much
notice from the committee as was due to it.

There was also a power drill at work in the Institute building, which has
drilled a six-inch hole in gneiss rock, under the Institute building, 160 feet
deep, its drilling power being from ten to fifteen feet per day. It was driven
by the stationary engine at the Institute, but in the country it is fitted up
with a two-horse sweep power, with two men. If it had been in the Oneida
valley last fall, I know that a great number of wells that were dry all the
fall and early winter would have had a six-inch hole through their rock
bottom and plenty of water in the future. The address of tlie firm is
" Pierce Well Excavation Co., 28 Rose St., New York,

t^8

Before 1 close, I wish to impress upon the dairymen of New York State
that it will require all their skill and attention to keep abreast with their
competitors in the West, and North in Canada. I do not think that prize
taking at dairy fairs is a true indication of the skill of either cheese or but-
ter makers. There are some very questionable methods pursued by cheese-
makers, who, for the purpose of obtaining prizes, put in more cream than
actually belongs to the milk ; and butter makers take off the first one-half
of the risen cream, and from it can be made a finer article than can be from
the risen whole. At the Dairy Fair the Canadians spoke out boldly, lordly
and ironically ; but if fine cheese and butter can be made anywhere, it can
be made in the true grass counties of New York State, and we don t want
to be under the patronage or wing of any person so long as we have true
principles enunciated by a constitution, the product of the fathers, typically
personified in the spread of the noble American eagle, whose shadow reaches
from the St. Lawrence and the Lake of the Woods on the north, to the
Gulf of Mexico and the Rio Grande on the south, from the Atlantic on the
east, to the Pacific ocean on the west; enclosing a field for the production
of nearly every staple known in commerce, and peopled by a race destined
ultimately to so humanize the whole world that every man can dwell in
peace under his own vine and under his own fig tree. And let me repeat,
in the language of Kossuth : " It is not mere success which makes the merit
of a cause, but its principle. The results of the day of Bunker Hill have
changed the basis of future history, because it gave birth to a nation whose
very existence is the embodiment of a principle free as truth itself and last-
ing as eternity."

There being nothing further before the Convention, it adjourned sine die.

NEEDED IMPROVEMENT IN BUTTER MAKING.

The following reached the hands of the Secretary too late for use in the
Convention :

The business of butter making, which employs the time and attention of
so many of the farmers and farmers' wives throughout this State, has reached
a point where there must be radical change in the manner in which it is
carried on, or stop. The standard of quality for butter in the city markets
has been so much raised by the creamery butter sent there from the West,
that the demand for State dairy make is slowly but surely passing away.
There are three competitors against State dairy butter makers, which are
driving them out of the markets: 1st, Western Creameries; 2d, Western
Factories; 3d, Oleomargarine. The first of these has accomplished two
things — raised the standard of quality, and uniformity ; and with this but-
ter no State dairies can compete. The second is proving that fresh western
factory made butter gives better satisfaction to buyers and consumers than
the ordinary dairy made butter of this State. And the third shows that
the consumers of cheap butter prefer oleomargarine, at its price, to the
poorer qualities of State make butter.

Now, our State butter is not good enough to compete with western cream-
ery, and the mode of manitfacturing factory butter is improving so fast
that the quality is constantly improving; so that very soon it will take the
second place in the market, and will come into competition with the best
State dairy make. Most of the State dairy butter will then be left to sell in
competition with oleomargarine. With such competitors. State dairies
stand no chance, and their only alternative is to change their mode of mak-
ing, or stop making for commercial purposes. My belief is, that there is
only one thing to be done, and that is, the creamery system must be
adopted, and a quality of butter must be made fully equal to the best west-
ern creameries, and sold as fast as made, so that it shall all be marketed be-
fore the fall and winter made butter from the West pours in upon the mar-
kets of the East, in such quantities as to fully supply all demands. In this
way, butter making may be continued as a profitable business; and the

6d

sooner dairy fanners accept the inevitable, and make tlieir arrangements to
meet the demands of the markets, the better it will be for their profits. If
this is not done, and the bnsiness is continued in the same old ruts, the bet-
ter made butter from the West will remorselessly sweep them one side and
leave them stranded upon the banks of bankruptcy, wrecked by the idea that
the old wav is the best way.

C. I. Newton, Homer, N. Y.

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OUR ADVERTISERS.

