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LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
LIBRARY

S

96

N43
V.5
1846

CHAPEL

Date Due

.

fttj PBINTtD IN U.SJi.

FIFTH

ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

AMERICAN INSTITUTE.

Made to the Legislature April 20, 1847,

ALBANY:

C. VAN BENTHUySEN AND CO., PUBLIC PRINTERS.
1847.

(oO (o

1 ■•^' t ^o

STATE 0¥ NEW-YORK.
No. 151.

IN ASSEMBLY,

April 20, 1847!

ANNUAL REPORT

Of the American Institute.

New- York, ^pHl 15/A, 1847.

To the Honorable

William C. Hasbrouck,

Speaker of the House of Assembly.

Sir — I herewith transmit the annual report of the American In-
stitute .of the city of New-York, for the year 1846.

Respectfully your ob't servant,

T. B. WAKEMAN, Secretary.

^H-jsL

IN ASSEMBLY.

April 22, 1847.

Resolved, That the same number of copies of the report of the
American Institute be printed that was ordered of the Transactions
of the State Agricultural Society, to be distributed in the same man-
ner and for the same purposes; and when desired by those who are
to receive the copies of the said report, the same to be bound with
volumes of the said Transactions, without any increased charge
therefor, under the direction of the same committee having the
Transactions in charge.

By order,

P. B. PRINDLE, Clerk.

REPORT

Of the committee of the Assembly on colleges, acade-
mies and common schools, on an agricultural and sci-
entific school and experimental farm. Made April 24,
1847.

Mr. Burchard. from the committee on colleges, academies and
common schools, to which were referred sundry petitions of the in-
habitants of this State, praying the passage of a law to establish an
agricultural school and experimental farm, submits the following

REPORT :

That your committee have given the subject that consideration
which the intense and varied interest of agriculture would seem to
demand from their hands.

It is a conceded point among the liberal and enlightened portion of
the community, that those who till the soil should be enabled to
draw copiously from the rich streams of modern science. For to
the agriculturists are, in a great measure, committed the destinies of
the country. Then how vitally important that they transmit, unim-
paired, the dear pledges of the nation's hope, her civil and religious
institutions, to posterity!

But the evidence of facts and experiments developed by agricul-
tural bodies, proves to a demonstration that farming is vastly in the
rear of the other great branches of national industry. The refine-
ment and civilization of the present age, appear to make it the im-
perative duty of government to cherish and promote a diffusion of
knowledge amongst all classes. With just pride a citizen of New-
York can look on her admirable and unsurpassed system of public
instruction, the model and emulation of her sister States.

Vlll AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AND

It is with deep regret your committee are compelled to announce
the mortifying fact, that agricultural science has never been admitted
into her literary institutions, or taught by persons qualified, by lec-
tures and experiments, to instruct our ingenuous youth in rural econo-
my. But no man of any pretensions whatever, will deny but that
improvement in agriculture is followed by comfort and affluence in
the State; and in a growing population, where cities and villages
rise like magic, and where invesiments in manufactures and commerce
receive a gratifying remuneration, an auspicious moment seems to
have dawned for laying the foundation of a school which will be ap-
propriate as well for the agriculturists as those who aspire to a
liberal and general course of literature. Its primary but not exclu-
sive object should be to impart a theoretical and practical knowledge
of husbandry; for melancholy experience teaches that ninety-nine
farmers out of a hundred are more inclined to justify and abide by
the course of ordinary routine than to search after improvement.
How few appeal to science, propose questions of experiment, and
search into causes?

Among those who profess to be enlightened, thousands are igno-
rant of the chemical principles that are based in the knowledge of
the pabulum or food the plant draws from the earth on which it grows,
and the substances which it returns in the shape of manure.

The physiology of plants, principles of agricultural chemistry, in-
volving the wide range ol manures, rotation of crops, and alternate
culture, have called to European Universities the most illustrious
teachers, who esteemed an agricultural chair, the highest of all scien-
tific honors.

An analysis, showing the component parts of soils, as lime in the
forms of chalk, marl, gypsum, alumina, silica, iron, and the other
metals as exhibited in their different oxides, the various phosphate-',
&c., the nature and effects of humus, and its different combinations
with the elementary earths and the atmospheric influences, have been
entered in the all-glorious field of academical instruction.

Your committee are induced to believe, that a concurrence of pub-
lic sentiment or at least the semblance of it, has decided in favor of
the establishment of a school for rural economy. At the first appear-
ance it would seem strange, that a population whose main pursuit is
the culture of the soil, should be unprovided with the means for the
acquisition of agricultural science, and the accessary departments of
learning necessary to constitute a well educated and disciplined mind.

EXPERIMENTAL FARM. IX

An agricultural school should be made liberal and enlarged in its
course of instruction, and not inferior in point of intellectual requi-
sition and celebrity to the boasted seats of classical and mathemati-
cal literature. It should be conducted by well qualified professors,
who can fill the chairs with ability to enlighten their pupils in what-
ever is necessary to the man that would become a practical and scien-
tific agriculturist

Your committee believe the whole business should be placed under
the management of competent and responsible persons, and in a
position that would ensure its success. A professional chair should
be devoted to lectures and lessons in the French, Spanish, and Ger-
man languages combined, with elocution and composition.

Another department should be occupied in chemistry, geology, bo-
tany, and the accessary branches to agriculture, including the natu-
ral history of animals beneficial or noxious to plants or trees, but
prominently, general chemistry in its immediate application to agri-
culture, physiology and meteorology.

A professor should be appointed for the mathematical and physi-
cal sciences, such as arithmetic, elements of algebra, geonaetry, trig-
onometry, practical surveying, civil engineering, natural philosophy,
astronomy and general physics.

Animal pathology and veterinary medicine are subsidiary to agri-
culture, and the amount of capital invested in the breeding, rearing
and maintaining the various domestic animals, is great in this
country.

This science may be regarded as a valuable auxiliary and elucidator
of the facts of human medicine. A veterinary, with all the accom-
paniments of lecture rooms, museum, hospital, laboratories and
forges, should be open to the students.

In the agricultural department proper, the general principles of
farming and horticulture, including the cultivation of the vine, the
breeding of cattle, the growing of wool, the raising of horses, the
production of silkworms, the tillage of all cereal, culinary, coloring,
and esculent plants that vegetate in the northern latitude, the ar-
rangement and superintendence of farms, their situation, and book
keeping, should have their appropriate place in the general plan of
education.

X AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AND

An experimental farm of not less than 200 acres, compose<l of va-
ried soil, on which suitable dwelling houses should be erected, may
be purchased by the persons selected to carry out the object, in fee.
The investment should be judicious. No attempt to imitate some
of our higher schools that have had private endowments and legis-
lative bounty vested in brick and mortar, a fatal mistake for those
who have had the guidance of our first and most celebrated colleges.

Your committee cannot, without deep solicitude, leave this part
of the subject, without adverting to the fact that the greatest uni-
versities in Europe are renowned for their refined taste and generous
zeal for science, but are destitute of stately palaces and expensive
structures.

The trial farm may be under tht* superintendence of a scientific
and practical farmer, whose duty shall be to watch over the moral
and physical conduct of the pupils residing within the precincts of
the department. He should be very conversant with rural economy,
and teach the pupils the practical operations of farming, and keep
a vigilant eye on them in the refectories and dormitories, and go-
vern this little commonwealth in like manner as a prudent father di-
rects his household. Let him keep an accurate account of the in-
comes and expenditures of the establishment.

A matron who is familiar with domestic economy and the various
operations of a dairy, and who is estimable for her general informa-
tion and amiable and motherly deportment, may take charge of the
household and dairy department.

The time of the pupils should be divided between manual farm la-
bor and study. The superintendent here has a theatre on w^hicb to
display his precepts and examples. The field is after all the great
laboratory on which theory and practice may be successfully com-
bined.

The experimental farm, if cultivated upon the best principles of
agriculture, and with a view to profit, will attract the attention of
the public. Here new and improved farming utensils will be receiv-
ed on trial, and their merits and defects duly appreciated. A mu-
seum and general depot will here unfold its rich treasures, and valu-
able specimens congregated from every part of the habitable globe.
A collection of seeds, grain and roots, both foreign and indigenous,
nay more, those in the process of acclimation, should be stored in the

EXPERIMENTAL FAKM. It

granaries and cellars. On (he one hand, as the appropriate speci-
mens of the vegetable kingdom for lectures; on the other, for sale.
A work shop with great propriety may be attached to the school, in
•which the industrious student may have an ample opportunity to be
relaxed from his intellectual toils, and develop his physical constitu-
tion to the highest perfection in the fabrication of rural implements,
whereby much of the evil may be avoided that grows out of a seden-
tary life; every part of the body may become invigorated, its health
promoted, and prompt and vigorous for every service. What can be
of a more priceless value to the young agriculturist than a strong arm
and manly form; nerved to grapple with the labors of the field; a
gymnasium incomparably more available to his person and state than
all the boasted games of antiquity.

Economy and convenience will require a division of the farm into
arable land, meadows, pastures, fields selected for experiments, wood
land, orchards, vineyards and nurseries. The plow land should be
cultivated according to the best systems of rotation and succession,
that the students may have specimens of the varieties of the sys-
tem. A stock of cattle of different kinds, domestic and foreign, to-
gether with the varieties of other animals found useful for man, must
have their appropriate space in the arrangement of the farm.

For the illustration of lectures in terraculture, a variety of soils
should be found in the cabinet, their analysis and specimens of the
means of their amelioration in different cases. The woods arrang^ed
in the forms of a library, and collections of natural history would be
extremely -useful to the institution.

Your committee invite the attention of all the industrial classes to
this momentous suoject, aware of the vast importance of a grand sys-
tem of national education in the scientific practice of agriculture,
which will double the value of estates, and place by its results the
whole country in a position, which, under a beneficent Providence,
would defy contingencies.

It is no visionary scheme. The example of civilized Europe is be-
fore us; the agricultural school of Moeglin, on the Oder, formerly
under the direction of the immortal Von Thaer, and patronized by
the King of Prussia, shows how a pattern farm, when embellished
■with a school devoted to agriculture, may improve, and by its salu-
tary example, convert a barren district, a country of heath into fer-
tility and plenteousness.

Xll AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AND

The school that has demonstrated the practicability of the scheme,
is Stroegland, in Wurtemburg. Here the pupils live en famille
with their superintendent, and are instructed by different professors
in the theory and practice of agriculture, and the arts and sciences
that elevate and adoru rural life.

The sons of high lineages and wealth, there study and labor with
the child of want; and in order to give a stimulus to industry, each
student receives a remuneration equivalent to his labor.

A brighter day is dawning on agriculture in England, Belgium
and France. Witness the professional police among the different
countries and provinces in those enlightened kingdoms. Feudal ten-
ures and oppressive burthens on the productive classes are gradually
vanishing before the lights of science and reason, and man bound
<lown by the wrongs of centuries of ignorance and tyranny, is be-
ginning to assume the dignity of his nature. Even royalty, cloyed
with empty pomp and pageantry, retires into the shades of rural se-
questration, and calls around him associations of learned and practi-
cal farmers, and courts pre-eminence in conversations and delibera-
tions.

Your committee need not stop here. The experience of a century
has proved the advantage of a scientific education for the practice
of agriculture. Indeed, there is no university in Europe without a
chair devoted to rural economy; and it may not be deemed imperti-
nent to remark, that a contemplated plan for agricultural education
is foreign to our other literary institutions, fostered by the bounty of
the State or supported by private munificence. Their course of in-
struction, however admirable for the foundation of general literature
and professional avocations, is not the appropriate sphere to form
the habits of the farmer, and fit him for the peculiar and active life
to which he is destined.

But it may perhaps be said, that the agriculturist needs no theor}',
but his acquisitions should be moulded by the usages and routine of
hiisbandry. Can any one who is imbued with the liberal and en-
lightened spirit of the age, array /jrac^fce in opposition to theory?
What is theory but a generalization from facts, or a knowledge of
the laws that link eflfects with their causes ? Let the idea be illus-
trated. The 'practice of agriculture will lead the operator to spread
bis fields with a great quantity of lime. This, for a short period, will
render the soil more actively fertile, but ultimately it will exhaust it

EXPERIMENTAL FARM. ^IM

in the ratio of production. Science steps in and unfolds the secrets
of nature, whose uniform and eternal law teaches that the mineral ac-
celerates the solubility ol the ordinarily slow decaying vegetable mat-
ter, and impoverishes the land in a few years. But if left to itself
without the stimulating manure, it will raise larger crops for many
years. Science teaches that the wheat plant is composed of certain
organic and inorganic constituents, which must have existence in the
soil in proper relative quantities, but in case any one of these fail,
the plant will not grow to perfection. Practice does not learn this,
though it is conscious of the mere fact that it will grow well or ill
or not at all.

Your committee, after having made a careful investigation of this
momentous subject, have come to a conclusion that an agricultural
scientific school would be an invaluable source of instruction to
the growing youth of the present age, and subsidiary to the proper
development of the wealth and intelligence of the farming interest.

The noble and successful efforts which the American Institute has
put forth in the cause of agriculture and the mechanic arts, have
reflected the highest commendation on this infant institution and have
spread the skill and enterprise of our industry throughout the civil-
ized globe.

Your committee would recommend' the erection of the establish-
ment under the auspices of the American Institute, which would seem
favorable for its foundation and fostering protection. Among the
innumerable advantages that would flow from its proximity and con-
nection with that body, may be enumerated, an extensive library,
repository of machines and implements of agriculture, and a collec-
tion of seeds and plants.

The dense and opulent population in the neighborhood of our com-
mercial emporium, its easy access, favorable climate, varied soil, vast
and extended intercommunication by inland trade and foreign com-
merce, may rouse the public spirit and munificence of our fellow citi-
zens in that quarter, indicate that region as favorable to the location
of the agricultural school and model farm.

These considerations, in the judgment of your committee, present
strong reasons in favor of the application, and such as they are im-

Xir AGKICULTURAL SCHOOL, CtC

pressed, will have their due weight with the representatives of a
liberal and enlightened people emulous to extend the confines of edu-
cation, and develop the resources of the State. l*enetrated with
these sentiments, your committee, with this report, have prepared a
bill, which they now ask leave to bring in.

AN ACT

To authorize the Ainerican Institute of the city of New-
York, to establish an agricultural and scientific school.

The People of the State of JYew-York, represented in Senate and
Assemhly, do enact as follows :

Section 1. The American Institute of the city of New-York, is
hereby authorized to hold, purchase and convey real estate and per-
sonal property, for the purpose of establishing thereon an agricultural
and scientific school, and making an experimental farm, to be within
the jurisdiction of the State, and at a convenient distance from New-
York city, and not to exceed in value dollars.

§ 2. The said Institute shall engage in the business of establishing
on said real estate, an agricultural and scientific school, in which
shall be taught the theoretical and practical science of agriculture,
and the sciences connected therewith.

§ 3. There shall be elected annually, and in the same manner as
the trustees of the said Institute, at the annual election thereof, five
persons, who shall constitute a board of agriculture of the American
Institute.

§ 4. It shall be the duty of the trustees, and the said members con-
stituting said board of agriculture, to superintend and direct said
school, to appoint the professors, teachers, and all the persons neces-
sary to conduct the said school, and the farm connected therewith.

§ 5. The trustees and members of the board of agriculture, shall
have the power to make by-laws for the government of the said
school, and the regulation of the experimental farm.

§ 6. Diplomas or honorary testimonials may be granted by the said
school to students under its charge, in such form a? it may designate.

Xvi AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL, etC.

§ 7. The said school shall be subject to the visitation of the Regents
of the University of this State, in the same manner, and to the same
extent, as the various colleges or seminaries in this State.

§ 8. Whenever the said school shall have been organized, and an
experimental farm shall have been purchased by the trustees of the
said American Institute, the annual sum of

dollars shall be appropriated to the said school and farm, for the ex-
clusive benefit thereof.

§ 9. The Legislature may at any time, alter, modify or repeal this-
act.

OFFICERS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, 1846, '47.

TRUSTEES.

MAHLON DICKERSON, President.

SHEPHERD KNAPP,
JOHN CAMPBELL,
J AS. J. MAPES,

Vice Presidents.

T. B. WAKEMAN, Cor. Sec. Sf Sufg ^gt.
HENRY MEIGS, Recording Secretary.
EDW'D T. BACKHOUSE, Treasurer.

MANAGERS OF THE NINETEENTH ANNUAL FAIR.

Adoniram Chandler,
James Van Norden,
Heman W. Childs,
George Endicott,
William Hall,
James R. Smith,
Martin E. Thompson,
James R. Walter,
H. C. Westervelt,

R. H. McCuRDY,

John Clowes,
George H. Bradford,
Charles Dennison,

F. P. Schoals,
Isaac Fryer,
Robert Lovett,
Thomas B. Stillman,
C. C. Havkn,
Thomas W. Harvey,
George Gifford,
George C. De Kay,
George C. Mann,
Joseph Torrey,
Samuel H, Maynard,
George F. HopkIns,
T. B. Wakeman, Ex-officio.

[Assembly, No. 151.]

CONTENTS.

Report from the Committee of the Assembly on Colleges, Aca-
demies and Common Schools, on an Ao^ricultural and Scientific

School and Experimental Farm, April 24, 1847, vii

Bill brought in by the same committee to authorize the American
Institute to establish an Agricultural and Scientific School,-- xv

Report of the American Institute for the year 1846, 1

Receipts and expenditures of the Institute, Feb. 1846, to Feb.

1847, 2

Receipts and expenditures, 1839 to 1S46, - 12

Premiums awarded, 1835 to 1846, 13

Report of the managers of the 19th Annual Fair, 14

Premiums awarded at the 19th Fair, 20

Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, 71

Report of special committee on farming animals, 71

" of committee on plowing and spading matches, 80

" on field crops, 83

" farm of D. S. Mills, 83

" " " Messrs. Bell and Morris, 86

" " " Gcuverneur Morris, 88

" " garden of Henry Smith, 91

" farm of W. J. Townsend, 93

" " S. B. Townsend, 94

" " " Jeremiah Johnson, 96

" " " Corporation city of N. Y., 98

" " corn of David Johnson, 102

" " Horticulture, 103

Statements of exhibitors at the 19th Fair, 124

Department of arts and manufactures, 148

Report of committee on cotton, woollen, silk and linen manu-
facture, 148

" on the progress of machinery, 162

" " Trinity Church Organ, 190

" " Roads and Bridges,--- 193

" " Bishop's Railroad Bridge, - 193

CONTENTS.

" " Rider's Iron Railroad Bridge, 193

" " Russ's pavement, - 193

" " Taylor's Marine Camels, 196

" " Manhattan Gas Works, 198

" " Gray's model of a wooden bridge, 200

" " Neweir-s Parautoptic Bank Lock, 202

Department of Science, 204

Report on Browne's Trees of America, 204

" " Ruschenberger's Elements of Geology, 205

" " " " Ornithology, 208

Proceedings of the National Convention of Farmers, Gardeners

and Silk Culturists, 209

Address by Mahlon Dickerson, 276

" H. C. Westervelt, 284

« Henry Meigs, 296, 308

" George Folsom, - 302

" A.Chandler, 310

Communications, 324

" Culture of Grapes and manufacture of Wine,

by N. Longworth, 324

-« Soiling, by R. L. Pell, 331

" " of cattle, by H. A. Field, 364

" Roots for Cattle, by R. T. Underbill, 369

« Lime and its uses, by R. L. Pell, 37 1

« Properties of Manure, by R. L. Pell,- 386

" Improvement of Soils, by H. A. Field, -- 392

" Resuscitation of worn out soils, by T. Wharton,- 397

" Use of muck to improve the soil, - 400

" Cultivation of the woad plant, by Wm. Part-
ridge, 402

« Corn, 404

« Madder, 405

" Valuable Peas, 406

" Preservation of Peach trees, - 408

" Mode of packing Apples for shipment, 409

" Curing Hay, by R. L. Pell, 410

" Maize or Indian Corn, by D. J. Browne, 412

" Preparation and directions for cooking Indian

corn, 440

Origin of Flowers, by R. L. Pell, 449

" " Fruit, by D. J. Browne, 454

Sole Leather, by C. M. Leupp, 463

CONTENTS.

Extracts from the Correspondence of the Institute, 46S

" Disease of the Potato, 468

" Feed for Cows, 470

" State of Agriculture in Georgia and South Carolina,- 471

" Domestic Wines, 472

Translations from Foreign Periodicals 473

" Arracacha, - 473

" Potato Onions, 474

" Light and Vegetation, 474

" Rose Garden, - 475

" Preserving Vegetables, 476

" Mushrooms, 476

" Preserving Apples trees from injurious Insects, — 477

" Culture of the Garbanzo or Chick Pea, 479

Farmers' Club, 480

Potato 480

" Electricity to Vegetation, 48 1

" Culture and manufacture of Hemp, 482

" Flax and Flaxseed exported, 485

" Coal as a Manure, 493

" Composition and character of Ashes, 494

" Liebig on diseased Potatoes, 497

Analysis' of Coal, 498

" Pruning, - 500

" Introduction of Indian Corn into Great Britain, 504

" Keeping of Cattle, 506

Grain, 513

" Insects injurious to Vegetation, - - 515

" Supposed cause of the frequent burning of barns by

lightning, - 523

" Turnips, 527

" Domestic Wines, 531

" Contrast between American and European systems of

Vineyards, - 537

" Soiling Cattle, 541

" Manures, 543

" Grapes, 543

" Jerusalem artichokes, - 549

XIX OFFICERS.

BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.

Jeremiah Johnson, Brooklyn, L. L, Henry A. Field, New-York,
Philip Schuyler, New- York, R. S. Livingston, Po'keepsie, N.Y.,

Nich's Wyckoff, Bushwick, L, I., John P. Veeder, New-York,
R. T. UNDERHiLL,Crot. Point,N.Y.,E. M. Dodd, Orange, N. J.,
Chas. Henry Hall, Harlem, N. Y., Edward Clark, Brooklyn, L. I.,
Thomas Bridgeman, New-York, J. Lawrence SMiTH,Smithtown,L.I.,
Wm. J. Townsend, Astoria, L. L, Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J.,
James De Peyster, New- York, Samuel Walker, Boston, Jlass.,
Charles Bathgate, Morrisania, Mortimer L, Brown, Astoria, LJ.,
Thomas Bell, do Thomas Addis Emmet, New-York,

J. H. Coggeshall, Lynn, Mass., J. Fisher Sheafe, Po'keepsie,N.Y.,
Wm. a Crocker, Taunton, do J. 0. Choules, Boston, Mass.

FACULTY.

James Renwick, Professor of Mechanical Philosophy.

James R. Chilton, " Analytical Chemistry.

James J. Mapes, " Natural Philosophy and Chemistry, as

applied to the Useful Arts.
P. P. Duggan, " The Arts of Design, as applied to the

Useful Arts.
Gabriel Furman, " Geology and History.

Henry Meigs, " Languages.

COMMITTEE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES.

James Renwick, James Mapes,

Thomas B. Stillman, P. P. Duggan,

James R. Chilton, C. L. Elliot,

Thomas W. Harvey, Richard M. Hoe,

Horatio Allen, Foster Rhodes,

Chas. W. Copeland, T. S. Cummings.

REPORT

Of the American Institute, for the year 1846.

The Trustees are gratified to be able to state, that the general
operations of the Institute for the year, both in agriculture and the
arts, have been crowned with signal success.

In its regular progress the most beneficent effects have been felt
and acknowledged by numerous correspondents, associated and indi-
vidual; and by the press generally in every part of the country.
The plan of carrying out the objects of the Legislature, as described
in the last report, has been pursued, to which reference is made.
This will supersede the necessity of making remarks at this time.

As the receipts are, in a degree, a true index of successful opera-
tion, the first reference will be to the accounts of the year. In the
accounts of disbursements in promoting industry and improvement in
the departments of agriculture and the arts, it should be borne in
mind that our whole revenue, with the exception of the State bounty
of $950, and the Van Schaick donation of $1,000, has been derived
from membership, added to the trifle of twenty-five cents for each
grown person, and twelve and a half cents for children admitted to
the fair. This presents an example of economy, industry, liberality
and devotion to the public good, that challenges a comparison with
any institution in this or any other country. If mercenary motives
had prevailed, there would have been no free library! no free lec-
tures! no farmers' club, with even members paying nothing! no free
repository where the ingenious _ inventor could show the world the
fruit of his genius; all demanding expenditures every day of the
year. Contributions would have been levied on all, and expended
on fat offices.

In order that the benefits of the Annual Fair might be made
available to the great public, and a knowledge of improvements dif-
fused, delegates were invited from societies, and also citizens far and

[Assembly, No. 151,] 1

2 [Assembly

wide: men in office, distinguished individuals, literary, scientific,
&c., so that with the non paying, corresponding, and regular mem-
bers, exhibitors and their families, embracing four-fifths as is esti-
mated of all who entered the fair, were on the" free list.

The following account embraces the financial affairs of the Insti-
tute for the year.

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES.

The receipts and expenditures of the American Institute of the
city of New- York, from February, 1846, to February, 1847, have
been as follows :

Receipts.

To cash received from sales of tickets at •

Castle Garden, $13,581 50

Less, counterfeit money, 26 00

do received at cattle show,

do rents of stands in selling department,

do sales of lumber used at the exhibitions,

do contributed (from members),

do from Hon. M. Van Schaick, for silk premiums

(part of $1,000),

do Comptroller State of New-York, under act of

May5, 1841,

Balance on hand at the date of the last report, Feb.
1, 1846,

$13,555

50

174

00

236

50

346

00

1,784 50

100

00

950

00

$17,146

50

6,511

74

Total, $23,657 24

No. 161.] 3

Expenditures.

Payments on account of the 19th Annual Fair of the American
Institute.

By Printing and Pnblication Com,
Printing circulars, invitations, tickets, blanks, hand-
bills, badges, &c. $415 30

do Addresses, 116 72

do proceedings of convention of farm-
ers, gardeners and silk culturists, 108 97

do list of premiums, 68 90

Newspaper advertisements,- - 254 46

Flags for stages, bill posting and contin-
gent expenses, - 156 00

$1,223 99

By Com. of Arrangements.

Lumber, carpenters' work and ironmongery

at Castle Garden,- $757 19

Plumbing and lead pipe for steam boiler,-- 61 98

Steam power and fuel, 384 12

Painting and glazing show" cases and trans-
parencies, - 58 92

Lighting, 286 28

Clerk hire, police, day and night watch, as-
sistants and laborers, 894 75

Lumber and carpenters' work at the cattle

show, 401 26

Ticket seller, door keepers and laborers at

cattle show, -- 37 50

Horticultural room expenses, including print-
ing Horticultural report, 27 1 68

Petty expenses, including a new dynamom- *

eter for the testing of plows and Taylor's

nautical experiments, 125 35

3,279 03

By Finance Com.

Ticket sellers and door keepers,- 212 50

By Com. on Rooms, Music, ^x.jfor Amii-

versary Address.
Rent of Tabernacle, $80 00

Carried forward, $80 00 $4,715 52

4 [Ass KM BUY

Brought forward, $80 00 $4,7 1 5 52

Music for Tabernacle, - 25 00

Use of platform, 9 00

By Com. on Refreshments.

Refreshments for managers while detailed

on duty, and guests from a distance, $374 00

Refreshments for bands, &c., from navy
yard and Governor's Island, whose servi-
ces were gratuitous, 97 98

Miscellaneous Bills.

114 00

471 98

Rent of Castle Garden 17 days at $75 per

day, 1,275 00

Room for convention of farmers, gardeners

and silk culturists, 20 00

Fireworks, 210 00

Violincello presented to the blind band, — 30 00

Cloth for orators, 52 50

Boat and carriage hire for bands, — 16 00

By Premium, Com.

Gold and silver for medals, $ 1,339 26

Silver cups, &c., 586 36

Engraving medals, cups, &c., (in part,) — 200 00

Cash premiums, (in part,) 50 00

New diploma on steel plate, and printing,- 583 00

Recutting seal, 5 00

Books for premiums, 147 32

Filling up diplomas, (in part,) 44 20

2,955 14

$9,860 14

On account of the Repository and Library of the American Insti-
tute.
Salary of superintending agent, $ 1,250 00

do recording secretary, 212 50-

Carried forward, - $

No. 151.] 5

Brought forward, $

Sakry of clerk, 700 00

do assistant librarian, 300 00

do messenger, - - 175 00

Insurance on library and fixtures, 30 00

Fitting up new apartments for the repository, and alte-
rations in the library, 439 30

Books for library, 454 19

Binding for do 63 03

do Transactions N. Y. S. Agricultural Society, — 106 25

Freight of books, 6 00

Mountingmaps, 2 50

Subscription to Colman's Agricultural Tour, 80 00

Newspaper subscription, including papers for distribution, 71 17

Advertising, 37 20

Printing circulars, blanks, &c., 65 12

Paper and stationery, - - 14 88

Light, 7 50

Fuel, 41 50

Furniture lamps, and brackets, &c., 40 63

Agent's expenses to Albany, 21 61

Petty cash expenses — Postage, cleaning, repairing, &c., 224 96

Total, $4,343 34

RECAPITULATION.

Receipts.

To cash received from January 20, 1846, to Janua-
ry 20, J847, $16,196 50

" Comptroller State of New-York, 950 00

$17,146 50
Balance on hand at the date of the last report, Feb-
ruary 1, 1846, 6,511 74

$23,658 24

6 [Assembly

Expenditures.

By disbursements, claims against the 17th Annual

Fair, 1844, $30 00

" balance claims, iSth Fair, 1845, 175 54

" expenses 19th Fair, 1846, 9,860 14

" " Repository and Library 4,343 34

$14,409 02

Balance on hand (of which $5,000 has been invested
in the stocks of the city of New-York at six per
cent interest,) - $9,249 22

Although the means of promoting agriculture by the Institute have
been well adapted for the purpose, by Farmers' Clubs drawing prac-
tical truths and facts from men of experience and publishing them
to the world; bv enquiries made of numerous correspondents in va-
wous localities; by the distribution of seeds, plants, grafts and cut-
tings; by the prompt supply of the best publications in Europe and
America, in various languages, placing them in the reach of all; by
a daily exhibition of many of the machines and implements era-
ployed in agrioulljre and horticulture; by one great Annual Fair,
or Exhibition of all the improved instruments used either on the
farm, or in the garden; with the finest fruit, flowers, and vegetables,
culled from an immense area of country, many of them cultivated
with unwearied industry and care, stimulated by the promised pre-
mium; and by cattle shows and plowing and spading exhibitions;
still the Trustees are impressed that something essential after all, is
w'anting. And in their opinion nothing essential to the advance-
ment of this paramount interest should be withheld. The farming
interest embraces four-fifths of the whole people of the United States,
whose votes must determine the fate of our Republic; the security of
the lives, liberties, and property of the present generation and the
myriads that will succeed, depend on them.

No effort therefore should be spared to raise the moral and intel-
lectual character of the farmer. Civilization and agriculture ad-
vance pari passu with improvements from the savage state to the
highest civilization. Agriculture civilizes and christianizes the sa-
vage. The minister of agriculture and commerce of France, says,
" able overseers and experimental cultivators must go forth and give
examples justified by experiments, conveying knowledge to all quar-
ters and reaching the youth." How shall agriculture, both an art

No. 151.] 7

and a science, be taught in America, but in schools? and how effec-
tually taught but by experience on the land, and with instruments
suited to the purpose? Youths must be instructed and trained and
then they will go forth in all directions qualified, practical cultiva-
tors. Like apprentices to the mechanic branches who leave their
masters instructed, and are entitled then to have full wages, or be
themselves masters at once.

There is not a single well established school with suitable profes-
sors, grounds, apparatus, instruments of husbandry, breeds of ani-
mals and requisites for scientific and experimental teaching, in all
the wide domains of our State. Millions on millions are expended
on education, reaching all classes except the farmer. Knowing his
numerical strength, do those who rule, fear to add the power of
knowledge? Would a small appropriation by our Legislature to en-
sure a trial, afiford a dangerous precedent? More than fifty years
ago Gen. Washington recommended the application of the national
purse for the encouragement of agriculture, and although there was a
universal assent, not a dollar under any legislative act has been di-
rectly applied to this day. The trustees most respectfully invoke the
influence of the State Society for the establishment of one such
school in or near the city of New-York, under the charge and care
of the American Institute.

Statement of premiums awarded in the agricultural department
for the year 1846:

Gold Medals, 6

Silver Cups, - - 57

Silver Medals, 50

Cash, - 110

Diplomas, - 21

Vols, of Books, 137

The trustees feel authorized in saying that the report of the Insti-
tute for 1846, contains more valuable information than is to be found
any where condensed, on the subject of agriculture especially; for
which the Institute is indebted to the united contributions of many
practical and scientific agriculturists. The immense labors of the
chemists of the world in reference to agricultural ch( mistry, will be
here found, brought to an intelligible and practical result, so far as
those labors have up to this time been useful. What is here con-
tained relating to the knowledge of soils and to the making and ap-
plication of every kind of manure, is of great value; containino- much

8 [ASSEMHLT

solid instruction capable of being immediately applied by almost ev-
ery farmer for the great benefit of his land, and increase of his
crops. ,

The following is an extract from a letter of Joseph Cowdin, Esq.,
the Consul of the United States at Glasgow, Scotland, written in the
spring of 1846, in relation to the introduction of our methods of
cooking Indian corn, which he has zealously performed agreeably to
the request of the Institute, of which he is, and has long been an
active and intelligent member. This is but one instance of the effort
and extent of the exertions of the Institute.

The efforts of Mr. Cowdin have, no doubt, done much to remove
the prejudice which in Europe prevailed against Indian corn, on ac-
count of their ignorance of the proper methods of cooking it. The
consequence of which is, increased demand and price abroad. A
communication on Indian corn, with the best modes of preparing it
for use, will be found armexed. We forbear in this report going in-
to particulars. The appended papers are full of facts of momentous
bearing, whi.:h for want of time we leave to the good sense of the
reader who will draw his own inferences.

" I am and have for some time been devoting my leisure time in
endeavoring to introduce into this community the great universal
staple of America, ' Indian corn,' about which the people here know
nothing, and I am pleased to say, have succeeded in removing the
deep rooted prejudice which existed, by frequent exhibitions of corn
bread in every variety of form. Tt may now be . said to be fairly
and permanently introduced into the charitable institutions and pri-
sons of this city, which will give it a character and confidence
throughout the United Kingdom of Great Britain and consequently
throughout the old world, which will open new markets for this
great and valuable staple. I rejoice in this, as it will benefit that
noble and honorable class of citizens of our beloved country, the far-
mers, and by no possibility injure any other branch of industry.

" The South have their great and valuable staple of the manufac-
turer, Cotton; but for capability of production, this is restricted to lati-
tude and longitude; not so with corn, it may be raised throughout
the length and breadth of our land with great facility and compara-
tive trifling expense."

No. 151.] 9

In conclusion is submitted a statement relative, to the quantity of
Indian corn raised in the United States, the value of the same, and
the amount exported, furnished us by Mr. Edwin Williams.

According to the United States Census, of 1840, and the result of
Professor Tucker's inquiries as to the prices in different parts of the
country, the quantity of Indian corn raised in the United States in
1839, and the value of the same, was as follows:

Bushels. Value.

New England States, 6,992,909 $4,794,893

Middle States, 39,946,213 23,356,515

Southern States, 94,998,255 44,994,506

South Western States,- - - - 129,74 1,093 38,259,033

North W^estern States, 105,853,405 21,186,681

Total United States, 377,531,875 $132,591,628

The average value for the United States, according to this state-
ment, is about thirty-five cents per bushel.

The blades or stalks of Indian corn, as is well known, form an
excellent fodder for horses and cattle; and which, estimating twen-
ty pounds for every bushel of grain, amounts to 3,775,000 tons;
worth, by Professor Tucker's estimate, $37,750,000.

Thus the value of the crop of Indian corn in the United States in
1839, may be stated to have exceeded one hundred and seventy millions
of dollars, an amount greatly exceeding in value that of any other
crop raised in this country. The Secretary of the Treasury estimates
the total value of the crop of cotton grown in the United States, in
1846, on the 1st of December, 1846, at $73,150,000, and that of
Indian corn at $314,871,826.

The crop of maize, for 1845, was estimated by the Commissioner
of Patents in his annual report, to have amounted to 417,899,000
bushels, and on that basis it may be assumed that the crop of last
year, 1846, was at least 425 millions of bushels. This quantity at
an average value of fifty cents per bushel would amount to $212,-
500,000. This enhanced value it seems justifiable to assume in the
present estimate, taking into consideration the prices of Indian corn
as well as provisions, (which are in some respects the product of
this grain,) in the principal marts of the United States since the last
harvest.

10 [Assembly

I am induced to believe that at least one-fourth part of the crop of
Indian corn raised in the United States, is sold by the farmers to
non-producers, for domestic and foreign consumption, leaving three-
fourths of the crop, for the use of the farmers themselves. Estima-
ting one-fourth of last year's crop at one hundred millions of bushels,
and sixty cents per bushel as the average price for the whole United
States, or for all the different markets in which it is sold by the far-
mers, it results that the amount of sales of Indian corn by them to
purchasers of all kinds, is sixty millions of dollars, being twenty-five
millions of dollars more than the same crop would have brought in
1840.

It is difficult to estimate the proportion of the crop which has
been and will be exported to foreign countries. Previous to the year
ending June 30, 1846, the quantity of Indian corn and meal ex-
ported did not average a million and a half of bushels annually. The
actual quantity of each exported for the four years and nine months
ending June 30, 1845, w^as as follows:

Indian corn, 3,474,109 bushels.

Indian meal, 1,132,749 barrels.

The total t^a/we for the year ending June 30, 1846, (the quantity
not being yet given,) compared with the previous year, shows a large
increase, as follows:

Exports. 1846. 1845.

Indian corn, $1,186,663 $411,741

Indian meal, 945,081 641,552

Total, $2,131,744 $1,053,293

Increase for 1846, $1,078,451, equal probably to about two mil-
lions of bushels of Indian corn and meal, and making the total quan-
tity exported in that year, about four millions of bushels, including
both corn and meal.

If we estimate the surplus of Indian corn which we can spare for
export to foreign countries at four per cent on the crop of last year,
which exports however are liable to be checked by the scarcity of
vessels to transport the grain and the high prices of freight, we have
seventeen millions of bushels of maize for export; or taking less
than two-thirds of this quantity, we may ship to Europe, and else-
where, twelve millions of bushels of maize and Indian meal, which

No. mi.] 11

at eighty cents as the average value amounts to $9,600,000. The
value of the same exported for the year ending September 30, 1840,
was as follows:

Indian corn, $338,333

Indian meal, - 705,183

Total of both,---" ^1,043,516

The exports for that year bring about the annual average in value
for a series of years. It is thus shown that we may calculate on an
actual gain to the country from the exports of Indian corn and meal
for the current year, over the average of former years, (when this
valuable grain attracted but little attention in Great Britain and Ire-
land, as the food of man,) of at least eight millions of dollars.

I cannot omit the present opportunity to award the credit, which
within my own knowledge, is due to Doctor J. S. Bartlett, editor of
the Albion of this city, and to J. S, Cowdin, Esq., U. S. Consul at
Glasgow, for their efficient exertions in calling attention to the im-
portance of introducing Indian corn as a cheap food for the British
nation. The services of Mr. Cowdin should, as I have no doubt they
will, be fully set forth by the Institute, and Doctor Bartlett, in a pub-
lished-letter addressed to Lord Ashburton, when in 1842 he visited
the United States as a special Minister to this country, brought for-
ward important facts and arguments on the proposed introduction of
maize to supply the deficiencies of the crops of Great Britain and
Ireland, without reference to the failure of the potato crop, a cir-
cumstance which has since brought the subject home to all classes of
British subjects.

All which is respectfully submitted on behalf of the trustees,

SHEPHERD KNAPP, Vice Prest.
H. Meigs, Recording Secretary.
T. B. Wakeman, Corresponding Secretary,

American Institute, March 9th) 1847,

12

[Assembly

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No. 151.]

13

STATEMENT

Shoioing the number of Premiums awarded to the Agricultural De-
partment from 1835 to 1846.

Year.

Gold

Silver

Silver

Cash.

Diplomas.

Vols, of

Medals,

Cups.

Medals.

Books.

1835,....

1

4

17

. . . •

1836,....

3

....

9

28

^ • . •

1837,....

2

....

15

39

....

1838, ...

4

....

21

42

....

1839,....

6

13

17

70

. . . <

1840,....

2

IS

12

60

....

1841,....

6

17

31

71

26

1842,....

3

25

34

37

82

1843,....

4

26

28

48

93

1844,....

1

29

28

$70

46

120

1845,....

5

35

44

100

38

128

1846,...,

6

57

50

110

21

137

Total,

43

221

293

S280

517

586

PREMIUMS

Awarded liy the American Institute of the city of JVew-York, from

1835 to 1846.

Year.

Gold

Silver

Silver C

'ash.

Diplomas.

Vols, of

Medals.

Cups.

Medals.

Books.

1835, ....

16

91

340

1836,....

27

125

249

....

1837,....

29

....

126 j

308

• • • •

1838, ....

26

• • • •

167

396

....

1839,....

27

13

124

384

. . • •

1840,....

12

18

60

331

....

1841,....

17

19

118

336

26

1842,....

12

26

88

439

82

1F43,....

17

27

91

439

104

1814,....

20

29

104 I

'15(

) 444

120

1845,....

34

35

181 i

13f

» 356

131

1846,....

43

58

263 !

lie

) 485

137

Total,

280

225

1538 $

39c

.4507

600

REPORTS

Of ih J Managers of the Nineteenth Annua! Fair of tl;e
American Institute.

Preliminary arrangements had been made for holding the 19th
Annual Fair at Niblo's Garden; the destruction of these premises by
fire in September last, made it necessary to obtain some other loca-
tion. Castle Garden was selected, which is at the southern extremi-
ty of the city, the avenues leading to it being generally much crowd-
ed by the business operations of the city, apprehensions were enter-
tained that the receipts from visitors would, from these causes, be di-
minished. It is gratifying to say that these apprehensions proved
entirely groundless. The number of exhibitors was 2,343 an increase
beyond any former Fair; 54,326 admissions to the exhibition were
paid for, according to the receipts; and it is computed that, in the
aggregate, there are four free admissions to one that is paid for;
which gives 260,000 as the total number of visitors. It will be
borne in mind that all the members and their families, exhibitors
and their families, delegates from other States and similar institutions;
distinguished men from all parts of the Union; distinguished men
from all parts of the world, who may be in New-York during the
Fair, members and officers of the common council, judges of all the
courts, charitable schools, committees of judges of the Fair, &c.,
comprise the free list.

The expenses attending this Fair were materially augmented, in
consequence of the change of location, and the entire loss by the
conflagration of Niblo's Garden of all the permanent fixtures which
were stored there.

In various branches of art and manufactures, there was a percep-
tible improvement from the last year, and this has been constantly
the case from the commencement of these exhibitions, which alone
serves to illustrate their extreme utility. For a full detail of all the
textile productions, we refer to the accompanying report of Mr. C.
C. Haven, chairman of the committee on that department.

No. 151.] 15

The management of these fairs is confided by the Institute, to a
Board consisting of twenty five members, elected at their annual
meeting. It will be difficult to appreciate the amount of labor ne-
cessarily involved in the discharge of this duty, which is performed
gratuitously. But it is pleasing to be able to say, that thus far,
through a period of nineteen years, this annual labor has been dis-
charged by various members of the Institute with promptness; the
members of the Board moving on together in the most perfect har-
'mony, as they firmly believe for the permanent benefit of the remo-
test parts of the Union. It would be unjust in these remarks, should
we neglect to acknowledge much assistance derived from the collat-
eral aid of distinguished individuals from year to year. The thanks
of the Institute are particularly due to his Honor A. W. Mickle,
mayor of the city, for his kindness, and the facilities unhesitatingly
afforded by him during the last Fair.

To those of our fellow citizens, who compose our committees of
selected judges, we tender on behalf of the Institute, our most sin-
cere thanks. From them, our premium committee, under the direc-
tion of Mr. Robert Lovett as chairman, at the last Fair received 91
written reports, comprising the various departments of agriculture,
commerce, manufactures, and the arts. Consequent upon these re-
ports, the number of premiums awarded, amounted to 991, and are
^estimated to cost $3,100, consisting of the following:

Gold medals, 43

Silver cups, - 58

Silver medals, 263

Diplomas, - - 485

Cash, - $110

Vols. Transactions New-York State Agricultural Society, 32

Transactions American Institute, - 21

Bridgeman's Gardeners' Assistant, 10

American Agriculturist, - 6

New- York Farmer and Mechanic, 6

Gardener's Farmers' Dictionary, 5

Cultivator, 3

Farmers' Library and Monthly Journal of Agriculture, in

vols., 5

Colman's European Agriculture, - 2

Washington's Letters on Agriculture, - 4

Downing's Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, 5

Kenrick's American Orchardist, - 5

16 [Assembly

Vols. Prince, on Fruit, 3

Farmers' Library, 3

Monthly Journal of Agriculture, 2

Prince, on the Vine, 1

Bridgeman's Fruit Cultivators' Manual, 4

Downing's Landscape Gardening, - 3

Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture, 3

Loudon's Ladies' Flower Garden, 2

American Flower Garden Directory, 2

Bridgeman's Florists' Guide, 3

Buist's Rose Manual, 2

Total vols., 137

The horticultural and floral department, under the care of ^fr.
Thomas Bridgeman, of New-York, and Mr. Samuel V^^alker, of Bos-
ton, was uncommonly full, consisting of choice specimens from 218
exhibitions, and so arranged by the gentlemen named, as to elicit
universal admiration.

The cattle show, held on the 5th Avenue, corner of 23d street,
rivalled all the preceding exhibitions, presenting some of the finest
specimens of stock in the country. The most important feature of
this show, was an admitted concentration of the best bloods.

The ploughing and spading matches were held on the 9th of Oc-
tober at Flushing, on grounds furnished by the Messrs. Parsons. We
are indebted to Capt. Elisha Peck for increased facilities afforded
the citizens in reaching this place, by augmenting the number of
steamers and reducing the fare. The concourse attending was very
large. The citizens of Flushing affording every possible facility.
We regret that the condition of the ground was unfavorable, having
suffered severely from drought; still the exhibition was highly grati-
fying to the immense numbers who were in attendance. The spading
was a severe test, owing to the dryness of the soil; nevertheless se-
ven entered for competition, proceeded in their task amid the thunder
of Cc-nnon from an artillery corps which honored the festival; the
broad ensign of our Union beautifully waving to the breeze from va-
rious parts of the field, which, together with martial bands discours-
ing sweet and patriotic music, rendered the scene truly unique and
interesting. No accident occurred to mar the pleasure of the day

No. 151.]

17

It affords us much satisfaction to say, that from the commence-
ment of the operations of the Institute to the present day, the officers
of the Navy and Army of our country, have been its steadfast friends,
and contributed largely to the measure of its usefulness. We annu-
ally experience their kindness at our Fairs.

The following condensed statement of the receipts and expendi-
tures as reported by the Finance Committee, the vouchers of which,
together with their report are herewith presented, and are a part of
this report.

Receipts.

To cash received from sales of tickets at Castle Garden, $13,581 50

" received at the Cattle Show, 174 00

" for rents of confectionary and perfumery

stands, 236 50

" sales of lumber used at the Fair and at the

Cattle Show, 346 00

$14,338 00
Less counterfeit money, &c., - 26 00

S 14,3 12 00

Payments.

By Printing and Publication Com.

Printing circulai'S, invitations, tickets,

blanks, handbills, badges, &c., $416 30

" Addresses, 115 72

" Proceedings of conventions of
farmers, gardeners, and silk

culturists, 108 97

" list of premiums, 68 90

Newspaper advertisements, - 254 46

Flags for stages, bill posting, and contin-
gent expenses, 156 00

Carried forward,

[Assembly, No. 151.] 2

1,223 99

18 [Assembly

Brought forward, $

By Committee of Arrangements.

Lumber, carpenters' work and ironmongery,

at Castle Garden, $757 19

Plumbing and lead pipe for steam boiler,- 61 98

Steam power and fuel, 384 12

Painting, glazing show cases and transpa-
rencies, 58 92

Lighting, 286 28

Clerk hire, police, day and ni ht watch,

assistants and laborers, 894 75

Lumber and carpenters' work at the Cattle

Show, 401 2Q

Ticket sellers, door keepers and laborers at

Cattle Show, 37 50

Horticultural department expenses, inclu-
ding printing horticultural report, 271 68

Petty expenses, including a new Dynamo-
meter for testing plows, and Taylor's nau-
tical experiments, 125 35

|3,279 03

By Finance Committee.
Ticket sellers and door keepers, $212 50

By committee on room and music for Anniversa-
ry Address.

Rent of Tabernacle, $80 00

Music for do 25 00

Use of platform, 9 00

114 00

By committee on Refreshments.

Refreshments for managers while detailed

on duty, and guests from a distance, — $374 CO

Refreshments for bands, &c., from Navy
Yard and Governors Island, whose servi-
ces were gratuitous, 97 98

471 98

Carried forward,-

Ko. 151.] 19

Brought forward, $

Miscellaneous Bills.

Rent of Castle Garden, 17 days at $75 per day, $1,275 00

Room for convention of farmers, gardeners, and silk

culturists, 20 00

Fireworks, 210 00

Violincello presented to the blind band, 30 00

Cloth for orators, 52 50

Boat and carriage hire for hands, 16 00

By Premium Committee.

Gold and silver for medals, $ 1339 26

Silver cups, &c., 586 36

Engraving medals, cups, &c., in part, 200 00

Cash premiums (in part,) - 50 00

New diploma on steel plate and printing,- 583 00

Recutting seal, -. - 5 00

Books for premiums, 147 32

Filling up. diplomas in part, 44 20

— 2,955 14

Total expenses 19th Fair, |9,860 14

Recapitulation.

Receipts, $14,312 00

Expenditures, 9,860 14

Balance, $4,451 86

ADONIRAM CHANDLER,

Chairman of the Board of Managers.

LIST OF PRExMIUMS

Awarded by the Managers of the Nineteenth Annual
Fair of the American Institute, Oc ober, 1846.

AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

Stallions.

Robert L. Stevens, New- York, for the best thorough bred stalHon.
(Tornado.) Silver cup.

Absalon\ D. Nelson, Greenburgh, N. Y., for the second best tho-
rough bred stallion. (Belzona.) Silver medal.

George M. Patchen, Brooklyn, L. L, for the best stallion for all
farming purposes. Silver cup.

Smith Freeman, Rahway, N. J., for the second best stallion for all
farming purposes. Silver medal.

Henry D. A. Ward, Middletown, Conn., for one stallion. (Hen-
ry Eclipse.) Diploma.

James Sanders, 1 Chatham Square, for one stallion. (Young
Alexander.) Diploma.

John Wyse, Middletown, N. J., for one stallion (Sir Henry.)
Diploma.

Mares.

Wm. Jones, Oyster Bay, L. I., for the best thorough bred brood
mare. Silver cup.

John H. Coster, New-York, for the second best thorough bred
brood mare. Silver medal.

Joseph Blakeslee, Watertown, Conn., for the best brood mare for
all farming purposes. Silver cup.

Samuel Hart, Brooklyn, L. I., for the second best brood mare for
all farming purposes. Silver medal.

No. 151.1 21

Colts.

Jesse Hobley, Williamsburgh, L. I., for the best two year old colt.
(Harry of the West.) Silver cup.

Bernardus Hendrickson, Hempstead, L. I., for the best one year old
colt. (Young Diamond.) Silver cup.

William Jones, Oyster Bay, L. I., for a colt under one year old.
Diploma.

Farm Horses.

Charles Bathgate, Morrisania, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the best
pair of farm horses. Silver cup.

Thomas Bell, Morrisania, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the second
best pair of farm horses. Silver cup.

Matched Horses.

Willard S. Reed, New- York, for the best pair of matched horses
Silver cup.

J. Fisher Sheafe, New Hamburgh, Westchester Co., N. Y., for a
pair of matched horses. Silver Medal.

Mules and Jacks.

David S. Mills, Newtown, L. I., for the best pair of working mules.
Silver cup.

Charles F. Miller, New- York, for the best jack. Silver cup.

Cattle, {improved stock.)

Thos. Bell, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the best Durham bull over
two years old. Silver cup.

Roswell L. Colt. Paterson, N. J., for the best Devon bull two
years old and over. Silver cup.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J,, for the best Ayrshire bull two
years old and over. Silver cup.

Thos. Bell, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the best Durham bull calf.
Silver medal.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J., for the best Ayrshire bull calf.
Silver medal.

John A. Pool, New-Brunswick, N. J., for the best Durham cow.
Silver cup.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J., for the best Devon cow. Silver
cup.

Thomas Ellison, New Windsor, N. Y., for the best Ayrshire cow.
Silver cup.

22 [Assembly

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J., for the best Alderney cow.
Silver cup.

Thomas Addis Emmet, New-York, for the best Durham heifer
over one year old. Silver cup.

J. N. Blakeslee, VVatertown, Conn., for the best Devon heifer
over one year old. Silver cup.

George Vail, Troy, N. Y., for the best Durham heifer calf. Sil-
ver medal.

William Whitney, Morristown, N. J., for the best bull over one
year old. Silver cup.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J., for the best Devon bull over one
year old. Silver cup.

Lewis G. Morris, Fordham, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the best
grade bull over two years old. Silver cup.

James Bathgate, Fordham, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the best
grade bull over one year old. Silver cup.

James Weeden, Newtown L. I., for the best grade bull calf. Sil-
ver medal.

Charles Bathgate, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the best grade cow.
Silver cup.

Lewis G. Morris, Fordham, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the best
grade heifer over one year old. Silver cup.

James Bathgate, Fordham, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the best
grade heifer calf. Silver medal.

JYative Stock.

Whitson Jarvis, Brooklyn, L. I., for the best native cow. Silver
cup.

Le Grand Bradley, Hamden, Conn., for the second best native
cow. Silver medal.

Josiah Purdy, Jr., Rye, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the best native
heifer. Silver medal.

Fat Cattle.

Selah Strong, Milford, Conn., for the best pair of fat oxen. Sil-
ver cup.

Joseph S. French, for a fat steer. Silver medal.

Working Cattle.

Curtis Bacon, Middletown, Conn., for the best yoke of working
cattle. Silver cup.

John B. Davis, Derby, Conn., for the second best yoke of working
cattle. Silver medal.

No. 151.] 23

William J. Townsend, Astoria, L. I., for a yoke of working cattle.
Diploma.

Benjamin Florence, Mamaroneck, N. Y., for a yoke of working
cattle. Diploma.

Curtis Bacon, Middletown, Conn.; John B. Davis, Derby, Conn.j
Lewis A. Thrall, Watertown, Conn.; J. N. Blakeslee, Watertown,
Conn.; David S. Mills, Newtown, L. I.; for the best five teams of
working cattle. Each $10.

W. J. Townsend, Astoria, L. I., for the best five yoke of work-
ing oxen. $20.

Thomas Bell, Morrisania, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the second
best five yoke working cattle. $10.

Sheep.

3. N. Blakeslee, Watertown, Conn., for a Merino buck. Silver
cup.

J. N. Blakeslee, Watertown, Conn., for the three best Merino ewes.
Silver cup.

Hiram Whitlock, Watertown, Conn., for a Saxon Merino buck.
Silver cup.

Hiram Whitlock, Watertown, Conn., for Saxon and Merino ewes.
Silver cup.

Charles Bathgate, Morrisania, Westchester, Co., N. Y,, for the
best Leicester buck. Silver cup.

Benjamin Florence, Mamaroneck, N. Y., for the three best Lei-
cester ewes. Silver cup.

Thomas Bell, Morrisania, Westchester Co., N. Y., for the three best
Leicester lambs. Silver cup.

Robert Bolton, Jr., Eastchester, N. Y,, for the best Southdown
buck. Silver cup.

R,obert Bolton, Jr., Eastchester, N. Y., for the best Southdown
lambs. Silver cup.

John Brewster, English Neighbourhood, N. J., for a Leicester
buck lamb. Diploma.

Thomas Bell, Morrisania, N. Y., for two Leicester ewes. Diploma.

Charles Blackbourne, Prospect Hill, L. I., for superior Lincoln-
shire sheep. Silver cup.

Edward Hallock, Milton, Ulster Co., N. Y., for a fat wether.
Silver cup.

Swine.

Ryder and Montross, Sing Sing, N. Y., for the best boar. Silver
cup.

24 [Assembly

John Winn, Thirteenth-street, for the second best boar. Diploma.
Samuel Love, fifty-third-street, for the best sow. Silvir cup.
David Johnson, Flatbush, L, I., for the second best sow. Diploma,
John Love, Fifty-third-street, for the best shote. Silver medal.
Ryder and Montross, Sing Sing, N. Y., for the best lot of pigs,
Siver cup.

Poultry, ^'C.

Samuel Swan, Bedford, L. L, for four superior white Bremen
geese. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Henry A. Field, New-York, for two pair of Dutchess geese, very
fine specimens. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Henry A. Field, New-York, for two pair Dorking fowls. Trans.
N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

William Wood, New-York, for six pair top knot ducks. Trans-
N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

S. F. Jones, Cedars, Nev/ Brighton, for a pair of Capon turkies,
and one pair Capon cocks. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Aaron Clement, Philadelphia, Pa., for two pairs Jersey Blue chick-
ens. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J., for eleven top knot Poland fowls.
Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J., for three Muscovy ducks, two
white turkies, and Poland fowls. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Henry A. Field, New-York, for a Scotch shepherd dog. Trans. N,
Y. State Ag. Soc.

Farms.

Samuel B. Townsend, Newtown, L. L, for good farming, with
great economy. Silver cup.

David S. Mills, Newtown, L. L, for farming, as regards fencing,
buildings, crops and dairy for milk. Silver cup.

Thomas Bell, Morrisania, N. Y., for good farming, and with im-
proved stock thereon. Silver cup.

Gouverneur Morris, Morrisania, N. Y., for good farming, and es-
pecially so as a dairy farm for milk. Silver cup.

Jeremiah Johnson, East Brooklyn, L. L, for a Pattern farm, as a
market garden, and perhaps unequalled in the country. Gold medal.

Farm of the corporation of the city of New-York, Blackwell's Is-
land; worthy of notice, as improved under guidance of Moses G. Leon-
ard. Gold medal.

W. J. Townsend, Astoria, L. L, for his farm, worthy of a second-
ary premium, having commenced judiciously. Silver cup.

No. 151.] 25

Henry Smith, Astoria, L. T., for a pattern garden for a gentleman
near the city, combining, upon a few acres, comfort and plenty, in
all the luxuries of horticulture, with economy. Silver medal.

David Johnson, Flatbush, L. I. The report of the committee
states, that this field of corn was of great luxuriance, and entitled to
the highest premium, as the average yield would equal eighty bush-
els per acre. Silver cup.

Agricultural Productions.

D. S. Mills, Newtown, L. I., the best and greatest variety of Indi-
an corn. Silver medal.

Peter Wyckoff, Bushwick, L. I., for the best forty ears of white
corn. Colraan's European Agriculture.

Charles Hubbard, Middletown, Conn., for the best forty ears
of yellow twelve rowed corn. Washington's Letters on Agricul-
ture.

W. J. Townsend, Astoria, L. I., for seventy-five ears of fine early
Canada corn. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J., for superior sheep tooth corn.
Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

J. H- Coggeshall, Lynn, Mass., for forty ears extra early yellow
corn. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

O'Rourke, New-Jersey, for superior specimens of Barbadoes corn.
Trans. Am. Ins.

Thomas Ash, Throg's Neck, N. Y., for forty ears long white Indi-
an corn. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

S. T. Jones, New Brighton, Staten Island, for forty ears of long
white corn. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

A. Haring, Harrington, N. J., for the best bushel of white flint
wheat. Silver cup.

James Weeden, Newtown, L. I., for the second best specimen of
wheat (Mediterranean.) Washington's Letters on Agriculture.

Henry A. Field, New-York, for the best bushel of rye. Silver
medal.

Robert L. Pell, Pelham, Ulster Co., N. Y., for the second best
bushel of rye. Washington's Letters on Agriculture.

Robert L. Pell, Pelham, Ulster, Co., N. Y., for the best bushel of
oats, (Ulster.) Silver medal.

S. T. Jones, New Brighton, Staten Island, for the second best
bushel of oats. Washington's Letters on Agriculture.

Robert L. Pell, Pelham, Ulster Co., N. Y., for the best bushel of
barley. Silver medal.

26 [Assembly

Robert L.Pell, Pelham, Ulster Co., N. Y., for the best bushel of
buckwheat. Colman's European Agriculture.

W. J. Townsend, Astoria, L. I., for the best specimen of Egyp-
tian corn. Gardner's Farmers' Dictionary.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. I., for a bushel of superior Bergen
wheat. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

John F. Pond, Worcester, Mass., for the best assortment of quin-
ces. Bridgeman's Gard. Ass't.

Richard T. Underbill, Croton Point, N. Y., for a dozen excellent
quinces. Kenrick's Am. Orchardist.

0. Smith, Munroe, Orange co., N. Y., for fifteen fine quinces.
Kenrick's Am. Orchardist.

Isaac Pullen, Highstown, N, J., for twelve vaj'ieties of apples,
and three of peaches. Bridgeman's Gard. Ass't.

S. T. Jones, Staten Island, J. Kennedy, gardener, for peaches,
quinces, apples and strawberries. Trans. Am. Ins.

Michael Roe, Newark, N. J., for three fine varieties of apples.
Bridgeman's Fruit Cultivators' Manual.

William E, Schultz, 278 Washington street, for a barrel of golden
pippin apples. Trans. Am. Ins.

Isaac 0. Underbill, N. J., for twelve fine apple quinces. Bridge-
man's Fruit Cultivators' Manual.

James Ewbank, Flushing, L. I., for a grape vine containing sev-
enty bunches. Trans. Am. Ins.

E. Classen, 219 Rivington-street, for fifteen nectarines, and three
fine varieties of grapes. Brigeman's Fruit Cultivators' Manual.

A. R. Leggat, 28 West Washington Place, for a stand of fine Isa-
bella grapes. Trans. Am. Ins.

Charles More, Ninety-eighth-street, for three varieties of apples,
four of peaches, and a dish of medlars. Bridgeman's Fruit Cultiva-
tors' Manual.

D. Fairbanks, 237 Fourteenth-street, for a dish of seedling peach-
es. Trans. Am. Ins.

A. Coe, Newark, N. J., for a dish of Isabella grapes, and a bask-
et of clingstone seedling peaches. Trans. Am. Ins.

Flowers.

William Kent, Prospect Hill, Brooklyn, for the best twenty-four
blooms of seedling dahlias. Silver Medal.

Dunlap & Thompson, 635 Broadway, for the best twenty-four va-
rieties of dahlias. Silver medal.

William Kent, Prospect Hill, Brooklyn, for twenty-four varieties
of excellent dahlias. Farmers' Lib. & Jour, of Agriculture.

No. 151.] 27

Thomas Dunn, Bloomingdale, New- York, for twenty-four blooms
of seedling dahlias. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc. and Am. Ins.

J. M. Thorburn & Co., 15 John-street, for twenty-four varieties of
choice dahlias. Trans. N. Y. Sta+e Ag. Soc. and Am. Ins.

Charles More, Ninety-eight-street, for a splendid display of fra-
grant roses. Silver medal.

Mantel & Lenoir, Bloomingdale, New-York, for 600 blooms of
excellent roses. Farmers' Lib. & Jour, of Agriculture.

Isaac Buchanan, Seventeenth-street, for several choice varieties of
roses. Farmers' Library.

Boll & Hauser, Fiftieth-street, for an assortment of roses, embra-
cing thirty seedlings. Farmers' Lib. & Jour, of Agriculture.

J. M. Thorburn & Co., 15 John-street, for a fine display of about
four hundred and fifty dahlias, frequently renewed. Silver cup.

Dunlap & Thompson, 635 Broadway, for a display of about three
hundred dahlias, frequently renewed. Silver medal.

William Kent, Prospect Hill, Brooklyn, for superb display of
about two hundred and fifty dahlias. Silver medal.

Thomas Hogg & Son, Seventy-first-street, for a fine display of
dahlias. Farmers' Library.

Boll & Hauser, Fiftieth-street, for several varieties of choice dah-
lias. Jour, of Agriculture.

John Briell, Harsimus, N. J., for a good display of dahlias. Dow-
ning's Landscape Gardening.

William Phelan & Sons, corner of Fifth-street and Avenue A, for
a fine assortment of dahlias. Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture.

William Reid, Murray Hill, New-York, for several displays of
excellent dahlias. Mrs. Loudon's Ladies' Flower Garden.

William Davison, Brooklyn, L. I., for some fine varieties of dah-
lias, frequently renewed. American Flower Garden Directory.

Charles More, Ninety-eighth-street, for a fine display of dahlias
and roses. Downing's Landscape Gardening.

Marc & Co., Forty-fourth-street, for several varieties of choice
dahlias and roses. American Flower Garden Directory.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. I., for two ornamental designs, con-
taining several varieties of choice flowers. Silver medal.

Dunlap & Thompson, 635 Broadway, for two ornamental designs
of dahlias, roses, and other flowers. Downing's Landscape Gar.den-
ing.

Boll & Hauser, Fiftieth-street, for a beautiful ornamental design.
Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture.

Mantel & Lenoir, Forty-sixth-street, two beautiful bouquets of rare
flowers. Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture.

2^ [Assembly

Charles More^ Nfnety-eight-street, for three bouquets of choice ro-
ses. Mrs. Loudon's Ladies' Flower Garden.

Isaac Buchanan, Seventeenth-street, for several varieties of choice
roses and dahlias. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Samuel M. Cox, Forty-ninth-street, for an ornamental design of
choice flowers. Trans. Am. Ins.

John W. Wood, Bloomingdale, New-York, for two pyramids of
flowers. Trans. Am. Ins.

L. Prevost, Astoria, L. I., for a display of dahlias, frequently re-
neAved. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Miss Sarah A. Ogden, Newark, N. J., for a beautiful display of
choice flowers. Bridgman's Florists' Guide.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. I., for a fine display of dahlias and
other flowers. Buist's Rose Manual.

John C. Beekman, S. Ruth, gardener. Sixty-first street, for several
varieties of flowers, at different times. Trans. Am. Ins.

James Robinson, Brooklyn, L* I., for a fancy basket of ornamental
flowers. Bridgeman's Florist's Guide.

J. C. Greene, Staten Island, N. Y., D. Marony, gardener, for a
display of some of the choicest kinds of cock's combs. Trans. Am.
•Ins.

Dunlap & Thompson, 635 Broadway, for a lot of beautiful cock's
combs. Buist's Rose Manual.

James Fairbanks, West Fourteenth-street, for several fine cock's
combs. Bridgeman's Florists' Guide.

Mrs. A. Jackson, Williamsburgh, L. I., for two bouquets and a
stand of dahlias. Trans. Am. Ins.

Mrs. S. Burris, Williamsburgh, L. I., for two bouquets, and a de-
sign made of dahlias. Bridgeman's Florists' Guide.

Vegetables.

Robert L. Pell, Pelham, Ulster co , N. Y., Maurice Cunningham,
gardener, for the choicest assortment of culinary vegetables. Silver
medal.

John C. Beekman, S. Ruth, gardener, Sixty-first-street, for the
best and greatest variety of vegetable roots for cattle. Silver me-
dal.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. I., for the best twelve blood beets.
Bridgeman's Gard. Assistant.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. I., for the best twelve turnip rooted
beets. Am. Agriculturist.

Deaf and Dumb Asylum, Garret Mead, gardener, for twelve man-
gel wurtzel beets. N. Y. Far. & Mec.

No. 15i:] 29

John C. Beekman, S. Ruth, gardener, Sixty-first-street, for the
best six heads of cape broccoli. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. L, for the best twelve heads of
drumhead cabbage. Gardner's Farmers' Dictionary.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. L, for the best twelve heads of Sa-
voy cabbage. Bridgeman's Gard. Asst.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. I., for the best twelve carrots for the
table. Am. Agriculturist.

Robert L. Pell, of Pelham, Ulster co., N. Y., M. Cunningham,
ofardener, for the best twelve carrots for cattle. N. Y. Far. & Mec.

Joseph Clowes, Harsimus, N. J., for the best twelve roots of
white solid celery. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Robert L, Pell, Pelham, Ulster co., N. Y., for the best twelve
roots of red celery. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

Deaf and Dumb Asylum, Garret Mead, gardener, for the best six
egg plants. Bridgeman's Gard. Ass't.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. I., for the best peck of white onions.
Gardner's Farmers' Dictionary.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. I., for the best peck of yellow
onions. Am. Agriculturist.

John C. Beekman, S. Ruth, gardener. Sixty-first-street, for the
best peck of red onions. N. Y. Far. & Mec.

John C. Beekman, Sixty-first-street, for the best twelve parsnips
for the table. Bridgeman's Gard. Ass't.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J., for the best twelve parsnips for
cattle. Vol. of the Cultivator.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J., for three good varieties of pota-
toes— a peck of each. Farmers' Library.

Charles Hubbard, Middletown. Conn., for a peck of superior pota-
toes for the table. Journal of Agriculture.

E. H. Townsend, Newtown, L. I., for two pecks of fine cattle po
tatoes, in variety. Gardner's Farmers' Dictionary.

P. WyckofF, Bushwick, L. I., for three fine cheese pumpkins. N.
Y. Far. and Mec.

Robert L. Pell, Pelham, Ulster co., N. Y., M. Cunningham, gard-
en^, for three large cattle pumpkins. Am. Agriculturist.

James L. Moore, Newburgh, N. Y., for an extra large pumpkin,
weight 135 pounds. Bridgeman's Gard. Ass't.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J., for twelve fine roots of salsify.
Trans. Am. Ins.

John C. Beekman, S. Ruth, gardener. Sixty -first-street, for three
fine crook-necked squashes. Am. Agriculturist.

30 [Assembly

Robert L. Pell, Pelhara, Ulster co./N. Y., for the best and largest
squash. N. Y. Far. & Mec.

W. J. Townsend, Astoria, L. I., for two fine varieties of tomatoes.
Vol. of the Cultivator.

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. I., for the best peck of white turnips.
Am. Agriculturist.

Robert L. Pell, Pelham, Ulster co,, N. Y., for the best peck of
yellow turnips. N. Y. Far. & Mec.

Roswell L; Colt, Paterson, N. J., for the best peck of Russia tur-
nips. Vol. of the Cultivator.

W. B. Oddie, Sneeding's Landing, Rockland co., N. Y., for a
peck of fine early potatoes. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

A. M. Baker, Elizabethtown, N. J., for peck of good mercer po-
tatoes. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

David Johnson, Flatbush, L. I., for three good varieties of pota-
toes. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

James B. Colyer, Bushwick, L. I., for three fine crook necked
pumpkins. Trans. Am. Ins,

John C. Beekman, Sixty-first-street, fo|: eight varieties of rare ve-
getables. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

William Phelan & Sons, corner Fifth-street and Avenue A., for
thirty-six fine white egg plants. Trans. Am. Ins.

Colored Orphan Asylum, for six varieties of culinary vegetables.
Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc.

M. S. Brown, Astoria, L. I., for twelve fine Savoy cabbages, and
a peck of white onions. Trans. Am. Ins.

Agricultural Implements.

I. T. Grant & Co., Scaghticoke, Rensselaer Co., N. Y., for the
best fanning machine, (a new improvement.) Silver medal.

John Bean, Elizabethtown, N. J., for the second best fanning ma-
chine. Diploma.

H. St. John, Albany, N. Y., for the best straw cutter. Silver
medal.

J. C. Langdon, Troy, N. Y., for the second best straw cutter. Di-
ploma. •

Jones & Smith, New-York, A. B. Allen, agent, 187 Water-street,
for an improved field planting machine. Silver medal.

Joseph Stevens, Saratoga Co., N. Y., for a model of improved
fence, with brick posts. Gold medal.

James Sedgwick, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., A. B. Allen, agent, 187
Water-street, for the best fruit gatherer. Diploma.

No. 151.] 31

James A. Cutting, Boston, Mass., for a hive of working bees, (ha-
ving some good arrangements.) Silver medal.

Edward Townley, 1^4 Canal-street, for bee hives. Diploma. (Sil-
ver medal having been before awarded.)

Leonard Proctor, Montgomery co., N. Y., for a churning machine.
Diploma.

John Wilkinson, Dutchess co., N. Y., for a model of a harrow.
Diploma.

David B. Rogers, Seneca Falls, David B. Lum, agent, Seneca
Falls, for steel cultivators' teeth. Diploma.

Myers & Bryan, Scaghticoke, N. Y., for a grain cradle. Diploma.

John Moore, 183 Front-street, for a double corn-sheller. Diploma.

A. B. Allen, 187 Water-street, for a root plow. Silver medal.

B. Langdon, A. B. Allen, agent, 187 Water-street, for a cultivator
plow. Diploma.

Ruggles, Nourse & Mason, A. B. Allen, agent, 187 Water-street,
for a field corn planter, (Bachelder's.) Diploma.

A. B. Allen, 187 Water-street, for the largest exhibition of agri-
cultural implements. Silver medal.

Plows.

John Moore, 183 Front-street, for the best plow, combining the
greatest number of necessary requisites. Silver cup.

David Brontes, 86 Nassau-street, for the second best plow, combi-
ning the greatest number of necessary requisites. Silver medal.

Plowing.

Asa Munn, Orange Co., N. J., for the best plowing. Silver cup.

Philip Arent, Flushing, L. I., for the second best plowing. Sil-
ver medal.

John Brewster, English Neighborhood, N. J., for the third best
plowing. Diploma.

4

Spading.

Thomas Farrel, Flushing, L. I., for the best spading. Silver cup.

William Hubbs, Flushing, L. I., for the second best spading. Sil-
ver medal.

Joseph Morrel, Gowanus, King's co., N. Y., for the third best spa-
ding. Diploma.

Raw Silk.

J. S. Pierce, Burlington, Vt., for the best samples of white and
yellow raw silk. Gold medal.

32 [Assembly

A. C. Van Epps, 19 Stanton-street, for the best 20 lbs. of raw
silk. Gold medal, $20, and the Van Schaick Medal.

John M. Summy, Manheira, Lancaster co., Pa., for a sample of
130 lbs., raw silk. Silver medal.

A. C. Van Epps, 19 Stanton-street, for the best bushel of peanut
cocoons. Gold medal, $ 10, and the Van Schaick medal.

D. Eberly, Manheim, Lancaster co., Pa., for the second best sam-
ple of cocoon's. Silver medal.

Miss Jane Hagerty, 122 Twelfth-street, for specimens of silk reel-
ing. Silver medal.

Miss Margaret L. L. Hutchings, 55 University Place, for speci-
mens of silk reeling. Silver medal.

Miss S. Westgate, 261 Bowery, for specimens of silk reeling. Sil-
ver medal.

MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL DEPARTIMENT.

Baths.

L. Stebbins, Hartford, Conn., for the best bath, because of its
adaptation to numerous domestic purposes, economy of room for Dou-
che stream. Silver medal.

Jordan L. JMott, Water-street, for the second best bath (cast-iron),
because of its cheapness and durability. Diploma.

B. Blagge, 54 Maiden-lane, for a cast-iron bathing tub, for its
convenience and durability. Diploma.

Smith, Torrey & Co., 53 Maiden-lane, for a vapor and shower bath.
Diploma.

Charles Kane, 377 Bowery, for a portable shower bath and bath-
ing tub connected. Diploma.

Lewis JeniTings, 499 Pearl-street, for a patent diluvian shower
bath. Diploma.

Bells.

Andrew Meneely, West Troy, N. Y., for the best church bell, for
sonorousness and purity of tone. Silver medal.

H. N. Hooper & Co., Boston, Mass., for the best and largest spe-
cimen of casting of church bells. Silver medal.

Andrew Meneely, West Troy, N. Y., for an improvement in hang-
ing church bells. Diploma.

Gentlemen^s Boots and Shoes.

Lorin Brooks, 138 Fulton-street, for the best cork sole boots.
Silver medal.

No. 151.] 33

John Dick & Co., 109 Nassau-street, for the best double sole boots
with patent shanks. Silver medal.

Kimball & Beasley, 194 Broadway, for the best dress boots. Sil-
ver medal.

Canfield & Smith, Orange, N. J., for the second best dress boots.
Diploma.

Kimball & Beasley, 194 Broadway, for the best fancy patent
leather boots. Diploma.

Ladies^ Boots and Shoes.

George Nicholls, journeyman to J. 0. Whitehouse, Brooklyn, L. I.,
for the best cloth cork sole button boots. Silver medal.

P. Laboyteaux, 641 Broadway, for the second best cloth cork sole
button boots. Diploma.

P. Laboyteaux, 641 Broadway, for cork sole riding boots. Diplo-
ma.

P. Laboyteaux, 641 Broadway, for the best satin pump gaiter
boots. Silver medal.

Benjamin Shaw, 71 Canal-street, for the best fair-stitched satin
gaiter boots. Silver medal.

J. 0. Whitehouse, 152 Fulton-street, Brooklyn, for the second best
satin pump gaiter boots, and second best fair-stitched satin gaiter
boots. Diploma.

J. 0. Whitehouse, 152 Fulton-street, Brooklyn, for best satin slip-
per. Silver medal.

Books, Binding and Stationer]/.

R. C. Root & Co., 152 Pearl-street, for the best bound blank book.
Silver Medal.

Rich & Loutrel, 61 William-street, for the best ruled blank book.
Silver medal.

John C. Koch, 115 Nassau-street, for the best specimen of bind-
ing. Silver medal.

Harper and Brothers, 82 ClifF-street, for the second best specimen
of binding. Diploma.

New-York Bible and Common Prayer Book Society, Thomas C.
Butler, agent, 20 John-street, for a prayer book for the blind. Sil-
ver medal.

Joseph Hyde, 115 Nassau-street, for a bible for the blind. Diplo-
ma.

George Mather, 276 Front-street, for the best specimen of printers'
ink. Silver medal.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 3

34 [Assembly

Frame, Pearson & Conger, Bloomfield, N. J., for assorted colored
medium paper. Diploma.

J. Rayford, Bloomfield, N. J., for double cap wrapping paper. Di-
ploma.

Longbotham & Co., 8 Liberty-street, for the best binders' boards.
Silver medal.

Rich tSc Loutrel, 61 William-street, for the best manifold writers.
Diploma.

Jesse K. Park, for very superior architectural tracing paper. Sil-
ver medal.

G. D. Baldwin, 35 Spruce-street, for designing paper. Diploma.

Richard Snjyth, 325 Front-street, for beautiful specimens of parch-
ment and vellum. Diploma.

Franklin Mann, 82 Cliff-street, for marble paper. Diploma.

Henry Morrow, 56 Chathani-street, for the best wood cut printing.
Diploma.

William B, Weiss, 56 Chatham-street, for the second best wood
cut printing. Diploma.

C. Wells, Bronson & Co., 56 Gold-street, for specimens of label
printing. Diploma.

Pudney & Russell, 21 Liberty-street, for specimens of altar tab-
lets. Diploma.

George F. Nesbitt, corner Wall and Water-street, for machine cut
wood type. (Silver Medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

George A. Arrowsmith, 70 Nassau-street, for an improved ink-
stand. Diploma.

J. R. Bigelow & Co., 9 Spruce-street, for specimens of stationery
articles — sand boxes and wafer stamps. Diploma.

William Chauncy Langdon, New Orleans, for an historical game.
Silver medal.

Josiah Adams, Nassau-street, for the " New World," a game. Di-
ploma.

Brushes.

William Steele, 305 Pearl-street, for superior feather brushes. Sil-
ver medal.

J. T. Barnes, 255 Pearl-street, for superior brush mats. Silver
medal.

Cabinet Ware..

James E. Hoyt, 130 Eighth-street, for the best workmanship on a
carpenter's chest. Diploma.

No. 151.] 35

Downs &. Silva, 119 Walker-street, for the second best specimen
of workmanship on a frame. Diploma.

John Needham, 192 West Nineteenth-street, for the best sofa bed-
stead. Silver medal.

Noney & Nodine, 116 Warren-street, for the second best sofa bed-
stead. Diploma.

William C. Gardiner, 69 Gold-street, for the best principle of a
bedstead. Silver medal.

C. De Bow, 47 Beekman-street, for the second best principle of a
bedstead, (extension bureau bedstead.) Diploma.

Mallaby & Holmes, 50 Broadway, for a patent folding hinge bed-
stead, for its ingenuity and utility. Silver medal.

Samuel S. Parker, 156 and 158 Greenwich-street, Martin Willard,
150 Chatham-street, and John S. Morris, 71 Gold-street, for a screw
bedstead. Diploma.

■J. Robinson, 28 Pell-street, for a reading stand. Diploma.

T. Brooks. Brooklyn, L. I., for a rosewood chair and centre table.
Diploma.

David Coles, 48 Broadway, for the carving on a cottage and oflEice
chair. Diploma.

J. W. Mason, 317 Pearl-street, for a Boston rocking chair. Diplo-
ma.

L. Ingersoll, 71 Bowery, for an office chair. Diploma.

Harrison Miller, 104 Third Avenue, for an inlaid work box. Di-
ploma.

Robert Atwill, 38 Fourteenth-street, for a work box. Diploma.

Thomas Thornhill, 346 Broome-street, for a fancy work box. Di-
ploma.

Edward Robinson, Thirteenth-street, for a work box. Diploma.

C. De Bow, 47 Beekman-street, for an extension table. Silver
medal,

William Rollinson, 23 Catharine-street, for a tool chest. Diplo-
ma.

Rushton & Co., 110 Broadway, for a medicine chest. Diploma.

John Boyse, 194 Fulton-street, for a portable writing desk. Di-
ploma.

J. G. Isham, 7 Fulton-street, for the best specimen of sand paper.
Diploma. 4

J. P. Gage, Thirty-second-street, C. Tousley, agent, 251 Bleecker-
street, for the second best specimen of sand paper. Diploma.

Joiners^ Work.

Ketcham & Howard, Brooklyn, for two pine doors, of excellent
workmanship. Silver medal.

36 [Assembly

Carpeting and Oil Cloth.

Edward Lynes, West Farms, N. Y., John Lynes, agent, 450 Pearl-
street, for the "best specimen of hearth rugs. Silver medal.

Hotchkiss & Smith, Sing Sing, N Y., Geo. Hastings & Co.,
agents, 5 South William-street, for the second best specimens of
hearth rugs. Diploma.

James W. Woodruff, Elizabethtown, N. J., Lord, Warren, Salter
& Co., agents, 41 Broad-street, for the best specimen of oil cloth,
and oil cloth carriage top. Silver medal.

The New-Jersey Oil Cloth Factory, L, W. & T. A. Miller,
agents, 48 Canal-street, for the best specimen of oil cloth. Silver
medal.

Bailey & Co., Portland, Maine, L. H. Adams, agent, Elizabeth-
town, N. J., for the best specimen of table oil cloth. Silver medal.

R. Crowther, West Farms, Westchester co., N, Y., for the best
specimen of Brussels carpeting. Silver medal.

Lowell Manufacturing Co., Lowell, Mass., Beals, Bush & Co.,
agents, 32 Broad-street, for the best specimens of three ply carpet-
ing. Silver medal.

Carriages, Sleighs, Axles, fyc.

James Goold & Co., Albany, N. Y., Isaac Mix, jr., 440 Broadway,
for the best sleigh. Silver medal.

Waterbury & Harvey, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., for the second best
sleigh. Diploma.

Eaton, Gilbert & Co., Troy, N. Y., for an omnibus. Geld medal.

G. Vanderwerken, Newark, N. J., for a landau. Silver medal.

Doty & Nostrand, Flushing, L. I., for a superior lumber wagon.
Silver medal.

Martin G. Silber, corner Broadway and Twenty-first-street, for a
butcher's cart. Diploma.

John Lessing, Newark, N. J,, for a child's wagon. Diploma.

Gulick Hose Company, No. 1 1, for the best hose carriage. Silver
medal.

Putnam Hose Company, No. 31, for the second best hose carriage.
Diploma.

Hawkins & Atwater, Birmingham, Conn., for axles and springs.
Silver medal.

George Dunn, Newark, N. J., for a buggy railing, and dash
frames. (Silver medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

No. 151.] 87

Carving.

P. Cartereau, 334 Greenwich-street, for the best specimen of carv-
ing. Silver medal.

P. F. Sedalle, 216 Boadway, for a frame, an excellent specimen
of machine moulding and fancy sawing. Diploma.

Thomas Braidwood, 17 Post's Buildings, for designs of calico
prints. Diploma.

William N. Johnson, 204 Bowery, for portrait frames. Diploma.

Isaac Bennett, 68 V^dam-street, for a parlor ornament. Di-
ploma.

Castings.

Jordan L. Mott, 264 Water-street, for garden furniture, (cast iron
vases and chairs). Silver medal.

John B. Clute, 229 Pearl-street, for a cast iron urn. Silver
medal.

C. F. Hoag, Schenectady, N. Y., for the best specimen of hollow
ware. Silver medal.

N. Batchelor, 101 Reade-street, for fancy cast iron tables, highly
'Ornamented. Gold medal.

Clocks and Watches.

John S, Greig, Walden, Orange co., N. Y., for an improved clock,
"to sit itself plumb. Silver medal.

George H. Clarke, agent, 46 Courtlandt-street, for ship clocks.
Diploma.

Philip B. Segee, 30 Franklin-street, for a traveling timepiece.
Diploma.

Year Clock Company, 35 Courtlandt-street, for one year clocks.
(Silver medals having been before awarded.) Diploma.

D. Eggert & Son, 239 Pearl-street, for the workmanship on chro-
nometers. Silver medal.

Henry Glover, 5 Wall-street, for the workmanship on chronome-
ters. Silver medal.

Trinity Church Clock.

James Rodgers, 4 10 J Broadway, for the clock in Trinity church.
The arrangement of the whole, as regards manufacture and finish,
does great Tedit to the skill and ingenuity of the maker. Gold
^nedaL

38 [Assembly

Clothing, Sfc.

Johnson, Lanphier & Hascy, 203 Broadway, for the best gentle-
men's clothing. Diploma.

J. B. Houstein, 288 Grand-street, for the second best gentlemen's
clothing. Diploma.

Edward J. Olssen, 74 Bowery, for the best boys' clothing. Di-
ploma.

S. W. Scofield, 38 Bowery, for the second best boys* clothing.
Diploma.

Benedict & Burnham, Waterbury, Conn., for the best metal but-
tons. Silver medal.

Coach Lamps,

Roberts, Eagles & Co., Newark, N. J., for superior coach lamps.
Diploma.

Conjedioyiary.

Nathan Raynor, 372 Grand-street, for the best plum cakes. Di-
ploma.

John J. Haley, 698 Broadway, for the second best plum cake.
Diploma.

M. B. & 0. F. Wentworth, 103 Greenwich-street, for the best
icing on plum cakes. Diploma.

James Tompson, 40 Lispenard-street, for a superior specimen of
icing on plum cakes. Diploma.

William Ragg, Syracuse, N. Y., for a specimen of icing. Di-
ploma.

H. Tateosyan, 267 Division-street, for a fine sample of fig paste.
Diploma.

Henrion & Cheveau, Philadelphia, Penn., for a superior specimen
of jujube paste. Diploma.

J. E. Ebling, 200 Bowery, for very superior confectionary. Di-
ploma.

Cooperage.

James F. Shay, 87 Pine-street, for a wood bound barrel Di-
ploma.

Charles H. Wiley, 21 Old Slip, for an oval harness cask. Di-
ploma.

Cotton Goods.
James' steam mills, Newburyport, Mass., H. A. Smyth, agent, 43

No. 151.J 39

Pine-street, for the best specimens of bleached and brown cotton
shirtings. Gold medal.

New-York Mills, Oneida county, N. Y., Charles Carville, agent,
26 Broad-street, for the second best cotton shirtings. Silver medal.

Ida Mills, Troy, N. Y., Charles Carville, agent, 26 Broad-street,
for handsome specimens of striped shirtings. Diploma.

Claremont Factory, N. H., Blashfield & Smith, agents, 38 Pine-
street, for wide bleached cotton sheetings. Diploma.

Phenix Co., Providence,. R. I., Shepherd & Howe, agents, 38 Ex-
change Place, for the second best wide cotton sheetings. Diploma.

New-York Mills, Oneida county, N. Y., Charles Carville, agent,
26 Broad-street, for beautiful specimens of drilled jeans. Gold medal.

A. & W. Sprague, Providence, R. I., Hoyt & Tillinghast, agents,
49 Pine-street, for chintz prints. Diploma.

J. Dunnell & Co., Pawtucket, R. I., Fearing & Hall, agents, 55
Exchange Place, for the best cotton prints, exhibiting great skill and
beauty in design, color and execution. Gold medal.

American Print Works, Fall River, Mass., for the second best
specimens of prints. Silver medal.

Bristol Printing Co., Mass., Bowen & McNamee, agents, 16 Wil-
liam-street, for superior mouslin de laine, beautifully designed, richly
colored, and finely executed. Silver medal.

J. L. Pierce, Utica, N. Y., for a good specimen of bedtick. Di-
ploma.

New- York Mills, Oneida co., N. Y., Fisher, Howe & Hamilton,
agents, 21 Broad-street, for Roubeyx cassimeres. Silver medal.

Shepherd & Son, Taunton, Mass., Holbrook, Nelson & Co., agents-,
37 Pine-street, for Canton flannels. Diploma.

Alfred Hyatt, Newark, N. J., for buckram. Diploma.

J. Johnson, 115 East Broadway, for the best specimen of fine cot-
ton yarn. Silver medal.

Curtright Manufacturing Company, Greenboro', Ga., Lord, War-
ren, Salter & Co., agents, Broad-street, for the best specimens of
coarse cotton yarn. Silver medal.

Portsmouth Steam Factory, Portsmouth, N. H., for superior cotton
yarn, spun by machinery. Silver medal.

Hamilton Co., Lowell, Mass., Nesmith & Co., agents, 50 Pine-
street, for superior specimens of cotton blanketing. Diploma.

James Wragg, English Neighborhood, N. J., Crocker & Warren,
agents, 18 Beaver-street, for superior press and hair cloth. Silver
medal.

40 fAsSEMBLY

Daguerreotypes.

M. B. Brady, 207 Broadway, for the best specimens of daguerre-
otypes. Silver medal.

M. A. Root, Philadelphia, Perm., for the second best specimens of
daguerreotypes. Silver medal.

T. P. & D. C. Collins, Philadelphia, Penn., for a superior landscape
daguerreotype. "Fairmount Water Works." Silver medal.

Philip Haas, 289 Broadway, for daguerreotypes. Diploma.

M. Laurence, 152 Broadway, for daguerreotypes. Diploma.

J. Gurney, 189 Broadway, for daguerreotypes. Diploma.

George Cook, 58 Chatham-street, for daguerreotypes. Diploma.

John Plumb, 251 Broadway, for daguerreotypes. Diploma.

A. J. Beals, 156 Broadway, for daguerreotypes. Diploma.

A. Litch, Boston, Mass., for daguerreotypes. Diploma.

Dies.

Alonzo Hibbard, 38 White-street, for the best chasing tools. Sil-
ver medal.

Anthony Morin, 38 White-street, for the second best chasing tools.
Diploma.

William Tompson, 169 William-street, for bookbinders' orna-
mental tools and impressions. Silver medal.

Drugs and Chemicals.

Charles Partridge, 3 Courtlandt-street, for the best specimen of
segar matches. Diploma.

L. Solomon, 132 Hammersley-street, for the second best specimen
of segar matches. Diploma.

Charles Partridge, 3 Courtlandt-street, for the best specimen of lo-
co foco matches. Silver medal.

Theodore Hyatt, 4 Eighth-street, for the second best specimen of
loco foco matches. Diploma.

William Partridge & Son, 27 Cliff-street, for the best specimen of
chemical preparations. Silver medal.

Truslow & Jackson, 297 Front-street, for the second best speci-
mens of chemical preparations. Diploma.

John Corell, Rivington-street, for the best specimen of chocolate
and prepared cocoa. Diploma.

Henrion & Cheveau, Philadelphia, Penn., for the second best spe-
cimen of chocolate and prepared cocoa. Diploma.

Williams & Bros, Manchester, Conn., for the best specimen of
paste blacking. Diploma.

I

No. 151.] 41

John Vandeventer, 87 Barclay-street, for specimens of paste black-
ing. Diploma.

Mooney & Parmenter, 76 Division-street, for specimens of paste
blacking. Diploma.

Kemp & Knight, Boston, Mass., for the best liquid blacking. Di-
ploma.

Miller Hallowes, St. Marys, Geo., for a very superior quality of
Georgia arrowroot. Silver medal.

Miller Hallowes, St. Marys, Geo., for the best starch. Diploma.

H. C. Hudson, Newark, N. J., for the best specimen of mustard.
Diploma.

Charles L. Stickney, corner Rivington and Attorney-streets, for
the second best specimen of mustard. Diploma.

T. P. Merriam, Providence, R. I., William Steel & Co., sole
agents, 305 Pearl-street, for the best specimen of bar soap. Silver
medal.

Samuel G. Cornell, 175 Front-street, for the best specimen of
linseed oil. Silver medal.

J. Howard & Son, 73 South-street, for the best specimen of lard
oil (manufactured by E. G. Alden.) Silver medal.

J. L. Van Doren, corner West and Charles-streets, J. W Smith,
agent, 90 Wall-street, for the second best specimen of lard oil. Di-
ploma.

William Thomson & Co., 56 Cherry-street, for the best specimen
of saleratus. Diploma.

B. F. Moses, corner Broadway and Chambers-street, for mouth
cashous. Diploma.

Jeffries & Catterfield, 146 Troy -street, for refined brimstone of
superior quality. Silver medal.

James S. Brady, 39 Greene-street, for carbonate of soda. Diplo-
ma.

George Kennedy, 112 Broadway, for the best specimen of hair
dye. Diploma.

E. Phalon, 61 Broadway, for the second best specimen of hair
dye. Diploma.

Morse & Winslow, Thirteenth-street, for the best specimen of
candles. Silver medal.

H. L. Kendall & Co., Providence, R. I., for the second best speci-
men of candles. Diploma.

Tilden & Co., New Lebanon, N. Y., for the best specimens of me-
dicinal herbs. Diploma.

Kent & Black, for the best red and black inks. Silver medal.

42 [Assembly

J. E. Hover, Philadelphia, Penn., Geo. F. Nesbitt, agent, Wall-
street, for the second best specimen of black inks. Diploma.

Charles H. Meyer, Forty-first-street, for the best specimen of re-
fined camphor. Diploma.

C. Pavey, 35 Gold-street, for the best harness blacking and leather
preservative. Silver medal.

J. L. Pierce, Utica, N. Y., for the second best polishing powder.
Diploma.

Smith & Co., 43 Vesey-street, for the best bottled soda water, with
syrups. Silver medal.

Dearborn & Co., Third Avenue, for the second best specimen of
soda water, with syrups. Diploma.

Julius Pollock, 54 Avenue C, for a beautiful sample of white shel-
lac varnish. Diploma.

Thomas B Shepard, Providence, R. I., for superior quality of oil
of vitriol. Diploma.

Joseph Dixon, Jersey City, N. J., for a black lead pot. Diploma.

J. W. Kelley, 17 1| William-street, for lemon sugar. Diploma.

Jas. S. Scofield, 168 Division-street, for samples of refined liquor-
ice. Diploma.

Edge Tools and Cutlery.

Mockridge & Francis, Newark, N. J., for the best carpenters'
planes. Silver medal.

J. W. Farr, 366 Grand-street, for a carpenters' plow. Diploma.

E. W. N. Starr & Co., Middletown, Conn., for the best plane
irons. Silver medal.

Anthony Vittaly, Newark, N. J., for shoemakers' tools. Silver
medal.

John C. Nixon, 91 Nassau-street, for the best engravers' tools.
Diploma.

Hunt, Woodward & Connor, 215 Pearl-street, for curriers' tools.
Diploma.

Samuel C. Hill, agent, 12 Platt-street, for edge tools. Diploma.

T. James W^ood, 62 Chatham-street, for an exhibition of tools.
Diploma.

Henry Rowntree, 60 Chatham-street, for an exhibition of tools.
Diploma.

Joseph Goldie, 133 Attorney-street, for superior anvils and vice.
Gold medal.

A. & G. W. Brady, 39 Green-street, for vices. Diploma.

Holley & Merwin, Lakeville, Conn., for the best pen and pocket
cutlery. Gold medal.

No. 151.] 43

Waterville Manufacturing Co., Waterbury, Conn., for fine pocket
cutlery. Silver medal.

John Wild, 160 Division-street, (15 years of age,) for fine pocket
cutlery. Silver medal.

Isaac Jaques, Elizabethtown, N. J., for improved tailors' shears.
Gold medal.

John C. Nixon & Son, 91 Nassau-street, for tailors' and o.ther
shears. Silver medal.

Leonard & Wendt, 29 and 31 Gold-street, for tailors' shears. Di-
ploma.

R. Heinisch & Burnet, Newark, N. J., for tailors' shears. Diplo-
ma.

J. D. Chevalier, 184 Broadway, for dentists' instruments. (Silver
medal awarded last year.) Diploma.

R. B. Dunn, North Wayne, Maine, for the best scythes. Silver
medal.

J. H. Morse & Sons, Sheldon Falls, Mass., for the second best
scythes. Diploma.

Lawson & Co , Shelburn Falls, Mass., for scythe snaths. Di-
ploma.

P. Dickinson, Amherst, Mass., Wm. C. Perrine agent, 67 Court-
landt-street, for a cast-steel hammer. Silver medal.

Hiram C. Gerow, 139 Broome-street, for a machinist's hammer.
Diploma.

J. W. Dominick, 6 Catharine-street, for hammers. Diploma.

Gilbert & Barnett, Newark, N. J., for cast butts. Silver medal.

Seth Whalen, West Milton, Conn., A. B. Allen, 187 Water-street,
agent, for the best hoes. Silver medal.

E. & T. Fairbanks & Co., St. Johnbury, Vt., Fairbanks & Co.,
agents, 124 Water-street, for the second best hoes. Diploma.

William Wheeler & Co., Troy, N. Y., C. B. Conant, Ellis & Co.,
agents, 217 Pearl-street, for curry combs. Silver medal.

New-York Screw Co., corner 33d street and 3d Avenue, for the
best wood screws. Gold medal.

New-England Screw Co., Providence, R. I., for the second best
"wood screws. Silver medal.

Thomas Furman, 228 Houston-street, for hand-rail screws. Di-
ploma.

A. B. Taylor, 3 Hague-street, for machinists' wrenches. Diplo-
ma.

J. N. & L. Churchill, Hamden, Conn., for the best cast-steel au-
gers. Silver medal.

44 [Assembly

Sanford, Newton & Co., Meriden, Conn., for excellent ship au-
gers. Silver medal.

J. P. Anson, 20 Platt-street, for a spoke auger. Diploma.

Long & Davenport, 10 Platt-street, for cast steel blued augers.
Diploma.

Graves & Gurler, Chesterfield, N. H., for cast steel augers and
bitts. Diploma.

Alexander Barclay, 208 Pearl-street, for bitts and stirrups. Di-
plomas.

Pettibone & Curtis, 6 Gold-street, for butcher knives. Diploma.

George Harvey, 79 Forsyth-street, for braces and bitts. Silver
medal.

W. Blivin, agent, 9 Platt-street, for coach wrenches. Diploma.

Orlando D. McClain, 149 Spring-street, for turning saws. Di-
ploma.

Blake & Brothers, 6 Gold-street, for the best castors, pullies and
wardrobe hooks. Diploma.

J. Johnson & Brothers, Paterson, N. J., for table and bed castors.
Diploma.

Lewis Beach, Worcester, Mass., for steel squares and rules. Di-
ploma.

Seymour, Brothers & Co., Westmoreland, Oneida Co., N. Y., Fol-
ger, Alford & Co., agents, 219 Pearl-street, for blind butts, fasten-
ings and butt hinges. Diploma.

Henry Place, 228 Houston-street, for blind fastenings. Diplo-
ma.

John D. Locke, 193 Water-street, for rivets. Diploma.

Smith, Torrey & Co., 50 Maiden Lane, for foot scrapers. Diplo-
ma.

D. Houston, 7 Burton-street, for a coopers' croze. Diploma.

Solomon Whipple, Albany, N. Y., for machine cut files. Diplo-
ma.

Davenport, Quincy & Co., agents, 81 John-street, for stocks and
dies. Diploma.

Rozell Freeman, Utica, N. Y., for patent mop irons. Diploma.

J. B. Haight, Jersey City, N. J., for umbrella, shovel and tongs
stands. Diploma.

George H. Swords, 116 Broadway, for composition wure, for grape
vines. Diploma.

W^illiam Shove, Newark, N. J., for patent lever buckles. Diplo-
ma.

Henry Nelson, 240 Third Avenue, for superior horseshoes, picks
and hammers. Diploma.

No. 151.] 45

John Flynn, corner Third Avenue and Seventh-street, for horse-
shoes. Diploma.

J. V. D. WyckofF, 149 Broadway, for fancy hardware. Diplo-
ma.

H. Hewer, Philadelphia, Penn, Clark & Wilson, agents, 5 Platt-
street, for saddlers' tools. Diploma.

Engravings.

Wm. Roberts, 71 Nassau-street, for the best specimen of wood en-
graving. Silver medal.

B. F. Pease, 42 Nassau-street, for the second best specimen of
•wood engraving- Diploma.

R. Ten Eyck, 136 Nassau-street, for specimens of wood engra-
ving. Diploma.

M. Houseworth, 39 Lafarge Buildings, for specimens of wood en-
graving. Diploma.

Edward P. Vollum, 368 Broadway, for specimens of wood engra-
ving. Diploma.

G. & W. Endicott, 59 Beekman-street, for the best specimens of
lithography. One of the partners being a manager of the fair, they
are debarred from receiving a premium.

L. Nagel, 74 Fulton-street, for the best specimen of lithography,
in colors. Silver medal.

E. Jones & G. W. Newman, 128 Fulton-street, for specimens of
chrono-lithograi)hy. Diploma.

W. Wade, 102 Broadway, J. Disturnell, publisher, 102 Broadway,
for the panorama of the Hudson river. Silver medal.

Sherman & Smith, 122 Broadway, for the best map engraving,
(map of Canada and the Lower Provinces.) Silver medal.

D. G. Johnson, 140 Nassau-street, for the second best map engra-
ving, (map of the World.) Diploma.

T. & E. H. Ensign, 36 Ann-street, for a map of the United States.
Diploma.

J. H. & G. W. Colton, 86 Cedar-street, for a map of the vicinity
of New-York. Diploma.

J. H. Colton, &6 Cedar-street, for a lithographic map of Pales-
tine. Diploma.

Rev. 0. B. Bidwell, 120 Nassau-street, for three missionary maps.
Diploma.

Robert Lovett, 5 Dey-street, for the best specimen of seal engra-
ving. Being a manager, he is debarred from receiving a premium.

A. W. Francis, 38 Reade-street, for the second best specimen of
seal engraving. Diploma.

46 [Assembly

E. B. Whaite, 1 Courtlandt-street, for a specimen of card engra-
ving. Diploma.

North & Gallagher, Jersey City, N. J., for engraved copper-rol-
lers for calico printing. Silver medal.

E. T. Brundage, 207 Third Avenue, for a pentagraphic appara-
tus. Diploma,

George Gray, 32 Washington-square, for plaster and sulphur me-
dallions. Diploma.

Fine Arts.

F. R. Spencer, 115 Canal-street, for the best portrait painting in
oil. Silver medal.

Miller & Hillyer, 16 Rivington-street, for the second best portrait
painting in oil. Diploma.

Joseph J. Button, 206 Ninth-street, for the best landscape painting.
Silver medal.

Miss Isabella Shaw, Willi amsburgh, L. I., for the second best
landscape painting. Diploma.

George W. Griffith, Westchester co., N. Y., for a good specimen
of oil painting. Diploma.

Mesdames Palmer & Bond, 230 East Broadway, for specimens of
water-colored painting. Diploma.

James Stothard, jr., 12 Madison-street, for the second best water
colored painting. Diploma.

J. R. Waterstein, 171 Canal-street, for the best pencil drawings.
Diploma.

Miss Cornelia T. Meeker, Bushwick, L. L, for the second best pen-
cil drawing. Diploma.

Henry Egbert, jr., 4 Hammersley-street, for a good crayon draw-
ing. Diploma.

John V. Cornell, 209 Centre-street, for a good painting of the
" Iron Witch." Diploma.

J. & H. L. Tryon, 36 Suffolk-street, for specimens of cameos, ex-
ceedingly well designed. Diploma.

W. J. Hannington, 418| Broadway, for good specimens of window
shades. Diploma.

T. Brockleback, 556 Broadway, for a specimen of restored paint-
ing. Diploma.

Miss Emma A. Heeley, Albany, N. Y., for flower painting in wa-
ter colors, from nature. Diploma.

H. W. Herbert, New- York, for superior pen and ink sketches.
Diploma.

No. 151.] 47

Fire Arms.

Moses Dickson, Louisville, Ky., for the best rifle. Silver medal.

Allen & Thurber, Norwich, Conn., for the best revolving pistols.
Silver medal.

Blunt & Syms, 44 Chatham-street, for second best revolving pis-
tols. Diploma.

Clinton Roosevelt, 23 Chambers-street, for a projectile, evincing
ingenuity in the invention. Diploma.

Robert McCarty, 1 State-street, for a cannon ball of a new con-
struction. Diploma.

Fire Works.

Isaac Edge, Jersey City, N. J., for the best exhibition of fire-
w^orks. Silver cup.

John Turrell, Fort Washington, N. Y., for the second best exhibi-
tion of fire-works. Silver medal.

Glass and Earthen ware.

P. C. Dummer & Co., Jersey City, N. J., for cut glass. Silver
medal.

Smith & Day, 38 Peck Slip, for superior earthen spittoons. Di-
ploma.

Window Glass.

M. Lane & Co., Clinton Co., N. Y., Morgan, Walker & Smith,
agents, 82 John-street, for a superior quality of Redford crow^n win-
dow glass. Diploma.

Fur and Silk Hats.

John N. Genin, 214 Broadway, for the best silk hat. Silver
medal.

J. B. Finchley, 189 Broadway, for the second best silk hat. Di-
ploma.

Henry T. Gratacap, 392 Broadway, for the best military hat. Di-
ploma.

Burdicks, Oar & Co., Herkimer, N. Y., for Saxony wool hat-bo-
dies. Silver medal.

John N. Genin, 214 Broadway, for the best caps. Silver medal.

J. B. Finchley, 189 Broadway, for the second best caps. Diplo-
ma.

48 [Assembly

Straw and Pamela Bonnets.

W. Gay, Franklin, Mass., for the best fine split-straw bonnet.
Silver medal.

Roland D. Solace, 189 Pearl-street, for the second best fine split-
straw bonnet. Diploma.

Thomas Young, 96 Bowery, for a good, fine split-straw bonnet.
Diploma.

Thomas Young, 96 Bowery, for a pearl-straw bonnet. Diploma.

A. A. Gridley, Watertown, Conn., for very superior palm-leaf
hats. Diploma.

Robert Love, corner Twenty-fifth-street and Eighth Avenue, for
Neapolitan lace for bonnets. Silver medal.

John Sammis, 86 Delancy-street, for the best pamela bonnets.
(Made from sea island cotton.) Silver medal.

James Mihvood, 62 John-street, for the second best pamela bon-
nets. (Made from sea island cotton.) Diploma.

Hemp and its Manufactures.

Spencer Anderson, Kentucky, McGregor & Morris, agents, 11
Front-street, for the best specimen of hemp. Silver medal.

Geo. F. Power, Brooklyn, L I., E. H. Carmick & Co., agents.
No. 7 Beaver-street, for the second best specimen of hemp. Diplo-
ma.

L. T. Beardsley, Watertown, N. Y., for superior twine and shoe
thread. Gold medal.

New-Bedford Cordage Manufactory, (H. Evans, superintendent,)
for a superior coil of manilla rope. Diploma.

Household Utensils.

Martin D. Meyers, 259 1 Bleecker-street, for a refrigerator of ex-
cellent workmanship. Diploma.

William Wagner, 36 Cherry-street, for the best brass-bound pail.
Diploma.

Windle & Co., 56 Maiden Lane, for the best brooms. Diploma.

George A. Arrovvsraith, 70 Nassau-street, for a knife sharpener,
with bell attached. Diploma.

James A. Kissam, 188 Water-street, for a bath heater — ^a good
and useful article. Diploma.

Charles C. Bier, 238 Water-street, for a water cooler. Diploma.

India Rubber Goods.

The Newark India Rubber Manufacturing Company, 53 Maiden
Lane, for the best specimen of shirred suspenders. Silver medal.

No. 151.] 49

Horace H. Day, 23 Courtlandt-street, for the second best specimen
of shirred suspenders. Diploma.

Brower & Brooks, 100 Broadway, for piano covers — a beautiful
article. Diploma.

N. Hayward & Co., Lisbon, Conn , for the best India rubber shoes.
Silver medal.

M. J. Frisbee, 217 Pearl-street, for the second best India rubber
shoes. Diploma.

Horace H. Day, 23 Courtlandt-street, for the best air pillow cov-
ered with ticking and hospital cushion. Diploma.

Horace H. Day, 23 Courtlandt-street, for a mattrass — very merito-
rious. Diploma.

M. Dodd & Son, Newark, N. J., for superior made suspenders.
Diploma.

Iron and Steel.

Peter Cooper, 17 Burling Slip, for specimens of railroad iron.
Gold medal.

Peck & Son, 27 Cliff-street, for specimens of sheet iron. (Gold
medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Broadmeadow Steel Company, Richmond, Va., for specimens of
steel. Silver medal.

Leather.

Jacobus & Utter, Newark, N. J., for the best black and russet,
bridle, skirting, bag and trunk leather. Silver medal.

J. Hollingsworth, Newark, N. J., for the second best skirting
leather and skirts. Diplcma.

Calvin Sage, Colebrook, Conn., Seymour & Co., agents, 97 John-
street, for the best shaved sheep skins. Silver medal.

V. W. Helms, New- York, for the second best shaved sheep skins.
Diploma.

Halsey & Tucker, Newark, N. J., for the best finished calf skins.
Silver medal.

A. H. Brahe, 27 Ferry-street, for the second best calf skins. Di-
ploma.

J. &. R. Ward, Newark, N. J., for the best Japanned leather.
(Variety and quality, as a whole, superior to any thing the judges
ever witnessed.) Gold medal. .

John Chadwick, 34 Front-street, Newark, N. J., for patent leather,
oiled silk, glazed silk and glazed muslin. Diploma.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 4

90 [Assembly

David B. Crockett & Co., Newark, N. J., for patent skirting
leather, military belt leather, collar hides, enamelled hides and pa-
tent shoe hides. Diploma.

G. W. Gorura, 173 Water-street, for the best japanned hat skivers.
Diploma.

Burbank & Chambers, 23 Ferry-street, for the best fancy colored
and bronze morocco boot skins. Silver medal.

Luman Foot, North Canaan, Conn., for the best bark tanned sheep
skins. Silver medal.

L. Shepard & Son, Norfolk, Conn., for the best bark tanned roans.
Diploma.

D. N. Edson, Olive, Ulster Co., N. Y., for the best sole leather
butts. Diploma.

T. Cromwell, 7 Ferry-street, for the second best sole leather. Di-
ploma.

John Colwell, Newark, N. J., for skirting and bridle leather. Di-
ploma.

Locks, Door Springs, Sj-c.

William E. Woodbridge, 61 Elizabeth-street, for the best bank
lock. Silver medal.

Joshua H. Butterworth, Dover, N. J., for a bank lock. Diploma.

Henry Isham, Hartford, Conn., for a bank lock. Diploma.

John L. Whetstone, Cincinnati, Ohio, for a bank lock. Diploma.

Pierpont, Mallory & Co., New-Haven, Conn., L. B. Bleecker,
agent, 219 Pearl-street, for the best locks and latches. Silver me-
dal.

H. Wheeler, 222 Pearl-street, for the second best latches. Diplo-
ma

Tuttle & Day, Newark, N. J., for the best night latch. Diploma.

Charles G. Martin, 175 Laurens-street, for the second best night
latch. Diploma.

George W. Jackson, 142 Fulton- street, Brooklyn, L. I., for silver
plated door knobs and plates. Silver medal.

Clinchard & Sommers, Newark, N. J., for trunk and door locks.
Silver medal.

Price & Dana, Utica, N. Y., for rim and mortice locks and bell-
pulls. Diploma.

William H. Day, 132 Mercer-street, for specimens of knobs. Di-
ploma.

J. C. Palmer, Conn , E. Hunt, agent, 20 Platt-street, for a set of
blind butts and frame. Diploma.

No. 151.] 51

Machinery, Steam Engines, Models, Sfc.

Earle & Eames, Worcester, ilass., for the best card setting ma-
chine. Gold medal.

T. K. Earle, & Co., Worcester, Mass., for the second best card
setting machine. Silver medal.

T. K. Earle & Co., and Earle & Eames, Worcester, Mass., for
machine cards, no difference being perceptible to the judges. Diplo-
ma to each.

James T. Perkins, Hudson, N, Y., for the best large slide lathe.
Diploma.

Hughes & Phillips, Newark, N. J., for the best small lathe. Di-
ploma.

Stillman, Allen & Co., Novelty Works, New- York, for the best
steam engine, (ten horse power.) One of the partners being a ma-
nager of the fair, they were debarred from receiving a premium.

B. F. McCreary, 79 Columbia-street, for the second best steam
engine. Silver medal.

Geo. W. Weeks, 240 Delancy-street, for the third best steam en-
gine. Diploma.

Charles F. Frasse, 95 Fulton-street, for a beautiful model of a
steam engine. Diploma.

F. J. Austin, 31 Ann-street, for the best embossing machine. Sil-
ver medal.

B. Sheridan, 29 Ann-street, for the second best embossing machine.
Diploma.

Flagler, Baker & Co., 213 Water-street, for the best portable
forge. Silver medal.

J. H. Gilbert & Son, Peekskill, N. Y., for the second best porta-
ble forge. Diploma.

F. M. Ray, corner, Thirty-third-street, and Third Avenue, for the
best railroad truck. (Gold medal having been before awarded.)
Diploma.

Cornelius Kanouse, Jersey City, N. J., for the second best railroad
truck. Diploma.

Wm. Kumbel, 33 Ferry-street, for excellent specimens of machine
stretched leather bands, upon original machinery, by Mr. Kumbel.
Silver medal.

F. W. Wood, 67 Frankfort-street, for the best mode of splicing
machine stretched leather bands. Silver medal.

Jabez Baldwin, Louisville, Kentucky, for the best lifting or hand
force pump. Silver medal.

D. L. Farnam, 29 Fulton-street, for the second best hand force
pump. Diploma.

52 [Assembly

G. B. Maigne, 183 William-street, for the best card printing press«
Silver medal.

Peter S. Hoe, 29 Gold-street, for the second best card printing
press. Diploma.

John Fraser, 1 Chatham Square, for the best door pad. Diploma.

Gifford & Gennet, Syracuse, N. Y., for the second best weather
strip or pad. Diploma.

J. A. Fay, Keene, N. H., David Jacobus, agent, 138 Wooster-
street, for the best foot morticing machine. Silver medal.

B. H. Otis, Syracuse, N. Y., John Green, agent, 115 Walker-
street, for the second best foot morticing machine. Diploma.

Jonathan V. Nichols, Newark, N. J., for the best hand morticing
machine. Silver medal.

J. Van Houghton, T. J. Wood, agent, corner Duane and Chatham-
street, for the second best hand morticing machine. Diploma.

W^. H. Jennison, 66 Frankfort-street, for the best Croton filter,
(filter made of sand, compressed.) Gold medal.

S. H. Lewis, 34 Eldridge-street, for a filter, with a valve to re-
verse the current. (A good improvement.) Silver medal,

Thomas F. Wenman, corner Broadway and Franklin-street, for a
filter, for the improvement for reversing current. Diploma.

William Read & Co., 63 and 65 Centre-street, for a filter — the
filter of sandstone. Diploma.

F. M. Ray, corner Thirty-third-street and Third Avenue, for an
improved railroad wheel. Silver medal.

Charles Ross, 120 Eighth-street, for a portable flour mill. (Silver
medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Charles Ross, 120 Eighth-street, for a hand flour and corn mill.
(A good article for the west.) Silver medal.

Charles Ross, 120 Eighth-street, for a portable corn mill. Diplo-
ma.

James P. Ross, Lewisburgh, Union »Co., Pa., for a machine for
breaking and grinding corn in the ear. Silver medal.

Daniel Howell, 29 Hammond-street, for a tanning machine. (Sil-
ver medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

A. H. Beschormann, 69| Centre-street, for a tanning machine.
Diploma.

L. McGuire, 298 Mulberry-street, for a foot sawing machine.
Diploma.

H. L. B. Lewis, 87 W^alker-street, for a model of safety locomo-
tive. Silver medal.

George Farnham, 305 Greenwich-street, for a snow plow for rail-
roads. Diploma.

No. 151.] 53

D. Griffin, 192 Broadway, for a plan of setting steam boilers for
detaining the heated gases. Silver medal.

' George Vail & Co., Speedwell, N. J., for a good specimen of pa-
per engine plates. Silver medal.

J. A. Roebling, Pittsburgh, Pa , J. P. Pirsson, Jr., agent, 5 Wall-
street, for a coil of wire rope for suspension bridges. Gold medal.

Geo. C. Taft, Worcester, Mass , Rich & Loutrel, agents, 61 Wil-
liam-street, for five beatifully finished copying presses. Diploma.

^John Brown, 29 Ann-street, for a dovetailing machine. Silver
medal.

J. L. Haines, 77 Sixteenth-street, for a tenoning machine, Di-
ploma.

Pearley Martin, A. H. Mallory, agent, 9 Pine-street, for tin har-
ness for weaving. Diploma.

B. S. Benson, Baltimore, Md., for water rams — a good article for
farmers. Silver medal.

Chauncy Andrews, Paterson, N. J., for an elevating water wheel.
(Silver medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Thomas G. Kells, N. Y., for the second best water wheel. Di-
ploma.

G. Hotchksss, Windsor, Broome, Co , N. Y., for a saw mill water
Wheel. (Gold medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

William Bullock, Williamsburgh, L. I., for an improved water
wheel. Silver medal.

Daniel R. Curtis, New-Hartford, Oneida Co., N. Y., for a mule
■drum for cotton spinning. Diploma.

Moses Drake, St. Johnsville, N. Y., for a model of a flour cooler,
to prevent flour from spoiling. Silver medal.

Barnum & Anthony, 276 Stanton-street, for an improvement for
preventing deposites and detaching incrustations upon the inner sur-
faces of steam boilers. Silver medal.

George R. Moore, Philadelphia, Pa., for a machine for double
seaming tin work. Diploma.

Seth Lamb, 57 Reade-street, for a street cleaning machine — a sim-
ple labor saving machine. Diploma.

Perry G. Gardiner, 10 Wall-street, for an ingenious paddle wheel.
Diploma.

Charles Thurber, Norwich, Conn., for a writing machine for the
blind, A remarkable piece of mechanism. Gold medal.

George Ewing, 41 Hammond-street, for a button covering ma-
chine. Diploma.

Thomas Godwin, corner Eleventh-street and Broadway, for a Cro-
ton shut off. Diploma.

54 [Assembly

H. R. Worthington, patentee, William H. Baker, for a steam pump
and fire engine. Silver medal.

Farrand & Hinraan, New-Jersey, for a water drawer. Diploma.

Loudon & Shaw, 42 Gold-street, G. Scott, agent, corner Eighth-
street and Sixth Avenue, for a hat finishing machine. Diploma.

James Herron, Philadelphia, Pa., for a railroad superstructure.
Gold medal.

Walter Hunt, 42 Gold-street, for a domestic mincing machine. Sil-
ver medal. . ,

John Williams, Salem, Washington, Co., N. Y., for a small gear
cutter. Silver medal.

F. J. Austin, 31 Ann-street, for a book binder's cutting machine.
(Silver medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

D. Griffin, 192 Broadway, for an improvement in steam boilers,
(outside extension flues to anthracite boilers reverberating the flame.)
Silver medal.

Paul Stillman, Novelty Works, for excellent vacuum and steam
guages. Silver medal.

W'orthington & Baker, Williamsburg, L. I., for a percussion water
guage. Silver medal.

James Rodgers, 410| Broadway, for a steam vacuum guage. Di-
ploma.

Hall & Chase, New-Jersey, for a new style of window fastening.
Diploma.

George C. Taft, Worcester, Mass., Rich and Loutrel, agents, 61
William-street, for notarial presses. Diploma.

E. S. Peters, Kent, Conn., for a model of a shingle machine.
Diploma.

F. H. Bartholomew, 165 Front-street, for a patent self-acting hy-
drant. Silver medal.

John L. Constable, 91 Amity-street, for a model of an improved
four roller sugar mill. Silver medal.

J. Darlino-, Adrian, Michigan, Russel Warren, 157 Madison-street,
and Jacob Humphrey, 81 Pike-slip, agents, for a rotary bellows on
a new principle. Silver medal.

William Vine, 754 Greenwich-street, for an improved knife clean-
ing machine. (Silver medal having been before awarded.) Diplo-
ma.

William Ballard, 7 Eldridge-street, for jack screAvs. (Silver me-
dal having been before awarded ) Diploma.

F. E. Sickles, 196 Hudson-street, for an improvement in the mode
of connecting the steam chest with the cylinder and condenser of
steam-engines. Silver medal.

No. 151.] 55

F. J. Austin, 31 Ann-street, for an inking machine. Diploma.

James Bogardus, 40 Eldridge-street, for an eccentric mill. (Sil
ver medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Hiram Humisto!',, Troy, N. Y., for a model of a superior cast-iron
roof. Gold medal.

Mott & Ayres, Tvventy-fifth-street, between Tenth and Eleventh
Avenues, for a model iron roof. Diploma.

E. Jones & Co., Worcester, Mass., for a shaft coupling. Diplo-
ma.

Ephraim Lukens, Philadelphia, Penn., for a washing machine.
Diploma.

J. C. Rich, 73 Pine-street, for a washing machine. Diploma.

Bacon, Bickford & Co., Simsbury, Conn., G. W. Guion, agent,
174 West-street, for a patent safety fuse for blasting. Diploma.

E. G. Tripp, A. H. Mallory, agent, 9 Pine-street, for weavers'
shuttles. Diploma.

Selah Hiler & Co., 67 and 69 Forsyth-street, for a box of rivets.
Diploma.

Kelsey & Garret, 85 Avenue D, for a fire hydrant. (Medal ha-
ving been before awarded.) Diploma.

Calvin Emmons, 67 Forsyth-street, for a machine for preparing
w^aste wool for re-manufacture. Silver medal.

Perry P. Gardiner, for an improved saw-mill, with elliptical
stroke, now at work at No. 24 Mercer-street. Gold medal.

Daniel Barnum, 276 Stanton-street, for a double cylinder, high
and low pressure steam engine. Diploma.

T. C. Clarke, Philadelphia, Penn., for an ingenious faucet. Di-
ploma.

F. G. Richardson, 107 John-street, for wire cloth of beautiful
manufacture. Silver medal.

F. Harris &, Son, Brooklyn, L. I., for a smut mill upon a new
construction. Diploma.

E. & T. Fairbanks & Co., St. Johnsbury, Vt., Fairbanks & Co.,
agents, 124 Water-street, for the best platform scales. (Silver me-
dal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

John D. Dale, 114 Front-street, for the second best platform
scales. Diploma.

Henry Westwood, Newark, N. J., for steelyards and scale beams.
Diploma.

Samuel S. Potter, 188 Water-street, for a good suspension coal
scale. Silver medal.

John Squire, jr., 202 West-street, for a pattern platform spring
balance. Diploma.

56 [Assembly

Lardner & Davidson, 45 Leroy-street, for an apparatus for curing
meat and impregnating timber with various salts. Silver medal.

William Boardman, for a steam pump for wrecking purposes.
Gold medal.

John D. Ward, Jersey City, N. J., for a drilling machine. Silver
medal.

Daniel Barnum, New-York, for an apparatus to prevent explo-
sions of steam boilers and flues in steamboats. Silver medal.

Mark Poole, 23 Amity Place, for portable force pumps and gard-
en syringes. Diploma.

Mathematical and Philosophical Instruments.

Henry Fitz, 508 Fourth-street, for an improvement in the object
glass of an achromatic telescope, for which a gold medal was
awarded last year. Silver medal.

Henry Fitz, 508 Fourth-street, for an improvement in a stand for
a telescope. Diploma.

S, B. Smith, 297 1 Broadway, for a well made magnetic machine.
(Silver medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Thomas C. Avery, 77 Charlton-street, for a magnetic bath. Di-
p^loma.

James P. Gardner, W. A. Piatt, agent, Columbus, Ohio, for a well
made and ingenious sun dial. Diploma. •

Robert Day & Co., 25 Ann-street, for Palmer's computing scales.
(Silver medal having been before av\arded.) Diploma.

William Jones, 275 Spring-street, for an improvement in the as-
tral chronometer, for %vhich a silver medal was awarded last year.
Diploma.

James McCoskrie, Carabridgeport, Mass., Davenport, Quincy &
Co., agents, 81 John-street, for a spirit level. Diploma.

H. M. Babbitt, Providence, R. I., for a micrometer — an excellent
specimen of graduation, of superior workmanship. Silver medal.

Thomas Fisher, Philadelphia, Ptnn., for an astronomical device.
Diploma.

S. S. Graham, Brooklyn, L. L, for an improvement in the con-
struction of a camera obscura. Diploma.

E. M. Bryam, Sag Harbor, L. I., for an improvement in the sus-
pension of the mariners' compass. Diploma.

Mechanical Drawing.

Thompson Kingsford, Bergen, N. J., for the best mechanical draw-
ing. Diploma.

No. 151.] 57

Frederic Cook, 139 Avenue D, for the second best mechanical
drawing. Diploma.

/

Musical Instruments.

A. G. Badger, Newark, N. J., for the best Boehm flute and best
eight keyed flute. Silver medal.

C. G. Christman, 404 Pearl-street, for good workmanship on a
sixteen keyed flute. Diploma.

C. G. Christman, 404 Pearl-street, for a guitar. Diploma,

Jacob Kiefer, 108 Delancy-street, for the workmanship on a gui-
tar. Diploma.

C. G. Christman, 404 Pearl-street, for a keyed bugle. Diploma.

J. D. Larrabee, Newark, N. J,, for an ivory octave flute. Silver
medal.

JVaval ^Architecture.

Joseph Francis, Dry Dock, N. Y., for a metallic life boat. Gold
medal.

Bishop & Sampson, East river, near Sixth-street, for a model of
the steam boat Atlantic. Diploma.

William C. Redfield, N. Y., for an improvement in building
freight boats. Silver medal.

Isaacs & Watkins, for self-clearing anchors. Diploma.

A. A. Wilder, Detroit, Michigan, for a steam boat telegraph. Sil-
ver medal.

Geo. W. Taylor, for marine camels for lighting vessels over bars,
or offshore, when aground. Gold medal.

J\''eedle-iDork, Embroidery, and Fancy Articles.

Mrs. Laura M. Briggs, 172 Division-street, for the best worsted
work. Diploma.

Miss Mary Ann Magee, 276 Bleecker-street, for the second best
worsted work. Diploma.

Mrs. J. Brush, 573 Broome-street, for a specimen of worsted work.
Diploma.

Miss Helen M. Jacob, Rathbun's Hotel, Broadway, for a speci-
men of worsted work. Diploma.

Miss Maria Ripley, Brooklyn, L. I., for a frame of worsted work.
Diploma.

Rev. Z. Kunze, Thirty-first-street, near Seventh Avenue, for a
frame of worsted work. Diploma.

Miss Catharine Gracie, 16 Waverly Place, for an ottoman cover.
Diploma.

58 [Assembly

Miss Caroline Summers, 148 Greenwich-street, for a specimen of
worsted work. Diploma.

Miss Caroline K. Smith, 62 Warren-street, for a specimen of
worsted w^ork. Diploma.

Henry Lawrence, 14 John-street, for the best lamp mat. Diplo-
ma.

" Lois Girard, 150 Washington-street, Brooklyn, L. L, for the sec-
ond best lamp mat. Diploma.

S. L. Burnham, 17 Broadway, for the best worked fire screen.
Diploma.

N. Peck, Thirty-ninth-street, for a very pretty lamp mat. Diplo-
ma.

Mrs. Charles E. West, 36 Twenty-fourth-street, for the best rais-
ed w^orsted work. Diploma.

Miss Josephine Marcet, 84 Orchard-street, for an embroidered ot-
toman cover. Diploma.

Mrs. A. Jackson, 5 Prince-street, for an embroidered handkerchief.
Diploma.

Miss M. A. Cortelyou, 11 Chambers-street, for specimens of em-
broidery. Diploma.

Sophia McAdam, 83 Fourth-street, for an embroidered travelling
bag. Diploma.

A. A. Butterfield, 33 Cedar-street, for the best embroidery on
cloth. (Vest patterns.) Silver medal.

Mrs. A. Jackson, 5 Prince-street, for a needle- worked handker-
chief. Diploma.

Mary Eaton, Boston, Mass , for the best cambric embroidery. Di-
ploma.

Mrs. E. A. Hotchkin, Fairton, Conn., for a child's knit lace cap.
Diploma.

Charles Larsen, 309 Grand-street, for a child's silk hood. Diplo-
ma.

Mrs. George Clark, Hyde Hall, Otsego Co., N. Y., for the best
worsted embroidered chair. Silver medal.

Miss J. A. Hirley, 78 John-street, for the best chenele embroider-
ed chair. Silver medal.

Mrs. Hannah Dixon, Jersey City, N. J,, for a frame of needle-
work, in imitation of line engraving. Diploma.

Miss H. Eaton, Boston, Mass., for the second best needle-work.
Diploma.

J. M. Botner, 86 Nassau-street, for the best regalia. Silver medal.

M. J. Drummond, 309 Grand-street, for the second best regalia.
Diploma.

No. 151.] 59

Elias Combs, 131 Forsyth-street, for a case of regalia. Diploma,

Margaret Jay, 313 Bleecker-street, for the best bead bag and box.
Diploma.

Mrs. Alston, 15 Roosevelt-street, for the second best bead bag.
Diploma.

Mrs. M. A. Briggs, 532 Greenwich-street, for the best bead purse.
Diploma.

JNIrs. Willis Patten, New-England House, for the second best bead
purse. Diploma.

Mesdames Palmer & Farr, 476 Broadway, for the best shirts.
Silver medal.

D. W. Canfield, 2| Maiden Lane, for a superior shirt. (Silver me-
dal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Joas Antonio Tello, 16 Willett-street, for feather flowers. Silver
medal.

Mrs. F. Marchant, 158 William-street, for the best feather flow-
ers. Silver medal.

M. B. D. Ackerman, 190 William-street, for the second best arti-
ficial flowers. Diploma.

Mrs. Sarah Dowdall, 67 Marion-street, for the best wax doll —
made entirely by the exhibitor. Diploma.

E. Wiggins, for the best lace veil. Diploma.

Mrs. A. H. Marcy, 214 Bowery, for the best frame bonnet in cut
velvet. Diploma.

Mrs. William Simmons, 564 Broadway, for the best drawn bonnets,
Diploma.

John Sammis, 86 Delancy-street, for excelsior bonnets — trimming
in best taste. Diploma.

Miss S. Hallack, 4 Warren-street, for the best braided merino dress.
Diploma.

Mrs. E. Bradbrook, 297 Broadway, for the best exhibition of in-
fants' clothing. Silver medal.

Miss Margaret Ann Beams, 74 Madison-street, for the second best
infants' dresses. Diploma.

Miss. Smith, 75 Thompson-street, for the best shell work. Diplo-
ma.

Isaac Labagh, 541 Broome-street, for the second best shell work.
Diploma.

J. H. C Blanc, 187 Twentieth-street, for a frame of straw work,
curious and new. Diploma.

Parsells & Agate, 237 Broadway, for a case of corsets and belts,
very well made. Diploma.

60- [Assembly

William J. Ross & Co., 368 Bowery, for specimens of cleaned kid
gloves. Diploma. ^

Mrs. S. Seamen, 25 Walker-street, for a steel bead worked bag.
Diploma.

Mrs. S. Weed, 10 Morton-street, for a steel bead worked bag.
Diploma.

L. Duhain, 22 John-street, for specimens of dyed military and oth-
er feathers. Diploma.

Mrs. Elizabeth Gresham, Bulls Ferry, N. J., for ladies' worsted
carriage shoes. Diploma.

Mrs. E. Bettger, 195 Walker- street, for the best specimen of hair
work. Diploma.

Miss Abby Ann Warren, Monantam Vale, Mass., for specimens of
■wax fruit. Silver medal.

Miss A. M. Kortkampf, Greenwich, corner of Cedar-street, for the
bset silver head ornaments. Diploma.

Miss Jane Calhoun, 16 Waverly Place, for the best table cover.
Diploma.

Miss Augusta S. Rowley, Hudson, N. Y., for the second best table
cover. Diploma.

Miss Sephronia Taylor, Eighth Avenue, corner Thirty-ninth-street,
for a knit worsted piano cover. Silver medal.

Miss Mary Hinsdale, Pittsfield, Mass., for the best pair of knit
stockings. Diploma.

Quilts.

The Misses Haviland, Harrison Co., Ky., for the best patch work
quilt. Diploma.

Mrs. L. Betts, 10 State-street, for the second best patch work quilt.
Diploma.

Miss Ann Elizabeth Forbes, 247 Spring-street, for the best silk
quilt. Silver medal.

Mrs. V. R. Allen, 101 Third Avenue, for the second best silk quilt.
Diploma.

Mrs. Margaret Stone, 425 Pearl-street, for the best knit quilt. Di-
ploma.

Mrs. William M. Peck, Brooklyn, L. 1., for the second best knit
quilt. Diploma.

Mrs. Thompson, 36 Orchard-street, for the best crib quilt. Di-
ploma.

Mrs. Matilda Tilton, 384 Washington-street, for a cradle quilt,
very ingenious and neatly made. Diploma.

No. 151.] 61

Mrs. Mary Hall, Hudson-street, for a quilt, a handsome specimen
of quilting. Diploma.

Paper Hangings.

William S. Birch, Baltimore, Md., for the best paper hangings.
Silver medal.

Christy & Constant, 61 Maiden Lane, for the second best paper
hangings. Diploma.

Gold Pens.

LeTi Brown, Brooklyn, L. I., for the best gold pens. Silver me-
dal.

A. G. Spencer, Brooklyn, L. I., for the second best gold pens.
Diploma.

Perfumery.

E. Rousell, 159 Broadway, for the best shaving cream, cologne
water, fancy soaps and extracts. Silver medal.

Johnson, Vroom & Fowler, 3 Courtlandt-street, for the best mili-
tary shaving soap. Diploma.

C. H. Ring, 192 Broadway, for the second best shaving cream.
Diploma.

Joseph W. Giovannoni, 23 Nassau-street, for hair balsamic. Di-
ploma.

Anna M. Scofield, 168 Division-straet, for orris tooth paste. Di-
ploma.

Plated Ware.

Robert Roberts, 562 Broadway, for the best silver plated door and
number plates. Diploma.

Cowles Manufacturing Co., TarifFville, Conn., F. R. Anderson,
agent, for superior silver plated spoons, knives and forks. Silver
medal.

Piano Fortes and Organs.

Bacon & Raven, 164, Centre-street, for the best piano forte, for
its rich and powerful quality of tone. Gold medal.

J. H. Schomacker & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., for the second bes tpi-
ano fortes, but little inferior to the above, and of exquisite touch.
Silver medal.

62 [Assembly

Trinity Church Organ,

Henry Erben, 166, Centre-street, for the organ in Trinity Church,
for its superior tone and workmanship, being the largest and most
perfect specimen of work exhibited in this country. Gold medal.

Pins and! JVeedles.

Slocum, Jillson & Co., Poughkeepsie, N. Y., for the best pin .
(Gold medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Howe Manufacturing Co , Edward Cook, agent, No. 17 Nassau-
street, for a superior quality of pins. (Gold medal having been before
awarded.) Diploma.

Knickerbocker Manufacturing Co., Brooklyn, W. C. Langley &
Co., agents, 25 Broad-street, for an excellent quality of pins. Sil-
ver medal.

Henry Essex & Co., Newcastle, Westchester Co., N. Y., L. & V.
Kirby, agents, 47 Cedar-street, for specimens of needles. (Gold me-
dal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Preparations of JYatural History.

J. G. Bell, 289 Broadway, for the best stuffed birds — very fine.
Silver medal.

Julian Hooper, Brooklyn, L. I., for the best prepared insects.
Diploma.

A. Eagle, 24 Bowery, for fine specimens of Connecticut copper
ore. Diploma.

E. H. Warner, 2 Wall-street, for a fine collection of Lake Supe-
rior silver and copper ore. Diploma.

Somerville Mining Co., N. J., for good specimens of copper ore.
Diploma.

Regatta.

Boat's crew of " Monterey," for the best rowing in a 25 feet boat.
(Monterey against Metamoras.) Silver medal.

Boat's crew of the " Rough and Ready," for good rowing in a
thirty feet boat. (Rough and Ready.) Silver medal.

Boat's crew of the " General Taylor," for good rowing in a 30
feet boat. (General. Taylor.) Diploma.

William Wood and William Hiler, for good rowing in skull boat
Whitehall, time 37 minutes from Castle Garden round Bedlow's Is-
land and back. Silver medal.

Boat's crew of the " George Washington," for the best rowing

No. ISL] 63

against time, from Castle Garden round Bedlow's Island and back in
29 minutes. Silver medal.

Thomas Coady, for the best rowing with one pair of sculls, in
boat " Happy go luck'y," against boats " Rough and Ready," " Hen-
ry Clay," and " Fashion." Diploma.

Roads and Bridges.

Horace P. Russ, 2 Boni-street, for the " Russ pavement." Silver
medal.

A. D. Bishop, Harlem, N. Y., for a railroad trellis bridge. Silver
medal.

Thomas Godwin, corner Eleventh-street and Broadway, for a plan
of excavating, for sewers and other purposes. Silver medal.

Nathaniel Rider, 26 Tenth-street, for an iron railroad bridge. Gold
medal.

Saddlery, Harness and Trunks.

Thomas Fitzharris, Brooklyn, L. I., for the best saddlery. Silver
medal.

£Samuel L. Post, corner Broadway and Murray-street, for a large
exhibition of harness. Diploma.

F. C. Curtis, Columbia, S. C, for a patent collar. Diploma.

J. B. & J. Bull, 205 Broadway, for a leather trunk. Silver medal.

Christian Steine, 392 Broadway, for a fireman's cap. Diploma.

Samuel Wilson, Dansville, N. Y., for a leather creasing machine.
(Silver medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Sign Painting and Imitations.

W. Laragli, 117| Mott-street, for the best imitation of oak. Sil-
ver medal.

J. C. Quarterman, 18 Burling Slip, for an oak sign. Diploma.

S. Alburtus, jr., 45 "William-street, for a manuscript sign. Di-
ploma.

Erasmus B. Derby, 133 York-street, Brooklyn, L. L, for a fancy
sign. Diploma.

James G. Cooper, 276 Grand-street, for a transparent silk sign.
Diploma.

Silver ware and Jewelry.

Wm. Adams, 38 White-street, for the best silver ware. Gold
medal.

Gerardus Boyce, 110 Greene-street, for the second best silver
ware. Silver medal.

Albert Coles, 6 Little Green-street, for the best silver knives and
forks. Silver medal.

64 [Assembly

Samuel Baldwin, Newark, N. J., for the best watch cases and di-
als. Gold medal.

Squire & Brothers, 182 Bowery, for the best exhibition of jewel-
ry. Gold medal.

A. G. Bagley, 189 Broadway, for the best silver extension pen
holders. Silver medal.

Edward Deacon, 151 Spring-street, for the second best pen hold-
ers. Diploma.

Benjamin F. Moore, 43 Ann-street, for a specimen of gold cha-
sing. Diploma.

Jonathan Smith, 89 Reade-street, for an exhibition of herald cha-
sing. Diploma.

Manufactured Silk.

Combier & Deschau, 579 Greenwich-street, for the best silk dying.
Silver medal.

William Heyden, Twenty-seventh-street, corner of Ninth Avenue,
for the second best silk dying. Diploma.

Mrs. Caroline Swartz, 172 William-street, for specimens of silk
dying. Diploma.

Murray & Ryle, Paterson, N, J., for the best colored sewing silk,
and silk twist, and silk handkerchiefs. Gold medal.

Valentine & Sowerby, Northampton, Mass., for the second best
sewing silk. Silver medal.

Haskell & Hayden, Windsor Locks, Conn., for spool silk; colors
and styles very beautiful. Silver medal.

John Fox, Wheeling, Va., for manufactured silk. Silver medal.

John W. Gill, Wheeling, Va., for black satin, black striped vel-
vet, and grey lavender twilled handkerchiefs. Silver medal.

Peter Gruet, Orange, N. J., for the best silk wire. Silver medal.

J. S. Pierce, Burlington, Vt., for silk vest patterns. Diploma.

Hartford Knitting Co., Fisher, Howe & Hamilton, agents, 21
Broad-street, for silk knit shirts. Silver medal.

G. W. Thorp, 182 Pearl-street, for excellent specimens of print-
ing on silk handkerchiefs. Diploma.

Stoves, Grates and Ranges.

Edward W. M. Savage, 248 Water-street, for the best cooking
stove, for family use.' Silver medal.

Seymour & Williams, 246 Water-street, for the second best cook-
ing stove, for family use. Diploma.

Jordan L. Molt, 264 Water-street, for a good office stove. Di-
ploma.

No. 151.] 65

Wra. & N. Jackson, 238 Front-street, for specimens of parlor
grates, of very superior workmanship. Silver medal.

Jordan L. Mott, 264 Water-street, for the best cooking range.
Gold medal.

David Culver, 117 Beekman-street, for the best hot air furnace.
Silver medal.

George Peirce, 292 Broadway, for a revolving roaster, a good
and useful article for large establishments. Diploma.

Jordan L. Mott, 264 Water-street, for an agricultural furnace; a
very useful article. Diploma.

Newcombe, Dixie & Co., Worcester, Mass., for stoves for burn-
ing tan and saw-dust. Silver medal.

0. Vanevery, 241 Water-street, for a ship's caboose, of excellent
workmanship. Silver medal.

The sheet-iron stoves the judges deem of excellent workmanship
and adaptedness for the uses intended. They make no distinction as
to merit.

Surgical Imtruments.

Geo. 0. Jarvis, Portland, Maine, for a surgical adjuster. Gold
medal.

Geo. Tieraann, 63 Chatham-street, for an oblique scarificator— a
useful improvement. Diploma.

William Richards, Williamsburgh, L L, for an elastic tube for
cattle. Diploma.

M. Holton, 11 Amity-street, for a spino-abdominal supporter. Di-
ploma.

E. P. Banning, 423 Broadway, for trusses — an ingenious and me-
ritorious improvement. Diploma.

B. Blagge, 48 Maiden Lane, for a self-injecting chair — a new and
convenient improvement. Diploma.

James Gray, 119 Bowery, for artificial eyes. Diploma.

J. C. & D. Hyatt, 449 Broadway, for anatomical preparations.
Diploma.

Thomas Ritter, 104 Cherry-street, for well constructed and neatly
arranged medicine chests. Diploma.

J. Busteed, 331 Third Avenue, for a fracture-splint — an ingenious
contrivance, for application to "fractured thigh-bones. Silver medal.

Ed\\-ard Welshman, 107 John-street, for a resuscitating apparatus.
Silver medal.

B. F. Palmer, Meredith Bridge, N. H., for an artificial leg. Sil-
ver medal.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 5

66 [Assembly

Jordan L. Mott, 264 Water-street, for iron chairs for schools.
(Silver medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Tobacco and its Manvfactures.

Samuel G. Cornell, 174 Front-street, for fine cut tobacco. Diplo-
ma.

W. A. Brintzinghoffer, Newark, N. J., for segars. Diploma.

Turning.

John H. Meade, 41 Hester-street, for the best specimen of oval
frame turning. Diploma.

Shardlow & Brother, 118 Fulton-street, for a case of superior
turning. Diploma.

S. N. Risley, 278 Fifth-street, for artists' brush handles. Diplo-
ma.

C. Smith, 42 Gold-street, for ebony and japanned knobs. Diplo-
ma.

Wigs and Toupees.

A. Gilbert, 179 Broadway, for the best wigs and toupees. Di-
ploma.

Woolen Goods.

Northampton Woolen Manufacturing Co., Northampton, Mass.,
W. C. Langley & Co., agents, 25 Broad-street, for the best wool
dyed black cloth. Gold medal.

D. W. Plumb, Derliy, Conn., Fearing & Hall, agents, 55 Ex-
change Place, for the second best cloth. Silver medal.

New-England Co., Rockville, Conn , Thomas & Dale, agents, 53
Exchange Place, for the best fancy cassimeres. Gold medal.

Welcome Farnum, Waterford, Conn., Fearing & Hall, agents, 55
Exchange Place, for the second best fancy cassimeres. Silver me-
dal.

Middlesex Co., Lowell, Mass., W^olcott & Slade, agents, 63 Pine-
street, for the best plain cassimeres. Gold medal.

Seneca Woolen Mills, Gilman & Iddings, agents, 54 Pine-street,
for the second best cassimeres. Silver medal.

Gilbert & Stevens, Ware, Mass., Thomas & Dale, agents, 53 Ex-
change Place, for fine white flannels. Silver medal.

Union Manufacturing Co., Nor walk, Conn., D. Brigham & Co.,
agents, 60 Pine-street, for felt beaver cloth. Diploma.

Lounsbury, Bissell & Co., Norwalk, Conn., D. Brigham & Co.,
agents, 60 Pine-street, for felt beaver cloths. Diploma.

351.] 67

Whitney Mills, Dover, Nesmith & Co , agents, 50 and 52 Pine-
street, for the best woolen blankets. Gold medal.

Ballard Vale Co., Andover, Mass., W. C. Langley & Co., agents,
25 Broad-street, for black Orleans cloth and merinos. Gold medal.

Dorastus Kellogg, Skaneateles, N. Y., Wolcott & Slade, agents,
63 Pine-street, for silk and wool Tweeds. Silver medal.

J. Bunnell & Co., Pawtucket, R. I., Fearing & Hall, agents, 55
Exchange Place, for printed raouslin de laines and cashmeres, of rery
superior finish. Silver medal.

Middlesex Manufacturing Co., Lowell, Mass., Wolcott & Slade,
agents, 63 Pine-street, for woolen plaid vestings. Silver medal.

Duncan & Cunningham, Franklinville, N. J., Richardson & Wat-
son, agents, 43 Exchange Place, for shawls and table covers. (Sil-
Ter medal having been bi>''orc awarded.) Dip.loro^.

Miscellaneous.

D. J. Browne, Brooklyn, L. I., for his work on trees of America.
Gold medal.

T. C. W^ard & Co., Newark, N. J., for specimens of seamless lea-
tlier japanned hats. Diploma.

T. Sands & Co., Newark, N. J., for tarpaulin japanned hats. Di-
ploma.

James Goadey, 155 Centre-street, for Venetian blinds. Diploma.

John Topf, 243 Bleecker-street, for a cane settee. Diploma.

William E. Rose, 13 Chambers-street, for gold mounted canes.
Diploma.

Thomas W. McClallen, for hair lines. Diploma.

Calkins & Darrow, 28 Maiden Lane, for umbrellas, parasols and
canes. Diploma.

Lee & Co., 309 Bleecker-street, for the best gause wire work.
Silver medal.

James Rossiter, 5c6 Grand-street, for the second best wire screens.
Diploma.

J. & J. C. Conroy, 52 Fulton-street, for a handsome assortment of
fishing tackle. Silver medal.

Abraham Brower, 244 Water-street, for candle moulds. Silver
medal.

J. G. Ward, Gloverville, N. Y., for superior buckskin gloves.
Diploma.

Henry S. Farley, 23 Canal-street, for specimens of scagliola pe-
destals. Diploma.

Engelbrecht, Hale & Co., Newark, N. J., for " Scckdologer" fish
hooks. Diploma.

68 [Assembly

F. & H. Pittis, 293 Pearl-street, for specimens of stencil engrav-
ing. Diploma.

Anderson & Brother, 1 Hanover-square, for specimens of comb
shell work. Diploma.

J. E. Warren, 1 Hanover-square, for an ivory card case. Diplo-
ma.

J. S. Redfield, 127 Nassau-street, for a set of Wickhara's juvenile
slate tablets. Diploma.

Edwin Hazen, New-York, for the Grammatic Reader. Diploma.

Henry Liebenau, 491 Pearl-street, for an American standard-
Diploma.

Philip Pietch, 13 Gold-street, for newspaper files. Diploma.

M. Sill & Co., 84 William-street, for metalic lustre. Diploma.

G. J. Tenney, Georgetown. Mass., Kimball & Brown, agents, 149
Broadway, for miners' and coal diggers' boots. Diploma.

Sewell & Alden, 117 Fulton-street, for Drummond's patent candle
makers. Diploma.

Benham, Johnson & Co., £72| Pearl-street, for specimens of stamp-
ed tin-ware. Silver medal.

Cool & Griffin, 265 West-street, for specimens of lime. Diplo"
ma.

J, M. Thompson, 283 Delancsy-streel, for a Daguerrian polishing
table. Diploma.

J. M. L. & W. H. Scovill. 102 William-street, for a swing, a me-
dium, quarter and half plate holder, and a buff stick for polishing Da-
guerreotype plates. Diploma.

Thomas B. A. Weiser, 43 Cedar-street, for glass picture frames.
Diploma.

Ingram & Stuart, 338 Bowery and 826 Broadway, for a patent
water closet. Silver medal.

C. J. Gaylor, 124 Water-street, for the best iron safes. Silver
medal.

Silas C. Herring, 139 Water-street, for the second best safes.^
(A silver medal having been before awarded.) Diploma.

Kreischer & Mumpeton, 62 Goerck-street, for specimens of fire
brick and tiles. Diploma.

R. W. Lowber, 261 Water-street, for tin plated lead pipe. Di-
ploma.

J. Ball & Co., J 12 Fulton-street, for specimens of water pipe. (A
medal having before been awarded.) Diploma.

Charles Krause, 24 Charles-street, for specimens of fire proof roof-
ing. Diploma.

No. 151.] 69

Charles Luxton, 29 King-street, for an improved exercising swing.
Diploma.

James J. Carpenter, Glen Cove, L. L, for specimens of fine sand
and refined clay. Diploma.

William H. Post, 61 Mulberry-street, for a case of umbrella furni-
ture. Diploma.

C. H. Preston, 102 William-street, for specimens of improved
sewer brick. Diploma.

Jason Barton, Middle Haddam, Conn., for a globe bell. Diploma.

Alfred Serrell, Mulberry-street, for machine cut mouldings. Silver
medal.

John J. Heines, 217 Greenwich-street, for an ornamental carved
sign. Diploma.

U. W. Barker, New- York, for butchering and dressing mutton and
lamb. Diploma.

I

DEPARTMENT

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE.

REPORT

Of the special committee of the American Institute upon
the farming animals offered for premiums at the Nine"
teenth Annual Fair.

The committee would premise, that by the direction of the Board
of Agriculture, it was found to be expedient and necessary, to draw
up instructions for the guidance of the various committees in the
awarding of premiums, inasmuch, as hitherto it has been found that
animals of inferior value, as regards blood or pedigree, had often
had medals and plate bestowed upon their owners contrary to pro-
priety; it was therefore decided, that rules hereafter should be pre-
scribed, and the following directions were submitted to the gentle-
men appointed as judges in conformity to the above intent, viz:

Instructions to judges of stock at the Annual Fairs of the Ameri'
can Institute. Adopted September 29, 1S46.

The Board of Agriculture would respectfully address the commit-
tees appointed for the awarding of premiums upon the various breeds
of animals which may be submitted for inspection, upon the neces-
sity of adopting certain fixed principles and rules in deciding upon
the merits of each description of Stock.

Hitherto, premiums have been awarded in many cases, when the
animals were below mediocrity, and without due attention to the pu-
rity of blood or of origin; an error which, for the future, the Insti-
tute proposes to correct. It is therefore decided, that in all cases
where an animal may not be of the first grade as a breeder, as re-
gards form, size, blood, &c., no standing medal ,or plate shall be

72 [Assembly

awarded: but, where a case should arise of great merit in a part
blood animal, a diploma setting forth facts may not be withheld,
and should be granted.

As regards fixed principles and rules, the board of Agriculture lay
down the following, viz:

Fi/rst. All experience shows that " like begets like."

Second. That from a " mixed blood animal" no reliance can be
placed in procreating a distinctive breed.

These principles the board of agriculture request of the com-
mittee to carry out in all cases.

Relative to the horse, of all animals, these rules must be applied;
as, from experience, the blood horse, or the horse of Arab origin, is
that cast of horse from which all others have descended, and, to con-
tinue the race in perfection, the blood must remain pure.

From the full blood horse is derived beauty, speed, wind, strength
and endurance, and to preserve these qualities, it is necessary to be
careful as regards pedigree, and not to pass one about which there
is any doubt, as is practiced in Arabia from all time to the present
day.

A full blood horse, crossed upon a half breed mare, produces the
famous chargers and hunters of England. A half blood is useful for
the gears and all quick workj but the heavy, large, bulky, slow, dray
horse of Flanders and England are found to be vn-profitable in this
country for every purpose. Our famous trotters are generally three
parts thorough bred, and they distance in speed and stoutness all hor-
ses of any country.

The attention of the committee is called to another breed of hor-
ses, of a unique description, and unknown out of this country — the
Canadian horse. This horse has, by chance, become almost a dis-
tinctive rare, and remarkable in having two gaits — the trot and the
pace, united often in the same ar:inii!l, tEd of great swiftness. His
blood has been derived from the crossing of Norman and English
blood horses upon Narraganset mares; consequently you see com-
mingled in the Canadian, the coat, hoof, speed and wind of the
blood horse, and of the Narraganset; the broad chest, short back,
large bone, and full, plump muscles of the Norman.

No. 151.] 73

From the Narraganset he takes oftentimes, his high spirit, and
the Narraganset was derived from the Andalusian horse, (of Moorish
origin,) transported by Spain to America.

Thus the committee have the rule above laid down exemplified in
the Canadian horse, and the utmost care should be observed in au-
thenticating his pedigree, and medals or plate should be awarded him.

Relative to cattle, it is thought to be advisable to grant premi-
ums to races of pure bloods, viz:

First. To the English short horned Bakewell breed.

Second. To the Devonshire pure blood.

These are races of animals, proved to be excellent for various pur-
poses in this country, either kept pure in blood, or in crossing with
native cattle.

Third. To native cattle of well authenticated breeds, as excel-
ling for the yoke, the dairy, or for beef.

In all Cases, proof of pedigree and statements of breeding should
be required before granting premiums.

Fourth. For Herefordshire, Ayrshire, and all other cattle, a premi-
um will be left discretionary with the committee.

Of Sheep. — The varieties are many, and should be carefully at-
tended to as regards pedigree, form, size, and fineness of wool. The
latter now becDming a staple commodity of our country, should in
an especial manner be attended to. Samples should be taken by the
committee and carefully ticketed and reported on, to be lodged at
the Institute for general information. A detail of the names of the
exhibitors, and their proofs of breeding, should be placed in the
hands of the committee to entitle to a premium.

Sivine. — Hogs are so valuable for iheir flesh, fat and oil, not only
for domestic use, but as staple commodities, that the Institute think
the committee should be very particular in inquiring relative to the
most prolific and valuable breeds.

It has been usual for persons at agricultural meetings, to make
themselves witty and merry on making up their reports on swine,
most ridiculous in conception and abortive in declamaiion. That an

74 [Assembly

animal so valuable, and so necessary in producing staple commodi-
ties for a country, should be subject to ridicule, seems to have arisen
from a false taste.

In this country, swine have been well reared, and for a long series
of years fattened to a greater weight than known in other countries;
and the flesh too, as pork, better than any other, from the fact of be-
ing fattened with Indian corn, the best food known for feeding the
animal. The proof is in our late commerce with England, showing
that prejudice has fled, and that American pork and haras are really
to be tolerated, inasmuch as they have been found to be more firm,
and as the English call it, " better fed," than their own Irish or Eng-
lish pork.

It is left for the committee to investigate and make known what
breeds are found to be best, whether from Yankee land, the Middle,
Western or Southern States, for the profit of the farmer, as there is
no longer need to call on Europe or any other country for ameliora-
tion of our breeds of swine.

These instructions were not acted on by the committees to the ex-
tent intended by the agricultural board, as returns only of premiums
were sent in, without giving reasons for granting the various awards,
or on whom conferred, as was the intent and wish of the agricultu-
ral board; it therefore becomes necessary on the part of the special
committee, to give descriptions of the animals, as well as to whom
they belonged, not only in justice to them, but to the community at
large. We commence with the useful and fanciful animal, the

Horse.

There were many varieties of the horse on the ground which gave
high interest to the scene. The^r^^ premium of the silver cup was
awarded to Mr. Robert L. Stevens, of Hoboken, N. J., for his horse
Tornado, by American Eclipse, dam, Polly Hopkins,. by Sir Archy;
a thorough bred stallion of great beauty, possessing most of the re-
quisites sought for, and required in the blood horse; thus much
is said as a passing notice of this horse, but something more is due
to Mr. Stevens, the owner of him, inasmuch as that gentleman to
carry out an object of improvement, sent the dam, Polly Hopkins, to
England, (where Tornado was foaled,) in order to meet the
best stallion in that country, and she returned per packet, with
her foal by her side. This fact is worthy of record, and shows
that we have men in our community, who without regard to expense,

No. 151.] 75

■when improvement is the object, will step forth for the public good,,
and we trust Mr. Stevens will excuse us for having taken the liber-
ty of mentioning his name.

The second premium, the silver medal, was granted to Mr. Absa-
lom D. Nelson, of Greenburgh, "Westchester county, for his blood
horse, Belzoni, by Stafford, (imported,) dam, by American Eclipse,.
a blood bay, showing high breeding and strongly of the character of
the Arabian horse.

Mr. George M. Patchen, of Brooklyn, was awarded a silver cup
for his young trotting stallion, Cassius M. Clay, a remarkably fleet
horse as a trotter; of a deep bay color, large size, and showing
strongly traces of high breeding from various crosses of the blood
horse, and will probably prove valuable as a stock getter.

The silver medal was also awarded to Mr. S. Freeman, of New-
Jersey, for his fine horse. Napoleon. This animal from his fine size
and general appearance of blood and good points was thought to be
entitled to a premium by the committee.

Major William Jones, of Oyster Bay, obtained a silver cup for
his brood mare; and a diploma for the colt by her side, she being
the best brood mare and colt on the ground.

Mr. John H. Coster, likewise was awarded the silver medal for hisf
brood mare, Gulnare, by Eclipse; dam, Sportsmistress, by Hickory.

The silver medal was gained by Mr. Samuel Hart, of Brooklyn^
for a brood mare, useful for all farming purposes; as also a silver
cup by Joseph Blakeslee, of Watertown, Conn., for a brood mare of
the same description.

To Mr. Jesse Hobley, of Williarasburgh, a silver cup was award-
ed for the best colt on the ground of two years of age. A silver
cup was presented to Mr. Bernardus Hendrickson, for his yearling
colt Diamond, by Canada Chief, out of a Mambrino mare.

Silver cups were awarded to Mr. Charles Bathgate, and Mr. Thomas
Bell of Westchester, for their fine farm horses, respectively presented at
the fair. The silver cup was given to Mr. Willard S. Reed for a fine
pair of matched horses. Mr. J. Fisher Sheafe, of New Hamburg,
had the silver medal for a pair of fine geldings (njatched horses).
There were many other valuable horses and brood mares on the

76 [Assembly

ground, among which, many were awarded diplomas, as being of
excellence, and entitled to more than a passing notice.

Of these we cannot but mention in some detail the three following
stallions, which from some inadvertence did not come under the ex-
amination of the committee, a circumstance much to be regretted, as
they are most undoubtedly entitled to medals cr cups, and it is to be
hoped, that hereafter, no such omission may take place at our fairs.

The first stallion we shall name, was the one owneil by Mr. James
Sanders, Chatham Square, named Young Alexander, by Alexander,
(imported,) got by Smolensko, out of Wire, by Rubens — the best
blood in England. His dam, by Sir Richard, Grey Highlander,
Expedition; as regards blood, unexceptionable. As a horse, Young
Alexander is remarkable; a blood bay, very black legs, mane and
tail, w^ithout any white marks; sixteen and a half hands high; of
line presence, and high form at all points; with the quick, nervous
action of a small horse, and of good temper, although of a high spi-
rit. It is to be hoped that this horse may appear on the ground the
next year, as also his stock, that justice may be awarded him, as the
special committee have no hesitation in pronouncing him to be wor-
thy of contending for the cup.

In much the same light, stand the stallions presented for competi-
tion as mixed grade horses, owned by Messrs. John Wire and Hen-
ry D. Waid, of Middletown, Conn.; both of them of the mixed blood
of American Eclipse, Henry, Messenger, Magnum Bonum, &,c.;
more than sixteen hands high, of great bone, muscle, and sinew, as
well as of fine action. They were grand parade horses or chargers.
The one was called Henry by Henry, the other Henry Eclipse, being
out of an Eclipse mare. These animals must prove very valuable
for stock horses, from their high breeding, great size, and general
good properties, and it is to be regretted they were either not
on the ground when the committee acted, or were enclosed in their
stables out of view.

To conclude, as regards the show of horses, there was every reason
to be pleased with the fine collection of these animals, and the In-
stitute, we are persuaded, will be satisfied their exertions and rewards
are duly appreciated by the public.

Cattle.

The cattle at the fair, were as hitherto, of many varieties, and
each distinctive breed of much excellence, and it was highly satis-

No. 151.] 77

factory to witness the general emulation which existed among the
breeders of them. It may not be presumptuous to remark, and it
admits not of a doubt in the mind of this committee, that the induce-
ments held out by the Institute of the award of medals, plate and di-
plomas, (setting forth facts worthy of record,) have caused more at-
tention to be paid by our farmers to the improvement of their stock
generally, as while contending for honest fame, their property might
become enhanced in value. We have to record the names of many
gentlemen who have given aid to the intent of the Institute, by per-
sonal exertions as well as by their wealth, in importing and improv-
ing the various breeds of farming stock; and we trust they may not
be offended by the liberty taken, in making mention of them. We
commence by noticing the animals brought upon the ground by Mr.
Roswell L. Colt, of Paterson, N. J., all of pure blood, and of the
following breeds, viz:

Devonshire. — A breed noted for their uniform beautiful red color,
their compact smooth form, smallness of bone, aptness to fatten, excel-
lent beef, rich milk, and general good properties for the dairy. As oxen
this breed has proved to be valuable, bemg spirited and quick walkers,
at th-; saire time sta.nding well the b-sat of American gun'mers. A
cross upon the native stock is strongly recommended for all purposes*

Jiyyshire.' — Of this useful bieed of cattle Mr. Colt exhibited those of
he improved sort, being larger than the old black cattle of Scotland,
and partaking evidently of improved breeds introduced into that coun-
try from England. The bull was a compact, well formed, short legged
animal of a black and white color, flaked equally, and did not va-'
ry materially from many of our native cattle; he was however
thought to be worthy a premium of plate, which was awarded.

JUderney. — The specimens of this unique race of cattle were of
pure blood, as shown by their peculiar yellow hair, small upright
white horns tipped with black, and small deer like legs, delicate
head, mild large eye, smallness of size, and well formed wide spread
udder. This breed is famed for the richness of their milk, and high
flavor of butter. It is well adapted tor the use of people residing
in cities; taking up little room, and living upon a small amount of
food. For the dairy at large, the Alderneys may be useful in cross-
ing with the view of improving the quality of milk; they are best
suited however for cities as above stated, or for the poor man, who
can only provide for one cow.

78 [Assembly

As usual, Dr. Pool, of New Brunswick, Thomas Addis Eramett,
•of New-York; Mr. Geo. Vail, of Troy, and others, carried off silver
medals and cups, for their improved short horned Durham cattle, in
which there was no falling off. Mr. Thomas Bell, and Mr. Lewis
G. Morris, of Morrisania, also took the silver medal and a silver cup
for their improved Durham bull and a calf by him of rare excel-
lence.

It is with much satisfaction the committee has to report in favor
■of the native cattle, presented by many spirited breeders, among whom
were conspicuous, Mr. Lewis G. Morris, of Moirisania, Mr. William
Whitney, of Morristown, N. J., Mr. James Bathgate, of Fordham,
Westchester county, Mr. James Weeden, of Newtown, Mr. W. Jar-
Tis, of Brooklyn, Mr. Le Grand Bradley, of Hamden, Conn., Mr
Josiah Purdy, of Rye, Mr. Selah Strong, of Milford, Conn., Mr.
Joseph S. Fiench^ Mr. JJlakcslee, of W^atertuwu, Conn.; all of idiom
bore oif silver medals and cups, we are gratified to say. Hitherto,
native cattle at our fairs, have not been thus entitled to notice.

This improvement of our native stock has, no doubt, arisen in this
vicinity by the competition which has taken place, and the emula-
tion excited. It was a matter of great doubt among the farmers on
the ground, whethir the native cattle were not the very best at the
fair; and especially so, on viewing the stock of Mr. Levv'is G. Mor-
ris, and Mr. James Bathgate, of Westchester, which fairly vied if
not excelled the imported short horns, Devonshires, and others. These
native cattle spring from the old American varieties, crossed with
Durhams, Devonshires, Holstien (imported,) Ayrshires, &c. &c ; all
judiciously united, and valuable for all purposes, and especially so
for beef and the dairy.

Of Herefordshire cattle, none were presented. It was a matter of
jregret that the noted herd of this breed of Messrs. Corning and
Sotham of Albany, were not brought forward, as usual; as well as
the short horned Durhams of Mr. Prentice of the same place. It is
presumed they would have borne off prizes.

Sheep.

There was a good display, comprising Merinos, Southdown, Lin-
colnshire, Leicestershire and of common herds. Prizes were award-
ed to Mr. Blakeslee of Watertown, Connecticut, Mr. Whitlock of
ihe same place, Mr. Bathgate and Mr. Thomas Bell of Westchester,
Mr. Hallock, of Ulster county, Mr. Florence of Mamaroneck, Mr.

No. 151.J 79

Robert Bolton, jr., of East Chester; Mr. John Brewster, of New-
Jersey; as also, the Silver Cup, to Mr. Charles Blackbourn, of Bed-
ford, L. 1., for his remarkably fine Lincolnshire sheep. .This gen-
tleman, as a constant exhibitor of this valuable and noted breed of
sheep is particularly noticed, inasmuch, as there appears to be im-
provement in his flock from year to year, not only in fleece but in
form and size, which shows that by good judgment and management,
foreign breeds of sheep may be kept up and even made better than
those originally imported from other countries. Mr. Blackbourn,
himself a farmer from Lincolnshire, confirms by his experience, the
above improvement upon the original breed.

Among the specimens of sheep, was a native buck of mixed me-
rino breed, having a fleece upon him of five years growth, twenty
four inches in length, fine in quality, and was judged to weigh
twenty-five pounds. TLis fact shows that (he merino breed ol cheep
■will furnish wool for worsted of any length necessary, and of a
fineness unequaled by any other variety of sheep. Samples of the
'wool can be examined at the Institute.

The exhibition of swine and poultry of various breeds was ex-
tensive and valuable; consequently many prizes were awarded.

In behalf of the special committee on stock.

CHARLES HENRY HALL, Chairman.
American Institute, October, 1846.

REPORTS

Of the Committee from the Board of Agric.ilture, on the
Plowing and Spading Matches, October, 1846.

The committee of the Board of Agriculture of the American In-
stitute, in compliance with the duty assigned them, attended the plow-
ing and spading matches at Flushing, Long Island.

The day was most delightful, the sun shone with its brilliant au-
ttimna) splendor, ?nd a gentle breeze added to the enjoyment.

The committee left Castle Garden in the steamer furnished by
Capt. Peck, at the reduced charge of one shilling a passenger; this,
together with the other boats were crowded with both male and fe-
male passengers; the ladies having honored the occasion with their
presence. The Governor's Island band of music, furnished by the
politeness of Col. Bankhead, enlivened the scene, and cheered us on
our way.

On arriving at Flushing an immense concourse nf persons greeted
the arrival of the committee, which was announced by repea'.ed peals
of artillery. An equipage of an unusual kind was prepared for the
reception of the band, consisting of a team of thirty-seven yoke of
oxen, which moved with perfect ease and regularity; omnibuses were
provided for the committee. It was really gratifying to observe the
immense number of persons collected to view the scene, and to re-
ceive the greetings of the fairest portion of creation from the balco-
nies and windows as the procession passed through the several streets.
It is presumed that upwards of four thousand persons were present.
The interest exhibited, affords another ample demonstration that this
branch of the American Institute is yielding -practical benefit to the
public, and that a taste for agriculture and its improvement is natural
to our citizens.

No. 15L] 81

The field selected for the display of the exertions and skill of our
farmers and home manufacturers, was weli chosen. The ground,
however, was very hard and dry, and the day rather warm for the ar-
duous contests which took place. Yet, the competitors exerted their
energies, and after an hour's contest the work was carefully viewed
by independent and judicious persons selected as judges, and the pre-
miums awarded as follows:

The first premium of a silver cup, lor the best plowing, to No. 8.
The second, of a silver medal, to No. 7; and the third, of a diploma,
to No. 9; and your committee find the names of the successful plow-
men attached to their numbers as follows: The first premium to
Asa Munn, of Orange, New-Jersey. The second, to Philip Arent, of
Flushing, and the third, to John Brewster, of English Neighbour-
hood, New-Jersey.

The contest in the spading department was also very spirited,
though few competitors entered for the premiums. The crowd around,
these hardy workmen was very great, and deprived them of the be-
nefit of the refreshing breeze; however, they all persevered to the ac-
complishment of the allotted work except one, whom the judges
however deem deserving of a premium. The first premium of a silver
cup, for the best spading, was awarded to No. 1; the second, of a
silver medal, to No. 8; and the third, of a diploma, to No. 7. The
names appended to these numbers are, Thomas Farrell, of Flushing,
who is entitled to the first premium; William Hubbs, of Flushing,
who is entitled to the second; and Joseph Morrell, of Gowanus, to
the third.

The draft of the several plows offered for premium, which is the
most important of the agricultural implements, was practically tested
by the Dynamometer, and the judges reported, that the improved
plow of JoJm Moore, JVo. 183 Front-street, JVeio-York, as " combin-
ing the greatest number of necessary requisites," was entitled to the
first premium of a silver cup, and that David Brontes, JVo. 86 JVas-
sau-street, Kew-York, was entitled to the second premium of a sil-
ver medal.

While these operations were progressing, the multitude were en-
tertained and instructed with the eloquent remarks of Judge Meigs,
and General Deaiborn, of Boston, who delivered their addresses stand-
ing on a cannon, placed under the wide spreading branches of the
" Fox Oak," so called from this great orator of the society of Friends,

[Assembly, No. 151.] 6

82 [Assembly

from having under its branches, in the year 1661, addressed a nu-
merous audience, and is ■worthy a visit apart from its historical asso-
ciations.

Gen. Dearborn was most happy in his allusions and forcible in his
application of the principles which sustain our own American ma-
nufactures, and was enthusiastically cheered by his numerous auditors.
The repeated discharge of artillery, annouced the decision of the
judges, and the committee and music left the " field of renown,"

An invitation from the Queens County Agricultural Society,
which had most happily chosen the same day for their fair, was ac-
cepted by the committee, and we take pleasure in stating, that the
whole was most tastefully and judiciously arranged in a booth of one
hundred feet diameter, and the exhibition of the agricultural and
horticultural produces were such as will require the utmost energies
of the Institute to surpass. The committee thus publicly return
their thanks for the hopitality and attention received from the citi-
zens of Flushing.

All which 13 respectfully submitted.

(Signed) PHILIP IJCHUYLER,

Chairman Committee.
Mw-Yorfc, October 9th, 1846

i

I

I

REPORT

Of the committee on Field Crops, on the farm of Mr.
David S. 3Iills, of Newtown, Long Island.

The committee consisting of Messrs. Skinner, J. J. Mapes, Under-
hill, Field, Townsend, Bell, Van Wyck, and Meigs, of which Col.
J. S. Skinner was chosen chairman, beg leave to report:

That they went to the farm of Mr. Mills, about five miles from
Williamsburgh, were most hospitably received by the proprietor and
his family; and passed the day in examining this fine farm. Two
hundred acres are divided into nineteen sections by regular built
stone walls, of from four to five feet high; all the stones of which
were taken from the fields, leaving the soil free from all impedi-
ments to the plow, hoe, or harrow. Mr. Mills supplies a large
quantity of pure milk at six cents per quart, to the city of New-
York. The first remark of Mr. M., in answer to a question, wheth-
er green corn stalks formed good feed for cows, was, that if the
stalks are given to cows after the ear of corn is formed on ihe
stalk, it always gripes them, arid if contimied as feed, always kills
them ! After the corn is ripe this effect entirely disappears.

He remarked, that oals in the milky state are good for cows. Ex-
perience had proved to him that the corn stalks were one of the
best means of soiling cattle. He cuts them as soon as they tassel;
sows broad-cast five bushels of corn on an acre. The stalks must be
for many days, perhaps a fortnight, exposed to the sun and air and
carefully turned over, that they may be properly cured. For feed he
cuts all his corn stalks, hay, &c. As manure, he uses among other
things, charcoal, and burned bones; the charcoal from the retorts of
the manufacturers of pyroligneous acid, and the pyroxylic spirit. He
relies for the profit of his farming chiefly on the milk of his cows,
of which he now has upwards of fifty.

He has tried the Durham breed, and found it expensive to raise
them. His present stock is a mixed one, having some fine milkers
among them. He had some time ago .in his herd, (Eighteen cows

84 [Assembly

which gave on an average, twenty-five quarts of milk each per day.
Mr. Mills has a barn which reminds one of the stone edifices of
Lancaster, Penn. Its walls are two feet thick, one hundred and
fifty feet long, and forty-five feet wide, two stories high. The first
floor has one hundred spacious stalls for cows, each in perfect or-
der. A chain attached to the middle of the manger below the curb,
is passed over the neck of each cow, and secured by a key passing
through a link, leaving the head of the cow at liberty. Channel
ways of plank, lead off all the urine to a vat below the surface of
the ground, made of stone, cemented on the inside, and decked over
with plank; having a trap door to draw it out, or for a pump. This
vat is twenty feet long, eight feet wide, and ten deep; and is now
more than half full of urine. This he sprinkles over some of his
crops; and the effect of its energy on broad-cast corn crop was ob-
served by your committee to be very strikingly fertilizing.

We remarked that the crops of wheat, barley, rye, clover and tim-
othy raixed, had filled their respective fields to the level of the stone
fences, looking as if they afforded a full heaped measure of crop.
We examined an eight acre lot of wheat, which had been seeded
down with lucerne. The lucerne was thriving, and the wheat esti-
mated to be a crop of thirty bushels per acre; having very strong
stalks. This lot was manured w-ith city street sweepings, and best barn
yard manure. The wheat was Mediterranean, raised here two years
ago. The standing crop was planted in frosty weather, in the latter
part of last October, did not come up till sp;ing, and was ploughed
in about four inches deep.

We examined a five acre lot of corn growing well, which had
thelime used in a glue factory put into the hills.

Another lot of twelve acres of corn, was manured with peat or
muck, from Jamaica Pond, and also some of the glue factory lime.
This field is very promising. The lime used was mixed, one of lime
to five of muck.

We examined two five acre lots of hay, bearing heavy crops; a
clover field, the second growth this season, very strong and beauti-
ful crop.

Also a nine and an half acre lot of white flint Jersey wheat, a
strong growth, estimated at twenty-five bushels per acre. This field
bore last year nineteen hundred bushels of potatoes, which were sold
for an average of fifty six cents the bushel. Mr. Mills sowed here

No. 151.] 85

two bushels of seed wheat, which he had soaked in brine and then
rolled in lime and plaster, mixed half and half. He gave this field
last year, after the potatoes were off, a slight sprinkling of city street
manure.

We examined a lot of nine and an half acres of potatoes in fine
cultivation; we saw- no weeds in the field, but all the walls were de-
corated with the dried ones taken from the field, and " hung there,
on the outer tvall /" These walls have cost Mr. Mills four dollars
a rod in their construction. Mr. M. used ten bushels of potatoes cut
up small for planting this field. We saw a fine field of Lucerne.
Mr. M. has lettuce, single heads of which weighed about three
pounds. He employs from twenty to twenty-five hands, a dozen
horses, and four yokes of working oxen; one pair of which, at the
command of one of Mr. Mills's sons, sank side by side upon their
knees, and so remained until ordered to rise. Active, strong, and
docile, it would require some training of a pair of men to perform
their movements as well as- these noble cattle. W'e thought of the
old Roman maxim, much " cattle, much wheat," and of the weighty
arguments in favor of the ox, alive and dead.

Mr. Mills has three teams of mules, which are as large as horses,
and well trained. One of them was driven by a son of Mr. M., in
harness, in a sulkey: and his spirited action, and handsome form at
a little distance, would have passed him off for a smart horse if his
lorg ears, and Spanish lady little feet had not undeceived us. These
fine qualities of the mule, when we consider his great hardihood,
and long life, most powerfully recommend him to the farmer, who
when he has made such walls as these, ought to have such mules
to till his fields for forty years.

Mr. M. gives his cows Indian meal, oil cake, cut hay, &c. In
the winter, brewers' grain and no swill. Your committee were high-
ly gratified with this visit — having now seen a farm, walled to last
■for an hundred years, full of cattle, and much wheat, managed by
an intelligent, industrious, and happy father, and his lively, healthy
sons, whose home was full of all good things; vigilantly superintend-
ed by the mother, who is strong and active, and has borne eleven
children. Such farmers as these will make any land rich, and will
never, like their oxen, bow the knee to human beings.
Respectfully submitted,

' J. S. SKINNER, Chairman
Henry Meigs, Secretarf.
Mic-York, July 3d, 1846.

REPORT

On the farms of Messrs. Bell and Morris, and Gouver-
neur Morris, of Morrisania.

That they, that is Messrs. Underhill, Wakeman, Bridgeman, Skin-
er and Meigs, proceeded to Morrisania, and on motion of Mr.
Wakeman, they unanimously added to their number, in pursuance of
the power given them, the following members, viz: Vice President J. J.
Mapes, James De Peyster, and Samuel Fleet; Dr. Underhill was cho-
sen Chairman, and Henry Meigs, Secretary.

The committee first visited the farm occupied by Mr. Thomas Bell,
being four hundred acres, part of the farm of six hundred acres be-
longing to William H. Morris, Esq. Mr. Bell has but recently com-
menced his agricultural labors on this farm, which however, already
presents highly interesting features. The liberal and judicious mea-
sures pursued by Mr. Morris relative to this farm, are striking. He
has caused fences of stone to be made in the best manner to the
extent of about five running miles; the main avenues being about
two rods Avide and turnpiked; the fence bordering these being so uni-
form and level on their tops that several members of your committee
walked on them a considerable distance for the better view of the
crops.

The stone forming these fences had formerly encumbered the ground,
and when they were all removed from the land, were found just
about enough to form the walls, which are calculated to last many
generations. The fields are many of them about ten acres each.

One ten acre lot has a very fine crop of barley upon it, with clo-
ver and timothy grass growing well. This crop, it was considered,
would be about thirty bushels per acre. One year ago this field was
an old worn out sod, so exhausted that it would scarcely sustain one

No. 151.] 87

sheep on an acre. It had been pastured for ten or fifteen years. A
year ago Mr. Bell prepared it for corn, by putting on it forty two
horse wagon loads of barn manure, and plowing it deep, first one
way and then across. He got from it more than forty bushels of
shelled corn per acre, or upwards of four hundred bushels from the
ten acres. Last fall he cut off the corn stalks close to the ground;
this spring he plowed it twice, early in April, crosswise, then harrow-
ed it four times, once before sowing the barley and three times after-
wards. He sowed two bushels and an half of seed on an acre.
Mr. Bell said, when questioned by the committee, as to the quantity
of seed proper to be sown, " The richer the land the more seed do I
put in, and this field is now seeded with clover and timothy, at the
rate of one peck of each per acre. I prefer barley to oats for my
stock, because my barley weighs forty-eight pounds to the bushel,
and oats but little more than thirty"

Your committee then examined a ten acre field of Indian corn, a
large portion of it manured with guano; another with best barn yard
manure, broadcast, and four rows with best barn yard manure in the
hill. The guano was mixed with twice its quantity of loamy earth,
and then put into each hill a small quantity and a little soil over
that, so that the seed was not in contact with it. This corn looked
very well, not a hill appeared to have been injured by the guano,
and the color and growth was similar to that part of the field where
the barn yard manure had been applied broad cast. But Mr. Bell
called our attention to the four rows in the middle of the field, in
which he had put the best barn yard manure in the hills, and we
were surprised at the superior size and vigor of the plants in those
four rows. Mr. Bell showed us two rows in which he had put no
manure, and the plants in these were equal to those of the guano
growth, (at this date, but we have since learned from Mr. Bell that
the portion of the field manured with guano is gaining and indeed
surpassing some of the other parts.)