We take pleasure in calling the attention of our readers to the business
men who advertise in our pages. They are all enterprising and reliable,
and deserve the patronage of dairymen who may want anything in their
respective lines.

L. T. Hawley and Fred. R. Hawley, Syracuse, a new and promising
churn.

Fairbanks & Co,, Buffalo, advertise their justly celebrated Scales.

Smiths & Powell, Syracuse, call the attention of dairymen to their val-
uable Holstein Cattle.

The Syracuse Chilled Plow Company, Syracuse, present their improved
chilled iron plow for consideration.

C. C. Chamberlin & Co., Boston, Mass., one of the oldest and most reli-
able firms in the country, solicit the patronage of dairymen.

The Unadilla Valley Stockbreeders' Association, Whitestown, present the
wonderful milk record of their Dutch Friesian Herd.

H. J. Baker & Co., New York, have strong recommendations to the con-
fidence of dairymen everywhere.

H. K. and F. B. Thurber & Co., advertise the best brand of foreign salt.

Lighthall & Carter, Syracuse, a young and enterprising firm, are ready to
furnish dairy supplies and machinery of the best quality and makes at the
lowest prices.

H. Henneberger, New York, a well established commission house, are
prepared to make " quick sales and pi'ompt returns."

Wells, Richardson & Co., Burlington, Vt., put in a reminder of the
claims of their perfected Butter Color, and the Ferguson Bureau Creamery.

The Remington's, Ilion, advertise their Agricultural Implements, Fire-
arms and Sewing Machines.

The American Dairy Salt Company, Syracuse, remind dairymen that
there is no better salt made than the Factory Filled, and none so cheap.

Jones, Falkner & Co., Utica, dealers in dairy apparatus, machinery and
supplies, are among the best known and most reliable in Central New York.

Charles Millar & Son, Utica, have been before the dairy public so long that
they need no introduction. Their advertisement will be found among the
rest.

Batchelor's Seed Store, Utica, is one of the landmarks. Read the adver-
tisement for this year.

B. E. Sheldon, Fort Atkinson, Wis., calls attention to the Badger State
Cheese and Butter Color, which dairymen should give a fair trial.

Messrs. Whitman & Burrell, Little Falls, call attention to their superior
advantages for supplying dairymen.

W. Sawens & Co., Utica, advertise a new butter color, which dairymen
should give a fair trial .

INDEX TO CONTENTS.

Page.

Officers 3

Articles of Association 4

List of Members 5

Hygiene in tlie Dairy Herd — Prof. James Law 7

Cattle Plague 8

Hygiene in the Manipulation of Milk and its products — Prof. F. E.

Engelhardt 9

Facts, Figures and Reflections on the Dairy Bu.siness — T. D. Curtis.. . . 17

Ensilage — J. B. Brown, Esq 21

Dairy Buildings— Prof . E. W. Stewart 29

Methods of Testing Milk— Prof . G. C. Caldwell 35

Improvements in Cheese Making— Prof . L. B. Arnold 41

Milk Record.s — Solomon Hoxie, Esq 51

The Centrifugal Cream Separator — Edward Burnett, Esq 52

Resolutions 57

Winter Butter Making — Truman A. Cole, Esq 57 •

Report on Dairy Implements 62

The International Dairy Fair of 1879— John R. Chapman, Esq 02

Needed Improvements in Butter Making— C. J. Newton, Esq 68

altCo.lii

SYRACUSE, N. Y.

Hon. GEO. F. COMSTOCK, Pres. THOS. MOLLOY, Treas. J. W. BARKER, SeC7.

MANUFACTURERS OF THE CELEBRATED

ONONDAGA FACTORY FILLED

Dairy and Table Salt.

The widel}'^ and well known superior quality of tliis Salt, its
extensive sale and use throughout all the Dairy districts in the
country, render it unnecessary to go into any detailed statements
as to its merits.

The Company claim that

FOR BUTTER OR CHEESE,

FOR THE TABLE, AND

For all Culinary Purposes, it lias no Superior

Either in Foreign or Domestic Salt.

• This claim is well substantiated by the numerous tests (which
have been heretofore published) in comparison with other Salts
and the

CERTIFIOA-TES

Of Vert Many of the

Best Dairymen in the Country who Have Used
it for Many YearS;

Its manufacture is conducted under the constant personal
supervision of a competent Chemist, and a perfect uniformity in
quality is at all times guaranteed.

I

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