We saw the stock of Mr. Bell; among them seventy-four cows,
and his justly admired bull Marius, whose figure deserves to be pre-
served in painting. He is now three years old, and this season is
sire of more than one hundred calves, some of which are taken by
Mr. Bell from their mothers at three days old, and always fed with
milk by his own hand. They came around your committee, licking
their hands with all the perfect familiarity of favorite dogs. One
large cow giving twenty-six quarts of milk per day, was purchased
by Mr. Bell from an honest Quaker, who oflfered her to him for sixty

88 [Assembly

dallars; -when Mr. Bell objected to the price as too high, the Quaker
replied, " She will give thee a bushel of milk a day.'' Mr. Bell
has found this to be true, and he says, that in two years past her
milk has been worth to him about five hundred dollars. The accom-
modation for the cattle in stables were examined and highly approv-
ed. In each stall a chain for the neck of the cow has a ring, which
traverses freely on an upright on the left side of the stall, so that the
cow has perfect freedom in all the movements of her head. These
stalls were all filled with fresh barley stalks, ready for the repast of
the cows, which are always placed here during the night. Mr. Bell
is a thorough manager of manures, nothing is lost.

Your committee examined an eight acre lot of rye. This field had
lain fallow, and Mr. Bell had put upon it nearly one hundred loads
per acre of decomposed vegetable matter, and soil from a pond which
was then dry. He plowed it in deep with two yoke of oxen. He
sowed it last fall with about two bushels of rye, and one peck of
timothy; and in March last he sowed also on it a peck of clover
seed per acre. This crop appered to be a very good one, the clover
and timothy are growing well, and the stalks of the rye are large.
It was suggested by Mr. Bell, that the stalks seemed not to have suf-
ficient strength, perhaps wanting more of the silex. The chairman
thought that lime would have rendered the stalks stronger.

Mr. Bell has thrge yoke of working oxen, employs on an average
six good men, and six horses. He pays a man one dollar an acre
for mowing, and half a dollar for cradling. These men find themselves.
He gives his cows in the stable, in winter, four quarts of Indian
meal, one peck of ship stuff, mixed with an half bushel of cut hay,
all mixed with water, and a little salt per day. This quantity is di-
vided into two meals for each cow. When hay is scarce, he uses
brewers' grains, which are far superior to swill. These grains cost
him six cents a bushel and two more to get them on his farm. He
presents in all his agricultural labors, an example of cheerful, intel-
ligent, neat and happy farming.

Your committee were hospitably received ty Mr. Bell and CoL
Morris, the proprietor of this fine large farm.

They then proceeded to the farm of Gouverneur Morris, which con-
tains fourteen hundred acres. They found the landlord engaged
■with his men in the multiplied labors of his spacious fields. Here
■we saw his vegetable garden of sixty acres, covered with every va-

No. 151.] 89

riely of vegetables adapted to the New-York market, to which he
constantly sends a great amount of the best. There are two
acres in peas, three in rhubarb plant, fifteen in early potatoes,
from three to four of beets, two of carrots, about two of ]eeks and
parsley, and ten of cabbages of all sorts, about two of lettuce, 150,-
000 celery plants, one acre of parsnips, one of onions, 3,000 egg
plants, five acres of tomatoes, and five of sweet corn, large quantities
of fruits, and a great many acres of vegetables which your commit-
tee had not time to examine. Mr. Morris uses a hot house of two
hundred feet in length for forcing early plants. It has a ridge of
shingled roof the Avhole length, reaching about half way on each
side to the ground. The lower parts of Ibis roof are so many frames
for glass, which are readily removed or replaced when necessary.
Within the long cellar there are double rows of beds of rich soil,
contained in plank boxes under which are flues, which receive their
heat from furnaces. This was now filled with flourishing cucumber
vines, loaded with fruit. The gardener walks between these long box-
es, and has all their products within the length of his arm. This ar-
rangement appears to be an excellent and economical one.

Mr. Morris has now 110 cows on this farm of all kinds; looks
only to the quality of a cow as a milker. He puts all the milk of
each milking into large tin vessels, which are immersed to their tops
in spring water filled with cakes of ice, so that it always reaches the
city in good condition. His revenue from the sale of milk, for the
last three years has been about ^17,000 per annum.

Your committee examined a large field of corn manured with pou-
drette, which was equal in appearance to any they have seen. The
difference between that and the portion manured with barn yard ma-
nure was hardly discernable. The committee examined a large field
of barley, which was considered to be of extraordinary growth, so
that there seemed to be too much barley upon it.

The chairman on viewing the meadows of this great farm, called
the attention of the committee to the inexhaustible masses of matter
in them, easily capable of being converted into manure for the nu-
merous high grounds of the farm.

Your committee have no difficulty in recommending these farms,
on the ground of their being profitable. Whoever tries to employ
more sincere and hard work, under the direction of practical men;

90 [Assembly

than is done on these farms, must be up rather early in the morning,
as well as all day.

Gouverneur Morris gives his men an interest in the crops, so that
their extra exertions count into their own pockets, as well as his.

All which is respectfully submitted.

(Signed) R. T. UNDERHILL, Chairman.

Henry Meigs, Secretary.
Ji'ew-York, June 26th, 1846.

REPORT

Of the Committee on Field Crops of the American Insti-
tute on the garden of Henry Smith, of Astoria, and
on the farms of William J. Townsend, of Astoria, and
Samuel B. Townsend, of Newtown, Long Island.

To the American Institute:

Your committee appointed to examine field crops, respectfully re-
port:

That they visited Astoria on the 9th inst., and were there met by
Mr. Wm. J. Townsend, who kindly placed his carriage at the dispo-
sal of the committee to convey them from point to point.

They first visited the garden of Mr. Henry Smith, a few minutes
-drive from the ferry, occupying some two acres and a half; soil a
dry loam. One acre surrounds the house, part of which is devoted
to the culture of flowers and fruit, the remainder to culinary ve-
getables; the marrowfat peas, lettuce, beets, &c., were of fine appear-
ance.

Mr. Smith called the attention of the committee particularly to
his gooseberries, which were of large size and delicious flavor, and
free from mildew; while those of his neighbors around have been
entirely destroyed. He manures them well with barn yard manure,
and is careful to cut all dead wood from the bushes. He has not suf-
fered from insects this season; in one instance only a small tree was
stripped of its foliage. About one acre is divided into lots and cul-
tivated as follows:

A small portion of Illinois corn for cattle, producing at the rate
of 100 bushels per acre. Sweet corn for the table, of good size and
looking well; potatoes, early sovereigns now ripe, and being used
daily; later varieties of the Devonshire, red and French yellow, the

92 [Assembly

vines are all free from the slightest appearance of disease, manured
■with barn yard manure. Sugar beets for cattle, produced last year
on an eighth of an acre, 150 bushels; melons, &c.

The stock consists of two cows of the Ayrshire and Alderncy
breeds, and two pigs, a cross of the Chinese and Berkshire, the latter
six months old and very large. During the summer the cows are kept
in pasture, and occasionally fed with green oats, in winter with sugar
beets and hay. The Ayrshire cow has given for some time, thirty-
eight quarts of milk per day, milked three times; her average yield
from August 18th, to October 1st, 1845, was twenty-five quarts per
day. The yield of the Alderney, though not as large, is much the
richest. From the 22d of April, to October 1st, 1845, they gave
together 5,527 quarts, a portion of which w-as sold to the neighbors
and the remainder used at table, and made into butter. The amount
of butter made from January, 1845, to January, 1846, exclusive of
the milk and cream sold and used by the family, was 250 pounds.
The apartments for poultry .are well arranged; from 22 hens were
obtained in one year 2,&78 eggs.

Mr. Smith has been very successful in the cutivation of Cape
Broccoli, having heads l?st fall the pulp of which measured two feet
seven inches in circumference. He prepares the ground entirely
■with cow manure; sows the seed in May, and transplants the latter
part of August.

Your committee were sliown an Isabella grape vine, said to be
25 years old, which previous to the present season, had ceased for
several years to bear fruit. By way of experiment, Mr. Smith had
a portioii of a dead horse that had floated ashore near by, carted up
to the grounds and buried near the vine, which is now covered with
clusters of fine grapes. To waste nothing which may be converted
into manure, is as he expresses it, the " great secret of profitable
farming." Considering that he employs the assistance of but one
man, every thing being conducted with such order and economy;
and that from less than three acres, he is enabled to supply a fami-
ly numbering thirteen persons with all the necessaries of life, your
committee deem him entitled to great commendation. The house is
located on rising ground, commanding a view of the surrounding
country of great beauty.

After partaking of a liberal entertainment, your committee, at the
request of Mr. Smith, visited the farm of Mr. Jolm H. Smith, near

No. 151.] - 93

by, for the purpose of viewing the beautiful Arbor Vitse, and Beam
Thorn hedges, by which it is divided. The first named being
an evergreen, continues clothed the whole year. Five or six years
will suffice to produce hedges of great beauty, presenting impassable
barriers to the inroads of cattle. Their uniformity, and pleasing re-
lief to the surrounding landscape, drew forth many expressions of
approbation. Col. Skinner, who has travelled through many of the
States, remarked, " he had never seen anything equal to them in
this country."

Your committee then proceeded to the farm of Mr. Wm. J. Town-
send, compiising 27 acres; 20 of which are now under cultivation.
Soil a light dry loam. This farm when purchased by Mr. Towns-
end, two years ago, was worn out land. By highly commendable
industry, and the use of fertilizing manures, he has brought it to its
present state of productiveness. One lot of seven acres, now grow-
ing corn, had never been plowed before for forty years, the slope
being so great, as it was supposed by the former proprietor, as to
preclude the possibility of using the plow in turning the sod. Its
present appearance proves the old adage true, that " where there's
a will there's a way." The yield, it is conjectured, will be seventy-
five bushels per acre. Most of the manure used on the farm is made
by Mr. Townsend, being a compost of peat, refuse woolen obtained
from a carpet factory near by, soap suds, &c., mixed with lime. He
applies 30 loads per acre, valued at one dollar per load. A field of
rye, part of which was cut was supposed would yield sixty bushels
to the acre; manured with poudrette at the rate of sixty bushels per
acre, costing thirty-five cents per bushel. The rye is followed by a
fine crop of clover, now high above the stubble.

The Lima beans numbering 1400 poles, looked very promising.
Your committee were shown some six-weeks beans, manured with
Guano, of very fine growth, but not seeing any others oi the same
planting differently treated, were unable to judge of its effect. In
six acres of potatoes examined, no signs of the rot were disco-
vered. The early varieties now fit for market, yield 100 bushels to
the acre. A field of early sweet corn, about three-fourths of an acre,
now in the silk, looked very fine. Seven acres from which a first
crop of different vegetables have been taken, he is now about sow-
ing for a second. Mr. Townsend stated that he had sold already,
3,300 early cabbages at from $4,50 to $5 per hundred, and expected
to get 80,000 of the winter variety from those now set out. A tho-
rough bred pair of Devon oxen, five years old last spring, were much
admired They were raised in Connecticut, and cost ^lUO.

. 94 [Assembly

From the short time that Mr. Townsend has occupied his farm, the
labor required and perseverance displayed in bringing it from a state
of waste to its present condition, entitles him, in the opinion of your
committee, to great praise. They then accompanied Mr. Townsend
to the farm of his father, Sam'l B. Townsend, of Newtown.

His farm contains 131 acres; soil, a dark loam, with a slight pro-
portion of sand. They inspected a field of Canada flint wheat, con-
taining 14 acres, looking well; probable yield 25 bushels to the acre.
The Scotch imperial oats, 7| acres, presented a beautiful appearance.
Crop Very heavy, sown two bushels of oats to the acre; no manure
applied this year.

The corn was far superior to any seen elsew^here this season. Fif-
teen acres manured with barn-yard manure at the rate of 15 loads per
acre, each load being equal to 42 bushels, will probably yield 60
bushels to the acre. A field of two and a half acres bearing timo-
thy, manured with barn-yard manure, 15 loads to the acre, presented
a fine appearance. Your committee examined a field of clover part-
ly cut, of two acres, manured three years ago with poudrette, 60
bushels to the acre. First crop w^as wheat. Second year no ma-
nure applied and sown with timothy; this year likewise, not manu-
red, and sown with clover; the second crop of which is being cut
and sold in market green, for $4 per hundred bundles; equal to $40
per ton as hay.

There were eleven acres of potatoes, manured with barn-yard ma-
nure, in which not a case of disease was seen. The present yield of
the early variety is 100 bushels per acre; the fall crop, it is thought
will amount to 250 bushels per acre.

Examined a field of fourteen acres bearing a fine crop of common
oats. This field has not been manured for five years, and sown each
season with oats. Two acres manured with lime, 100 bushels per
acre on the sod, and then turned over and sowed with corn manured
in the hills a year ago last spring, produced 65 bushels per acre;
sown this year with oats, no manure, thought will yield 80 bushels
per acre.

Mr. Townsend has been very successful in the use of poudrette as a
manure. He first made trial five years ago, of that obtained from
the Lodi company of New-Jersey, but found it inferior in fertilizing
properties to the article prepared by the Poudrette company of New-
York, which he has since used. In addition to the poudrette, he
has placed on his farm this season, 800 loads of manure prepared as

No. 151.] 95

follows: From the low, swampy grounds, he carts out in the fall a
quantity of peat which is exposed to the action of the sun, and when
dried, removed to a cellar beneath his barn, the floor of which is so
constructed that the urine of the cattle may pass through and be
absorbed by the peat. In the spring it is taken out, mixed with lime
and placed upon the ground.

His stock consists of seven cows and five horses. The milk sells
at the door for two and a half cents per quart. In conducting the
labors of the farm, he is aided by his son, one steady hand, and two
small colored boys, one seven and the other thirteen years of age.
The latter handle the plow and cultivator, and your committee were
surprised to hear he had gone over the corn field five times with the
cultivator; they are much liked by the family, active, and willing to
work. In addition to these, two other hands are employed in the
harvest season. After inspecting the crops, your committee returned
to the house, and were introduced to the members of Mr. Townsend's
interesting family.

Mr. Hall on behalf of the committee, returned thanks for the kind-
ness of their reception, and facility afforded in carrying out the ob-
jects of the visit. He dwelt in a few remarks on the advantages of
agricultural pursuits as a source of health, happiness and prosperity,
and in alluding to the farm, the absence of all complaint of the ra-
vages of insects, its high order of cultivation, and the economy of
its management with a view to profitable farming, looked upon it as
being far superior to any he had seen for several years, which opin-
ion received the hearty concurrence of your committee.

For the hospitality extended them, they would return their sincere
thanks. The abundance and variety of the well filled board, proved
that the husbandman's reward is sure. The picturesque scenery of
different sections through which they passed, the beautiful fields of
waving grain, ripe for the sickle, that met the eye on every side, and
the various private residences, among others those of Messrs. Ste-
vens and IMulligan, adorned by the beauties of nature and art, elici-
ted from your committee frequent expressions of pleasure and ap-
probation.

Respectfully submitted.

(Signed,) CHAS. HENRY HALL,

T. B. WAKEMAN,
JAS. J. MAPES,
J. S. SKINNER.

J. C. Parsons, Secretary.-

REPORT

On Gen. Johnson's Farm.

The committee appointed by the managers of the Nineteenth An-
nual Fair of the American Institute, to examine the farm of Gen.
Jeremiah Johnson, of East Brooklyn, most respectfully report:

On Tuesday, the 20th inst., the committee made a visit to the re-
sidence of General Johnson, for the j)urpose of performing the duty
assigned them. The General received them in person, and conduct-
ed them over every part of his extensive grounds, and through the
stables and other out-buildings; also through the manure yard, and
giving the committee ample explanations as they proceeded.

For the high state of cultivation of the fields, the mode of manu-
facturing manure, the condition of the horses and cattle, the cultiva-
tion and fine breed of fowls, and the entire arrangement of the farm
and buildings, the committee cannot speak in too high commenda-
tion.

About 100 acres are under cultivation, forming an immense vege-
table garden as folloves: Seventy acres of this land are divided in-
to ten allotments, which are cultivated by nine German and one
English gardener, who raise vegetables for the markets, and the bal-
ance of the farm is cultivated by the General and son.

The present year he raised five acres Indian corn, four acres of
cabbages, one acre beets, half an acre carrots, four acres potatoes,
cut nine acres of Rbubarb (or pie plant,) and mowed twenty acres
grass; fifteen acres of the grass was cut over twice; and a great va-
riety of other vegetables, as celery, lettuce, spinach, tomatoes, leeks,
&c. He keeps eight horses, and six milch cows. He stables the
horses summer and winter, and cuts grass for the cattle from May to

No. 151.] 97

August, then he grazes them until December. At times during the
summer there are as many as eighty persons employed on this farm.

Among the objects which most attracted the attention of the com-
mittee, was the mode of cultivating early vegetables, by sowing
the seeds in the fall of the year, and bringing the plants to a cer-
tain state of forwardness, and protecting them during the wnnter;
by this mode, he anticipates some ten days the vegetation raised m
hot beds. He has also extensive arrangements for hot-beds, to raise
such plants as will not endure the other modes of cultivation.

The shortness of time allowed the committee for examination and
making up their report, will not allow them to give all the details
necessary to do ample justice to this farm.

The committee take pleasure in recommending it to the high con-
sideration of the premium committee of the present fair.

Most respectfully,
(Signed,) E. T. "backhouse,

MARTIN ELLSWORTH.
Mew-York, October, 1S46.

[Assembly, No. 151.]

REPORT

On the Corporation Farm on Randall's Is'and, worked
by pauper labor, under the charge of M. G. Leonard,
Esq.

The undersigned, from the Farmers' Club, on the invitation of
Moses G. Leonard, Esq., commissioner of the Alms House depart-
ment, having visited Randall's Island, on the 5th inst., in company
with his honor, the Mayor, several of the Aldermen, and other citi-
zens, ask leave to report:

That ]\Ir. Leonard's object was to present to the citizens some
knowledge of the success which has thus far attended his endeavors
to cultivate this farm by pauper labor. It affords us much pleasure
to bear testimony to the excellence of his arrangements, and the
great promise which is thus far afforded of signal success. Since the
failure of an experiment, attempted some years ago on the Long Is-
land Farms, it has been deemed impracticable by many to cultivate
the soil advantageously by pauper labor. But, after witnessing the
progress made under the direction of Mr. Leonard, we are far from
adopting any such conclusion; on the contrary, we feel much encour-
agement to believe, that by steady perseverance in a well devised
plan, the paupers of the city may be made to contribute largely to
their own support, without exacting from them a greater amount of
labor than will be found essential for their own comfort and well be-
ing. But it cannot be expected that any plan, however well devised
for the accomplishment of an object so desirable, will prosper, if the
supervision of its details is doomed to continual change from one to
another. Once under the supervision of those having the requisite
qualifications, it should not upon slight cause be changed.

No. 151.] 99

Randall's Island is about nine mile distant from the City Hall, lying
between Haerlem and Long Island. It forms on one side a part of
the east bank of the Haerlem River, and on the other side a part of
the west bank of Long Island Sound, with narrow channels on the
north and south, difficult of navigation. It contains 13.8 acres of
marsh and upland. Some of the best fields on the Island, however,
have been rendered unfit for immediate tillage by the erection and
destruction, of the buildings, by fire, intended for the accommoda-
tion of the poor of the city.

Mr. Leonard did not get possession of the Island until the middle
of May last, at which time no preparation had been made for pro-
ducing a crop. Nevertheless, he has secured from 80 to 100 tons
of excellent hay. There are two fields of Indian corn, containing
five acres, equal in appearance to any we have seen, averaging full
twelve feet in height; one field of six acres bearing potatoes, one of
buckwheat, four acres, and one of turnips, one and a half acres; all
in excellent order, and of fair promise; also, 2,100 heads of cabbage.
From the 15th of June to the present time, 40 cows have been milk-
ed, furnishing daily 300 quarts to the nursery on Long Island, where
there are 700 pauper children, reserving as much as is required for
the farm. There have been two very comfortable buildings erected
on Randall's Island for the accommodation of the laborers, and there
is a stable now in process of erection intended for the cows in win-
ter. All this is entirely the result of pauper labor.

We sincerely hope that Mr. Leonard may be permitted to go on
and cany out the plans he has intimated to us, of furnishing labor to
all the inmates of the establishment capable of performing labor,
stimulating them by a system of rewards, which will call for no ad-
ditional charge upon the city, and if successful, will materially les-
sen the cost of maintaining its paupers. The Island is the property
of the city, having been purchased from the Messrs. Randalls, in
1832, for $60,000. There could not be a better place for the expe-
riment than is here afforded. The milk alone which has been
already furnished, estimating it at four cents per quart, provided the
quantity should be continued, W'ill amount to more than seven per
cent, per annum, on the cost of the Island, and so far there have
been but seventy paupers employed. There are in the establishment
nearly five hundred that may be employed in agricultural labor, be-
sides a large proportion of the children, whose labor at particular
seasons of the year, ma}- be made extremely valuable.

100 [Assembly

It is not extravagant to estimate that the seventy paupers, em-
ployed on Randall's Island, have thus far maintained themselves, and
produced a surplus which would be equal to over $4,000 per annum.
If then, the whole 500 could be engaged in agricultural labor, with
corresponding advantage, together with the occasional labor of the
children, in addition to their own maintenance they would produce
to the city a revenue of $30,000 per annum.

Two of the Messrs. Randalls having been present on the occa-
sion of this visit, we have obtained from them some reminiscences
worthy of record. The Island, formerly called Montezone, was pur-
chased by this family in 1784, from Col. Ogden, of New- Jersey, for
$6,000. It was then in a very neglected state, nearly destitute of
trees, fences, &c. The excellent fruit which has been produced here
to some extent, has resulted from the labor and enterprise of this fa-
mily. Peaches were formerly one of the products in great abun-
dance, and of the very best quality; but about forty years ago the
crop failed, and the trees gradually decayed, since which very few
have been produced on the Island. This was the case, also, in. the
adjacent country, and was generally attributed to a change in the cli-
mate, as no other assignable cause seemed to present ilsellj the dis-
ease called ihe '' yellows," and the peach borer were subsequently
found to be the cause.

The Virgalieu pear was produced in great abundance, and perfec-
tion, until about twenty years ago, when the crop failed; the trees
have since yielded no fruit worth gathering. They put forth their
blossoms and foliage in the spring, and appear to be vigorous, but
the fruit, after attaining about half its usual size, turns to a dark co-
lor, cracks and dries up. Some specimens of it are herewith pre-
sented to the club. These trees may be resuscitated by proper cul-
ture.

Cherries have been very abundant on the Island; there are several
varieties, and the quality excellent; the Blackhearts are most nume-
rous. The celebrated Dyckman cherry, or Black Tartarian, was first
grown in America on this Island, about forty years ago. The New-
town pippin flourished on the Island, one thousand barrels of which
have been obtained in a season. In all, there are about twenty acres
of fruit trees.

In 1820 the receipts for produce, sold off the Island, was ,<^6,0C0,
independent of the supply of the family. The produce sold consist-

No. 151.] 101

ed entirely of fruit, vegetables, and hay. The hay alone, after re-
taining enough to winter 26 head of cattle, sold for $1,600. In
1839, Mr. Randall sold 14,000 pounds of cherries.

The elder brother, who was present, Mr. John Randall, resided on
the Island over fifty years. He states that the family, with the ex-
ception of one year, 1824, enjoyed uninterrupted good health. Du-
ring that year they were afflicted with ordinary bilious fever, of which
three members of the family died. Intermittent fevers had not been
known to the family during their residence on the Island.

(Signed,) ADONIRAM CHANDLER.

D. JAY BROWNE,
FRANKLIN KNIGHT,
HENRY A. FIELD.

American Institute, JV. Y., Sept. 15th, 1846.

REPORT

On David Jolinson's field of Corn.

Your committee appointed to view Gen. David Johnson's farm, in I
Flatbush township, Long Island, beg leave to report that they have
attended to the duties assigned them.

They viewed two pieces of corn of five acres each; one piece was
tasseled above the ear, the other cut up by the root. The first piece
was planted in hills about four and an half feet apart from centre
to centre, and about the same between the rows; both pieces were
cultivated about the same. In alluding to the mode of cultivation,
they would say, that the two first dressings were performed with the
cultivator and hoe, the third and fourth dressings by the cultivator.

Your committee are of opinion that the piece cut up by the root
"would yield the greatest crop; yet we could not decide, as much ot
the corn had fallen upon the ground, and been removed before our
examination commenced. The quantity per acre from present view,
we should estimate at eighty bushels, making in both pieces 800
tushels. In the opinion of your committee, the land was capable,
from its high state of cultivation, of producing a greater crop by
planting closer, and having a less number of stalks in the hill; both
pieces were free from weeds, and evinced much skill in the culture.
The whole farm consisting of 1 10 acres under cultivation, was prin-
cipally in grass, and very judiciously divided into lots of ten acres
each. Much attention appears to be paid in cultivating the gard-
en, and arranging the buildings for practical purposes. In examin-
ing his barn, which was well stored with grain and hay, we observ-
ed a threshing machine, invented by Mr. Pitts, worthy of notice;
"which happily combines the threshing and cleaning, all at the same
time. The arrangement and number of bee hives evinced much
skill and attention.

Respectfully submitted by the committee,
(Signed,) MARTIN ELLSWORTH,

N. A. MILES,
S. HARNSBERGER.

J^eW'York, October llth, 1846.

HORTICULTURAL REPORT

Of the 19th Annual Fair of the American Institute, held
at Castle Garden, October, 1846.

To the Managers of the " American Institute,^^ presiding at the
jyineteenth Annual Fair, held at Castle Garden, October, 1846.

Gentlemen —

Having for five successive years furnished reports to your Insti-
tute expressive of the merits of Agricultural and Horticultural Pro-
ductions exhibited at your Annual Fairs during that period, and ha-
ving also been selected from the present Agricultural Board to su-
perintend its different branches, I consider it an imperative duty to
address you on the present occasion with a view to expatiate on the
merits of that cause which you have so long, so ardently, and so
manfully sustained.

Your unlimited confidence in an humble tiller of the soil has been
more gratifying to me than any compensation you may have ten-
dered in the shape of the " almighty dollar." When I am found un-
deserving of that confidence, I wish no longer to be retained in your
ranks.

In former reports, I have adverted to various subjects connected
with the advancement and interests of Agriculture, Horticulture and
Arboriculture. They are of such vital importance to the human fa-
mily, and present such an inexhaustible field to the contemplative
mind, as to render any apology unnecessary for still farther dilating
on their merits.

In my report of 1841, I observed, that inasmuch as the Fairs of
the American Institute are held too late in the autumn for an ex-
tensive display of the productions of our gardens, and kept open
two or three weeks in succession, a diflferent arrangement is essen-

104 [AlSEMBI.Y

tial to what is commonly adopted by those Horticultural Societies
that do all their business in one day, and confine their premiums to a
few of the choicest specimens of such articles as mny be offered ex-
clusively for competition.

And as the most essential attractions in the Horticultural depart-
ment are large displays of the flowers of the season, tastefully ar-
ranged, and renewed at least twice in each week, it was recommend-
ed that inducements should be offered to all horticulturists and
florists, professional and amateur, to furnish daily supplies of the
flowers of the season for the decoration of the horticultural room,
and thus stimulate their fellow citizens in general to pursue that
most healthful and enchanting of all recreations, the cultivation of
flowers.

On that occasion I resolved, which resolution I have adhered to
ever since, " to preserve inviolate every article to the object to which
it was designed, by setting an example of forbearance and self-de-
nial to all connected with the establishment, in not allowing a par-
ticle of the articles exhibited to be consumed or taken away until
after the Fair is closed, bearing ever in mind that the least deviation
from pure rectitude may lead to results discreditable, if not destruct-
ive to the Institute." I regret, however, to add, that at the last An-
nual Fair, notwithstanding all our care and precaution, some of the
visitors took liberties with the property of their fellow-citizens. A
would-be gentleman was seen breaking the rind of a cheese with the
heel of his boot, and serving up the middle to those around him,
among whom, I am sorry to add, were several decently dressed fe-
males. May this exposure reach their consciences, and convince
them of their imprudence.

In my report of 1842, I rendered to the " men of Bergen" all due
honor for the cultivation of that fine esculent, the cabbage, at which
time we saw upward of six hundred and forty thousand heads grow-
ing within a circle of three miles, in the southern part of Bergen
township. In dilating on the various kinds of vegetables exhibited
in 1843, the pumpkin was mcluded, so esteemed in New England
for a thanksgiving pie.

The squash, an excellent substitute for the turnip, which does not
succeed well in our hot summers, was also noticed. Vegetable roots
for cattle were recommended, as proving valuable nutritious proven-
der for winter consumption. The productions of the American Dairy,

No. 151.] 105

which are now extensively exported to our father-land, and even re-
lished in Cheshire, were, as they deserve to be, warmly extolled.
Neither did I forget to remind our fellow citizens of the letter and
spirit of republicanism; that the humble tiller who introduces into his
kitchen garden, fruits or vegetables of superior excellence, should
not suffer the injustice of wealthy proprietors bearing away prizes
inconsiderately adjudged for the hulk or quantity of an article, when
its quality should have determined the decision. To obviate such an
event, my object on the present occasion, while forming the several
committees of judges, was, to select men well acquainted with the
different subjects upon which they were appointed to pass judgment;
men too firm to be biased by adventitious causes, and too honest to
be influenced by any pecuniary consideration.

I remarked' in my report of 1844, that the cultivation and im-
provement of the fruits of the earth had been a darling pursuit of the
great and the good of every age; that the admiration of plants was
common to the whole race of our fellow creatures, their abund-
ance and quality being the principal sustenance of the nations of
the earth.

In my report of 1845, 1 furnished a condensed history of the cul-
tivation of the earth, commencing in the garden of Eden, as record-
ed in the second chapter of the book of Genesis. The gardens of
the Jews, the Egyptians, the Persians and the Greeks, were alluded
to, and those of Peru, Holland, Flanders, France and Great Britain,
"were briefly mentioned. In noticing the latter country, it was stated
that the total number of the vegetable species not indigenous to
that climate, introduced previous to the accession of George III.,
"was less than 4000, while in the reign of George IV., it amounted
to 11,970.

A sketch of the rise and progress of the American Metropolis can-
Eot but prove interesting to the present generation ; I have, therefore,
collected the following facts from histories of the olden time, and
from several of our venerable citizens.

As Castle Garden, the place selected for holding the Nineteenth
Annual Fair of the American Institute, has been considered by many
a visitor as "quite a journey out of town," I would submit the fol-
lowing interesting reminiscences. The Dutch having obtained per-
mission of the natives, built a foit on Manhattan Island in 1623.
This fort stood on what is called the Battery, not far, as is said, from

106 [Assembly

the Bowling Green. It was a large squarSj containing several hou-
ses, and in 1642, a church edifice was erected in the south-east cor-
ner of the fort.

In 163S, tobacco was produced to a considerable extent on New-
York island. In 1652, the first public school was established. 1669
the first map of the city was sent to Holland. In 1662, a windmill
■was erected on the King's Farm, not far from the site of the present
City Hotel; at this time some of the high ground opposite, and east
of Broadway, was cultivated as gardens. In 1676, a law was passed
to pave streets. 1677 there were 12 streets and 384 houses. 1693,
a church was built in what was then called " Garden Alley," after-
wards "Garden Street," and now Exchange Place, running in the
rear of the Merchants' Exchange, thence into Broad-street. The
ground here had been laid out and cultivated with much taste; and
hence, probably, the name "Garden Alley" was given to the street
passing by it. The location of a church here was objected to by
some, as being too far oid of town, but was finally carried; a rare
demur, says the writer of the account, in our modern views of dis-
tance.

In 1697, the building now known as Trinity Church, was erected;
and Smith, in his History of New-York, says, "it was very pleasantly
situated on the banks of Hudson's river." The truth is, it was built
on the site of the present elegant structure at the head of Wall-
street; but in all probability there were no buildings at that time be-
tween it and the North River. 1711, a slave market was establish-
ed in Wall-street. 1718, the Park, called the Commons, was covered
with brush and underwood. 1720, a duty of two per cent, was laid
on European goods, the first regular tariff mentioned in the early
history of the city. 1729, three pence per foot was given for land
on the west side of Broadway, near the Battery. 1732, the first
stage route was established between New-York and Boston. The
coach, which at the present time would be thought an extremely
"slow one," wns fourteen days on the journey, conveying news to and
fro once a month! What an amazing contrast to our modern means
of communication by electricity and steam!

In 1733, a law was passed to preserve the fish in Fresh Water
Pond, (now Centre-street.) 1737, a market house was built in Broad-
way, opposite Crown, now Liberty -street; at this time the city con-
tained 1416 houses, only sixteen having been built in seven years.
1742, wheat was 3s. 6d. sterling per bushel; the same year, coal

No. 15L] 107

was imported from England^ being considered cheaper fuel than
wood. 1745, Lady Murray owned the only coach in New-York,
1759, Chatham-street began to be laid out and a few houses to be
erected. At this time, land could be purchased at XSO sterling per
acre in the outer wards. 1765, ground was obtained by a grant from
the corporation, on the corner of Beekman and Nassau-streets, then
in the fields, for the erection of the Presbyterian church, in which Dr.
Spring now officiates.

When the British evacuated New-York in 1783, the city did not
extend beyond Murray-street. In 1791, it was divided into seven
wards, and at this time one hundred lots, 25 by ICO, situated near
the City Hospital, Bror.dway, were offered for sale at .£25 sterling
per lot. 1801, Broadway was ordered to be continued through Tho-
mas Randall's land, called the "Sailor's Snug Harbor," near Eighth-
street, to meet the Bowery; and the hills levelled and carted into
Fresh Water Pond, which at this period was the northern limit of
Broadway, and much beyond the settled parts of the city. This pond
then drained a surface of nearly 400 acres, and the Indians were ac-
customed to encamp on its margin during the summer season, em-
ploying their time mostly in the manufacture of baskets and other
fancy articles, which they offered for sale, in the city below. A
creek then extended from the pond through Canal-street to the North
River, which was crossed in Broadway, now our fashionable tho-
roughfare, by a dilapidated stone bridge. The island above this was
in a rude state of nature; it was diversified by rocky hills, neglected
valleys, dangerous quagmires, and barren wastes; creeks ran from the
rivers to its very centre. It appeared to be waiting the improve-
ments destined to be made in its aspect by the energetic mind and
toiling hands of man.

Previous to the extension of Broadway, as narrated above, the
Bowery was the only entrance into our city, and even this was
through woods and groves of cedar, leading to the " Bull's Head,"
where now stands the Bowery theatre. The Horse Market, where
many a "gallant steed" was bought and sold, had Chatham Square
for its location, which was then surrounded by fields used for the
pasturage of cattle. Persons are even now living who fearlessly
confess to the guilt of having " hooked^' apples, cherries and other
:iruit near what is now designated East-Broadway, and also on the
land now occupied as Mulberry, Mott and Bayard-streets, west of the
Bowery.

lOS [Assembly

At the commencement of the present century, it was contemplated
fo build a new City Hall on the Commons before described, which
was considered by many old residents as being too distant from the
centre of business, the principal portion of the inhabitants then re-
siding below Walker-street.

In attempting to furnish a brief detail of the progress of horticul-
ture, from the period when the " burghers good and true" of New-
Amsterdam displayed their skill and taste in the cultivation of that
pleasant and fertile little spot, then known as "Garden-Street," or
*'Garden-Alley" — a spot wdiere now assemble " money-changers"
and speculating merchants — I have unavoidably been compelled to
digress from my accustomed path; this, however, has been caused by
the daily innovations made by " bricks and mortar." Many of our
aged citizens hold it in remembrance, that farms, gardens and or-
chards were cultivated by them in the lower part of the city, and
that the estates of Rutger, Willet, Bayard, Delancy, Rivington,
Minthorn, Stuyvesant, and other property east of Bowery, together
with all the tillable land W'est of Broadway, were occupied by gar-
deners and nurserymen, with the exception of Potters' Field, and that
required for public burying grounds. Who would now imagine that
Cherry-street, running from Pearl-street upward, was once a bloom-
ing orchard, where many a smiling damsel picked her cherries, and
that in Orchard-street stood goodly apple-trees, where truant urchins
stole forbidden fruit?

About fifty years since, a nursery was established near Rivington,
east of Sheriff-street, which street derived its name from Mr. Sher-
iff, the proprietor. Mr. Michael Floy, now living, succeeded Mr. S.
in this nursery. He afterward occupied land in Greenwich-lane, and
in 1807 removed from thence toward the North River, his nursery
being situated between King and Barrow-street, extending across
Hudson-street, that beautiful and spacious thoroughfare, to Green-
wich-street. This nursery being required for building lots, he was
induced in 1820, to start a nursery on the Brevoort estate, immedi-
ately north of the Sailor's Snug Harbor, which he carried on until
the year 1827, since which time he purchased fourteen acres of land
in Harlem, where he at present resides. W^e thus see that the march
of improvement has driven the nurserymen and market-gardeners far
from the fields. of their early exertions, and that where "once a gar-
den smiled," now stand the mansions of adventurous merchants and
successful tradesmen.

Mr. Grant Thorburn, the celebrated seedsman of this city, informs

No. 151.] 109

us, that in the year 1S02 " the ladies of New-York were beginning
to show their taste for flowers;" and still farther, to quote his lan-
guao^e, "In the month of April, 1S03, 1 observed a man for the first
time selling flower plants in the Fly Market, which then stood at the
foot of Maiden-Lane. As I carelessly passed along, I took a leaf,
and rubbing it between my fingers and thumb, asked him what was
the name of it; he answered, a geranium. I looked a few minutes
at the plant, thought it had a pleasant smell, and would look well if
removed into one of my green flower-pots to stand on my counter to
draw attention. Next day some one fancied, and purchased plant
and pot. I went the following day, when the market was nearly
over, judging the man would sell cheaper, rather than have the trou-
ble of carrying them over the river, as he lived at Brooklyn, and in
those days there were neither steam nor horse boats* Accordingly, I
purchased two plants, and having sold them, I began to think that
something might be done in this way; so I continued to go at the
close of the market, and always bargained for the unsold plants.
The man finding me a useful customer, would assist me to carry
them home, and show me how to shift the plants out of his pots and
put them into green pots, if my customers wished it. The thing be-
ing a novelty, began to draw attention; people accompanying their
country friends to see the curiosities of the city, would step in to
view ray plants. In these visits the strangers would express a wish
to have some seed; but here lay the dithculty, as no one sold seed in
New -York; not one of the farmers or gardeners saved more than
what they wanted for their own use, there being no market for an
overplus, In this dilemma, I told my situation to the man from
whom I had always bought the plants in the Fly Market. He said
he was then raising seeds with the intention of selling them with his
plants in the market; but if I would take his seed, he would quit
the market and stay at home to raise plants and seeds for me to sell
in my store. A bargain was struck, I purchased his stock of seed,
amounting to fifteen dollars, and thus commenced a business on the
17th of September, 1805, that has been the most extensive of the
sort in the United States."

Mr. Wm. Phelan raised plants for Mr. Grant Thorburn on Bishop
Moore's estate, bounded by twenty-first and twenty-fourth-streets, and
eighth and ninth avenues. I am here constrained to observe, that
the reputation of Mr. P. as a skilful gardener stands justly high. He

*In 1809, Robert Fulton received a charter from the corporation to run a steant-
boat between New- York and Brookl3-n, (Fulton ferry.) Horse-boats were, however,
used on other ferries within the last twenty years.

110 [Assembly

has seen numbers of his fellow florists, like the beautiful flowers
which demanded their care, "flourish, droop, and die," but he still
lives in the enjoyment of a vigorous old age, an ornament to his
profession. Mr. P. states that there were but few market gardens
above his, south of Dykeman's estate, near King's Bridge, a part of
which was then appropriated to the cultivation of vegetables. Most
of the garden productions with which the New-York market was then
supplied, were raised on our island, with the exception of cab-
bage from Bergen, green peas, potatoes and melons from Long Is-
land cucumbers from West Chester county.

In the year 1828, the late Mr. William Wilson published a work
entitled 'TAe Economy of the Kitchen Garden, Orchard, and Vinery,^*
in which he gave the result of twenty-seven years' experience. In
this publication Mr. Wilson disparaged the opinions contained in
""TAe American Gardener," written by the celebrated Cobbett some
years previous. In a controversy which was inserted in "TAe JYew-
York Farmer and Horticultural Repository,'" he admitted that we had
less than twenty varieties of culinary vegetables under cultivation
at that time. This " paper war" gave rise to the publication of
my ''Young Gardener^ s Assistant," which, from a small pamphlet,
has gradually increased to a bulky volume, that has found its way
into every section of the Union, and been perused as a text-book by
thousands engaged in the pleasurable pursuits of horticulture.

The art of cultivating garden productions is now generally known,
and the facilities for their rapid transportation being without a par-
allel, the markets of New-York are at present supplied with every
vegetable that the palate of man could desire. What an amazing
change has been effected within the last generation, by the association
of intellect in the furtherance of plans for the advancement of supe-
rior methods of culture. The scene presented at the Castle Garden
during the present anniversary, was one calculated to warm the ileart
of every patriotic visitor. Here, clothed in modesty and beauty, the
rose, the peerless "queen of flowers," charmed the sight, and diffused
around its grateful fragrance; here, too, the dahlia, in all the splendor
of its matchless hues, elicited admiration from the lover of nature,
while the rich products of the garden, the orchard, and the field,
evinced the perfection which had been achieved by the gardener
and husbandman; here were exhibited the encourajjing results of
a generous rivalry, the glorious evidences of progressive improve-
cient.

No. 151.] Ill

In surveying the fine collection of fruit, I am irresistibly led to
dilate on the surprising change which has been effected in its
quality by skilful culture. Who, for instance, could imagine that the
luscious plum emanated from the austere sloe, or that the delicious
pippin apple owes its origin to the worthless acid crab? Or what
resemblance can be traced between our famous beurre pears, whose
flesh is so succulent, rich, and melting, and that hard, stony and as-
Irino-ent fruit, which even birds and animals refuse to eat? But what
cannot the reforming mind of man surmount? See what it has con-
quered in the cultivation of our native grape, which has been re-
claimed from a state of sourness a fox would not covet, to a most
delightful flavor, and the generous wine which in due time will be
expressed from it, bids fair to stand the test with that imported from
abroad. I cannot but introduce here the judges' report of the good
qualities of our natives:

Report of J\''ative Wine, tested October 21st, 1846, by Charles H.
Hall, William JViblo, ajid Adoniram Chandler, Committee of
Judges on Wine.

The five kinds of wine described below, were sent by Mr. N.
Longworth, of Cincinnati, Ohio, to whom a silver cup was awarded.

No. 1. A fine light wine, of delicious flavor, and will compete
with foreign sweet wine.

2. A light dry wine from the Catawba Grape; sound, of peculiar
flavor, resembling Hock, and of the same Bouquet.

3. A good dry wine, of pure juice, different vintage from the
last described, but good sound wine, although not high flavored.

4. A dry wine from the pure juice of the Herbemont Grape. It
is sound, of the peculiar flavor of the grape, and in time will,
without doubt, be admired.

5. From the Missouri Grape, five per cent, brandy. The wine is
thin in body, and wanting in flavor, perhaps arising from our not ha-
ving had a fair chance of tasting it in perfection, it having been re-
cently shaken up.

A silver medal was awarded for each of the bottles of wine de-
scribed below:

A bottle of wine furnished by Pvlr. T. L. Prevost, Greenville,

1 12 [Assembly

Greene county, was tested, which was represented to be four years
old. "A sort of Hock, of fine flavor, but in a state of fermentation,
the sugar not being dissolved and the spirit formed."

A bottle from Mr. Charles Peabody, made by him from a native
grape, found on the bank of the Uchee Creek, in Russell county, Al-
abama, was pronounced by the judges "a pleasant wine, sweet, like
Malmsey, and if no sugar had been added to the juice, as is repre-
sented, it is remarkable in its character."

From an article in The Southern Cultivator, published in Augusta,
in March last, it is stated that "the Uchee grape, in its native state,
yields but little juice, but that it is extremely rich, and makes a
most delicious wine without sugar. The bunches are long, very
compact, and of a jet black color." Some of the most celebrated
wine connoiseurs of Columbus, describe this wine as having the body
of Port, with a little of the Muscat flavor, and equal to the best im-
ported.

On this occasion a bottle of Mr. Pell's Newtown pippin cider was
tasted, pronounced as good sound cider, with the flavor of the fruit.

The Horticultural and Agricultural productions described in the
subjoined list, were laid before the several committees of judges.
Many other articles were exhibited, but as they were not worthy of
being brought into competition for the premiums offered, nor of being
recorded on the annals of the Institute, they are omitted. Annexed
are the names of the judges:

On Floioers. — Ephraim Holbrook, W. S. Carpenter, Aaron Ar-
nold, Noel J. Becar, Peter B. Mead, and John Correga.

On Fruits, — S. Walker, Charles Henry Hall, and Isaac Adriance.

On Vegetables. — Charles Henry Hall, P. B. Mead, and James Hen-
derson.

On Agricultural Productions. — E. H. Kimball, C. H. Hall, and
John B. Veeder.

On Dairy Productions. — Thos. Carpenter, Peter Coutant, and Fre-
derick E. Westbrook..

On Flour,— H. Evesson, and Heman Norton.

On Hops. — G. Kitching, and John Tweedle, of the firm of Twee-
die & Darlington, hop merchants, Albany.

No. 151.] 113

FLOWERS.

From J. M. Thorburn & Co., No. 15 John-street, a display of
about 450 dahlia blooms, frequently renewed during the Fair.

Messrs. Dunlap &- Thompson, 635 Broadway, a display of about
300 Dahlia blooms, renewed during the Fair; also two beautiful or-
namental designs, 24 of the choicest varieties of Dahlias, and other
ornamental plants. »

William Kent, Brooklyn, L. I., a large assortment of superior
dahlias, frequently renewed, including some extra fine American
seedlings.

Charles More, 9Sth-street, Third avenue, a large assortment of
splendid roses and dahlias, also several fine plants and bouquets.

Messrs. Mantel & Lenoir, 46th-street, Bloomingdale-road, a display
of about 600 fine fragrant roses, in about 200 varieties; also three
splendid bouquets.

Messrs. Boll & Hauser, 50th-street, Blooraingdale-road, a choice
assortment of perpetual roses, including about 30 seedlings; also an
ornamental design, several choice varieties of dahlias.

Isaac Buchanan, 17th-street, near Fifth avenue, a splendid assort-
ment of roses and dahlias, frequently renewed.

Messrs. Marc & Co., 44th-street, Bloomingdale-road, a fine display
of roses and dahlias.

L. Prevost, Astoria, L. L, a large supply of dahlias and other
flowers, frequently renewed.

Thomas Hogg & Sons, 7lst-street, west of Third avenue, several
choice varieties of dahlias and other flowers.

William Phelan & Sons, 5lh-street, near avenue A,, some fine dis-
plays of dahlias and ornamental plants.

J. Briell, Harsimus, N, J., a good assortment of dahlias, frequently
renewed.

William Reid, Murray-Hill Nursery, a fine display of choice dahlias.

E, H. Kimball, Flatland, L. I., Bernard Kelly, gardener, two
splendid ornamental designs of choice flowers; also several varieties
of dahlias.

S. Ruth, gardener to J, C. Beekman, 61st-street, a display of or-
namental flowers.

Wm. Davison, Brooklyn, L. L, several fine varieties of dahlias,
tastefully displayed.

J. W. W^ood, gardener to Mr. Perit, Bloomingdale, two pyramids
and several bouquets of choice flowers.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 8

114 [Assembly

S. M. Cox, 49th-street, Bloomingdale-road, one ornamental de-
sign of splendid roses and other flowers.

M. Shones, Bloomingdale, an ornamental design, tastefully arran-
ged.

Miss Sarah Ogden, Newark, N. J., a splendid bouquet of choice
flowers.

William Leggett, Bloomingdale, a bouquet of flowers in varie-
ties.

James Robinson, Brooklyn, several varieties of dahlias and other
flowers.

J. C. Green, Staten Island, D. Marony, gardener, twelve splendid
cockscombs.

T. A. Emmett, Mount Vernon, 59th-street, a fine assortment of
dahlias.

Mrs. A. Jackson, Williamsburgh, an ornamental design, and a
bouquet of flowers.

Mrs. S. Burtis, Williamsburgh, several varieties of dahlias and
other flowers.

James Fairbanks, 14th-street, several specimens of extra fine cocks-
combs.

John Eltringham, Jersey City, several good varieties of dahlia.

Mrs. Smith, Brooklyn, several varieties of fine flowers.

Miss E. Parkhurst, Newark, N. J., a bouquet of flowers in varie-
ties.

Thomas Dunn, 65th-street, Bloomingdale, 35 seedling dahlias.

R. Ross, Ravenswood, L. I., an assortment of dahlias.

Joseph Job, Bloomingdale, an assortment of flowers, in varie-
ties.

FRUITS OF VARIOUS SPECIES AND VARIETIES.

From Robert L. Pell, Pelham, Ulster county, M. Cunningham,
gardener, Apples in varieties, viz.; green Newtown pippins, yellow
Newtown pippins, Rhode-Island greenings, lady apples, apple quin-
ces. Grapes — Black Hamburgh, flame-colored Tokay, white Fron-
tignac, black St. Peter's, royal Muscadine, white sweet-water, white
Hamburgh, Catawba, Elsinburgh, Isabella. Peaches — Heath free-
stones, old noblesse, Madeleine de Courson, red rare-ripe, grosse Mig-
nonne, Washington peach, lemon cling, Van Zandt's superb, Mala-
catune, Pell's seedling, Odel's seedling. Chancellor peach, new no-
blesse, Malta. Some of the peaches above described were preserved

No. 151.] 115

in fine order in syrup or other liquids. There were also several
glass jars of gooseberries, currants, nectarines, apricots, plums, figs,
&c., all of the choicest varieties. Also six bottles of delicious
cider.

Roswell L. Colt, Patterson, N. J., Nicholas Friche gardener, foreign
grapes in varieties, some of which were raised under glass, and some
of the best flavored were grown against a board fence in a southern
aspect of the garden. The varieties are black Hamburgh, black
Damascus, royal Muscat, black Muscadine, West's St. Peter's, white
Muscadel, Victoria black Hamburgh, black St. Peter's, black prince,
white Syrian, Muscat of Alexandria, white Muscat of Lunel, Miller's
Burgundy, white Hamburgh, white Frontignac, white sweet-water,
and some others not named. One bunch of the Muscadine represent-
ed as growing against a board fence, weighed two pounds, and some
of the Victoria black Hamburgh grown in the same manner, were
very fine.

Wm. Rankin, Newark, N. J., seven bunches of black Hamburgh
grapes, three Muscadine, three of Rose Chasselas, and three of Mal-
voise.

T. Noise, Stonington, Connecticut, grapes in varieties, viz: black
Hamburgh, Muscat of Alexandria, and Muscat of Lunel.

R. T. Underbill, Croton Point, native grapes in varieties, viz: Is-
abella and Catawba, also some fine apple quinces.

Messrs. Mackintosh & Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 2S varieties of ap-
ples, viz: Alexander, cathead, cabbage of Salem, Ohio fall-sweet,
fall pippin, fall Harvey, Gravenstein, red wnnter Calville, Flushing
Spitzenberg, western russet, golden russet, seek-no-further, beauty of
the west, Baldwin bell-flower, maiden's blush, monstrous pippin,
green winter sweet, Newtown pippin, Ortley pippin, Vandevere,
Stanley, Rhode Island greening, Pomme de Neige, Hubbardston none-
such, Esopus Spitzenberg, pumpkin sweet, winter sweeting, and two
varieties of quinces.

S. Walker, Roxbury, 97 of the choicest varieties of autumn and
winter pears, 54 of which were from his own orchard, and the re-
mainder from his Massachusetts friends. Mr. W. would have been
entitled to the silver medal offered for the best and greatest variety
of pears, had he entered them for competition. Alpha, Ambrette,
Andrews, autumn superb, belle et bonne, belle Lucrative, Beurre d'-
Amalis, Beurre d' Aremberg, Beurre d' Anjou, Beurre d' Capiau-
mont, Beurre Bosc, Beurre Diel, Beurre Duval, Beurre Crappaux,
Beurre choir, Beurre Bronzee, Beurre Grise d' Hiver, Nouveau,
Beurre Thouin, Easter Beurre, bishop's thumb, black Worcester,
Williams' Bon Chretien, Benzi Montague, Bon Chretien D'Hiver,

116 [ASSKMBLT

Beurre Beaiicamps, Bergamot de Suisse, Catillac, Chauraontel, Caen
du France, Columbia, Caroline, Colurnbo 'd Hiver, Doyenne dore.
Doyenne blanc. Doyenne gris, Doyenne Boussoek, Duchess de Mars,
eyewocd, Epine Dumas, Flemish beauty, Fulton, Figue, Figue de
Naples, Comte de Laray, Comprette, Crassane, Chelmsford, Comte de
Micheaux, Verte long. Franc real d'Hiver, Glout Moiceau, Gratioli,
Heathcoate, Jalousie, Johonnot, Josephine, Jamint tte, Javerdal, King
Edward's Lansac, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Louise de Boloma, Lock's
Beurre, Lammas, McLaughlin, Monsieur Cure, Milan Blanc, Napo-
leon, winter Nelis, ne plus Meuris, Pacquency, parf un d' Hiver,
Plumbgastel, Petre, Passe Colmar, Princesse d' Orange, Queen of the
Low Countries, Seckel, St. Germaine, Seiulle, Shakespeare, St.
Bruno, surpasse Virgouleuse, Sagerity, Thompson, Urbaniste, Whit-
field, Van Mons Leon Clerc, Verte long d' automne, quillette, moor
fowl egg, Rondelet, Messire Jean, Maria Louise, Dix, St, Michael,
Aldrich's russet, and Thompson's.

James L. L. F. Warren, Brighton, Massachusetts, 25 varieties of
pears, viz: Easter Beurre, Duchess d' Angouleme, Madot^e, Buffum,
Napoleon, autumn bergamot, Jalousie, Beurre Diel, Francreal d' Hi-
ver, Seckel, Bezi de la Motte, liouise Bonne de Jersey, Verte longue
d* automne, Do3"enne. Duch(?ss dc JNfars, swan's egg, llonry IV.,
Wilkinson, Doyenne d'Hiver, Figue, Bergj.molte d' Paquea^ Catillac,
black pear of Worcester, Beurre gris. Duchess de Mars.

Apples. — Baldwin, Hubbardston nonesuch, grand duchess. Porter,
bell-flower, Rhode-Island greening, Danver's winter sweet, reinette
du Canada, Jonathan, blue pearmain, Roxbury russet, white gilli
flower, French russet, striped spice, Pomme d' Appi, pr'.ncess noble,
maiden's blush, Canadian, gloria mundi, minister, sweet russet, old
pearmain, Costard, Reinette Franche.

In addition to the above, one case of wax imitation fruit was ex-
hibited, consisting of 110 varieties of diflferent species, which were
considered grod imitations, Fac-similes are prepared by Mr. War-
ren's daughter, who is now thirteen years of age. She was self-
taught in the art from specimens of fruit grown in the garden at
Monantum Vale, Brighton, Massachusetts.

Harman Wendell, Albany, 8 varieties of pears, viz: Beurre Diel,
white Doyenne, Marie Louise, eastern Beurre, and 4 varieties not
named.

H. W. Edwards, New-Haven, Connecticut, 14 varieties of seedling
pears.

John Brewster, English Neighborhood, N, J., 6 varieties of ap-
ples.

No. 151.] 117

Samuel C. Mott, Jamaica, L. L, 5 varieties of apples, and 1 of
plums.

Messrs. Parsons & Co., Commercial Garden, Flushing, 4 varieties
of grapes, and 3 vines in pots.

H. Steel, Jersey City, several bunches of Isabella grapes, exhibit-
ed on the vine.

C. M. Graham, Content, Harlem Lane, a basket of fine Isabella
grapes.

William Shultz, 27S Washington-street, a barrel of golden pippin
apples.

Charles More, 98th-street, Third avenue, 3 varieties of apples, 4
<!o. of peaches, 2 do. of pears, and 1 plate of medlars.

S. T. Jones, Brighton, S I., James Kennedy, gardener, 1 Frenjh
dwarf apple tree in fruit, 2 varieties of peaches, 7 quinces, and a
dish of strawberries.

Isaac Pullen, Highstown, N. J., 12 varieties of apples, 3 do. of
peaches.

Michael Roe, Newark, N, J., 3 varieties of apples.

James Ewbank, Flushing, about 70 bunches of Isabella grapes on
the vine.

E. Classon, 219 Rivington-street, 15 nectarines, and 3 varieties of
■grapes.

Isaac Hyler, Kingston, N. Y., 2 varieties of pears.

A. Coe, Newark, N. J., 21 seedling clingstone peaches, and a
basket of grapes.

John F. Pond, Worcester, Massachusetts, 6 pear-quinces and 7
apple-quinces.

O. Smith, Monroe, Orange county, N. Y., 15 quinces, and 3 vari-
eties of apples.

D. Fairbanks, 237 14lh-street, a dish of seedling peaches.
Isaac Q. Underbill, N. J., 12 fine apple quinces.

James M. Pullen, Centreville, N. Y., a basket of white clingstone
peaches.

A. R. Leggett, No. 26 West Washington-Place, a stand of fine
Isabella grapes.

James G. Carpenter, Newark, N. J., 12 fine apple quinces.

G. Beadle, Fi^hkiil, N. Y., 1 dish of frost plums.

E. Simmons, Worcester, Massachusetts, a dish of nectarines.
J. B. Haff, Bloom ingdale, 1 jar of black sweet-water grapes.
R. Corey, Hudson, N. Y, 12 fine harls apples.

W^m. Plume, Newark, N. J., a small branch containing 36 Ring-
gold pears.

David Johnson, Flatbush, L. I., 2 varieties of apples.

1 18 [ASSEMBLT

Henry and George Litchfield, N. J., each a basket of peaches.

A. Pabor, Harlem, 1 dozen of large fall pippin apples.

A basket of grapes was exhibited by each of the following gen-
tlemen: JMathew Antonides, 168 Prospect-street, Brooklyn; W.
Hart, Brooklyn; John Barker, Factorville, N. J.; John B. Galliard
& Son, 66th-street; Abram Mockbridge, Newark, N. J.; Warren P.
Alden,41 Washington Place; Abram Parker, Plainfield, N. J.; James'
Bruff, 106 Essex-street, N. Y.; Aaron Gomez, Bull's Ferry; E. H.
Kimball, Flatlands, L. L; L. K. Smith, 188 Henry-street.

CULINARY VEGETABLES.

R. L. Pell, Pelham, Ulster county, M. Cunningham, gardener, 12
blood beets, 12 turnip-beets, 12 table carrots, 12 table parsnips, 12
roots of salsify, 12 roots white celery, 8 egg plants, 3 varieties of
radishes, 1 bunch of leeks, 4 heads ot cabbage in varieties, 1 peck of
potato onions, 1 peck of silver skin onions, 1 peck of red onions, 1
peck of Russia turnips, 1 peck of red top turnips, 1 peck of Mercer
potatoes, 1 peck of Pelham pink-eye potatoes, half a peck pf shell-
ed Lima beans, half a peck of red tomatoes, half a peck of fig to-
matoes, 1 bunch of martynia, half a dozen monkey bread fruit, 3 va-
rieties of the squash.

As the above varieties contained the largest assortment of culinary
vegetables, and entitled to the silver medal offered, the following
■were placed in competition for other premiums, viz: 3 large pump-
kins, 4 fine varieties of the squash, 12 roots of red celery, 1 peck of
yellow stone turnips, 1 peck of Nor^'olk turnips, 1 peck of potatoes,
for cattle, 12 white carrots, 12 parsnips, 12 mangel wurtzel beets, 12
sugar beets. Among Mr. Pell's potatoes was one variety which
yielded 600 bushels to the acre, and from another variety named
Pelham pink-eye, 3 bushels and 12 potatoes were raised from two-
thirds of one potato, received from the American Institute, and
brought from lake Superior.

J. C. Beekman, 61st-street, S. Ruth, gardener, 12 large sugar-
beets, 12 mangel wurtzel beets, 12 large blood beets, 12 large cattle
parsnips, 12 Guernsey parsnips, 12 table parsnips, some large Rus-
sia turnips, and long white turnips, 2 cattle pumpkins, 6 heads of
cape broccoli, 12 table turnips, 1 peck ot red onions, 1 peck silver
skin onions, several fine squashes, a dozen egg plants, 1 bushel ot
sweet potatoes, 2 varieties of carrots, 1 bunch of artichokes, 1 bunch
of okra, one bunch of gherkin, one bunch of beans, 1 bunch of peas,
10 stalks of corn in several garden varieties.

No. 151.] 119

E. H. Kimball, Flatlands, L. I., Bernard Kelly, gardener, 25 ex-
tra large Wood beets, 12 large turnip-rooted blood beets, 12 heads
of drumhead cabbage, 12 heads of large Savoy cabbage, 12 red
pickling cabbage, 12 orange carrots, 12 white cattle carrots, 1 peck
of potatoes, 12 parsnips, 2 varieties of turnips, a bushel of each, 6
heads of cape broccoli, 3 varieties of onions, a peck of each, 2 va-
rieties of egg plants, 1 bunch of birdseed.

Deaf and Dumb Asylum, Garret Mead, gardener, 12 blood beets,
12 mangel wurtzel beets, 12 egg plants, 4 crooked necked squashes,
12 red peppers, 3 ears of garden corn.

Roswell L. Colt, Paterson, N. J,, Nicholas Friche, gardener; 1 peck
of Mercer potatoes, 1 peck of cattle potatoes, 1 dozen cattl-e pars-
nips, 1 dozen sugar beets, 1 dozen orange carrots, 1 dozen cattle
carrots, 1 dozen Russia turnips, 1 dozen mangel wurtzel beets, 12
salsify roots.

Joseph Clowes, Harsimus, N. J., 12 roots of white solid celery.

Charles Hubbard, Middletown, Conn., 1 peck of best table pota-
toes.

E. H. Townsend, Newtown, L. L, 2 varieties of excellent pota-
toes, 1 peck each.

Peter Wyckoff, Bushwick, L. I., ^3 fine table cheese pumpkins,
and some white turnips. »

James L. Moore, Newburgh, N. Y., one large pumpkin, 135 Ibs-

Jacob Menea, Staten Island, 2 extra large pumpkins.

Wm. J. Townsend, Astoria, 2 varieties of red tomatoes.

A. M. Baker, Elizabethtown, N J., 1 peck of Mercer potatoes.

W. B. Oddie, Rockland co., 1 peck of early peeper potatoes.

James B. Calyer, Bushwick, L. I., 3 crooknecked pumpkins.

Philip Augustus, Bushwick, L. I., 6 blood beets, and 6 yellow turn-
ips.

David Johnson, Flatbush, L. I., 3 varieties of potatoes, and 6 egg
plants.

Wm. Phelan & Sons, Fifth-street, near Avenue A., about 40 white
egg plants.

Colored Orphan Asylum, 6 roots of celery, 4 egg plants, 10 sugar
beets, some white onions, kale, &c.

M. S. Brown, Astoria, 1 peck of white onions, and 12 Savoy cab-
bages.

John H. Johnson, Staten Island, 6 purple egg plants.

A. P. Cummings, Williainsburgh, L. L, 2 large pumpkins, and a
serpent cucuniber.

0. Ruth, Camptown, N. J,, 12 blood beets, and 6 parsnips^

120 [ASSEMBLY

Rishton R. Baily, Communipaw, N. J., 12 roots of white solid
celery.

Thomas Ash, Throg's Neck, 6 purple egg plants,

J. J. Varian, 27th-street, 6th Avenue, 1 bushel of Mercer potatoes,
also garden corn and egg plants.

G. Pearsall, Virginia, 1 peck of large Carolina potatoes.

Caleb S. Merrit, 169 Spring-street, 1 pumpkin, 120 lbs.

L. Amoureux, 114 Ludlow-street, 1 plant of the tannier (arum
esculentum.)

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS.

R. L. Pell, Pelham, Ulster co., 1 bushel white flint wheat, 1 bush-
el of rye, 2 bushels of oats, 1 bushel of buckwheat, 1 bushel of bar-
ley, 25 varieties of fancy corn.

D. S. Mills, Newtown, L. I., 1 bushel of Mediterranean wheat;
100 ears yellow corn, 50 ears of red cob, 60 ears of white dented,
40 ears of white cob, and a keg of sweet corn.

A. Haring, Harington, N. J., 1 bushel of white flint wheat.

James Weeden, Newtown, L. I., 1 bushel of Mediterranean wheat,
and 1 bushel of rye.

Doctor Henry A. Field, from his farm at Poughkeepsie, 1 bushel
of rye.

W. J. Towmsend, Astoria, 75 ears of early Dutton corn, 45 white
flint, 75 early Canada, 40 sweet corn, and 50 ears in eight other va-
rieties, also some Egyptian corn.

J. H. Coggeshall, Lynn, Massachusetts, 140 ears of corn in six
fine varieties.

S. T. Jones, New Brighton, S. I., 1 bushel of oats and 40 ears of
white flint corn.

David Johnson, Flatbush, L. I., 1 bushel of white flint wheat, and
70 ears of corn in six varieties.

Roswell Colt, Patterson, N. J., 1 bushel of white- flint wheat, and
120 ears of corn in three varieties.

Peter Wyckoflf, Bushwick, L. I., 140 cars of corn in four choice
varieties, of 8 and 12 rowed.

Almond D. Fisk, Newtown, L. I., five varieties of Indian corn.

M. 0. Rourke, N. J., 45 ears of yellow, nnd 12 of Barbadoes
corn.

S. B. Townsend, Newtown, L. I., 1 bushel of Virginian white
wheat, and 40 ears of white corn.

No. 151.] 121

Charles Hubbard, Middletown, Conn., 40 ears of fine 12 rowed yel-
low corn.

Thomas Ash, Throg's Neck, 40 ears of long white corn.
E. H. Kimball, Flatland, L. I., 1 bushel of fine Bergen wheat.
G. D. Pitkin, Woodville, L. I., 40 ears, and 5 stalks of corn.
Robert Young, Flushing, 40 ears of Rocky Mountain corn.
J. Bergen, Jr., Gowanus, L. I., 1 bushel of Bergen wheat.
Elisha Carpenter, West Chester, 8 stalks of Egyptian corn.

PRODUCTIONS OF THE DAIRY.

H. Burrell & Co., 15 Front-street, 2 excellent cheeses.

R. Plumer, No. 3 Front-street, 2 cases of fine flavored cheese.

Samuel Perry, No. 3 Front-street, 2 boxes of superior pine-apple
cheese.

Messrs. Ward & Cady, 207 Washington-street, 2 choice imitati&n
English cheeses.

J. C. Butts, 261 Washington-street, 1 fine flavored cheese.

Jonas Leach, Norwich, Chenango co., a case of good pine-apple
cheese.

Phineas North, Goshen, Connecticut, Hyslop & Coffin, 43 Front-
street, agents, a case of cheese.

R. C. Nodine, 116 Warren-street, 4 cases of cheese.

Daniel Fish, Hursburg, Messrs. Ferguson & Sherman, agents, 2
large cheeses.

P. W. Stebbens, 15 Front-street, 1 case of cheese.

Messrs. Shulty & Griffin, 261 Washington-street, 1 case of cheese.

Messrs. Southworth, Litchfield & Beach, 31 Water-street, 1 box of
cheese.

John Thew, Orange co., a pail of very superior butter.

D. T. Rogers, Newburgh, Orange co., a pot and box of excellent
butter.

Martin L. Thompson, Orange co., 1 pail of fine flavored butter.

Silas & A. Vail, Orange co., each a pail of good butter.

Josiah Hubbard, Middletown, Conn., 1 pail of butter.

FLOUR.

Two barrels of excellent flour, branded Whitney, Rochester, from
James M. Hoyt & Son, 17 Washington-street.

• 122 [Assembly

One barrel of superfine fiour, branded City Akron, from Charles
W. Woolf, 31 Moore-street.

One barrel of fine flour, from R. L. Pell, Pelham, Ulster co.

A barrel of flour was also exhibited from each of the following
agents in South-street: Morgan & Co., John N. Beach, Leland, Ad-
ams & Co., Herrick & Van Boskerk, and Clarke & Coleman.

HOPS.

One bale of superior hops, from Ezra Leeland, Morrisville, Madi-
son county.

In resigning the trust confided to me, I would tain place on record
some of the results of six years' experience in the management of
the Horticultural Department of your Institute. I humbly flatter
myself that in strenuously endeavoring to render the field a fair and
open one to all competitors, and in an inflexible adherence to the
motto which I at first adopted, that of " equal justice to all," confi-
dence has been established in the minds of those connected with this
Association. I have neither accepted nor granted the least favor
whatever beyond the strict rules of courtesy, nor have I compro-
mised one principle adopted for the governance of my conduct, being
determined never to swerve from what I conceive to be a correct
course. Let me not be deemed egotistical in these remarks; I have
but stated the simple truth, actuated by a sincere desire to establish
pure republican principles as the rule of conduct for those who may
succeed me in the office at your future anniversaries.

In the rapid survey I have taken of the onward march of im-
provement, which has rendered the city of New-York the emporium
of the New World, I am aware that many omissions will meet the
eye of the vigilant, though I hope indulgent, critic. One pleasing
feature stands prominent in the sketch I have given; the spirit of
intelligence and improvement, ever active and persevering when
protected by free and liberal institutions. Were not its workings
convincingly dernonstrated al this Anniversary? The importance of
Jlgriculture, the sure and firm foundation of true national greatness,
was forcibly impressed upon the public mind, and the results of suc-
cessful husbandry rewarded by appropriate premiums; while all the

No. 151.J 123

Arts conducive to the comforts and embellishments of life received
the encouragement originally designed by the projectors of the
American Institute.

When viewing the animated and beautiful scene presented at our
late Annual Fair, held in a place where " armed men once prepared
to do battle," I was cheered by the hope that the day was not far
distant, when every Fort would be dismantled, and the fruits of
peace and good will spread their benign influence through the world,
raising the great human family to the highest standard of excel-
lence; when every man, reposing under the branches of his own vine,
would experience all the felicity which this earth is destined to
afford.

All which IS respectfully submitted by your faithful friend.

THOMAS BRIDGEMAN.

Jfew-York, October 3Q(h, 1846.

STATEMENTS

Of Exhibitors at the Nineteenth Annual Fair, 1846.

IMPROVED STOCK.

Paterson, JY. J., Mov. 20th, 1846.

Dear Sir: — My manner of raising improved stock is as follows:
I first purchase the pure breed, at a cost of one hundred dollars
for a bull calf of four months, and one hundred dollars for a cow
with calf, that is for my pure Devons; I feed them as much as they
will eat, generally soiled fed.

I only let my calves suck their mothers for three days: I then
wean them and bring them up by hand; if weaned thus early there
is no difficulty in learning them to drink. I then boil skim milk, add
some Indian meal, and about a wine glass of molasses per day to this
drink, on which they thrive famously. It is too expensive to raise
calves on new milk. When a month old, if in the spring, I cut for
them clover, lucerne, rye grass, or rye, (say rye first); by way of
change, I occasionally mix some oil cake, or flax seed, instead of
Indian moal, with the boiled milk; in the fall of the year I give the
calves roots, cut hay and meal, after a month or six weeks. They
have a grass plot of about an acre to run in, where there is abun-
dance of water; in this way I raise my calves at small expense.
Profit, there is none. The bull I gave $100 for, I have offered to
sell at $50; a bull calf that took the last premium, at §50, and have
given away four pure bull calves.

• I may sdy the same of the Alderneys. I have not been able to
sell a bull calf, have given away five. As to Ayrshires, one of my
cows cost the importer sixty guineas. I will sell her for fifty dol-
lars. My imported bull cost me upwards of three hundred dollars, I
will sell him next June for one hundred and fifty dollars. My fine
boll calf from my imported Ayrshire cow, (the same stood me in two

No. 151.] 125

hundred dollars,) I would sell for fifty dollars to any one in the
neighborhood, reserving the use of him for four cows in 1848, and
four in 1849, or for one hundred dollars and to then remove hira with-
out reserve use to me. I say that it is in vain to import cattle for
profit.

Yours,

ROSWELL L. COLT.
T. B. Wakeman, Esq.

AYRSHIRE COWS.

A''ew-Windsor, Orange Co., JVov. 27th, 1846.
The cow which was exhibited by me at the late Fair of the
American Institute, was selected from one of the best dairies in Ayr-
shire, by Mr. David Campbell, factor to Mr. Oswald, near the city of
Ayr, as one of the best in his neighborhood, and had a most excel-
lent character. I applied for a pedigree, but was informed that the
farmers in that section of the county keep no pedigrees, nor do I
believe any are kept in the county of Ayr, although I notice they
are given.

She is an excellent and rich milker, giving, in her best time, up-
wards of 28 quarts per day, fed on good pasture; is an easy keep-
er, hardy, very gentle both in the field and stable. In my opinion
they are better adapted for our climate than any other breed; and I am
now endeavoring to get a dairy of as full blood stock as possible.
It has been suggested, and I approve of it, that the best way is to
import calves or yearlings of this breed, so that they would be accli-
mated before coming into the dairy. Bull calves are worth from 25 to
35 dollars; heifers, from 23 to 26 dollars; the freight would be from
20 to 26 dollars apiece. A good five year old cow is woith in Ayr-
shire, from 90 to 110 dollars, to select.

Yours with respect,

THOS. ELLISON.

WORKING OXEN.

Middletown, Middlesex Co., Conn.,JYov. Wth, 1846.
In reply to the enquiries contained in your circular, m relation to
the working oxen exhibited by me, at the Nineteenth Annual Fair

126 [Assembly

of the American Institute, and which received the first premium, I
will briefly state the following particulars.

They are of our native breed, slightly mixed with Devonshire,
which mixture produces the fine red color, which is greatly preferred
by us, to any other, for working oxen. Their feed has been uniform-
ly, little else than hay and grass; either of which they have seldom
refused, if tolerably good. Always] have been remarkably healthy
cattle.

They were put to the yoke when quite young, to which they soon
became submissive, and have ever since remained orderly, gentle and
kind; owing probably to the kind treatment they have received
from the hands of their driver, the lash seldom having been applied
to them with severity. When yoked and attached to an ox cart, and
the driver in the same, by speaking sharply to them, they may at
once be set into a brisk trot; after which, at a single word of com-
mand mildly spoken, they will at once stop and become quiet. They
were six years old last spring.

Great pains are taken by the farmers of this county to match
their steers: it is generally done when they are one, two and three
years old; when matching, we take into consideration the size, color,
disposition, &c. We sometimes yoke our steers when they are one
year old, and those brought under subjection thus early become alto-
gether the most docile.

With best wishes for the prosperity of your Institute,

I am respectfully yours,

CURTIS BACON.

WORKING OXEN.

Astoria, Kov., 16th, 1846.

T. B. Wakeman, Esq : — In answer to the circular addressed to
exhibitors at the last Fair by the Institute, I would submit the follow-
ing in reference to my oxen.

They were raised and broken in Connecticut, and are of the De-
von breed. I use them for all tarming purposes. In the summer
they ieed in pasture, in winter I give them corn stalks, with a little

No. 151.] 127

clover hay or roots. They have not eaten five hundred weight of
meal in their lives.

I stable them the year round at night, and during stormy weather.

Respectfully yours,

• W. I. TOWNSEND.

WORKING OXEN.

The working oxen exhibited by me at the Cattle Show, were a
cross of the Devon and native stock, five years old; during the sum-
mer they are fed in pasture, in the winter they are stabled and fed
on corn stalks and salt hay, with a peck of brewer's grains per day
each. They are used at all kinds of farming work, and considerably
on the road.

MULES.

My mules are kept in the stable most part of the year. I use
them constantly in winter and summer, at work of all kinds. In
spring and summer they are worked hard for farming purposes, and
in fall and winter, kept constantly on the road, drawing feed from
New-York. I feed them upon English hay and cut feed in summer,
and salt hay with cut feed in winter; never stinted in quantity.

Respectfully youi s,

DAVID P. MILLS.
JVewtown, L. L, JS'^ov., 1846.

FAT OXEN.

Milford, Conn., JVov. 20th, 1846.

Sir: — Your notice of a premium awarded me for the best, fat oxen,
has been received.

My (9xen were four years old in April, 1846. They are a cross of
the native and Devonshire breed; about three-fourths native and one-
fourth Devon.

I commenced fiittening them when three years and ten months old.
They were fattened almost wholly on grass, except' being fed on

128 [Assembly

meal, about four quarts each for two months previous to being turn-
ed out to pasture, 1st of June, 18i6.

Very respectfully.

SELAH STRONG.
T. B. Wakeman, Esq.

SAXONY SHEEP.

J^orth Salem, Dec. 6th, lS46.
The sheep exhibited by me at the Cattle Show of the American
Institute, were of the Saxoijy breed, taken from some of the best
flocks I could find. As I have just commenced the business, I have
not yet had time to raise and improve them.

I feed my sheep altogether on grass and hay, except my ewes just
before lambing; I then feed them a little grain, either corn or oats.
I let them run out to the stack, except in bad storms, when I am
careful to provide shelter for them.

Your ob't servant,

HIRAM WHITLOCK.

THE EAST BROOKLYN OX.

This fine animal, now weighing over 4,000 pounds, was bred by
JWr. Charles Wilson, Distiller at the Wallabout, and is a fair proof
that the mode of feeding adopted by him, will produce the results
he anticipated.

Mr. Wilson, distils whiskey from rye and corn together, and the
returns of the still, under the name of swill, is sold to milkmen.
The nutriment contnined in this swill arises from a portion of the
saccharine and starch not being converted into alcohol, and as these
two articles are the only nutritious properties of vegetables, it is
found to be to a sufficient extent a nutritious food for milch cows.

Mr. Wilson, from his familiarity with the general principles of
fermentation, conceived the idea, thnt if a portion of shorts were
added to this swill, and then permitting the mass to pass slightly
into the acetous fermentation before feeding it to the animal, that

No. 151.] 129

the starch would thereby be partly converted into sugar, and that the
sugar itself would not materially lose its nutritive properties, thus
rendering the whole capable of entire and easy digestion. The re-
sults fully prove that Mr. Wilson's rationale is correct, and is equal-
ly creditable to hitn, with his readiness to communicate his recipe.

It has long been known that many kinds of food are more easily
digested when boiled, than in the raw state, and the experiment of
Mr. Wilson would suggest the propriety of slightly souring the food
by slight fermentation, after the cooking, before feeding.

Brooklyn, Dec, 1846.

MATCHED HORSES.

A''eio-York, JTov. 18th, 1846.
T. B. Wakeman, Esq. :

Sir: — In reply to the questions contained in the circular to exhi-
bitors, at the Nineteenth Annual Fair of the American Institute, I
submit the following:

The first premium of a silver ciap was awarded to my pair of
matched horses, six and seven years old.

They were sired by a horse called " Black River Messenger," a son
or grandson of the celebrated imported horse Messenger, whose stock,
either for the turf or the road, has never been excelled. Their dams
without being thorough br^d, boast a strain of " gentle blood."

My mode of feeding is this: I give them eight quarts of oats
per day, with four quarts of shorts at night, and a light handful of
hay; I give them hay but once in 24 hours, and that at night.

Besides carefully grooming them, they are exercised daily, rain or
shine, and their legs washed in cold water. In driving them on the
road, I always give them fast work, not less than 14 or 15 miles an
hour. They can trot in double harness, a mile in three minutes, and
can go 17 miles in an hour, v^ithout injury. They are six and se-
ven years old, 15 hands 3 inches high, and either of them singly
can trot a mile in two minutes and fifty seconds any day in the week.
They cost me $1,300, but a much larger sum has been refused for them.

Your ob't servant,

WILLARD S. REED.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 9

130 [Assembly

SHEPHERD DOGS AND POULTRY.

JYew-York, Dec. 1846.

Sir: — I received a circular a few clays since, notifying me that I
was awarded at the late Annual Fair of the Institute, with three co-
pies of agricultural books, for my exhibition of a dog and poultry,
and also, a silver medal for the best specimen of Rye. You request
a statement of the peculiarities of the different breeds, and the quali-
ty of the soil, mode of culture, &c., of the rye.

The dog was a Scotch shepherd dog. These dogs, I consider, the
most valuable breed that we are acquainted with, for the farm, un-
less they are required for the churn, for which purpose they would
be found rather too small. With little training they can be taught to
driv^e cattle and sheep, which appears to be to them a delightful em-
ployment. They will remain faithful to their duty at all times, un-
til their feet are cut and almost worn to the bone. They will seldom
bear whipping, but if well treated by their owners, will be their
constant companions about the farm, always ready to do their bid-
ding. The mother of my slut was perhaps the best broke dog we
have ever had in this country. She was used at the upper Bulls
Head, where she was employed daily to drive droves of cattle from
the pasture grounds near the city, to the pens where they were ex-
posed for sale; and then to drive such as remained unsold to their
pastui'age again in the evening, which she would do w'ith the direc-
tion of a single individual on horseback, whose commands she obey-
ed with great alacrity. She would also drive large droves of sheep
from the country to market, keeping them all together both day and
night, exercising at all times the greatest vigilance over them, and
becoming so well acquainted with each individual sheep as to be
able to separate him from any other flock. These dogs are peculiar-
ly valuable to the western farmer, who feeds his flocks upon the prai-
ries. I have sent four of my slut's pups for such purpose to Wis-
consin and one to Illinois.

The geese which I exhibited were of an unknown breed; for the
want of another name, I called them the Dutchess breed. They some-
what resemble the Poland. Tiiey are larger than the Bremen geese,
small boned, and very fine when well fatted and killed young. The
smallest goose we had weighed thirteen pounds alive. I had a gos-
ling of this season, for my table, which R^eighed, dressed, sixteen
pounds.

No. 151.] 131

The fowls were Dorking. I obtained the stock from Mr. L. H.
Allen, of Black Rock. They were imported by his brother, Mr. A.
B. Allen, of this city. These fowls are larger than tnedium size,
rery fine in their bodies, small boned, and their flesh considered a
great delicacy. Their plumage is beautifully variegated. I have no
black or white fowls. They have flesh coLred legs and generally
five toes, although this is not a tertain characteristic, f have none
with a top knot, with black or yellow legs. They are good layers,
steady setters, and the best of nurses for their broods. These fowls are
the Capon fowl, of England, and where known, are more highly
valued than any other breed.

In keeping fowls, I have found that it is best to feed them well
both summer and winter. They should have animal food, as well as
grain, during the winter months. 1 have used the scraps left after
pressing out the tallow of beef fat, with much advantage. It will
keep all winter, and if left where the fowls can get it, they will
show their fondness for it by picking at it almost constantly. They
should have a dry roosting place, which should be frequently white-
washed, and the floor covered constantly with some earth combined
with plaster of Paris, or charcoal dust, which will preserve all their
manure and fix those gases which always arise from its decomposi-
tion, and which frequently causes disease and inflammation of the
eyes.

Rye. There was nothing peculiar in the soil, seed, or mode of
culture of the rye. The only reason I can give for its quality was,
that the land had be°n well manured for two yeais previously for other
crops. The manure employed, was a compost of muck and lime,
applied liberally in the spring for a crop of oats. The next season
it was again manured on its poorest portions, with compost; planted in
corn, which was manured in the hill with a variety of highly concen-
trated composts and some guano. The corn was cut up in September
and removed from the field, and the rye was sown about the second week
of October In harvesting the crop, it was cut early while much of
the grain was still in the milk, which prevented it from shaking out
before threshing, besides improving its quality and appearance.

With much respect, yours, &c.,

HENRY A. FIELD.

T. B. Wakeman.

132 [Assembly

FARMING.

I began in 1828 to get my farm in order. At that time there was
but little fence on it, that deserved the name, and many of the ditch-
es had become stopped, and the low ground rendered wet and of lit-
tle value. At that time the farm had about twenty head of cattle on
it, and we had to buy hay almost every year. For three years I did
little but make fences and ditches, and seed some meadow. In 1831
I began to garden on a small scale, and continued making fence.
In 1832 and '33, rebuilt the barns, which had fallen to decay; and in
'34 or '35, began to sell milk on the place to milkmen from the city,
who came for it; finding great difficulty in getting the pay from them,
I began on the first of April, 1837, to send the milk to private houses
in the city, myself. At first we sold only about twenty quarts per
day, in that way, and had to dispose of the rest to other milkmen,
who all predicted that I should fail of getting customers enough to
pay, and would give up in disgust before the year went by. Many
of my friends were of the same opinion, but I was sure that I was
right, and went ahead, and time solved the problem. In October,
1837, 1 had more customers than could be served by one wagon, and
I had to start a second. In May, 1S3S, two were not enough, and
we had to get a stable in New-York to keep the horseg and wagons
that served the milk, and send it down in a large wagon. That fall
we had four wagons on the road, and the next summer five; and in
1840, it took six wagons to do the business, from which time to the
present, we have not tried to enlarge the concern, as I am contented
■with it as it is. My policy has been, to furnish as good an article
as can be produce<:l, and at a fair price. At times persons have start-
ed up, thinking to make a fortune by the quality they sold, and have
offered to serve my customers at a less price. I have never fixed the
price at less than 6d. per quart, and have always found that those
who undertook to serve at four cents per quart, either stopped soon
or the customers who had left me to take of them, came back agam,
which I suppose they would not have done, unless they found my
milk better and cheaper at 6d. per quart, than others at 4 cents. In
1837, 1 also began to enlarge the garden, which now covers about
80 acres. I have by my experience come to the following conclu-
sions:

First, That money can be made by farming, if properly attended to.

Second. It can only be profitable by doing well what you under-
take; for one acre well worked and manured, will yield more than
ten acres cultivated as we some times see doiie.

No. 151.J 133

Third. That the gains of farming are smaller, but more sure than
those of most other kinds of business.

Fourth. That the farming interest, for its full development, requires
an agricultural school to be established in the vicinity of New-York,
and other large cities, where boys can be taught the best modes of
performing work, and necessary chemical science ; for without
such knowledge they will, nineteen times out of twenty, lose money
by their fiist trials in farming, and soon perhaps get tired, give up,
and say, that there is not a chance of a man's making any thing by
a farm.

GOUVERNEUR MORRIS.

CULTURE OF CORN.

The soil upon which the corn was grown was a gravelly loam.
The previous crop was hay on sod ground. The land was plowed,
rolled heavily, and then harrowed and cross harrowed; furrowed 3
feet 8 inches apart each way, manured with equal parts lime and
pond muck, about three pints to each bill. Planted the seed in May
after the 10th, with no preparation, and dropped without being
soaked. Dropped four grains to the hill, which was about one bush-
el of corn to five acres of land; the product from 22 acres, harvest-
ed as follows: from 11 acres planted as above with eight rowed
white flint corn, 1,250 bushels of ears. From five and a half acres
planted with lime and muck, eight rowed yellow flint corn, 850
bushels of ears. From five and a half acres planted upon ground
bones (about one pint to the hill.) eight rowed yellow flint corn, 950
bushels of ears.

The crop was gathered in November. Two fields were husked
entirely from the hill. (One five and a half field had been topped
early in the summer, which materially injured, the yield,) the other
was cut up in September from the bottom, and slacked in small
shooks, thereby improving the stocks for winter fodder, and not in-
juring the grain.

DAVID S. MILLS.

134 • [Assembly

CORN.

In 1844 the ground was manured with common barn-yard ma-
nure. In 1845 not improved. On the 18th and 19th of May, 1846,
the ground was plowed and a small growth of clover turned under, har-
rowed, and levelled down; furrowed on the 20th both ways, from
north to south about three feet apart, and from east to west about
two feet apart. At this time the ground was so wet as to be unfit
to work.

Planted on the 28th with the eight rowed yellow corn, common
feed corn; the seed was soaked in a weak alkali about 24 hours, then
planted and covered as usual. As soon as the corn was up, the
weeds and grass were so prolific as to almost hide the young plants,
and to obviate it the farmer went through the corn with hoes, after-
wards the plow was run through it, turning the furrow from the hills
and forming a centre mound. A week afterwards again plowed the
other way, that is, crosswise, following with the hoes to destroy all
the weeds, and loosen the baked and hardened soil.

When the corn was two feet high, plowed the third time, furrow
turned to the hill and adding to the support of the corn; no other
treatment excepting the occasional use of the hoe in keeping down
the weeds. From a short acre and a half, 315 bushels of large and

handsome ears of corn have been gathered.

M. G. LEONARD.

POTATOES.

Effenveldt, Rockland co., JVov. 14, 1846.

T. B. Wakeman, Esq. : — The potatoes for which I obtained a pre-
mium at the last Fair of the Institute were cultivated as follows:

The soil upon which they were raised is a rich clay loam, par-
ticularly adapted to the peach. 1 gave it a good fall plowing, and
in the spring plowed twice, harrowing and rolling each time, put-
ting on at the rate of fifteen loads of compost to the acre, (hay ma-
nure, muck, and lime well incorporated.) The previous crop was
potatoes.

The yield per acre was small, as the ground is already occupied
as a peach orchard; 124 bushels was all that was obtained from one

No. 151.] 135

acre. The crop was not in the least affected by the disease, and I
attribute this to the use of refuse salt from the packing houses, put
on as a top dressing, at the rate of six bushels to the acre, after put-
tincr about a quart around every peach tree.
' ° WM. B. ODDIE.

HOPS.

Morrisville, JYovemher 17th, 1846,.
T. B. Wakeman, Esq., :^^'j^i

Dear Sir: — I received yours of the 1st, and in reply -would say,.
that the expense of raising and delivering hops of the quality of
those I sent to the Fair at Castle Garden in. October last, is as fol-
lows: - v]

Rent of one acre of land, $10 00

poles, 28 00

Cultivating the land, 45 00

Barn-yard manure, 10 00

Harvesting, drying, bagging, and transporting to New-
York, 82 50'

Profit, 34 50

$210 OO

Raised on the above acre 1,500 pounds, and sold Wm.

B. & A. Mills for 14 cents per pound, $210 00

The above acre of land is a dark loam, and plowed in spring of
1845, and 35 loads of manure were spread on, plowed in, dragged
and planted to corn and hops; and last spring the poles were set,
the hops were planted and hoed three times during the past season.

Yours truly,

EZRA LELAND.

GEORGIA ARROW-ROOT AND STARCH.

St. Marys, Geo., September 15th, 1846.
Dear Sir: — I beg leave to forward to you for exhibition at the
next Annual Fair of the American Institute, a sample of Arrow-
root, which I request you to exhibit under the name of " Georgia

136 [Assembly

arrow-root" or " Georgia, Bermuda arrow-root," at your option.
The article is manufactured by me, and is made from precisely the
same root as tha'. from Bermuda and the other West India Islands, (but
more generally and favorably known as Bermuda,) viz., the " Ma-
sania Arundinacea,^'' for a full description of which, I beg. to refer
you to Dr. Ure's Dictionary of Arts, &c., and the supplement to the
same. I have been particular in requesting that it may be exhibi-
ted under one of the above names; as I find that the potato starch (so
extensively made in Boston and vicinity,) wheat starch, and various
others, are known generally as " American Arrow-root.^' Without
any disparagement to either of these, I wish mine to be distinguish-
ed from them, as being genuine arrow-root, which I am willing to
^'have submitted to the severest tests, in order to prove its purity. Jt
is made with the strictest attention to cleanliness, and superintended
personally by myself. Had I been so disposed, I might have introdu-
ced it into market as Bermuda arrow-root; but I scorn the fraud, and
am willing that it should stand or fall upon its own merits, although
pecuniarily, this determination has made me a great loser. Still I
am resolved to adhere to it.

I beg also to forward a small package of Starch, made from the
root of the Manioc (Jatropha manihot,) commonly known in South
America, as the Yuca, and in very common use as a vegetable, either
boiled or roasted. I am not aware that any attempts have been
made in this country to obtain the starch of this plant. According
to Dr. Ure, (see Cassava,) the fresh juice of this plant, when distil-
led, affords a very active poison, thirty-six drops of which are suffi-
cient to cause death in the course of six minutes. It was used by
Indians for poisoning their arrows. He adds, " as the active prin-
ciple of this juice is volatile, it is easily dissipated by baking the
squeezed cakes of pulp upon a plate of hot iron," which is the well
known Cassava bread or cake of the West Indies or South America.
The starch of this plant "is called cicipa, in French guaayana; it
is employed for many delicate articles of cooking, especially pastry,
as also for hair powder, starching linen, &c." For the last two or
three years, the root has been used at my table as a vegetable, and
is much liked by my family. I myself have eaten it abroad, more
than twenty years ago. Will you have the goodness to exhibit the
specimen sent at the fair.

After the exhibition, the sample sent may be placed at the dispo-
sal of the Institute. At the last fair, 1845, a sample of my arrow-
root was exhibited by my agent, Mr. S. Burkhalter, corner of Church

No. 151.] 137

and Fulton-streets, N. Y., for which a diploma was awarded. Since
that time my arrow-root has been examined by Dr. James Chilton,
of New-York, who has given me a certificate that it is " fully equal to-
the best quality of arrow-root obtained from Bermuda," a copy of
which I will request my agent to furnish you.

I am Yer]t respectfully,

• Your obd't servant,

MILLER HALLO WES.
T. B. Waxeman, Esq.,

Cor. Sec. American Institute

BUTTER.

Goshen, Orange county, Movemher 12th, 1846.

The following is a statement of my mode of manufacturing the
butter exhibited at the Nineteenth Annual Fair. I have kept the
past season fifteen cows, from which I have made four hundred
pounds of butter from the first of May to the 10th of this month. I
have taken no extra pains with my cows, giving them nothing but
ordinary feed. My grass has been mostly timothy. During the whole
time I have given them no grain or roots.

The ordinary course was followed in the manufacture of the but-
ter, using Ashton salt. The labor of churning was performed by a
dog.

Respectfully yours,

JOHN THEW.

BUTTER.

J^ewburgh, Jfov. 13th, 1846.
Sir: — In answer to the questions propounded by you, in relation
to the butter exhibited by me, at the Nineteenth Annual Fair, I will
state that my cows are of native stock, with a small mixture of
Durham. From the time they were 'turned on pasture in the spring
until the present time, they have had nothing but grass; no extra

138 [Assembly

feed of any kind. For two or three weeks previous to making the
butter exhibited, they were on low land meadow, containing natural
and wild grass.

I have ten cows, and make from their milk annually, about twelve
hundred pounds ol butter. The manner of making the butter is the
ordinary one, using as little saJt (Liverpool) as possible, without any
other foreign ingredient, and giving probably more attention •than
usual to working the butter. The average price obtainec in market
is about eighteen cents per pOund.

Yours respectfully,

DANIEL T. ROGERS.

T. B. Wakeman, Esq.,

Corresponding Secretary.

LMITATION ENGLISH CHEESE.

My cows are partly of the Durham breed, the rest a cross of dif-
ferent bloo's, which I think is the character of most of our stock
called native, for they are so mixed with imported blood, that there
is none, at least in our county. The farm on which I was raised, as
well as the one I now occupy, (the Adcock farm, known as the Lei-
cester farm,) were among the first in the importation of stock, which
were of the long horn, or known as the Shakespear blood of cattle.
The 'cows were good milkers, from them my best cows for milk and
beef are bred by Durham bulls; the natives may be good milkers,
but not equal for the dairy and butcher, which points should both be
looked at by the farmer. The difference in size between a large and
small cow is not balanced by the small cow not being able to con-
sume as much food as the large one, for I have kept both in separate
stalls, side by side, and generally one will consume as much as the
other. The large coav that is well bred, will come off with much
the best coat of flesh, proving that the small cow has a stomach
equally capacious as the large one.

I stable my cows, which I deem better for the cows, and a saving
of fodder; feeding with the coarsest food in the fore part of the
winter, that they may have an increase in the quantity and quality
in the spring. Cows kept this way will be in excellent condition
for business the coming season. My pastures are principally dry. I

No. 151.] 139

prefer old to new clover hay for making cheese. Our rule is, to
have our cheese set at 6 o'clock, A. M. and P. M. Cows to do v/ell
should be milked regular and by good milkers. The milk is put im-
mediately into the tub, and sufficient rennet added to bring it to a
curd fit to break in an hour, with coloring to suit your fancy. To
make a dairy of cheese that will average IS pounds, requires about
nine pails full of milk of the largest pattern. I do not know what
it would weigh after being broken in the tub; we generally weigh
it off in about half an hour after separating the whey from the curd;
we then salt and break with the hand, and put it in the hoop and
crush out the remaining part of the whey, which if set will produce
cream and make butter that answers a good purpose for shortning,
and if properly made is better for the table new, than a great deal
that goes to market.

It stands three days in the press, during which time it is turned
three times, and salted twice; when it comes out of the press, it
goes into a strong brine, kept so by putting a handful of salt on each
cheese as it goes into the brine; the salting tends to harden the coat
and protect it from the fly. When it comes out of the brine it goes
on the shelf; turned and rubbed now and then to keep the mould
off.

It having been an unusually dry season the past summer, with on-
ly nine cows, we were obliged to stop making cheese the first of
September, which only gave us 1,848 pounds of cheese and 400
pounds of butter, besides family consumption, (which is not small).
1,678 pounds of cheese sent to market, sold for $12.50 per cwt.

ROB'T S. MUSSON.
Gilbertsville, JV. F., JVov. 23d, 1846.

APPLES.

Cleveland, Ohio, JVov. 21st, 1846.

Your favor is received informing us that a premium has been
awarded to us for 28 varieties of choice apples exhibited at the
Nineteenth Annual Fair, and desiring answers to certain inquiries re-
specting mode of culture, &c.

140 [Assembly

"We did not intend by the exhibition to enter into competition with
others for the prizes; our object was two-fold, to test the genuine-
ness of some of our own apples by comparison with eastern speci-
mens of the same varieties; and to enable the numerous visitors at
the Fair to judge of the size and quality of our western fruit. But
if by the rules of the Institute we are found entitled to the premium
we shall highly appreciate it, as a compliment to the excellence of
our Ohio apples.

The specimens exhibited by us were obtained in part from our
own trees, and partly from the orchards of two amateur cultivators
in our neighborhood. As to these last we can only state in general
terms, that by a moderate winter pruning, the trees have handsome
well formed heads, are thrifty; the soil is sandy with a slight mix-
ture of loam; land occasionally cultivated, and but little manured.
Neither fhey nor ourselves raise any apples for the market, there-
fore of the amount raised, expense, or profit, we can give no account.
Our own trees are planted along the walks in our nursery, and are
cultivated to test the accuracy of the fruit, and furnish scions for
grafting; soil, deep rich loam; land constantly cultivated. Our pru-
ning is done the latter part of winter or early in the spring. We
aim to give each tree a handsome open head. In the spring we rub
the trunk of the tree with soft soap.

We ought to add, that of all the varieties exhibited we have
grafted trees in our nursery of suitable size for transplanting. Our
soil and climate are highly favorable to the culture of fruit. The ap-
ple, cherry, and peach are extensively cultivated in this vicinity, and
large quantities are annually exported.

Very respectfully.

Your ob't servants,

McINTOSH & CO.

QUINCES.

Worcester, Mass., JYov. 23d, 1846.

Sir: — I have received your communication apprising me that I
was awarded a premium for the best assortment of quinces exhibi/cd
at the late Arnual Fair, and also making inquiries with regard to

No. 151.] 141

my process of culture, time and mode of pruning, amount annually
raised, cost, profit, &c.

In reply it is but justice I should say, that the specimens forwarded
by me, were intended for exhibition only, not being of my own pro-
duction. I regret I cannot inform you from which of two quince
growers they were obtained, in order that due credit may be given.

Having recently set an orchard numbering 1,085 trees or bushes,
of the two varieties forwarded for exhibition, (which I believe can-
not be surpassed, if equalled,) I will give you a statement of my
experience in the business of quince growing, fearing, hov^ever, that
its value will be less even than my experience.

^In the spring of 1843, 1 set forty bushes of the two varieties, which
are known in this section of the country, as the " Great Orange and
Pair," both of which are not only prolific bearers, but give fruit of
remarkable size and flavor.

I put them on newly plowed sward land, which, however, was a
matter of necessity instead of choice, as I much prefer ground well
rotted. These I place in a single row, eight feet distant from each
other, the ground being plowed on one side several rods, and on the
other but a few feet.

.In the autumn following, I spread on at the rate of about fifty
loads of compost manure to the acre, the compost was one-third sta-
ble, and the balance good loam. At the proper season I planted
the piece with potatoes, and have continued to do so up to the
present time.

I have no means of arriving at the exact expense of taking care
of this potato patch, but can safely say, that the crops have amply
paid for the seed, use of the land, and all labor expended upon it.
My third and last crop of potatoes was less than either of the for-
mer, and I think something else should be substituted, or cropping
abandoned altogether. You can judge something of the growth of
these bushes, when I inform you, that the whole forty when set,
could be carried by a man in his arms without inconvenience, and
that they have since spread so as to touch each other; although
placed at a distance of eight feet.

In 1845, the second year after the setting, six trees gave about
half a peck of fruit, and this season the same yielded one and a

142 [Assembly

half bushels; while those "vvhich had not borne any fruit, gave about
the same quantity as those that bore last year for the fi-rsl time.
The fruit this season from the trees which fruited last year, has
much increased in size, some of them weighing 16 ounces. On
older trees in this vicinity, I have known them to grow so large as
to weigh 25 ounces. So far as my own observation has extended,
I have noiiced that this fruit continues to increase in size for three
years, and in quantity much longer.

The profit of quince growing I cannot speak of with any more
accuracy than of the expense of cultivation, not having had suffi-
cient experience in the business. One fact, however, that has come
within my knowledge, may throw some light on this point. An ac-
quaintance in the vicinity, ten years since, set in his garden 26 trees
(or bushes), at a distance of 12 and 14 feet, and although he gave
them but ordinary care, he realized in 1845 for some 60 bushels, (the
crop of 26 trees,) the sum of $1-0. They yielded him an increased
crop this year, but I am not informed of the amount of his receipts
for them. They are of the same varieties set by myself.

Last spring I procured and set out 1045 bushes in rows at a dis-
tance of 16 feet either way; about one half of each of the kinds
mentioned. Among them I raised a good crop of potatoes, prepara-
tory to improving the ground as a quince nursery the ensuing spring. I
have already a few small trees intended for it. I have pruned those
40 trees originally set but once, which was in Nov. 1845. My mode
is to cut off all the branches, a foot and a half from the ground, and
above that point, only those that seem to prevent the thrifty growth
of others.

• In relation to damage by insects, I will say, I have never suffered
any inconvenience from them. As a preventive, I make it a point
to wash the trunk of the trees, about 18 inches from the surface,
with potash water of sufficient strength to bear an egg. This I do
between the 20th and last of July, believing the egg of the insect
to be deposited on the bark of the tree, near the ground, about this
time. This is rendered easy, the body of the tree having been pre-
viously prepared.

Your ob't servant,

JOHN F. PERRY.
T. B. Wakeman, Esq.

No. 151.] 143

REELED SILK AND COCOONS.

JYew-York, JYovcmber 27th, 1846. .

Sir: — Having been the successful competitor at the late Fair, in
reeled silk and cocoons, I comply briefly with that regulation of the
American Institute, requiring a detail of the course pursued in the
attainment of superiority in any branch of industry or art.

I am happy to state, that there is 7io secret in my operations to
which others may not have access. My reeling is done on the Pied-
montese reels, which are propelled by a single power, and the water
heated by steam. Experience alone can secure anything like excel-
lence in this branch of the silk business. It is by far the most im-
portant process in silk manufacture, because upon it depends the
perfection or inferiority of every after use to which it may be ap-
propriated.

The cocoons presented by me were made at Washington, D. C,
and Northampton, Mass. The worms were fed upon the foliage of
the Canton, Brousa Multicaulis, and other mulberries. Either vari-
ety will make good silk if properly managed.

In order to the successful culture of silk, very much depends upon
the management of the tree. It is worse than idle to attempt it
with an unhealthy orchard. The ground should first be ploughed
deep and manured thoroughly, (unless the soil is already good,) and
otherwise prepared as for corn, only that the rows should be further
apart, say five feet, and the trees only a few inches apart in the
rows. There will then be room to cultivate, and every tree will be
exposed to the rays of the sun sufficiently to mature the leaves.
Our orchards must be well cultivated from year to year, and the soil
kept loose and rich. This mode of planting is applicable to branch
feeding, which is now considered best for the last ten or twelve
days feeding. I have used in my feeding, which has been quite
limited, " Gill's cradles," and a ventilated frame of ray own con-
struction. Having a supply of good healthy trees, we have only to
give our worms sufficient room and air, keep them perfectly clean,
free from noise and confusion, with uninterrupted moultings and
enough to eat, and the demands of the insect are supplied. We
may then expect returns corresponding with the extent to which we
embark, and with as much certainty as we look for a harvest from
any given number of acres of wheat, corn, or any other agricultural
crop.

144 [Assembly

North of the latitude 40*^ we must construct our cocooneries in such
a manner as to secure an uninterrupted circulation of air among our
cradles and frames, at the same time we so construct as to enable us
to close and apply artificial heat, whenever the natural temperature
is below 60° to 65*^, as is frequently the case in mornings and eve-
nings and during storms. With my experience, I think I should re-
commend for this section ot the country and the north generally, the
Canton and Brousa mulberry, as more hardy and suited to our win-
ters. The Canton particularly, is as rapidly propagated as the mul-
ticaulis, and equally adapted to branch feeding.

Respectfully yours,

A. C. VAN EPPS.
T. B. Wakeman, Esq.

WINE FROM NATIVE GRAPES.

Greenville, Greene co., JYew-York, JVov. 12th, 1846.

Sir: — You desire me to give an account of my manner of culti-
vating the vine, pruning, &c. I fear my experience will add but
little to the general information required by the society, as I am but
a novice in its culture, and have as yet made experiments only from
two kinds of grape in wine making, viz: the large round native
grape, for which I know no distinct name, but is not uncommon and
is wild in parts of this State.

The wine exhibited at the Nineteenth Annual Fair, was made
from this grape, the vine was then four years old. My next experi-
ment was with the " Miller's Burgundy" grape, the result of which
was a perfect and excellent Ckampagne wine. In both cases, one
and a half pounds of sugar were added to the gallon, in order to
make up for any immaturity of the saccharine matter in the grape.
In the preparation of my ground for setting out the vines, I trench
two and a half feet, make my border from four to six feet wide,
usins: well rotted horse manure, about half a bushel to a vine with a
peck of unleached ashes. The following autumn I top dress with
the same kind of manure one or two inches thick, and sometinaes
add additional ashes, letting this depend upon the original quality
ot the soil. In the spring fork it well under.

I prune about the 1st of November, shortening to four and six
feet, leaving from two to four long vines or spurs from each root

No. 151.] 145

stalk of one inch and over in diameter, and cut ofT to one and two
eyes on each spur. My vines are allowed to lay on the ground du-
ring the winter, as taken from the trellis and pruned.

As I have stated above, I have so recently commenced the grow-
ing of vines, that I am unable to give further positive iriformation
regarding the quantity of grapes, cost, profit, &c. My bearing vines
only number one hundred, although I have a large number nearly
fit for the trellis.

I shall be happy to communicate to the society the result of ex-
periments 1 have in view of making, both in the culture of the vine
jMid wine making, at a future day.

I am very respectfully.

Your obd't servant,

T. L. PREVOST.
T. B. Wakeman, Esq.

CULTURE OF GRAPES.

JVewark, JV. J., Jfov. 23d, 1846.

Sir: — Having been awarded a premium for grapes at the late
Fair, I herewith comply with your request, by stating my mode of
culture.

In the fall of 1842, the border was prepared by incorporating
equal parts surface mould, sandy loam, and well decomposed stable
manure. In June following, the vines were planted in the border
on the outside of the house; one shoot or cane was led up from each
vine to near the top of the house. In November these shoots were
cut down to the second eye, and the vines protected from the sun by
covering them with mats; the house occasionally ventilated in clear
weather. About the 20th of March, the vines were excited by un-
covering the buds so as to expose them to the influence of the sun;
the border on the outside being carefully forked over. The tempera-
ture of the house was kept at this time as near 50 degrees as possi-
ble, the atmosphere kept moist by syringing freely, and the house
thoroughly ventilated when the weather would permit; one cane from
each vine was led up to the top of the house, as before, and in fall
after the wood was thoroughly ripe, pruned to one-third its length,
and treated as before, viz: protecting by mats during the winter;

[Assembly, No. 151.] 10

146 [A

SSEMBLY

the roofs being protected by covering the border with long stable
manure to the depth C>f six inches.

On the 12(h of March, 1845, the vines were uncovered, and well
washed with soft soap and sulphur, with the view of softening the
■wood, divest them of dust, kill insects, and prevent mildew; the af-
ter treatment the same as before. The vines were suffered to pro-
duce from six to eight clusters each, these were brought to great per-
fection; the leading shoot from each vine was again carried up to
the angle of the roof. The buds which produced fiuit were stopped
two joints above the fruit, the clusters nearest home being generally
selected, all laterals being stopped at two joints, and so continued
through the growing season; the farthest extremity of the main shoot
after being once stopped, suffered to run riot.

In November, the vines were again pruned, the main shoot being
reduced one-third, and the shoots which had produced fruit, cut back
to one, or at the farthest two eyes; the vines and border protected,
as in the preceding seasons.

March 17th, 1846, the vines were again treated as in IMarch 1845,
and tied up to the rafters, one-third of each vine being lied up to
within two feet of the glass, the remainder left pendant, till all the
buds had broken. A humid atmosphere was maintained till the 17th
of May, when the grapes were in bloom. For near three weeks af-
ter this lime we had very dull, cloudy and wet weather, the tempe-
rature of the house seldom exceeding 65 degrees; but being deter-
mined thoroughly to test the practicability of growing grapes in this
climate without lire heat, I applied no fire in two houses, and was
surprised myself to set the fr-.iit at so low a temperature. I of course
kept the houses as dry as possible during the time they were in
bloom, and availed myself of the advantages of a little sun shine to
gently shake the vines or clusters, so as to disperse the farina,

I had an extraordinary show of fruit in each house, but thinned
out at least two-thirds of the clusters, and one-third of berries on
the remaining clusters, leaving but fifteen clusters on each of the
large growing grapes, such as the black Hamburg, and not more
than 20 on the Muscadine, Chasselas, &c. This appears a great sac-
rifice of crop, but I am convinced, that over cropping a vine is one
of the greatest errors of grape culture in this climate.

By over cropping, you not only injure the constitution of the vine,
but it is impossible to color the fruit; and consequently it is almost

No. 151.] 147

destitute of flavor. By far the best practice, is to ensure a uniform
crop whether grown for family use or for market.

As to profit I am convinced no part of horticulture is more profita-
ble than the culture of grapes; the vine is comparatively hardy, and
generous in its production. The grapes grown without fire heat
sold readily at retail at 75 cents per pound; those forced and market-
ed in July, sold from $1 to $1.25 per pound. Much cheaper houses
than are generally erected, would answer every purpose. The cost
of labor it is impossible to estimate, having five houses to attend to,
and about two-thirds of my time out of doors.

Very respectfully yours,

. . GEO. KIDD.

T. B. Wakemam, Esq.

DEPARTMENT

ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.

REPORT

Of the committee on Cotton, Woolen, Silk and Linen
Manufactures.

The exhibition of the above articles this yesr is highly creditable
to the country. The goods are generally cheaper, better finished,
and of greater variety of style and fabric than usual. The manu-
facturers have more than paid for the protection accorded to them
by the government. Many new arts and inventions are introduced
for home use; and there is progress and improvement, as well as
economy in making, so that many goods are now cheaper than they
hc.ve ever been in this country.

This is the universal verdict, not only of the judges appointed im-
partially by the Institute, vi^ho have patiently and faithfully dis-
charged their onerous duties; but of the thousands of citizens who,
in the well lighted saloon of Castle Garden have had an excellent op-
portunity of examining the goods ibr themselves.

It seems scarcely possible to doubt the propriety of giving encou-
ragement to occupations producing results for the benefit of the
whole commonwealth, such as were here exhibited. Our manufactu-
ring interests, under the influence of diligent and sagacious perseve-
rance, free emulation among ourselves, and protection of our home
labor against the combined operatio7is of foreign pauperism and over-
reaching capitalists; now exhibit the thrift and progress which were
predicted for them under a wise and discriminating protective poli-
cy. If not uprooted by hostile legislation in favor of foreign inte-

No. 151.] 149

rests and serf-labor, not only the deserving manufacturers throughout
all the States, but all classes of the community must eventually be
benefitted. In all the textile fabrics, with the exception of si lie,
which is still in its infancy, and but feebly protected, our manufac-
turers are now not only becoming familiar with the arts of Europe,
the growth there oi centuries, but are enabled to avail themselves of
the improvements of the age; and to take the lead of many of them.
Thus, many articles made in this country are now exported, because
they are already produced here cheaper and better than elsewhere,
and, to a certain extent, American skill and ingenuity is in this res-
pect countervailing the effect of cheap foreign labor and low value
of capital. But where labor is the chief ingredient of the manufac-
ture, it is evident, if we wish to -preserve our -present free and com~
fortahle style of living, we cannot allow a levelling competition
from abroad. Not only the growth but the very life of some of our
best manufactures must be arrested. Adequate and continued pro-
tection by our own government, and the popular encouragement of
our citizens generally, are essential to their existence.

The committee deem it important to express this conviction bold-
ly. Their familiarity with the details which enable them to form
an unbiassed opinion; their yearly examination of the goods exhibi-
ted; the reports of skillful judges and intelligent merchants and
manufacturers, and the whole tenor of their experience, com-
pel them to declare themselves in favor of a steady and liberal pro-
tection to American manufactures. We have entire confidence in
the faith, that home competition, if not cut down and thwarted by
vacillating legislation, will speedily furnish goods here at as low pri-
ces as they could be had by any mode of barter from abroad. Cheap
manufacturing, like cheap travelling, will grow out of individual, as
well as patriotic emulation, w^here domestic or foreign monopolists
do not interfere with us; and even if protection should cost us some-
thing at first, by depriving us of some of the cruel advantages of
enslaved or oppressed pauper labor for a while, the country at large
will eventually be more than remunerated by the comforts which our
own free and intelligent laborers enjoy, and by the division of em-
ployments suitable to all our tastes, climates, and education.

Woolen Goods.

The samples of woolen goods are not so extensive this year as
usual, but are enough to prove that there are scarcely any styles of
cloths, cassimeres, vestings, coatings, carpetings, flannels, hosiery,
blankets, merino, worsted, and other kinds of spun, knit and felt

150 [Assembly

goods, that cannot now be manufactured of our o^vn wool, as perfect-
ly as in any other country. Great improvements are manifest in
many articles, the styles and finish of which have hitherto been ob-
jectionable. In dying and inter-weaving fast colors, and making
fancy vesting and pantaloon stuflfs, it is admitted, even by our most
fastidious tailors, that there is great progress evinced. In our loool
dyed cloths, we can this year exhibit fast colors equal to the French
or German, and better than most of those sent us from England. Some
of the cloths are also of more uniform finish and better framed and
dressed than any in former exhibitions; particularly those from the
Northampton factory, to which the first premium was awarded. Of
the difficulty of producing such fabrics as these, our citizens have
scarcely any correct ideas.

There are from twenty io jive and twenty different and distinct ma-
nipulations combined in the manufacture of a yard of broad cloth.
Most of these, in foreign countries are distinct and separate trades, to
which usually the life of the artist is devoted. In selecting, sorting
and scouring the wool, in dying it after it is picked^ and again per-
haps after it is woven, in carding, roving, spinning, warping, and
weaving, all of which must be well done to get the wool into what
is called a flannel, and then the minor operations of scouring and
hurling it, and the more important ones oi falling, teazling, tenter-
ing, shearing, steaming, and after various other processes of dressing,
including listing, lettering, Sfc, if all of these are successful, the
manufacturer is at length in possession of a cloth. If he is enabled
to do this at all he considers himsell fortunate and entitled, perhaps,
to some credit if not some emolument for the risks run, and the time
and talent devoted to this art. But he must not expect to escape
censure; thousands have found to their cost, that it requires almost
a magician's art to prevent loss. Not only must every one engaged
in any of the above manipulations, know how to do his part, or (if
he has to do the whole) well, but he must watch and perform al-
ways, and all the way through the operation of every piece of cloth
made tvilli surgical precision, or ruin will follow, and disgrace over-
whelm him. His fabric has at last to pass the ordeal of a critical,
and often censorious public, who are perhaps " ignorant of what
they are most assured," and condemn flippantly those who are fully
entitled to the respect of their countrymen.

After thus stating what we are assured is correct in regard to the
almost mysterious and very hazardous art of making such broad
cloths as our citizens choose to wear, we are proud to assert that

No. 151.] 151

there are American citizens now in our factories in this country who
understanci and perform this important national service, and are as
much entitled to public praise for protection in this, one of the es-
sential arts of peace, as any of those engaged in conquest of foreign
countries, or who reap the highest glory of war by defending their
own.

The committee fei 1 it a pleasure and a duty to state, that the
manufacturers of cloths appear now to do justice to the wool in
manufacturing it, and not as in many former years to depend on the
fineness of the stock to obtain a sale for ill-wrought goods. The
Northampton cloths which were exhibited by, and may be procu-
red of Messrs. W. C. Langley & Co., of this city, were made of
the very finest wool, such as our farmers may be proud to produce;
and it is done justice to by the skillful and fortunate manufacturers,
and can be worn by our citizens at a very moderate cost. For this
beautiful cloth the first premium, a gold medal was awarded.

The second premium, agreeably to the recommendation of the
judges, has been awarded for the cloths exhibited by Messrs. Fearing
& Hall, of the manufacture of D. W. Plumb, Derby, Conn. Al-
though made of wool, less fine than the above, they are creditable
specimens of the art of making and finish; and were much noti-
ced.

To the Middlesex Co., of Lowell, Mass., a gold medal has been
awarded for a sample of plain cassimeres, exhibited by Messrs. Wol-
cott & Slade, agents in this city. They wpre very fine, of good co-
lor and fabric, and the best plain cassimeres exhibited.

To the same company a silver medal was also given for samples
of very beautiful plaid vestings, made of wool, and now much in
vogue. The facility and success with which this factory meets the
fashionable taste, is highly creditable, and rcndeis importations unne-
cessary.

Messrs. Wolcott & Slade also exhibited a sample of the beautiful
silk and wool tweeds, made by D. Kellogg, Skaneateles, New-York,
to whom a silver medal was awardtd.

The Institute has also given a silver medal to Welcome Farnum,
Watertbrd, Mass., for thirteen pieces of his farcy cassimeres, exhi-
bited out of the sale room of Messrs. Fearing & Hall, and it is to
be regretted that the same distinguished manu.'^acturer, who exhibi-

15'3 [Assembly

ted some very beautiful cloths \vhich obtained the first premium last
year, had not honored the exhibition this year with a fuller sample
of his manufactures. We trust he \Yill i;ot omit to do so next year.

For two pieces of black cassimere, exhibited by Messrs. Oilman &
Iddings of this city, a silver medal was given, manufactured by the
Unionville Woolen Company.

The felt beaver cloths, manufactured at the Union Manufac-
turing Company, Norwalk, Conn , and exhibited by D. Brighara &
Co., agents. No. 60 Pine-street, received a diploma from the Insti-
tute, and attracted much notice from the visitors. The competition
between felt and textile fabrics is becoming of much interest, and
■will no doubt produce further improvements in the former.

We take occasion in this place, to notice a very deserving inven-
tion of Mr. William Emmons, 67 Forsyth-street, N. Y., who produ-
ces out of rags, cast off clothes, and almost useless scraps of goods
that have been once worn, a species of flock or fibrous compound,
which after being cleaned and carded, is capable of being made in-
to new cloth. An invention entitled to much praise for its ingenui-
ty and economy.

For nine pieces of double threaded cassimere of good fancy, and
extremely well made, an award of a gold medal was given to the
manufacturers, the New England Co., Rockville, Connecticut. They
were exhibited by Messrs, Thomas & Dale, agents in this city, and
■were considered the best at this year's exhibition.

To the same exhibitors were given premiums for fine white flan-
nels, although it was not considered that they w^ere any better than
those exhibited by the ^ame house last year. The committee cannot
but regret that of this important article, there were very few speci-
mens sent to the fair, and hope another year will witness a much
fairer competition.

The same remark is applicable to the important manufacture of
Blankets, an article so essential to our country in all its wide do-
main, in war as well as peace. For the best and most beautiful spe-
cimens, a gold medal was awarded to the Whitney factory, New-
Hampshire, exhibited by Messrs. Nesmith & Co,, of this city. They
■were much and justly admired.

No. 151.] 153

Of carpets and oil cloths, the committee regret to state, that the
display was very meagre, compared with the ability of our manufac-
turers lo exhibit. In the opinion of the judges there was scarcely
any thing considered superior to what has been exhibited before.
The premium committee have thought it best to award sundry medals
and diplomas, as will appear in the printed list. The line pieces of
carpeting from the power loom manufactory of A. & A. Lawrence,
of Lowell, exhibited, by Beals, Bush, & Co., of this city, agents, ob-
tained a silver medal. The greatest praise is due to the inventor of
this new mode of power loom weaving, by which more than half the
former expense of hand weaving is saved. As Americans we exult
in such a triumph of the arts by one of our own citizens, by which
so important and useful an article as carpets, can be made thus, even
better than by hand work, and defying foreign competition.

The committee has great pleasure in noticing the yearly improve-
ment in the articles of w'orsted manufacture. The beautiful speci-
mens of printed muslin de laines and cashmeres, rich in style and of
very superior finish, which were from the stock of Messrs. Fearing
& Hall, of this city, agents of the manufacturers, L Bunnell, & Co.,
Pawtucket, R. L, attracted great attention, and obtained a silver me-
dal.

In no department of our home manufactures, so far as consumption
can give encouragement, can there be a greater inducement for emu-
lation, than in the production of the various styles of de laines and
cashmeres for female wear; suited to our varied climate, and pecu-
liarly industrious population, and preferred altogether to calicoes on
account of their graceful drapery and unfading colors. We are sure
that a wide field is open for the growth of wool suitable for making
and for the highest skill of the artist in designs, and taste in intro-
ducing them to the wide extended limits of our country, preparatory
to their being exported as an article of commerce. We wish the
pioneers in this vast trade ample success.

Messrs. W. C. Langley, &. Co., of this city, agents for the Ballard
Vale Company, Andover, Mass., exhibited several pieces of a new
style of Orleans and Merino cloth, w^orsted and cotton and worsted, hav-
ing a most glossy and finished appearance, and extremely well made
and dyed, for which the highest premium, a gold medal, was award-
ed. We hope to see more of such goods next year.

154 [Assembly

Cotton Manvfactures.

The exhibition of goods and yarns made of cottony that great staple
of our Southern States, upon which so many foreign countries are
dependent for the supplies of what gives subsistence to their needy
operatives, and accumulated power of machinery, and which is now
an article of such vast consumption by our own manufacturers, was
at this fair most highly gratifying to the public, and deserved the
high encomiums passed upon it by the judges.

Now that a new impetus is given to its growth by the discovery
of converting it into an explosive engine, surpassing gun powder,
and made serviceable in mining, illuminations, fire works, &c., we
cannot say too much of its importance. Our foreign rivals in ma-
nufacturing would desire no greater boon at our hands, than the pur-
chase of all our cotton, and the monopoly of manufacturing it. In
payment for this, their protective policy of centuries is now offered
up, and a delusive free trade experiment held out, as a lure to us,
so that England may have the benefit of all the most profitable la-
bor in the world, by which she would soon reduce us to a state of
colonial vassalage. But the skill, industry and economy of our
northern fabricants of this southern staple, and the commanding in-
fluence of a free and enlightened public opinion, are sure to coun-
teract all attempts of this sort, come in what shape they will. We
have passed the crisis when the privilege of diversified occupations
and the right of amassing capital by the free and independent ap-
plication of our own labor were looked upon as violating the consti-
tution of the country. We doubt not now of protection to our ma-
nufacturers, as well as the other home interests, on the principle of
national independence, as well as of equal justice to all classes of
the community.

In surveying the proud specimens of progressive industry and
ingenuity which our late fair exhibited, we are sure that no retro-
grade movements can ever disappoint our present anticipations on
this subject. From the coarse but even spun yarn of Georgia, to
the sample of No. 150, from the V oxXsmow \\, Jfew-Ham'pshire steam
factory, (uhich is fa contain G0,000 spindles,) from the finest and
most beautiful fabrics produced at the James steam mill, of Newbu-
ryport, and the long celebrated New-York mills, in this State, to
the coarse cotton drills in which the British troops in India have
been clothed, we have abundant evidence of what skill and perseve-
rance can do in this country. Either under the influence of free

No. 151.] 155

trade, or its opposite, as respects cotton and ils manvfactures in
this quarter of the world, the Enj^lish will be puzzled to do with
us or without us. If our own government will abstain from vacilla-
ting legislation, and allow our own people to give the manufacturers
that encouragement they desire, we shall eventually witness their
complete success. Talent will be stimulated, industry rewarded, me-
rit and enterprise cheered, and a wide field be opened for the pro-
ductive energies of future laborers in pursuits that are worthy the
ambition of a free and enlightened republic.

From the full and discciminating report, drawn up by thejudges,
who critically examined the specimens of cotton goods, the commit-
tee have derived much assistance in awarding their premiums. A
few condensed remarks will be all that are nectssary to .add to their
statements.

It was really astonishing to notice at this fair the low prices at
■which most of the cotton goods were to be had in this market, not-
withstanding an advance since last year of more than fifty per cent
in the raw material. Calicoes of the most splendid style and fast co-
lors, at 8 to 12 cents per yard, common ones as low as 3 to 4 cents
and some of good colors, at 6 cents. Mousselinsde laines at 18 to
25 cents, such as formerly were sold at more than double these pri-
ces; these and a handsome variety of the finer bleached and colored
goods, such as have not hitherto appeared at our fairs, are ample
proofs of the rapid strides we are making in the manufacture of cot-
ton textures, both in science and economy.

A case of goods containing samples of bleached and brown cot-
tons from the James' Steam Mill, H. A. Smyth, agent, 43 Pine-street,
obtained the gold medal of the Institute and the encomiums of all
"who examined them. The judges pronounce these goods " by far
the best specimens of cotton shirtings they have ever seen exhibited.
So perfect are they, it would be difficult to suggest any improvement.
These goods illustrate in the most forcible manner, the high perfec-
tion our countrymen have reached in machinery adapted to spinnino"
and weaving cotton fabrics."

Another article to which a gold medal was awarded, was drilled
jeans from the New- York Mills, exhibited by the agent in this city,
Charles Carville, 26 Broad-street. A silver raed.il was also given to
the same for extra superfine water twist shirtings and New- York Mills
sheetings, well known as a staple article in our market, and which

156 [Assembly

the judges say, " possesses «1] the requisites for great durability, and
are rarely surpassed in fineness and uniformity of texture."

For a rich and variegated specimen of fancy and staple fast col-
ored prints from J. Bunnell & Go's, works iu Pawtucket, R. I., ex-
hibited by their agents, Fearing and Hall of this city, the gold me-
dal of the Institute was awarded. The committee in this instance
duplicate the well-earned compliment due to these prints for skill
and finish given their goods, a gold medal having likewise been gi-
ven them for the best specimen of mousseline de laines. The judges
declare their calicoes " not surpassed by the best foreign specimens in
market."

They also pronounce the prints manufactured by the American
Print Works at Fall River, exhibited by the agents, Messrs. McCur-
dy, Aklrich & Spencer, but little inferior to the best, and for these, a
silver medal is awarded. The judges state that " our calico printers
have made astonishing progress in their art. Their beautiful designs
and splendid coloring, and superior execution, cannot be surpassed.
The ever changing styles exhibit their abundant resources of taste
and fancy, and the astonishing low prices they are afforded_at, pla-
ces the use of them within the reach of all."

In addition to the foregoino;, silver medals were awarded to the
New-York Mills for Roubeyx cassimere, presented by Messrs. Fish-
er, Hone & Hamilton, agents in this city; to James Wragg, English
Neighborhood, N. Y., for three rolls of very superior press cloth,
and one horse hair do., exhibited by Crocker & Warren, agents in
this city. Also to Bowen & McNamee, of New-York, for mousse-
lln de laine exhibited which the examining judge pronounced to be
" superior, beautifully designed, richly colored and finely executed,
comparing well with the best foreign article in the market. This is
comparatively a new article of American manufacture, and entitled
to high praise."

Diplomas were awarded for several very creditable specimens of
various manufactures, viz: to A. & W. Sprague, of Providence, R. I.,
for chintz prints, good quality and entitled to high praise.

To Shepard & Son, Taunton, Mass., for bleached and unbleached
Canton flannels, strong and well made.

To Alfred Hyatt, Patterson, New-Jersey, for a good specimen of
buckram.

No. 151.] 157

To Ida Mills, Troy, N. Y., for a handsome specimen of striped
shirtings, exhibited by the agent, Charles Carville, Esq.

To J. L. Pearce, of Utica, N. Y., for a good specimen of bed-
tick.

To the Phffinix Company, Providence, R. I., for wide and heavy
cotton sheetings, a very good article; Shepard and Howe agents in
this city.

To the Claremont Factory, N. H., Blashfield & Smith, agents, 38
Pine-street, for the, best wide cotton bleached sheetings, an excellent
article, and well bleached.

To the Hamilton Company, Lowell, Mass., for a superior article
of cotton blankets, exhibited by Nesmith & Co., of this city.

The foregoing, and a great variety of other articles, of which cot-
ton formed the whole or principal material, gave great satisfac-
tion to the visitors, and were highly entitled to a compliment from
the Institute. But where discrimination and preference must govern,
and the recommendation of impartial judges is the guide in distribu-
ting premiums which must necessarily be limited in number to be of
any value, we trust it will app( ar evident that the premium commit-
tee have endeavored to discharge their duty without favor or re-
ward.

Hemp, Flax, and Linen Goods.

The exhibition of these articles was a very limited one. The
committee regret that the growth and manufacture of these impor-
tant staples. have hitherto been so little encouraged. But two speci-
mens of hemp were presented for examination, both of which were
very fine, and sufficient to prove that the article is produced of a
quality fully equal to any imported.

For the best, exhibited by Messrs. McGregor & Morris, of this
city, and grown in Kentucky, a silver medal was awarded.

For an excellent specimen of sewing twine and shoe thread, which
were made by L. T. Beardsley, Watertown, New-York, and which
the judges pronounced to be "very handsome, and for strength per-
haps unequalled," a gold medal was given. The committee would
gladly have awarded further premiums for similar proofs of what
could be made to advantage in this country, and hope another year
to have an opportunity of so doing.

153 [Assembly

In the absence of these very important fabrics, and to show the
extent of what is going on in several parts of the country, the com-
mittee have obtained the following information which it deems im-
portant to have generally known, and particularly brought into no-
tice as worthy of the patronage and protection of the government.

The interest taken by the Institute in the encouragement of hemp
and flax growing in this country at the last Fair, and by giving its
highest premium, and wide spread notice to the ingenious and useful
invention of Mr. Geo, W. Billings, of St, Louis, Mi. for his patent ma-
chinery for the speedy water rotting and spinning of hemp and flax,
■we are glad to hear has done the country some service. Dew rot-
ting is found to be too expensive and uncertain, and water rotting, under
this new American process, bids fair to succeed belter than that of
any other country. We are glad to hear it well spoken of by a
practical manufacturer of hemp, and that Mr. Billings has satisfied
the government of the capacity and usefulness of his invention to
supply a stronger fibre, and better fabric for the yarns required to
make their cordage, than they have been able to get from Russia.
When confidence in its success shall have induced capitalists to come
forward to introduce it into the States where hemp and flax can be
raised to most advantage, we think the manufacturers can defy for-
eign competition, sustained by the privileges they will have of cheap
transportation to markets where it can be used; but to encourage
capitalists to embark with confidence in such undertakings, they
ought to be adequately protected by duties on the foreign manufactu-
res, which such countries as Russia, Germany and Scotland are sure
to d'.luge us with, even at great self-sacrifices, in order to defeat our
depriving them of a very extensive and hitherto profitable market.
It requires a governmental defence to stop the proclivity incident to
long accustomed trade, and it is not to be supposed that we are to
have the good will and possession of so valuable a property, even
though we have as good a right to it at least, as those who are not
native or naturalized to the soil v/hich furnishes us the staple, and
the 'instituti6ns which give us the freedom to manufacture it with our
own skill and labor.

If our farmers and planters are not ready to admit the propriety ol
this reasoning, the committee would beg leave to compare the situ-
ation of our hew and enterprising manufacturers, trying to give en-
couragement to the growth of hemp and flax as a new variety among
the employments of our hardy yeomen, to the situation of a horti-
culturist or farmer who wishes to rear up a growth of }oung and

No. 151.] 159

valuable trees in the neighborhood of a populous city, or on a field
which has been a common range for men and beasts for a long time.
The ground is his own, and if the trees can be laised, he is sure of
benefitting himself and the country. Would it not be wise and right
in him to guard them with proper fences, to keep out the cattle and
prevent incursions from intruders'? Young oaks may be browsed
down by being left exposed, whilst your trees may stand alone, or
form a forest of themselves, needing no protection. Many of our in-
fant manufactures, particularly those of hemp, silk and linen, to say
nothing of ultimate protection, do certainly require the defence and
fostering care of our government now.

In regard to hemp and flax, much consideration is due to the sa-
ving of transportation, which will give them tl\eir chief security. A
near market, or a near manufactory to convert them into less bulk,
are absolutely necessary to their being made a profitable grow-th.
Russia cannot compete with us in the raw material, when once we
get possession of the home market. This is true also of the flax
grow'ers in Europe, and already proved in regard to liemp and cotton
bagging in Western Ohio, Kentucky and Missouri. Cotton bagging
that was once costing our planters 40 cents per yard, can now be had
for about 10 cents. This article has been and is sufficiently protected
and the result is obvious.

But it is not so yet with the manufacturers of sail duck, linen
goods, and many less bulky articles not secured against foreign in-
terference, by costly transportation or a suitable protection. These
are all worthy of early attention, and what healthier, more desirable,
or more universal occupations can be secured for our increasing free
population, than the raising and manufacturing of hemp, flax and
silk?

There are at present in operation in this part of the country,

2 hemp, and 1 flax factories in New-Jersey,

2 flax factories in New- York,

1 " " " Massachusetts,

in which the aggregate capital invested is about five hundred thou-
sand dollars. They use of hemp, American dew-rotted, chiefly Ken-
tucky, annually, about one million pounds; of flax about three mill-
ions pounds, about half of which is imported. The number of hands
now employed in these factories may be,

420 in flax mills,

150 " hemp "

160 [Assembly

The hemp spun in New-York and New-Jersey is chiefly for sail
duck.

' The finest flax spun, is about 24, or 7,200 yards to the pound.
Hitherto it is not a profitable business, owing to the immense impor-
tation of it from Scotland, where it can now be made cheaper than
"we can make it, the duty on the hemp and flax in this country being
quite equal to the duty on most of the manufactured articles^ so that
there is no protection. Cotton bagging is an exception. Vast quan-
tities of this are made in the west, as already mentioned. The growth
of hemp in that quarter is greatly on the increase. We notice that
for the two years 1844 and 1845, there w^ere registered as passing
St. Louis alone, over 90,000 bales hemp.

The capital invested in Mr. Beardsley's flax and tow factory at Wa-
tertown, New-York, is $'15,000 for machinery; for stock usually,
$10,000. He manufactures annually, over 300,000 pounds, with
about 60 hands in his employ.

Silk Manufactures.

So many of the general remarks which have been made in the
preceding reports on cotton, woolen and linen goods will apply to
the condition and exhibition of the si.'k department, that the com-
mittee will forbear repeating them. It will suffice to say that great
interest is always manifested by the public and the Institute in what
relates to silk and its products. No portion of our industrial or in-
ventive and enterprising population is more closely cheered by public
sentiment, or receives a stronger sympathy for the struggles they have
to make, than the silk growers and manufacturers; and it is with
deep regret that we have to report such a slow progress in their
labors.

The exhibition this year was respectable, and gave to many great
satisfaction; but to the judges and to the Institute it did not witness
that forward march in quantity, variety and improvement which their
•sanguine wishes had led them to expect. The committee of judges
■were among our most distinguished and competent merchants in the
trade, and in their unprejudiced opinion we have great confidence.
They say, " The exhibition of silk manvfactured goods (sewing silk
excepted,) has not much improved since last year, and presents but
little that differs materially from former exhibitions. They would have
been gratified to have noticed a greater variety, and more improve-
ment in this branch of American industry."

No. 151.] 161 .

When it is considered that to this branch of manufactures liberal
and additional premiums are offered, more than are extended to any
other manufactured goods, it must be strange that so little attention
is ffiven to obtain them. We trust the manufacturers are not abso-
lutely discouraged by the hostility of interested partizans towards them,
and the apathy of our citizens in suffering them to perish. So
much has been written, published and done by the president and
members of this Institute in favor of giving special attention to the
introduction and production of the silk manufactures, that it is al-
most discouraging to make further appeals to the public. We are
all, however, most deeply desirous that a better spirit should prevail,
and that success may still crown the efforts of the few generous and
persevering individuals, male and female, who have given their mo-
ney and their devoted labors to this cause. Among these we cannot
deny ourselves the pleasure of naming Myndert Van Schaick, Esq.,
of this city, who has generously placed one thousand dollars with
the trustees of the Institute to be used for the growth and advance-
ment of the silk interest in this country. For two exhibitions there
have been liberal appropriations made from this fund to encourage
exhibitors both of cocoons and manufactured silk.

We subjoin a list of the premiums awarded, and regret that we
had not an opportunity of giving as many more; which, by the aid of a
liberal patronage of the visitors and the Van Schaick fund, we had it
in our power to do, had the articles exhibited been entitled to them;
but we now reserve this unappropriated fund in the hope of having
a better oppo-rtunity to apportion it to the meritorious competitors
hereafter, together with the usual awards which may be given at
our 20th annual fair.

Raw Silk.

The display of cocoons and raw silk, was much more creditable
than that of some of its manufactures. Several new specimens of
cocoons, and a very beautiful and ample exhibition of raw and reeled
silk, attracted the admiration of thousands of visitors, and as will be
perceived, obtained the awards of the judges, and a liberal partici-
pation in the premiums of the Institute.
All which is respectfully submitted.

C. C. HAVEN,
Cha'n. Committee on Cloth, Sfc. Department

[Assembly, No. 151.] 11

REPORT

On the progress of linprovemeuts in Macl.inery, ns exem-
plified and shown in the machines, or the products of
machinery exhibited at the Ja e Fair of tlie Ameiican
Institu e; with remark-; upon the important bearing*,
and uses vf cam motions in tlie construction of ma-
chinery, given with a view to a luriherance of a i<now^-
ledgc o! tlie causes, and mechanical taciiilies by which
labor saving machinery is created and brought into
public use.

The three great wants ol rcan, whether in a civihzed or barba-
rous state, are, /bod, raiment and shelter.

To satisfy and gratify these great primary wants, man has in every
age of the world sought out many inventions.

It is a well settled fact in the history of the world, that the great-
est proportion of all the improvements in machinery, which have
taken place since the world began, have been made within the peri-
od of our own times; that the observing man of fifty or sixty years
of age, can tell, as it were, the very day in which the mechanical
productions have appeared.

We have no occasion, therefore, to go back to remote ages and
trace, step by step, down to the present time, the progress of im-
provements on the loom; our only object in turning back is to
show, that in this, as well as in most of our important machines,
they have beeji stationary and non-})iogressive, for centuries antece-
dent to the present; that to our own times the history of mechanical
events of a thrilling character are due, and that the influence and
effects of this progress of improvements in machinery, thus brought
to bear ftpon mechanical genius by what has already been done,

i

No. 151.] 163

must tend to very great perfection in future, and that more startling
events may be expected to take place hereafter.

Tha oldest machines in the world, are the wheel and distaff, the
loom, and mills for grinding grain.

The spinning and weaving of cloth, to clothe mankind, comprise
by far the most extensive range in amount, of all the machinery in
use, and the different purposes for which it is used in cloth making,
are extremely numerous; only a part of which shall we have time to
notice, and first, of the loom.

Judging from ancient specimens of cloth making, which have
come down to us from the tombs of Egypt, we are able to form a
correct judgment as to the state and perfection of machinery at that
time.

The oldest specimens are all of linen, being made from a mate-
rial of long staple, from necessity; the long material was spread and
wound upon a distaff, and-by the manipulations of the fingers of one
hand, the long fibre was run off in unison with the twist of a spin-
dle, to which motion was given by a wheel and belt, by the other
hand.

It is presumed that many years elapsed before any attempts were
made in the art of spinning a material of short staple; but that
goat's hair and long wool, must have been the next material attempt-
ed, and such may have been prepared by the rude means of a comb
made of the splints of reeds, and worked, not unlike the manner of
working worsted not many years ago. The process of carding short
fibrous articles into a roll, belongs to a later day.

Judging from the specimens alluded to, the loom of the ancients
was of most simple construction, and that its ability went no farther
than a single change of the shade to cross bind and embrace the fil-
ling; such a loom must have had a yarn and cloth beam, revolving
or otherwise, most likely the latter; a harness to cross the shade,
something in the form of a reed to beat up the filling; and some de-
vice to pass the filling through the web to represent the shuttle.

Upon such a loom the productions could not have exceeded a sin-
gle yard of cloth per day. In this state of simplicity, it may have
been used for a term of two or three thousand years; in proof of
which, a loom is still used, in some parts of the East Indias, but
little advanced from the one described.

164 [Assembly

At what precise time the swinging lathe containing a reed, the
foot harness treadle and a real shuttle, (the loom of our forefathers,)
was introduced, is unknown to us, but the use of several pairs of har-
ness, by which a web of a more complicated character was made, is
comparatively mocern, and still more modern was the appearance of
the celebrated fly shuttle, a very efficient instrument in the hands of
Englishmen, fifty years ago.

The invention of the Jacard loom, in France, about half a centu-
ry since, was a circumstance of great interest in th6 history of the
loom; this was an invention relating solely to taste and ornament;
the loom was not made by it more productive; by the use of several
harnesses, small figures had been previously made, but Jacard origi-
nated the idea of furnishing each individual thread of the warp, with
an independent harness, and these so arranged and governed by the
operating parts, as to bring, at each successive stroke of the lathe,
any number into action.

In thus controling the action of each thread, any number are brought
to the upper side and are seen, while the remainder are depressed, and
seen only upon the opposite side oi the web; this constitutes what is
called damask figures, and is done by a simple two fold crossing of
the general shade of the web; by an arrangement of a three fold
crossing of the shade, a portion of the threads may be screened from
sight on either side of the web or brought out to the surface, and in
this way figures, of every conceivable design were elaborated and
pr. duced, translating at once, that old useful machine, from a plain
unpretending implement of utility, to a rank of equality, with the
finest production of the needle in embroidery, or the pencil in paint-
ing, and claiming for it both a relationship with the fine arts, and
immortality to the name of the inventor.

But we must pass on to notice the climax in the progress of im-
provements in this valuable machine.

It remained for American ingenuity and the use of cam motions to
set this machine agoing without hands, by which a person can tend
a number of looms, at one and the same time, and make at least ten
fold to that of the loom of our forefathers, (including the fly shut-
tle,) and a hundred fold to that of the loom of the ancients.

The loom is not only the oldest of all machines, but the most im-
portant of all others, and entitled to our most profound admiration.

No. 151.] 165

We have been in the habit of looking upon the steam engine as
indispensable to our wants, and we admit, that no human calculation
has ever yet given to that power its due importance; still we could
dispense with the steam engine, and in fact with. all other machines
excepting the " wheel distaff," with less inconvenience to man, than
with that time honored machine.

To dispense with, and discontinue the loom, would be not to un-
clothe a world entirely, but to send civilized man back into a state
of barbarism; at least to clothe him in sheep skins and goat skins,
the habiliments of baroarism.

Whether therefore we consider the loom as it relates tb extent of
its productions, its utility and usefulness to civilized man, or the
beauty of its fabrics, it is in either case, the wonderful loom. The
productions of the loom continue to receive the highest honors of
the Institute.

In the meantime the progress of improvements in machinery for
spinning purposes, has been equally rapid and important; indeed the
ratio of increase has been vastly beyond that of the loom, in which
improvements, cam motions bear a conspicuous part.

Like the loom, machinery for this purpose was stationary for thou-
sands of years; the idea of working more than one spindle by a sin-
gle person, has been conceived within the space of eighty years.
Richard Hargrave, of England, invented the spinning jenny in
the year 1767, of eight spindles, worked by hand. In 1769, Rich-
ard Arkwright invented the use of rollers in spinning; the former
was upon the general principles of the large spinning wheeh of oup
forefathers, and the latter was upon the principle of the small or
foot wheel, and was the first power spinning frame in the world,
and the commencement of what is now called Throstle spinning.

In 1779 Samuel Crompton combined the qualities of both of the
previous inventions together, and therefore called it a mule.

The spinning jenny, by the invention of the condensing carding
machine for wool, has been entirely laid aside in our most improved
factories. The other two hold on the even tenor of their way.

In the latest improvements in mules for spinning cotton, one per-
son tends a frame of a thousand spindles, at a rate of speed in each

166 ' [Assembly

individual spindle greatly increased from that of the old hand spin-
die; in short, these machines are noV/ self tending in character, re-
quiring the attention of only a single person to run them. In thros-
tle spinning a single person tends 250 spindles, running at the rate
of 6,000 turns per minute, the old hand spindle being less than a
thousand turns, and this speed is attained upon very fine yarns, say
No. 40.

In mules the increase has been 3,000 fold, in throstles, 4,000; so
entirely has been the change in this department of cloth making,
that the old time honored " distaff" has been nearly expelled the
haunts of civilized man. Our young folks have heard or read of
it, but have never seen it; the " distaff" is now an obsolete thing.

Material now of short staple, is spun with more facility than of
long; a great staple has been brought forward into almost universal
use, in the shape of cotton; aided by the invention of the cotton gin
by Whitney; till now, by the cheapness of the fabric, and the foice
of habit, the population of one half of the entire globe are com-
pelled to continue and perpetuate its use.

Specimens of fine spinning as high as 150 hanks to the pound,
■were exhibited at the late fair.

In the meantime, machines for carding by power, and that extra-
ordinary machine, the machine for setting card teeth, have been in-
vented; the latter of which is deserving a particular notice, and to
which reference will be made presently.

The cotton gin before alluded to, is among the associated machines
in cloth making, too well known and appreciated to require any
further notice of it.

That beautiful conception of doubling and drawing out many
hundred times in length before twisting short staple into a thread,
to equalize the same to a uniform size when fully attenuated and
drawn out, is the result of the growth, manufacture, and use of cot-
ton. Machinery lor making iron and steel reeds, for picking raw
materials; for spooling, reeling, and throwing of yarns for preparing
wets, calendering cloth, folding and pressing into compact bales for
case of transportation, are also associate machines in the progress of
improvements in cloth making, and of modern invention. The art
of raising a nap on woolens, is comparatively modern; and to that
discovery were added fulling mills, and the invention of cloth shear-

No. 151.] 167

ing machines, teazeling machines, &c., also that beaiitifu] art imita^
live of embroidery. The printing of figures upon clolh, so univer-
sally in use at the present day for ladies dresses, is not very ancient.
The same was at first done by \iand with wooden blocks, having the
figure cut upon the face of them; but it is now done with incredi-
ble despatch by a machine, the figures being engraved uj>on fine
copper rollers operating in such a machine.

But it is not our design to enter into all the details of this numer-
ous class, time would fail; injustice will be done to our subject how-
ever, if we pass unnoticed, the card setting machine, the movements
of which are effected almost exclusively by cam motions, and the
importance of which, as a labor saving machine, nearly equals the
power loom itself.

The material of which cloth is made, is in all cases, with the sin-
gle exception of silk, required to be brought from a promiscuous un-
defined state, into a regular longitudinal arrangement of the fibre,
by which a continuous uniform body of the material may be by va-
rious modes, extenuated and twisted into a thread, preparatory to its.
ultimate transformation into cloth by the loom.

In this process of arrangement, the card is the agent, and it may
be said, the laboring agent, of bringing order out of disorder, and
of giving form to confused matter.

In all operating machines, there are parts which are denominated
the working or wearing points in such machines, and in the series of
machines by which cloth is fabricated and made, the card answers to
this appellation; the extreme fineness of the wire of which they are
composed, and the great labor which they perform, tends to their
rapid and inevitable destruction; and on this account the advantages
of an expeditious means of their reproduction is apparent^

In the commencement of cloth making by machinery in this coun-
try, the manufacture of cards was by hand labor, aided by two ma-
chines; one to prick the leather, and the other to cut and bend the
wire for the teeth; after which, the same were set into the leather
one by one, by the hand.

This was especially the state in which the manufacture of cards in
the years from ISIO to 1813 was found, when the setting of card
teeth furnished employment for thousands of women and children in
Massachusetts, Connecticut, New-Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode^

168 [Assembly

Island; so much so, that in a circuit of country extending around
the town of Leicester, Mass., (then as now the centre of that branch
of business,) for a distance of one hundred miles, it had become a
general occupation for that class of individuals. This slow process,
had it been continued without improvement until now, woufd have
required the labor of several hundred thousands of women and child-
ren of this country to suppl}' our increasing want of that article.

The invention of the card-setting machine, when rightly viewed,
was an event of great and surpassing importance; it is a machine
associated with the power-loom and other kindred machines of Ame-
rican invention, which have together effected an entire change in
the mode and means of cloth making in this and other countries. A
large share of the credit of this change must be attributed to the
invention of the machine in question, by Aaron Whittemore, then a
citizen of Cambridge, in the State of Massachusetts.

It should in justice, be observed, that Pliny Earle, of Leicester,
•was at the period named, the principal maker of cards, and that the
name of Earle has ever been prominent in that branch of business,
and has been stamped on more sheets of cards than all others put
together.

These little, but vast labor saving machines, are the representa-
tives of more than a million of hands in this country and Europe,
but without the aid of cam motions, Ihis immensely useful machine
would be a cypher — a nonentity.

Two admirable specimens of the card-setting machine were on ex-
hibition at the Fair, and received the deserved honors of the Insti-
tute.

Before leaving this head of our subject, cloth making, it may be
remarked, that nearly as ancient as the loom, wheel and distaff, is
the art of knitting; but to which art nothing was contributed in the
form of a machine, until about sixty years since, when the celebra-
ted stocking-loom of England, was invented; which discovery and
invention has been marked with astonishing results in a pecuniary
point of view to that country.

It has been estimated by an Englishman of the highest standing,
that since that discovery, England has made hosiery sufficient to cover
the entire land surface of the globe; and that the gain to that coun-

No. 151.] ' 169

trv arising from such manufacture, has produced about one third
of the present wealth of that vastly rich nation of people.

These stocking-looms are operated by hand. It remained, as usual,
for American skill and ingenuity to knit hosiery by power, in which
cam motions bear an indispensable part. Some of these inventions
are capable of turning out a stocking complete, without a seam.
There are at this moment in active operation in this ci\y, twenty-five
power-looms for knitting stocking shapes; or in other words, the hand
stocking-loom of England has been converted into a power-loom
machine.

There is also an establishment of this kind in a neishborins: town
in Connecticut, having already expended $85,000 in machinery and
the purchase of the right, and are now making 800 shirt-patterns
per day, at a cost of eighteen shillings per dozen for weaving; be-
ing only l^s. each. The manufactory is to be extended soon to 1500
per day.

But these inventions have not yet received the attention thej de-
serve from capitalists; and here let it be observed, that no better pro-
ject for the profitable investment of capital can be presented, than in
putting in operation to a large extent, good machinery for that pur-
pose; it is an open field for American enterprise to enter and amass
wealth.

There is another class of machines which, although they are not
employed in cloth making, belong nevertheless, to this branch of our
subject, being embraced in the category of machines, which make up
our wants in wearing apparel and dress, or accompaniments thereto.

I will first notice pin-making and pin-sticking irachines, which
have appeared within the space of a few years. Not more than fif-
teen years since, it was in evidence, before a committee of the Bri-
tish Parliament, that in the manufacture of pins, the art was divided
into 102 distinct branches, to each of which a boy might be appren-
ticed and learn a trade.

Pin machines have been invented some time, nearly half a century,
and various and repeated attempts were made to introduce them into
England without success. American enterprise, however, prevailed.
An over-supply is now made on American machines at the present
time in this country.

170 fAsSEMBLT

But a still more important machine in the pin-making business,
has appeared within the space of ten years, in the machine for stick-
ing pins on paper. This machine has reduced the labor of pin-ma-
king more than one-half in addition to the labor saved on the pin-
making machine itself.

The quantity of pins now made in this country is about 500 tons,
and this amount is made on about 100 machines. The movement of
these machines are effected almost exclusively by " cam motions.''*

Other kindred machines have been produced. The machine for
making ladies' hooks and eyes depends on cam motions.

Machines for the manufacture of cloth-covered and metal buttons
have appeared, and are of the greatest importance. The business of
button-making has been carried to the highest degree of perfection in
this country only by the aid of suitable machinery.

Machines for braiding straw and other materials for ladies' hats,
have recently appeared, of great ingenuity and usefulnesss, in which
cam motions prevail. Machines for weaving stock-frames and stuff-
ers, and for weaving hair cloth by power-looms, have appeared; and
here again, it may be said, that cam motions are indispensable. Ma-
chines for making men's hat-bodies have appeared, and so cheapened
that article, that now, while furs are getting more scarce, and dis-
tant, and rising in value, bats are getting more plenty and at less
price. We pay $5 or $6 for a beaver that our forefathers paid twice
that sum.

We will now notice two or three other machines in this connec-
tion, and then pass to another branch of our subject.

There has been invented within two or three years, a machine of
great promise, for burring wool, and separating impurities, such as
sticks, hay and straw, and other substances lodged in the fleece,
which have been the occasion of great destruction to cards, or other-
wise removed by hand. Attempts had heretofore been made with
partial success 5 but no plan had before been suggested which did
not more or less injure and break the staple. The machine in ques-
tion was invented by Stephen R. Parkhurst of this city, who is now
in Europe introducing it in foreign manufactories. It has been so

•The pins exhibited at the late Fair show the result of these improvements in pin-
makinjT machinrry. Tlie cost of pins has boen reduced within the last ten j'sars
from %i . 5U to 25 cents per pack.

No. 151.] 171

far perfected by the inventor and others, and the demand for them so
much increased, that now, in a neighboring town, at least one dozen
of these machines are turned out weekly, and sold to manufacturers
of carpets and other woolens; and we have no doubt that one of these
purifying machines will, within a few years, piecede every machine
card for woolens in the country, effecting a saving in the destruction
of cards amounting to some hundreds of thousands of dollars per an-
num.

Another machine alluded to has been invented more recently still,
in this country; we refer to a machine invented in this city by Mr.
Emmons, for the purpose of preparing worn out or damaged wool-
ens, silks, &,c., in a manner suitable for re-manufacturing into cloth.
Damaged or cast-off linens and cottons find a ready market for re-
production into paper. Refuse woolens have been comparatively
valueless, (although such a machine has been in use in Europe for
several years, but strictly monopolized by England;) with this ma-
chine, tons of this waste, may be converted into cheap carpets, and
old silks be made into handkerchiefs for a numerous class.

A machine of great ingenuity was brought out in Cambridge,
Mass., last summer, for sewing cloth. In effecting this object, the
author has invented a new and beautiful stitch, on which account
the machine possesses additional interest. We look for the adoption
of this machine in the manufacture of clothing by the trade in large
cities.

Such have been the results in the space of half a century, of the
combination and co-operation of these various machines and improve-
ments of machines for the production of wearing apparel, that the
distinctions of society arising from the nature of dress, are now no
longer known by the quality of a coat a man wears. The middle
classes, the mechanic and the laboring man, are seated side by si<le
with the wealthy in our churches and other places of public resort,
without offence to decency or propriety.

I pass from this principal head of my subject, raiment, to notice
what has been done in the same space of time for increasing the fa-
cilities of producing food. Under this head, we commence with the
oldest in the catalogue — the grist-mill.

All the essential improvements in these mills and other kindred
machines for grinding grain or preparing the same for food, have pro-

•

172 [Assembly

bably been made within one hunrlred years. The mill of the ancients
would not be called a machine at the present day; but und6r the
transforming power of the age in which we live, the grist-mill is
now a machine upon a grand scale.

It is to be presumed that the first attempts for the reduction of grain
to a powder, were very simple. In the absence of proof on the sub-
ject, we draw upon the imagination to supply a presumed account of
its history and progress. At the outset, no doubt, two simple flat
stones were selected and placed one upon the other, and having the
grain between them, were rubbed together by hand; and in this form,
the germ of the now powerful and perfect mill appeared. An eye
in the top of the stone for the convenience of introducing the grain
under it, next followed; and anon a spindle, a curb and rotary mo-
tion were each attained, with a crank to drive by hand. In this
condition, we are told in Scripture, " two women shall be found
grinding," &c., at a period two thousand years since; and in this
state it may have continued two or three thousand years.

But it is presumed that the grist mill is among the very first of all
machines driven by power. Wind has been employed as the propel-
ling power for " grist mills," for several hundred years;* but it must
be recollected that in no instance was this kind of mill furnished
with the now ordinary fixtures for elevating the grain to the loft, or
any other mode of hoisting than a man's broad shoulders and efficient
knee joints. The power was employed simply to rotate the stones
arid the bolt; to these mills no such a thing as a smut machine, cool-
er, or packing press was ever known, and the same remark would
apply to water mills a half a century ago. The grain was trans-
ported to and from these mills in bags.

The grain w^as ground but not purified. It remained for the mas-
ter genius of man as a mechanic, the first of the age in which he
lived, to ordain that the old grist mill, should assume the distinctive
traits of a machine.

Oliver Evans concentrated his powerful mind upon it, improved
and left it perfect, so that to the present day, with the single excep-
tion of a more perfect smut machine, no great improvement has been
added to it, since it came from his hands.

A merchant's flouring mill of the present day is a huge machine.
• Wind mills were invented in the time of Augustus Caesar.

Ko. 151.] 173

In addition to the ordinary hoisting machinery of the day, it con-
tains an elevating machinery peculiar to itself; that is, an endless
belt of leather passes over a dium or pully in the loft, to which is
affixed a succession of lifting buckets throughout the circuit of the
belt, in such a manner, as that the buckets on the ascending portion
are capable of filling with grain, while on the descending portion of
the belt, they are reversed, and consequently discharge their con-
tents. Of course this discharge takes place at the summit of the
circuit and thus the grain is elevated to the loft required.

The lower circuit of the belt is made to embrace a short drum,
attached to a sweep, the upper end being hinged or jointed to a
beam of one of the stories above, and by which the same is directed
to any heap of grain in a lower story, or swung out of a door, and
directed into the grain apartment of a vessel or boat laying along
side the mill, and elevated to the loft desired.

The grain having been hoisted in this manner to the cleaning loft,
usually the one the next above the grinding loft, is there submitted
to a process of beating, scouring and fanning; after which it descends
by a canvass conductor by its own gravity to the hopper of the
stones, for its principal operation of grinding; from thence it con-
tinues to fall in the same way to the bolting loft next below, to un-
dergo the separating of the flour from th§ bran; from this story it is
again elevated to the highest loft in the building, the one the most
remote and as secure from the dust of the other operations as possi-
ble, to be submitted to the cooling process; where it is dicharged at
the outward rim of a circular platform, some forty or fifty feet in
diameter, and where, by the sweep of revolving brushes, whose ten-
dency is to concentrate the flour towards the eye of the cooler, at
the centre of the platform, being at the same time carried around in
the direction of the sweep, is spread over a vast surface, every par-
ticle of which having to travel many thousand feet in its circuitous
convolutions, to the centre and -eye of the cooler; from which it
again descends through a conductor, passing several lofts, to the
packing room upon the lower floor, entirely relieved of its heat, pre-
viously absorbed from the friction of the stones in grinding, and is
there weighed and packed into barrels, by the aid of a suitable press
for that purpose; the top head of the barrel coopered in, when after
being marked and branded, it is fit for transportation and sale.

" These establishments are usually built five or six stories high, one
or two of which are used for storage, located between the cleaning
and coolino; lofts.

174 [ASSEMBLT

Every good flouring mill should have a cooling loft, a loft or lofts
for storage, a grinding loft, a bolting loft, and a loft for packing, for
the purpose of a due regard to cleanliness, (without which no good
flour can be made,) and the convenience of moving the grain to the
best advantage, through the different processes.

A flour mill is, therefore, a mammoth machine, whose machinery
extends through several stories of a building, performing its clock
like motion harmoniously, and with astonishing efficiency.

At many of these establishments in our country, several hundred
barrels of flour are made and packed daily. A canal boat arriving
at Rochester from the west at 12 o'clock of one day, with 1,500
bushels of wheal, has been known to be set forward the next day,
havmg had in the intervening time, its cargo of wheat transferred
from the boat to the mill, there manufactured into flour, the same
weighed, packed, and delivered back to the boat, in that space of
time.

Such Is the gigantic perfection of this great work, as left by the
hands of America's greatest mechanic.

But the grand mill of Oliver Evans, has, in the process of im-
provements, thrown off in its flight, a host of satellites, in the shape
of portable mills for a variety of purposes adapted to the diversified
domestic wants of man, such as the horse power mill for secluded
farmers in any part of the country, and hand power mills for the
pioneer of the west; mills for grinding corn and cob for animals; for
paints, medicines, mustard, coffee, &,c.

"Within the last thirty years, there has been invented and brought
into use, numerous other kindrea machines for the growth and pre-
paration of grain.

The most important of these is the threshing machine; horses are
now made to do the labor which would require 100,000 men, if
done in the old way by the flail. Corn shellers, smut machines, fan-
ning mills, hay and straw cutters, vegetable cutters, machines for
hulling clover seed-, drilling machines, corn planters, machines for
sowing grain bioad cast, reaping machines, with more or less suc-
cess, and portable horse power machines, are among other machines
so brought out. Such, also, has been the improvement in the plow,
(originally a mere tool,) that it has assumed many of the attributes

No. 151.] 175

of a machine; take for instance, a plow furnished with a dynamometer
to measure the draft, a regulating clevis to guage the width and depth
of the furrow, and a changeable with a right hand, and left hand
mould board, and you have what would be called thirty years ago, a
machine plow.

In the numerous varieti^es of plows in use, we now find one adapted
to every variety of work to be done by it; we have the side hill, the
plain, the subsoil, the sward land, and the cross plow. Forty years ago
we had but two general kinds, distinguished and known as the coulter
and the bull plow.

At the present time we have in the aggregate of all that are in
use, a convenient plow for all purposes to which the varied quali-
ties of our soil, or the diversified surface of the ground may require,
and to these we might add if we had time, a long list of other improve-
ments in agricultural and farming implements, which have under-
gone a corresponding advance, but these do not strictly belong to our
subject and we pass them.

Before leaving this branch of our subject, we will notice one oth-
er machine onlv. The water ram has of late years been applied to
farming and rural purposes, and should be noticed as among the use-
ful machines of the age. In situations where a small stream of wa-
ter passes through a farm, the advantages of this hydraulic device
may be secured at no great expense, for elevating and conveying a
supply of water to the houses, barns, stables and gardens of such
farms, and become to them in the fullest extent, what the Croton is
to New- York city.

These water rams act upon the percussion principle, by which a
very low head of water in the stream may be elevated several hun-
dred feet, and distributed upon the table lands above for the purpose
of irrigation, as well as for a supply for the purposes stated; the
subject is well worth the attention of agriculturists and persons own-
ing country seats.-

Such has been the progress in improvements in machines as ap-
plied to one of the great wants of man — food, — alluded to at our
commencement.

We now pass to notice the improvements in machinery for archi-
tectural construction, embraced under the third general head of our
subject, " shcUer."

176 [Assembly

Upon the subject of architecture, there has been a great deal of
misapprehension and error palmed off upon the public, \vhich it is
our intention in part to correct. How often have we heard it re-
marked, that we in modern times have retrograded in the knowledge
of architecture, taking the position, that inasmuch as we have had
no occasion to throw away money in building monumental pyramids,
and other massive constructions, that we are unable to grasp with a
subject so vast. Is this the case ? It may be recollected, that in
the re-building of the Merchants' Exchange in the city of New-
York, that a few men, aided by a couple of horses and the use of
machinery, hauled up from the wharf at the foot of Wall street,
those elegant but massive pillars, which now ?dorn the front of that
building; that the same men and horses elevated them into their pla-
ces in about two hours each.

Had the weight of those pillars been ten times as great, a single
horse and less men, could have raised th^m with equal ease in forty
hours each; by which we have the proof that by the use of machine-
ry, which the ancients had no knowledge of, a single horse may be
made to elevate a larger mass of building material into place, than
we have any account of being used in the construction of those nu-
merous structures of ancient days, found near the river Nile in Egypt,
whose magnitude and greatness have so much astonished modern tra-
vellers.

Present a demand upon a modern architect, to build in one half
the length of time which was taken by the Egyptians to erect those
alluded to, and a pyramid of ten times the extent, and each block
ten times the weight ever used in a building, and they would en-
gage in it with a force of men not exceeding as one to one hundred
employed by the Egyptians, and one half of these would be repre
sented by the steam engine. The facts are, that in the absence of
Despots, we have no occasion to imitate their grand follies.

Require of an engineer of the present day to construct an aque-
duct forty miles in length, passing through and tunneling moun-
tains, crossing over large streams of water and deep hollows, bring-
infT the waters of a larg-e river to, and distributing the same to the
hand of half a million of people, and the work is done; the Croion,
like the pure air of Heaven flows for all; too common to be classed
araonji the wonderful things of earth.

That the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians, at a very early day pos-
sessed a deep knowledge in the art of stone cutting, and a high and

Is^o. 151.] 177

correct taste for architectural design, and executed master pieces in
this way, all are free to admit. They have been, and ever will be
models for our imitation, and they knew very well how to quarry a
large block of granite in a mountain, having first levelled a way,
placino^ it upon simple rollers, (a method by which the Astor House
might be moved entire, down to Wall-street,) was urged forward to
a canal in the vicinity, dug out for the purpose, and then upon a
rude raft, float such a piece to the desired point; and then by the
force of thousands, again urge it forward on rollers to the place of
erection in an unfinished state. At this point after having received
a finish, might be elevated into its place in the building by the use
of pimple wedges," but all this it must be recollected, was accom-
plished only with immense labor and toil; and hence these remains
of enormous structures, may be considered remarkable only on ac-
count of the number of days' labor expended upon them, and the
number of years taken in their construction.

Their erection was caused by the sanctity of an ancient custom.
We cannot admit that their existence had any thing to do with either
utility or luxury; they may be regarded as simple monuments of des-
potism.

Our only object in these remarks has been to refute an unjust de-
nunciation against modern skill, not wishing to underrate the skill,
considering the age of the world at the time they were built, which
executed such specimens of architecture; but to accord to ourcotem-
porary builders, their just claim to equality in the knowledge of ar-
chitectural building, and to show their competency if occasion re-
quired, to erect even larger buildings, with much superadded elegance
and propriety, at an expense of labor not more than the one hun-
<lredth part.

Auxiliary to the construction of modern buildings, we have to
notice in the proo-ress of improvement, the invention of circular
■saws, lath mills, machinery for planeing, tongueing and grooving
boards. This last named invention is at this moment doing the la-
tor of thousands of men, and paying the assignees of a renewed pa-
lent, it is said equal to $3,000 per day. The invention of shingle
machines, morticing and tenoning machines, machines for making
cornice and other moulding. (A late invention) of brick machines,
•capable of turning out 30,000 dry bricks per day, in a state fit to be
set up immediately into a kiln for burning; (this is also a late in-
vention of great promise.) Machines for making window sash and

[Assembly, No. 151.] 12

178 [Assembly

blinds; for making white lead and grinding paint. Machines for
hainmering wrought iron spikes and nails. Machines for cutting
"Wrought iron nails, brads and sparables; machines for making wood
screws, or rather iron screws to be used in wood; machines for ma-
king wrought iron and brass door butts; machines for making window
blind and bell hanging staples. Of this list of machines, it may be
said that none have been named in the list of cloth making, which
exceed these in efficiency, and many of them are entirely dependent
on cam motions for their existence.

There are other machines which enter into the calculation, direct
or indirect, resulting in progress in improvement in machinery for
architectural construction; a few will be named. Machines for ma-
king augers, bitts, gimblets; for making plane irons, of which the
steel for the cutting edges are welded at the rate of seven per min-
ute. Such has been the general progress of improvement in ma-
chinery under the general head of shelter, alluded to at the com-
mencement of our remarks.

There is another class of machines which contribute alike, though
indirectly, to the supply of the three great wants before stated, which
must claim some notice.

And first of all we name the king of machines, the steam engine;
we so call it, inasmuch as by its energies fraternity of motion
may be given to all other machines named, and the incomparable
agent for locomotive purposes.

In the regular course of lectures given the psst winter by the fa-
culty of the American Institute, the subject of the steam engine has
been ably presented; and it is not our intention to go into extended
remarks here; we propose to state only, in what respects the steam
engine has progressed as an economical and useful power.

Since we have been in the habit of calling the steam engine a
highly improved and perfect machme, or say within the last ten or
ififteen years, this advance has been at least one half in amount; and
consists in the following particulars.

The perfect knowledge of working steam at a high pressure, par-
ticularly of working steam expansively; the construction, and the
proper setting of steam boilers; the use of the blower to supply ox-
ygen for combustion; the choice and proper ad:;ptation of fuel, par-
ticularly in the size and quality of coal.

No. 151.] 179

It is known, that but a a few years since, to a first class river
boat, it took sixty or seventy cords of pine wood to run them from
this city to Albany; now it requires but twelve or fifteen tons of an-
thracite coal, at about the same cost per ton, as was the cost of wood
per cord.

And still, who has not observed the prodigal use, we might say
waste of fuel in the elements of combustion, thrown out from the
top of a smoke pipe of a steam engine.

We look for further improvements in steam boilers, by which this
comparatively small quantity will be reduced yet to one half of the
present quantity, and give in proof of this assertion, that it is not an
unusual thing to find land engines giving 100 horse power per day,
by a consumption of two tons only; estimating a river boat at 350
horse power, continued for eight or nine hours a trip, we should not
consume more than seven and a half tons.

We have happily got rid of the shower of sparks at the top of
our smoke pipes; the next step in the march of improvement in
steam boat engines, is to get rid of the glimner of heated gases,
and the green sulphurous blaze at the same point.

Another class of machines in this connection, are the machines
for machinists use; that is, machines to make machines with. The
most important of which are turning lathes; this is an old invention,
but the lathe of fifty or sixty years ago was a hand tool, mostly
used by millwrights.

At this time there are at least one hundred varieties of lathes; to
these we may name, the invention of machines for drilling, boreing
and planeing, of the greatest importance in the construction of heavy
machinery, the tooth cutting machine, &c. &c.

Answering to the secondary WMnts of man, we may mention im-
provements in machinery used in the art preservative of all arts,
printing. Cylinder presses of enormous expedition, embossing pres-
ses, book cutting machines, inking machines, card presses, and type
making machines; and in a kindred branch, machinery for making
paper in a continuous sheet, so conveniently useful for electro tele-
graphic purposes; paper ruling machines, and machines of great in-
genuity for waiting by the blind; a superb specimen of which, was
exhibited at the late fair of the American Institute by Mr. Thurber

180 [Assembly

of Norwich, Conn. The movements of this machine are exclusively
effected by cam motions.

A machine of nearly equal ingenuity has been invented, by which
zylographic engravings are executed, and machines for making steel
pens.

These various improvements have had their due influence, (with
other improvements not strictly machines) in giving to the public
cheap publications. Books, pamphlets, periodicals and journals, have
been multiplied more than a hundred fold within the last fifty years.

Another secondary want of man is, the means of locomotion.

Within twenty years the rapid flight of the railroad car has been
to us a novelty, the scream of the steam whistle, new music. If our
countrymen cannot claim priority in bringing into existence this
grand invention, it is with pride we have it to say, that Oliver
Evans first proclaimed, with mathematical accuracy, the feasibility
and utilily of this mode of locomotion.

The first attempt at locomotive building was successful only, as
vehicles of transportation, making but ten or twelve miles the hour.
The introduction of the small and many tube boilers, known ^s
Nott's tubelar boilers, aided by the invention of the suction draft,
from the escape steam, at once relieved, and regenerated, the lazy ten
miles an hour machine, (as at first bifilt,) and gave it a speed of
sixty miles an hour; seventy-eight miles have been attained.

The rapid extension of lines of railroads in the United States, and
elsewhere, naturally invest the subject of improvements in the super-
structure of such roads; the means of producing a supply of rail-
road bars, of improvements in locomotives, cars, car wheels, trucks,
safety breakes, and railroad bridges, with considerations of the high-
est magnitude.

Improvements in rolling mills for making railroad iron, have very
much promoted one of these objects.

In this department there was exhibired, at the late Fair of the
American Institute, and for which the highest honors of the Insti-
tute was bestowed, superior specimens of railroad bars, showing a
very creditable progress in the quality of production of iron for that
purpose.

No. 151.] 181

Of the amount of the production of iron of that description in
this country, it may be remarked that within the space of three
years, fifteen rolling mills, for the manufacture of railroad bai;^, have
been erected; of these, eight are located in Pennsylvania, two in each
of the States of Massachusetts, Maryland and New-Jersey, and one
in Rhode Island.

The aggregate production of these mills in 1846, was about
75,000 tons, of the value of $5,760,000; the estimated produce of
1847, is 100,000 tons, of the value of $7,600,000, and $10,000,000
in value, is estimated for 1848, from the production of these works
already built and in progress of being built.

The beneficial results of producing 10 millions of dollars worth
of railroad iron per annum, in this country, "can hardly be calculat-
ed. It will have a tv\'o fold advantage to the public generally, be-
yond the pecuniary advantages which may enure to the makers of it.
For while this amount may in ordinary cases, keep the balance of the
trade in our favor, it will at the same time, make an increased market for
our great agricultural products, which otherwise would not be real-
ized. This remark is true as it relates to all manufactories and the
general use and advantage of machinery in this country; but so large
an amount as 10 millions superadded to all others, is an important
item.

If this quantity of iron were produced in a foreign country and im-
ported into this, it does not follow that the operatives who produce
it would require a single barrel of flour, beef or pork in exchano-e
for it while engaged in its manufacture; on the contrary, (with the
exception of years of scarcity by short crops, like the present,) this
large sum would be distributed to various interests in Europe; mostly
in England.

But produce it here, and nine-tenths of it will go to the miners of
coal and iron in Pennsylvania; to the inland carrying trade by rivers,
canals and railroad^s; to the forge and furnace men at t.'ie works; to
the beef growers in Kentucky and elsewhere; to the pork raisers
in Ohio; to the wheat growing States of the w^est, and to a variety
of trades which supply the comforts and wants of the laborious pro-
ducer of this article; while no other branch will suffer by it except-
ing our shipping interest, which to a very great extent will be com-
pensated by an increased carrying trade in coals coastwise.

182 [Assembly

Commercial]}' speaking, ten millions saved in our country is a
sum sufficiently large to keep the balance of trade in our favor; for,
at a time when the demands of trade shall require that amount per
annum more than our other exports in exchange for foreign imports,
the single circumstance of producing that article will be the cause
of preventing a ciash in the mercantile community.

We deem it unnecessary to advert to the causes which may have
induced so important a branch of business to spring into existence
at a single bound; it is sufficient to know, other causes favoring,
that where a tolerable knowledge has been attained in any branch,
and the same is susceptible of being wrought under the physical en-
ergies of the steam engine, and the labor saving power of 'machinery,
the high order of mechanical genius and the untiring enterprise of
our countrymen, are sufficient for its accomplishment.

It may be suggested that these remarks on the subject of producing
railroad bars by machinery, are somewhat foreign to our subject; but
we hope to be pardoned in the trespass, for it is entirely pertinent to
our subject to show the results of machinery as well as its progress.

Before leaving this branch of our subject, improvements in the
means of transportation, we beg to state, that the number of loco-
motives now daily, and for the most part nightly in use in the Uni-
ted States, exceed 1,000; doing the labor of 500,000 horses. This
great change from horse to steam power, has seriously affected sales
of leather for harness purposes. »

There are several other machines which contribute to the means of
transportation which must not be overlooked; also machinery for con-
veying intelligence of an astounding character. A machine for turn-
ing ships' blocks, dead eyes, &c., was invented by Mr. Thomas
Blanchard, some years since, and has done good service in the way
of ship tackle. The same has been applied to the turning of shoe-
lasts, gun-stocks, ox-yokes, and a variety of other articles. It acts
upon the principle of transferring from the shape of a model to a
duplicate to be turned.

A machine for making horse-shoes has been invented, and others
for making horse-nails; the former invented and used to a large ex-
tent by Mr. Henry Burden, of Troy, to whose enterprise and inge-
nuity we are indebted for several useful machines in the manufacture
of iron and iron articles.

No. 151.] 183

There is a very ingenious machine for braiding whips, which un-
der the old (lispersation of horse power for transportation by wagons,
was a very important machine; happily, the black steam pony does
not require its use. The whip-makers have suffered with the tanner.

On the subject of intelligence, we notice with unusual pride, a
small machine invented by Professor Morse, by which his system of
electro telegraph is made perfect. We are glad of the opportunity
of paying a merited compliment to the genius of a man whose name
will be handed down to future generations side by side with the
name of Franklin, and the opportunity also of showing in what re-
spects the merit of the discovery consists. The idea of transmit-
ting intelligence by means of electro magnetism is said to have ori-
ginated in this country and in Europe at about the same time. Pro-
fessor Wheatstone proposed a separate magnet, and consequently, a
separate circuit for each character to be represented; that is, a wire
extending from the negative pole of the battery, the place of begin-
ning, to a magnet at the distant point or place of execution, and
there, after forming a helix around the magnet in order to create it,
to return back again to the positive pole of the battery.

In this way to represent the twenty-four letters of the alphabet, ten
numerals and five or six punctuation marks, it would require forty
double wires; or in other words, equal to eighty wires, as now used
by Professor Morse, and these so constructed with keys, (similar to
music keys,) that each key representing the letters, &c., might be
made to act singly at the distant station, in framing the language de-
sired to be transmitted. The principal objection to this plan is its
great expense.

Another plan suggested in Europe, was, by producing the deflec-
tion of a needle; in the use of the common electrometer, in which a
single circuit only was used, (two wires.) but which was attended
with many difficulties. The deflection being produced by more or
less intensity of magnetism, involved the necessity of a different de-
gree for each sign. Thus, for A, the pointer must move to No. 1 of
the dial; B, to No. 2, and so on until all the numbers were exhausted,
when he had recourse to a double move; that is, first to one number
and then to another, to represent a character. The difficulty and con-
fusion of this plan may easily be imagined. A person must always
be on the spot to note the movement of the pointer. If taken cor-
rectly and given correctly, well; but if mistakes occur, they cannot

184 [Assembly

easily be corrected. The process is a slow and tedious one, although
not very expensive.

The plan of Professor Morse consists of a single wire, reaching
from the starting point to the distant station only. The mature
knowledge of that gentleman in this science, suggested eventually,
that a good conductor of electricity, (one of the metals,) was only
necessary to send out the current to a given point; that the return
conductor might be a more imperfect one, as water; or what is
equivalent, the moisture of the earth; and that to communicate a
sign, it could be done by a single change or transposition of dots
and dashes to represent the different characters of the alphabet, &c.,
and these durably marked upon narrow strips of paper, (before allu-
ded to,) would secure correctness with great expedition. The ma-
chine in question is furnished with two rollers, a racket-wheel and
weights to operate it, and having a small scribing lever, with a fine
rounded point to impress a dot or dash upon the paper while moving
from one roller to the other beneath it.

The accompanying magnet is so placed in the machine as that
when the circuit is formed with the battery, that it attracts the lever
of the scribing point in a manner to bring it down upon the paper;
a small spring throws it up, upon suspending the magnet, by break-
ing the circuit. The forming the circuit is done by dipping a fmger-
key into a mercury cup by the pressure of the finger, breaking it in-
stantly on lifting the finger.

A sudden, nervous application of the finger makes a dot; holding
on upon it an instant, a dash, produced by the movement of the pa-
per under the point. These marks, without ink, are perfectly legible
and plain, and the scriber being furnished with three or four points,
making a tripple or quadruple set of marks, by which as many co-
pies are given at once. Every possibility of a mistake is thoroughly
avoided.

The machine at rest, is held by a small ketch, or dog working
into the racket-wheel. When the distant operator commences a com-
munication, he dips the circuit into the mercury cup, charging the
magnet at the machine, which attracts one arm of the dog in the
catch-wheel, liberating the weights, and putting the paper in motion,
when the communication is recorded. If an attendant at the station
is present, it is well; if not, just as well. The story is told without
an assistant, to be translated into good English, French or Lf.tin

No. 151.] 185

when leisure permits. But it is usual, nevertheless, to have others in
attendance, and the machine rings a small bell to give notice.

The great merit of this invention of Professor Morse, consists in
dispensing with all the conducting wires but one, by which the cost
has been reduced within the convenient reach of individual means.
Had no other plan but Professor Wheastone's been discovered, the
beautiful phenomena would have been confined to the slow and cau-
tious advance of governments, and its practical advantages would
have been retarded and kept buried up for half a century.

The idea of making the earth a part of the circuit, the return
conductor, was the discovery of a philosopher, the results of which
we have not fully calculated. The proposition a few years since to
send along a thought upon a flash of lightning, or of communicating"
the same in any form by means of electricity, would have been con-
sidered a great absurdity — the offspring of unmingled insanity in the
proposer.

There are other machines, and improvements in machines, which
might be named in the catalogue of machines, auxiliary to the se-
condary wants of man; but to name them, would be but to reiterate
a general progress already noticed in those which have been named,
about one hundred in number, which have appeared within the last
one hundred years; in the aggregate, they have advanced the objects
for which they have been made, at least one hundred fold; and that
of all that has been named, at least one-half are wholly dependant
upon cam motions for their existence and operation.

This being the case, no farther argument is necessary to prove the
important bearings and usefulness of the cam motion in the construc-
tion of labor-saving machinery.

But the question may arise in some minds, what is a cam ? what
does it look like? by what feature shall we distinguish it, when we
"view it in a machine?

How is it, that people in general know so little about it? is not
the term a vulgarism?

The only answer we can give to the inquiry, is, that the name is
of course a technical term, to express a part in the construction of
machines; that the word occurs of a necessity, in a minute descrip-
tion of machinery, and may be met with in vocabularies of mechani-
cal terms; but that a critical definition of the word, does not exist in

186 [Assembly

any standard dictionary of the age, and hence the word no doubt has
a strange sound to well educated ears.

To illustrate the peculiarities of the cam, models and drawings
would be necessar}, to make it clear to unmechanical minds; and a
full explanation of their qualities cannot, therefore, be given in an
essay upon the subject; we, however, propose, in concluding our re-
marks, to give at some length, the definition of the cam, in language
which best accords with our views of the subject.

A cam is a revolving piece or part in machinery, the qualities of
which give varied motions to separate or combined parts of the same.

Cams are of two general kinds, denominated eccentric and trans-
verse— indicated by the mode in which they act, whether eccentri-
cally to their axis, or transversely thereto; and these kinds are sub-
divided into opeji, grooved, and yoked cams, possessing in some
respects qualities common to each.

Open cams are applied to levers vibrating eccentrically or trans-
versely to their planes of motion, and are usually held thereto by the
weight of the lever, or by a spring against the lever to insure con-
tinual contact with the same.

Yoked cams are always made in a regular circular form, whose
axis deviates more or less from the centre, and being circular maybe
yoked to a vibrating bar by boxes around the circumference; they
are of the kind called eccentric only, and present the cam in its most
simple form, being but one remove from the crank, producing a regu-
lar reciprocating movement.

Grooved cams have a more extensive signification and application
to the arts; they are both eccentric and transverse, and have simple
continuous grooves, in a line deviating or direct, or compound and
palmatcd grooves, branching into different avenues, but tending to the
place of beginning — the direction, in some cases, being given by
sliding switches at the junction of such branches. No arbitrary or
fixed plan can be given to a cam, to distinguish its elements of mo-
tion; the deviation of their course is subject to the motions required
in their use, and wholly dictated by circumstances; their course, like
the plot of a land surveyor, may be in angles, more or less zig-zag,
in curves or in straight lines, giving varied and different movements,
or suspended action to their cam levers.

No. 151.] 187

All cams, when formed, are connected with their fellow levers by
cam-pins working into their grooves, or otherwise yoked to, or ap-
plied against them, to give alternating or vibrating motions to the
same.

A prominent feature in cams proper, is that they have an inde-
pendent continuous movement in their action, from which primary
motions are derived independent of second causes, excepting the driv-
ing power communicated through their axles.

Other mechanical devices, acting similarly, but not possessing this
continuous quality, are merely auxiliary means within the range of
mechanical contrivance, to effect required motions, to which no gene-
ral appellation or name can be given.

We will notice two modes of acquiring motion, well known to
mechanics, to illustrate the point in question.

First. — To a body moving in a circular or straight line, we at-
tach a lever by a pivot pin; place parallel therewith a stationary
piece, having a groove" formed in the face of it, deviating from such
circuit or plane of the moving body; connect such groove and the
end of such lever together by a pin working in the groove, and va-
ried and compound motion will be given to such lever, by the action
of such body and the deviating course of the groove in the stationa-
ry piece — the action of which will resemble and be of the character
and effect of a cam; but acting from borrowed motion only, is se-
condary in its character, and can only be denominated a stationary
guide-piece to the lever, and therefore is not a cam.

Se:ond. — Forn\ a groove, deviating more or less from the plane of
motion of a body which moves in a straight line, or through the
section of a circle, but reciprocating back and forward ; connect
therewith, by a pivot pin working in the groove, a vibrating lever
whose centre is stationary; upon motion being given to such body,
in the manner named, vibrations are effected upon the lever, and pro-
duce such motions as are indicated by th,e formation of the groove,
and partake in some respects of the qualities of cam motions, but
being borrowed and secondary, possess no distinctive trait, by which
to give such body a proper name, and are in all respects like the
first described, only reversed; that is, they are moving guide-pieces
to stationary leveis, instead of stationary guide-pieces to moving
levers; the first being compound, and the second simply in action.

188 [Assembly

The article called a cam has become a familiar name to a modern
machinist, to express a facility device or thing, in the construction
of various machines of the utmost importance to their existence, ef-
fecting and performing the manipulations of the human hand in giv-
ing expeditious action to the same; and by the aid of which have
started into being, in this country and in Europe, machines which
perform an amount of labor, estimated equal to that of six millions
of men; or, in other words, the withdrawing of which device from
such machinery, would put a stop to their motions, and in many of
them no other movement, or facility could be substituted in their
place.

With this auxiliary to mechanical invention we overleap time and
space, as it relates to the slow system of apprenticeship in trades, as
practiced by our forefathers; for with a full knowledge of the qual-
ities and combinations of the cam, a mechanical engineer is never
at a loss for any motion required in the execution of his projected
machine. He can sit down and draft a plan of a machine having,
if need be, fifty distinct motions, in the space of a single week, and
in the farther space of a few weeks more, have a machine built and
put in operation, which will be capable of turning out a better and
more uniform article, than can possibly be done by an apprentice to
the trade, after a seven years apprenticeship; and having perhaps
the farther advantage of making 50 or 100 to one over the hand me-
thod of doing it. Cams may, therefore, be called America's " ap-
prentice boys."

An article whose importance is of such magnitude, possessing such
general traits of character — traits as easily recognised by the practical
machinist as those of the screw, wedge, lever,or wheel, should also have
a name and a place in our dictionaries corresponding with its vast im-
portance. No standard work has given to it a critical definition
and meaning. Dr. Ure has omitted it entirely in his valuable dic-
tionary of the arts, notwithstanding he makes use of the w^ord pro-
bably five hundred times, in the description of machines contained in
the work itself; and the desire appears to be universal among the
better informed mechanics of this country, to see it placed and pro-
perly defined on the pages of some standard dictionary, to be copied
in all succeeding time, as the thing cf all work in the mechanic
arts.

We therefore venture the remark, that the cam, well understood,
in the hands of American genius, aided by the energeis of the steam

No. 151.1 189

engine, lies at the foundation of great national wealth, and is destin-
ed to make this country the greatest manufacturing country in the
world; and if she becomes the greatest manufacturing country, as
sure as effect follows legitimate cause, she is destined to become the
richest and most powerful nation upon the face of the earth.

And we farther remark, that in this remarkable progress in im-
provements in machines generally, the American Institute has contri-
buted during the period of its existence, very largely for the encour-
agement of labor saving machinery.

The number of new machines, and improvement on machines,
exhibited at its fairs, have been variously from fifty to two hundred
per annum; and it may be said, without the fear of contradiction,
that the amount of good which that institution is like to accomplish
by such encouragement, is beyond the power of man to estimate.

And finally we remark, that inasmuch as it is necessary that a
large amount of manufacturing must be done in this country, to con-
sume and dispose of our vast agricultural products, and if done at all
must be done cheaply, with the aid of machinery. The farmer and
land owner of all others, have the deepest interest in the advance-
ment and progress of machinery; that in proportion to their advance,
by which the competition of cheap labor in Europe is overcome,
will be the advance in value of land property; and therefore this in-
timate and mutual relation between agriculture and mechanic arts
should be well understood by the law makers of our National and
State governments, that the meritorious inventors of machines and
other improvements, may be properly and strongly encouraged by
fostering, and just laws.

REPOPcT

Of the Committee on Trinity Church Or<ran.

We, the undersigned, committee appointed to inspect the new or-
gan erected in Trinity Church, by Mr. H. Erben, of the city of New-
York, beg to report :

The duty of the committee has been a most agreeable one, and
they have to congratulate the inhabitants of New-York on possess-
ing such a splendid specimen of the mechanical arts, and an instru-
ment of such purity of tone.

The great organ stops are individually of great beauty and excel-
lence, the quality of the diapasons in particular, (which are the most
difficult stops to voice in the whole instrument,) are equal to any
European organ that your committee are acquainted with, and supe-
rior to any in this country that has yet come under our notice. But
a want of judgment is evident, in the amount of mixture stops, viz:
in the preponderance of the four rank furniture stops, which gives a
screaming effect to the full organ, which, was it not for the power of
tone of the diapasons, would be entirely spoiled. This, a fault not
belonging in particular to this instrument, but existing more or less
in most modern organs, and your committee cannot leave this subject
"without recommending that great care ought to be taken not to de-
stroy the beauty of the pure tone for the sake of a mere noise.

The choir organ is in all respects most excellent, every note clear,
beautifully voiced, and the clarionet and bassoon, without exception,
the best we hav/ ever heard.

The swell is in every way admirable, each stop individually ex-
cellent, and the effect of the full swell, grand and imposing in the
extreme, and the double dulciana bass balances the light stops well.

No. 151.] 191

Your committee cannot too highly praise the double diapason in
the swell, which gives grandeur and force to the entire organ highly
effective, and at the same time recommending the adoption of this no-
ble stop in all organs of any considerable size.

The pedal stops are most excellent, firm and sonorous in quality,
but your comraitee must decidedly object to the thin brass wire pe-
dals which are unpleasant to the foot, and umanageable in every re-
spect, having no quality to recommend them, but their novelty; be-
ing an innovation of no possible benefit but of great detriment to a
good pedal player. The fact of the notes extending to double C is
of inestimable benefit, and your committee hope that for the future
the abortive termination at G G pedals, w'ill be exploded.

The coupler stops might with great benefit to the organ, be dimi-
nished at least one half, they being of no real value, beyond a certain
extent; the octave coupler being decidedly detrimental, the touch be-
ing thereby much deterioarated, and the increase of useless expense
being great. Though the mechanical execution of this most dif-
ficult portion of the organ, reflects unbounded credit both on the
skill and invention of the maker, yet we cannot consider any advan-
tage to be derived from such a forest of couples to compensate for
the increased expense and trouble; we also most decidedly disapprove
of the arrangement of the draw stops, as being calculated to con-
fuse the player by their complicated position, which is entirely at
variance with the approved practice of the best makers.

The workmanship of the bellows is excellent; the adoption of
percussion valves being of great benefit to the steady pressure of
wind.

In conclusion, your committee cannot help expressing their high
gratification at the general workmanship of the entire instrument;
nothing has been neglected that a liberal policy and exercise of
skill could produce. '

The organ may fairly be considered an ornament to the industrial
arts of America, and though many instruments may excel in the
mere number of stops (so called,) yet when the great cjbical extent
of pipe (the open diapasons on the manuals being throughout of me-
tal, and the pedals to 32 feet C,) is taken into consideration, the
organ may with truth deserve the appellation of grand,

192 [Assembly

The reed stops reflect great credit on the maker, and your com-
mittee trust, that for the future, the idea of importing reed stops
from Europe may be abandoned; the maker of this instrument hav-
ing proved that in this most arduous branch of his art, we can safe-
ly submit to a comparison with any European manufactory.

Mr. Henry Erben is deserving the highest honor that you or any
similar institution can confer on him.

(Signed,) GEORGE LODER, Organist of Grace Church.

HENRY C. TIMM, " of the Church of the Mes-
siah.
H. W. GREATOREX, " of St. Paul's Church.
WILLIAM A. KING, " St. Peter's Church.
U. C. HILL, President of the Philharmonic Society,

Note. — Dr. Hodges, the organist of Trinity Church, was, by the contract of the
-church with Mr. Erben, to plan the instrument; and the several payments by instal-
ments to Mr. Erben, were not to be paid unless by the approbation of Dr. Hodges,
as the building of the organ progressed.

REPORT

Of he committee on Roads and Bridges.

On Bishop's Railroad Bridge.

Of Mr. Bishop's Railroad Bridge, the committee are of opinion
•that Mr. Bishop has introduced a principle in a great degree ne\r
in its application to bridges, and which will be attended with econ-
omy and other advantages; and they therefore consider his bridge
entitled to a favorable notice on the part of the Institute.

On Rider''s Iron Railroad Bridge.

Of Mr. Rider's Iron Railroad Bridge, the committee would say,
that in their opinion it is of great importance that railroad bridges
should be constructed of a less destructible material than wood, and
that every effort to obtain that result, is entitled to encouragement.
Mr. Rider, in his plan has aimed to effect this object, by a combina-
tion of wrought and cast iron, whereby with a limited amount of
material the adequate strength is to be obtained. The committee
think favorably of the combination, and that for bridges of not too
large span, believe that his plan will be found useful; and they
therefore recommend a favorable notice on the part of the Institute.

The Russ Pavement.

On the Russ Pavement, the committee are of the opinion that the
public are under great obligations to Mr. Horace P. Russ, lor the
great attention which he has given to the subject of pavements, and
for the enterprise and care with which he has brought into use his
pavement in our great thoroughfare, Broadway, to a sufficient extent
to enable the public to appreciate its value, and for trial to test its
durability. As that trial is now going on, and as the effect of a
winter and spring can soon be appealed to, the committee deem
unnecessary an expression of opinion as to its durability; but they

[Assembly, No. 151.] 13

194 [ASSKMKLY

would be p]« asod if (he Institute would express in a more suitable
way, its sense of the service rendered the j)ublic by Mr, Russ, in
what he has done towards an improvement in the pavement of our
streets.

(Signed,) HORATIO AI.LEN,
JNO. 13 JERVIS,
JOHN D. WARD,

Committee.

Mode of Constructing the Russ Pavement.

When the subsoil is jrraded and ready, a quantity of granite or
other mason or quarry chips, each from idur to six or eight inches in
diameter, and about half that thickness, are to be Iniil with the flat-
test side upwards, and rammed down flush with the gjading, so as to
form an open heading or partial pavement foundation for the next
part of the work. This is to be proceeded in as follows:

The positions of the sewers, pipes and branches are defined, and
metal or wood fiaraes, thicker at the bottom than the top, laid so as
to circumscribe a space or spaces, forming a panel or panels over
each sewer pipe and branch beneath, and may be made of sound
wood, though common cast iron, or iron-str,ne pottery, burnt earth, or
any other fit material mny be used for the frame pieces. Then a pro-
per set of open wooden, shallow vats are to be prepared, for mixing
in them what is now well known by the technic«^l name of ^^concrete,^^
namely, a mixture of mnsons' chips, bro en stones, hydraulic cement,
clean sand, (not salt beach sand,) and fresh water, in such proportions
as the quality of the cement will require to form a sound foundation
above the subsoil, that will in a short time become an artificial flag
or slab of rock about eight inches thick, to bear the pavements above;
but before the mixture is placed into the panels or sections formed
by the frames; those panels that, may hereafter have to be lifted
out for access to the parts beneath, are to have bars of iron laid into
them, forming crosses with the holes in them, through which they
are to be united by an eye bolt with a ring in (he head of each bolt,,
and in the larger panels two or more of these sets of bars, bolts
and rings may be used, while on the smaller panels one will be suf-
ficient. The bolts employed lor these purposes may be of a small
extra length. that will find a place in the subsoil, and a countersink
in the f;;ce of the concrete is (o receive the ring. In (his way, on
applying power to raise the pane!, the ring will lift clear of the face
"without breakage or injury to the concrete. Then the concrete

No. 151.] 195

is to be filled in and consolidated, after which it may be lifted out
of any panel or section as may be needed, by sheers or derricks
placed above, with tackels hooked into the rings in the panels; the
inverted wedge formed portions of the frames, allowing each panel
of cement to be freely lifted out and placed on one side, while ac-
cess is needed to the parts beneath, and receiving the panel of ce-
ment in replacement again when the access beneath is no longer
needed.

The gutter stones, curb-stones and flagging of the sidewalks may
all be laid on panelled and divided sections of concrete in the
same manner, and with the same advantages and effects.

When the concrete foundation is fully consolidated, a pavement of
granite or sienite stone blocks, averaging about ten or twelve inches ,
long, four or five inches wide, and a nearly equal depth of about ten
inches, are to be carefully laid to an even surface, commencing so as
to form (he ranges of stones into lozenge formed divisions, by which
the edges are presented diagonally to ^he wheel tires of carriages,
or to any other passing weight. The stone over the centre of each
section or panel is to have two countersunk holes to receive an in-
serted lewis by which it may be lifted out, so as to furnish the com-
mencement of a removal to obtain access to the panel beneath. This
stone should only be set in clean sand, and all the rest of the stones are
to be covered with sand that must be well washed into the interstices be-
tween the stones, and then consolidated by a portion of loose grout-
ing, that is, hydraulic cement in a sufficient quantity of water to
run freely into the sand and harden between the stones.

The formation of the pavements in diagonal lines with the street,
is to be commenced and followed up by placing the first stone of
each range so that the side shall form an abutment and tie for the
head or fore-end of the first stone in the next range.

The dimensions of the panels or sections and of the paving stones
used, may be varied as required.

The firm of Messrs. Russ & Reid, proprietors of the Richmond
Granite Quarry, offer to the corporation of the city of New-York,
to pave Broadway on the foregoing plan, at the rate of five dollars
per square yard.

KEPORTS

Of Special Committees of the American Institute.

On Cajii. G. W. Taylor^ s Marine Camels, for lightening vessels over
bars, and off shore, when aground.

This invention consists of a series of cylindrical India rubber ca-
mels, five feet in length, and six in diameter. These camels are
composed of Goodyear's metallic gum elastic, or vulcanized India
rubber. This article is not affected by heat or cold,\vhich adds much
to the strength and durability of the apparatus. The air-chamber,
or interior of the camel is composed of two thicknesses of the
strongest canvass, heavily coated with the composition alluded to.
Outside of this is a covering of duck, somewhat smaller in diameter
than the air-chamber, in order that the latter may not sustain the
whole pressure when inflated. Externally to these is an ingenious
net-work of ropes, three-quarters of an inch in circumference, which
comes to a focus upon one side, like the meridian lines upon a globe.
Each of these ropes will sustain the weight of 700 pounds. At the
point where they unite, they are attached to a ring; through this
ring a five inch rope is passed, which, after being carried under the
vessel is made fast to a stancheon on deck. The hose by which
these are inflated is of the same material as the camels, than which
nothing can be neater or better adapted to the purpose. These, when
properly applied to the vessel, form a perfect cylinder, the end of
one camel fitting to the next beyond. The forward one is adapted
to the shape of the vessel for reasons obvious.

We believe them fully competent to raise a merchantman of the
largest size, or ship of the line, and to float them over bars with
about two-thirds of their usual draft, not impeding their progress
through the water more than the same additional breadth of beam.
One thing which adds materially to the value of this invention is, the
simplicity of its arrangement, and the facility with which it may
be t.pplied in rough weather. They are inflated ."simultaneously by
means of a force pump; the air passing through a large hose which
communicates through the medium of T-coiiplirigs with each camel.

No. 151.] 197

Each of these couplings are provided with stop-cocks to cut off the
communication in case of rupture.

The committee were highly gratified with the experiment this
afternoon, and consider the value of the invention as completely set-
tled. The time consumed in adjusting the apparatus under the ves-
sel was a minute and a half to each camel; two of them were infla-
ted in one minute, as timed by the committee. The vessel, measur-
ing 100 tons, was lifted bodily two feet out of the water by means
of twelve camels, which was equivalent to being lightened from
thirty to thirty-five tons. The committee regard the invention as ha-
ving an important bearing upon the commercial world, inasmuch as
it will open a communication with those ports and places which are
now unapproachable on account of bars, shoals, &c.

Another thing not to be forgotten in estimating the value of Capt.
Taylor's apparatus, and upon which too much stress cannot be laid,
is this: These camels, if placed in the hold of vessels and inflated,
are a perfect safe-guard in case of storms at sea; as it is utterly im-
possible for them to sink while they are thus arranged. If the ves-
sel is dashed in pieces, they still offer the means of escape to the
passengers and crew. What an attainment — and what an important
desideratum for all those who "go down to the sea in ships," and
trust themselves and property upon that treacherous element. This is
something which the far-famed " Humane Society" never thought of;
or if they did, neglected to put in operation, which last supposi-
tion we are not quite ready to believe.

The committee furthermore consider the introduction of the inven-
tion very opportune in relation to our affairs with Mexico; opening
many important Mexican ports to our Navy which are inaccessible
without its intervention. Capt. Taylor has done himself much cre-
dit by this discovery, and the promptitude with which he has brought
it forward at this crisis, and we do heartily commend him to the
commercial world, and the favorable consideration of our govern-
ment.

(Signed) ADOxNIRAM CHANDLER,

CHAS. W. CHAUNCEY, U. S. N. •
ROBERT LAWRENCE,
MARTIN E. THOMPSON,
T. B. WAKE MAN.
J\reu}-York, October 24th, 1846.

REPORT

Of the coirimitico ap;iniiite<l (o pxnminp tlio G is Works
o! tlio ■Maiiliattaii Gas higUt Coiripai>y.

The large new tank hnnse is 188 feet in length, and 92 feet in
•width, and 47 feet in height. The roof has a span of 92 feet. The
tie beams are prevented from sinking by a longitudinal diamond
shaped truj^. This buihling contains two tanks, each 84| feet in
diameter, and 20 feet deep, and each capable of holding 860,000
gallons. The iron gas holder nearly finished, is 83 feet in diameter,
and 41 feet in height, and will contain 216,000 cubic feet of gas ;
this is called a telescope gasometer, from being made in two parts,
the upper part or joint being of a less diameter than the lower joint,
and arranged with a cup at the bottom rim, into which fits a corres-
ponding cup inverted on the upper lim of the lower joint. Upon
the gas holdeis being filled, the upper joint first rises, and as it
emerges from the water of the tank, the cup at the bottom rim rises
filled with water, hooks into the inverted cup of the lower joint, and
in this way makes a water-sealed joint. The advantage of this kind
of gasometer is, that capacity is gained by heighth, instead of dia-
meter, an object of importance where the ground is very valuable.

The lightness of the gas holder requires but small counter balances.
It is so well adjusted that its own weight affords neai ly the requisite
regular pressuie to the tfHuent gas to obtain a good light at the
burneis.

The retort house,, which was next submitted to the examination of
the comuiittee, by Mr. David C. Coldin, the president ofthecom[)a-
ny, is 97 feel long, and 51| wide, and is to be covered with an iron
rcof. a I art of which is nearly completed. The construction of this
roof shovvs much aitistieal skill in the general dispo>ilion of its com-
ponent parts, giving great btrtngth, lightnesj and du ability. The

No. 151.] 199

house contains 10 double beds of retorts, worked by 20 furna^'es, and
is capable of heating and keepin:^ in action 60 retorts. 'I'he g^eneral
construclion of these retorts gives ample evidence of the superior talent
of the artisan. A very valuable improvement is introduceil, in set-
ting these retorts, by the chief engineer of the company, Mr. Charles
Rooine, to whom great credit is due, for his general design and exe-
cution of the whole of these extensive works; and also to William
H. Smith, archite. t and carpenter, Benjamin M. Claik, mason, Jacob
Steinerl, fiamer, and Messrs. Mott and Ayers, constructors of the iron
roof.

The committee being desirous of not overlooking true merit in any
of tlie laboring classes of society, mention with pleasure the fact, as
they are intormed. that the numerous laborers employed in the erec-
tion of these works, have distinguished themselves for sobriety, in-
dustry, and orilerly conduct.

The committee are highly gratified t'> witness the great display of
workmanship, in the cf)nhtruction of these works, by .'Imericins,
showing the very advanceil state of the mechanic arts in this country,
and that the whole- establishment deserves to be ranked among the
inost magnificent and useful institutions in the United States.

(Signed,) ROBERT LAWRENCE,

GEO. F HOPKTNS,
WM. R. COOKE,
N. BUSS.
JVcw-York, October, 1846.

REPORT

Of the committee of Arts and Sciences of the American
Institute, on the model of a wooden bridge, submitted
by Lowman Gay, of Chili, Monroe county, N. Y.

The committee, after an examination of the model and an investi-
gation of the principles on which its strength is founded, are of opi-
nion that Mr. Gay has reduced the method of spanning large openings
by frames of timber, so combined as to remove all lateral thrust, to
the utmost simplicity of %vhich it is capable. In the use of this plan
therefore, all costly and heavy abutments are rendered unnecessary,
while the combination of pieces in the frame presents fewer parts,
and those more skilfully adapted to each other and to the .strain to
which they are subjected, than in any other plan which has come to
their knowledge. The mode of combination of the parts composed
of wood, aided by a series of iron rods, appears to render the struc-
ture incapable of flexure, until its limit of fracture is approached,
while, in consequence of the lightness of the structure, that limit will,
in large spans, when the weight of the arch itself is the most impor-
tant disturbing agent, be removed far beyond that of other analogous
plans. They are, in consequence, of opinion, that the frame exhibi-
ted by Mr. Gay will be capable of spanning with safety, openings of
larger extent than any other with which they are acquainted, and of
spanning openings of a given extent, at a less cost of material and
workmanship.

By order of the committee,

JAS. RENWICK, Chairman.
American Institute ^ June 10th, 1846.

No. 151.] 201

IMPROVED FAN MILL.

Junction, Rensselaer Co., Jfov. 23, 1846.

Mr. T. B. Wakeman — Yours of Nov. 1st, informing us that we
were awarded the first premium of a silver medal, at the late Fair of
the American Institute, for the best fan mill, has been duly received.
The required description may be given in a few words.

The mill is the ordinary size and construction, as to the exterior ;
the interior is a new improvement. It is used to clean all sorts of
grain and seed raised in this country. Its cost is, for No. 1, with 7
sieves, 16 by 19 inches, $21; up to $27, for size No. 4, with 7
sieves, 19 by 22 inches.

They are as durable as cotton machinery, with the same care; easy
to be repaired. The amount of labor saved is one-half, as it cleans
all kinds of grain and seed clean with one operation. It is the only
mill known to the inventor, that will take cockle, chess, and smut
from wheat, at the same time it is chaffed.

Your ob't servants,

J. T. GRANT & Co»

MANUFACTURE OF UNROTTED HEMP.

Louisville, February 23, 1847.

Dear Sir — You made an inquiry of me, some time since, in rela-
tion to the process of bleaching flax or hemp; believing now, that
the necessity of doing so, in the staple, can be obviated, or is render-
ed unnecessary, I herewith inclose a sample of unrotted hemp, to es-
tablish the fact.

I have been engaged with others, for some years, in perfecting
machinery that would break and clean unrotted hemp, feeling con-
vinced that if the article could be so obtained, it v.'Ould prove in
cordage, or fabrics, much stronger than that obtained by the uncer-
tain process of either dew or water rotting.

You will find, on examination of the sample herewith sent of un-
rotted hemp, that it has the singular property of being drawn into a
very fine sliver, or fibre, this you can prove, by taking hold of the
two ends of the sample, and drawing them until the elongation com-

202 [Assembly

mences; you can then continue to draw tliem until the reduction
comes down to almost a single fibre. Tliis peculiar property belongs
to unrotted hemp alone; and can be accounted for by the starch or
g-um of the fibre being in a crude or undissolved state. In devv rot-
ted or water rotted hemp, the starch or gum is dissolved and forms a
paste, \y\ucb, when dry, cements the fibres together, and prevents their
free passage in the drawing frame, unless cut down very fine on the
hackle.

By spinning the unrotted hemp info fine yarns, through the simple
process of boiling them in soap and water, would give them the ap-
pearance of half-bleached linen, and they would be found sufficiently
white for the best canvass, made or useil in this country or Europe.
Surely, such canvass would be found much stronger than that requir-
ing an aciil in the bleaching process, or that made from decayed or
decaying hemp.

I am convinced that the labor and loss consequent in the prepara-
tion by hackling of ordinary h. mp, can be entirely avoided by the use
of the article we are now prepaiing; for I believe, that with proper
drawing frames, it can be drawn down to a cambric thread, without
the intervention of a hackle tooth.

I trust the aliove statement may so far interest the members of the
Institute, as to bring their minds to a considerati m of the importance
of this staple to our cou:itry, for surely, if my views arc correct, no-
thing can arrest the proirress of its manufacture, until it displaces, in
a great manner, the consumption of cotton in all heavy fabrics at
leiist. It is lurther interesting to know, that the article can be grown
by free labor, and can be produced in every free State in the Union.
Yours, respectfully,

JAMES ANDERSON.

T. B. Wakeman, Esq.

NEWELL'S PARAUTOPTIC B/\NK LOCK.

The committee of the American Institute, 1o whom was referred the
examination of Newell's parautoptic bank lock, report:

That they have given the subject referred to them a careful and at-
tentive investigation, and have received full and complete explana-
tions from the inventor.

No. 151.] 203

They have remarkf tl in the lock a number of important advantages,
and in particular very great improvements upon the permutation lock
formerly submitteil by him to the American Institute. Thus, while it
retains all the advantages of the permutation priiiciple,combine(l with
the property that the act of locking sets the slides to the particular
arrangement of the bits in the skeleton key, the parts thus set are
completely screened from observation, from being reached by false in-
struments, or from being injured by any violence not sufficient to
break the lock to pieces.

Having, in the course of their inquiries, examined the different ex-
isting modes in •vhich locks may be picked, forced, or opened by false
keys, the coiumittee have come to the conclusion, that the parautoptic
lock cannot be opened by any ot the methods now practiced, unless
by a person in possession of the key by which it was locked, in the
exact form of combination in which it was used for the purpose, or
in the almost impossible case of the bits being adjusted to the ske-
leton key by accident in that very form. As the chances of such
accidental combination range, according to the number of moveable
bits, from several thousands to several millions, to one, the commit-
tee do not consider that so small a chance of success would ever lead
to an attempt to profit by it.

In conclusion, the committee feel warranted in expressing the
opmion that, unless methods hitherto unknown or imagined, should
be contrived for the specific object, the lock in question may be con-
sidered as affording entire and absolute security.

THOS. W HARVEY,
J AS. REN WICK.
American Institute, July llh, lSi6.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE.

REPORT
On Browne's Trees of America.

The committee to whom this volume was referred, availed itself of
the opinions of learned citizens, as well as of its own judgment in
deciding to recommend the work, not only to the Institute for a pre-
mium, but to the public, and the committee also considered the
length of time, the labor and expense, the extensive travel and stu-
dious researches of the author.

The clear and perspicuous manner in which the subjects are treat-
ed, the decided utility of the work, and its mechanical execution,
constitute strong recommendations.

This book requires also a supplement which the public press has
anticipated as requisite to its perfection; that is, a full account of
all the remaining trees and shrubs of America, treated in conformity
with the plan already adopted in the published work.

This book deserves to find a place in all the libraries of the coun-
try, including those of all our colleges, academies, and district
schools, and for our State and county agricultural societies; and it
■will constitute a raluable premium to be given to the successful com-
petitors in all our agricultural fairs, j

H. MEIGS, Chairman.

REPORT

Of the Committee on Dr. Ruschenberger's Elements of

Geology.

The following report upon the Elements of Geology, prepared for
the use of schools, &c., by W. S. W. Ruschenberger, M. D. Sur-
geon in the U. S. Navy, is respectfully submitted.

This small volume of 235 pages contains a very accurate and com-
prehensive detail of the system now received among learned geolo-
gists, and is also illustrated by numerous good drawings of the seve-
ral objects most deserving of attention. And it merits public notice
for the clear explanations given of the meaning of technical terms,
which the learned geologist necessarily employs, but which to the
beginner, form a serious difficulty. By these explanations the system
is rendered entirely easy to the minds of even very young readers.

He shows, first, the order of the position of the sea, sedimentary
formations and plutonic rocks, the latter being the basis and the
other two over it.

He then states the evidence, that the basis called the first Geolo-
gical Epoch — is the result of the power of heat, therefore could not,
and does not Qontain any vegetable or animal whatever.

Then the second Epoch, called transition. This layer or stratum
contains the first specimens of animal and vegetable life, few in num-
ber and kinds; at this epoch the sea covered the greatest part of our
globe; very few vertebrated (back bone) animals are found in it.

Third Epoch. — This is called the secondary formation, (the trans-
ition being the primary,) succeeding it after a long period of quiet
repose. In this third period, the strata of sandstone, of congloiu -

2C6 [Assembly

rate, (a mixture of pieces of rocks, pebbles cemented together by
mineral mailer,) clay, calcareous rock^, &c., and masses of coal are
found. In these coal beds are found distinct remains of the peculiar
vegetables of that period, and in this period remains also of many
fishes.

Fourth Epoch. — Now we find the immense ma^s of vegetation
of the third period have become coal, and new sedimentary strata
are found; and now begins a curious race of reptiles; fishes re-
sembling those of our period in some respects. Tracks, supposed to
be of large birds; enormous frogs, and an increased variety of shells,
and more complex vegetable growth.

Fiflh Epo:h. — Up to this period the earth contains but few and
inferior animals. B.t in this period appeared animals remarkable
for size and figure, and in vast numbers; some of the lizard kind of
sixty feet in length; one lizard with wings, (the Pterodactyl,) and
remains of a species of whale; plants hearing cones; huge reeds; and
more perfect shell fish.

Sixth Epoch. — The formation of chalk; more huge lizards.

Seventh Epoch. — Called also the tertiary or third formation, show-
ing the arrangement to be next in order after chalk. Now the seas
are much less extensive than before. This teitiary formation is di-
vided into three groups, the oliler, the middle, and the newer, which
Mr. Lyell calls, Eocene, the first dawn of existing species; Miocene^
fewer recent than extinct species; Pliocene, more recent than extinct
species.

In this seventh formation, we find large quadrupeds similar to the
Tapier and the Rhinnsceros; they are the Anaplotherium and Pale-
otherium, Mastodon, Dinotherium; the structure of wood; leaves si-
milar to modern Elms, and the Palms; caves in rocks, containing
bones of Bear, Hyena, Wolf, Dog kind, hairy Elephants, Cougar
and Cat kind. Megatherium, an animal eighteen feet long and nine
feet high; Stag, Horse, Elephant. The boulders or erratic rocks;
deep alluviums, full of bones of large thick skinned animals, (Pa-
chydermata); no human bones in any of these seven formations, nor
any mark whatever of the existence of man.

Eighth Epoch. — The modern formation, since the last grand con-
Tulsion of eartk.

No. 151.] 207

Then the earthquakes; atmospheric cfFects on the earlh and its
surface; coral works; upheaved strata; coal measures thus displaced;
the injection of fused granite into oAer rocks; metalliferous veins;
the relative ages of the convulsions of the earth.

Dr. Ruschenberger has in this little volume, which is sold for fifty
cents, given a just summary of a mass of investigation contained in
books which would cost a large sum of money to purchase and some
months to read, lie has added to it an explanation of all the hard
tcords used.

Your committee with much pleasure recommend this highly valu-
able book to the attention of those who conduct our schools, acade-
mies, colleges, &c., as a work excelently calculated to give the first
outlines of the very important study of geology to students. Nor
do we hesitate to say that all men, except the learned geologists
alone, will feel after its perusal, that they have received a great re-
ward for a very small expense of time and money.

(Signed,) J AS. J. MAPES,

February 4th, 1846.

REPORT

On Dr. Ruschenberger's Elements of Ornitholog-y.

I have received the " Elements of Ornithology," prepared for the
use of schools and colleges, by W. S. W. Ruschenbergcr, M. D.,
and have read the work in compliance with the request of the
American Institute, that I should examine and report upon it. I
have great pleasure in highly recommending it. I consider the pre-
sent the very best introduction to that science that I have ever seen,
and I might add as full praise to the other works of the series of
" Ruschenberger's books of Natural History," as far as I am acquain-
ted with the subjects they relate to.

Dr. Ruschenberger has, in giving this series to the public, rendered
a benefit to all seekers after science, as that old and young may pro-
fit by the well arranged and valuable information these volumes
contain.

(Signed,)
February m, 1846.

JOHN J. AUDUBON.

OFFICIAL PROCEEDINGS

Of the National Convention of Farmers, Gardeners, and
Silk Culturists, held on the 12th, 13th and 16th days
of October, 1846, in connection with the 19th Annual
Fair of the American Institute.

JVew-York, October 12, 1846.

In pursuance of" the following Circular, addressed to farmers, gar-
deners and silk culturists throughout the United States, by the mana-
gers of the 19th Annual Fair of the American Institute, the Con-
vention assembled this morning at Mechanics Hall, 472 Broadway,
New- York.

CIRCULAR.

Sir — One of the most important arrangements embraced in this
anniversary celebration of American arts and industry, is the Con-
vention of Farmers, Gardeners, and Silk Culturists, which meet at
Mechanics Hall, 472 Broadway, at 11 o'clock, on Monday, the 12th
of October, 1846. It is called in conformity to resolutions of pre-
vious agricultural conventions, held during; the Annual Fairs of this
Institute.

It is deemed essential that this great interest should have some
general system of action, in order to produce concert in such lead-
ing measures as, on consultation and deliberation, may be viewed,
by an extensive representation of agriculturists and their friends,
expedient. The present condition of agriculture and horticulture,
the latest and most useful improvements that have been devised and
adopted in different sections of our country, should be brought be-
fore this Convention, with suggestion of new ones.

The influence of the tariffs, and other regulations of foreign na-
tions on our domestic labor, on the character, comforts, 'independence
[Assembly, No. 151.] 14

210 [Assembly

and prosperity of our agricultural population, will be considered as
legitimate subjects of discussion.

A home department of agriculture, so earnestly recommended by
Washington, and so long neglected, should obtain the early attention
of this Convention, and effective measures taken to press it upon the
consideration of the national legislature early at its next session.

The addition of another great staple to our country's resources,
constantly in demand in all the great markets of the world, and cal--
culated to produce a wholesome influence in our balances of trade
with other nations, may be realized in silk. The means of removing
the obstacles to its rapid growth, by suitable encouragement to sus-
tain it in its, infancy against foreign competition, and at the same
time promote its home manufacture, a sure and healthy mode of sti-
mulating its extended growth, afford subjects that demand the best
reflections of our wisest political economists. Nature has fitted
America for a great silk country. Capital, labor and skill, judi-
ciously directed and applied, cannot fail soon to place it high on
the catalogue of our richest staples.

As friends of agriculture and horticulture, and of the silk culture
in particular, whether engaged directly or indirectly in these im-
portant branches of industry or not, we respectfully invite you to
come with your friends to the celebration, and we ask you to take
part in the deliberations of the Convention.

We will promise you rich treats in our cattle shows, plowing ex-
hibitions, displays of the productions of the farm and garden in un-
surpassed vegetables, fruits and flowers, and the finest specimens of
the factory and workshop in almost numberless variety. In the va-
rious addresses, from time to time during the fair, from some of our
most distinguished scholars and statesmen, will be furnished an al-
most continued feast of reason for those who seek intellectual enjoy-
ment. Every American citizen has a most noble duty to perform on
this great continent where Heaven has placed us. We are to make
it, if possible, a greater scene of earthly happiness than has ever
yet been vouchsafed to mankind. Let us do every thing to beautify,
to enrich it, and to render it in civilization and the arts the admired
of all nations.

On behalf of the Managers,

T. B. WAKEMAN,

Corresponding Secretary.

No. 151.J 211

P. S. The " Van Schaick Prcmiura^' of 1000 dollars, generous-
ly given by Myndert Van Schaick, Esq., of this city, to be bestow-
ed by the American Institute in premiums of $100, for ten succes-
sive years, will be awarded as follows:

For the best piece of silk stuff, 27 inches in width and 60 yards
in length, manufactured in the United States within the year, from
native silk, $50.

For the best and greatest quantity of American silk, uniformly
reeled, not less than 20 pounds, $20.

For the best sewings, of any color, made entirely from American
silk, not less than 10 lbs., $10.

For the best peanut cocoons, not less than one bushel, $10. And
to each of the successful competitors the " Van Schaick Medal."
Other premiums on silk will be bestowed, as usual, by the Institute.
All silk culturists and manufacturers are invited to send their speci-
mens as early as the 1st, 2d or 3d of October.

There were many delegates from other states, and a large number
from New-York in attendance.

On motion. Gen. H. A. S. Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was ap-
pointed temporary Chairman, and Mr. D. J. Browne was chosen
Secretary, pro tempore.

On motion of Col. Clark, a committee, consisting of Messrs. Law-
rence, Wakeman and Meigs, was appointed to nominate officers for
the Convention.

By request, the names of delegates present were handed to the
secretary.

During the absence of this committee, the chairman.
Gen. Dearborn, rose and said, " I feel much honored by the sta-
tion in which you have placed me. It is no ordinary compliment to
be selected to preside over so important a body as this Convention.
I felt that I was especially honored when I entered this hall, devo-
ted as it is to the improvement and elevation of American mechan-
ics. I cannot but feel proud of the country and city whose laboring
men enjoy such advantages; here the poor apprentice has the know-
ledge of the past and of the present within his reach; books and
lectures are in his hands and before his mind. It is pnly within the

212 [Assembly

last half century that philosophy has descended from lofty college
halls to dwell with the poor mechanic. A few years since her ines-
timable treasures were locked up in high priced books, or more ef-
fectually shut out from the common scholar by being written in the
Latin and Greek languages. It is within our day that that great
dictionary of nature, Newton's Principia, was first translated from
its original Latin into English. When Nathaniel Bowditch, one of
the greatest men in this country, was a poor boy, he got hold of a
long desired copy of the Principia. To his great disappointment, it
was written in Latin, of which he \\-as perfectly ignorant. Undis-
mayed by the gloomy prospect, he procured a Latin dictionary and,
without grammar or lessons, labored through the whole of Newton's
work; read understandingly the immutable laws of nature there laid
down; and after that he could read any Latin book. Thus did our
indomitable American boy toil up the hill of science, and as an as-
tronomer ranked before his death next the great La Place. When
La Place began to publish his remarkable work ' Mechanique Ce-
leste,' the Edinburgh professors said there were not more than nine
men in England who could read it understanding-ly. What did our
Bowditch do ? He not only read it, but translated it into English,
and gave us, pari passu with the author, a complete version of that
voluminous work. He corresponded with La Place and other learn-
ed men of Europe continually, and the last work that he performed
on his sick bed, was to correct the last proof sheets of La Place's
mighty work, to Avhich he had added several thousand valuable notes
and illustrations. He went to his grave the first astronomer in
America, almost the first in the world. This was but one specimen
of the versatility of his talent; this was what a poor boy could do,
and what many a boy of this city can do by the aid of such libra-
ries and halls as they have here. I therefore, feel proud to stand in
Mechanics Hall, devoted as it is to the mechanic and scientific in-
terests. But this is a Convention of farmers, gardeners and silk cul-
turists, each interest represented by men prominent in their respect-
ive vocations." General D. rapidly sketched the early history of ag-
riculture, spoke of the quadrupeds, birds and insects made subject to
man, of which the dog only had become his friend; of the settlement
of new lands, the importance of corn and wine, the value of silks,
&c., &c.

The committee to nominate officers, returned and reported as fol-
lows: For President, H. A. S. Dearborn, of Roxbury, Mass.; for
Vice Presidents, John Ogden, of Newark, N. J., and A. P. Byram,

No. 151.] 213

of Kentucky; for Secretaries, T. C. Munn, of Orange, N. J., and D.
J. Browne of Brooklyn, Long Island.

On motion, the report was accepted and the officers appointed.

On motion of Mr. T. B. Wakeman, Dr. Undsrhill, of Westchester
county, N. Y., Dr. L. A. Smith, of Essex county, N. J., Jenison G.
Ward, of Montgomery county, N. Y., Henry Meigs, of New-York
city, and Dr. H. A. Field, of Dutchess county, N. Y., were appointed a
committee to prepare business for the action of the Convention.

Mr. James Darrach, of Orange county, N. Y., read a memorial on
the subject of agricultural education, addressed to the national con-
vention of farmers, gardeners and silk culturists, held in the city of
New-York, at the call of the American Institute, October 12, 1846.

Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Convention: —

By resolution and appointment of an association of farmers, citi-
zens of Orange county, in this State, for the promotion of agricultu-
ral education, James Darrach, Samuel Wait, jr., and Lindley Mur-
ray Ferris, appear to present the following memorial, which we beg
leave now to submit: —

The necessity for any education grows out of the duties which
man has to perform and the exigencies to which he is subject in
their performance. Their peculiar character determines its extent.
Omitting the equal constant relative ones of social life, the unequal
and varying duties and exigencies of the arts and professions require
an unequal extent and varying character of education. He that pur-
sues an art whose materials are simple and always under like condi-
tions, requires a less extent of education than he who pursues an art
whose materials are complex and under varying conditions; and thus
in proportion to that complexity and range of conditions.

Applying these simple truths to the farmer, we arrive at once to
the most cogent proof that he requires an extent of education unsur-
passed by any other profession. Soil, gaseous compounds and their
products, his materials, are the most complex. Light, heat, electri-
city, moisture, his conditions, are the most susceptible and variable;
whilst both materials and conditions are alike betimes subjects and
lords of that inscrutable power, vitality.

It is not now necessary to draw upon the other fruit/ul sources of
evidence to establish the necessity which the farmer has for a large

214 [Assembly

extent of knowledge in science. Strange as it may appear, it is not
more untrue that this necessity is less felt than in any other profes-
sion. It is not only not acknowledged by the farmer, but an unnatu-
ral antagonism exists between him and science. Sneering at " book
farming," as he denominates science, he rejects it as his guide, eith-
er entire or in part. The son destined to merchandize, mechanics,
or a learned profession, enjoys from his liberal bounty the advantage
of the schools M'hich they have established; while that one whose
destiny is to breathe the health-giving fragrance of the freshly-turn-
ed sod, graduates at the district school.

Laudable attempts have been made to destroy this antagonism.
Writers have divested science of her peculiar and appropriate lan-
guage, clothed her reasonings in more familiar phrase, displayed her
beauties and proclaimed her triumphs. The weekly agricultural co-
lumn of the country newspapers, the twenty-seven agricultural peri-
odicals issued in nineteen different States, agricultural societies and
farmers' clubs, by joint diffusion of the knowledge of results obtain-
ed, have struck it a mighty blow. It has been weakened but not de-
stroyed! It has been cowed into silence! but it still lives, though
seldom manifested other than by positive or negative action. Until
it is rooted up and cast into the fire of public shame, our American
agriculture will be slow in its improvements, and her interests long
remain the prey of the demagogue and the neglect of our legisla-
tures.

Can it be destroyed? It can! To accomplish this good end, cor-
rect and definite views of an agricultural education must be obtained
and diffused, the institutions for affording such education established
and sustained.

Those who have not paid attention to prevailing notions of an
agricultural education, may not be aware how incongruous, crude and
indefinite is their character. To give a just impression, it will not
be necessary to bring specimens for description from their multitu-
dinous species, genera and orders. They may be arranged under two
classes. The classic description of one is, that all the professional
education a farmer needs can be only acquired at the tail of the plow,
the nib of the scythe and the staff of the flail. Of the other, that
the pursuits of the laboratory, and the studies of the museum are
the only and sufficient requisites. Into one or the other of these the
individuals of the mass may be resolved. Illustrations to the Con-
vention of their error is deemed useless. To those possessing any

No. 151.] 216

just views of the requirements of agriculture they are both evidently
wrong. For it may be asked, if they are wrong, what are right
notions?

In answer we would reply, we have come to this convention to
ask of its wisdom an answer to that question, and also of its adjunct.
By what mode shall facilities for the attainment of an agricultural
education be offered?

In asking these questions, however, it becomes us to state tbe views
at which the association we represent has arrived, after a careful ex-
amination of the character and modes by which a professional edu-
cation is obtained in other arts and professions, and otherwise.

In commerce, in mechanics, in engineering, in teaching, in law,
in medicine, in theology, it was found to be contemporaneous in-
struction in the practice and sciences belonging to each, subsequent
to a proper preparative course of elementary and disciplinary edu-
cation.

The application of this universally adopted principle is met at the
outset with a difficulty which at first seems insuperable. It exists in
difference of circumstances. The future merchants and mechanics
are sufficiently numerous in large villages and cities to sustain schools
and lectures, upon which they could attend during intervals of re-
lease from practical duties. The future divines, while enjoying in-
struction at their seminaries, find opportunities to practice at the so-
cifd meetings of the pious as well as in the exercise of their schools.
The future lawyers, while fulfilling the duties of the office, embrace
the exercises of their courts and the fruitful advantages of the hall
of justice. The future physicians, gathered at their colleges, collect
and study the precepts, principles and experience of their profession,
v/hilst they enjoy the clinics of their private instructors or a hospital.
The future farmers have no such advantages. Their practical in-
struction requires the farm and the farmer. Their theoretic the in-
structor in agricultural science. There is no common centre where
the expense of this education could be divided among a company of
fellow students.

Upon this view of the difference of circumstances, the plan of
gathering a sufficient number for the support of scientific instruction
upon a single farm was examined and abandoned, it being supposed
upon any ordinary sized farm as insufficient to afford necessary op-

216 [Assembly

portunities for practical education. It seemed impossible to adopt
the principles of contemporaneous instruction, so far as regarded the
union of the theory, economy and practice of farming.

The suggestion at last arose, that in districts where farms were of
moderate size and the farmers generally of superior character, pur-
suing a mixed husbandry, they might be united in an association,
under proper regulations, to receive and become practical instructors,
each to a few young men, in the practical duties and economy of
the farm, who collectively might be able to sustain a school in the
sciences relatino; thereto.

'to

This sufr^estion was carried out last March, in the establishment
of the " Orange County Scientific and Practical Agricultural Insti-
tute," and is more fully illustrated in the following extracts from
their announcement: —

" We, the undersigned, pi esent to the favorable consideration of
the public a short detail of the plan of this Institute, recently orga-
nized by a number of exemplary farmers residing in the same neigh-
borhood, some explanation of which is embodied in the following
extract from the written agreement: —

*' ' I, James Darrach, of the town of Montgomery, county of Or-
ange, and State of New- York, farmer, do hereby covenant and agree
to give to the pupils all necessary scientific instruction in practical
agriculture, by lectures, instructions and examinations, in such way
as will most conduce to advance them in thorough knowledge of all
the theoretic part of the business. And we, whose names are here-
unto subscribed, agree, with said James Darrach, that we, and each
of us, will receive into our families the number of pupils mentioned
opposite our names, and instruct them to the full extent of our pow-
er in all the practical branches of agriculture and the manual opera-
tions of the same, and also watch over their morals and habits, in
the same manner that we would our own children for their permanent
good.'

" The character of this plan presents highly important claims to
the favorable consideration of parents and pupils.

" The difficulty in any course of practical agricultural education^
in institutions where the teachers and scholars occupy and are con-
fined to a single farm, is that nearly the whole practical economy of
the farm, in the house and in the fields, must necessarily be omitted j

No. 151.] 217

and thus the pupil may be taught the art of farming, but those eco-
nomical details which make the business profitable as well as plea-
sant, must afterwards be learned by the expensive teacher' — experi"
ence."

Our plan, on the contrary, places the pupil in the hands of good
practical farmers, whose living and happiness are at stake in the
successful prosecution of their business.

With them, economy and methodical arrangement are necessary
and important elements of success. Consequently this branch of the
business will be taught precisely in the same manner in which it
will have subsequently to be performed by the pupils themselves, if
they should follow the business. While we dwell with confidence
upon the peculiar advantages of these considerations, we offer equal
inducements in regard to scientific instrucHon.

His course of instruction, while it is mainly directed in its appli-
cation to agriculture, will embrace most of the academic studies, so
that a thorough English education may be proceeding at the same
time.

Among the branches which will receive particular attention may
be enumerated the elements of the natural sciences, and the applica-
tion to agriculture, vegetable and animal physiology, mathematics,
natural and moral philosophy.

So far as the experience of six months will enable us to judge, the
only remaining obstacles to complete success, independent of those
arising from want of proper endowments, are such as are common to
any plan to accomplish such education. These are the antagonisms
between the farmer and science, erroneous notions of its nature, and
the opinion that the experience and practice of one district was of
no use in another where a different kind of crop was grown.

A purely professional education of the farmer, consisting not only
in practical skill and all the elements of science, but also in the ap-
plication of its developments to the great phenomena of life, re-
quire the same preparative studies as medicine or any other profes-
sion.

Its own acquirements are of a high character; a knowledge of the
laws and accounts of trade, of the mechanical principles and skilful
use of machinery and implements, the study of vegetable and animal

218 [Assembly

physiology, of rocks, soils, atmosphere, water, the imponderable agents
and decomposing organisms; also their applications, actions and trans-
mutations, under or destitute of vitality. In a word, a knowledge of the
commerce, geoponics, genomia, zoonomia, hydrology, and chemistry
of agriculture, with facility in examining and making their records.
This profession, then, like others, demands the same preparative of
instruction. It is impossible to except anything from the course but
the dead languages; but though these are excepted, they must ever
be deemed as the aids and polish of an education which may be ac-
quired without them.

The general attainments of youth contemplating the pursuits of
agriculture, demand that instructions for their benefit should be both
preparative and professional. The amount of acquirement requisite
for admission to such institutions should be good attainments in the
rudiments of an English education, including a thorough acquaint-
ance with arithmetic, grammar and geography. The age, with rare
exceptions, should not be under fifteen years.

As already remarked, we appear here as delegates to ask your in-
vestigation of the broad subject of agricultural education.

If the views presented, the result of two years' investigation, are
correct, the association we represent would respectfully urge their
sanction by the convention in some suitable manner; but if not, that
such views should be expressed as may be the result of deliberations
due to the importance of the subject.

But whether correct or not, they would further call your attention
to the want of proper institutions, with proper endowments.

The influence ot existing preparative institutions is thrown to-
wards other pursuits, yet there are no means of favor for us as far-
mers. Ancient Yale has just established an agricultural professor-
ship, from which we would fain augur something for the. advance-
ment of agricultural science: other collep^es are examining: the signs
in its firmament.

Theology dots the land with her seminaries, law-schools gather
around the purlieus of our courts; medicine every winter gathers her
1000 students in a sister city, and in fair proportion where clinical
and other instructions are oflfered; commerce and mechanics meet us
on every hand with their libraries, their institutes, and their lectures.

No. 151.] 219

The noble hall in which you are assembled, is dedicated to the latter.
Where are corresponding advantages for our profession? Where is
the professional school for the farmer? We commit no fraud upon
others by using the word profession. Agriculture is a profession.
Its high requirements of science, and such action of the convention
as its interests demand, will ere long entitle it to the appellative of
" learned profession." We repeat the question — Where is the pro-
fessional school for the farmer? Where? Let it be asked aloud, till
the sound of it reaches the south, and west, and north ; till echo rolls
back from the Green and Rocky Mountains, the empty sound. Let
the convention repeat it, and repeat it, till a voice from every State
answering " here," shall drown echo's wearisome reply.

From this State three infant voices have reached our ears. During
last spring the public prints announced that an agricultural school
would be opened in the western part ot this State upon the farm of
Gen Harmon; another in Dutchess county, upon the farm of John
Wilkinson, Esq., and under his care; the third in Orange county, as
has been already noticed. In Franklin College, Tennessee, some at-
tention is paid to agriculture, and it appears by public announce-
ment that James Gowen, Esq., of Philadelphia, has purchased a pro-
perty near his farm at Mount Airy, with the view of establishing an
agricultural college.

It is worthy of remark, that these five, and so far as we are in-
formed, only efforts, have been made by private individuals, with the
exception, perhaps, of the Orange County Institute — -single-handed
enterprise. Of the Orange County Institute it is only proper for us
to say, it is in its earliest stage of growth, now six months old, with
five youths in training. Its fruit cannot be matured so as to have a
reflex on its welfare under several years. Eighteen months hence, it
hopes to present to the friends of American agriculture its first offer-
ing at the shrine. of science united to practical skill. At present,
from the nature of the case, it casts itself upon the public favor,
with no other testimonial than personal references as to character and
qualifications of its instructors. If worthy, we ask for it the nour-
ishing patronage of American agriculture.

But whether we, or our fellow-laborers succeed or fail in our enter-
prize, let not, we pray, the great cause o^ an elevated and libera!
professional education for the farmer, stand still, waiting the issue ot
these feeble efforts. Let its progress be kept onward, and onward,
until the American Farmer shall delight his leisure with the v/ritings

880 [Assembly

of literature and science, be an honored guest within their halls, and.
be ashamed to seek advocates of his and his brethren's interests at
the door of other professions.

We fain hope there will be found in this convention sufficient pa-
triotism, esinit de corps, enterprize and energy, to put this noble in-
terest upon a broad and permanent basis.

All which we respectfully submit.

(Signed,) J DARRACH,

SAMUEL WAIT, Jr.,
LINDLEY M. FERRIS,
In behalf of the Orange County Association of Farmers for the pro-
motion of Agricultural Education.

Mar Walden, Orange Co., JY. Y,OcL 8, 1846.

On motion, the subject was referred to a committee, consisting of
Messrs. Meigs, Underbill and Hyde.

Mr. Meigs moved that a committee be appointed to draw up a me-
morial to Congress, for the establishment of " Washington's Home
Department of Agriculture," — that said committee consist of thir-
teen, and that the number present have power to proceed with busi-
ness, which motion was carried, and the following gentlemen named
as the committee.

Henry Meigs, of New-York, chairman; A. P. Byram, Brandens-
burg, Ky.; Moses B. Coe, Newark, N. J.; Martin Ellsworth, East
Windsor, Conn.; Judge Tiffany, Fultonville, Montgomery Co , N. Y.;
James Darrach, Orange Co., N. Y. ; Wm. J. Gilchrist, Saratoga Co.,
N. Y.; Peter H. Brink, Saugerties, Ulster Co., N. Y.; Jacob D. Van
Winkle, Hudson Co., N. J.; Jennison S. Ward, Gloversville, Fulton
Co., N. Y.; Dr. L. A. Smith, Essex Co., N. J.; Gen. H. A. S.
Dearborn, Roxbury, Mass.; Dr. R. T. Underbill, New-York.

A miscellaneous conversation followed, in which many of the mem-
bers participated, concerning education, an agricultural department
in the general government, value of the dead languages in scientific
education, preparing a memorial to Congress, &c., &.C., the sub-
stance of which will more fully appear in the subsequent reports and
speeches.

On motion, the convention adjourned, to meet at the same place,
at 11 o'clock the day following.

No. 151.] 221

Tuesday, October 13, 1846.

The convention met pursuant to adjournment, Gen. Dearborn in the
chair.

The minutes of the first clay's proceedings were read, and after
some corrections, approved.

Dr. Underhill, from the committee to prepare business, reported in
part as follows: •

1. Letters and communications to be read.

2. The memorial from Orange county concerning education, to be
taken up.

3. Matters pertaining to the establishment of a department of ag-
riculture in the general government, considered.

4. Investigation of the effects of the gases from burning brick
kilns on vegetation.

5. Diseases of the potato.

6. The culture of silk.

7. The culture of native grapes for wine and the table.

There being no communications,

Mr. Meigs, from the committee on Orange county memorial, re-
ported the following preamble and resolutions, which were adopted:

The committee to whom was committed the memorial addressed to
this convention from the Orange County Scientific and Practical Ag-
ricultural Institute, on the nature of a professional agricultural edu-
cation and mode of attaining the same, beg leave to report the fol-
lowing preamble and resolutions as justly expressive of the high in-
terest which they take in agricultural education.

Whereas, The relations of science and practical agriculture are by
their natures, inseparable, and ought to be united in the person of
every American farmer: And whereas, contemporaneous instruction
in science and practice is the true method of accomplishing a useful
agricultural education: And whereas, this cannot be accomplished
except where opportunities for both scientific instruction and full per-
formance of practical duties in the manipulations and economy of
the farm are afforded: And whereas, the memorial commixed to us
presents superior facilities to effect this object, by placing just so many

222 [Assembly

students as can find sufficient profitable employment upon separate
and contiguous farms, with the owners thereof as practical instruct-
ors, while at the same time competent scientific instructions are af-
forded to all by a professor of agricultural science, and teachers of
preparative studies: Therefore,

Resolved, This convention approves the plan presented in the me-
morial, and earnestly recommends its adoption where circumstances
will warrant.

Resolved, The Orange County Scientific and Practical Agricultu-
ral Institute is vi^orthy the patronage of the public.

And further, WJiei'eas, The necessities of this Institute for appara-
tus and other proper educational appliances are great, and as the
gentlemen engaged therein are proper and responsible men, there-
fore,

Resolved, This convention cordially recommends it to the libera-
lity of the friends of agriculture and education for a share of their
bounty, and further commend it as worthy of legislative endowment
by the State of New-York.

H. MEIGS, Chairman.

Mr. Meigs then reported the following circular and memorial in
regard to the Agricultural Bureau, which were adopted :

Riport of Committee on Washington'' s Department for Agriculture,
'to the JVational Convention of Farmers, Gardeners and Silk Cul~
turists.

JYew-York, October 13th, 1846.

The committee of the convention to whom was referred the sub-
ject of a memorial to Congress, asking for the establishment of
"Washington's "Agricultural Department of Government,"

Respectfully report: That they have had the same under consi-
deration, and see no reason to alter their judgment; but every reason
to again endeavor to enforce that of the preceding conventions.
They have considered that General Washington's views on this sub-
ject have the same deep and noble character as when he gave them
to his country in one of his last messages to Congress. The com-
mittee here beg leave to repeat his most memorable words: —

" It will not be doubted, that with reference either to individual or

No 151.] 223

national welfare, agriculture is of primary importance. In propor-
tion as nations advance in population and other circumstances of ma-
turity, this truth becomes more apparent, and renders the cultivation
of the soil more and more an object of public patronage. Institutions
for promoting it grow up, supported by the public purse — and to
what object can it be dedicated with greater propriety? Among the
means which have been applied to this end, none have been attended ■
with greater success than the establishment of boards, composed of
proper characters, charged with collecting and diffusing information,
and enabled by premiums and small pecuniary aid, to encourage
and assist a spirit of discovery and improvement, by stimulating to
enterprize and experiment, and by drawing to a common centre the
results every where of individual skill and observation, and by sprea-
ding them thence over the whole nation. Experience, accordingly,
has shown that they are very cheap instruments of immense national
ben (Jits."

Such was the language of Washington when at the summit of his
wisdom!

It is strange indeed, that he should have spoken in vain. Fifty
years have passed away since the words were uttered, and nothing has
yet been done. Is it because farmers are so attentive to the farm
that they have no time to think of this? Is it because farming is a
low occupation, to be followed only by men of little knowledge, that
the few who engross to themselves science or official distinction,
look upon farmers as mere operatives?

Such was not the view of the greatest men of ancient Rome. They,
like Washington, held up to glory the cultivation of the soil. Cin-
cinnatus cultivated the land with his own hands, and by that exam-
ple made it an order of the highest nobility. And Washington, like
him, was a farmer, and begged his country to ennoble it by establish-
ing a separate department of government to take charge of it.

Let us see what would be the practical effect of establishing such
a department. The public purse would be employed in procuring all
the seeds, plants, and animals of use or pleasure, from every part of
this globe! It would have the means of doing all this, through the
vast multitude of agents it could employ, consisting of the officers of
the navy, army, foreign ministers, charges, and consuls; through the.
aid of captains, supercargoes, and agents of ships in every quarter of
the world.

224 [Assembly

By its power to diffuse these seeds, plants, and animals throughout
our land J by its power to send to any farmer that desired it, portions
of all these, and the most accurate and authentic accounts of their
origin, qualities and modes of production; by establishing such pre-
miums for great agricultural improvemenls as would produce the very
highest competition — by all this, every intelligent farmer would keep
his eye upon the department which so deeply concerns his welfare,
and would feel himself ennobled by its existence.

The department would employ clerks well acquainted with the ag-
ricultural history of all nations. Correspondence would be established
with all foreign and domestic agricultural societies. The sovereigns
of the old world would communicate with the department, and thus
the great landed interest become eminent among all nations, and the
eternal truth brought up to the view of all men, that the glory of
nations, their virtue, and their high agriculture, are three inseparable
facts ! H. MEIGS,

Chairman of the committee.

(Signed) — A. P. Byram, Kentucky.

Moses B. Coe, Kew-Jersey.

Martin Ellsworth, Connecticut.

Isaac H. Tiffany, Montgomery, Jf. York.

James Darrach, Orange co., JV. York.

Wm. J. Gilchrist, Saratoga, JV. York.

Peter H, Brink, Saugerties, JV. York.

Jacob D. Van Winkle, Bergen, JV. J.

Jenison S. Ward, Gloversville, JV. York

L. A. Smith, Essex, JV. J.

H. A. S. Dearborn, Roxhury, J[Iass.

R. T. Underhill, Croton Point, JV. Y.

1

MEMORIAL

Of the JVational Convention of Farmers, Gardeners, and Silk Cul-
turists, held in JVew-York, October 14/A, 1846.

To THE Congress of the United States,

On Washington's Department of Agriculture :

The National Convention of Farmers, Gardeners, and Silk Cultu-
rists, now in session in the city of New-York, respectfully present the
following memorial, unanimously adopted by this convention, viz:

Your memorialists, in common with a large body of the American
agriculturists, have, for some time past, deemed it of the highest im-

No. 151.] 225

portance to the agriculture of their country, to carry into execution
the views of Washington, as expressed in one of his last messages to
Conoress, relative to the establishment by government of a Depart-
ment yor Agriculture. And we here beg leave to repeat his words:

" It will not be doubted that with reference either to individual or
national welfare, agriculture is of primary importance. In propor-
tion as nations advance in population, and other circumstances of
maturity, this truth becomes more apparent, and renders the cultiva-
tion of the soil more and more an object of public patronage. Insti-
tutions for promoting it grow up, supported by the public purse, and
to what object can it be dedicated with greater propriety ? Among
the means which have been employed to this end, none have been
attended with greater success than the establishment of boards, com-
posed of proper characters, charged with collecting and diffusing in-
formation, and enabled by premiums and small pecuniaiy aid, to en-
x^.ourage and assist a spirit of discovery and improvement, by stimu-
lating to enterprise and experiment, and by drawing to a common
centre the results every where, of individual skill and observation,
and by spreading them thence over the whole nation. Experience has
accordingly shown that they are very cheap instruments of immense
national benefits."

Such was the language of Washington, when at the summit of his
wisdom. Yet, strange to say, fifty years have passed away since
these words were uttered, and nothing has yet been done.

Is it because farming is a low occupation, unworthy the notice of
government? Is it because they aremere op'eratives, whose interests
are below the notice of the government? Such were not the views
of the greatest men of ancient Rome. Cincinnatus, like our Wash-
ington, was a farmer, and held up to glory the cultivation of the soil!
Cincinnatus, by his own example, ennobled the farmer, and Washing-
ton precisely imitated him.

We most earnestly ask Congress to look at the practical effect of
the establishment of Washington' s Department for Agriculture.

The public purse w^ould then be employed in obtaining all the
seeds, all the plants, all the animals, for use and for pleasure, from
every part of the globe. The department would have the means, al-
ready in existence, of doing all this, through the multitude of agents
employed by government, consisting of officers of our army and
navy — of consuls, charges, ministers — and would also obtain the aid

[Assembly, No. 151.] 15

226 [Assembly

of every captain of our vast mercantile marine, and the agents of
our immense commerce in every land. And it would have the power
not only to concentrate at Wa'^hington all these good things, but all
manner of accurate information relative to their origin, qualities, and
modes of raising and utility; and diffusing all this in the m.ost au-
thentic manner among our farmers. And by establishing appropriate
premiums for excellence, in every branch of the farming and garden-
ing pursuits, the highest spirit of emulation would be produced.
Such a department would attract the eye of every cultivator, and
cause him to feel that noble pride \vhich of right belongs to his ines-
timable labors. Such a department would employ clerks acquainted
with foreign languages — a constant correspondence would ensue be-
tween it and all important agricultural societies, and with all the go-
vernments of the earth. Its questions would be promptly and au-
thentically answered from China to Great Britain, and from Russia
to New^-Holland; every facility would be given to the transportation
of plants and animals to our country, from all foreign lands.

The sovereigns of Europe would cheerfully lend their aid in all
this; for they all feel now, more than has been felt by their prede-
cessors for the last fifteen centuries, the surpassing importance of the
agi'icvlture of the world. They all feel that the glory of nations,
their virtue, and their high agriculture, are three ijiseparable Jads !
HENRY MEIGS, of New-York,

Chairman of the committee.
(Signed) — H. A. S. Dearborn, Roxhury, Mass.
A. P. Bye AM, Kentucky.
MosES B- CoE, Mew-Jersey.
Martin Ellsworth, Connecticut.
Isaac H. Tiffany, Montgomery co., JY. Y.
James Darrach, Coldenham, Orange co., JY. Y.
Wm. J. Gilchrist, Saratoga, JY. Y.
Peter H. Brink, Suugerties, JY. Y.
Jacob D. Van Winkle, Bergen, JY. J.
Jenison S. Ward, Gloversville, JY. Y.
Dr. L. a. Smith, Essex, JY. Y.
Dr. R. T. Underhill, Croton Point.
(Signed,) H. A. S. DEARBORN,

President of the Convention.

H. P. Byram, of Kentucky, ? Vice

John Ogden, of JYewark, JYew-Jersey, ^ Presidents

J. C. MuNN, of JYew- Jersey
D. J. Browne, of Brooklyn

J. C. MuNN, of JYew- Jersey, } ^ , .

^,^ ^„ ^ ^ T T i Secretaries.

No. 151.] 227

Dr. Underbill (on the call of the 4th subject in the order of busi-
ness) said, " The subject, though perhaps new to many, has engaged
my mind for six years, during which time I have studiously sought
for a remedy. My attention was first called to the subject by a gen-
tleman who observed, that after a light shower all his vineyard ap-
peared to be in a sickly condition, an effect just the reverse from
what might be anticipated from rain. He thought possibly that the
vines had been injured by electric fluid running along the wire which
supported them. This reason was not satisfactory, and after s>)nie
observation I was satisfied that the injury was done by the gases from
a neighboring brick kiln. Subsequent observations confirmed this
opinion. The effects upon the leaves of trees and plants are much like
those of a severe fire; the tender and pendulous portions of the leaves
are turned to a red ish- brown color, and curl up as if seared by extreme
heat. In some instances, spots are, as it were, burned through, as if
strong acid had dropped upon them. The cause of this appears
to me to arise from the anthracite coal used in making brick. This
is used to facilitate their burning; in those nearest the fire only
three pecks is put into a thousand bricks, while those on the outside
contain twelve bushels per thousand. This is the case in one brick
yard, according to the statement made to me by the owner himself.
The quantity of coal may vary in different localities, but something
near this proportion probably exists in all cases. When the burn-
ing is nearly done, the coal on the outside bricks is on fire, and large
quantities of carbonic acid gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, carburetted
hydrogen, and perha])S a little phosphorated hydrogen, are evolved.
These gases, (particularly the last,) are the most active and injuri-
ous to vegetation. When the atmosphere is moist, and in foggy
weather with a light breeze, their eflfects are traceable for miles. In
some instances you will find the track of a stream from 100 yards
to a half a mile in width and several miles in length. If a heavy
rain happens at the same time, the effect is less serious; it seems to
wash off the injurious gas.

" These injuries occur not only in vineyards, but are observed in
forest trees, shrubbery, fruit trees and vegetables. The Newtown pip-
pin is a great sufferer; sometimes its blossoms are destroyed, or if
these escape, perhaps so many leaves are ruined that not enough are
left to furnish sap for the proper maturity of the fruit, and the apple
is small and of poor flavor. I know one very large and fine orchard
in Westchester county which has been ruined in this manner. Nor
is this a solitary case; hundreds of orchards along the North River
have been more or less injured.

228 [Assembly

" I am aware that I shall raise something of a storm in places where

brick making is a business. But after so long studying upon the
evil, I do not speak at random, and further, I have something here
to corroborate my statements. [Dr. Underbill exhibited several
branches of forest and fruit trees which had been touched by these
gases, corresponding in appearance to his description.] After this
injury by the noxious gases, the plant louse and other insects are
more than usually active, and often complete the destruction of the
foliage. Where the gas falls upon the leaves of the hickory, it some-
times cuts a hole through the leaf. Pine is quickly destroyed by It,
the whole tree being effectually killed. In fact, this deleterious gas
injures almost every thing in the vegetable kingdom, and an efficient
and immediate remedy is most anxiously desired."

The subject was, on motion, committed to Messrs. Ellsworth, Un-
derbill, Brink, Haight, and Darrach, who will report to the Farmers'
Club.

The next business (diseases of potatoes) was taken up, and after
some brief remarks from Mr. Ellsworth, of Conn., it was laid on
the table for want of time to treat it at length.

The culture of silk then came up, and on motion, Messrs. Van
Epps, Hyde, Summy and Byram, were appointed a committee to re-
port at the next meeting.

Some conversation on silk, and in regard to the place for the next
meeting was held, and it was

Resolved, That when we adjourn, w^e adjourn to meet at the Re-
pository of the American Institute in the Park, on Friday, at 10
o'clock, A. M.

The 7th subject (culture of native grapes) then came up, and,

On motion, it was referred to Messrs. Underbill, Meigs and Hall,
to report at the next meeting.

The president then read a letter from S. B. Parsons, of Flushing,
L. I., recommending the establishment of a botanical garden in Flo-
rida, for the acclimation of tropical trees and plants, domesticating
of valuable exotics, &c.

Gen. Dearborn gave a brief history of the experiment of a bota-
nic garden made by Dr. Perrine in Florida, during the Seminole

No. 151.] 229

war; spoke briefly of the duty the government owes to the people
to advance with all reasonable means such philanthropic objects; of
intelligence as the surest basis of freedom; complimented the Par-
sons family on their stability and intelligence, &c., &c.

The subject was finally referred to a committee, consisting of
Messrs. S. B. Parsons, H. A. S. Dearborn, R. L. Pell, Rev. R, R,
Gurley, and William Valk, to report at next meeting.

On motion, it was

Resolved, That the American Institute be requested to renew their
application to the Legislature of this State for a grant to establish
an agricultural college and experimental farm somewhere in the vi-
cinity of New-York.

After considerable desultory conversation, Messrs. Wakeman, Dar-
rach and Chandler, w-ere appointed a committee to carry into effect
the foreofoing resolution.

There being no further business offered,

■ On motion, the Convention adjourned, to meet at the Repository
of the American Institute on Friday, at 10 o'clock, A. M.

Friday, October 16, 1846.

Third Day,

The Convention met at the Repository of the Institute in the Park,
pursuant to adjournment, at 10 o'clock, A. M.

H. A. S. Dearborn, President, called the meeting to order, and D.
J. Browne, Secretary', read the minutes of the previous session, which
were adopted.

Reports of committees being in order,

Gen. Dearborn, from the committee to whom was referred the
subject of a " botanic garden in Florida," read the following report:

Report of the Committee on the establishment of a Botanic Garden

in Florida.

The committee to whom was referred the communication of S. B.
Parsons, of Flushing, on the " establishment of a. botanic garden in
Florida, for the acclimation of foreign trees and pla-nfs valuable for

230 [Assembly

their products, or for ornament," respectfully subnoit the following
report :

The great advantages to the whole Union which may be derived
from the introduction and culture of the plants of the tropics, and of
the temperate zones, not indigenous to the United States, which
may be rendered subservient to the interests of the mechanical and
manufacturing industry of the country, and increase the variety and
value of our exports, as well as augment the number and species of
fruit and ornamental trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, by the es-
tablishment of an experimental garden in the southern extremity of
the United States, is a subject worthy the serious consideration of
every citizen, and the State and the general governments.

Thus far the cultivators of the soil have been indebted to individ-
ual enterprise and liberality for all the vegetable productions which
have been introduced from foreign countries, previous to the return
of the exploring expedition, so well conducted by Captain Wilkes;
and for all the experiments which have been made for the benefit of
the numerous departments of native industry, the projectors have
been indebted for aid more to individual effort than to legislative
enactment. When it is considered that this republic has been so
long and efficiently established, that its population has been extend-
ed over a vast extent of territory, varied in its climate, products and
soil, and that its position has become exalted among the powerful
nations of the earth, it is to be presumed that the government will
be emulous to afford to all classes of the people as effectual means
of a vigorous and rapid progression in the development of all the
arts of exalted civilization, as has been secured to the subjects of
the most enlightened empires of the Eastern continent.

The sovereigns of France and England have long since founded
extensive botanical, experimental and acclimative gardens in their
capitals, as well as in the southern extreme of their 'domains.

The " Jardin des Plantes," of Paris, is justly celebrated; the bo-
tanical garden at Montpelier, is of scarcelv inferior value, and the
horticultural enterprise and energy of the French is farther develo-
pinn- itself in the establishment of an extensive botanic garden in
Algiers. Eroni the reigns of Louis XlVth, and Peter the Great, ag-
riculture, horticulture, and botany, have especially claimed the at-
tention of those monarchs. The royal gardens of the French, with
those at St. Petersburgh and on the shores of the Crimea, are cele-

No. 151.] 231

brated as seminaries of instruction in most of the branches of natural
history, and have been also eminently beneficial to the agricultural
and mechanical laborer, and to the commercial consequence of those
powerlul nations. In order to make them increasingly useful to
commerce, science, and the arts, intelligent naturalists have been
sent out in the public ships for the express purpose of collecting
from every country, plants and seeds that might be advantageously
introduced into the field or garden culture of any part of their do-
minions. The British government, aware of the importance of many
new products to the agricultural interests of the country, have for
many years given standing orders to its consuls throughout the
world, to send home all the plants and seeds, that may in the most
distant degree promise to benefit the landed interest of their coun-
try. In that country legislative effort has been ably seconded by in-
<lividual enterprise and interest. The nobles and intelligent common-
ers, residin • in the country upon their ancestral estates, have either
individually, or as members of botanical, horticultural or agricultu-
ral societies, founded experimental gardens throughout England,
Scotland and Ireland, for the laudab'e purpose of increasing the num-
ber, variety, value and beauty of their vegetable productions. So
successful have been their commendable exertions, that plantations
now exist in the vicinity of London as well as in Paris, whence are
disseminated an infinite variety of valuable and ornamental trees and
plants, collected from every soil and climate of the earth.

If then Englaiid and other European powers are so eminently alive
to the benefit likely to occur from the introduction of foreign trees
and plants, to their comparatively limited territories, how vast in-
deed would be the advantage of such establishments in the United
States, where is to be found every variety of climate and soil, from
Cape Cod to the Pacific, and from the orange groves of Florida to
the frozen borders of Lake Superior?

•By thus testing the character and hardihood of staple foreign pro-
ducts, the' culture of some plant may possibly be introduced, whose
product will be as valuable to our national industry as olives to the
South of Europe, as coffee and indigo to the tropics, or as cotton
to our own country.

The trees and plants of America are so highly appreciated in Eu-
rope, that no difficulty would be experienced in establishing a system
of exchanges with their experimental gardens.

232 [Assembly

The favorable disposition of Congress to the foundation of a bo-
tanic garden in Florida, has been exhibited by the liberal grant of
a large tract of land, with a sufficient sum of money, to Dr. Per-
rine, several years since, whose efforts were frustrated by his sudden
death at the hands of the Indians, just as he had commenced the
transplanting of numerous tropical plants which ,he had procured
from Central America and Mexico.

The object of the government in affording encouragement to this
undertaking, was thus suddenly frustrated, but it is to be confi-
dertly presumed that an equally liberal patronage will be again ex-
tended, and in such an efficient manner as to render the realiza-
tion of this important project as certain as it is desirable. Such
an establishment, if situated on the St. John's river, on what must
eventually be the principal inland route from New-York to New Or-
leans, would be an attractive object to travelers j would command
the attention of scientific men of our own and foreign countries; and
while it arrived at the great object of benefit to the domestic indus-
try of our country, would exhibit to foreigners a convincing evidence
that our republican government was fully alive to all that could be-
neficially affect the wealth and prosperity of its people.

The committee would respectfully recommend the adoption of the
following resolutions:

1. Resolved, That the American Institute be requested to memo-
rialize Congress to adopt such measures as may be deemed most ex-
pedient, for the establishment of a Botanical and Experimental Garden
in Florida, for the Acclimation of Tropical and other Foreign Trees
and Plants, and for their distribution among the several States in
such a manner as will best subserve the interests of each.

2. Resolved, That the American Institute be also requested to cor-
respond with the agricultural, horticultural and botanical societies
throuo^hout ihe United States, on this subject, and ask their vigor-
ous co-operation, by transmitting memorials to Congress of a like
import to that designated by the foregoing resolution.

3. Resolved, That the Secretaries of this Convention be instruct-
ed to transmit a copy of this report to the Corresponding Secretary
of the American Institute.

H. A. S. DEARBORN,
L. B. PARSONS,

In behalf of the committee.

No. 151.] 233

Gen, D. made some remarks upon the prospective utility of such
a garden, and invited Hon. C. F. Mercer, of Virginia, to address
the convention, saying that Gen. Mercer had resided several years
in Florida, was conversant with the experiment of Dr. Perrine, and
at present cultivated as an amateur an extensive garden in Virginia^
of which commonwealth he was one of the ablest statesmen.

Gen. Mercer rose, and said he was deeply indebted for the com-
pliment of the honorable chairman. " I have resided in Florida,'"
said he, " about six years, in every variety of season, and can speak
with some certainty of its soil and climate. Though not a constant
resident, it has been my home. Florida in point of territory, is the
third State of the Union. It extends from 26 degrees to 3 1 degrees
of North latitude, comprising every variety of soil, from the lightest
and most barren sands to the richest hammocks, whose fertility is
unparalleled. One peculiarity of this State is that its forests never lose
their leaves; which perennial verdure, combining with the influence
of the Gulf Stream on one coast, and the ocean on both, preserves
an equality of temperature unknown to inland regions. Frosts are
seldom or never known to injure vegetation in winter. Some in-
stances have occurred near Tallahassee of injury to orange trees by
late spring frosts, owing to the proximity of the southern spur of
the Alleghanies. Such a country, it will be seen, offers excellent
advantages for ' trial farms,' as we in the South call them. Let the
great empire state establish there her botanic garden or trial farm,
and other States will soon imitate the good example; and in this
great southern garden almost all plants may be acclimated or natu-
ralized. We have scarce a single fruit in its natural state. Our
splendid apples of two pounds weight came by cultivation from the
miserable little crab-apple. Our grapes, of a size and flavor most
excellent, came by proper care from a like insignificant parent.
These grapes, which in England forty years ago brought four shillings
sterling per pound, are now sold for one shilling. Into this great bo-
tanical garden, and similar ones in other latitudes, we can introduce
valuable native plants from all parts of the world. For instance,
the wild rice, rye, and anniseed of Texas; which state, wooded with
deciduous trees, mostly an elevated prairie, lying exposed to the cold
blasts from the Rocky Mountains, where a change in a few hours
of 40 degrees Fahrenheit often occurs — is highly unfavorable to ve-
getable perfection. Yet the botany of Texas is of the richest de-
scription. In regard to a grant of land, I think from the present
state of the country, and opinions of our government, little or noth-
ing can be expected from Congress. The influence of States Rights

234 [Assembly

men, of which Mr. Polk is one, is too poAverful. I think this garden
would be cheerfully established by private subscription, if the minds
of the people were turned to it. As I am about to settle in Ken-
tucky, and shall have no personal interest in the matter, I may perhaps
be allowed to advise. Land can be purchased at ten shillings per acre.
Let a private subscription be opened (I will give $50 myself) for
the purchase of a location, after which $1,000 per annum will de-
fray expenses. Send some of our best German Emigrants there as
cultivators; many of whom would be glad to go for the considera-
tion of small farms of their own; to these add a superintendent,
whose skill in botany and analagous sciences shall be his recommen-
dation, and the experiment is complete. I have a word or two to
say concerning the tariff, knowing that I stand before a tariff audi-
ence. After thirty years of public life, during which I steadily and
constantly voted against a tariff for protection, I have at last been
converted to that doctrine, through the influence of observations
made in a trip to New-England, and two voyages to old England.
1 am glad my experience has induced me to change my views, and
do not hesitate to proclaim my new convictions, having no interest
for publication or concealment. I hold no public office, never ac-
cepted one while in Congress, and would not now accept any, not
even the highest within the gift of the government.

" Some time ago I was in Boston, and while I was preparing to
leave, my friend Nathan Appleton invited me to visit Low^ell. I
had an indistinct prejudice against factories and declined his request.
He would not be put off, and after long persuasion I consented to
go, for I could not well persist in refusing to please one of the prin-
cipal men in a city where I had been received with such unbounded
hospitality. When we arrived at Lowell, I was astonished to see
so clean and beautiful a city, and still more so at the wonderful
spectacle of 7,000 girls — all pretty girls too — neat, comfortable
and happy. They all looked up smilingly as I passed along, but
very suddenly looked down again, perhaps not much captivated by
what they saw. When 1 entered the factories, I expected to have
all my prejudices against manufactures sustained by occular demon-
stration; but here I was again most wonderfully astonished to find
things orderly and neat; so clean too, that I verily believe I might
have swept the floor with my handkerchief without giving it a stain.
This remarkable state of things seemed a paradox to me, effectually
annihilating my long cherished prejudices against home manufac-
tures, and converting me to the doctrines of the American system.

No. 151.] 535

About forty years ago I was in England, and while there, visited
Manchester, Stockport, Birmingham and other places, for the pur-
pose of knowing the state of society there. It was astonishing to
me how human beings could exist in a condition so miserable —
three or four families huddled into a damp basement, more like hogs
than men. From comparisons made of the expense of manufactu-
ring in England and America, I am confident that we can make
goods here with less expense than they can in England. They have
no water power — we have it unlimited; they pay a great price for
transporting coal to their factories — we scarcely anything; their j9r/-
mum mohile is steam — ours water; their laboreis are ignorant and
wretched — ours enlightened and happy; their market is abroad —
ours at home. I therefore conclude that a moderate protection to
our m mufactures will soon establish them on a basis which will be
too firm for overthrow by casual chances. I do not consider it al-
ways true that every one is the best judge of the manner in which
he should employ his capital and labor; as those affirm who cry out
against all laws restricting and regulating trade. The great fault of
our government is not in the enactment of tari/Ts and revenue laws,
but in the facility with which these measures are changed. Per-
haps I, who so lately changed my views, ought not to talk of in-
stability; but in sixty years of active life, one finds many opportu-
nities for change, if not so many for improved opinions. All are fa-
miliar with the change of Daniel Webster on the tariff, and of
Henry Clay on the national bank, and no one presumes that other
than honest convictions prompted those great men to reverse their
judgments. The very first memorial presented to Congress in favor
of protection to our manufacUn-es, came from Charleston, South-Caro-
lina, and was supported by Mr. Calhoun. In thj unsettled times of
Jefferson and Madison, most of our southern men were in favor of
establishing domestic manufactures. Then we had embargoes and
prohibitions, and double duties during the war. At its close we
went back to a comparatively low tariff, and Monroe had to borrow
money to pay government pensioners. The injustice of these fre-
quent changes is manifest. No matter how wise or theoretically
good measures of this kind may be — no matter how great an im-
provement on former laws, if they are often and unexpectedly chan-
ged, their effects are injurious; they induce fickleness of purpose,
and scepticism among the people — faith in the government is de-
stroyed, and all is doubt and uncertainty. Suppose, in the great ope-
rations of nature, such changes should occur; the farmer going forth
to plant his spring grain, suddenly finds it to be October instead of
April — Michaelmas night iuotead of May-day — how would his faith

236 [Assembly

be shaken in the Supreme Ruler! Such uncertainty in regard to bu-
siness our changing government is continually producing, and this
instability is the greatest evil of our democratic system. The injus-
tice of those frequent changes, crushing as they do, many young
branches of enterprising industry, is too apparent to need elucida-
tion.

After some farther observations upon the opinions of southern men,
&c., and excusing his unstudied and discursive remarks, Gen. Mercer
sat down, amid hearty applause.

The question on the adoption of the report was then put and car-
ried.

Mr. Meigs remarked that in looking over the proceedings of the
Royal Society at Paris, he observed that there had been quite a war
of words on this subject of acclimating plants; some contending that
it was altogether impracticable, mentioning the potato, which they
had possessed nearly three hundred years, as a witness; others con-
sidering acclimation perfectly natural and easy. The potato being
an annual plant, can be no proper proof for or against acclimation.
Mr. Meigs thought acclimation easy, and hoped to see it tried. Many
plants, we know, will change their appearance and character by a
change of climate.

'O"

Col. Clark observed that plants often undergo a material change
by transplanting, and mentioned the castor bean, a native of the
West-Indies, which, on being transplanted to this climate greatly
changes its period of maturity. While up, he would remark, that
the injury to vegetation by gases arising from brick kilns, was, he
thought, produced by excess of sulphate of alumina in the clay, ra-
ther than gases from the coal used. Some clay contains this sul-
phate in so large quantities that alum has been obtained from it.
The gases produced from burning this aluminous clay deprive the at-
mosphere of moisture, and of course, annihilates one of the greatest
supporters of vegetation. The affinity of sulphurous acid gas, for
moisture, is very great, and its effects upon vegetation proportionably
injurious.

Gen. Dearborn, in regard to acclimation, said that he had picked
ripe balls of cotton from plants in his garden in Massachusetts,
though this valuable plant is acclimated only as far north as the sou-
thern part of Virginia. Sugar cane is a tropic plant, and in the tor-
rid zone it ripens full to the very top, the saccharine matter. It has

No. 151.] , 237

been acclimated in Louisiana so that they get three or four feet of
saccharine matter if the crop be secured before frost. I doubt not
there are in tropical and boreal climates many plants which may be
easily and profitably acclimated in our country. We cannot expect
any very important new discoveries in the animal and mineral king-
doms; we are intimately acquafnted with land animals and minerals;
aquatic regions can at best yield us little else than oil; but so exten-
sive and important is the vegetable kingdom, that if all animals,
(man excepted,) were destroyed, we should have an abundance left
for our sustenance. We know that many of our valuable plants are
natives of far distant regions; for instance, the mulberry, which was
originally a native of a small province in Southern India; thence it
came up the Persian Gulf, through Palmyra, (Solomon's famous Tad-
mor in the Desert,) passed luined Babylon and Nineveh, spread over
luxurious Persia, came along the iEgean and Mediterranean, and
finally reached Rome. A wandering monk, whose pilgrimage had
been in the east, brought to Constantinople, in the top of his staff,
a few seeds of the mulberry, and eggs of the silk-worm, where (in
Europe,) they were first planted. Thence came they to Italy and
France. Now look at the immense value of the silk business in
those countries. See our valuable animal, the sheep, as it were, put
out of jsountenance by that insignificant worm brought by the wan-
dering monk from far A.sia. This is an instance of acclimation.
Theoretically I query thus: In India they have a tree and a worm
which produces this valuable silk, this gorgeous velvet, this magnifi-
cent satin. Can I raise them in Massachusetts? Undoubtedly no, is
the response. But they and other valuable products of the opposite
zones, may gradually be taught to grow in our climate. This expe-
rimental garden we must have; and if we move energetically in the
matter, we can have it — we will have it.

Mr. Meigs mentioned, as a singular fact, that the island of Japan
would not produce a potato. He said that in Algeria, the French
government have an experimental garden in successful operation, in
which one may find torrid and frigid plants side by side, a medley of
the vegetable kingdom from all parts of the world.

Gen. Mercer said we must not expect too rapid progress in accli-
mating plants. There is great affinity between the vegetable and
animal kingdoms; and of the latter, negroes have been a hundred
and fifty years in this country, yet they are not so well acclimated
but that they generally feel and thrive better when transported to the
burning climate of Africa. The first magnolia grandiflora he ever

238 -[Assembly

saw in Virginia was in General Washington's garden. Now they
are plenty in Philadelphia, and even farther North. He had planted
the soft-shelled almond in Florida, and was of opinion that it would
do well, and might supersede the imported article. Plants generally
have a uniform temperature at all hours, as he had demonstrated
some years ago, by placing the bulb of a thermometer in a tree.
This equal temperature tended to equalize heat and cold in timbered
countries, as is evident from the sudden changes in places destitute of
trees.

General Dearborn having, in the course of his remarks, alluded to
his correspondence on the subject of a botanical garden in Florida,
was requested by a committee of the Institute to furnish the same for
publication, in connection with the report of the proceedings of this
Convention. He kindly complied, and the letters are inserted.

Hawthorn Cottage, Roxbury, December, 1846.

My Dear Sir: — I enclose the copy of a letter from Professor
Wurdemann, an eminent physician of South Carolina, to General D.
D. Clinch, of Georgia, in relation to the establishment of a botanical
garden in Florida, which was transmitted to me by Doctor A. Mitch-
ell of Portland, Maine, from the belief that I would be gratified to
learn the views of a scientific gentleman of such distinction, so ex-
actly quadrate with those entertained by the American Institute, upon
a subject that claimed its special attention, during the last exhibition
of the products of the earth and mechanical industry.

From the extensive information which Dr. Wurdemann possesses
of the extreme southern region of our country, great confidence may
be placed in his statements, as to the climate of Florida, and the ad-
vantages which would be derived, from the location of a garden of
acclimation in that state.

Dr. Mitchell is entitled to the highest respect for the commenda-
ble and zealous efforts he has made to investigate the various depart-
ments of our natural history. Within the past six or eight years he
has collected specimens of most of the birds of New-England, and
many of the quadrupeds, as well as of other animals, and has pre-
pared them in a very perfect manner for insuring their preservation.
I have never seen more beautiful illustrati ns of the very difficult
art of securing examples against that decay to which such precious
acquisitions are liable.

No. 151.] 239

He passed the last winter in the North, for the express purpose of
making additions to his valuable cabinet of ornithology, and was so
successful as to have procured numerous specimens which were set up
in the best manner, and brought safely to Portland.

It was during his absence, and while making explorations on the
River St. Mary, that the idea occurred to him, of the establishment
of a garden in Eastern Florida, and I received several letters from
him on that subject, before and after his return.

You will recollect, that during the session of the Convention of far-
mers and horticulturists, in October, I referred to the valuable ser-
vices which Doctor Mitchell had rendered to his country, as a natu-
ralist, and the measures he had taken, as well as those which he con-
sidered it important should be adopted by the government and the
.patriotic cultivators of the soil throughout the Union, for the founda-
tion of a garden of acclimation; and it is also proper to state that
he has corresponded with a number of the most intelligent gentlemen
in several of the southern states, on this very interesting and impor-
tant subject, and has received assurances of their cordial co-operation.
General Clinch, who commanded our military forces in Florida, for
a number of years, and now resides in Georgia, not only fully ap-
proves of the plan, but is confident of the immense advantages which
will result from its being carried into effect.

General Clinch is one of those intelligent, liberal, and warm-heart-
ed patriots, who looks far into the future, and has a sanguine belief
in the grand destinies of the United States, and is ever ready to aid
in promoting the prosperity of his country.

Confident that the American Institute will cheerfully and efficient-
ly use its influence in a manner that will merit the gratitude of the
present and future generations, I shall await the result of the efforts
it has determined to make, in the full belief that they will be crown-
ed with success.

Very respectfully, your most obedient servant,

H. A. S. DEARBORN.
T. B. Wakeman, Esq., Corresponding Secretary

of the American Institute of JYew-York,

240 [Assembly

LETTER OF DR. WURDEMANN TO GEN. CLINCH.

Clarksville, Georgia, September 19, 1846.

Gen. D. D. Clinch,

Dear Sir — The intention of forming the company referred to by
your correspondent, Dr. A. Mitchell, for establishing a botanical gar-
den in Florida, for the purpose of propagating tropical plants, is one
which should meet the support, not only of the state and general
government, but also of every lover of natural history in our whole
country. Its establishment is certainly feasible, and it could more-
over be rendered very profitable to those engaged in it, by making it
a nursery, from which the farmers of Florida could obtain a supply of
tropical plants and trees; and thus convert their uncultivated wilds
into gardens, as luxuriant and beautiful as those which now form the
chief charm of the West India Islands; besides the market which
the numerous gardens and hot-houses would present in our larger
cities of the north and south.

By selecting a suitable site for a boarding-house near the estab-
lishment, it would offer a pleasant retreat for invalids during the
winter. The journey to the West Indies is too dangerous and tedious,
and the privations and expenses to which they are subjected, are too
great ever to render them places of general resort for that class of
travelers. There are also other objections of still greater weight —
the insalubrity of the climate of most of the accessable islands, and
too great a heat of their winter months. After a residence of six
consecutive winters under the tropics, I have been able to select only
one, and that one not entirely free from objections. The smaller
islands, as Santa Cruz, Curacoa, Key West, and Indian Keys, do not
afford shelter from the pernicious atmosphere that ever hangs along
the borders of the sea. Could a salubrious situation be selected in
Florida, far enough inland to be out of the influence of that atmo-
sphere, while its own climate being dry, I do not hesitate to predict,
that with suitable accommodations for invalids, they would flock to
it from all parts of our widely extended country.

The high, sandy, pine regions of the State about, or not much be-
low the latitude of St. Augustine, must present many proper sites for
a hbtel. From my own experience and observation, 1 am inclined to
believe that a region occasionally visited with cold sufficient to re-
quire woolen clothing, is the best suited, by its bracing effects, for
consumption especially. The heat in one more southern is too debili-

Na. 151.] 241

fating, and they are moreover not entirely free from malaria, even
during winter.

I earnestly hope that the plan proposed, to form a company, referred
to by Dr. Mitchell, will meet with encouragement, and that they
will not wait for the support of the general government in the com-
mencement. Under one or two efficient agents, a profitable invest-
ment would be made, and success would be certain.
I am, dear sir, very respectfully.

Your obedient servant,

H. WURDEMANN.

While the subject of making a grant of land in Florida to Dr.
Perrine, for the purpose of acclimatir^ tropical plants, was under
consideration in Congress, in 1838, the following letters from Gen.
H. A. S. Dearborn, of Massachusetts, on that subject, to the Hon. Levi
Lincoln and Dr. Perrine, were published in the National Intelligen-
cer:

Hawthorn Cottage, Roxhury, Jipril 17, 1838.

My dear sir — I am very much obliged to you for the report of the
agricultural committee on the memorial of Dr. I'errine, in relation to
the culture of tropical plants in Florida, which you were so kind as
to send me. I have read it with the deepest interest, instruction and
pleasure; and so favorable do I think of his honorable and patriotic
enterprise, that I most sincerely hope Congress will cheerfully and
promptly grant his request, and aid him in the most liberal manner.

The introduction of a single plant or seed has, in all ages and na-
tions, frequently produced the most important and valuable results.
The mighty influence on the agricultural industry and the general
prosperity of empires, which the naturalization and culture of the
cereal grains, the olive, vine, white mulberry for the food of the silk
worm, the sugar cane, coffee plant, cotton, potato, rice, and tobacco,
have produced, is well known, and I have no doubt that several of
the plants which Dr. Perrine has now growing at Cape Florida and
Indian Key, may possibly become staple articles of cultivation in
several of the most southern States. Besides, I do not think so
meanly of the capabilities of the soil of Florida as most people. I
well remember that Louisiana was called a mere alligator swamp,
when first so cheaply acquired. The single fact that East Florida is
the only portion of the Union where many of the most precious of
the tropical plants can be acclimated, will at no very distant period

[Assembly, No. 151.] 16

242 [ASSBMBLV

bring every acre of land into great demand for tillage. It will be
drained, diked, embanked, and converted into various kinds of plan-
tations. What was Holland before its dikes and canals were con-
structed?*

What has made the cotton and sugar estates of lower Louisiana
so prolific, but the levees for restraining the overflowings of the Mis-
sissippi? What the rice fields of South Carolina and Georgia?
Human genius and indomitable industry, where there is a cheering
prospect of reward, will triumph over all natural physical difficulties.
We know the knights of Malta made fertile gardens on the barren
rocks of that island, celebrated for their chivalrous deeds and as the
site of Paul's shipwreck, by pounding up the loose and scattere<i
stones which covered its bleak surface, and importing soil from Sicily
to mix with their dust. The Mexicans had floating gardens in Lake
Tezcuco, where their capital city was established. The Chinese haVe
long resorted to the same means of rearing culinary and other plants,
and not an inch of soil, even though situated amidst the precipitous
cliffs of the mountains, is unfilled, so great is the demand for vege-
table products by the thronged population of the Celestial Empire.
The lemon and orange groves of Poitugal and Sicily, are established
and maintained by an expensive and laborious system of artificial
fountains and channels of irrigation. With us, land is so abundant,
in comparison with the population, that we have no just conception
of its value, as estimated in those portions of the globe, where the
inhabitants are so numerous that a few roods are considered an estate
so ample that the fortunate proprietor is accounted an independent
man.

But even in the vast extent of the United States, with the millions
of acres still in a slate of nature, how many thuosands are now
cultivated, which, a few generations since, aye, in our day, were
deemed worthless! In England, what extensive morasses have been
reclaimed and added tothedomainof agriculture, while the heath-cover-

* The government of Holland is now engaged in draining Harlem lake, which
covers an area of 45,000 acres, or over seventy square miles, to the doj)th of thirteen
feet below low water, in the Zuyder Zee, for the purpose of secnring Amsterdam
and Leyden, as well as a large region of farms and villages, from inundation, and to
convert the bed of the lake into tillage land. To accomplish this grand object,
three enormous steam engines arc employed, which work eleven pumps each, whicb
are 63 inches in diameter, that discharge 2,500,000 tons of water per 24 hours.
These engines, it has been calculated, will drain the lake in 400 days, at an expense
of 580,000 dollars. The first engine was oompletod in 1345.

I

No. 151.] 243

ed mountains of Wales and Scotland are rapidly being planted witk
magnificent forests, not for embellishment merely, but as inexhausti-
ble sources of wealth. The old duke of Athol planted a forest on
his estate in Perthshire, of 15,593 acres, which contained 27,431,600
young trees when he died; and his successor set out 6,500 acres of
poor mountain land solely with larches. The land was not worth
over twenty-two cents rent per acre; and now, with the timber on it^
is valued at $3:,500,000.

The citizens of this country have, here and there, selected the
most fertile and eligible locations, and call most of the immense re-
mainder of the land either refuse or worthless. Time and the increase
of population will show that nearly the whole will become more valua-
ble than even what is now considered the most choice. Embankments
like those in the vicinity of New-Orleans will be extended on each bank
of the Mississippi, from the Gulf of Mexico to the falls of St. An-
thony.

If but one of the most valuable of the two hundred plants intro-
duced by Dr. Perrine, can be successfully cultivated, all Florida will
be drained and become luxuriant fields and gardens, and be embel-
lished by canals, rivers, bays, harbors and beautiful lakes. It will be
the Cuba of this nation.

I know your liberal disposition, and enlightened and enlarged
views in relation to subjects connected with agriculture, and all the
great branches of national industry, and am confident you will be dis-
posed to do what is expedient on this occasion.

Dr. Perrine, like most men of science and ardent patriotism, has
devoted much time and expended his resources tor a great purpose^
is sanguine in the beneficial results to the Republic, and the hope
of future remuneration from his own practical exertion; and it is
very desirable that l.e should not be left, as is too often the case, to
lament his labors and to find that others hereafter reap the fruits of
his meritorious enterprise without having endured any of the toils, or
incurred any of the expenses of a first experiment. Congress must
be to him as munificent as would have been Henry IV. of France, or
Napoleon, to render his indefatigable researches and accumulated in-
telligence upon subjects he has presented to the consideration of the
government useful and honorable to himself and the country.

With assurances of the highest respect and esteem,

Your obedient servant,
H. A. S. DEAllBORW.

Hon. Levi LiNti^Ly, Member of Congress for Massachusetts.

■244 [Assembly

Hawthorn Cottage, Roxbury, June 20, 1838.

Dear Sir — Your two letters and the samples of the foliaceous fibres
of the precious tropical plants which you arc desirous of introducing
into Florida, have been received. I am extremely obliged to you for
this kind attention, and very happy to learn that the letter to my es-
timable friend, Governor Lincoln, aflorded you any satisfaction. It
•■was but the expression of ray gratitude for the highly commenda-
ble efforts you were making to subserve the interests of your country,
by furnishing a n-cw source to the agricultural and manufacturing in-
dustry of the United States; for every raw material produced, even
in the extreme south, is a direct benefit to the mechanical and com-
mercial enterprise of the north. I am fully sensible of the difficul-
ties you have been compelled to encounter, in your laudable endea-
vors, and how laborious and discouraging is the position of a gentle-
man who has a favorite and important object to accomplish, which
requires the generous co-operation of the national government, and
especially if it is of a novel character. The momentous subjects
before Congress, growing out of our domestic and foreign relations,
have been of such an all-engrossing character, as to require imme-
diate action, and have not left the members at leisure to attend to
"less pressing matters. Besides, there are comparatively but so few
persons who take an interest in political economy, scientific inqui-
ries, or any measure which requires much research, that an utter in-
difference to them too generally exists in the whole community. And
it is not until more complete and exact knowledge is obtained, that
the same zeal and promptness of action is induced, as when the end
to be obtained is obvious, and universally approved, from the evident
advantages which are to follow.

Be not discouraged, therefore, for facts and truths are mighty in
their operations, and will ultimately triumph over all impediments.
Columbils was for years a petitioner to no less thfin three sovereigns,
iand on the point of appealing to the bounty and energy of a fourth,
before his gigantic conception of the existence of a " New World"
was credited and his voyage of discovery undertaken. Newton's
theory of gravitation was not adopted even by the academicians of
France, until forty years after the publication of his Principia; and
Galileo was obliged to confess before the assembled authorities of
the Romish church, " that the earth did not turn round on its axis."
Still that remarkable philosopher did not dcspajr, but as he arose
from his humbled position, and brushed the dust from his knees,
whispered to a friend, " Nevertheless, the earth does revolve;" and

No 151.] 245

his belief has become universal, although the pontifical decree, de-
nouncing it as a heresy, remains unappealed.

The value and importance of the experiment you contemplate ma-
king is so great to the whole Republic, that it is impossible that it
shall not be undertaken, ^vhen the object is fully understood, in all
its vast scope and bearing, and by our almost unanimous voice.
The citizens of the United States are at times, difficult to be excited,
but when the course is made clear, and the anticipated result of mo-
mentous import, they evince an ardor and an energy which sweeps
like a flood every obstacle, and there is no relaxation until the work
has been consummated. How long were roads, canals and railways
urged upon the attention of the state and national legislatures before
they obtained any favorable consideration! And at last, indignant at
the slow movements and parsimonious policy of their governments,
the people came forth in their strength; and behold the glorious con-
sequences! Prove that a measure is based on tndh, and will be use-
ful, and it will be adopted. Let the pioneer of improvement enlight-
en the route he has taken with the flame of intelligence, and his
followers will be as numerous as the object to be accomplished de-
mands.

One of the kind of fibres you sent me, that of the forest pine ap-
ple, Bromella pila, is of a remarkable glossy and delicate cha-
' racter, and I should think would make a beautiful and excellent
thread, as the most perfectly prepared flax, or the filaments of the silk-
worm.

The value of the culture of the Jlgave Sisalana, from which is
obtained the Sisal hemp of commerce, may be conceived from the
following facts, which I have taken some pains to ascertain since
the receipt of your first letter, as it is a substitute for the Manilla
hemp, which is the fibre of the petiole, of a species of Banana, cul-
tivated m the Phillippine islands.

Cordage made of Manilla hemp is now preferred for the running
rigging and hausers of the vessels in the fisheries, coasting and for-
eign trade, as well as all the steamboats on the lakes and western
waters; it being as durable as hempen cordage and much lighter, the
weight being for ropes of like size and length nearly as eight to
ten. The whalemen, the five hundred ships engaged in that adven-
turous navigation, have given it a thorough trial, and from its bouy-
ancy, it is universally used for their long tow-li'nes employed in
the perilous capture of the leviathans of the deep.

246 [AssiMBLY

All the Sisal hemp which can be procured is manufactured, and
makes quite as good cordage for most purposes, as the Manilla; but
the fibre not being quite as flexible — owing, probably, to the less
perfect manner of preparing it, the price is lower. For the last
three years, the Manilla hemp has been from 7 to 7^ cents per
pound, and Sisal from 6 to 6| and 7.

The quantity of Manilla hemp imported into the United States,
<!uring the last year, is estimated by a manufacturer of cordage, who
lives in this 'own, at 28,000 bales, each weighing 270 pounds; the
cost of which, at 7^ cents, amounts to $567,000.

The above mentioned manufacturer has invented machinery, which
he has in full operation, for spinning Manilla hemp; and has also
made cordage from the Sisal with the same apparatus. There is an-
other large Jactory in Boston, in which the process of spinning was
invented by Professor Treadwell, of Harvard University. The latter
works are driven by water, and the former by steam power.

There are two rope walks in this town which manufactured into

cordage of Manilla hemp,- - 3,000 bales.

One in Boston, 1,200 "

Five in Charlestown and Cambridge, 1,000 "

Five in Salem and Marblehead, 3,2C0 "

One in Windham, 200 "

Two in Plymouth, - 1,400 "

10,000 bales.

In the other New-England States, 5,000 "

In New-York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and other pla-
ces, 13,000 "

Total quantity in the United States, 28,000 bales.

With the best wishes for your success, in obtaining the generous
patronage of Congress, and for your prosperous prosecution of an ex-
periment in Florida, I offer assurance of ray unfeigned respect.

Your most obedient servant,

II. A. S. DEARBORN.
Doctor Henry Pebrine.

No. 151] 347

The American Institute having seriously conj-iderc^l the importance
of the experiment Avhich Doctor Perrine was anxious to make, on
the naturalization of tropical plants, adopted the folloAving resolution,
in 1838.

Resolved, That the American Institute of ihe city of New-York,
have noticed with great interest and pleasure, the zealous, unprece-
dented persevering efforts of their countryman, Dr. Henry Perrine,
late United States consul at Campeachy, to engage the attention of
our goverrmient, to encourage the acclimation and culture of tropical
plants in this country, and feeling strongly impressed with the 'great
importance of his enterprise, would respectfully, but earnestly recom-
meni the same to the special consideration and patronage of Congress,
and to the favorable notice of their fellow citizens engaged in agri-
cultural pursuits, particularly in the southern portions of our country.

Dr. Underbill, in relation to gases from brick yards, said, that it
was not satifactorily determined whether the injury to vegetation was
produced by sulphuretted hydrogen and the other gases from coal, or
sulphurous acid gas. The gas which does the injury was evidently
light, from the distance its effects are observed. With a moderate
breeze the gas will travel for miles from the kilns in the course of a
few hours. All along the river, from New-York to Albany, its effects
are discernable. He had carefully observed the action for six years,
desiring to learn some remedy for the evil, and what he said of the
extent and appearance of the injury he founded upon actual obser-
vation. Some remedy must soon be applied, or many of our best or-
chards and ornamental trees will be destroyed. Wherever the evil
lies, in the coal or the clay, or in both, we desire only to get at the
truth, and then we hope to find the much desired remedy.

Col. Clarke stated,that sulphurous acid gas, when disengaged, com-
bined with about 700 times its volume of water. He did not know
hov/ far the wind might carry it. It was evident, in cities, that the
carbonic acid gas, and carbonic oxide, disengaged by thousands of
coal fires, is not injurious to vegetation. Sulphurous acid gas is ve-
ry insidious and injurious. Sulphate of alumina exists in all clay; in
some near Baltimore to such an extent that alum is made from it by
the simple addition of potash.

Mr. Wakeman thought this discussion out of order, inasmuch as the
subject was in the hands of a committee, from whom no report had
yet been received.

248 [AssEiiBr.y

Mr. Van Wyck advised the committee to proceed with caution in
the premises. In any event it was an attack upon the brick makers
If the premises proved false, the niatter would be a blot on the repu-
t-ation of the committee and the Institute; if true, the farmers
would set up a cry against brick makers, and that also would react
on the Institute.

Mr. Ellsworth rose to call to order. It was a very delicate quesr
tion, and he hoped no debate would be allowed anterior to the report,
if the committee took two years to deliberate.

Dr. Underbill said, we should be very cautious; but when we
knew we had got hold of the truth we should speak out, let who •
will be offended.

After a few suggestions by Messrs. Van Wyck, Underbill and
Ellsworth,

Mr. Wakeman moved that Professor Ren wick of Columbia Col-
lege, and Dr. Chilton, both of this city, be added to the committee
on this subject, which motion prevailed.

Mr. Wakeman, from the committee on the subject of an Agricul-
tural college, then read the following

REPORT

Of the cmnmittee on the establishment of an Agricultural College,

The committee appointed on Tuesday to draft a resolution, expres-
sive of the views of the Convention on the suggestion concerning
the establishment of an Agricultural College and Pattern Farm, in or
near the city of New-York, beg leave to report:

Whereas, agricultural science is in its nature as extensive as life,
and embraces the actions of the ponderable and imponderable ele-
ments and the proximate principles of all living things, and the re-
ciprocal influences of form and constituence; and whereas, this sci-
ence involves the investigations of those most intricate and delicate
principles and actions, which investigations require such means and
abilities as place them beyond the compass of private citizens. And
whereas the commercial relations of the United States and the neces-
sary immediate connection of eight-tenths of our population with ru-
ral pursuits, and the consequent power, virtue and wealth of the na-
tion, require the greatest agricultural results at the least expense.

No. 151.] 249

which can only-be accomplished by. personal union of science. and
practical skill. And whereas, agricultural science is in its infancy,
and many of its leading principles just now evolving, and further, is
as yet unembodied — therefore

Resolved, Agriculture requires an institution with all necessary
appliances, for the cultivation and diffusion of its science, and its ap-
plication to all branches of rural industry.

Resolved, The American Institute be and hereby is requested and
urged to prosecute with zeal and perseverance the establishment of
such an institution, the reasons for which are contained in the follow-
ing memorial, addressed to the State Legislature at its last session, to
which the committee beg leave to refer:

To THD HONORAHLE LEGISLATURE OF THE StaTE OF NeW-YoUK;

The Farmers^ Club of the Jlmerican Ins'ilute respectfully petition
your Honorable body for the establishvxent near the city of JVeii>-
York, of an Agricultural College and Experimental Farm.

This application is caused by the growth of a new sentiment
among men. They have been habituated forages to see a very small
class of the community selected for education in colleges, acquiring
literature and science — thence filling the learned professions and influ-
encing legislation. This has been deemed a great good because it
secured the existence of learning at least if it did not render it suf-
ficiently general among men. But a new sentiment exists and grows
among all civilized men. That sentiment is, that the useful arts,
especially above all things, agriculture, must be elevated to their high-
est possible rank. That all our learning must be now connected
closely with these useful arts. That all the sciences of the colleges
— the powers of commerce collecting from the whole world, must
be brought to bear on the glorious fields of our country. That these
great resources should be all united in the production of fertility
where it is not, in the perfect culture of the staples which we already
posscs3, and the introduction of all those for which our country is
adapted; and what one is there of all the climates of our globe which
may not find a fit location in this empire union, embracing a,ll the
best latitudes for vegetation?

We respectfully ask that an experiment may now be tried in this
great State, of all those staples which can be found suitable to our
own location; so that New- York city, the emporium of. commerce, may,

250 [Assembly

by her thousand ships and roads, concentrate the first college and
trial farm for all vegetable productions.

We ask not for private advantages. The State can provide the
ground, and that will not fail to increase in value. The State can
watch the progress of the experiment and arrest it if it should fail
to answer the desired end. Having given by charter to the Ameri-
can Institute agriculture .is one of its purposes, and looking at the
course of the Institute during the last eighteen years in executing the
purposes of its incorporation, we respectfully submit the reasonable-
ness of the expectation that the Institute would carry out, satisfac-
torily, the agricultural college and farm, if it was entrusted with the
trial by your honorable body. It is firmly believed by us that the
college and farm can be put into operation by the grant of land and
suitable accommodations; and that it can be made to flourish and in-
crease without other limits than those of the State of New-York.

We must teach our young men as much of learning as will place
them on a fooling with the educated man of old Europe, and at the
same time fix in them a perfect knowledge of farming, and by their
daily labor on the college farm, that habit of body, strength and
health, without which all the book-learning in the world is but of
light value.

To an enlightened and patriotic legislature, it is needless for us to
urge any further reasons; those reasons reach the very deepest foun-
dations of our republic, and we well know that the legislature is im-
bued with them all.

Resolved, The commercial relations of the city of New-York, with
the whole world and all parts of our own country, recommend its
neighborhood as a proper location, and the city and State of New-
York, the proper source of public endowmenL.

All which your committee respectfully submit.

T. B. WAKEMAN,
J. DARRACH.

On motion, the report was accepted.

Mr. Van Epps, from the committee on the culture of silk, then
read the following report:

In reporting to this convehtinn on the subject of silk, your corn-
mitten have been at a loss to decide in v;hat aspect to present it, in
order to secure for it the greatest advantage from the action of this
body.

No. 151.] 251

Representing, as we do, almost every State in this Union, it is of
the utmost importance that the subject be presented in such a form
as to secure a concert of elfort, when we shall have returned to our
several States.

The practical connection of your committee with the silk business,
will naturally lead you to anticipate from us an accurate statement
of the present extent and condition of this enterprise.

It is with us a matter of regret that a branch of industry so evi-
dently and intimately connected with our interests as a nation, and
which, at the same time, has been so yulli/ and satisfactorily tested
in every latitude of our counti-y, should advance so .slowly, and elicit
the energies of so few of our people.

From a large number of communications to which your committee
have had access, we collect the most flattering evidences of success in
regard to the culture of silk, s-herever it has been undertaken with
system, and in accordance with the nature of this most delicate and
particular little insect, the silk worm.

Upon the bleakest highlands of Maine, among the hills of Ver-
mont, throughout the valley of the Ohio, and the sunny regions of the
extreme south, it has been alike successful — with only this difference,
that in the cooler regions of the north, the employment of artificial
heat has ,been occasionally necessary, to counteract the influence of
the chilly dews of the night, Vi^hich would otherwise materially retard
their growth, and weaken the constitution of the silk worm.

Here, not more than six or eight weeks can be relied upon for
feeding, while in some other sections the same number of months
can be devoted to the business, with less labor, and augmented suc-
cess.

On the subject of the mulberry tree, your committee would refer
to resolution No. 4, of the New-England Silk Convention, as pub-
lished in connection with the proceedings of this convention.

In regard to the manufacture of silk, we would only refer to the
silk department of the " Great National Fair of the American Insti-
tute,'* now in progress at Castle Garden.

We would advise every member of this convention to go there and
examine and handle those rich and elegant fabrics, honorable alike to

252 [Assembly

the hands that wrought them, and the soil that produced the raw
material from which they were fabricated.

We will find there the cocoon, the reeled silk, and in almost every
variety, satins, silks, and silk velvets; not perhaps so well finished
as some we may have seen from other countries, and far inferior to
what we shall ere long produce, but nevertheless beautiful and ser-
viceable, and such as any American citizen should feel proud to wear.

Of the ultimate success of the silk culture, your committee enter-
tain no doubt; but at the same time there are obstacles which have
long borne heavily upon our progress, and which, unless obviated,
must continue to embarrass us for many years to come, preventing
our success, until hundreds of millions more of gold and silver are
drained from our own resources to enrich those who oppress and de-
grade the unhappy operatives of other lands.

We wish to say emphatically that we believe no other country or
people so v.'cll calculated to perfect the whole silk business, as our
own.

The obstacles to which we refer are altogether artificial.

They are, unwise legislation on the part of the general govern-
ment, and the want of suitable encouragement from both national and
state authorities.

Your committee would here adopt resolutions No. 3, 5 and 6, of
the New-England Silk Convention, and offer the following addition-
al, viz.:

Resolvt.d, That we most earnestly urge upon the approaching Con-
gress, the importance of so correcting the duties upon both raw and
manufactured silks, as to give such protection for us as to place us
beyond the possibility of injury from foreign competition.

Resolvedf That the establishment by Congress of a nationnl fila-
ture, nursery, plantation and cocoonery in or near the District of
Columbia, under the superintendence of a competent and experienced
person, where individuals can obtain all the information necessary
for prosecuting the reeling of filk, the cultivation of the mulberry
tree, and the successful nurture of the silk worm, would be a measure
of the utmost importance to every section of the Union, and calcu-

No, 151.] 253

lated to advance the enterprise more than any other single instnimen
tality can do.

Resolved, That we believe it the duty of the legislat\:res of the
several States, each to offer immediately a liberal hoiinty for the pro-
duction of cocoons; and that we regret that the State of New-York
should have refused, in opposition to the memorials of a considerable
portion of the people, to renew a bounty whicli has been fostering the
business for six years past.

Resolved, That we recommend to state and county agricultural col-
leges and institutes, the importance of connecting with their opera-
tions a department for the culture of silk, under the direction of those
qualified to give instructions in this branch of industry.

All of which is respectfully submitted.

A. C. VAN EPPS,

J. B. HYDE,

J. M. SUMMEY,

H. P. BYRAM, Committee,

NEW-ENGLAND SILK CONVENTION.

The conventinn met at Northampton on Wednesday, August 19th,
pursuant to a call by the officers of the last year.

Mr. Daniel Stebbins, of Northampton, in the chair; J. W. Smith,
secretary.

The President stated that the officers had deem'^d it expedient to
call the convention at an earlier day than usual, ftnd had selected this
as the place (Dr. D.'s cocoonery), in order to show the subject in the
most practical and imposing manner. Before them were the silk-
worms feeding and spinning; yonder a reel with some most beautiful
silk just reeled from the cocoons, by Mr. A. C. Van Epps, of the
New-York filature, who, with his brother, have been here some time
feeding a crop of worms, which have been carried through success-
fully, to the admiration and satisfaction of numerous citizens and
strangers, who have from day to day visited them. In another part of
the building might be seen an extensive and splendid exhibition of
manufactured silk goods of a great variety — the handiwork of our
own countrymen, and from raw material of our oW-n production;

254 [Assembly

thus the STibject presented itself in its beginning, continuation and
completion, and certainly left no room for scepticism.

Then followed the appointment of officers for the ensuing year, viz:
Dr. Daniel Stebbins, President; J. W. Smith, Secretary.

A series of resolutions were then presented by Mr Van Epps,
which, after due discussion by the convention, were unanimously
adopted, viz. : '

Resolved, That we regard the numerous applications for informa-
tion in reference to the silk culture, which have been forwarded from
various sections of the country, as certain indications of a general
progress, and that the accumulated cases of success represented to
this convention, by communications and otherwise, furnish evidences
for increased confidence in the congeniality of American soil and cli-
mate, the entire qualification of our citizens for the production of this
delicate and valuable fabric; and leave no room to doubt, that indue
time it will become, what its evident importance demands it should
be, the leading staple of our country — furnishing with the raw ma-
terial, not only our own manufactures, but those also of France and
England. Hence,

Resolved, That we esteem it a patriotic duty, to urge forward the
business, by every means in our })ower,^as connected with individual
interests and the wealth of our common country.

Resolved, That we recommend the careful preservation and cultiva-
tion of the mulberry tree now among us, and to increase them tc^ a
sufficient extent to supply a constantly increasing demand; and that
we urge upon every farmer the planting of at least one acre of trees,
from the foliage of which one or more crops of worms may annually
be fed, without interfering with the ordinary pursuits of the farm.

Resolved, That we learn with regret the loss of numerous orchards
by frosts, the consequence of an improper selection of soil or the
use of too feeble a variety of the mulberry — -and hence, would urge
the necessity of high (or if low, well drained,) locations, and the
employment of those varieties of mulberry which have been thoroughly
tested, and are known to endure our winters. The Canton, Brousa,
Asiatic and Alpine are such. The morus multicaulis will thrive
south of latitude 41 degrees, and may be profitably employed; but
north of this is unsafe, except with the greatest care; whereas, the

No. 151.] 256

former will thrive and prove valuable in all parts of the country^
both north and south.

Resolved, That we view the change recently made by Congress in
the duties on imported silks, as altogether misjudged, and calculated
directly to thro 77 additional embarrassments in our way, which we
are altogether unprepared to surmount; and that unless a more judi-
cious policy be adopted by the next Congress, the business generally
must be immeasurably retarded, and in some of its branches utterly
destroyed.

Resolved, That we consider the practice of family reeling, pro-
ductive of irregular and imperfect raw silk, and thus greatly interfe-
ring with the after uses to which such silks may be devoted. Hence,
we recommend the establishment of a regular filature system, furnish-
ing a cash market for all the cocoons produced, as the only effectual
remedy for this evil, and intimately and inseparably connected with
the ultimate success of the enterprise. ^

Resolved, That Dr. Stebbins of this place, deserves the thanks of
this convention and the public generally, for his unceasing exertions
to secure and supply the country with the best varieties of the mul-
berry tree.

Voted, That the President and Secretary be authorized to call the
next Convention at such time and place as they may deem advisable;
and that they also be requested to receive any communications that
may be forwarded to them, for the National Convention of farmers,
gardeners and silk culturers, to be held in the city of New-York^
October 12th, in connection with the 19th Annual Fair of the Ameri-
can Institute.

Voted, That <hey (the President and Secretary) be authorized to
appoint one or more delegates to represent this Convention in New-
York, and to transmit by them any communications that may be for-
warded to them for this purpose.

Voted, that this Convention do now adjoura.

DANIEL STEBBINS, Presidevi.
J. W. Smith, Secretary.

On motion, the report was adopted.

256 [Assembly

Mi*. Van Epps then remarked —

Now that this report has received the approval of this Convention,
I wish to add a few brief suggestions, comprehending the subject of
silk culture generally in the United States. Within the last few
months I have spent some time in eight or ten of the most important
states of the union, and have neglected no opportunity of acquaint-
ing myself with the extent and prospects of the silk business. These,
with an extensive correspondence, and the facilities to which I have
had access, enable me to judge somewhat accurately of the whole
enterprise.

As far as I can learn, the number of persons engaged in it, and
the quantity of the raw material produced are about the same as dur-
ing the last three or four years. In every state more or less is doing,
attended by success corresponding exactly with the care and judg-
ment by which it is conducted. The importance of the business is
universally acknowledged, as also the congeniality of all the natural
facilities of our country for its prosecution. None doubt that silk
can be produced and manufactured here as well and better even than in
China or France. This we have taken for granted in our report, and the
Convention have acquiesced in the view. But still the business pro-
gresses slowly, if indeed at all.

And why is it 7 -

This question covers the whole field before us, and notwithstanding
it has already a thousand times been answered, I would have it re-
iterated in this hall, and placed conspicuously on the proceedings of
this Convention, and read by the tens of thousands into whose hands
our report shall be thrown.

The silk cause in this country has been wholly without guardian-
ship, an orphan, so to speak; for no systematic action has ever been
put forth by government for its benefit.

I do not hesitate to say, that had Congress properly fostered or
followed up the course Great Britain had commenced, we should this
day have been independent of all other nations for this beautiful
fabric, besides saving annually from twelve to fifteen millions of dol-
lars to contribute to the comfort of our own people, and add to the
wealth of the nation at large. What occasional encouragement has
been extended by Congress or state legislatures, has been so trifling
and uncertain, that they have failed to inspire confidence, and in the
end rather retarded the cause they designed to benefit. The tariff of

No. 151.] 257

•1842 was favoralDle to our interests, when not fraudulently avoide<3,
but even this has been withdrawn. I was at Washino-ton when the
-question of repeal was agitating Congress. And when the subject
of silk was undergoing the discussions of the committee, its interests
were faithfully presented, and after Gen. M'Kay's bill had been re-
ported, an amendment every way favorable was introduced and adopt-
ed by the committee in answer to the petitions forwarded, and per-
sonal influence exerted in the committee-room; but this was subse-
quently recnvaidered and stricken out, and the wishes of speculating
importers allowed to prevail over the known and acknowledged inter-
ests of our own citizens, and the welfare of the Union. We have
urged, in our report, the Importance of connecting the culture of silk
with the other operations of our farmers, and thus making it general.
In our opinion this is the only way to accomplish what we desire.

This is the course adopted by every nation in which the business
is carried to any great extent. It is not common to meet with those
who make it an exclusive business. I suppose that few establish-
ments in the world exceed that of the German society at Economy,
Penn. It can be made profitable upon a large scale; but we can
never expect to produce a supply except through the masses of our
citizens, whose other pursuits enable them to engage in it to a
moderate extent without interfering materially with other branches,
or adding much to their expense. The hutter and cheese p.inciple is
the onl} one upon which we can depend.

As the only means for bringing this about, we have urged state boun-
ties. And here, rather than upon any measures the general govern-
ment can adopt, are my hopes centred. Give us from each state per-
manent liberal bounties, Jlrst upon mulberry-trees, and then upon co-
coons and reeled silk, and the progress of the business would astonish
the workl.

I believe it would be a wise policy for every State to establish,
under competent superintendence, an extensive nursery, from which
to supply the farmers with trees; connected with which might be
besides several large buildings for feeding a normal silk school and
state filature. But with or without some such plan we must have
bounties, or we shall never make silk. I have spent much time and
some money in my efforts in this enterprise, but unless a new and
better policy is soon adopted, I must withdraw my influence and
abandon it forever. In this, I am sure, I speak the language of many
others, who have done much, and whose influence has, been felt, too,

[Assembly, No. 151.] 17

253 [Assembly

ID forwarding this business, and who would most gladly devote their
li?es to it.

I would here suggest the propriety, inasmuch as this is a national
convention, of preparing a general circular, or memorial, addressed
to the legislatures of the Several states, on the importance of offering
bounties, and otherwise providing for the advancement of silk culture.
It will not do to delay. I think such a memorial would effect im-
mense good. I hope it may be done.

ITr. Rfeigs said he had taken some pains to learn what was going
on in Europe in relation to silk. Though France raises great quanti-
ties of silk, it is not done under government patronage or by large
associations. It is raised by individuals, single families, giving em-
ployment to children and old people. The only way to sustain and
advance the culture of silk in any country is on this principle. Sup-
pose the amount from each farm is small — say $25 only in value,
look at the aggregate where nearly every farm has this trifling moiety.

Mr. Hyde spoke of successful cultivation in families and of in-
stances of failure in companies.

Mr. Wakeman observed that there was one subject which should
become a constituent part of agricultural and of all education — a
subject very much affecting the interests of a nation; it was, " the
influence of the tariffs and commercial regulations of other nations
upon our agriculture."

Mr. Ellsworth complimented Senator Niles, of Connecticut, on his
efforts for the advancement of American manufactures, not only in
public but private life.

Gen. Mercer remarked that Great Britain was like the fox who
lost his tail; she had been absolutely forced to adopt free trade, and
now she wants all other nations to do as she has done. America has
every advantage over England for manufacturing except cheap labor.
England knows if she could induce all the great powers to proclaim
free trade she would become the work-shop of the world. Firm and
liberal laws and mineral resources like those of England and Ameri-
ca, will make any nation great. I am satisfied that our^country pos-
sesses these in a greater degree than any other on the face of the
earth, and especially for manufactures. Her extent is equal to that
of Rome in her palmiest days; 1,600,000 square miles in the heart
of the temperate zone. If Rome became so great in early ages, all

No. 151.] 259

the -while embroiled in foreign or civil wars, what may not we be-
come, with the intelligence of this latter era and the advantages of
peace? England's power arises partly from her position, and partly
from her mighty navy; but for the channel, Bonaparte would have
swept her from existence; her navy, the strong arm of her defence, is
sustained by her commerce, and commerce by her manufactures.
Commerce and manufactures make a nation.

Hon. Mr. Simmons, U. S. Senator, from Rhode Island, said, " I
have long desired for the benefit of all men to see this question of
protection become the common sentiment, irrespective of party lines.
We have differences of opinion enough on other subjects. Thi^idea
of protection forced itself upon me, not from books or from the de-
clarations of others, but from the results of actual experience; and it
does me good to meet men with hearts so elevated as the honorable
gentleman from Virginia, who boldly comes out in favor of what he
once opposed — for if one effort of the mind is more excellent than
another, it is the correction of early snd enduring impressions. [Mr.
Simmons bore testimony to the exertions of Senator Niles, of Con-
necticut, w^ith whom he had been associated on committees, and who
* made more impression with less ostentation upon those he ad-
dressed,' than any other man with whom he was acquainted.]

" The ' influence of tariffs' is too broad to be here entered into.
The gentleman who preceded me seemed to think that her judiciary
system was the sheet anchor of England. I consider the sheet an-
chor of any nation to be liberal wages for labor, fair remuneration
for the labor of the head and hand. If you have no starving peo-
ple, you have no need of an energetic police. Remuneration for la-
bor and correct public sentiment through the medium of liberal edu-
cation, is the true basis of a free government. One of the reasons
for prosecuting all branches of industry in this country, is the good
influence of manufactures oil agriculture. Our factories of all kinds
are not congregated in one great Birmingham; we use water power,
which necessarily disperses factories all over the country; England
uses steam, the effect of which is to aggregate factories and popula-
tion. The moral effect of this concentration of w^ealth and work-
men is bad, for where there is a dense population there will vice and
misery seek a home. Water power, of which we have such an abun-
dance all over the land, is cheaper than steam, always by the value
of fuel, and in many instances by the cost of fuel and engine. Wa-
ter power, forbidding aggregation and scattering factories all over

260 ' [Assembly

the country, gives agriculture a market at her own door and furnishes
the farmer with the very goods and implements he wants within an
hour's ride of his homestead.

" In a moral view, too, it is good. The little villages springing
up, new improved water works, are large enough to invite schools
and academies, yet not so large as to support gambling houses and
like pestilences.

" In regard to the free trade, no nation but England could adopt it
with any degree of rationality. It is her object, it is essential to
her prosperity, that she should obtain the monopoly of the world.
The German league excluded her fabrics in that quarter; our coarse
cottons interfered with her in several foreign ports; rise in food was
increasing the cost of production — for to give corresponding increas-
ed wages would bring the actual cost of many of her manufactures
above that of ours. Therefore to compete with us, and reduce the
cost of her productions, she must have cheaper food, which would
follow free trade as a matter of course; and therefore the duties
were modified. How far her agriculturists will question this modifi-
cation, remains to be seen. But it is her policy in this modification
to look for remuneration to other nations; when she takes the value
of .£5,000,000 she expects to send £10,000,000 in return, keeping
the cash balance in her favor.

" I do not look upon the recent modification of our tariff as likely
to be at once very pernicious; the greatest evil that first ensues is
want of confidence in the stability of the government policy. Some
look upon all laws which spring from a parental regard by the go-
vernment for the prosperity of her children, the people, as an inter-
ference with personal rights. Still there is no monopoly among us,
as there has been in England in many instances. Trade between
our Stc-tes and people is unrestricted. What we desire by protec-
tion is security against foreign competition — to secure American
supplies for American markets; believing manufactures to be as de-
sirable in this country as agriculture.

" In Rhode Island the cotton manufacture was begun the year she
came into the Union. A memorial was immediately sent to Con-
gress at Philadelphia, asking to have the duty of three cents per
pound on raw cotton taken off. One of the Senators from Georgia
advised the petitioners to take back their memorial, telling them that
if the duty was kept on, Georgia would in a few years raise cotton

No. 151.] 261

enough to supply all the Union. The memorial was not presented,
cotton enjoyed its protective duty unmolested, and the prophecy was
quickly fulfilled. From this beginning, under protection, our cotton
crop has grown to an extent and importance unparalleled, still en-
joying (I believe) its protective tariff; and in it we have material
to clothe the world.

" I have always looked upon England as a great and generally
well governed country, a country always looking to her own inte-
rests. There is much to admire in her character — more in her policy.
Yet I never had the least apprehension of her power. We want in
this country a little more self reliance, and the position we occupy
will be impregnable. I have often thought that if the government
of the United States should assume any just position in opposition to
European powers, and withhold our cotton from Ihem for one year,
they would be willing to concede to our terms. It is our duty to be
just to others, generous to ourselves. I have great hope in such bo-
dies as the American Institute, and desire that party may never
thrust its unwelcome presence therein. I hope that all our people,
without distinction of party, will look upon protection to our indus-
try as a question in which all are alike interested. I have no party
feeling therein; I urge it as an American measure of deep interest to
all Americans; and I believe that the gratitude of laboring men will
be the rich reward of those of our leading men who do most in this
great cause."

Mr. Ellsworth spoke briefly of some eastern manufactories, and
urged the importance of that branch of our industry.

Mr. Meigs. " What is protection? A defence against something.
A roof is a protection against the rain; a fort is protection against
an enemy. What do you ask of a power? Do you ask protection
in your religion? If it is not granted, who will blame you if you
plant a cannon in your church to defend your right of conscience?
Do you ask protection in your work shops? Plant your cannon there
also. My idea of protecdon goes this extreme length. And this
protection is no new discovery; it was familiar to such men as Ha-
milton and Jefferson, and President Stiles inculcated it in 1760."

Mr. Ellsworth spoke briefly of the water power and manufacture's
in and near Hartford, Connecticut.

Dr. Underbill, from the committee on grapes and wine, made the
following

262 [ASSSEMBLT

REPORT

Of the Committee appointed hy the Convention of Farmers, Gar-
deners* and Silk Cnlturists, on the culture of the native grape for
wine, and for the table.

Whereas, the culture of the native grape for wine and for the ta-
hie has been tried successfully, while every attempt to introduce the
foreign for vineyard purposes has failed; and whereas, the amount
of money that might be kept in the country, that is now sent abroad
for these purposes, would be many millions, which would open a new
field for the industry ol our people; and whereas, the well known
antiseptic and diluent properties of the grape, when used Ireely, ex-
ert a beneficial influence on the constitution, enabling it to ward off
the autumnal fevers, an effect observed so frequently in the vine-
yard districts of France, that it has become a common expression,
that if you use the grape freely you will escape the fall fevers.

Therefore Resolved, That the culture of the native grape is a sub-
ject of primary importance, and that it be recommended to all the
agricultural associations over the Union, to make experiments with
the different kinds growling in their vicinity, to ascertain their pro-
perties^ to test their qualities, procure seedlings from them, and by
high cultivation to secure such a variety of choice grapes, as will
lay the foundation for as successful vineyard culture in this country
as has been attained in any part of Europe.

On behalf of the committee,

R. T. UNDERBILL,

Chairman.

Mr. Hall said he was not aware that he was a member of the
committee whose report had just been read. He dissented from some
of its sections. The benefit of grapes in fevers he was not prepared
to admit. Nor did he entirely agree with what was said in relation
to raising foreign grapes in open air.

Dr. Underbill said foreign grapes could sometimes be raised with
great care, in gardens, but there was not a successful vineyard of
them in the country, though they had been tried in almost every
State in the Union. So far as he knew, every vineyard had entirely
failed. Yet if any one chooses, let him tread the beaten track of
failure, he would not object.

No. 151.] 263

Mr. Hall agreed as respects large vineyards. But we have a wide
country, many parts of which have not yet been tried. There is at
least room for further experiment.

Dr. Underhill said the foreign vines had been taken up at George-
town College, and the Isabella and Catawba are to take their place.
He related the failure of foreign grapes in Ohio, Indiana and many
other States. Still he would be glad to see foreign varieties culti-
vated under glass for early table fruit. But our native grapes may
easily be made to produce so abundant as to supply our tables for
eight months in the year, and make a sufficiency of wine besides.
Moreover, they may be so improved, and in some instances heme
been, as to be almost, I may say quite as good as the best foreign
varieties. As an article of food, they are valuable at all seasons,
more especially in autumn, when their antiseptic properties dilute
the blood, carry off the bile, and reduce the tendency to bilious fe-
ver and kindred complaints.

Gen. Dearborn said, I bestowed, during eight or ten years, great
care and labor on foreign grape vines j after patiently trying every
-art and science to produce a favorable result, I succeeded in raising
just no grapes at all, and all my exertions ended in smoke; for I
pulled up the vines and burnt them. My father was government mi-
nister at Lisbon, and while there, took great pains to get choice
vines, which he forwarded with ample directions, to me. I cultiva-
ted them seven years with no success, and then dug them up. I now
have the Isabellas and Catawbas. There is scarcely a man near Bos-
ton but has made like experiments. Sometimes they got a bunch of
•grapes, generally not; unless indeed, they kept their vines under
glass; in which case the fruit was abundant and fine, as the exhi-
bitions of the Horticultural Society, over which I have the honor to
preside, have shown. We have had these grapes highly praised by
men who have travelled along the shores of the Mediterranean — -the
very region of good grapes. When I was in Congress, I visited
Col. Adams', President Madison's and Governor Barbour's vineyards,
in all which, the foreign vine had failed. On the plantation once
the seat of Joel Barlow, a man of considerable reputation as a hor-
ticulturist, the foreign vines had been dug up, and natives substitu-
ted. When the refugees from France came to this country. Congress
gave them a tract of land on the Black Warrior. There they planted
a noble vineyard of foreign vines; but it was very soon abandoned.
Many other instances of the disastrous result of cultivating foreign
vines I could mention, but these will suffice. Concerning the health-

2Q4 [AsSEMBLl''

ful properties of grapes, a single statement will be satisfactory.
Some years ago, while a French army was going to Italy, they halt-
ed for a time at the foot of the Alps. While there, a malignant dy-
sentery broke out among them, and men died with alarming rapidity.
The disease baffled all the efforts of the French army physicians —
and of their skill, fame has borne abundant witness. They went ta
an eminent physician of the town near by, craving his counsel.
"Give them ripe grapes," said he; " send out your commissaries and
buy up all the vineyards; let those who are able, go into them and
eat as long as they choose, and bring in enough for their feebler com-
panions." This advice was followed, and to the surprise of the army,
the disease was instantly stopped. No more weie taken sick, and
many who had been given up to die, recovered.

Dr. Underbill was glad to hear this confirmation of his experience
from a gentleman so trite and correct in his observations, as the ho-
norable chairman.

Mr. Wakeman observed, that much had been said of the great
stress laid upon protection, by the American Institute. He thought
that members should be guarded in expressing their views. He had
b«een a member from the first, and never knew a question of politics
raised. The first address was issued to the public by the Institute
almost twenty years ago. It was then unanimously approved in a
full meeting at Tammany Hall, by all political parties. Col. Few,
one of the grand sachems of Tammany, presided at the meeting, and
signed the address as president, and John Mason, one of our best and
most successful merchants, as vice-president. Not a whisper that it
was political, from any quarter. The same principles have been ad-
vocated down to this time, and unhesitatingly sanctioned by the
members composed of all parties. What grand discovery is now
made, that has escaped the keen vision of all that have gone before?
It is preposterous! I can bear witness, that to my recollection,
among all the members admitted for nineteen years, I never heard
the question, to what political party the candidate belonged. And
e\'ery clerk will bear testimony to the same. At his request,

Mr. Meigs read a portion of the records of the Institute, dated
March 11th, 1S2S, as follows:

ADDRESS AND RESOLUTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTI-
TUTE.

At a meeting of the "American Institute of the city of New-
York," held at Tammany Hall on the 11th of March, 1828, the

No. 151.] 265

committee appointed for that purpose, submitted the following ad"
dress to the society, and on motion it was Resolved, That the same
be adopted, signed by the President, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries,
and published.

Resolved, Th2t the formation of societies similar to this Institute,
in the different counties of this State and neighboring States, be re-
commended to the friends of the "American System," and that they
be requested to give public notice of their several organs of com-
munication.

Resolved, That associations embracing similar objects with this
Institute, that already are, or which may hereafter be formed, are in-
vited to correspond with this association, for the purpose of collect-
ing and diffusing information.

ADDRESS.

Fellow Citizens: — The members and associates of " The Ame-
rican Institute of the City of JSTew-York,'^ having been impelled by
motives which we are conscious, proceed from public spirit and pa-
triotism alone, to organize a society under the above title, it belongs
to us, in submitting our proceedings to the public eye, to present to
you the considerations by which we have been actuated. We shall
accordingly state to you with entire frankness, the objects of our as-
sociation, and the means which we propose for their accomplish-
ment.

The members of the society, entertaining the same views in rela-
tion to the policy of encouraging and protecting our national indus-
try, have believed that the most effectual service that can be rendered
to that cause is the diffusion of a more thorough and intimate know-
ledge of our national resources — agricultural, commercial and manu-
facturing. Anticipating, from the inquiries and labors of zealous
advocates of our principles, acting in concert, the most favorable
operation upon public sentiment, they have resolved to unite them-
selves as a society, under the name of " The American Institute of
the City of New-York." In the constitution it has adopted, the ob-
jects of its foundation are declared to be: — " to promote improvements
in the Mechanic Arts; to encourage American Industry in Agricul-
ture, Mamfactures and Commerce; and to sustain such a system of
policy as will protect the great JYational hiterests of our Country. ^^

Such are the objects of our society; and although in attempting by

266 [Assembly

our humble labors to contribute to the advancement of these great
interests, we may not escape the charge of presumption — we hope
at least, to gain credit for patriotic intentions. As our efforts are to
be directed to the connection and investigation of facts — to the exa-
mination of the sure sources of national wealth and prosperity — as
we propose, from time to time, to appeal to the public attention
"with established facts and principles, with dispassionate reasoning
and researches alone — may we not reasonably confide, not only that
our motives will be favoraby appreciated, but that some success may
follow our exertions? A beneficial influence may always be exerted
upon the public mind by stimulating inquiry; erroneous notions and
prejudices may be corrected, and we may aid in inspiring that self-
reliance upon American skill and American industry, which becomes
a nation of our population and resources. In a government like ours,
the basis on which all legislative encouragement to national industry
can alone repose, must be the information and wishes of the people.
"We have all seen and felt the importance, when the public sentiment
"was to be warmed into action, of concentrating the scattered rays of
light by artificial means. It is thus that animation and movement
are produced, while, in the ordinary course of events, an atmosphere
would have prevailed, dense with palpable ignorance, and fatal to
activity and enterprise.

Similar societies for the promotion of domestic industry, have for
many years existed in several of our sister cities; much of the valua-
ble information, and the tone of public sentiment throughout our
country, in favor of the American System, may be traced to their
activity and concert. Their example may serve at once for our
guide and our encouragement.

The permanent prosperity of our country, we conceive, must rf«-
pend upon maintaining a perfect union; a healthful action and re-
action between the three great branches of our national industry. To
maintain such an equilibrium among them as nearly as possible, is
the avowed object, and as we believe, the sure tendency of the prin-
ciples of the American System. The agriculture, or the commerce,
or the manufactures, of any particular country, may either of them,
under supposable circumstances, be so lucrative a channel of em-
ployment, that the great mass of its capital and all its enterprise
shall tend toward that particular employment for years together. As
long as the circumstances exist which gave that impulse and direc-
tion to them, so long will that particular channel swell with a tide
of capital and industry, which shall overflow and enrich the whole

No. 151.] 267

country. In such a peculiar state of any one branch of the Industry
of a nation, the comparative neglect of the others would scarcely be
felt or perceived. But it is only an extraordinary state of the whole
world that could produce so miraculous an effect upon any one
branch of the industry of any particular country.

An entirely opposite state of things now prevails, and has, with
trifling exceptions, prevailed in all modern nations and times. The
mutual dependence and support of agriculture, commerce and manu-
factures, in the ordinary and permanent state of our country, in par-
ticular, are so universally recognized as to have passed into a max-
im; it is on that basis that the policy and legislation of our country
to promote the general welfare, must be founded. The national wealth
and prosperity must flow from the reciprocal action; the intimate de-
pendence and mutual demands of all the three branches of our na-
tional industry. To produce this practical unity — to establish be-
tween agriculture, manufactures and commerce, a permanent system
of mutual exchanges, has been the aim and labor of all great states-
men in modern times, who have aimed at making their country rich,
prosperous and powerful. They have cherished internal as well as
external commerce; not as a separate and isolated interest, but as
interwoven and incorporated with agricultural and manufacturing
industry. It is impossible that too much encouragement can be
given to either class of industry, unless accompanied with measures
tending to depress the others. To encourage one, is to encourage
all; so intimate is the relation between them — so perfect their unity
and identity of interest.

Fully impressed with the truth of these general principles, it is
with the deepest concern and regret that we daily witness so many
attempts, in various quarters, to create and perpetuate a spirit un-
friendly to the growth and prosperity of our own manufactures. It
is as much to be wondered at, as to be deplored, that misguided
zeal should be so long able to withstand the lights of experience, as
well as the deductions of reason, on this subject. We are persuaded
that the idea which has obtained in some quarters, that the exten-
sion and prosperity of American manufactures are unfriendly to
American commerce, internal or external, is not of domestic origin.
The very first commercial regulations of our government under the
now constitution — the tariff established at the commencement of
Washington's administration; — that act proclaims, upon its face and
front, that the duties are established, as well for the encouragement of
our own manufactures, as for the collection of revenuq.

268 [Assemble

It was at that period of our government that the sagacious and
profound statesmen, who then presided over the treasury department,
recommended to the wisdom of Congress the protection of our infant
manufactures. If the illustrious author of the report which contains
that recommendation, had left behind him no other memorial of his
enlarged and liberal policy, of the vast reach of his political views,
of his wisdom and decision, the name of Hamilton would have gone
down to posterity as the Colbert of his country. It is memorable,
that at that period the correctm ss of his principles was almost uni-
versally assented to by American statesmen. Our manufactures
had then scarcely budded. They were not of sufficient importance
to awaken the jealousy of foreign manufactures. But as they have
struck their roots wider and deeper in our soil, as their branches
have spread so as to cast an increasing shadow upon foreign compe-
tition, we have seen a new spirit and theory of national policy set
up in opposition to the spirit and the theory which Hamilton incul-
cated. If this new hypothesis had been confined to those who were
at the pains to instruct us, that it was our true policy to continue to
buy foreign manufactures and neglect our own, because the foreign
manufacturer could afford to undersell the American, then the error
would not have been very extensive, or of very long continuance.
But the foreign authors of it called to their aid the theories of free
and unrestricted commerce; totally inapplicable and absurd, while
their own governments loaded our commerce with restrictions and
prohibitions. They summoned to their aid, also, the prejudices of a
large portion of the commercial community, by alarming their fears
with predictions of the unfavorable operation of manufactures on for-
eign commerce, and by representing them as an interest rival and
hostile to the commercial. They have sought also, with great suc-
cess, to rouse the jealousies of the cotton planter, and to persuade
him that he must buy foreign manufactures, or pay exorbitant pri-
ces for inferior American fabrics, if he did not indeed forfeit the for-
eign market for his cotton. These have been the chief elements of
the opposition, which has been so long maintained to the American
System.

Over all these obstacles and errors that system has thus far tri-
umphed. A large majority of the American people are known and
admitted to be in its favor. Its progress is steady, and its march is
firm. But an active and zealous minority have often, in this as in
other instances, succeeded in delaying where they could not event-
ually defeat. Exertions and sacrifices are made to sustain the in-
terest of the foreign manufacturer, which, if made in the cause of

No. 151.] 269

American industry, from patriotic, and not from narrow and interest-
ted motives, would entitle these champions to civic wreaths, and the
public gratitude.

The friends of the American system are called upon to make some
efforts in counteraction of principles and designs which we believe
to be subversive of the true and enlightened policy of our country.
We, in particular, are called on to vindicate our commercial empo-
rium from the reproach — that a spirit exists here, among our own
citizens, unfriendly to the growth of American manufactures j un-
friendly to the equal pace of agricultural, manufacturing and com-
mercial prosperity.

As if the city of New-York, the great mart to which the products
of the whole country, which enter into commerce, agricultural or man-
ufacturing, tend with a centripetal force, which every day enlarges
its sphere of attraction; — to which agriculture and manufactures,
even beyond the mountains, are constantly seeking avenues — as if
the commerce of such a city was to be a loser and not a gainer by
their general prosperity and activity!

There needs but little insight into the details of the commerce of
our city and the country at large, to show how utterly groundless and
fallacious in experience the idea has been proved — that manufactures
are injurious to commerce, and that as they increase commerce must
decline.

Precisely the reverse is the verdict of experience. For as our
manufactures have increased, the variety and amount of our exports
have increased along with them. Already our coarse cotton fabrics
come into competition with, if they do not indeed exclude, those of
European nations in South American markets. The most valuable
commerce which any nation can carry on, must always be the inter-
change of the productions of its own industry, for those of other na-
tions who will receive them. Agricultural products, bread-stuffs in
particular, few countries will ordinarily receive from any other; for
almost all depend on their own soil for their supplies, and take un-
wearied pains to foster their own agriculture. As our manufactures
increase in extent and variety, we furnish more articles for export to
the different nations in the four quarters of the globe, with whom we
carry on commerce, who do not produce them. If we seize on these
proffered facilities, our own agriculture and manufactures, like those
of England and France, will sustain and extend our -foreign com-

270 FAssembly

merce. We have succeeded in foreign markets, by the help of pro-
tection, in some articles of extensive demand. Why not in others
■with the same advantages? Is there a hopeless want of skill, of in-
dustry or of capital in our country, that should consign us to despair
and inactivity? Is there an American that will give countenance to
such a reproach — who will not repel it as an insulting calumny upon
his country?

At this era, we need not long dread the prevalence of the idea we
have alluded to, of any inj.urious operation upon foreign commerce
resulting from manufactures. Experience is every day refuting it,
with proofs that must soon accumulate to an irresistible force. But
it is our task to aid, if possible, in hastening the complete triumph
of a system which has yet to encounter so many and serious obstacles.

It has still to encounter, as heretofore, the resistance of an army of
foreign agents; backed by the specious objections and arguments of
their domestic allies, who, though refuted again and again, can argue
still as ingeniously as ever. It has to encounter the threats of violent
enemies, the treachery of pretended, and the neglect of lukewarm
friends. It has still to contend against ancient errors and misrepre-
sentations, and still more ancient and besotted prejudices. It belongs
to its friends to pronounce, by their activity and constancy, whether
the contest shall be ended at orjce and forever: or >vhether it shall be
left to time and accident to bring it to a close — whether this system
shall be practically enforced, or remain for years a theme of still be-
ginning discussions and debates.

After all that has taken place, we rally, at this time, under the
most auspicious circumstances. The American System has found fa-
vor in the eyes of a large majority of the American people; and
their voice is daily demanding its extension, in a louder and more
imperative tone. There needs but concert and activity to give it the
force and form of an irreversible decree.

In adopting this mode of uniting our exertions, and in recom-
mending the same course to our fellow-citizens who concur in our
views, through the state and country, we are most solicitous to avoid
all imputation of party motives and designs. We have suffered no
feelings or views, in relation to the parties of the day, to intrude into
our deliberations. On all occasions, we shall most scrupulously ab-
stain from any interference in the struggle for power, which has un-
happily severed our country into two political parties, except in so

No. 151.] 271

far as either of them raay evince hostility to the protection of Ameri-
can industry. With a deep concern for our country's welfare and
honor, we cannot but deplore the spirit with which the contest is
conducted. But this expression of our regret is the onlj alluiion we
shall make to its existence.

The only political object to which we direct our labors, we have
already freely avowed. It is to aid in rallying the friends of the
American system in support of its principles; in giving such an im-
pulse to the public sentiment in its favor, that whoever may adminis-
ter the government, and whoever may legislate for the general wel-
fare, the voice of the peop'e shall be heard in unison on this subject
at least — demanding in terms not to be mistaken, that full and un-
stinted protection to American industry, of which our agriculture, our
manufactures and commerce all stand in equal need.
JVeW'York, March, 1828.

WILLIAM FEW. President
John Mason, 1^^ Vice PresiderU^

C. Bolton, 2d do ||

Peter H. Schenck, 2d do

Enos Baldwin, 4th do

Anson Haydn, 5th do

John B. Yates, } „ ^ .
T , o r Secretaries,

J. A. iSmELL, ^

Mr. Ellsworth agreed in the importance of excluding all politics
in whatever shape, from the doings of the American Institute.

Mr. Wakeman said it had been usual to call this Convention to-
gether, by resolution, at the former session, during the Fairs of the
Institute. He now raised a question of expediency in regard to its
meeting at such times.

Mr. Van Wyck thought, as the object was to get as full an at-
tendance as possible, it might be expedient to meet at some other time.

Other suggestions were made by Messrs. Ellsworth and Lawrence.

Gen. Dearborn differed from the previous speakers toto ccelo. We
don't come here to inform each other; we come for more definite ob-
jects. I do not oelieve in instruction by great meetings and studied
eloquence. In the learned societies of Europe a few men do all the
work. In Congress, when a subject has been debated half the ses-
sion, it may be referred to a committee of nine — if three of the com-

272 [Assembly

mittee attends its business session it is very good luclc, and then some
good, easy member must be found who is willing to undertake the
getting up of the bilL He does the work as best suits him, and that
is often all the committee knows or cares of it until it is read. The
immortal works of Praxiteles, Milton, Newton, and La Place were
not produced by great conventions, nor yet small committees — only
one mind could work out their immortality. I do not believe in
talking — we come here to do something. But as I am not a mem-
ber of your Institute, I am perhaps intruding with these remarks. I
can only plead a Yankee's meddlesome privilege, and hope you will
excuse me if I assume too much for my station.

at

Mr. Meigs said it would never do to discontinue these meetings.
It does not require a large attendance to do good. The Athenaeum
in Liverpool is a notable instance of what a few may accomplish.
Roscoe, meeting a friend one morning, began to recount the neces-
sity for such a building. They agreed to call a meeting; advertised
largely, and got together two men only — themselves. Roscoe was
appoint^ chairman and his friend secretary; they, the meeting,
*' unanimously resolved" thus and so, as the case required, and pub-
lished their proceedings the next morning as those of a highly en-
thusiastic and respectable meeting, which none could gainsay. A
subscription was opened, and in a short time the splendid edifice
was erected. Dr. Mitchell, twenty-five years ago, got up an agri-
cultural society, the preliminary meeting of which he alone attended.

Mr. Folsom remonstrated against abandoning these meetings. A
great deal of knowledge was here obtained. He was aware that
words were not wisdom — that the only way to advance was to work
alone; but we want prompting, and we here get hints to w^ork up-
on, which we scatter in our separation to all parts of the country.

Dr. Underbill w^as not sorry for Mr. Wakeman's suggestion; not
that he by any means desired the Convention discontinued, but it
showed how it was appreciated by those present. He hoped that its
meetings would be continued as at present; the Fair brings together
just the men we want from all parts of the country.

The chairman sug^gested that a room nearer the Fair would be bet-
ter. If a man. gets but one good idea at one of these meetings it
well pays him for coming.

After a few w^ords from Mr. Ellsworth on the increase of the cat-
tle show from year to year,

No. 151.] 273

On motion of Mr. Lawrence, the Convention adjourned to meet
during the next annual Fairs, on a day to be hereafter fixed.

H. A. S. DEARBORN, President

T. C. MUNN,

D. J. Browne,

Secretaries,

The following memorial was read and approved by the Conven-
tion:

To THE Honorable Legislature of the State of New- York.

The Farmers' Club of the American Institute respectfully petition
your honorable body for the establishment of an agricultural college
and experimental farm, near the city of New* York, under the care of
the American Institute.

Your petitioners believe that in the purchase of a farm and erec-
tion of suitable buildings, the State reserving the right of property
— no pecuniary loss to the State will ensue on account of the in-
creasing value of land near this greatly increasing metropolis.

We need not tell such men as constitute the majority of your hon-
orable body, that to the agricultural branch of national industry eve-
ry possible encouragement is eminently due.

We only endeavor to show that we are of the fixed faith that a
republic rests upon agricultural labor not only for its comfort and
wealth, but upon the workers of the land for virtue and for perpetu-
ity of our great republican system. We wish also to say, that not-
withstanding men have always found the true glory of their existence
dependent on agricultural labors — yet it has occurred in the history
of nations, that a false pride, generated by wealth and prosperity,
has been the cause of the decline and fall of empires. When a na-
tion has ceased to honor the cultivators of the land it has been con-
sumed by the consequence of that neglect. We desire to say that
no expense and no effort should be spared to sustain and to honor the
labor of the farmer — by public protection, by public notice, by pub-
lic rewards renderinof that ambition now more common in the other
pursuits of life — greatly more so in the noble pursuits of the farmer.

And that the highest degree of instruction should be given to our
cultivators — so that every product of the farm of the- world may be

[Assembly, No. 151.] 18

274 [ASSEMBLT

introduced among us, and every information in relation to them
may be universally diffused.

With this view, we believe that an agricultural college and expe-
rimental farm can be of distinguished advantage to our country.
And as the city of New-York is by commerce connected with all parts
of the world, and readily receives all the productions of the earth,
and by the vast consumption of food — by the manure of more cattle
and horses, Sfc, on this spot than on any other in America, by the
refuse of articles employed in works of all sorts, the city of New-
York is capable of affording more material for fertilizing soil than
any other spot in this country. For it is a fair subject of calculation
and will result in this, that the half million of people in New-York
and the immediate vicinity, furnish those means for enriching more
land than will sustain a million of people. And the city is also full
of strangers from all parts of the world who can be induced to
bring with them from every quarter, seeds, plants, animals, books and
every thing that a State experimental farm can employ, at the least
expense.

And as it has a great and increasing population, of which it is
desirable that thousands should be made to love and understand agri-
culture— as there are numerous sensible capitalists who prefer for their
children the life of a farmer rather than manufactures, or than the
learned professions, who would avail themselves of such a college as
this, we hope that your honorable body will take the first important
step in our country for the establishment of such a college. We re-
spectfully urge these as arguments for commencing the agricultural
education here, hoping that when the trial here is found to be suc-
cessful, then the State will establish like institutions in all the sections
of our country suitable for them. If there is any thing true in our
views of the distinguished importance of such an agricultural school,
where could it do more good than in the vicinity, under the eye of a
vast city population? We trust that of all public institutions such
an one, by its wholesome example, would continuall}' attract from
inferior avocations, thousands of the growing youth of the city to
the manly, noble exercises of such a school as this, keeping thus al-
ways before the eye of our great metropolis the inestimable evidence
of the high value of- a practical, economical, intelligent and heal-
thy nursery of. young men, contrasting deeply with the puny ineffi-
cient offspring of mere city growth.

The American Institute would provide in such a college, that eve-
ry student should acquire the best knowledge to be obtained from the

No. 151.] 275

rest of the world, and that he every day practically execute with his
own hands the various work of a farm, and give him at once such
an education as would enable him to farm in the best manner, and to
represent his fellow citizens if necessary, in the halls of legislation.

It is high time in our opinion that such should be the education
of an American citizen, so that a large majority of the representa-
tives at all times should be farmers well educated.

And when we consider how large is the amount appropriated for
colleges and universities, we think that it is becoming in the landed
interest to ask . for a liberal appropriation for that, the superior consi-
deration of our country.

The governments of the old world are recently making great efforts
at the national expense, in this interesting subject. America ought
to be foremost. Her people should never suffer kings and emperors
to shadow the glory of our republic by leading in such eminent le-
gislation as this. Let us have the richest farms, the most excellent
crops, the most perfect plows, spades and hoes — ^^and above all other
things the most highly intelligent men to use them all.

This was so in the best days of the greatest nations, and we be-
fieve that is our duty to excel them all. It is but to say so and it
will be done. Your wisdom will easily regulate the conduct of the
agricultural college; you will make its administration strictly eco-
nomical as that of all farms should be; you will shut out all profli-
gacy in manners or expenses; you will order it so that it shall be
profitable to its members, profitable to our country, and a distinguished
honor to the Empire State.

Your memorialists ha\nng thus stated the view taken by them of
this interesting question, further beg leave thus to say that they de-
sire only to bring before your honorable body the purpose they have
in contemplation. Relying upon the wisdom of your honorable body
to carry into execution the system of practical and theoretical edu-
cation of men by any other ways and means more advisable in your
judgment. Asking leave merely to say, that from the history of the
conduct of the American Institute during the eighteen years of its
existence, your honorable body may, we respectfully say, place that
confidence in the Institute, which is necessary to place such an insti-
tution for education under its charge.

JEREMIAH JOHNSON, President.
H. Meigs, Secretary,

OPENING ADDRESS,

Delivered at the 19tli Annual Fair of the American In-
stitute, Castle Garden, October 5thj 1846.

By the Hon. Mahlon Dickerson, of New-Jersey, President of the Institute.

Gentlemen of the American Institute, and Fellow Citizens :

The Nineteenth Anniversary of this Institute presents new ancf
most gratifying evidence of its influence upon the business and pros-
perity of the country, and of the unwearied diligence and perseve-
ranee of those who have devoted their time to the promotion of its:
great objects.

It would be a pleasing task to recount the services of many of its
most zealous members, but this is not the proper time nor proper oc-
casion. I must, however, be indulged in a brief notice of one, whose
services have been pre-eminent. I allude to* General James Tall-
madge, late President of this Institute, whose resignation, since our
last Fair, has been with great reluctance accepted. He presided for
more than fifteen years over the affairs of the Institute, with distin-
guished ability, diligence and zeal, most liberally devoting his time
and his purse to the promotion and encouragement of American in-
dustry. To his energy may be attributed, in no small degree, the
present magnificent display of the products of agriculture, manufac-
tures and the arts, alike gratifying to the feelings of the patriot ami
honorable to the country. Gen. Tallmadge must experience the
most pleasing of all rewards — the approbation of his own con-
science— w^hen he sees the beneficial effects produced by his means^
and I trust he may long have the evidence that his merits are duly
estimated by his associates and fellow members, as well as by all
American citizens, who have taken an interest in the principles he
has so long and so ably advocated.

This Institute was incorporated by the Legislature of New-York,
for the purpose of " promoting and encouraging domestic industry^

No. 151.] S7^

in this State and the United States, in agriculture, commerce, manu=
factures and the arts." Although it is indebted almost exclusively
to the munificence of New-York for the means of accomplishing its
great objects, yet its beneficial views are extended to all the States
in the Union, and its rewards and honors are liberally distributed,
without regard to sectional considerations; and its affairs are con-
ducted, as far as practicable, free from the baleful effects of party
prejudice and feeling.

To promote and encourage domestic industry, in agriculture, com-
merce, manufactures and the arts, is to improve the condition of the
laboring classes engaged in those several branches of our national
prosperity. This has been, and will continue to be, a primary ob-
ject with the American Institute. And never were exertions in this
cause more loudly called for than at the present moment, when,
from our system of free trade, and the overwhelming pressure of
foreign influence, we are threatened with the curse of European
pauperism.

To form an estimate of what is due to the laboring classes of the
free States of America, it will not be amiss to notice the condition
of those of other countries and other times.

From the earliest period to which history extends, mankind have
been separated, as they still are, into two great divisions: those who
labor, and those who do not. As all the necessaries, comforts, and
luxuries of life are the product of labor, it follows that those who
■do not labor must live upon the earnings of those who do. From
which it would seem, that the laboring classes were entitled to the
highest consideration, and to the greatest share of the products of
their industiy. But the reverse of this is the case; and, from the
building of the pyramids of Egypt to th^ present time, in the old
world, the condition of those who produce everything by their labor,
has been, and continues to be, but little better than that of slaves to
those who produce nothing.

If we take a view of modern Europe, we find that a small portion
of its inhabitants, by a system of violence, fraud, and deception, are
in possession of almost the entire wealth of the country, and that
the larger portion are reduced to the most abject poverty; and that
different governments seem to be established chiefly for the purpose
of increasing the power of the rich and perpetuating the degraded
condition of the poor; and nearly all the parties, political and reU-

278 [ASSEMBLT

gious, in those governments, and I fear in our own, if strictly analy-
zed, will be found lo originate in selfish combinations of those who
do not labor, to secure to themselves an undue share of the hard
earnings of those who do. And the struggles of party which distract
society, are but too frequently mere scrambles for the spoils.

It is s?ij, that of the thirty-three millions of French subjects,
twenty millions live without animal food, a like number never taste
wheaten bread, and that eight millions of them are clothed in rags.
Yet the poor of France are happy when compared with those of
other nations of Europe; and their condition is vastly preferable to
"what it was previous to the revolution of 1789.

Great Britain presents the extremes of enormous wealth on the
part of the few, and abject poverty on the part of the many; the
richest aristocracy and most wretched laboring population in the
Christian world, and the greatest amount of vice and crime, arising
from these opposite conditions of society. The world has never be-
fore witnessed such useless extravagance and profusion on the part
of the rich, and such extreme suffering on the part of the poor. In
no other country, in no other age, has so much labor been extorted
from the poor for the benefit of the rich, and for so small a reward.
In no other country does there exist so great a contrast in the low
wages of the laborer, and high wages of the officers of the govern-
ment.

These systems of low and high wages, are mutually dependent
upon each other; and when under our free trade we shall introduce
the one, it will be difficult to exclude the other.

Happily, as yet, we are free from both; and long may we con-
tinue to be so.

The annual revenues of the church of Great Britain, are forty-one
millions of dollars; nearly twice the amount necessary for the sup-
port of our government, economically administered, as it always is,
and always will be, in the estimation of those who administer it.

The charges for the queen and royal family amount annually to
three-hundred and twenty-three thousand pounds sterling, equal to
one million five hundred and fifty-one thousand dollars. Our presi-
dent and his family cost us twenty-five thousand dollars a year, so
that the queen and royal family costs the subjects of Great Britaio

No. 151.] 279

more than sixty-two times as much as our president and his family
cost the United States.

The salary of the lord high chancellor amounts to fourteen thou-
sand pounds sterling, or sixty-seven thousand two hundred dollars a
year; exceeding the aggregate salaries of our vice-president, the
four heads of departments, state, treasury, war and navy, the nine
judges of our supreme federal court, together with those of the post-
master-general, attorney -general, and solicitor of the treasury.

The vast importance of the services rendered for these enormous
sums, are not probably well understood in this country; but we can
understand that so much paid to the dignified clergy, royal family,
lord chancellor, and other high officers of the government, can leave
but little to be divided among the laboring poor, whose hard earnings
must pay for all.

A British weaver receives for his incessant labor, eight shillings
sterling, per week, or about one hundred dollars a year; so that the
services of the Lord Chancellor are deemed equivalent to those of
six hundred and seventy weavers; a striking instance of high and
low wages. In the Constitutional Convention of this State, a very
different estimate would be formed of the relative merits of the
chancellor and the weaver, by those who consider the whole chan-
cery system as worse than useless.

The whole landed property of Great Britain belongs to about
one-sixth part of the population, and many of the nobility have in-
comes to the amount of from two to three hundred thousand dollars.
a year. To increase the enormous incomes of the land-holders, the
corn-laws have been enforced for many years, and will still continue
to be enforced, under certain modifications, till the month of Febru-
ary, 1849.

An opinion has been expressed and published in the British pa-
pers, that the corn-laws brought to an untimely grave twenty thou-
sand human beings a year. This is probably an exaggeration. But
the queen, in her speech of January last, says: '*I have to lament
that, in consequence of the failure of the potato crop in several
parts of the United Kingdom, there will be a deficient supply of an
article of food, which forms the chief subsistence of great numbers
of my people." What must be the sufferings of millions of her la-
boring poor, whose chief subsistence is potatoes!

280 [Assembly

Shall our professional men — our lawyers, for instance — who de-
rive their support from the productive labor of the country, but con-
tribute nothing to it by their own hands, and whose business is not
injured by foreign competition — shall they ask or desire that Ameri-
can manufactures shall maintain an unequal contest for the supply
of our own home market, with foreign laborers who live upon pota-
toes?

Shall our gentlemen, who live sumptuously every day, and who
do nothing for the general good — shall our hosts of officers, State
and National, in all the departments of our government, who live
upon salaries drawn from the products of labor — shall they wish
that our laborers engaged in manufactures, should work at the low
rate of wages paid to the famished operatives of Europe? Be as-
sured that men who would willingly see our laborers reduced to the
condition of those of Europe, never mean to labor themselves, but to
live as cheaply as possible upon the labor of others.

It is the true interest of all classes, that labor should receive its
just reward. In that case, thousands W'ho now spend their time,
from year to year, in the idle pursuit of petty offices — thousands
of surplus merchants, whose business affords neither benefit to the
public, nor profit to themselves, and thousands engaged in the learn-
ed professions, doing nothing, would resort to honest labor, and thus
add to the prosperity of the country, to which they are now a bur-
den.

The poor rates of Great Britain amount annually to more than
the whole revenue of the United States, and probably an equal
amount is raised by contributions from individuals and charitable
societies; and yet, the laboring classes are reduced to the most abject
poverty, attended with a frightful amount of vice and crime. How
much better, nay, how much cheaper would it be for those who pay
such enormous sums for charitable purposes, that the laboring classes
should receive a fair compensation for their services, and that the
consumer should pay a fair price for the products of their labor!
This would at once put an ^nd to nine-tenths of the poor rates and
charitable contributions, and to a large portion of the vice and crime
which are inseparable -from extreme poverty. But this would break
up the selfish system of Great Britain, of levying, by means of her
cheap manufactures, contributions upon all nations who trade with
her, and who have the folly to leave their own industry unprotected.
And this again, would make it necessary to reduce the wages of the

No. 15L] 281

royal family, of the dignified clergy, and of the lord chancellor, and
other high officers of the British government, which, most probably,
will never be done until effected by a revolution.

If Sir Robert Peel's free trade system vrould have the effect of se-
curing to British manufacturing laborers the rate of wages paid to
those of the United States, it would indeed be a blessing to the poor
of both countries. But the reverse of this will be the case. The
tendency of the system will be to introduce the low rate of British
wages into the United States. And if Great Britain is to gain the
market of the world for the sale of her manufactures, as it is evi-
dently the aim of Sir Robert Peel, these rates must still be reduced
to a lower point, and British laborers are to suffer, if possible, great-
er distress than they have yet known. Although they may, under
the repeal of the corn-laws, obtain their food at reduced prices, yet
if their wages should be reduced in a still greater degree, as will
probably be the case, their condition will be more wretched than ever;
and they will find that what is taken from the profits of the rich
land-holder, is not to be applied to their benefit, but is to add to the
means of the rich capitalists engaged in manufactures, that they
may send the products of pauper labor over the commercial world.

The hopeless condition of the laboring classes of Great Britain,
should admonish us to avoid, as a pestilence, whatever causes the
enormous wealth of the few, and the abject poverty of the many —
the high wages of the lord chancellor, and the low wages of the
weaver — and especially whatever causes the immeasurable difference
in the conditions of men, whom a just and merciful God has created
equal.

Our ancestors, the pilgrims, who, driven by religious persecution
from the mother country, first visited these shores, were all laborers.
The artificial distinctions in society, now prevailing, were unknown
to them; and although circumstances are much changed since that
time, our laboring classes maintain ^n elevated condition, unknown
to those of Europe. And that they should continue to do so, must
be the wish of every American patriot.

The laboring classes of the free States of this Union, may be esti-
mated at eight millions of people, — the bone and sinew of the re-
public,— upon whose strong arm the country depends for its prospe-
rity in time of peace, and for its defence in time of war.

!232 [Assembly

Their political and physical strength under our free constitution,
enables them to control the destinies of the nation. They can secure
and improve the advantages of their present condition, if they will
exercise their legitimate power at elections, and take their proper
part in making the laws of the country, instead of having their legis-
lative business done by attorney, as is now too much the case.
When, heretofore, they have selected their representatives to make
laws for them from their own numbers, they have never been be-
trayed. We could refer with pride to numerous instances of distin-
guished legislators, who have acquired their property and supported
themselves and families by the labor of their hands. When has the
great, the working State of Pennsylvania, been more ably and more
failhlully represented in the national legislature, than by her Find-
lays, and her Smileys, and her Ingharas?

Our laboring classes have power to secure for domestic industry
the advantages of our home market. This is all they ask; and this
they should have, and, I trust, will have. Domestic competition
would keep down prices of articles produced at rates which would
be no more than a just compensation for the labor of production;
and tins, the classes who never engage in productive labor should
not refuse to pay.

The system of reducing compensation to the lowest minimum by
foreign competition, applies exclusively to productive labor. Those
who never engage in such labor, experience none of it, and too fre-
quently have no sympathy with those who do.

But, from all this, it is not to be inferred that the chsses who
avoid productive labor, are to be considered as idle or useless. On
the contrary, a great portion of them are very industrious, and ab-
solutely necessary to the well-being of the republic; another portion
of them, however, do nothing, and are utterly useless to society; and
most of them have an interest, or think they have, in depressing the
wages of labor which they must sometimes pay for. This disposi-
tion is manifesting itself to an alarming degree in this country, and
never more so than at the present moment. It has created infinite
distress in Europe, and will do so in the United States, unless ar-
rested by the patriotism of our most virtuous and enlightened citi-
zens.

This country will be great and prosperous, or otherwise, exactly
as our productive labor shall be increased or diminished.

No 151.] 283

Let us, therefore, carry out the good intentions of the Legislature
in granting an act of incorporation to this Institute. Let. us, with
redoubled zeal, in the language of that act, promote and encourage
domestic industry — the first step towards which must be protection
against foreign influence and foreign competition.

ADDRESS

Delivered before the American Institute at Castle Gar*
den, October 6th, 1846.

By Harman C. Westervelt, Esq.

Ladies and Gentlemen: — -

The Nineteenth Annual Fair of the American Institute, . which
has been recently opened for the inspection and reward of the pro*
ducts of home ingenuity and native enterprize, we trust will contin-
ue to merit the favorable impressions which have been steadily hers
for so many successive years. In fact, while useful labor and indus-
try continue to meet with a protecting care, they must ever maintain
a controlling influence throughout our landj and the fruit of the or-
chard— the crops of the farm — -the results of the factory — the pur-
suits of the merchant, and the invention of the artizan, will progress
and increase, some thirty, some sixty, and some an hundred fold.

We propose, in the present address, to make but a limited refe-
rence to the origin and design of Fairs as they have existed in the
old countries, from time immemorial, that we may be enabled to show
by contrast, the different motives by which they have been controlled
from those whose anniversaries we continue to commemorate.

The definition of the word fair, is a greater kind of market; which
in England is a privilege granted for the speedy and commodious
arrangements of procuring, buying and selling such articles as a place
may be in need of.

In the German a fair is called messe, which also signifies a
mass. High masses on particular festivals collected great numbers of
people, and from them probably originated the first markets.

No. 151.] 285

Fair is also derived from a French word,ybtVc, which signifies the
same thing. By some the wordybiVe is taken from the haXin forurriy
meaning: a market; by others it is derived from the Latin, ym^e, be-
cause fairs were anciently held in places where iheferice were held
— such is at least the significancy of the Lexicon.

We, however, find that in Roman antiquity ferice were certain
holydays on which proclamation was made by a herald or officer at
arms whose business it was to proclaim peace or war. At the com-
mand of the Rex sacrorum or flamines, all persons were expected
to abstain from business, and whosoever was found violating the
command was severely fined. The f erics were both public and pri-
vate. They were observed in private by particular persons or fami-
lies on account of birth days, funerals, &c. The public celebra-
tions were of various descriptions; of these the ferm latine were
feasts at which a white bull was sacrificed, and the Latin and Ro-
man towns provided each a set quantity of meat, wine and fruits,
and during its continuance the Romans and Latins swore eternal
friendship and allegiance to each other, and on separating they
were in the practice of carrying home a piece of the victim to every
town.

This festival was instituted by Tarquinius 2d, when he overcame
the Tuscans and made a league with the Latins proposing to build
a common temple to Jupiter Latialis, at which both nations might
meet and offer sacrifice for their common safety.

At first this peculiar solemnity lasted but one day, but it was at
different times extended to ten. It was held on the Alban mount,
and celebrated with chariot races at the capitol, where the victor was
honored with a copious draught of wormwood drink — the qualities
and palatable nature of which, at this remote period of time, we
must leave others to analyze.

The ancient nundince or fairs of Rome, were kept every ninth day;
afterwards the same privilege was granted to the country markets,
which were previously under the power of the consuls. {Arbuthnot on
Coins.)

Nundinse is the name which the Romans gave to a series of letters
from A. to H., which they used in their calendar. These letters were
placed and repeated successively, from the first to the last day of the
year, and one of the letters always expressed the market days or the

2S6 [Assembly

assemblies called nundinae, &c., because they returned every nine
days.

The country people, after working eight days, came to town on the
ninth day, to sell their commodities and to inform themselves of what
related to religion and the government.

Thus the nundinal day being under A., on the 1st, 9th, 17th and
25th of January, &c., the letter D. will be the nundinal letter the
following year.

Fairs and markets, as existing in Europe, are institutions appro-
priated to the exhibition or sale of one or more species of goods,
hiring servants or laborers, &c.; but fairs are commonly attended by
a greater concourse of people, for whose amusement various exhibi-
tions are got up.

To give them a greater degree of solemnity, they were originally,
both in the ancient and modern world, associated with religious fes-
tivals. In most places they were held on the same day with the wake
or feast of the Saint to whom the church was dedicated, (Jacob's
Law Die. ; Art. Fair,) so that matters of business and devotion were
transacted all at the same time and place.

It was always customary to hold most fairs and markets on Sun-
days, which custom, though prohibited by several kings, (particular-
ly by Edward I.,) was yet held up till the reign of Henry VI., when
it was effectually suppressed. In many places they are stiU kept in
the church yard.

In the old monastic times, those religious votaries, the monks of
(Maxtoke, in) Warwickshire, attended Sturbitch fair, near Cam-
bridge, to lay in their yearly necessaries and supplies, although 100
miles distant.

The antiquity of fairs appears to have extended to far distant ages,
and wherever they have existed, whether ancient or modern, they ap-
pear to have evinced a corresponding degree of industry, happiness
and success.

The foundation of the ancient city of Tyre, according to Josephus,
was laid about 1255 years prior to the Christian era. In the reign
of King Hiram, who flourished about the time of David and Solo-
mon, this splendid city was probably at the full height of her re-
nown.

No. 151.] 287

Her avails, buildings, towers and temples, her wise men, her pilots
and mariners, her army and men of war, together with her manifold
resources, formed a striking characteristic among the splendors of the
East. Tyre was great, powerful and luxurious, and " her builders
had perlected her beauty."

" Syria was her merchant, by reasons of the n^.ultitude of the wares
of her making; they occupied in her fairs with emeralds, purple and
broidered work, and fine linen and coral and agate."

" Tarshish was her merchant, by reason of the multitude of all
kinds of richesj with silver, iron, tin and lead they traded in her
fairs."

Chitty, on commercial law, says, since the growth of towns and
monthly markets for the sale of produce, the utility and splendor of
European fairs have greatly diminished.

Chaucor appears to have entertained a lofty opinion of the influence
of fairs upon English society.

" It were good (says he) that the privilege of a market were given
to enable them to their defence, for there is nothing doth sooner
cause civility than many market towns; by reason of the people re-
pairing often thither, they will learn civil manners."

And if the immortal Shakspeare i'^ to be received as authority,
they were not only requisite, but absolutely indispensable in special
cases. Perhaps in offering good advice he says:

•' Mistress, know yourself — down on your knees,
And thank Heav'n fasting, for a fjood man's love,
For I must tell you, friendly in your ear,
Sell when you can — ^you are not for all markets."

We must, however, make allowances for the age when spinsters
■were numerous, and venerable matrons held a controlling sway.

It was incident to a fair that persons should be free from arrest
for debt, except for that contracted in, or promised to be paid, there.
It was customary to hold fairs twice during the year; proclamation
was usually made as to how long they should continue, and any per-
son found guilty of selling any goods after it was ended, was subject
to the forfeiture of double their value — one-fourth to the person pro-

288 [A&SEMBLT

secuting, and the remainder to the king — the oyster for the govern-
ment and the shell for the people.

A toll was usually levied at fairs for privileged stalls, erected
either f#r the sale of goods, or for entertainment or pastime.

Formerly no person could claim a fair or a market, unless by the
King's grant, or by prescription, which supposes a grant. Owners
and governors of fairs were to take care that everything was sold
according to just weight and measure, and for that and other purpo-
ses appointed a clerk, for which he was entitled to take reasonable
and just fees.

The clerk of the market was an officer incident to every fair in
England, and was ex officio the supreme ruler of the court, known
and distinguished by the dignified title of pie poudre. Blackstone
says that this was the lowest and most expeditious of all the English
courts, and it was properly called pie poudre, from the dusty feet of
the suitors. Sir Edward Coke was of the learned opinion that justice
was done as speedily as dust could fall from the feet, upon the same
principle that justice was administered at the gate of the city, that
the proceedings might be more speedy and public. It was a court of
record, and its jurisdiction extended to administer justice for all com-
mercial injuries in that very fair or market, and not in any preceding
one; so that the injury must be done, complained of, heard and de-
termined, within one and the same day, unless the fair continued
longer. ^

The motive of their original institution seems to have been to do
justice expeditiously among the variety of persons that resort from
distant places, since it is probable that no other inferior court might
be able to serve its process, and unless it had been erected the com-
plainant must necessarily have resorted, even in the first instance, to
a superior judicature.

The object of this jurisdiction was principally in weights and mea-
sures, and to try whether they were according to the true standard,
which were anciently committed to the custody of the bishop, who
appointed some clerk under him to inspect the abuse of them more
narrowly; and hence this officer, though latterly a layman, was call-
ed the clerk of the market.

Formerly, the owner of a house next a fair, was not allowed to
open his shop during the same, without paying stallage, or toll for

No. 151.] 289

having a stall, on the ground that if he take the benefit of the mar-
ket, he ought to pay the duties thereon; but this, like many of the
early laws of England, was found to be rather arbitrary in its exac-
tions, and it was finally complained of and abandoned.

It would be a labored task to make allusion to the endless variety
of fairs which have occurred from time to time on the eastern conti-
nent, yet by way of illustration, brief allusion to a few may not be
altogether void of entertainment.

' The German fairs were celebrated not only on account of the great
trade, but for the vast concourse of princes, nobility and people who
came to visit them and partake of their diversions, from all parts of
the world.-

An annual fair was for a long time established at Warsaw, in
Poland.

An important fair was once held at Mecca, during the resort of the
pilgrims, in the month of Dhalhagga, and was frequented by many
thousands of individuals, of all ranks and orders, brought together
from the remotest corners of the Mahomedan world.

A fair of some extent was held in the city of Novogorod, a great
emporium of the internal trade of the Russian dominions, communi-
cating by inland navigation with the Baltic, Black and Caspian seas.
It was known over all the east of Europe, and the bazaars for the
accommodation of visitors are said to have formed the finest estab-
lishment of the kind that could be imagined. The stationary popu-
lation of this place was from 15,000 to 16,000; but during the fair
was from 120,000 to 150,000, among whom might be seen Chinese,
Persians, Circassians, Armenians, Tartars, Bucharian Jews, and spe-
cimens of almost every European nation.

To a very interesting w^ork edited by William Goodman, entitled
" The Social History of Great Britain," we are indebted for the fol-
lowing interesting account of a fair held in London, on the anniver-
sary of the birth of that worthy and respectable saint, Saint Bartho-
lomew :

"It had its origin in the reign of Edward I., and was allowed by
the charter to continue three days. The popular appetite for the
amusements of this carnival had become so rampant, that in the
reign of Queen Anne, a plan was set on foot to extend the period to

[Assembly, No. 151.] 19

290 [Assembly

fourteen days. All was then a preparation for merriment, uproar and
license, and every parish in the metropolis discharged its population
into Smithfieldj as into a vast reservoir.

"Thither went the man of ton from the West End, hoping to
exchange the more fashionable, but not much better diversion, for
some vulgar intrigue; thither went the anxious citizen and his more
anxious dame, and his half-delighted, half-terrified striplings, to drown
the cares of a whole year amid the uproar and confusion of a day;
on one side was seen the sleek country grazier, or blue-aproned
butcher, elbowing his way through the crowd to settle a bargain in
hay, sheep, or bullocks; and on the other, the vintner, with his
wheelbarrow of Geneva.* Here too, came the thimble-rigger with
his table, and bear ward with his monkey and dancii^ bear; the
robber, the thief, the buHy and the pick-pocket, in the 'sure and cer-
tain hope' that where so much business and so much folly were min-
gled together, they would reap a plentiful harvest. Every thing that
would allure the fancy or the palate, might be purchased for a tri-
vial sum, amid the avenues of show-booths, and lanes of stalls, while
the roar of rival show-men, the brayings of trumpets, the rattling of
drums, the hammering of gongs and cymbals, were enough to make
every brain reel that was not well fortified by nature against such
numberless, portentous concussions."

We have thus far partially alluded to fairs as they now and have
formerly existed in the old world, and we are impressed with the con-
viction, that however varied from those we are accustomed to, not-
withstanding their grossness and apparent want of order and refine-
ment, they nevertheless have shown a certain degree of sentiment
which carries with it the associations of pleasure, prosperity and con-
tentment. It will thus be seen that the fairs of Europe were more
especially intended for the sale and interchange of various commodi-
ties. The fairs of the American Institute, we need hardly remind
you, are founded on entirely different principles, and in a new coun-
try, their main object is directed to advance the good works of the
native artizan, and to give publicity to the labors of the ingenious
workman, to offer a proper stimulus and encouragement to the dis-
plays of agriculture and horticulture, to improve the breed of cattle,
to open their library and resources to the citizen and stranger, to ad-
vance the discoveries in science and art, and to elevate every species
of useful American enterprise.

*A liquor distilled from the juniper-berry.

No. 151.] 291

In a word, instruction is their aim, patriotism is their motive, anil
their country is the only shrine at which they worship.

To every friend of American progress, it must be gratifying to ob-
serve the encouragement so universally afforded to the National, State
and Agricultural fairs throughout the countrj'-, while it can be no less
gratifying to the founders of the American Institute to look back
upon the influence of their earlier example, to find it, like the beacon
set upon a hill, dispensing light, life and animation amid the sur-
rounding darkness.

As an indication of the effects of native industry, let us exa-
mine some of the social combinations of any extensive manufacto-
ry, such as are found to exist on every stream of this thriving Re-
public.

Here you observe that the capitalist has embarked or accumulated
a legitimate property in the creation of some useful domestic fabric.
A hundred, and often a thousand operatives are furnished with a con-
stant and reasonable employment, who, year after year, and by faith-
ful attention, have been enabled to gather around them the comforts
which centre in a peaceful home.

Fathers, sons, brothers and sisters, are severally employed to ad-
vance some agreeable portion of the duty assigned to them. Under
the protection of a good government, they are seen to thrive; con-
tentment is associated with them, and the smile of satisfaction is
theirs; the humble fireside is lit up with cheerfulness, and they are
found to stimulate each other to increased exertions and renewed
happiness. A community of friendly feeling is cherished among all
parties, and a desire to promote the mutual benefit of the establish-
ment is tacitly determined upon. Thus, their attention becomes fixed
to a certain round of duties, and all are gratified in the supposition
that its continuance will be the means of ultimate success.

Unprotected children are often gathered from the paths of idleness
and vice, and find an asylum here, where they are taught the more
rational plan of advancing their own destiny. They become accus-
tomed, and gradually attached to the scenes which surround them,
and interest readily advises them to continue where experience shows
that they can really do no better, and the sequel is, that with stabi-
lity and attention, they become masters of an occupation, when they
might not have succeeded in an apprenticeship to any qther.

292 [Assembly

But let nature choke up the fountain which sends voluntary tribute
to the factory wheel, and the hum of machinery, the voice of indus-
try, and the cheerful sounds of contentment must pause and be silent;
and this is equally true in regard to the protecting care they natu-
rally seek from a w^'se and politic government. Let that fountain be
once dried up, or let her guardian interest be withheld — whether to
the man of fortune, or the poor man in the pursuit of a fortune — and
not only they, but the government itself, will feel the force of the pa-
ralyzing power. We have evidence of the truth that man may be
his worst enemy or his best friend; and history, throughout all ages,
has illustrated that the best governments, like the happiest families,
can be destroyed through mistaken discipline and the imperious acts
of corrupt legislators.

It was an original principle with our country, to protect the rich
and poor alike; and it is not for us to say how far this principle may
have been tampered with, but when we hear the wanton cry of the
rich against the poor, we can discover nothing else than the corrupt
movements of the most jealous passions.

"When our ears are struck with the stupid salutation " down with
the overgrown capitalist" — " down with the manufacturers" — we
are prompted to inquire, to what do these things tend? Let this spe-
cies of vulgar prejudice, actuated as it always is by the most pitiable
ignorance, once attain a sufficient power to control a majority, and
agrarianism will assume the sway, and riot and disorder will take
the place of truth and right, while our Republic must gradually
recede to that original barbarism which devours a beastly subsistence
the instinct of hunger teaches man to seek in the wilds of the pri-
meval forest.

If the American "capitalist," from an humble station in life, and
in the most cheerless walks of poverty, has, by his industry and skill
accumulated a sufficient competency to stamp him with this enviable
appellation, it should be conceded to him as the reward of his me-
rits and perseverance. And if it happens to be objectionable, we
have only to suggest that the English language charitably tenders a
supply of others which might prove less objectionable.

Can it be true, that in this early stage of our national develop-
ment, wealth and accumulation, having for their basis the stimulus
of honest industry, are to be arrested in their progress, or stigmatized
as errors, and as such, to be overthrown? Can it be true, that
■' emigration and settlement here" in a supposed land of "freedom

No. 151.] 293

and equal rights" are to be checked and thwarted because the
laboring man of one day, may be the " overgrown capitalist" of the
next?

But strike a blow at the capitalist, and through what moral chan-
nel does the poor man become elevated? Depress our natural en-
ergies and ambition for wealth, and the vital power which affords
breath and energy to education and prosperity must necessarily sink
and die — for ourselves, in the language of a modern statesman, we
are content to be satisfied with those " blessings of government
which, like the dews of heaven, descend ' upon the rich and poor
alike."

One of the greatest mistakes in our national diplomacy, was that
of mingling the protection of American industry with party politics,
and we assert this against the principle of dividing an unit, or th;
severance of a chain, in which one universal family have a whole,
united and entire interest.

If we are disposed to look to England for her woolen fabrics, tc
France for her silk culture, or to Germany for her liberal arts, th-
scale of our own must gradually depreciate in importance. For
the triumphant success of these, the time is not yet come; we an
yet in our infancy, and we naturally seek the protection of our owh
government to aid us in these several powers of locomotion.

It has been observed that wherever American protection clashes
with foreign interests, the foreigner manifests a desire of protectin;:
himself, and is sleeplessly active in accomplishing the overthrow oi
all opposition; and the truth is self evident that where duties are
attempted to be levied on French importations, the French merchan'
is first and forward in his desire of sustaining that M'hich may more
materially check his prospect oi success. It is precisely the same
thing with the German and English merchants, and, like the French-
man, their political policy is influenced as the national tide ebbs
and flows in regard to their financial securities.

The system is therefore wrong, and as such only we condemn it —
it is not one man or any set of men, or degrees, or powers, or in-
terests, that require the protection of the Union, but it should be th(
great aim of our country to seek out and cherish, while it support-
and preserves the whole; and if her powers are insuflRcient for thi:
purposes of general domestic usefulness, we cannot believe that sh;.^

294 [ASSEMBLT

's bound to extend her favors to foreign powers to her own disad-
vantage, even if they were in the least reciprocal.

And if the American manufacturer is liable to the popular odium
connected with the accusation of a monopolist and an aristocrat,
we are nevertheless persuaded that the results of his labors and in-
genuity are redeemed by their distribution in his native land, and
with his own countrymen, while the importer of foreign articles,
without taxation, and often without the privilege of citizenship,
accumulates an ample fortune by the servile labor of Europe, who
condescendingly extends his patronage to him whom he sneeringly
terms the vile American, and finally returns to his own country, (per-
haps as a forgotten outcast,) to luxuriate upon that which the mis-
taken legislation of our own, is the means of placing him in pos-
session of — and although foreigners are evidently not a few who
accumulate these fortunes in the manner already stated, it is evident
thai they are not without their power in producing certain favorable
feelings and results in their own behalf among foreigners who are
citizens, which influence is felt at the counting room, the exchange,
and the ballot boxes. *

For one, we profess to believe that philanthropy which directs us
to " love one another," but we are yet to learn that in a national
point of view, it implies a tame submission to the dictation of am-
bitious strangers. On the contrary, we should like a little more of
that leaven which helped to raise our nation to its present position,
and in order that we may more readily identify our meaning, we
shall conclude by offering to your notice, a part of the brief preface
of one of the earliest, yet comparatively modern books printed in
this State.

The work alluded to, is the Laws of New-York, from the 1st to
the 15th session — in 2 vols.

The editor dates his prefaced—Printing office, New-York, January
■2, 1792, and says:

" The types and papei' were manufactured in this State — anxious
to give public satisfaction, and fearing after the publication of his
proposals that the types therein proposed to print this work upon
would not hold out good to the end, the editor engaged Mr. Mappa
of this city, an ingenious type founder from Holland, to cast a new
fount for it, which unavoidably delayed the publication for near two
months.

No. 151.] 295

" However disagreeable this delay may have been to the subscri-
bers, (as well as the editor, who suffers most by it,) it is to be pre-
sumed that the consideration of giving encouragement to the manu-
factures of our own state will more than compensate. The types
are not so perfect as those from the London foundries, which have
been improving for centuries, but no Cash went to London for them,
and our infant manufactures ought to be encouraged that they also
may improve.

"Signed, THOxMAS GREENLEAF."

In this plain and honest preface is practically embodied the true
idea of the system of home protection and heartfelt patriotism, and
it was through such instrumentality that the printing press of this
country has become one of the most formidable engines of power
throughout the civilized world.

But time flies ! Allow me then to solicit a steady encourage-
ment of our own resources by every species of honorable legisla-
tion, and by every act which sustains the arm of ingenuity and en-
terprize, that our schools may disseminate useful learning, and that
our people may become prominent among those whose services their
country requires, (that when they have abandoned the things of this
life, another generation may cherish their memories with respect) —
*' that our garners may be full and plenteous, affording all manner of
store, that our sheep may bring forth thousands and tens of thousands
in our streets, that our oxen may be strong to labor — that there be
no decay, no leading into captivity, and no complaining in our
streets, Happy is that people that are in such a case. Yea, blessed
is. that people whose God is the Lord,"

AGRICrLTURAL ADDRESS,

Delivered at Castle Garden, during the 19th Annual FaxFj
October 9th, 1846.

By the Hon. Henry Meigs.

Ladies and Gtntkmen :

The American Institute had this year, as it always does, looked
abroad in the republic for some citizen distinguished for talent and
patriotism, to deliver the Annual Agricultural Address. It had
hoped to obtain the aid of the accomplished and elegant scholar, the
Rev, Mr. Choules, of Boston ; but his engagements prevented his ap-
pearance before you, and I am bound to express our great regret
that we cannot avail ourselves of an address from him w^hich would
have graced our annals. The Institute then immediately looked to
Mr. Goodrich, the gentleman known to the public by his admirable
waitings under the familiar name of Peter Parley. Circumstances
uncontrollable by the Institute, also prevent his appearance until
within an hour.* The Institute has called me out, because it does
me the high honor of confiding in my zeal in the great landed cause;
and in ready obedience to their call, I beg your indulgence while I
exert myself to give voice to some of the opinions and doctrines of
the American Institute upon this greatest of all temporal questions.
To utter a new idea in relation to it, is extremely difficult, for its
best, its everlasting truths were understood, taught and practiced by
the greatest men of antiquity. After a sleep of ages, during which
a dark obscurity rested on the minds -of men, a sudden break of the
light of intelligence was seen in the glorious invention of types !
Then genius found the way to fame: all questions of interest toman
began to be considered and to be organized and ornamented by pow-
erful writings, printed for the millions to read. Then uprose, from

* Fortunately he has arrived, and has just given us his talented address, another
proof of his high ability and of his well known philanthropy. His words are most
happily adapted to the understandings of our youth, and are received by the best of
our men as words of wisdom and goodness.

No. 151.] 297

the tomb of more than a thousand years, Mago, Theophrastus, Vafrov
Columella, and a hundred more, whose works contain the gems of
the agricultural treasury. Neglected lands began once more to feel
the deep plowing, the thorough work, the manure of much cattle 5
the yellow harvests followed; men began once more to increase upon
the land; good houses, fine enclosures, noble horses, rich fruits, and
the fleeces of myriads of sheep were used; the silk worm was set to
work; cotton began to grow, and the mighty results now attained,
cause in us a feeling, almost of wonder, at the stupendous progress
already made by man. The press is the fountain of all these great
movements. Before that existed, nothing could be done by the mil-
lions of our race. That is the breath of man, lecturing his whole
race upon every subject of value. It is a trumpet, speaking to the
utmost parts of the earth. It proclaims ihe sentiments of all ages
and sages ; the ancients and moderns, by the press-music of such
Harpers as live now, harmoniously sing together the true doctrines of
more than twenty centuries.

About the same time that the press commenced its mighty career,
America was disclosed to the wondering millions of the old world.
Romance awakened at this giant birth. It was deemed by some the
vast Island of Atlantis, a thousand miles wide, where millions of
powerful warriors lived, w^here mammoths were used for cattle, where
gold and diamonds were thick as pebbles. And when our Florida
was first visited, the Spanish cavalier believed the Indian romance of
the spring of eternal youth, situate in the interior of that flowery
land, and hoped to drink of its water.

With these high fancies, they roamed over this new-found land.
They almost realized the dreams of gold in the regions of Mexico
and Peru ; but their dream gradually wore away, and disappointment
came. Our Anglo-Saxon ancestors, more than one hundred years af-
terwards, came here without any of these vain ideas, and they found
a gold worth mountains of the metal — they found the golden Indian
corn; they found the potato, and that luxurious weed so loved by
savage and by civilized man — tobacco! These peculiar plants are
ours, and it now seems that our corn is destined to be of a value su-
perior to all the other productions of the earth. Its constitution re-
sembles that of man — capable of growing in almost any climate ;
growing in the cold regions of the Continent some three feet high,
and in the warm South eighteen feet high, varying in its qualities in
every different position, and never failing in doing something for its
planter, except in very extraordinary circumstances. I am resting on

298 [Assembly

this corn question, because the destruction of the potato in Europe,
must render it to us a matter of humanity, as well as interest, to see
that next year there be Indian corn for all. Wheat and rye cannot
fill readily the place of the potato, nor are they, in my opinion, en-
titled to take the place of Indian corn. That corn is a stronger food
for man and cattle than wheat or rye, is a fact that has been delibe-
rately proved, and Ave know it to be true.

Without any expectation that Europe would call upon us for it,
we have raised this year, as is heYie\ed, Jour or Jive hundred millions
of bushels of Indian corn! Next year, if our farmers are sure that
the old world wants it at fair prices, they can raise a thousand or fif-
teen hundred millions of bushels of it, just as well as let it alone !
and a year after, they can double that last amount, for our land can
raise corn enough to feed the whole human race, without lessening
our crops of cotton, tobacco, sugar, rice, or anything else.

Our land is under every climate, from the frozen North to the sunny
South, and of every grade, from the low lands of the river's mouth
and the valleys, to the snow-tipped Rocky Mountains. We shall,
before two centuries pass, have grapes on every farm, silk in millions
of cocooneries, myriads of sheep, " cattle on (more than) a thousand
hills," the lightning of Heaven for our correspondence, the speed of
the swiftest birds for our conveyance, and, I do firmly believe, a lite-
rature of our own, untainted by immorality or irreligion. Vice
grows not but with extreme difficulty in a free, farming republic.
The Sabbath to the farmer, is of indispensable necessity. He feels
the true force of the Divine rule — six days shalt thou labor, and rest
upon the seventh. His strong body requires that repose, and his ha-
bitual association with the beauties of nature render him a ready and
steady attendant upon the worship of the Almighty.

To be up and doing, in the present progressive movements of the
age we live in, the American Institute deems to be every man's duty,
and while it ardently recommends progress in every art and in every
mechanical branch, it still adheres to the first title in its charter — >
agriculture, with determined perseverance.

The Institute has taken hold of the last noble advice of Washing*
Ion to his country — that of establishing a National Department for
Agriculture, by means of which the farmer shall have brought from
every part of the earth, every plant and every animal that can be
found agreeable or useful to American citizens. The National Con-

No. 151.] SD9

Tention of farmers, gardeners and silk cultuiists, now in session id
this city, yesterday adopted resolutions, unanimously, for a calT on
Congress for the establishment of Washington's agricultural depart-*
ment; and we hope that every man who hears us, \vill lend his hand
to that noble work.

No great or good man has ever doubted for an instant, that to till
the soil is Heaven's first law to man, nor does any man doubt that il
should be done well, done with all his heart and strength and under-^
standing. That it is a work never to be slighted; never to be vieAved
except as the most noble of all his labors, and above all does it de-
mand the first rank in a republic. Even despots know this, and al-
ways did; but the nature of their governments always rests upon the
ignorance of the people in all things, even in the cultivation of the
soil. It is true, that their eyes have been opened, within the last
fifty years, to the absolute necessity of showing interest in the farm-
er, and you now see them taking measures favorable to that cause.
Let us keep ahead of them! We have all that God can give to in-^
duce us to exertion, and the certainty of success, if we do but try it.

In the old agricultural society of this State, in the year 1799,
Simeon Dewitt, a distinguished member, delivered an address in the
city of Albany, from which I will extract a few sentences, which ap-
pear to me worthy of repetition :

" By what institutions for the furtherance of useful knowledge, or
by what extraordinary eflforts of our citizens to advance the aits of
peace, truly patriotic, have we distinguished ourselves? A. universi-
ty, colleges, and academies we have, it is true; they serve to save us
from the sheme of not following the fashion of nations. What more
have we to boast of ? How few of our learned characters step aside
for a moment from their professional employments to show themselves
interested in diffusing a taste for useful philosophy and works of in-»
genuity,

" While millions heaped on millions are expended to protect the
interests of the small proportion of Americans who have chosen na''
vigation as a trade, certainly a little bestowed or even thrown away
with a good intent for the promotion of agriculture, cannot be
deemed a misapplication of money! W^hat other institution can
there be conceived more deserving the patronage of a Leo-islature
than this? Has it any thing for its object that does not directly aim
at the happiness of mankind? The lessening of labor, that first

300 [Assembly

curse pronounced on man after his loss of innocence, is its principal
view. It aspires to the procuring of every enjoyment which the
earth presented in the Golden Age, as sung by the poets in strains
the most enthusiastic and sublime. On such themes the good man's
meditations delight to dwell. The Elysium of Pagans, the Paradise
of Mahomet, and perhaps also the Heaven of Christians, would to
the view of mortals, lose much of their attraction, were not the des-
criptions of them decorated with agriculture sceneries. While pas-
sions like demons tear the breast of the politician, gnaw like vul-
tures on his vitals, spread a gloom over his perspectives and embit-
ter his days, the heart of the philanthropist expands with a seraphic
joy, bounds with god-like palpitations, feels emotions of ecstacy in^
effably exquisite, as his eye roves over fields when the golden har-
vest waves to the wind — where every shrub and plant is loaded
with dainties — where every tree bends under its fruit, and all things
seem to invite us to partake of these bounties and be happy,

" If then these things are pure, uncontaminated fountains wher.ce
human happiness flows, surely we cannot contemplate them with a
stoical indifference, but as citizens^ as christians and as legislators,
must join our endeavors to cherish and support them."

Now let us hear a few words from James Kent, the learned and
just judge — who in his address to that society, delivered in the City
Hall of this city, in 1796, just fifty years ago, said, among other ad-
mirable things:

" It is certainly a precious advantage attached to the agricultural
life, that it leads to no intemperate avidity for wealth, and inspires
bold and generous sentiments of freedom and independence. Al-
though the remark be perhaps too strong that cities are the graves
of the human species, yet it is obviously true that the farmer's life,
from the use of wholesome air, abundant exercise, moderate pleasures
and simple diet, is by far the most favorable to health, longevity and
population."

Here, fellow-citizens, are two votes for the great cause, registered
half a century ago ! -And there is not one good and great man now
living, but will, if he can get a chance, cry aye, to the same doc-
trine. But farmers are intent upon their work, hardly once in the
year aroused by an election and its noisy demagogues to put in his
ballot. Let him put off that inattention and see that the men he
votes for know and care for the great agricultural cause. Our far-

i

No. 151.] 301

mers have but to will it, and no power on earth can prevent their
having all they demand. Let them now come to the polls and say
that Washington's department for agriculture shall be established!
Then they will soon see every officer of army and navy — every Mi-
nister and Consul — every captain of merchant vessel, under direc-
tions to bring home, form the uttermost parts of the world, every
seed, plant and animal, every appliance to farm and garden labor,
every valuable book, every true account of the properties and uses
of what they bring home — all the transactions of agricultural soci-
eties from every nation, and each farmer admitted to a correspoA-
dence with his great agricultural secretary, and to a share of the
precious things and precious knowledge thus condensed in Washing-
ton's Department for Agriculture. And the American Institute will
never cease to join you noble farmers of the American Republic in
establishing this system of the glorious father of his country, while
they have a dollar, a pen, or a voice left!

ADDRESS DELIVERED

During the 19th Annual Fair of the American Institute,
held at Castle Garden.

By the Hon. George Folsom.

Mr. President, and Ladies and Gentlemen:

It affords me unmingled gratification to respond to the call of
the Directors of the American Institute, by offering a few remarks
on this interesting occasion.

The objects of this association are such as appeal strongly and
deeply to every American heart. Truly national in their character,
affecting to a greater or less extent the pursuits, th'e interests, the
happiness and welfare of millions of our fellow citizens. Patriotism
itself demands their encouragement, and awards the meed of honor-
able renown to those whose philanthropic labors are devoted to the
promotion of these noble objects. I should deem myself recreant
to the love I bear my native land, false to the warmest and holiest
impulses of my heart, were I to be backward in a cause that in-
volves the prosperity of all the great interests of our common coun-
try, the great cause of American industry. Whatever promotes this
contributes to the welfare of multitudes of our countrymen of the
present and future generations. Our children's children will expe-
rience its benefits; and the future exile who has not yet left the
desolate shore of the old world, but is destined hereafter to find
amongst us a refuge and a home, will come in for a grateful share
of the guerdon that springs from the progress of industrial improve-
ment. The rapid strides made of late years in the application of
the useful arts to the wants of mankind, as seen in the more advanced
stages of civilization and refinement, maybe traced to the more per-
fect knowledge of the laws of the material world, acquired by men

No. 151.] 303

of science, and generally diffused. Indeed, most of the remarkable
fruits of human ingenuity by which the present age is distinguished,
are but developments of natural laws, rendered subservient to ar-
tificial purposes. The curious machines employed in the manufac-
ture of cotton and woolen fabrics, performing the offices of a thou-
sand hands, and exhibiting in their multiplied operations all but the
power of thought; the triumphs of steam, with its locomotive
energies outstripping the winds, and bidding defiance to the most
vigorous exercise of animal power; the phenomena of electro-mag-
netism, as displayed in the wonderful invention of the telegraph —
what are these but familiar instances of a successful application of
physical science to the practical purposes of life, and some of the
rich fruits of that philosophy which explores the mysteries of the
natural world.

It is sometimes useful to recur to former periods in the history of
our race, and contemplate the social condition of mankind as it then
existed. But it is not necessary for the purpose of contrast, to go
back to the time when our Saxon ancestors roamed in the forests of
Europe, and subsisted on a precarious supply of the spontaneous
productions of the earth; when the art of agriculture was unknown,
and that of building did not extend beyond the construction of a
wretched hut, scarcely serving the purpose of shelter. We have
only to revert to a period not long antecedent to our own times, to
find strikino; contrasts in all that contributes to the well beins; and
happiness of our species. Even within the recollection of some
who hear me, what numerous additions have been made to the stock
of human comforts! what improvements in the management of light
and heat! what increased facilities of communication between dis-
tant points, until space is literally annihilated! how have the pro-
ducts of the loom been perfected and cheapened, until the luxuries
of dress are brought within the most limited means, thus breaking
down one of those walls of aristocratic partition that served to di-
vide society in former times.

The following description, intended to represent the condition of an
Englishman of moderate means at the present day, applies with
equal truth to a much larger class in our own country. " I am lodg-
ed," says the Englishman, " in a house that affords me convenien-
cies and comforts which even a king could not command some cen-
turies ago. Ships are crossing the seas in every direction to bring
what is useful to me from all parts of the earth. In China, men
are gathering the tea leaf for me; in America they are gathering

304 [Assembly

cotton for me; in the West India Islands they are preparing my su-
gar and my coffee; in Italy they are feeding the silk worms for me;
in Saxony they are shearing the sheep to make me clothing; at
home, powerful steam engines are spinning and weaving for me.
Although ray patrimony is small, I have post coaches running day and
night on all the roads to carry my corespondence. I have roads, and
canals and bridges to bear the coal for my winter fire; nay, I have
protecting fleets and armies around my happy country to secure my
enjoyment and repose. Then I have editors and printers w'ho daily
send me an account of what is going on throughout the world, and
in a corner of my house I have books! the miracle of all my pos-
sessions, more wonderful than the wishing cap of the Arabian Tales;
for they transport me instantly not only to all places, but to all times!
By my books, I can conjure up before me to vivid existence all the
great and good men of antiquity. I can make them act over again
all their exploits. The orators declaim for me; the historians recite;
the poets sing; and from the equator to the pole, or from the begin-
ning of time until now, by means of my books, I can be where I
please."

So wonderful an improvement in the social condition of mankind,
is chiefly due to the discoveries made in physical science within
the last half century. During that period, new roads have been
laid out, (to use a homely illustration,) from various points to the
temple of knowledge, traversing fields of science hitherto neglected
or unknown. Various branches of natural philosophy, almost the
entire systems of chemistry, mineralogy and geology, and the aft
of civil engineering, are amongst the triumphs achieved by the hu-
man mind within the recollection of many persons now on the stage
of active life. The nations of antiquity excelled in the cultivation
of the fine arts, and in works of taste and imagination. The beau-
tiful remains of Grecian architecture are still regarded as the most
desirable models of public edifices, and the productions of Grecian
statuaries have never been surpassed. But in all that relates to a
knowledge of the laws of nature, the wisest of their philosophers
had less accurate notions than can be acquired by the merest child
at the present day. Hence their progress in the useful arts was
limited, and in comparison with the present age, the most cultivated
nations of antiquity were in these respects but little removed from a
state of barbarism.

The merit of having first made known the true method of inves-
tigating natural phenomena, and thus giving an impulse to the study

No. 151.] 305

of natural science, is usually ascribed to Lord Bacon. The philo-
sophical writings of this great man were the text books of succeed-
ing generations, and guided the minds of such inquirers as Newton,
Priestley and Franklin, whose brilliant discoveries were amongst
the earliest fruits of the new philosophy. From their days to the
present, a constant progress has been made in natural science, W'ith
which the cultivation of the useful arts has not failed to keep pace.
One brilliant discovery has succeeded another, until it has become
difficult for the imagination to conceive what will be the next
achievment of science. The flight of a balloon with passengers
across the Atlantic, or a visit to the moon by a similar conveyance,
■would produce scarcely less astonishment than was excited by the
operations of Morse's magnetic telegraph, when first communicated
to the public. What wonder next? is now the anxious inquiry; and
Morse shares with Herr Alexander the reputation of being the great-
est magician of the age.

One of the objects of the American Institute is to encourage the
application of science to practical purposes. This Institution had
its origin during the gloomy period of the w^ar of 1812, when the
"wants of the country led to associated efforts for the encouragement
of the useful arts, especially as applied to domestic manufactures.
For this purpose an association, called the American Society, was
formed in this city at that period, under the auspices of the Order
of Saint Tammany, and flourished for a number of years. It enrolled
among its members all classes of politicians, who vied with one
another in the encouragement of domestic industry. At a subse-
quent period that association took the name of the American Insti-
tute, or was merged in this institution, under an act of incorporation
passed in 1829. The objects that its founders had in view, are
briefly stated in that act to be " for the purpose of encouraging and
promoting domestic industry in this State and the United States, in
agriculture, commerce, manufactures, and the arts, and any improve-
ments made therein, by bestowing rewards and other benefits on
those who shall make any such improvements, or excel in any of
the said branches; and by such other ways and means as to the said
corporation or the trustees thereof, shall appear to be most expe-
dient." To these legitimate and important objects the labors of the
Institute have been strictly confined, with what success it is unne-
cessary for me to state; for, were other evidence wanting, the pre-
sent magnificent exhibition is enough to convince the most sceptical
mind of the triumphant results that have crowned the unwearied
efforts of its officers and members.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 20

306 [Assembly

Where all are entitled to so much credit for the part respectively
borne in this good work, it may be deemed invidious to discriminate^
but I cannot forbear to allude to the distinguished services of the
late Col. Few, who was tor several years the presiding officer of
the old American Society, and afterwards of the Institute, under its
new name and charter; and also, of the late John Mason, Esq., a
most active and efficient presiding officer, and patron of this Insti-
tution. To the recent president, General James Tallmadge, who for
more than fifteen years devoted his personal energies and influence,
his great talents, and an unwearied zeal to the promotion and encou-
ragement of American industry, a warm tribute has been already
paid by his worthy successor, who now presides over the destinies of
this Institution. To the services of such men — the real benefactors
of our country — the public seem to lay claim as a matter of right,
after so long possession; and were it not so, the disinterested zeal of
that gentleman, in a cause of such universal interest, will scarcely
suffer his energies to be diverted from their usual channel, although no
longer exercised in an official capacity.

It has ever been the policy of enlightened governments to cherish the
cultivation of the useful arts. Even despotic rulers have sometimes
resorted to this means for the purpose of augmenting the resources
of their dominions. It is well known that a former Emperor of
Russia went so far as to enter a workshop in Holland, and labored
with his own hand^, in order to acquire a knowledge of the art of
ship-carpentry, that he might the more effectually introduce it among
his subjects. In other countries, liberal bounties on articles of do-
mestic production, and an almost entire exclusion of foreign wares,
have been among the means used to promote the growth of the useful
arts at home. In this way, they have not only supplied the wants of
their own people from their own workshops, but opened new avenues
of trade with foreign and less enlightened countries.

In this country, we boast of a model government, in which the
people are their own rulers, and the incumbents of office nothing more
than agents appointed by the mass of the community to frame and
administer the laws, and shape the intercourse with foreign nations.
Such being the case, these agents should be held to a rigid accoun-
tability, and when unmindful of the true interests of the people, or
disposed to favor one interest at the expense of all the rest, should
be required to give place to others who will more truly represent the
views of their constituents. But excellent as is the Iheory of our
government, its practical operation is sometimes defective. The pub-

No. 151.] 307

lie man too often asts what is the interest of his party, rather than
what is that of the community at large. Within my own brief ex-
perience in public affairs, I have seen measures of the most pernicious
tendency advocated with zeal and ingenuity for the purpose of secu-
ring a little political capital. And it is but three or four years, since
a representative of this commercial city — the great emporium of the
Union — denounced in his place the whole mercantile class amongst
us, for no other reason, as he shamelessly avowed, than that he had
not received their votes! It was pretty evident that they had duly
appreciated his character.

It might be expected, under a popular government, that measures
would be taken to foster and encourage the useful mechanic arts, as
connected with the practical pursuits of life, and to stimulate and re-
ward inventive talent. But here again, sectional interests sometimes
come in to defeat the will of the people. Impediments, instead of
incentives, are thrown in the pathway of genius, and the industry of
foreign countries encouraged, instead of our own. Thus is the beau-
tiful theory of our political institutions sacrificed to party objects,
and the whole machinery of our model republic used for the mere
purpose of elevating party hacks to office.

Wanting the protection of the government, the domestic industry
of the country must seek its support amongst the masses of the com-
munity. To them should the appeal be made to come forward in
solid phalanx, to protect their common interests by encouraging
American labor, and counteracting, by all lawful means, the suicidal
policy of the government. Voluntary associations afford the best
means for effecting this object. Efficient and united action may yet
place American industry on a firm foundation, and render our country
independent of the workshops of Europe-

ADDRESS

Delivered by the Hon. Henry Meigs, to the Pupils of the
Blind Institution, while visiting the Fair.

Dear Pupils: —

The American Institute requests me to say to you how great a
satisfaction it derives from the demonstration you have now given,,
that although the Almighty has shut your eyes, yet that he has at-
tuned your souls to strains of harmonious melody, and in that con-
cord of delightful sounds has given you a sense of pleasure which
the human race with its eyes opened, enjoys to so high a degree, that
from all antiquity to this moment, the enchanting strains of music
have formed one of the most constant, pure and delicious entertain-
ments. And music, dear pupils, is always the result of delicate, of
cheerful, and of religious feelings. The song of the lonely shep-
herd cheers himself and his flock! The hymn of the worshipper in
every age rises to the heaven he would attain. In ancient fable^
Orpheus drew around him the beasts of the field, who felt the sub-
duing power of his concords. Music hath power to charm the sa-
vage breast, and to lead man to rapture by its power. You know
how Collins painted its powers in his ode — "When music, heavenly
maid, was young." Collins did exquisite justice to song, and let me
remind you of the ode of the sightless Milton. Speaking of that
light of which he, like you, was deprived, hear his beautiful verse:

"Hail holy light*! offspring of heaven, first-born —

Or of the Eternal, co-Eternal beam —

May I express thee unblam'd ? since God is light,

And, never but in unapproached light

Dwelt from eternity, dwelt then in thee,

Bright effluence of bright essence, uncreate.

• • • • *

Cut off and for the book of knowledge fair
Of Nature's works, to me expung'd and raz'd.
So much the rather, thou celestial light,
/ Shine inward, and the mind through all her powers

Irradiate — there plant eyes; all mist from thence
Purge and disperse, that I may see and tell
Of things invisible to mortal sight."

No. 151.] S09

How consoling to your minds must it be to know that Milton, with-
out sight, was able to enjoy an intellectual light of the most sublime
lustre; not only to be filled with the most celestial visions, but to
dictate them to his children, who have recorded them for all ages.

And now, among the numerous evidences of Christian civilization
acting among modern men, the blind and the dumb have become
pupils of science and art, and partakers of human care and Christian
charity. Art is exerting its power for your instruction. You have
a Bible, that Book of Books, worth more than all the libraries of
the world, so printed that by the delicate touch of your fingers you
are empowered, as perfectly as those who see, to feel the holy words
and understand their meaning. The Institute feels deeply for your
welfare and, as it incessantly watches for the development of the
€xhaustless genius of our country in every branch of art, it will en-
courage every effort which tends to advance your means of happiness
in this world, with a humane desire to impart to you every thing that
can inform or delight those who have the blessing of sight, and
knowing that the bright gem of genius is often hidden, they will
not lose any opportunity to bring it out to view.

You have heard of Gray's Elegy. Let me repeat a verse:—

"Full many a gem, of purest ray serene,
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear-
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air."

The American Institute will keep its eye upon you, and if it can,
it will see that the diamond genius within you capable of brilliant
light shall not be hidden, any more than your concord of sweet
sound shall be lost upon the ear. It advises you to gain pure know-
ledge and, when you have it, to give it to your fellow men as Milton
did. So shall you, without sight,, distinguish yourselves as men and
secure hereafter the everlasting light of Heaven.

The band of blind musicians, being deficient in a violoncello, one
was then presented to them by the American Institute. The au-
dience which was great, expressed their gratification, by loud plau-
dits.

ADDRESS

Delivered at the close of the 19th Annual Fair of the
American Institute, at Castle Garden, Oct. 23, 1846,

By Adoniram Chandler, Esq.

We come now, fellow-citizens, to close the Nineteenth Annua!
Fair of the American Institute, and return you our thanks for the
countenance and patronage which you have afforded us. It is our
design to benefit, in some measure, the great and diversified interests
of labor throughout the land. We regret to meet you this year un-
der circumstances calculated to discourage, to some extent, that por-
tion of our friends who are engaged in many of the mechanic arts
and manufactures. It is our belief that the cloud which has gather-
ed to embarrass their progress, will soon be made to pass away. The
aid of the artisan and manufacturer is essential to the great commu-
nity of laborers who must occupy the vast extent of this Union. So
intimately are their interests interwoven, that they are indispensable
to each other. There is a necessity for all, employment for all, room
for all, and there should be protection for all. But prejudices are
yet to be removed, truths to be established, demagogueism to be ex-
posed, and many, very many, of our fellow-men to be enlightened in
regard to the true interests of labor, as connected with, and essential
to, the progress and destiny of this vast empire.

What have we to do with the theories of other men or nations,
in regard to our intercourse with the world, or the regulations of
our own domestic economy? There is no nation on earth like this.
Our government is different, soil and climate different, and our habits
are different from all other nations. Government here was designed
to be such as should exercise a paternal watchfulness over all our
rights and interests. Our habits are proverbial for industry and
enterprise; and nature has strewed the land we inhabit profusely
with all that industry could desire, or enterprise ask for. All these
great resources, were they not in rapid progress of development?

No. 151] 311

Bo not the evidences by which "we are now surrounded .^peak trum-
pet-tongued in confirmation of this truth? We have, indeed, fallen
upon evil times, or, at least, under the guidance of strange counsels,
when this nation is made to halt in its onward march in prosperity,
to test a theory which is foreign in its origin, irrational in its con-
ception, and at war with common sense. Such, at least, is the
opinion which I entertain of the theory of Free Trade.

We are tauntingly told from day to day, that " protection is hence-
forth to be counted among the things that have been." That " a
freeman's labor is not entitled to the protection of his government."
We would thank them to tell us what this republican government
was instituted for, if the protection of its labor, above the serf labor,
which belongs to kings and despots, be not among its cardinal du-
ties. What was the object sought to be accomplished by those pa-
triots whose blood and treasure achieved our independence and sev-
ered this empire from the grasp of Britain, if it was not to elevate
the mass above bondage and servility? That every man might stand
erect in the image of his Maker, and, whilst yielding obedience to
God's mandate, " in the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread,'' to
feel and proclaim that the curse was not denounced against him
alone, but against every man.

What constitutes the wealth of a nation ? Its labor. What gives
us health and muscular strength, and enables lis to discharge the du-
ties of citizens? Labor! It is the inheritance of man to labor.
Not as the serf labors, as ignorant of the tools he uses, or the ma-
chine he operates, as the ox is of the plough before which he toils;
with scanted food and miserable raiment; with hovels to repose in
and thongs for his back to suit the caprice of a lordling! But rea-
sonable labor and reasonable rest, compensated in amount sufficient
to afford the necessary comforts of life, that he may train up his off-
spring " in the way they should go," and provide moderately for his
declining years. This cannot be accomplished without a diversity of
labor, so that each may minister to the wants of the other, and all
move on in one harmonious whole. For this we ask protection. If
a freeman cannot rightfully demand it from his government, his gov-
ernment is a mockery.

It is our belief that the tendency of recent legislation is to reduce
the free labor of this republic to a level w'ith the serf labor of the
old world. I shall endeavor to show, that although it professedly
strikes at the monopolist, the blow is aimed at the mechanic and

312 [Assembly

manufacturer, ami if felt at all, will most assuredly vibrate through
every department of labor. The pretence for this strange anomaly
in legislation is, that Britain has boldly, liberally, graciously, made
an advance t9\vards Free Trade, and we are bound to follow her ge-
nerous example! Let us briefly look at the plain facts in the case,
and leave it to the common sense of mankind to say what this migh-
ty advance in Free Trade amounts to, which has been so potent as
to arrest the progress of a nation of freemen in its march to great-
ness.

The British empire contains a population of 158,000,000. Eng-
land, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and the British Isles, under the desig-
nation of the United Kingdom, embraces only 27,000,000 of this vast
population. She has, of late years, permitted other nations to bring
within reach of this 27,000,000 of her people, a specified number
of articles which she cannot produce, under a system of nominal du-
ties, with slight discriminations in favor of her own subjects, and in
some instances, with neither duty nor discrimination, leaving all in-
tercourse or trade with the balance of her population, amounting to
130,000,000, subject to endless restrictions, discriminations, counter-
vailing laws and regulations in favor of her own subjects and her
own commercial marine.

In the United Kingdom, 2,470,411 of her male adult population
have been employed in agriculture, with protecting laws, which ex-
cluded the products of other countries, unless this twenty-seven mil-
lions of her people, or a very large portion of them, at least, were
at the point of starvation. This was the effect of the memorable
corn laws, for the benefit of her landed aristocracy. It at length
became very apparent, that, notwithstanding her extraordinary efforts
in agricultural production, her people were miserably fed, and at
prices too, W'hich materially interfered with all other branches of her
productive labor. The warfare against these laws has been carried,
by her own starving people, to a point which compels the aristocracy
to yield. Will any fair-minded, intelligent man say the repeal of
these corn laws has not been the result of compulsion? And yet,
ever ready to make a virtue of necessity, she claims that the act is a
boon to free trade! That there should be found in this enlightened
republic, men high in station and powerful in adherents, ready to ac-
cept it as such, and shape the legislation of this mighty empire to
suit the views of Britain, because of it, surpasses my comprehension.

Britain repeals her corn laws, or rather modifies them, so that
wheat and flour may come in from other nations at a duty of 31|

No. 151.] 313

cents per bushel, whilst it comes in from her colonies at three cents
per bushel. This is to continue for a period of three years; when, if
she does not see fit to alter her law, it may come in from all quar-
ters at three cents. She admits beef and pork free. She must have
it to supply her immense armies and navies, and she cannot produce
enough herself. She admits butter at five cents per pound, and
cheese at 2^ cents, with discriminations in favor of her colonies.
She admits raw materials, such as compose her manufactures, which
she cannot produce at all, or not in suflficient quantity. For instance,
cotton, coarse wool, raw hides, wood for cabinet ware, dyeing mate-
rials, &c., free of duty. All her manufactures, which are not pro-
tected by her skill, she protects by statute; and this is the great ad-
vance she has made in free trade! It is British free trade. Her
emissaries are abroad in every land, and in every capacity, who fail
not to echo — free trade! Partisans, to our own local jealousies, and
demagogues, have united in the clamor for free trade; and the honest
industry, the free labor of the country, is to be shorn of its fair re-
ward, prostrated and ground to a level with the serfs of Europe.

The reason assigned for this change cannot be satisfactory to the
laboring portion of the people. At one time, the revenue was said
to exceed the necessary wants of the government, and must be re-
duced. At another, it was not enough, and must be increased. Is
the tariff, which was proposed in 1845, and adopted in 1846, calcu-
lated to accomplish both these objects'? to work either way by turns,
as may be deemed most desirable? To my mind, it is a novel method
for increasing revenue; first, to break down the ability of a people
to consume, and then force upon them a double dose of foreign
fabrics. The idea that Wv2 are bound to meet the liberal legislation
of Great Britain with corresponding liberality, is unworthy an Ame-
rican, because there is not a particle of liberality in it. She has
legislated against her agriculture, and in favor of her manufactures,
by compulsion. We have legislated in favor of our agriculture, and
against our manufactures. If meeting her, means meeting her wish-
es, then have we done all that she desires.

Great Britain, from her earliest history, has preached free trade.
She has sent her Adam Smiths into every land, and translated him
into every toiigue, but has never put in requisition any of his precepts.
Discrimination, restriction, and prohibition, has been her policy from
the beginning to this day.

By the tariff of 3846, the idea of protection to American labor is
wholly repudiated. The rate of duties on foreign articles, coming in

314 [Assembly

direct competllion with our own products, have been reduced, and
our own labor taxed with additional duties on the raw materials used
in the manufacture of them. For instance, coarse wool has been
raised 25 per cent.; mahogany for cabinet ware, 5 per cent ; all
other kinds of wood, which enter largely into various articles of
manufacture in the hands of the mechanic and artisan, 30 per cent.;
bark of the cork tree, wh'ch gave employment to many, 15 percent.;
dyeing materials, 5 to 10 per cent.; burr stones unwrought — many
earn comfortable livings for themselves and families in preparing
these stones, but this tariff puts a duty of ten per cent, upon them;
India rubber, 10 per cent. There are not a few who earn a living
in this vocation. Palm leaf, unmanufactured, which gave employ-
ment to a multitude of females, 10 per cent. Shame, to strike them
down! Rattans and reeds, 10 per cent.; tin in sheets or plates, with
which our culinary vessels are made, giving employment to thou-
sands, 15 per cent. Most of the above articles, under the tariff of
1842, came in free. Paper is made to pay a duty of 30 per cent.,
whilst books, printed and folded, can come in at 10 per cent. I
would ask any intelligent printer, if this does not strike at the paper
maker, type founder, stereotyper, ink maker, and printer, at the same
blow, in favor of the foreign operatives in those branches? Besides,
it will enable foreign authors to furnish the great mass of American
readers with just such literature as they please. If perchance it
should be deemed politic, Britain may employ a dozen Adam Smiths
or more to indoctrinate our people fully in her peculiar notions of
free trade!

Great Britain employs in her manufactures 710,531 of her popu-
lation, against 2,470,411 employed in her agriculture. She has been
compelled to legislate against the latter, and in favor of the former.
She will undoubtedly strive with her utmost power to force her man-
ufactures into every land, because she knows it to be the surest source
of national wealth and greatness. It is a remarkable fact, that from
1760 to 1840, a period of eighty years, the exports cf Great Britain
greatly exceeded her impoits, with the exception of the years 1781,
1784 and 1811. In 1760, her exports over her imports was $28,-
232,191 in Aalue, and the increase has been constant up to 1840,
when the excess of. her exports over her imports reached the enor-
mous sum of $232,334,636 in value, and this was mainly the product
of her mechanical and manufacturing skill, after supplying the de-
mand for home consumption, which she secures entirely to herself,
furnishing thereby a market for four-fiflhs of her whole product. In
1836, Spackman informs us, that her total exports, with the excep-

No. 151.] 315

tion of less than two millions sterling, were the product of her man-
ufactures. This is the mighty engine with which she has, and still
intends to control the world. Look at the disparity between the
products of agricultural and manufacturing labor. One pound of
Sea Island cotton, which produces to the planter 20 to 25 cents,
when spun into yarn for the manufacture of lace, is worth $5, and
when converted into lace, which is mainly done by machinery, its
value is raised to 4 and $500. The' consumption of this article is
immense; its amount in the United States we do not know, but in
England the annual consumption is estimated at $5,289,600. This
is a branch of industry which, under wise counsels, might be intro-
duced here, to the annual saving of millions of wealth to the coun-
try, besides furnishing employment to multitudes of our own people.
But it is deemed wiser to sell the cotton for 25 cents per pound, and
pay $500 for it in the form of lace, by way of promoting free trade!
Whilst Britain, in the agony of her desire to advance the principles
and doctrines of free trade, charges us a duty of 24 cents on 100
lbs. of rice, if cleaned, but if in the husk and requires cleaning, she
lets it in at 3 cents per bushel, and thus scrupulously protects her
own labor!

Look at the productive industry of Massachusetts, which the tariff
of 1846 is aimed at. Mr. Lawrence tells us " that in 1845 she con-
sumed of the products of the States out of New-England, $40,000,000
in value. These consisted in cotton, lead, wool, sugar, coal, iron, flour,
grain of all kinds, pork, beef, lard, tobacco, rice, &c. The flour
alone was more than the whole export of the United States to fo-
reign countries. These were paid for in the products of her labor,
affording a steady and increasing market." We are further told,
" that the value of her manufactures in one year amounted to $114,-
478,443, giving employment to 152,766 hands. Of this amount
cotton was $12,193,449; woolens, $8,877,478; boots and shoes,
$14,478,443!!! Boots and shoes alone are nearly equal to the entire
amount of agricultural products exported from the United States to
all the world, cotton, rice and tobacco excepted." For this lat-
ter statement we are indebted to the official returns.

You all know how very fruitful, in the declamations of the dema-
gogue, the slang terms of " monopolists of Lowell," and the horrors
of the " cotton mill with its famished operatives," have been, in their
crusades against the industry of the country; and yet these tables
instruct us, that cottons and woolens, with boots and shoes, consti-
tute less than one-third of the annual value of the fnanufactures of

316 [Assembly

Massachusetts. What makes up the other two-thirds of this vast
amount? Is it not the labor of her mechanics and artisans, acting
mainly for themselves, with their own capital, and the labor of their
own hands? Suppose a blow aimed at this productive labor should
prove effective, and drive 152,766 hands in Massachusetts into the
pui suits of agriculture. Can any one doubt that an immense injury
will have been inflicted; not on them alone, but on the whole coun-
try? And when the mechanical and manufacturing industry of all
New-England, with New-York, Pennsylvania, and large districts of
other States shall be made to feel the blow, will the planting and
grain producing States and districts feel nothing to disturb their re-
pose? The benefit they may expect to derive from such a course
of legislation will be fleeting as a moonbeam, whilst the injury that
may be inflicted will endure until their day and generation has pass-
ed away.

Let us ask what are the probable benefits which are to result to
the planting and agricultural interests? Is cotton to be benefitted
by lessening the home demand and increasing the quantity produced?
The tendency of the present tariff is to destroy all the small and
weak manufactures of cotton. How many may be driven into the
production of the raw material, we cannot say; but the cotton dis-
trict, under the tariff of 1842, began to show factories in success-
ful operation. We have specimens before us, which are a credit to
Georgia. Will tobacco be benefitted? Not a whit of the enormous
exactions upon this product has been relaxed by British free trade.
Is sugar to be benefitted? We all anticipate a reduction in the
price of this article. If so, the sugar planters may become cotton
planters to some extent. But the producers of bread stuffs are to
reap the golden harvest! The voices of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,
Pennsylvania, part of New- York and Ohio, have drowned all reason
in their clamor for free trade, and to them belong the spoils.

On the subject of supplying Great Britain with bread stuffs,
enough has been said to convince the most sceptical. Our own ar-
gument has not been refuted; and we still maintain as the doctrine
of the American Institute, that with open ports in Great Britain, her
supply will not be obtained from the U. States, nor any considerable
portion of it, except in seasons when there may be a general fail-
ure in the crops of Europe, which will rarely occur. If Great Bri-
tain could have annexed the soil of one of our States to the United
Kingdom, I doubt whether she would have relaxed her corn laws for
a century to come.

No. 151.] 317

From 1699 to 1799, the exports of wheat and wheat flour from
Great Britain greatly exceeded her imports. From 1800 to 1842
her excess of imports over her exports, was 324,331,680 bushels,
being an average of 7,722,182 bushels per annum. From 1837 to
1842 inclusive, her imports over her exports were 87,730,080 bush-
els, being an average of 14,62 1,680 bushels per annum. From 1828
to 1840 inclusive, a period of twelve years, her imports of grain
and meal direct from the United States, was 1,070,088 bushels, be-
ing an average of 89,174 bushels per annum; whilst her imports
from Prussia alone, during the year 1840, was 6,400,000 bushels.
The foregoing is from Spackman's Statistics of the British Empire
for 1843, and show conclusively that the quantity shipped to Eng-
land from the United States, during the period alluded to, was of no
consequence at all, in a national point of view, still the fluctuations
in the prices of bread stufls consequent upon an expectation of great
demands from England, extorted from the laboring poor of our At-
lantic cities millions every year, in which the producers rarely par-
ticipated. It was sw^allowed up by greedy speculators and monopo-
lists; and they, in turn, were occasionally overwhelmed by their own
avarice. It was during this period that the memorable flour riots »nd
sacking of flour stores occurred in New-York. Could the laboring
poor of the sea board have stipulated to make a gratuity to England^
each year, of all she actually did receive from us, on condition that
any further supply should be prohibited, the poor would have been
gainers to the amount of millions !

The fluctuation in the price of flour for one month past, will serve
to illustrate what has been stated, to some extent. On the 19th
September last, flour was selling at $4.75 per barrel. The news
by the succeeding steamer, that flour was selling at $6.72 in Eng-
land, caused an' advance here to $5.62. Now if we add this to the
present duty, which is $1.52 per barrel, and fi eight 60 cents per
barrel, our flour in England would cost $7.72; one dollar per barrel
more than it was selling for at the then last advice. Up to the ar-
rival of the steamer of the 4th inst., which was on the 21st, flour
had declined a little, but the announcement by her that flour was
selling at $8.40, carried our flour up immediately to $6.50 for best
qualities; which with freight and duty added, makes it 20 cents per
barrel more than it was selling for when the steamer left.

In December, 1845, when Belgium, Sweden, Turkey, and other
countries prohibited the exportation of grain, and the clamor about
a famine carried bread stuffs up in the United States enormously,

318 [Assembly

very little of ours went forth; nevertheless, Lord Stanley tells us
that there was then in bond in England, 1,106,000 quarters, being
207,000 quarters more than was ever known to be in bond at that
season of the year before. It was held, then, as has been remarked,
awaiting a contingency that did not happen. It was also held in
our own country, awaiting the same contingency, until the bubble
burst, and overwhelmed many in ruin.

Lord Stanley, in an able speech delivere3 in the House of Lords,
May 25, 1846, asserted that in the event of the repeal of the corn
laws, 405. per quarter was the maximum price which could ever be
expected to be realized, which is $1.20 per bushel, being 28 cents
per bushel less than the average cost of American wheat in Eng-
land, exclusive of the duty, for many years. He read a letter from
a gentleman, described as being at the head of one of the oldest
firms in Liverpool engaged in the corn trade. The writer asserted
that he then held in bond two cargoes of fair red wheat, imported
last year from a port on the Danube. It cost him 14s. per quarter
free on board, the freight to Liverpool being 9^. 6d. per quarter.
This would be 70| cents per bushel in England.

Lord Ashburton, in a speech delivered January 12, 1846, alluding
to grain, says: "but the supply must not be expected from America;
and we could have no better proof of this than the fact, that, at this
moment American grain could come through Canada, at a duty of
four shillings; and yet, if the returns were examined, it would be
found that nine-tenths of the foreign grain in England was from
the Baltic, though the duty on grain from its shores was fifteen
SHILLINGS a quarter. This was entirely owing to the low price of
labor in the north of Europe."

Mr. McGregor, the celebrated statist, and Secretary of the British
Board of Trade, tells us that the surplus bread stuffs in the Russian
empire in one year, amounted to 224 millions of bushels. We know
that the greater part of the whole crop of Russia is produced by her
serfs, under the most slovenly culture imaginable. The capacity of
continental Europe for production is unknown; labor in abundance
to be had for a bare and miserable subsistence; and when the product
is stimulated by an open market in England, wilh cost and charges
for transportation trifling, compared with those from these shores,
will ciny sane man for a moment suppose that we can compete for
that market with any prospect of success?

No. 151] 319

I am aware that Indian corn enters largely into the calculations
of some men; and it may be in some demand for a season, in con-
sequence of the partial destruction of the potato crop both in Europe
and America. Indian corn is not to be transported from Indiana,
Illinois, Ohio or Michigan, to Europe, without great risk of sustain-
ing injury; and this may account in part for the prejudice which is
entertained against it as an article of food. If I am correctly in-
formed, it is more liable to heat than other grain, imbibes a musty
flavor, and its sweetness is gone. If this be to a great extent, cattle
will not eat it, much less man. It may be doubted whether the pea-
santry of England, to any great extent, ever tasted Indian corn in
its purity; then, too, it requires costly additions to make it a favorite.
But suppose it be introduced as an article of general consumption;
a large portion of the continent is as capable of producing Indian
corn, as Indiana or Ohio. In four years, from 1837 to 1840 inclu-
sive, 5,537,896 bushels of Indian corn, the produce of the country,
was shipped from Galatz and Ibruila, two ports at the mouth of the
Danube, at an average cost of twenty-four cents per bushel free on
board. So says McGregor. It is folly in the extreme, to expect
that any important benefit will be realized by the grain producers of
the United States, in consequence of the repeal of the British corn
laws. Drive the mechanics and manufacturers, or any considerable
portion of them, into agriculture, and you will vastly increase the
quantity produced, whilst the marketable or money value of it will
be diminished.

The American Institute has labored for years to bring into suc-
cessful operation a new branch of industry — the culture and manu-
facture of silk — for which our country is admirably adapted, pos-
sessing advantages over every other, in point of climate, for this
purpose. It is an admitted fact, that we can beat the world, in
strength of fibre and lustre. Under the tariff of 1842, we felt con-
fident that the time was not far distant, when the domestic produc-
tion of silk would arrest the annual expenditure of seven or eight
millions of dollars in foreign lands, which might be retained at
home, to reward the labor of the agriculturist and the" skill of the
artisan. But the tariff of 1846 strikes at the production of silk. A
large portion of the annual crop of the United States, in the form of
tram, organzine and floss, was used in the manufacture of cord,
gimp, fringes, &c., and the consumption rapidly increasing. By let-
ting in the foreign article at a low rate of duty, the American silk is
to be measureably abandoned. Thus our legislation, in regard to silk,
materially injures that branch of it which belongs -to agriculture.

320 [Assembly

Cocoons "Will be diminished in value, we are told, 15 per cent., and
were it not for the bounty paid by Massachusetts, New-York and
Louisiana, it might be totally abandoned. And why, let us ask, are
the enterprising citizens of this republic, who have been induced to
embark in the culture of silk, to be compelled to lay aside their ma-
terials, plough up their fields, and pocket their losses? Is it because
it can be produced at the North as well as at the South ? or is it be-
cause the claims of the foreign importers in New-York, who consti-
tute 90 per cent, of all engaged in the trade in that city, have been
preferred? Must the monopoly be continued in their hands, at a
cost to the nation of seven or eight millions per annum? The
acts of your legislators affirm it to be so. Whilst you have the
privilege of cultivating potatoes, amid the ravages which assail
that inestimable root, and ascertaining the cause of its disease, for
the benefit of your transatlantic brethren, the cultivation and manu-
facture of silk is perhaps deemed too delicate for your habits.

There are other branches of industry which might be introduced
into our country, attended with an immense saving of wealth, diver-
sifying the employment of our citizens, and contributing largely to
sustain and augment our internal commerce, which stretches now
along twenty thousand miles of navigable waterj but they must be
deferred until wiser counsels prevail. Foreign commerce, which is
almcst entirely in the hands of foreigners and aliens, is made an es-
pecial object of legislation, under the delusive nonsense of free trade,
whilst appropriations, designed to facilitate the internal commerce of
the country, which is entirely in the hands of our own citizens, meets
with an executive veto!

It is not our intention to speak in terms of reproach of the for-
eigners and aliens who embrace the advantages which our legislation
enables them to enjoy. On the contrary, we commend them for their
enterprise. We design merely to state the facts, for th's information
of our own people; being free to admit, that if France or England
held out the same inducements to us, we should not fail to embrace
them.

Many of you have stopped, on the entrance to this saloon, to exa-
mine the railroad iron from the iron works of Peter Cooper, Esq., of
Trenton, New-Jersey. This is the first specimen of the article which
has made its appearance at these fairs, and we welcome it with joy.
We proclaim, from authority not to be disputed, that we can now
produce railroad iron at $72 . 50 per ton, in quality 10 to 20 per
cent, better than any which has ever been imported. The present

No 151] 321

duty, 30 per cent., is decidedly below a revenue duty; were it $20
per ton, which is nothing beyond a fair revenue duty, and that con-
tinued for five years, we should be able to bid defiance to the world
in competition. Mr. Cooper, we are told, is now ready to produce
10,000 tons per annum; others would soon be in the field; the in-
genuity and skill of our citizens would cause their own iron moun-
tains to flow and congeal in small unbroken streams, from point to
point, from town to town, from capital to capital, from the Atlantic
to the Pacific oceans, to accommodate their intercourse with each oth-
er, and add a giant's strength to our Union in every foot of their pro-
gress.

We have here before us a specimen of bituminous coal, from Tio-
ga county, Pennsylvania. The position of this coal is such, that the
cost of mining will not exceed $1 per ton. From the mine, it is car-
ried forty miles on railroad to Corning, thence through the Chemung
canal and Seneca lake to Geneva, thence to New-York, through the
Erie canal, via. Albany. The whole cost of mining and transporta-
tion to New-York is, at present, $4.76 per ton, although it passes
through a distance of 340 miles. When the Erie railroad is com-
pleted, the distance will be shortened 120 miles. The agent informs
me that he furnished the Great Western steamer with a quantity of
this coal, and that it was pronounced decidedly the best ever tried on
this side the Atlantic, although the specimens were from the " out-
crop." The quality will be vastly improved as the mine is worked.
Strike down the mechanical and manufacturing industry of the coun-
try, and such treasures as this will remain as useless as when the
fields were roamed by savages alone. ^

We are proud to point you to the representatives which Georgia
has sent to this grand jubilee of the arts and industry of the country.
There are specimens of Georgia plains and woolens, with striped
cotton osnabergs manufactured in Augusta by George Schley, Esq.
This factory turns out 2C0,000 yards of the former, and 100,000
yards of the latter per annum. They have been pronounced vastly
superior to any of the same fabric which has heretofore come to this
market. To them we say, in the sincerity of our heart — God speed.
We regret that these articles came in too late for competition, ac-
cording to the rules of the fair. They are, nevertheless, entitled to
the highest commendation.

There is another specimen from Greensborough, Georgia. It is
cotton yarn, manufactured by JNIessrs. Curtwright & Co., and has

[Assembly, No. 151.] 21

322 [ASSEMBLT

been pronounced by our judges the best specimen of coarse yarn ex-
hibited. With all these facts and evidences before us, can any one
doubt that protection is the true policy of our country? In my judg-
ment, there is not a greater certainty of the elapse of time, than
there is that the people of the south, west, east and north, will before
long demand protection, in language not to be misunderstood or
disregarded.

Let me invite your attention to these beautiful skeins of silk,
which were reeled at the New-York filature, in this city. This is
the only filature established in the country, exclusively devoted to
the reeling of silk. The worthy proprietor, Mr. Van Epps, has
here opened a permanent market for cocoons, with a view of remo-
ving one of the greatest obstacles with which the silk business has
had to contend, viz., the absence of a fixed market. And after the
expenditure of years of labor, wnth the investment of his funds in
the enterprise, w^ould it not be a melancholy sight to see such a
man smitten by the hand from which he had a right to expect pro-
tection?

I cannot omit, in passing, to call your attention to the admirable
metallic boat, the invention of Mr. Joseph Francis. The boat in ex-
hibition is 33 feet long, made of four sheets of hard rolled copper,
and pressed into form in seventy minutes, by a hydraulic pressure,
equal to 2,OOJ,000 of pounds, by which the whole boat is modeled,
timbered and planked at the same time. The air chambers render
her an admirable life-boat, capable of sustaining immense W'eight,
though filled with water. It is lighter than a wooden boat; no
seams that can open in a hot climate; worms cannot penetrate her
bottom; as Mr. Francis expresses it, they w^ill find her more than a
match for their teeth. These boats are manufactured by Messrs.
Stillman, Allen & Co., Novelty Works, New-York, and we heartily
commend them to the notice of nautical men in particular.

There is a case of pocket cutlery, made by John Wild, a youth
of this city, 15 years of age. These specimens are highly credita-
ble to his ingenuity and industry; our judges pronounce them equal
to the best imported.

Let me show you a case of cameos, wrought by Horatio L. Tryon,
36 Suffolk-street, New-York; the execution is pronounced beautiful;,
and those who feel a pride in these ornaments may add to its grati-
fication the pleasure of exhibiting the native skill of one of their
own countrymen.

No. 151.] 323

There is scarcely a requisite that our own skill and industry can-
not produce. Let me call your attention to the machine which ena-
bles the blind to write. This is pronounced a master-piece of human
ingenuity, creditable in the highest degree to the inventor. I must
confess that I beheld the operation of this machine with a degree of
reverence, arising, perhaps, from a tnought at the moment, that it
might be one of the nearest approximations of which man is capa-
ble to that power,

"Who, from thick films can purge the visual ray,
And on the sightless eye-ball pour the day."

There are many things deserving of especial praise. The excel-
lent linen thread, spun by machinery, from Waterford, New-York;
the coach lamps from Newark; the beautiful and perfect specimens
of leather, from J. & R. Ward, of Newark, and various other con-
tributors; the jack-screws of Ballard; the grates of Jackson; the
soaps of Roussel; the copper minerals from Lake Superior and New-
Jersey; the school furniture of Mott; the rich display of cloths from
Northampton, Massachusetts, from Connecticut, New-York, and New-
Jersey. Cottons from Newburyport, Massachusetts, Whitestown and
Troy, New- York, Providence and Pawtucket, Rhode-Island, and the
horticultural and floral productions from a host of friends, with thou-
sands on thousands of other specimens by which we are surrounded;
all testifying to the industry, skill and enterprise of the freemen of
this land, and uniting with us in one grand chorus of praise to God
that our lot has been cast in pleasant places.

COMMUNICATIONS

Made to the American Institute, in relation to Agriculture,
and its Products.

On the Culture of Grapes and Manufacture of Domestic Wine.

By H. LoNGWORTH, Cincinnati.

I have selected for the cultivation of the grape for wine, hills on
the Ohio river, or within a few miles of the river, planting the vines
on the tops and the sides of the hills, without particular regard to
the exposure. The tops and sides of our steepest hills are rich, and
little or no stone near the surface. The north sides of our hills are
the richest, and as our seasons are long and warm, I consider the
north sides equally favorable to the cultivation of the grape, as the
other points of the compass. Where the sides of the hills are so
steep as to occasion washing of the soil, I trench the ground from
18 inches to two feet deep, and lay it off in benches, usually sodding
the benches, but where in trenching, stones are thrown up I give
them the preference. The cost of benching is about $50 per acre,
done in the best manner. The depth to which I trench, depends on
the depth of the soil. The substratum is usually clay, and I trench
deep enough to bring from four to six inches of the poor soil on
the surface, wishing to keep the roots that far below the surface.
"When I first commenced my vineyards, to meet the views of my
tenants, w^ho must do it as they were accustomed to do it in Germa-
ny, the ground was trenched three feet deep, even where the good
soil was less than a foot in depth, and the stiff clay thrown on the
top. The consequence was, the vines did not flourish, for the roots
are generally inclined to keep near the surface, and never reached
to the good soil, two feet below the surface. Where the ground is
not so steep as to wash, deep plowing is all I deem necessary.

On the benches on the side hills, I usually place the rows from
four to four and a half feet apart. I leave a distance of three and a
half or four feet between the plants, and tie them to the stakes, gen-
erally of locust, from five to six feet high. On the benches we ne-
ver use the plow. On level ground, I should plant the rows five or
six feet apart, and leave four and a half feet between the plants.
Our soil in general, requires little or no manure. We use occasion-
ally, all kmds of manure, but always have it well rotted before we
apply it.

iVO.

151.] 325

In planting cuttings, I plant two in each hill, placing them with-
in two or three inches of each other at the top, and widely separa-
ted at the bottom, to enable me to remove one of them without dis-
turbing the roots of the other, should both grow. If the growth
has not been sufficient to produce well ripened wood, I cover it with
earth the first winter. Early in the spring I head down the plant
to two or three eyes, as soon as I discover Avhich is the strongest
shoot, break the others off, and permit one only to grow. I break
off three or four of the first lateral branches, and after that give the
plants no attention till the spring following when I again head them
down to four eyes, and permit two of the strongest to grow, taking
off the lateral branches to such point as I expect to prune to the
next spring. The spring following, (the third year,) I expect a
small crop of fruit, and prune the strongest branch from two to four
feet long, according to the growth of the plant, for bearing, and
prune the other shoot, leaving five eyes, three of the strongest of
which I allow to grow, breaking off lateral shoots as usual, and the
following spring cut out the bearing wood of the preceding season,
always pursuing the cane pruning, and leaving none of the two year
old wood; and thereby always having all my shoots within a foot
or eighteen inches of the ground. In breaking off the lateral shoots,
it must not be done till the wood begins to ripen; for if clone too
soon, it forces out the fruit buds of the next season, which brings a
crop that is usually killed by the frost of the next fall, before fully
ripe. I have frequently had the tops of my vines broken off by a
heavy wind, and numerous fruit buds of the next season forced out;
and when the fall was favorable, which is often the case on the
Ohio, had a fine show of grapes fully ripe the last of October.

As a matter of curiosity, I have on the same vine, had fruit not
only of the current year, but from the buds of four succeeding years.
Say in May, 1847, as soon as the plant is in blossom, I cut off the
extremity of the shoot, and force out the fruit bud, designed for
fruit in 1848. As soon as the fhiit bud of 1848 is in blossom, I
again cut' off its extremity, and force out the bud designed for fruit
in 1849, and so continue to clip the extremities, till the gi'owing
season is over. In a grape house properly heated, the fruit of the
different years may all be brought to maturity. My Germans are
averse to pruning till spring, as such was the practice in Germany.
This often interferes with spring work. I would recommend pruning
in the fall, as soon as the leaves have fallen, and at the same time
plant out cuttings. Where planted in the fall, I should plant so as
to leave the upper bud even with the surface, and throw a little soil

326 [Assembly

over it, and remove in the spring, as soon as the severe frost is

over.

We gather our grapes as soon as they are fully ripe. In many
parts of Europe they are suffered to hang on the vines till past ma-
turity. This adds to the saccharine principle, but I find it injurious
to the aroma and flavor of the wine. I cultivate none but red or
black grapes. If red wine be the object, we mash the grapes, and
have a partial fermentation before pressing, to bring out the coloring
matter, which is contained in the skin. If a light colored wine be
the object, we mash the grapes, and press them out as soon as gath-
ered. We carefully pick from the bunches all rotten and green
fruit. As soon as the must is in the cask I move it to the wine
room, which is sometimes in the cellar, and at other times above
ground. In neither case has it ever run into the acetous fermentation

We formerly added sugar to all our must before fermentation. To
the Schuylkill Muscadel, from 12 to 16 oz.; to the Catawba, from
6 to 10 oz. to the gallon; being governed by the quantity of saccha-
rine matter in the must, and also the quantity of leaven. Of late
years, if the grapes are ripe, we use no sugar lo the Catawba grape,
and never add spirit in making w-ine from other grapes. Of the
character of Madeira or Port, we generally use sugar before fermen-
tation, and add from five to eight per cent of brandy after the fer-
mentation is over, to make it resemble those wines to which brandy
is always added. The Isabella makes a very indifferent wine, unless
from 24 to 32 oz. of sugar is added to the gallon of must, according
to the maturity of the fruit, when it makes a superior sweet wine,
equal to the best imported.

The reports of some of our Horticultural Societies, and publica-
tions of some of our vine dressers, speak of 500 gallons of wine to
the acre, as an average yield. There is more of poetry than truth
in these statements. After 30 years of cultivation, I deem 200 gal-
lons to the acre a full average crop. The most I have known grown
on two acres was 1300 gallons from the Catawba grape. This I
consider our most valuable grape for wine, and manufactured with
care and left till of proper age, will rival the best dry Hock. After
two years trial, I am satisfied it will also make a superior sparkling
champagne, and am now erecting a vault and building to have it
manufactured extensively. From the Isabella grape I one year made
from 1-14 of an acre 105 gallons, being at Ihc rate of 1470 gallons
to the acre. This grape ripens unequally with us, and is very sub-

No. 150.] 327

ject to the rot. The Missouri bids fair to be valuable as a wine
grape; and the Herbemont would be very valuable both for the table
and wine if it were less subject to rot. I have tried the foreign
grapes extensively for wine at great expense for many years, and
have abandoned them as unfit for our climate. In the acclimation of
plants I do not believe. The white, sweet water grape is not more
hardy with me than it was 30 years since, and does not bear as well.
I have tried them in all soils, and with all exposures.

I obtained 5,000 plants from Madeira, 10,000 from France; and one-
half of them, consisting of twenty varieties of the most celebrated wine
grapes from the mountains of Jura, in the extreme northern part of
France, where the vine region ends; I also obtained them from the
vicinity of Paris, Bordeaux, and from Germany. I went to the ex-
pense of trenching one hundred feet square on a side hill, placing a
layer of stone and gravel at the bottom, with a drain to carry off the
water, and put in a compost of rich soil and sand three feet deep, and
planted on it a great variety of foreign wine grapes. All failed; and
not a single plant is left in my vineyards. I would advise the culti-
vation of native grapes alone, and the raising of new varieties from
their seed. It may be advisable to cross the Catawba with some of
the best foreign wine grapes, and raise from the seed.

I have 24 vineyards, and about 67 acres of vineyard in bearing,
and about 32 acres recently planted, or ready for planting in the
spring. Last year there was a partial failure of the crop, but we
made 300 barrels of wine, being 200 barrels less than we calculated
on making before the rot commenced in the grapes. Of the cost and
profit of cultivation, I am not fully competent to speak; for profit
has not been my object, nor have I devoted that attention to my
tenants, that a regard for profit would require. I commenced with
the firm belief that the climate and soil in this region was admira-
bly calculated for the cultivation of the grape, and manufacture of
wine, and though I had little hope of succeeding in the cultivation
of the foreign wine grapes, I determined to give them a fair trial,
and resolved to collect native grapes from different parts of Ameri-
ca, believing as the Hughes crab apple of Virginia, gave us better
cider than any foreign apple, I might find a native grape capable of
making a superior wine.

About 25 years since, I commenced settling Germans on my hilly
ground, and setting off to each from 12 to 25 acres. They were
generally very poor. There were no written contracts, but the under-

328 [As^rMBL?

standing was, I was to furnish all grape cuttings and fruit trees want-
ed. 1 paid for trenching and benching portions of the ground, and
gave them such aid as was necessary at the outset. I was to have
half the wine at the press, and half the amount of sales of the oth-
er fruit. All other articles raised on the place were for their own be-
nefit. The grapes were generally neglected, as it took some years to
bring them into bearing, whilst the potatoes and sourcrout yielded
an immediate income. My first tenant instead of having a crop of
grapes the third or fourth year, had his crop the ninth year, when
his share yielded him $200. The tenth year, his wine yielded him
about $800. So large a sura, and all in silver bewildered the old
man's imagination. He made me his best bow, went into the inte-
rior, bought land, and began a vineyard on his own account. His
latitude was too far north for the grape, and after six years absence
the old man returned nearly pennyless, and began a new vineyard on
four acres of ground, adjoining the old one, then and now under
charge of one of his sons-in-law. He will next season make some
wine; but to cheer the old man's spirits, we have enabled him oc-
casionally to take his accustomed glass of wine, and sing his old
song under the shade of his favorite tree.

Most of my tenants have occupied their present vmeyards from
10 to 25 years, and are contented and happy, if not rich. One of
them who works harder than any of the others, and keeps his fami-
ly at work, and devotes most of his time to his vineyard, made from
• his wine last year, $1,400. But I would not recommend the cultiva-
tion of the grape for profit to persons wbo hire all and work none.

Our wines have always met a ready sale in the city, and bring from
$1 to $1.50 per gallon. The grape culture is now spreading rapid-
ly, and we must look out for a market abroad. The price will depend
on the manufacturer. In the wine countries of Europe it is a stand-
ing proverb that, " a poor man cannot make good wine." The rea-
son is obvious. He is compelled to sell his wine when new, and
cannot devote the necessary attention, and wait till his wine is five
or six years of age, before he sells it.

It is there also said, that all depends on soil, and exposure; and
whilst the wine at one vineyard brings $12 per dozen, the wine of
an adjoining vineyard will not command one quarter the sum. In
this doctrine I place no reliance. With us, I find the quality chiefly
depends on the care and attention of the manufacture. Wine re-
quires much greater skill, and care in the manufacture, than is requi-

No. 150.] 329

site in making cheese and butter. What more simple than the raak"
ing of butter, yet one tenant on a farm will make butter of a supe-
rior quality, whilst the butter made by another tenant on the same
farm, with equal facilities, is scarcely fit for use, and will not com-
mand half the price of his brother tenant. In Europe a landlord
often commences with selling his wine at $3 per dozen, and ends by
selling it at S12 or more, as his reputation becomes established. A
manufacturer who values the reputation of his vineyard, in unfavo-
rable seasons sells his wine in the cask, without attaching his name
to it at a low price.

The cultivation of the grape for wine in our country was attempt-
ed about 50 years since, by a company at Spring Hill, near Phila-
delphia. They tried foreign wine grapes, and found them unsuited
to our climate. They found one grape only to stand the climate and
bear ^'^ll.

The idea of manufacturing wine from a native -grape would in
that day have been hooted at, and the manager wisely, if not hon-
estly called it the Cape grape, though taken from the banks of the
Schuylkill; leaving it to be inferred that the vine was from the Cape
of Good Hope. The next attempt was by the Swiss emigrants, at
Vevay, Indiana. They found the grape of Switzerland unsuited to
our climate; and hearing of the Cape grape succeeding at Spring
Hill procured it, and for many years cultivated it, making a hard
rough, red wine, excellent for sangaree, but not relished as a table
wine.

Their vineyards have gone down, and the Cape grape (Schuylkill
Muscadel) is now but little cultivated. It is one of our surest bear-
ers, and pressed as soon as gathered, and manufactured after the
manner of Madeira and Teneriffe wine, when at a proper age it
greatly resembles them.

We are indebted to Major Adlam, of the District of Columbia, for
the introduction of the Catawba, our best wine grape. He erred in
making from it a sweet wine. The Major was compelled to culti-
vate it with a view to immediate profit, and injured the reputation
of his wine, in seasons when the Catawba did not produce a full
crop, by mixing with them the wild grapes of the woods in his vici-
nity. By tie introduction of that grape he was a great benefactor
to the nation, and the day is not distant when the banks of the Ohio
will rival the banks of the Rhine, in the quality ai^d quantity of

330 [Assembly

the wine produced. Our German emigrants are the people who
■will accomplish it. Our hills suitable for wine are of little value
for other cultivation. Give a German 10 acres of this land, and if
he has a wife and children, he will live in great luxury. He will
never w^ant for his two greatest of all luxuries, wine and sourcrout.
His children however small, not only aid him in the cultivation, but
his wife during the summer and fall does the greater part of the la-
bor in the vineyard. The poor vinedressers in Germany are seldom
so rich as to own a horse, and therefore over estimate their value.
Yet greatly as they value the acquisition of a broken down pony in
this country, it does not lessen their estimation of the great value of
their w^ves in the vineyards. A very honest Dutch tenant of mine,
who was so unfortunate as to lose his- wife, observed to me, " he
might just as well have lost his horse."

SOILING,

U. L. Pell, Pelham I'arm, flstei- co«Wty»

l^or the last four years it has been my constant practice to soilj
not only cows, but hogs, oxen and horses. My yards are large,
enclosed by stone walls, and so arranged as to collect all the manure
in +he centre. There is a pump and trough convenient to it, and
open sheds where the animals may lie and ruminate at pleasures

Three times each day, at stated hours, green crops are cut and
brought to them, such as clover and tim.othy grass, green oats, green
corn stalks, green buckwheat in bloom, root tops, &c. Occasional^
ly, by way of change, dry hay and straw are cut up and given to
them, mixed with sufficient wheat bran to induce them to reliih it»
The stock are never permitted to waste anything; that left by the
cows is given to the horses, as horses will eat after cows^ and vice
versa, cows after horses; but they will not eat after each other.
The leavings of the horses is then fed to the hogs. The animals
are enabled to consume their quantum in about thirty minutes, when
they immediately lie down, rest, take on fat, and secrete milk. If
pastured, they require many hours to obtain the requisite food, besides
laboring diligently, which has a tendency to prevent the secretions
either of fat or milk. They have but little time to ruminate; and
when driven to and from pasture, run wildly about the field; are
whipped, stoned and chased by dogs, which causes them to become
feverish, and as a result contract their milk vess«^]s.

Salt should always be within reach of the animals in the yard, as
it is indispensable to keep the organs of digestion active, increase
the milk and growth of fat, besides much improving the quality of
the flesh.

I have found, by actual experiment, that cows, when fed in the
yard at regular periods, with a change of food, not allowing tbeffl

332 [Assembly

at any time to be over fed, and supplied at all times with an abun-
dance of water, have doubled their milk; that is to say, the same
cows that were one year depastured gave, when confined, twice the
quantity of milk, and of a much richer quality. When depastured,
I did not obtain a particle of manure; it was dropped upon the soil,
certainly, but with very little advantage to it,^ nearly all the volatile
gases were immediately given to the atmosphere, and many of its
other valuable properties were withdrawn from it by flies; so that
the soil received but little benefit. One of the principal and most
valuable ingredients in manure is ammonia, which is converted to a
volatile substance in farm-yard manure, called nitrogen, and is, of
all others, the fertilizer, that must, if possible, be saved, as neither
seeds nor plants can be obtained without it. The manure dropped
in the fields is deprived immediately of this indispensable gas. The
potash and soda also being easily dissolved by water, and likewise
lost, practically lost, by being deposited in excess. In the barn-
yard these valuable substances may be preserved by means of char-
coal dust, which absorbs the ammonia as it rises to escape, and the
potash as it dissolves, by absorption, and holds them until saturated
with rain, when the gases are again disseminated in the heap, and
the charcoal takes in moisture. This manure may then be placed
on fields in large or small quantities, as required, and in such a
manner as to produce the most advantage. An opportunity is af-
forded, likewise, of making any description of manure needed. If
highly nitrogenized substances are required for crops, allow the hogs
to run in the barn-yardj and feed them corn; it contains valuable
nutricious elements, suitable not only to the growth of plants, but
the animals themselves, being composed of nitrogen, potash, carbon,
soda, lime, and other necessary chemicals, all of which, after having
formed the bones, flesh, fat, skin, hair and muscles of the animal,
are again returned to the manure heap in lesser quantities. The
value of the manure may be farther increased by feeding oats, rye,
peas, buckwheat, cut straw, &c.

One reason that the excrement of the horse is so much richer and
more valuable than that of the cow is, that the horse is fed on fari-
naceous matter, corn, oats, &c., which the cow is not; and so like-
wise is that of man, because he partakes of a great variety of food,
both animal and vegetable. My barn-yard has yielded me a large
amount of manure per annum, since I commenced soiling my stock;
whereas, before, T did not obtain a single load, except in winter.
The plan I adopt is, to cast daily all the refuse of the farm into the
yard; such as weeds, muck, leaves, refuse straw, sods from the

No. 151.] 333

hedge rows, pond mud, refuse vegetables, and numerous other sub-
stances that might be named. The hogs turn them over and incor-
porate them one with another, and the stock trample down and
form them into a solid mass; charcoal dust is once a w^eek spread
over the whole, which retains and preserves all the gases that would
otherwise escape; every three months it is drawn out, placed in a
square heap and mixed with plaster, ashes, salt, muck, and guano;
the whole is then covered with charcoal dust to the depth of six in-
ches, and left until fall, when it is used upon the fields most re-
quiring it; spread on broad cast, and plowed under the earth, and
the crops make use of the gases as nature provides, and all care
ceases.

Another most important advantage accrues to the soiler, viz: a
piece of land that would support five cows, depastured one week,
would amply furnish the same with an abundant supply of food one
month, if cut and carried to them. The piece depastured would likewise
be almost destroyed by poaching in wet weather; trampling, sleeping
upon, and injuring the herbage by close eating. Horses do much
more damage than cows, as they eat much closer, and frequently pull
the grass out by the roots.

When cattle are stall-fed, or soiled in the yard, the nitrogen of
the manure may be preserved by artificial means. It is an ingredi-
ent absolutely indispensable to the growth of plants. By analysis it
has been found in every part of the growing plant; the roots, stems
leaves, &c., contain it, showing that without it plants cannot be
grown. How important then -it is, that so valuable a substance
should be preserved. I have grown plants in pure charcoal dust, by
watering them with rain water; the rain w^ater yielded them ammo-
nia, and consequently nitrogen as one of its elements. I found with
spring water, I could not grow them after a certain period at all in
charcoal dust; but with rain water most successfully. Although the
air must contain a vast quantity of nitrogen, I am confident the
plants I grew, did not obtain the quantity they required from that
source; if they had, th? spring water would have answered them as
well as the rain water; they must have obtained it through the me-
dium of ammonia, contained in the rain w^ater. This is a singular
fact, and goes to show that although a generation of more than one
thousand millions of the children of Adam, and 20,000 millions of
animals cease to exist, and the nitrogen w^hich they contain, is
yielded in part to the heaven every thirty years, still plants cannot
elaborate it in their system, except through the medium of the roots.

334 [Assembly

The hydrogen unites with the nitrogen, produced, not only by dead
animals, but the excrement and ilrine of all animals while living, as
well as other putrescent matter; thus forming ammonia, which com-
bines with carbonic acid gas, and descends with every shower to the
earth's surface, in a soluble form, easily taken up by the roots, and
distributed throughout the field. Davy calculates, that a pint of rain
water contains only a quarter of a grain of ammonia, that a field of
forty thousand square feet, mtist receive yearly, upwards of eighty
pounds of ammonia, or sixty-five pounds of nitrogen; for it is ascer-
tained that the annual fall of rain water in England, on this extent
of surface, is at least 2,500,003 pounds. This is much more nitro-
gen than is contained in the form of vegetable albumen and gluten in
2,800 lbs. of hay, or 20,000 lbs. of beet root, which would be the
yearly produce of such a field; but it is less than the straw, roots,
and grain of corn, which might grow on the same surface, would
contain; therefore, the farmer must supply the deficiency of nitrogen
by using manures containing ammonia.

Animal manure is chiefly valuable for the ammonia which it pro-
duces. Without it, fodder for animals, or vegetables and giain for
man, cannot be grown. Manure without stint with nitrogenized
substances, and the wheat grown will yield 18 per cent of gluten,
will weigh 64 lbs. and produce 50 bushels to the acre. Such has
been the experiment I tried upon a wheat field, when the adjoining
field, treated in the usual manner, yielded me wheat weighing 56
pounds, and 15 bushels to the acre, and probably not more than five
per cent of gluten. I placed some of the same nitrogenized com-
position upon a barren piece of sandy land, which I had never seen
covered with verdure of any description, and in a very short period
of time, it was clothed with a dense dark green grass, which tiller-
ed v/ell. White clover afterwards came in, which, when it dies,
will afford food for a succession of plants ; and the piece may be
considered as reclaimed.

All lands require humus or decayed vegetable matter. When soil-
ing cattle is practiced, an opportunity is offered of supplying the
farm with whatever it may require. If, upon examination, humus
is discovered to a great degree deficient,- cart decayed oak wood, and
mix it with your compost heap. Each pound brought in, will ab-
sorb from the atmosphere more than 70 times its volume of gaseous
ammonia; consequently the quantity of nitrogen will be large.
Charcoal possesses the same valuable property in a greater degree.
Chemists inform us, that it will absorb 90 times its volume of ammo-

No. 151.] 335

niacal gas. Twice a week a thin coat of charcoal should be spread
over every barn-yard and compost heap. Muck will, to a certain
extent, answer the same purpose. " Lord Egremont, of Sussex, En-
" gland, used to have his cows tied up during the greater part of
" the year; he maintained that one-third of the food was saved,
" that his cows were fed with one-fourth part of the usual trouble,
" that more dung was made, and that there w^as no spoiling the
" ground. He stated that little more than half an acre may be made
" to produce grass sufficient, when cut and brought into the stable, to
" keep a cow nearly a whole year [in England.]

Cows and oxen, as ordinarily treated, are much "hardier than hor-
ses, and not half as liable to disease. They will endure without ap-
parent suffering, extreme cold in winter, and intense heat in summer;
they W'ill bear confinement in stables, without much apparent detri-
ment to their health, for 18 months. I saw a milch cow in Geneva,
Switzerland, which had been confined to a stable for two years; her
owner informed me that during that period, she had not been out
more than ten times, and then only for an hour or so. She had ne-
ver been sick, and was a great milker. When I saw her, she appear-
ed to enjoy good health; her toes had grown very long. I found,
upon inquiry, that the persons who made milk-selling their business,
living in the vicinity of towns, not only in Switzerland, but Ger-
many and England, were accustomed to keep their cows in confine-
ment the year round, without injury to their health. I imagine the
same thing is practiced in the outskirts of the city of New-York.

It would not be possible to keep the horse in the same manner,,
without exercise, and he retain his health, plainly showing that the
cow is much hardier in this respect. Still, I much prefer that cattle
should have a large yard to exercise in, and enjoy the air.

My cows, during winter, have each a separate stall, in wdiich they
are fastened every night. In the morning, they are curried, brushed
and fed, after which they are turned in the yard, and left there during
the day. The only people in Europe who generally keep their cow
houses cleanly, are the Hollanders. Their cow houses are so neat,
that a person not over nice, might dine in them without much offend-
ing his olfactory nerves; they are universally airy, remarkably well
T'entilated, and perfectly protected from too great a glare of light,
•which is found to disturb cattle when ruminating, and to encourage
the annoying little fly.

336 [Assembly

In England, such is not the case among the same class of farmers.
Their cow houses are badly constructed, exceedingly dark, and not
sufficiently ventilated. In our country, the same class have no cow
houses at all. Their cattle generally do not know any other luxury,
than to be allowed to stand on the south side of the barn during four
months in the year. Before their stable doors may be seen large
piles of horse manure, scarcely allowing space for egress or ingress;
"the centre of which, if opened, will be found burned to a dry white
powder, and is termed fire fanged. I could name four farmers, liv-
ing in one of our most celebrated agricultural counties, who have
absolutely moved their barns fi'om their manure heaps, instead of
their manure heaps from their barns. Two of these gentlemen have
long talked of removing west, on account of the sterility of the soil.

Let stock be soiled, and the value of their manure is in proportion
to their feed. He who feeds oil cake, wheat bran, clover, and lucerne
grass, will obtain a manure exceedingly rich, and worth precisely
double that derived from animals fed upon straw and chaff. In the
former case, his animals will yield a large quantity of milk; it will
be rich, and afford cream capable of making the best butter, or the
milk itself will make the richest cheese. In the fall of the year the
cows will be fat, and fit for the butcher. In the latter case, his ma-
nure is comparatively worthless; he obtains a small quantity of their
milk, incapable of producing either much or rich butter or cheese,
and his animals are mere shadows. The only question as to rich food
for cows will be, can it be more advantageously? and this wnll de-
pend upon the use to be made of the produce, upon situation, mar-
kets, and circumstances.

As no plant can use other than liquid manure in its growth, farm-
ers should be particularly careful of the liquids of their barn-yards.
Every barn-yard should have the requisite cisterns or pit holes, into
which all the manure made should be thrown daily. When full, let
it remain one nionth to "become soluble, after which apply it to your
land and plow it under. If left on the surface, exposed to the dry-
ing influences of wind, or the scorching sun, great waste necessarily
ensues.

Although I would advise farmers to soil their stock, still I would
not keep a single animal expressly for its manure, as hundreds do iri
England. The manure should be a clear profit, and it can only be
so, by making the horses and oxen perform sufficient labor to pay
for their food, and the money expended upon them. When cattle are

No. 151.] 337

fattened, their manure, by being enriched by the corn, &c , fed,
should likewise be a clear gain. The fodder and trouble must be re-
paid by the increased value of the beast. If the value of the food
used for stock is found to be balanced by the labor and use of the
stock, the manure may then be considered clear gain.

The value of manures differ, on different soils, so that if 100 farm-
ers were to reckon the value of manures used by them on different
soils, all using the same kind, very possibly no two of them would
agree.

When pigs are soiled, their manure should always be mixed with
that, of the stable or barn-yard, before used, for the reason that it
contains a large percentage of nitrogen ized substances, especially
when they are fed corn and other cereal grains. If allowed to putri-
fy in the pens, it becomes excessively offensive, and if in that state
it is applied to esculent roots, it would give them an unpleasant fla-
vor. If properly managed, it is a most powerful manure. A gen-
tleman formerly residing on Long Island (Mr. Samuel Stevens, de-
ceased,) once informed me that he had applied pure Jiog manure to
a field of wheat. The grain grew most rapidly, presented a beau-
tiful green appearance, and was admired by all who saw it. When
it reached the usual heighth of wheat, it was still green, and showed
no inclination to form the tassel. It did not cease to grow until it
was one-third higher than any wheat grown on his farm before;* at
that stage the straw ripened, but hardly yielded a single kernel of

The excrement not only of the hog, but all animals, differ very
materially in value for agricultural purposes. Of the dung of horned
animals, I would prefer that made by the ox, to that of young stock,
for the reason that the latter require all the phosphate of lime yield-
ed them by their food for the formation of their bones, and cows
convert the most of their phosphates into milk. The ox requiring
but a very small quantity, and none to make fat, enriches his excre-
ment with that invaluable substance. If Mr. Stevens had mixed his
hog manure with that of the ox, containing phosphate of lime or
bone earth, and applied it in less quantities, his wheat would have
produced him a large quantity of grain.

Plants and animals require the same ingredients to induce growth
and bring them to maturity. Professor Leibig says, " that caseine,
" albumen and fibrine, which have hitherto been considered the pro-

[Assembly, No. 151.] 22

338 [Assembly

" duction of animal life, are now ascertained to be previously form-
" ed by plants, as well as starch and sugar, and are all assimilated
" and modified by the animal functions. The three first substances
" have been by the chemist extracted from plants, and their analysis
" is precisely similar to those yielded by animals."

I have heard farmers object to soiling, for the reason that they
imagined frequent cutting of meadows had a tendency to exhaust the
soil, and would injure it more than depasturing. I have found, by
actual experiment, that such is not the fact. You may mow a field
ten times during the summer, and the injury will not be as great as
it would to cut one crop of hay, to say nothing about the manifest
destruction of roots, by poaching, &c. You injure grass but little
by constant mowing, provided you do not permit it to go to stalks
and seed. It is the formation of stalks and seed that exhausts the
humus, "and other valuable ingredients in the soil. If you remove the
■grass before the seed is developed, but little injury will accrue to the
land. It is necessary that the agriculturist should draw upon his
lands sufficient manure to keep the humus to his soil always the
same. If he does this, his land will yield him a crop of grass a.r\-
nually for a term of years.

Should meadows be so located as to allow them to be overflowed,
it will be unnecessary ever to manure them, as they will appropriate
to themselves from the slime contained in the water, the requisite
enriching properties to grow grass crops continually. Without ir-
rigation in the southern parts of Italy and France, fine crops of grass
cannot be raised. In the neighborhood of Avignon in France, they
find it necessary to irrigate even their potatoe fields. The inhabitants
of Tuscany irrigate all their crops, wheat, beans, &c. The inhabi-
tants of this country never irrigate, whatever their facilities may be.

I think farmers err in laying too great a stress upon the necessity
of importing foreign stock ybr dairy purposes. It has no doubt been
found by many importers, who have experimented fairly, that our
improved native cow gives as much milk the year round, yields as
much cheese and butter, stands the climate better, and is kept at as
little expense, as any of the imported cows in the same condition.
At all events, if such has not been the experience of others, it has
been mine. The apparent supposition upon which importers act, is,
that they suppose an extra high priced imported animal, must neces-
sarily produce a superior stock, when it not unfrequently happens
that those very animals, by judicious selection, have but two good

No. 151.] 339

points. Their imperfections are disseminated through a whole neigh-
borhood, merely because they cost an exorbitant sum, and enjoy the
reputation of having crossed the Atlantic. This, of course, does not
always happen. Probably some of the finest animals, of the Devon-
shire, Hereford, and short horn breeds, that have ever graced the shores
of Britain, have been brought to this country, and we have most as-
suredly improved the form and beauty of our animals by frequent
crossing. Still an approach to the same result would have been ob-
tained, if our farmers had paid the same attention to our native stock
that they do to the foreign. The usual practice is, and I fear al-
ways will be, to sell the best to the butcher, for the reason that it
bears the highest price, and breed from the inferior. Such policy
will inevitably deteriorate stock, and disgrace our farmers, though
they may own the finest improved animals. I approve highly of the
Short Horn cross, for animals intended for beef, but as far as my ex-
perience goes, not for milk, except perhaps in a slight degree. I have
owned a Short Horned cow which yielded me 30 quaitsol milk per day,
and a native which gave only 20 quarts Still the native cows milk
was certainly one-half richer than the Short Horns, and consequently
worth twice as much. All things considered, I think the most ad-
mirable animals for the climate of America, are the animals raised in
America.

Feed animals well; never stint them when young. If you do, be
assured that they will never afterwards take on flesh, and grow so ra-
pidly or so fully, no matter how well fed at an advanced age. Of
course, a serious loss will accrue. The farmer who spends the most
money in food for his animals, will realize the greatest profit, pro-
vided he makes a judicious selection of stock and his markets are fa-
vorable.

A breeder of cattle can always choose from his herd, without a
possibility of error, such animals as will fatten advantageously. His
guide is symmetry in form, a wide-spreading carcass, small bones,
compact body, very deep quarters, thin skin, full dilating eyes, fine
brisket, small head, mild countenance, thin muzzle, distended nostrils,
wide shoulders, wide back, round body, short legs some distance apart,
full flanks, and a fatty excrescence under the roots of the tongue.
When the breeder has selected such an animal, he is confident that
any amount of food he may eat, will amply repay him in prime flesh.
Judges of annuals depend mainly upon handling or touching, as they
term it.

340 [Assembly

Soiling the Horse.

Hitherto I have confined myself to milch cows. I propose now to
treat of soiling as applied to horses. It may be thought that I lay
too great s^^ress on the importance of soiling; but I think the day is
not far distant, when all will soil animals, if not from choice, from
necessity, as the value of land is daily increasing in the vicinity of our
cities, and it will soon be found that agricultural pursuits will not
afford remunerating profits to the farmer, who fences 100 acres in 10
acre fields, for the purpose of keeping 10 milch cows, when 15 acres,
properly tilled, will keep the same in much finer condition.

Equus, the horse, according to naturalists, consists of several dif-
ferent animals, as the Equus Caballus, Eqifus Asinus, Equus Zebra,
&c. Of these species the horse is the most valuable, docile, largest,
and most extensively distributed over the universe; he is but one of
the very few which existed in the tertiary periods of geology, that
has been preserved to the present day. The first herd of horses from
vvliich our stoi k has been derived, proceeded originally from Mount
Ararat into Asia and Africa. In Mesopotamia on the river Euphra-
tes, and in the deseris of Syria there are tribes very rich in fine horses,
and the reason is that they have fertile plains and valleys, abounding
in green grass and luxuriant herbage, upon which the horse can feed
almost the whole year, inducing rapid growth and corresponding
vigor of constitution; and besides, these people take unbounded care
of their animals. Among the Bedouins, when a colt is foaled, it is
never permitted to be dropped upon the ground, as is the practice of
our people, but is held in their arms for hours, washed, hugged and
treated as if it were a child.

No horses were found on the continent of America when first dis-
covered; two mares and a stud were brought here by the Spaniards,
and from them have descended the countless multitudes that now run
wild over the immense plains and pampas of South America; clearly
proving by their immense increase, that a southern climate abound-
ing with rich grasses, is particularly congenial to them. The charac-
ter of a horse is entirely changed by food and climate; although he
enjoys the burning region of a southern clime, still he cannot en-
dure the other extreme. In Iceland wc all know he dwindles from
a magnificent animal to a miserable long-haired dwarf ; in Lapland
and Kamschatka, he does not exist even in that deformed shape.
The best of 'the wild Asiatic races are supposed to be those inhabit-
ing Tscherkessie, Abassi, and the slopes of the Caucasian mountains;

No. 151.] • • 341

che chief varieties, as mentioned by Pallas, among the Asiatic horses,
are the "moustachoed horse," characterized by numerous strong bristles
on the upper lip; the " woolly horse," a Russian variety, " covered
with a crisp woolly hair, and common among the Baschkirs; and a
naked or hairless horse, not uncommon among the Krim Tartars, who
keep it always clothed," and there is a variety delineated by John-
ston, in which " a woolly mane is continued from the neck along the
middle of the back to the tail." The 1st record of the application
of tamed horses to the use of mankind is in Genesis, in w'hich it is
written, that, when Joseph transferred his father's remains from Egypt
to Canaan, " there went up with him four chariots and horsemen,"
which was 1650 years before the birth of our Savior. Horse races
formed part of the Olympic games in Greece, 1450 years before
Christ. " The first notice we have of a horse being employed in agri-
culture, is in the tapestry of Bayeux (woven in 1066), where one is
depicted drawing a harrow." In 1121 the first Arabian horse was
imported into Great Britain, and was presented by Alexander I, of
Scotland, to the church of St. Andrews. King John afterwards pro-
cured 100 stallions from Flanders. Edward II, and Edward III, ijn-
ported horses from Lombardy, France, and Spain. Henry VIII first
established race-courses, and James I perfected the system, and dur-
ing his reign a peculiar breed was formed for the purpose; and from
Great Britain our best stock has been obtained. The food for the
horse is a matter that requires our particular attention, although we
find him fed in different countries upon leaves, roots, twigs of trees,
flesh, broth, dried fish, eggs, etc., Still these substances cannot be
considered his natural food, as the horse is truly a herbivorous ani-
mal; among the Tartars horses are frequently eaten, and their flesh
is considered a great delicacy.

It is well to recolleet that there are but four eliments which are
considered principally concerned in producing food for animals, and
they are nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and carbon. Chemists say
that "no animal can subsist for any length of time upon food desti-
tute of nitrogen," and that a mixture of different food is absolutely
necessary to the well-being of all kinds of stock. And I would
impress upon all those who now soil animals, or who may hereafter
do so, the absolute and indispensable necessity of an ample supply
of water, which, although it is not nutritious in itself, still is all-
important as a dissolver of the nutritive matter which is fed to ani-
mals, rendering it fit for the absorbents to convey it into the blood.
By analysis, it is found, if a horse be fed 1,000 parts of the common
bean, he obtains from it 570 parts of soluble nutritive ' matter, 4.26

342 [Assembly

parts of mucilage, or starch, and 103 parts of gluten. If dry peas
be fed, he obtains from 1,000 parts, 574 parts of nutritive matter,
501 parts of mucilage, or starch, 22 parts of saccharine matter, or
sugar, and 35 parts of gluten. From 1,000 parts of linseed cake,
151 parts of nutritive matter, 123 of starch, 11 of saccharine mat-
ter, and 17 of gluten. From 1,000 parts of red beet, 148 parts of
nutritive matter, 14 mucilage, or starch, 121 saccharine matter, and
14 of gluten. In 1,000 parts of parsnips, cabbage, Swedish tur-
neps, common turneps, red clover, white clover or lucerne, the quan-
tity of nutritious matter is very far lessj but from 1,000 parts of
oats, he obtains 743 parts of soluble nutritive matter, 41 of starch
or mucilage, 15 of saccharine matter or sugar, and 87 parts of glu-
ten, or albumen, showing that oats, as food, are far more valuable
than the root crops. Therefore, my practice has been, to keep my
horses according to the labor I have for them to perform. When
idle, they are led upon green corn-stalks, green grass, carrots, pota-
toes, bran, or fresh, unfermented apple pomace, all of which they
will partake of, as a change, with apparent satisfaction. When they
are. compelled to labor hard, they are fed the best cut hay, and 12
quarts of oats each per day; being taken from the green succulent
food, their oats are a great treat to them, and I believe do them in-
finitely more good than if they had been fed constantly upon them.
I have sometimes fed my horses cut straw and boiled potatoes, but
found, without oats, they could not, on such food, do a day's work,
but constantly, although allowed as much as requisite, fell off in
condition; still, Messrs. Vancouver and Author Young, of Essex,
England, affirm that horses have been kept throughout the winter
entirely on steamed potatoes, to every 300 lbs. of which was added
half a pint of salt, and a little sulphur; and that, fed in this man-
ner, they performed wuth the greatest ease, all the common labor of
the farm, without Either hay or oats. If such is the case in the
mild climate of England, it has not been my good fortune to find
that it would succeed in our climate. I have found by frequent ex-
periment, that carrot may be fed very advantageously to working
horses, so much so, that a horse will gain rapidly, if fed tw^ice a day
with oats, say four quarts at each meal, and an equivalent to six
quarts of carrots. The saving in one month, of oats, by this mode
of feeding, is considerable. Horses fed on carrots alone, will con-
sume thirty bushels in one week; when so fed, the tops should be
cut off and given to cows; they are tender, and very delicate.
Cows are extravagantly fond of them, and will eat them in prefe-
rence to any other food. An acre, well cultivated, will grow 1,000

No. 151.] 343

bushels of carrots, and yield about eight tons of green tops. As
the carrot is a root depending mainly upon the soil for nourishment,
the tops may be cut with a scythe, and fed, before the roots are dug;
they are very hardy, require but little attention, bear neglect for
half the winter in the fields unprotected, which admirably suits a
slovenly farmer. (They should, however, be dug and stored by the
first of November.) Horses fed on carrots, present a beautiful glos-
sy coat. It is a crop almost indispensable to a man who practices
soiling. The parsnip, mangel wurtzel, turnep, and potato, are
likewise very valuable, but in my estimation, not so much so as the
carrot.

In changing the food of my horses from green to dry, and vice
versa, I am particularly careful in seeing that it is done by degrees,
as on one or two occasions I have noticed that an immediate change
has produced hoven "in cattle, though I have not observed any ill
effects in horses. Still, I think it best to break off gradually. If,
for instance, you are feeding corn, add green food a short time be-
fore you intend to make the change, and increase it constantly while
you diminish the corn. Horses, when soiled, should be fed in small
quantities and often. An immense advantage gained in soiling hor-
ses is, that you have them always at hand when required for labor,
and not having enjoyed leisure in the fields, they never show any in-
disposition to render themselves useful; the time lost in catching
them when required, is frequently severely felt by the farmer. I
have known half a day consumed in this way, by a hard-working
man, and all his farm help. Still, as his grand-father never soiled*
his horses, he would not, but contented himself by swearing the
horse should never go unhoppled again. Hoppling is the result of v
pasturing. It is a bad practice, and serious to the gait of any ani-
mal, besides rendering him incapable of defending himself pro-
perly from the flies; the consequence is, he b *omes poor in flesh, and
a disgrace to his hard-hearted, stubborn master.

If the farmer will not take my advice, and soil his horses con-
stantly, for his own advantage, he should do it partially. He should
cut grass for them during the day, and turn them into some well
clothed meadow at night. Thus they will escape the detestable fly
and enjoy some quiet and ease, a"nd be enabled to select grasses more
congenial to their tastes than those he had cut for them. In the
agricultural report for Essex, in England, it is said that two hors-
es have been supported during four months upon a quarter of an
acre of lucerne, with scarcely any thing given to them besides; and

344 [Assembly

that six horses, at hard work, had been kept on lucerne instead of
hay, but with an allowance of oats and cut straw for twelve weeks;
six from the first cut, four from the second, and two from the third;
which, valuing the hay saved at six shillings per horse per week,
would amount to $36. A paper in the communications to the board
of agriculture in England, states, that in one year, 23 horses have
been kept 20 weeks, and in the next, 28 horses during 18 weeks, up-
on eleven acres alone, which gives an average of three roods per
horse in nineteen weeks. An ordinary sized cart-horse could con-
sume, easily, 100 lbs. of green food of any kind, in one day, and a
small allowance of oats, say two quarts. If the same horse were al-
lowed to run over a three acre field, he would probably destroy three
hundred pounds of food while obtaining one hundred. I have found
that a square rod of ground, covered with a luxuriant crop of grass,
is sufficient to last a horse one day, with a small quantity of oats.

The English cavalry allow their horses in barracks 12 pounds of
hay and 10 pounds of oats per day, on which, they say, they are
kept in high condition. I cannot imagine it possible, as in 1,000
parts of the best grass, there are only 82 parts of soluble nutritive
matter, 72 parts of mucilage or starch, 4 parts of saccharine matter,
and 6 parts of insoluble matter. If the cavalry horses stood still, I
should imagine that quantity of food might be sufficient, as inactive
horses require much less food than horses that are employed. The
bodies of horses are all the time wasting, and the waste is propor-
tioned to the activity of the animal; therefore the working horse
requires nourishment proportional to the waste of his body. A horse
soiled will consume as much food as 8 sheep: a cow in milch as
much food as 12 sheep: an ox when fattening, as much food as 10
sheep : a calf as much food as 2 sheep.

When you go upon ^ farm, and find the farmers horses looking
plump, well formed, hign spirited, and powerful, you are apt to say
at once, that horse must have come from prime stock; whereas the
credit is entirely due to the farmer, as you may take an animal bred
from the best stock in existence, and if allowed by the farmer to suf-
fer deprivation of proper food, he will never become perfectly de-
veloped, either in bulk or proportion. He will never be free from
disease, and will not have any constitution. The same rule will
apply to all kinds of animals, whether man or beast. When, there-
fore, you find on a man's farm, fine stock, well 'proportioned, and of
the standard size, you must award him the credit, and not the breed.
You may take an animal of the most inferior kind, and by judicious

No. 151.] 345

use of nutritive food, make him attain great size; for examples,
look at our monstrous hogs, made sometimes to weigh 1,100 pounds;
our immense prize oxen, which have reached more than 3,000 pounds,
the parents of which are frequently moderate in size. Who will say
this degree of perfection was not produced by the farmer.

It is from artificial feeding that our markets are supplied the year
round with fine beef, pork, calves and sheep, and the same farmers
who now raise these animals in open fields, could, by soiling them,
add 20 per cent to their profits, provided the crops they raise for
the purpose are supplied, while growing, with proper nutriment,
from which they can assimilate organic or inorganic matter. The
animal derives his strength, his growth and his bulk from the sub-
stance afforded by these crops. From every 1,000 parts of gluten
a horse obtaines from his food, he receives 557 parts of carbon, 78
parts of hydrogen, 220 parts of oxygen, and 145 parts of nitrogen.
By manuring his crops with highly nitrogenized substances, the
farmer adds vastly to the amount of gluten. If his horses be kept
fat in winter, their bones and muscles will be defended against cold,
and the acids of aliments will be so tempered, as to strengthen and
maintain their whole frame. Let it be remembered that the horse is
a native of warm climates, and do not, as is usual among farmers
in our northern States, turn them out in the barn-yard to obtain a
scanty allowance of poor coarse food during the winter. They are
liable to numerous diseases which are not unfrequently brought on
by such injudicious and cruel management. When once diseased,
it is almost impossible to find out what that disease is, as his struc-
ture is amazingly complicated. There are but two indications
showing internal disorder; the one is an indisposition to work, and
the other a refusal to eat. When either of these signs are manifest,
you must at once let the animal rest, and search for his disorder, and
on no account compel him to labor. Soil your horses, feed them
during the winter on a variety of food, such as oats ground and whole,
bran, ship stuff, beans, peas, turneps, carrots, potatoes and parsnips,
occasionally steamed separately, and together. In summer keep
them ahvays confined in airy stables, and feed them clover, rye
grass, bruised grains, green corn stalks, cider pomace, oil cake, hay,
&c. Be particular to give them three-fourths of a pound of salt per
week, occasionally two ounces of sulphur, and frequently tw'o ounces
of wood ashes. By good keeping and judicious management, a pair
of horses, perfectly sound when young, will last and labor constant-
ly twenty-five years, and to the end will retain their spirits. I have
a pair of bay horses on my farm, that are now twenty years old,

346 [Assembly

(luring which time they have never been depastured, and have work-
ed daily; they have never been incapacitated for work by lameness,
or disease of any kind, and have always been perfectly sound and
healthy. If driven through Broadway, New- York city, they would
attract general attention. I have another pair of sorrels that are
18 years old, which labor daily, and will do as much work as any
pair of six years old in the town in which I reside. Dr. Hosack,
when he died, left a horse 28 years old, which I have frequently
seen, and which was a very pretty animal, and would have passed
for a middle age horse to any casual observer. Mr. Youatt quotes
the record of a horse that received a ball in his neck at the battle
of Preston, in 1715, which was extracted at his death, in 1758; he
was, consequently, 43 years old.

I have made the following rules for my ow^n governance:

1st. The stable in which horses are kept should have a southern
exposure. The ground ought to slope gradually from it, to carry
off the moisture. It should be kept perfectly dry, as dampness is
exceedingly detrimental to horses, and will engender humourous
diseases.

2d. The stable valuable for carriage or race horses, should never
contain more than five stalls, and a sixth one ought always to be
constructed of greater size for one of them if somewhat indisposed.
If particularly sick, he should be removed; as contagion might be
imparted to the others. If a stable contains a number of stalls,
when five or six horses are on duly, the temperature would be so
changed as to endanger the health of those remaining.

3d. The stalls should be five feet six inches wide, and always ar-
ranged on one side, instead of being placed opposite each other,
with an alley between, as is usual, for the reason that horses ought
not to breathe each other's breath. The carbonic acid gas exhaled,
would be detrimental to each other, and if one should happen to be
diseased, the others might, by constantly inhaling his breath, become
infected.

4th. Stone floors should on no account be used in stables, for the
reason that they are exceedingly cold, and apt to induce catarrhs,
besides being slippery in winter, causing falls, and often injuring
limbs. Three inch pine or square plank, tongued and grooved,
should be laid perfectly level, after which a slight gradual slope
may be planed, leading to the centre, where a grating of iron bars,

No. 151.] 347

an eighth of an inch apart, should be firmly set in a frame, so that it
may be taken out at pleasure, through which the moisture would
pass into a drain under the floor, leading into a cistern; traps must
be so constructed in the drains underneath, that the ammonia may not
rise; if it does, and there is no ventilation above for it to escape,
the horses will become blind after much exposure.

5th. The stable must be airy, and to make it so, there should be
a window at either end, covered with copper wire cloth, which will
not rust and corrode, and a ventilator above to carry off as it ascends
the impure air, which, being lighter than the atmosphere, immediate-
ly rises to the ceiling, and will at once escape if an opportunity is
afforded it. If there is danger of too much air being admitted by
the windows, the bottom of the stable door may be latticed with the
slope turned upwards, and covered with copper wire cloth, which will
cause the unwholesome gases to rise immediately to the ventilator.
Five horses will, in a very few hours, destroy the vital principle ol
air in a confined, close stable. The carbonic acid gas ejected from
their lungs, is a deadly poisro, and totally unfit to be again received
by respiration. It is not only their breath that must be avoided in
stables, but the exhalations continuously arising from their bodies.
It should be generally understood that pure air is as necessary to
horses as to human beines.

'&"

6th. Stables must be kept comparatively speaking light, and of
equal temperature; in summer about 65*-*, and in winter from 45"^ to-
55^. If this rule is not observed, the horses will suffer wuth rheu-
matism, stiff joints, inflammation of the lungs, and numerous other
diseases. It should be recollected, that we have no domestic animal
existing in a more artificial state than the horse, or one requiring
more care and attention. It is very rare that a horse is found useful
to man after he is 14 years old, when, by observing a few rules, and
following them strictly, he may be made to last and labor constantly
until 25 years of age.

7th. Never trust your horses to any other than an experienced
groom; let his duties be as follows:

1st. At day light in the morning, to place hay in the rack, in or-
der that the horse may distend his stomach to the proper proportion
before he receives his oats. If oats are first fed, he will satisfy him-
self with them, and not relish the hay; the consequence will be, he
will present a gaunt and half fed appearance during the day, annoy=
ing not only the coachman, but the master.

348 [Assembly

2d. To clean the stable, carry out all the straw litter, separate the
dry from the wet, place the wet in the manure heap, and expose the
dry in the open air for the ammoniacal gas to escape, and purify it
for use as bedding at night; sweep the stable perfectly clean, spread
a thin coat of charcoal dust in the stalls, to absorb the ammonia.
The usual mode is to roll the wet litter day after day under the man-
ger, and force the horse to inhale the gas arising from it, often en-
tailing disastrous consequences, besides infecting his food, and ren-
dering it unpalatable. Suffi-cient time having elapsed, while the
groom was clearing the stable, for the animals to consume their hay,
he proceeds.

3d. Water the horse, and immediately after give him his usual feed
of oats or other grain.

4th. Curry and brush the horse thorougly, and well rub his legs, in
order that the pores of the skin may be opened, the scurf removed
to excite insensible perspiration, and the blood caused to circulate
freely. Wash his eyes and nostrils wi^ a sponge, to free them of
dirt; take out all the sand and dirt that may have become fastened
in and under tlje shoe, and comb his tail and mane. This rule may
appear superfluous; still, next to food, it is the most important, and
must be insisted upon by the proprietor, if he desires his horse to
enjoy health, strength, constitution, and a fine glossy coat. High
grooming and exercise fit the racer and trotter for the endurance of
the fatigue of their great exploits, and show the importance of care
at all times to horses.

If my arguments have not been such as to convince that soiling is
by far the best, I will offer a few additional reasons, which may ap-
pear more convincing, inasmuch as they are calculated to save thou-
sands of dollars. All are well aware that the most expensive item
about a farm, is fencing; nine out of ten of all the farmers in our
State, and other States throughout the Union, if they are compelled
to borrow money at all, borrow it to cover their farms with expensive,
and if they soil their cattle, entirely useless fences, for they are of no
earthly use, except to keep animals within certain bounds, and if they
are not permitted to run at large, the only fence required is one sur-
rounding the farm. -

In the first place, the material is very expensive.

In the second place, they occupy a great deal of room, which, on
a rich soil, might be advantageously used for agricultural purposes.

No. 151.] • 349

In the third place, they prevent the soil from drying rapidly in
their vicinity after showers, consequently detering the plowman,
when the rest of the field requires his labors.

In the fourth place, the snow in winter drifts against them in large
quantities, where it remains piled up very late in the spring, to the
annoyance of the farmer.

In the fifth place, they furnish a capital and secure cover for foul
weeds, which are rarely eradicated, owing to the labor required, and
which spread contagion over the whole field.

In the sixth place, they are resorted to by mice, insects of all kinds,
birds, &c., which sally out when the husbandmen are absent, and do
inconceivable damage to the growing crop.

In the seventh place, they are excessively in the way of the plow.
The headlands of cultivated fields generally, are always rough, full
of weeds, and covered with briars.

In the eighth place, if made of ditches, they take up a vast deal
of room, are continually filled with partially stagnant water, produce
malaria, induce fevers, and not unfrequently render a whole family
incompetent to labor.

Soiling the Ox.

The (^ is one of the mammalia class; order ruminantia; tribe
bovidae, and genus bos. The sub-genus of <vhich I intend to speak
is bos taurus, or the domestic ox, whose native country is supposed
to have been the fertile plains at the foot of Mount Ararat. When
driv'en from the ark he was a domesticated animal, at least such is
the inference naturally drawn from the fact, that mention is made of
the ox as being the servant of man in the antediluvian age, soon
after Adam was expelled from the Garden of Eden. It is recorded,
that Jubal, the son of Lamech, and who was probably born during
the life time of Adam, was the father of such as dwell in tents, and
of such as have cattle. If then the ox was domesticated before the
flood, it is natural to suppose he was so when he left the ark, and
since that he has been found in every country inhabited by Noah's
descendants, and has always been indispensable to mankind. Among
the ancients he was considered the most valuable portion of their
wealth. When Abraham was in Egypt, one hundred and eighty years
before the horse was mentioned, Pharaoh presented him with oxen>

350 • [Assembly

The ox was held sacred by the Egyptians, who elevated him into one
of the twelve signs of the Zodiac (Taurus); at this time he is held
sacred by the Hindoos in India, and venerated in every Celtic nation
as divine. In Great Britain he constitutes a large portion of her
wealth. She only has 1,500,000 horses, but more than 8,000,000 of
cattle, 160,000 head are sold every year in one of her markets, with-
out including calves, or animals brought in from the country, and
sold by the farmers in the dead market. Since their introduction into
Great Britain, they have become much changed in size, form, and
value; climate appears to have great influence upon them; but pro-
per food and judicious management has done more to increase their
value, than any other agency. In the Commentaries of Caesar, we
find that the Britons owned immense numbers of cattle very early in
the day, when they were used chiefly as food, and not as beasts of
burden, so that the English inherited their particular partiality to the
ox as food from the earliest date; and I am somewhat surprised that
English poets should not have immortalized the ox in song, when
they have condescended to notice all other domestic dependants, even
the ass. When the ox is uneducated he appears stupid, and apparent-
ly devoid of instinct; how different is he when permitted to receive
instruction, and taught to plow our soil, and draw our wagons; he at
once shows great aptitude, is easily directed by word of mouth, and
not unfrequently exhibits great attachment to his driver.

In other countries we find the intellect of the ox more developed,
than in Great Britain, or this country. Burchell, who travelled
much in Africa, says in his first volume, page 128: Oxen in Africa
are generally broken in for riding, when they are not more than a
year old. The first ceremony, is that of piercing their nose to re-
ceive the bridle; for which purpose they are thrown on their back,
and a slit is made through the septum, or cartilage between the nos-
trils, large enough to admit a finger, in this hole is thrust a strong
stick stripped of its bark, and having at one end a forked bunch to
prevent it passing through; to each end of it is fastened a thong of
hide, of a length sufficient to reach round the neck and form the reins;
and a sheep skin, with the wool on, placed across the back, together
with another folded up, and bound on with a rein long enough to
pass several times round the body, constitutes the saddle. To this is
sometimes added a pair of stirrups, consisting only of a thong" with
a loop at each end, slung across the saddle; frequently the loops are
distended by a piece of wood, to form an easier rest for the foot.
While the animals are still sore, it is mounted and put in training,
and in a week or two is generally rendered suflficiently obedient' to its

No. 151.] 351

rider. The facility and adroitness with whith the Hottentots manage
the ox has often excited admiration: it is made to walk, trot, or gal-
lop at the will of its master; and being long-legged and rather more
lightly made than the ox of America, travels with greater ease and
expedition, walking three or four miles in an hour, trotting five, and
galloping on an emergency seven or eight. Major Denham, in his
travels iii Central Africa, says the ox is the bearer of all the grain
and other articles to and from the markets. A small saddle of plait-
ed rushes is laid on him, when sacks, made of goat skins, and filled with
corn, are lashed on his broad and able back, and on top of the load
is mounted the driver. Sometimes the daughter or the wife of a rich
Shonaa will be mounted on her particular ox, and precede the load-
ed animals, extravagantly adorned with amber, silver rings, coral, and
all sorts of finery; her hair streaming with fat, a black rim of kohal,
at least an inch wide, roimd each of her eyes, arrayed for conquest
at the crowded market. Carpet or robes are then spread on her clumsy
palfry, — she sits jambe de ca, jambe de la, — and with considerable
grace guides her animal by the nose. Notwithstanding the peace-
ableness of his nature, her vanity still enables her to torture him into
something like caperings and curvetings.

Among the Hottentots, these animals are their domestics, and the
companions of their pleasures and fatigues; they are both the pro-
tectors and servants of the Caffre, and assist him in tending his flocks
and guarding them against every invader. While the sheep are graz-
ing, the faithful ox stands grazing beside them; if they attempt to
stray aw|iy, be runs round them, and obliges them to keep within
proper limits, and show^s no mercy to robbers who attempt to plun-
der, nor even to strangers; but it is not the plunderers of the flock
alone, but even the enemies of the nation that these oxen are taught
to combat. Every army of Hottentots is furnished "with a proper
herd of these creatures, which are let loose against the enemy; be-
ing thus sent forward, they overturn all before them; they strike down
with their horns, and trample with their feet, every one who attempts
to oppose them, and thus often procure their masters an easy victory,
before they have begun to strike a blow. He is rewarded by being
allowed to live in the same cottage with his master, and by long habit
gains an affection for him; for in proportion as the man approaches
the brute, so the brute seems to attain even to the same share of hu-
man sagacity. The Hottentot and his ox thus mutually assist each
other; and when the ox happens to die, a new one is chosen to suc-
ceed him, by a council of the old men of the village, and is taken for life
into human friendship and protection,

352 [Assembly

There Is a well authenticatejil story of a Scotch bull, which shows
similar but not equal sagacity. " A gentleman in Scotland, near
Laggan, had a bull which grazed with the cows in the open meadows.
As fences are scarcely known in that part, a boy was kept to watch,
lest the cattle should trespass on the neighboring fields, and destroy
the corn. The boy was fat and drowsy, and was often found asleep;
he was, of course, chastised whenever the cattle trespassed. Warn-
ed by this he kept a long switch, and with it revenged himself with
an unsparing hand, if they exceeded their boundary. The bull seem-
ed to have observed with concern this consequence of their trans-
gression, and as he had no horns, he used to strike the cows with his
forehead, and thus punish them severely, if any of them crossed the
boundary. In the mean time he set them a good example himself,
never once straying beyond the forbidden bounds, and placing him-
self before the cows in a threatening attitude if they approached them.
At length his honesty and vigilance became so obvious, that the boy
was employed at other business, without fear of their misbehavior in
his absence." Many centuries ago, when Great Britain was invaded
by the Romans, they neglected their cattle, and large portions of the
country was covered with forests, into which the animals strayed, be-
came wild and numerous; as the country was settled they disappeared.
A few still remain in Chatelherault Park, owned by the Duke of
Hamilton, in Lanarkshire; and in the Park of Chillingham Castle, in
Northumberland, the seat of the Earl of Tankerville; they are kept
for curiosity, their color is uniformly white or cream, and their nose
black.

The breeds of cattle now found in Great Britain, and from which
we have derived our stock, have attained their present size, beauty
of form, and capacity to fatten, by breeding, crossing and feeding
within the short period of fifty years — and almost every district on
the Island has its breed of animals — which are classed by the size
of their horns; as for example: the long horns improved by Mr.
Bakewell, of Leicestershire; the short horns, from East York, im-
proved in Durham; the middle horns, a distinct breed, inhabiting
Devon, Herefordshire and Gloucestershire; the crumpled horn of the
coast, and the hornless cattle of Suffolk and Norfolk. The cattle are
always large where the pasturages are rich, and fall off in size and
beauty in proportion to their privations; so among the Welch hills the
ox becomes a miserable runt.

Of all the varieties, I believe it is pretty generally acknowledged
that the middle horns, or Devons, are the native cattle of Great Bri-

No. 151.] 353

tain. They nearly resemble, in forra, the wild cattle before spoken
of, as belonging to the Duke of Hamilton and others. Mr. Herbert,
a writer in the English Farmers' Magazine, thus describes the De-
vonshire ox, "Nimble and free, outwalking many horses, healthy and
iiardy, fattening even in a straw yard, good tempered, will stand ma-
«y a dead pull, fat in half the time of a Sussex ox, earlier to the
yoke than steers of any other breed, lighter than the Sussex, but not
•so well horned; thin fleshed, light along the tops of his ribs, a spark-
iing cutter, and lean well intermixed with fat." Of the cow, he says,
*'■ Red, starred, or white-faced, better horned than the ox, very quiet,
the playmate of the children, a sure breeder, a good milker, a quick
fattener, fair grass-fed beef in three months." This breed, I have no
doubt, is the origin of our deep red cattle in this country; they are
universally called Devonshire by our farmers, and will answer Mr.
Herbert's description. The finest oxen we have in this State are rai-
■ ed in Connecticut, and are, no doubt, derived from this very breed.

Being' the most ancient in Great Britain, it was probably brought
here by the first settlers. It is generally supposed that our domestic
xnimals are descended from the wild buffalo race, and that they have
been brought to their present perfection by the force of circumstan-
ces, climate, food, &c. I cannot believe this possible. When a small
■calf is dropped on my farm, I immediately examine his points, and
ef his legs are short, bones small, hips rather large, flanks deep, ribs
and hips near together, straight on the back, has a clean, projecting
-eye, thick, loose skin, small nose of a light color, I invariably save
nim; and if not desirous of raising him, give him to some neighbor,
^exacting a promise from him to bring him up carefully.

An animal presenting these points, should on no account be killed,
■j^hether the breed is considered good or bad, as he will be an acqui-
sition to any farmer, 1st as a bull, 2d, as a working ox, and 3d, as
prime beef. A calf of this description, having symmetrical proper-
ties, will acquire a good constitution, great bulk, and become what is
<emphatjcally and technically called a splendid animal, provided he is
allowed to remain with the cow; the first week he will take half her
milk; when one month old he will take all her milk; at two months
old he will take the milk of two cows, and a feed each day of gruel
made of wheat bran; at three months old he will eat a large quan-
tity of green grass and two feeds of gruel ; the second cow must now
be taken off, and he may be left with his mother, and the deficiency
of nourishment made up by other food, such as ship stuff, boiled roots
and grass. At the expiration of five months he may be weaned.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 23

354 [ASSEMBLTT

When one year old, this animal will weigh half a ton, and will be
worth as much as the two cows that brought him up.

Such has. been the result of an experiment I have tried; but please
remember, the calf must present the points before mentioned. The
usual mode practiced, generally speaking, in this country and Eng-
land is, to allow the calf to suck the cow three times each day, at
stated hours, for three days, after which it is taken from the cow,
and fed three times each day on her milk, for one week, then twice
each day for a month, when it is sold to the butcher for twenty shil-
lings, having eaten $7 worth of butter; or if intended to be raised,
is turned into a pasture lot, where it obtains a scanty subsistence, and
at one year old weighs 400 lbs., and may be bought for $4.00, and
is dear at that, having no constitution, and being subject to diarrhoea
and numerous diseases of the oesophagus, inducing consumptions,
which in animals is contagious and may be imparted to a whole herd.
The oesophagus is the tube through which the food when first eaten
is conveyed into the first stomach, afterwards it again passes back
"while the animal is ruminating, through the same channel, undergoes
a second mastication before being conveyed into the digestive stomach;
plainly showing that the oesophagus performs severe duty, and the
consequent necessity of preventing disease from attacking it.

This is only effected by proper food; suppose a child should be
taken from its mother's breast, at three days old, and fed upon
skimmed milk, how would he compare as far as constitution is con-
cerned, with the child brought up in the usual manner. At birth the
calf has but two central teeth, at the end of the second week it has
four, at the end of the third six, when one month old he has eight;
at two months the edge of the four central teeth are somewhat worn,
at eighteen months all the centre teeth or incisors are very much
worn, and the corner teeth will not be more than half their natural
size; when two years have elapsed the two central teeth are pushed
out by two permanent teeth or incisors, when four years old the steer
will have six permanent teeth, and two milk teeth, when five years
old he will have eight permanent teeth, at six years old the eight in-
cisors will all be the same size, and all flattened on the top; at ten
years old the four incisors in the centre will be greatly diminished;
at eleven years the six central teeth are still more diminished; at
twelve they are all small, and the inside worn down as low as the
gum; at sixteen years the animal can only live on meal and soft food,
on which he will exist until the age of twenty-one years. When the
ox is four years old he has thirty-two teeth, viz: eight incisors in the
lower jaw, three molars in each upper jaw, and below on either side.

No. 151.] 355

So that you perceive the true test to discover an animal's age
is by the teeth, instead of the horn; dealers in stock frequently file off
the rings on an animal's horn, consequently it never can be considered
a certain test of age; the teeth however will never deceive you. You
must not consider the manure derived from the ox half as valuable
as the excrement of the horse, principally for the reason that the food
of the ox undergoes a double process of mastication, extracting near-
ly all the nutriment it contains; whereas the horse extracts but a very-
small portion. This fact is plainly manifest to any person who ex-
amines th2 foeces of the two animals; in that of the ox will be found
no vegetable fibres, whereas that of the horse will be chiefly made up
of such substances. If a large ox wall eat in a year 7000 lbs. of
straw and other substances, he will yield 16,000 lbs. of manure; a
horse fed upon 7000 lbs. of provender will only yield 11,000 lbs. of
manure; still the 11,000 lbs. will be intrinsically worth twice as much
as the 16,000 lbs. voided by the ox.

My oxen are never permitted to run at large in the fields, but are
kept in stalls summer and winter. During the summer they are con-
stantly employed, and will work throughout the week, during the
warmest day in August, without lolling; to enable them thus to labor
I find it necessary to treat them with the same care and attention
usually bestowed upon the horse; like the horse they cannot work
upon green food; it is indispensable that they should have at least
one feed of dry hay each da/, together with one meal of Indian meal
or ship stuff; their stall must be spacious, w^ell lighted and airy, and
the temperature kept at about 60"; they will consume one-third less
food in winter in that temperature, than they would exposed to
the inclemencies of the weather; damp walls and exposure to
cold rains is extremely detrimental to them; they should be re-
gularly groomed, watered four times each day, salted twice a
week, and fed at regular hours, but never fed more at a meal
than they can consume; and vary their food as often as possi-
ble. They should always be driven and taken care of by the same
man. I have a yoke of oxen that will invariably run away wuth any
other than their regular attendant; but with him they never attempt
such a step; they will permit him to ride upon their backs, but if any
other person has the temerity to mount them, he will be immediately
thrown off. There are seasons in the year when your oxen are little
used, and as it is indispensable to the well being of the animal that
his nmscles ihould be employed in order that the process of absorp-
tion may be accelerated, he should not be deprived of exercise, as
he may lose the power of contracting and expanding the foot, ren-
dering him unserviceable when required for duty; to avoid this your

866 [Assembly

ox stalls might be enclosed, so that it may be unnecessary to tie the
animal by the head; let them be eight feet wide and twelve long,
with the manger and rack in the end; he will then keep himself per-
petually in motion, his muscles will be constantly performing their
natural functions, and lameness, the chief calamity to be dreaded, will
be avoid- d. The leg of the. ox is much more complicated than the
horse, inasmuch as it is divided at the fetlock, and he consequently
has two hoofs, two sets of pasterns, and two coffin boneS' — 'each hav-
ing its own tendons and ligaments, and each covered by a separate
integument, giving rise to numerous inflammations. The hoof is of-
ten irritated by small stones, and other substances, which insinuate
themselves between the two claws, causing intense pain, and great
annoyance to the pasterns, which at once swell; cattle are constitu-
tionally liable to diseases in their feet, such as the foul foot, &c., not
unlike the rot in the feet of sheep; I usually work oxen on the farm
from four years old to seven; when seven years old in the fall of the
year, they are only worked one day in the week for exercise, and
generously fed on simple food, such as beets, turnips, cut-straw, corn
stalks, &c. On the 1st of November they are stalled at night, allowed
good beds of straw and curried, and kept perfectly clean; during the
day when the weather is mild, they have the run of the yard, in or-
der that they may exercise, which is essential to the life and health
of every living animal; the flesh becomes richer and more palatable,
and the fat taken on is greater and more wholesome than formed by
those deprived of exercise, and kept always in confinement; the fat
then becomes a disease, as the animal is constantly fretting, inducing
fever, diminishing the gelatin, albumen and fibrin, besides rendering
the flesh stringy, indigestible, flabby and tough. The object I have
constantly in view is, w^hen fattening a beast, to obtain marbled flesh,
fine fibre, and delicately fine grained meat, and this can only be ob-
tained by exercise in the open air, and proper food. In winter I feed
my oxen sugar beets, potatoes, wheat-bran, a small quantity of
oil cake meal, &c., occasionally raw, frequently boiled — but place
more confidence in carrots as food, than any other root crop. From
the few experiments I have tried with that root, as food for cattle, I
am convinced that a stock farmer might derive great profits by feed-
ing his store cattle say 20 lbs. of hay per day, and as many carrots
as they would eat, clean, one day boiled and the next raw. Although
the carrot (Daucus Carota,) w^as introduced into England by the
Flemish refugees in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, no attention was
at first paid to its culture, as we find it was imported into England
from Holland towards the close of the sixteenth century, to supply
the London market. It is very farinaceous, yielding 270 lbs. of flour
from 1000 lbs. of roots, 1600 bushels may be raised to the acre.

No. 151.] 357

THE HOG.

Having commenced with the cow, certainly one of the most use-
ful animals existing, I will terminate with the hog; which, for its
size, is undoubtedly the most valuable of all created animals; no
other animal supplies so large a series of savory food for the chris-
tian, no animal was more esteemed by the ancients, every inch of
him is turned to account, his ribs form that delicious morsel known
as the spar-e rib, his sides the flitch, his legs the ham, his neck brawn,
his head, cheeks, the ears are made into souse, the tongue pickled,
the intestines are used as covering for sausages, and his skin, when
tanned, for saddle covers; without his bristles how could we exist.
No part of this most extraordinary animal is lost; he is abhorred by
the Jews and Turks, and worshiped by the Chinese; throughout that
vast empire the hog is held sacred, and kept in what they term Josh
houses, where he is fed and daily ornamented with rich diamonds, and
rings of gold; the Chinese fall down before him, and worship until
he grunts, when the favor demanded is supposed to be granted.
There are several species, which are divided into three genera, all
derivable from the wild boar, (sus aper,) a native of Asia, Africa and
Europe, (sus barbirassa) of the Archipelago Islands, (sus papuensis)
of Guinea; the phacochceres of Africa, and the peccaries of Ameri-
ca. When America was first discovered there were no hogs found,
the first settlers of Canada are supposed to have introduced them
here; some of the breed still resemble those of England, known at
that early day. Since then by our extended commerce, we have in-
troduced many fine crosses, from China, and by attention to them,
have as fine hogs as can be produced in any part of the world; they
will soon become one of our most important articles for exportation
to foreign lands. We now consume far more pork than any other
nation. A farmer in our Western States numbers four thousand
hogs; in Michigan there are men I know, who have had 3,400 shut up
to fatten at one time; there are now more than 4,000,000 annually
fed in the United States, and they consume 200,000,000 bushels of
corn.

In the State of New-York, by the census of 1846, we had 1,584,-
344 — in 1830 the consumption of pork in England was only 24,-
448,512 pounds.

It is said that a singular change comes over the wild hog when
tamed, his ears become less moveable, his tusks diminish more than
half, his back becomes much longer, his body er.larges much,

358 [Assembly

Lis limbs become shorter, and weaker, he sleeps at night and
partakes of his food in the day time, when wild he feeds at
night, the muscles in his neck diminish very perceptibly, and
his appetite is almost insatiate, the boar becomes gregarious,
and the female produces young more frequently and in increased
numbers; the teeth diminish to three in each jaw, from six in
the wild state. Probably the finest breed of hogs now know^n in
the Avorld, is the Berkshire, and he is fine from the fact that he has
been cultivated from an early period to the present time; he was pro-
bably derived from a cross between the wild boar of England, and
the Chinese; his progeny is now widely distributed, not only in Eu-
rope, but this country. I am inclined to think this breed has less
offal than any other now known; his skin is thin, bristles light, and
bones fine. Every breeder should obtain one or more of this breed
as cross; he bears unqualified approbation both abroad and at home.

The Chinese are widely raised in England; they were obtained
originally from Canton; this climate agrees very well with the cross be-
tween it and our native hogs; in a pure state our climate is general-
ly too cold for them; they are fine in the limbs, the ears are transpa-
rent and small, head small and delicate, neck very thick, body beau-
tifully formed, meat fine grained, rich and luscious, the skin is thin,
and the snout, when the animal is fat, can scarcely be seen. I would
recommend them only as a cross. I once had a very fine boar and
a sow, they were always suflfering from the cold, bad breeders and
miserable nurses; if kept warm, they will fatten readily, and on a
small quantity of food.

The Woburn breed has been introduced here from England; they
are fine formed animals, quite large, and good breeders; they grow
rapidly, being inclined by nature to fatten easily. They were first
introduced into England by the late Duke ol Bedford.

According to experiments made by " M. Teissier on the gestation
of animals, it appears that the extreme periods of 25 sows were 109
and 143 days; from which he inferred, that on an average, they go
127 c^ays from the time of taking the boar until they farrow." Both
the boar and sow desire coition when nine months old; they should
not, however, be permitted to indulge until one year old; before that
age the sow cannot be expected to produce a strong litter of pigs.
In a recent French work it is said regarding the sex of the progeny,
" that among females who receive the male only once, those who
receive him first produce generally more males than females. In
proof of which the author, among many instances of similar nature,

No. 151.] 359

adduces the following: A boar was admitted on the same day tD
two sows of two years old, of the same strength, and the issue of
the same litter; the first produced nine males and a female; the other,
nine females and a male. A young boar about five months old, was
afterwards admitted to two sows of the same litter as the boar; the
one which first received him, produced five males and two females;
and the other, four hours later, six females and two males. He there-
fore recommends attention to the fact in the reproduction of all domes-
tic animals; and, if it be supported by further experience, the hint
may be found useful to the breeders of neat cattle and horses."J

When you make choice of a boar, never on any consideration
choose an animal with a large head, and narrow breast; let his head
be small, barrel sound, chine arched, and of compact form; let the
sow have a capacious stomach and twelve teats; each pig when it is
born selects a particular teat to which it strictly adheres until wean-
ed. If there should be more pigs than teats, the supernumeraries
must be destroyed; a sow should not be allowed to raise more than
six or eight pigs, according to the size. The boar should not
cover more than twenty sows in a season, and requires to be remark-
ably well fed to do that, and the sow will bring up her progeny in
proportion to her keep. I do not mean that she should be fed high,
but kept in good heart. Sows that are permitted to take the boar
in the months of May and November, will farrow in August and
February, decidedly the best months. Farmers, as is usual, should ne-
ver continue for a long time to breed " in and in," as by so doing
the breed will become bad feeders, and lose in weight. The male
and female should not be related. The same rule applies to human
beings; relatives should never intermarry. When your sow carries
straw you may be sure she is about to farrow. She must be watched
and her young carefully abstracted as they are born; if she is a young
creature, she may possibly ofifer to eat her young, which not unfre-
quently happens. If you suspect her capable of so great a crime,
rub their backs with bitter aloes, before you return them to her.
Forty swine will probably produce 300 pigs for their first litter.

" Instances are on record of a sow, which in twenty litters, pro-
duced 355; and of one which farrowed thirty-seven at a birth; from
16 to 20 are not uncommon;" 7 to 12 is the most usual number.
" A sow has been known to bring up 177 pigs in thirteen litters."
For the first week after farrowing, the sow should be fed gruel made
warm, and occasionally some strong beer mixed with it, afterwards
she may have the refuse of the kitchen made lukewafm, buttermilk

360 [ASSEMBLI

■with a mixture of "v^arm boiled potatoes, and skimmed milk, &c.
When the pigs are 20 days old, the males should be castrated; and
the females spayed when 40 days old. When the pigs are 14 days
old, they should be fed twice each day by themselves with milk or
gruel, besides receiving the usual nourishment from their mother.
When 60 days they should be weaned, and if the breed is good,
ought to weigh 40 pounds. In case you desire something very fine
for your table, allow two or three to remain with the sow until they
are three months old; feed her generously, and feed them skimmed
milk; at three months old, they will be a great delicacy, and will
weigh 75 lbs. Those pigs intended for market at a year old, may
be allowed the run of the barn yard where cattle are soiled during
the summer, and they will obtain sufficient to keep them in fine grow-
ing condition. In the fall they may be fed on apple pomace, sweet
or sour apples, or boiled potatoes, carrots, &c., until they are eleven
months old, then feed them one month on Indian meal, say two and
a half bushels to fifty gallons of water, after it has been allowed to
ferment until it becomes quite acid, and occasionally a few ears of
corn in the cob to keep their teeth firm. Once or twice a week give
them charcoal; at one year old, if judiciously fed, your hog? should
weigh between 275 and 300 pounds each. Twenty cows will yield
skimmed milk suflficient to fatten 13 hogs in one year, each weighing
300 lbs, without any other food except occasionally a small quantity
of Indian meal. Chinese hogs attain their full size at one year old,
therefore it is not worth while to keep them longer except for breed..
The Berkshire, grows as much the second year as they do the first,
in fact they have been made to weigh over eight hundred pounds at
two years old. In the Devonshire survey, page 356, it is mentioned
that a pig of a breed from various crosses, fed upon milk and- pota-
toes, and finished upon four and a half bushels of barley meal steep-
ed, weighed when killed at 10 months old, 182 lbs, exclusive of the
head and feet. Marshall mentions his particulars of practice in the
fattening of swine, which is worthy of notice. " In one, salt was
mixed with their food, in the proportion of a pint to every two
bushels of barley meal, under an opinion that it kept them from dis-
orders, forwarded their fattening, and added to the delicacy and flavor
of the pork. In the other, the mea-l of flour, whether of barley,
pease or other grain, was given to them dry, and this is the practice
of one of the largest and best farmers on the Surrey hills, under a
conviction, resulting from experience, that the practice is less waste-
ful than the ordinary one of mixing water with the flour and form-
ing it into grout, which in winter is liable to be frozen, and in sum-
naer to be baked to the sides of the troughs." — Southern Counties

Jo.

151.] ' 361

England, vol. IL, psge 416. An experiment was also published hf
a farmer, who stated that he took two pigs of the same litter and of
similar weight, and fed them apart, one upon barley meal mixed
with swill or wash, and the other with dry meal, having his drink
given him an hour afterwards. At the end of six weeks, both v/ere
weighed, and the hog fed upon dry food, was found to be one stone^
14 pounds heavier than the other.

" Regarding steamed food^ it having been very generally assumed
in England that steamed roots, potatoes especially, were preferable to
raw in the feeding of neat cattle and swine, the Highland Society,
in 1833, offered premiums for trials on the subject, several of which
were made, from which it would appear, that any advantage which
might be gained by such preparation of food for oxen and hogs, was
counterbalanced by the cost of fuel and labor. It is generally sup-
posed that hogs are particularly inclined to filth: such is not the factj
they are, on the contrarj', exceedingly neat, and will invariably ap-
propriate a portion of their pen for excrementitious matter; the ob-
ject he has in rolling in mud, is to rid himself of flies, and cool his
skin 5 no animal appears more to enjoy a dry straw bed than the
hog; cleanse his pen often, and after feeding, always remove the re^'
mains of food; do not permit him to gorge himself, if you do, indi-
gestion will be the consequence; a hog fed at regular intervals will
rarely meet with this annoyance. Cutaneous disorders sometimes at-
tack him, ending in scabs, Vvhich is generally brought on when the
animal is confined in a close place without air, or fed on improper
food; when this disease makes its appearance, give the animal from
half to one and a half ounces of sulphur and nitre mixed."

I have on my farm, an orchard of choice grafted trees, bearing
sweet apples, planted expressly for hogs; this is the principal food
on which I feed them during the latter part of the summer and fall,
sometimes sour apples are given them by way of variety, and occa-
sionally the refuse of the garden; those intended for the butcher,
have in addition, slops from the kitchen, and after the cider is made,
they receive as much pomace as they can eat three times each day, at
regular intervals; as for corn, they rarely get sight of it, except oc-*
casionally for the last two weeks of their lives, they are fed upon
corn meal made from the cob and kernel which are ground together
and allowed to ferment and become acid before it is given them.
This was not my former practice, but I have an idea that corn meal
has a tendency to harden the fat and render it less oily. To feed
hogs on corn as usually practiced by our farmers, without taking the

36S [Assembly

■value of the corn or quantity fed into consideration, is ruinous in the
extreme, if the manure is permitted to waste as it frequently is.
Corn is known to consist of the most important elements of nutrition,
not only to cultivated plaiits, but to the animals themselves, as it
chiefly contains potash, nitrogen, muriatic acid, carbon, phosphoric
and sulphuric acid, soda, magnesia and lime, portions of which are
returned to the farm in the form of dung and urine, and if preserved
from atmospheric influences, and judiciously applied to growing crops,
particularly those requiring highly nitrogcnized substances, wmII en-
able the practical farmer to derive by the most economical method of
aiding and assisting nature, a crop not only abundant, but rich in
phosphates, gluten, &c When hog manure ferments in the open
air, all its volatile gases are immediately converted into ammonia,
and escape into the atmosphere; as your seed cannot grow without
it, the loss is severely felt. Therefore do not go to the expense of
feeding corn, unhss you intend to preserve the excrement, as hogs
may be fed and fattened on cheaper substances.

A few years since, I put up two hogs in separate pens, each about
four feet square, and fed them for four months, alternately on sweet
and sour apples, they were not allowed a particle of any other kind
of food, nor did they receive a single drop of water during that pe-
riod; when killed, they weighed 150 pounds each, and were cover-
ed with a thick layer of fat, perfectly white and firm. The skin was
thin, and the pork pronounced by connoisseursexceedingly sweet and
fine. The hams were not inferior to Westphalia. My hogs are gen-
erally soiled, and seldom permitted to run at large. I find them very
useful in the barn yard; they consume the leavings of all other ani-
mals, whether trodden under foot or not, which, were it not for him,
would be lost, instead of being converted into rich food; although
the poor hog will consume all refuse matter that comes in his way,
still if you offer him a choice of dainties, you will soon discover that
he is a great epicure, and that he will fastidiously select the most
nourishing! Try the experiment, throw before your hogs turneps and
potatoes together, and you will observe that they will not deign to
put a tooth in a turnep, until the potatoes are all consumed; if beans
and oats are fed together the beans will first attract his attention,
and the oats will be left until they are eaten up; if corn and beans,
the corn will disappear before the beans. I have often thought when
observing their discrimination, that they knew far more about analy-
tical chemistry than I did; no chemist could discriminate as those
hogs did, before going through an elaborate analysis, and yet their
sagacity is such, that they will select between two species of food at

No. 151.] 363

once, and select one in preference to the other if it contain but five
per cent more of saccharine matter. Two years since, I allowed a
favorite sow with her litter of pigs, which were about sixty days old,
to run in the orchard for a short time; she had not been there long,
when I observed the lower limbs of many trees stripped of their fruit,
as they were much too high for the sow to reach, she was of course,
not suspected. Enquiry was made but no one knew where the apples
had gone; as I had less to do than any of my men, I determined to
watch, and at length to my astonishment, discovered ,the sow standing
on her hind legs with a limb of the tree in her mouth, which she
shook most lustily, and the young ones made free with the fruit as it
fell. I saw her do this thing repeatedly. She was afterwards detect-
ed sucking one of my cows in the yard. This animal was four years
old, .and weighed, I should suppose, nearly four hundred pounds.

The hog is very prolific. Vanbau made a calculation, showing that
in eleven years, a single sow, averaging each litter at six pigs, form-
ed ten generations, or 6,434,838 pigs. He further observes, that were
the calculations extended to the twelfth generation, the result would
be as great a number as all Europe could support, and extended to
the sixteenth generation, would outnumber the inhabitants on the
globe.

ROBERT L. PELL.

Pelham Farm, Ulster county) JV. F.

SOILING OF CATTLE.

By Hensy a. Field, of New- York.

The soiling of cattle has been highly recommended by our Agri^
cultural writers, and by many distinguished farmers who have em-
ployed the system advantageously.

During the last three years, I have kept my farm stock partially
Eifter this plan. I have seen many advantages result from it, but
yet have become fully satisfied that soiling can be economically
practiced only under favorable circumstances.

If land is valuable in consequence of its contiguity to a market,
where a good price and ready cash can be obtained for its produc-
ductions, especially milk, or if the grounds are laid out in lawns,
covered with shrubbery, nurseries, young orchards, &c., then, if it is
desirable to keep stock at all, it would be unquestionably best to soil
them. So also it would be under almost any circumstances, desira-
ble to soil or keep up working cattle and horses, for they are then
always ready for the yoke or harness, without the trouble of going
in the pastures for them; besides, it is much better to feed the ani-
mals that kind of food which would be m.ore proper for them while
at work than grass only. Again: much would depend upon the de-
scription of produce, that the farmer expects to obtain from his cat-
tie. If he intends making butter, or cheese, then the soiling system
would not answer. The only plan to obtain a good article of fine
flavored butter or cheese, is to afford the cows an unrestrained range
in a good pasture. I think there must be, and it is the opinion of
others much better acquainted with the subject than myself, certain
plants growing in the pasture, which give to butter and cheese their
rich color and flavor, which the cows find when they range at large.
At any rate, I never yet have seen fine colored butter made while
cows were kept up on any feed; and I have fed grass, clover, green
oats, rye, and corn, cabbages, turnips, potatoes, beets, &c. I intend-
ed to'-day to exhibit to the club a specimen of butter made from a

No. 151.] 365

cow fed with warm swill and hay. It was as white as lard, and al-
most as tasteless. A few days since, I was in the cellar of a country
merchant, and saw there a number of specimens of butter from some
of the best farmers of Dutchess county. Almost every parcel was
of a white color. I am aware there are large quantities of fresh
butter sold in the winter and spring that possess a good color, but a
little experience in the art of coloring is only sufficient to give either
cheese or butter any desired color. The greatest advantage to be
derived from soiling cows is, the quantity of manure that can be ob-
tamed from them, and a regular and abundant supply of milk..

According to "the experiments of Mr. Pell, which he communica-
ted to the State Agricultural Society, published by them in their
Transactions, for 1844, it would appear, that to keep cows, except
for their manure, would be attended with ruinous expenses. Five
cows gave, each, under the most favorable circumstances, sixteen
quarts of milk. Fourteen quarts of good milk are allowed for one
pound of butter. I do not believe that sixteen quarts of milk, from
soiling, would more than make a pound of butter; at any rate, a
cow that would average one pound of good butter per day is a first
rate cow. Estimating this butter at Is 6d per pound, his five cows
would yield 7s 6d per day. What would such an income do towards
paying the expenses of the animals, buildings, land, seed, labor, &c.
He made however, a large quantity of manure, but the bulk of this
was straw, weeds, leaves, &c.

To make manure from stock, it is necessary that they should be
either enclosed in a yard, or tied up. The only reason assigned why
the manure does not give its full benefit in pasturage, is, that a great
proportion of it evaporates. Those who soil their cattle, and turn
them in a lot, therefore lose the most valuable substances in the ma-
nure. It is, no doubt, better to give the animals the benefit of a
small enclosure for exercise, &c., but yet, if it is desirable to make
manure, these advantages must be sacrificed. I have always found
it was better to keep stock tied up constantly, than to suflfer them to
roam a part of the season, and then confine them at other periods;
for they would always show its bad effects in their milking, and ap-
petite for food. When animals are tied up constantly, but suffered
to go to drink at stated intervals, they after a time, become accus-
tomed to it, and do as well, as far as I have observed, as if turned
out; ^specially when the pasturage was not regular, as it sometimes
is in dry hot seasons. But yet this was only in reference to their
condition and quality of saleable milk, not for the making of butter.

366 [Assembly

I would recommend that the ordinary crops of the farm, even
such as clover or grass, should not be depended upon for soiling.
The ground should be especially assigned for the purpose. It should
be as near the animals as possible, to save labor, and put in the best
condition for producing a succession of luxuriant crops. A dry or
wet season will then never disappoint the farmer, for if the land is
plowed thoroughly and deep, and highly manured, it Vvill be so loose
as to permit the roots to strike deep and obtain sufficient moisture,
raised by capillary attraction from below, in case of a drought; or
so porous as to permit the ready percolation of water in a wet sea-
son. All the crops for soiling should come in, in regular order,
and not too much ground should be sown or planted at a time; so
that the crops may be fed before they are too old and strong. It is
often said that these crops are too watery, and that they scour the
animals! They do so oftentimes, because the feed is changed sud-
denly; but after a time they become accustomed to it. Feeding a
little dry meal, and giving the animals the privilege of licking clay,
will soon check the disorder. Lime water is also very good for that
purpose.

I believe that the following plan for raising crops for soiling,
would be found to answer the desired object. Let a proportion of land
be prepared by deep thorough tillage, and abundance of manure, and
sown with rye. Thrice the quantity of seed should be used; and it
should be sown about a fortnight earlier than usual. This rule af-
fords the first cutting in the spring. A piece of clover should next
be prepared by top-dressing and plaster, this would come after the
rye. It could be cut until corn was ready, or as soon as the frost is
out of the ground in the spring. Oats and field peas should be
sown on rich well prepared ground. This crop will come in after
clover, and I think, would be a good substitute for English tares.
It was the most abundant crop I have ever raised on my farm. When
the weather is sufficiently warm, corn should be sown broadcast.
This will give an abundant supply of feed until late in the fall. I
prefer sowing corn broadcast to drills. It is much less trouble, and
the stalk is made more tender. I prefer too, to cut the corn when
it is in full leaf, and. not wait any longer. I have conversed with
our largest dairy-men, who have partially soiled with corn for sever-
al years; they all unite in the opinion, that it is the best feed to
give an abundant yield of milk which they use.

KEEPING OF CATTLE.

By Judge Van Wtck.

This question, the keeping of cattle, especially cows, ought to be
considered in reference to our whole country; and the first study is
economy.. The cost of labor always weighs heavily on the farmer;
it is an incuhus on all his operations. In seven years past, the tall
of our farmer's prices have been from fifty to an hundred per cent.
It requires great economy to make both ends of the year meet. I
think grazing is the most profitable business, and it costs not more
than half the labor of general farming. A farmer can do much
with the labor of himself and family alone. If he hires a proper
hand, he must pay him $100 in money, and board him at the cost of
another $100. If he has 200 acres of land, and can get it in fit
condition as to grasses, &c., he and his family can take care of his
forty cattle and cows. Some persons prefer the soiling system, others
grazing. I think the latter best, if things are in proper order. Soil-
ing requires rich grasses and the culture of root crops, although a
smaller number of acres will suffice. Let a grazing farmer labor to
enrich his land; and the dung of the cattle dropped in the grass is
not lost by evaporation, part of its value sinks in the soil, and the
residue becomes mixed in the grass. In grazing, the cattle have the
benefit of pure open air, while in soiling they are necessarily too
much confined; and they must, even in this soiling system, be often
driven out on the fields for exercise and for water. Grazing fields
ought to have good shades for cattle in hot weather, and good water
too. The cattle must not be permitted to be made restless by flies
or other causes. Quiet is very important to their health and condi-
tion.

As to manure, theoretical as well as practical men admit that the
best manure is that which is found on the field, from the decomposed
grasses which grow there, returning to the soil like for like: and
this runs through all nature. In a densely populated country, soiling
may be proper, or even necessary. Milch cows should be carefully

368 [Assembly

kept up in winter; thoy should be fed in an open yard, which ought
to have, on three sides, good covered shelter for them, and they
should always have plenty of litter, with a view to comfort and to
manure. Our best grazing farmers raise but few cattle, but they
buy those from the west, and fatten them for market, usually sell
them fat in the months of August and September, and they often
double their money (if not more,) in this operation.

ROOTS FOR, CATTLE.

By R. T. Underhill, of Croton Point.

It may be useful to repeat, and it is too important not to be tho-
roughly understood, that the carrot and the sugar beet are particu-
larly adapted to the dry climate of our country. This beet, perfectly
oultivated, acquires an enormous size; it is very nutritious, exceed-
ing fattening to cattle, and yields more vegetable matter on an acre,
than any other, not excepting the turnep; is preferable to mangel
wurzel, but its saccharine is not quite so much concentrated as that
in the carrot. I hope that our agriculturists will try them both
effectually. A crop of these is absolutely certain, drought or no
drought. No insect injures either of them. I have had sugar beets
on my farm, which weighed twelve or thirteen pounds each. In
France, cattle are fattened on them, (although they have been sub-
jected to the process of extracting the sugar from them,) to an im-
mense extent. Some have failed here from not having the right
good seed. This beet is of a yellow color. On a rich damp soil,
there has been raised from one acre, one thousand to twelve hundred
bushels of them. It is proper to have both carrots and this beet,
for the beet not keeping so long as the carrot, must be fed to the
cattle first, then use the carrot, which keeps until late in the next
spring. It is believed that the carrot may be left in the ground all
winter without injury to it; that in this respect it is like the pars-
nep, keeps as well as that does. These two roots are excellent for
soiling purposes.

They must be well separated in cultivation. I plant carrots in
rows, one foot apart, and the carrots in the rows four or five inches
apart. I plant the sugar beets in rows eighteen inches apart, and
the beets in the rows from eight to twelve inches apart. These
must, of course, be well weeded and tilled.

The turnep is a very valuable crop. The ruta baga and yellow
Aberdeen are best to fatten cattle; sheep feeding on them, lose that
[Assembly, No. 151.] 24

370 [Assembly

muttony taste so unpleasant, and gain a delicious flavor. The tur-
nep yields a heavier crop than any other vegetable in England. It
almost always precedes the wheat crop. The mild winters of Eng-
land enable sheep to eat them out of the ground. They are placed
within a moveable iron fence, upon a patch, and when that is eaten,
moved to another: dropping their dung on the patch, they enrich
the soil. The following year an extraordinary crop of wheat grows
on these fields. I would recommend the sowing of the yellow Aber-
deen and Dale's Hybrid in August. The red-top turnep grows large,
and must be the first fed to stock, for it will not keep well. In West-
chester, last year, we supplied by turneps, half the crop of hay v;hicL
was lacking.

I

LIME AND ITS USES.

Bt R. L. Pell, of Pellham, Ulster county.

Lime is an important and an indispensable requisite in the growth
of nearly, if not all cultivated plants and fruit trees; in fact, I have
never noticed in any analysis made by analytical chemists recently,
of various plants, one in vvrhich lime did not form a principal ingre-
dient. It must therefore be considered an essential part of all vege-
table substances, as a direct food. By chemists, it has been found
that the ashes of the oat plant contain five per cent of lime. In
two pounds of wheat, 12 grains have been found. In two pounds of
rye more than 13 grains. In two pounds of barley, more than 24
grains; more than 33 grains in a given weight of oat straw; and
46 grains in the same weight of rye straw. It abounds in the wood
of trees; the ashes of the oak contain 32 per cent; those of the
poplar, 27 per cent; hazel, 8 per cent; mulberry 56, and the horn-
beam, 26 per cent. The proportion of lime is found to vary with
the composition of the soil on which the plants grow. Thus the
ashes of the fir, growing upon a limestone hill, were found to con-
tain 43 per cent, but the ashes of the leaves of another growing up-
on a granite soil, yielded only 29 per cent. I do not believe a soil
can possibly be fit for agiicultural purposes if entirely devoid of
lime. Its action is to dissolve and render soluble all organic mat-
ters contained in the soil, and before such substances are made solu-
ble, they cannot be elaborated by plants. It has probably been ob
served by all present, that the effects produced by an application of
liquid manures to grownng plants, was far more rapid than that ob-
tained by any dry applications. When in England, in 1832, I ob-
served that it was the uniform practice among farmers there, to draw
upon their field dry manures, and compost liquid manures were not
generally used; the liquids were generally absorbed by the straw and
dry fodder of their barn yards.

372 [Assembly

In Switzerland and Germany, I observed an entirely different
mode of management; there the farmers who had any reputation as
such, were supplied with cisterns, tanks, &c., into which all their
straw, litter, droppings from the cattle, and refuse of every kind
was daily raked; the tanks w^ere then partially filled with water,
and thus a large portion of the manure became liquid. After re-
maining for four weeks it was carried upon their fields in large
hogsheads, on carts drawn by oxen generally, sometimes by horses.
On some farms, I was informed that it was customary to clean their
cattle and horse stalls but twice a week; the litter taken from them
was thrown into the cisterns and washed. After all the particles of
manure were removed, the straw was taken out and placed in a
square pile to rot. The liquid was then immediately drawn upon
their grass fields, and gardens. The results thus obtained were mar-
vellous. I mention these facts to show that lime would be valuable,
even if it did not form a part of nearly all cultivated plants; inas-
much as it renders dry substances soluble. Lime attracts moisture
from the atmosphere; and thus it is of great importance to land du-
ring a drought. I tested its value in that respect, several years ago.
In the month of July, I placed around several thousand apple trees,
a peck of lime to each tree, and left it piled about the trunk until
the month of November, during which time the drought was exces-
sive, so much so, indeed, that the trees not limed turned yellow and
lost their leaves very early in the fall; the fruit dropped from them
prematurely ripe; whereas those that were limed remained perfectly
green, until late in the fall, and the fruit borne by them was magni-
ficent. At any time during the excessive heat in August of that
year, a person might moisten his hands by placing them, for an in-
stant under the small heaps of lime surrounding the trees.

Professor Schubler, of Germany, found that 1000 parts of lime,
dried in a temperature of 212 deg., gained by exposure for three
hours to air saturated w^ith moisture, at a temperature of 60 deg.,
11 parts; in 12 hours 26 parts; in 24 hours 31 parts; in 48 hours
35 parts; when it appeared to have become saturated with moisture;
for in 72 hours it had not again increased in weight. The nature
of lime w^as first demonstrated by Davy, in 1807; he showed that,
like the other alkalies, it was a metallic oxide. The metallic base
of lime he termed calcium; its equivalent is so, and lime being a
compound of one atom of calcium and one of oxygen, is represented
by the equivalent number 28; and hydrate of lime by 28 lime -\~9
water = 37. The salts of lime are obtained by dissolving carbonate
of lime in the respective acids; several of them exist native. Sul-

No. 151.] 373

phate of lime, selenite, or gypsum is an abundant natural product,
and may be formed artificially, by adding sulphuric acid to the solu-
tions of the salts of lime.

Farmers should be very particular in the selection of their lime
for agricultural purposes. I speak from experience in this matter;
having sown within the last seven years, more than 10,000 bushels,
3,000 of which were stone lime, and the balance oyster shell. The
stone lime was obtained on the banks of the Hudson, and contained,
as most limes do, a large per centage of magnesia. By its use, I
am convinced my land was injured, and it may require several years
to recover from the bad effects produced; the fact is, all lands re-
quire magnesia in minute quantities to grow the usually cultivated
grains; and all lands contain a sufficient quantity for agricultural
purposes, therefore, by adding lime containing a large per centage
of this substance you add a mineral not required, and consequently,
take up the space that should be occupied by some more useful in-
gredient. I would not condemn 'all the stone lime found on the
banks of the Hudson, as I have examined but few of them; those
few however, have all been strongly impregnated with magnesia.
Statuary marble is the only perfectly pure carbonate of lime, or
rather if not perfectly pure, more nearly so than any other stone
lime. In examining lime stones, place them in strong acid, and if
they do not effervesce very rapidly, and yet are so hard as to enable
you to mark glass with small pointed pieces, you may be assured
they contain flint earth, and possibly clay. If the lime is not suffi-
ciently hard to scratch glass, and on effervescing w^th acids the ac-
tion is very slow, and the solution resembles cream, you may make
up your mind that it contains magnesia. When the lime stone ap-
pears brown or yellowish red, it contains iron.

The chemical effect of burning stone lime is, that the water and
carbonic acid gas are driven off, which amounts to about 35 per
cent. After having been exposed to the atmosphere on your farms for
a certain length of time, the carbonic acid of the air is again absorb-
ed by the lime, which reduces it to the state of chalk, or carbonate:
if taken up by plants before it becomes a carbonate, the charcoal
and oxygen abounding in all plants, immediately converts it into
one. Caustic lime applied to your soil, reduces hard vegetable mat-
ter into a state easy of decomposition. When the lime takes the
chalk form, it furnishes matter requisite to supply the inorganic
structure to plants which grow in its vicinitj. You may always
lime land advantageously which abounds in hard, dry, undecomposed'

374 [Assembly

roots, sods, muck, or dry fibres, and use upon such, caustic lime.
As all soils are benefitted by mild lime, you can scarcely ever go
amiss in its application upon any species of land, as every crop you
grow upon it requires, and will rapidly lessen the quantity of lime
in the soil. Nitrate of lime is produced in the soil by lime, as it
decomposes the earth, rendering it sufficiently soluble to enter the
roots of plants. Alkalies and earths can never enter the plants in
a pure state, as before stated. Four years since, I manured a fifteen
acre lot with oyster shell lime, using 300 bushels to the acre, on a
sandy loam that would not grow any thing more valuable than a
well known pernicious weed, called St. Johnswort. That year the
wheat that grew upon it, weighed 64 pounds to the bushel. I
seeded the lot with one bushel of clover seed, and half a bushel of
timothy seed to the acre; and the first year after, cut two and a
half tons of hay; and the second year three tons per acre. To a
heavy tenacious clay, I would not hesitate to use 600 bushels
per acre. The chemical action of the lime on such land, is to ren-
der it friable, easily worked, less liable to injury by the powerful
rays of the summer sun, permeable to atmospheric influences, and
easily acted upon by showers. It deprives all injurious insects in
the soil, of lite, decomposes them, and enriches the soil with their
remains.

I was informed in Edinburgh, Scotland, by a highly educated gen-
tleman, that many farmers in his neighborhood were accustomed to
use from 500 to 1,000 bushels of slaked lime per acre; he further
said that there were farmers owning peat moss farms in the north of
England, and likewise in parts of Ireland, who had used eleven and
twelve hundred bushels per acre. They occasionally used, with very
good effect, salt with their lime. I saw a farmer living on the do-
main of the Duke of Buccleugh, near the borders of England, sow-
ing lime, in which he said he had put about six bushels of salt
per acre; he was sowing at the rate of 400 bushels. The year
previous, by the application of lime and salt, he had produced 3|
tons of hay to the acre, when the contiguous lot had only yielded
two tons. (For the last five years, I have always used a small quan-
tity of salt in all my compositions for grain, grass, and root crops,
taking the idea from the Scotch farmer. I invariably soak my ce-
real grains in a strong salt brine before planting, and have on two

occasions used scalding hot brine upon wheat, with great success.

The elTect was, to swell the grain to a size that it could not attain

in the earth under ordinary circumstances, in three weeks. The

aquapine was in many cases plainly discernable.)

No. 151.] 375

In potato culture, lime I believe to he a sovereign remedy if
properly applied, against the evil effects of insects, which cause, as
I believe, the rot now so prevalent throughout the world j the tops
of potatoes contain a very large per centage of lime, consequently it
is indispensable to its growth. Place lime upon a heap of potatoes
the majority of which are half decayed, and you will find decay in
the balance will, immediately cease.

I have sown lime at the rate of 200 bushels per acre, upon half
of a ten jcre field of wheat, and left the balance unlimed. The
consequence was, the unlimed was entirely destroyed by weevil and
rust, when the limed portion produced fifty bushels to the acre of
wheat, weighing 64| pounds to the bushel. I have seen the same ef-
fect produced in oat, rye, corn, potato, and buckwheat fields.

When you find a field does not produce a crop equal to your anti-
cipations, in nine cases out of ten, an application of 200 bushels of
oyster shell lime to the acre, at a cost of $12, will produce capital
crops for six years afterwards; at the expiration of which time, if
the ground is not plowed deep during the interim, you will find at
the depth of 11 or 12 inches a complete level floor of lime, which
gradually finds its way to the subsoil, where it forms a level surface
and remains until brought up by deep plowing j it will then benefit
your soil for another term of years, in the form of chalk, its action
as caustic lime then being a solvent, having ceased.

Abroad, chalk is more used for agricultural purposes, than any o^-
er lime stone species; it is composed of flint, clay, oxide of iron,
carbonate of lime and water. Lime is therefore one-half more pro-
fitable as a manure than chalk; for the reason that it dissolves hard
substances, and fits them for the food of plants, before it again ab-
sorbs carbonic acid gas in sufficient quantity to become as chalk.
There is one question I have to ask of the learned men, which is
this, how do plants take up in their system carbonate of lime, which
is known to be an insoluble substance, and yet in all plants and
vegetables carbonate of lime is found to exist. It can only be, I
think, by attracting a large volume of carbonic acid from the atmos-
phere, which becomes a bi-carbonate, and in this state is alone so-
luble and capable of being taken up by plants.

I have been informed by a scientific agriculturist, Mr. Wilkins,
who has an extensive rice plantation in South Carolina, that a por-
tion of his plantation was considered by his manager, as unfit for
■rice cultivation, or in fact any other. He advised that it should be

376 [AssEJOi.-?

thrown out, rather than lose the time requisite to reclaim it. Mr.
W. thought otherwise, and determined to lime it, although the land
was exceedingly wet. Mr. W. ordered the lime to be carried on in
baskets. It w-as spread over the field and hoed in, the rice was then
sown and cultivated in the usual manner. The result w^as fift}--six
bushels of rice per acre, a larger yield than was usually obtained on
any other part of the domain. That piece of land contained all the
chemical requisites, eleven in number, except lime; the consequence
was no crop could be grown upon it, and it was considered barren;
whereas, by the application of perhaps $2 worth of lime per acre;,
it was rendered highly fertile, and capable of yielding a fine crop of
rice; proving what I have repeatedly asserted, that if one of the eleven
chemical substances contained in all cultivated crops, be entirely ab-
sent from a soil, that soil is incapable of producing those crops, and
to all intents and purposes is a barren soil.

Thousands of acres of choice land are now deserted in the South-
ern States, and hundreds in our own State, which might probably by
the application of lime alone, be made to yield 50 bushels of wheat
to the acre. I mention lime particularly, because it is used by all
plants in larger quantities than either of the other chemical ingredi-
ents, and consequently the soil is deprived first of it. •

Sulphate of lime is another most important manure, and especial-
ly beneficial to grass crops, for the reason that it adds to the soil one
of the indispensable eleven, viz: sulphuric acid, which is just as ne-
cessary to the growth of plants as lime, and without which no crop
cm possibly grow. It consists of

Sulphuric acid, 32 parts in 100

Lime, 30 do

Water, 33 do

Liebig says, that 100 pounds of gypsum, or sulphate of lime, give
as much ammonia to the soil as 6,250 pounds of horse urine would
yield to it; four pounds of gypsum, he affirms, increase the produce
of the meadow 100 pounds. The decomposition of gypsum is very
slow, and consequently its action lasts many years in the soil. Al-
though sulphuric acid is required by nearly all plants, still it is on-
ly required in small quantities; therefore, when a man spreads a
quantity of plaster over his fields, the eflfects last for several years.
I have frequently heard farmers say, that they did not consider plas-
ter of any service, except the first year, when the results were great,
that they had continued to put it on in quantities, year after year-

No. 151.] 377

without perceiving any superiority in growth over the first year, and
that they had determined not to use any more of it. Now, the fact
is, if they used 500 pounds to the acre, a sufficient quantity of sul-
phuric acid was added to the soil, to last any crop you could put on
the land for four years, and consequently any additional quantity
was superfluous and perhaps hurtful.

If you cannot readily obtain plaster, no better substitute can be
found than anthracite coal ashes; they contain ten per cent of sulphate
of lime, ten per cent of lime and sand, together with oxide of iron^.
alumina, azote, silica, magnesia, oxide of manganese, sulphuret of
iron, and alkaline salts. Sixty bushels of coal ashes per acre would
be equal to six bushels of plaster, (as far as sulphuric acid is (Con-
cerned), for grasses. I can assure you there is no manure that I have
tried, the effects of which are more immediate and certain than coal
ashes on certain soils. Last summer I experimented w^ith it upon
clover and timothy grass, and likewise upon trees, with great suc-
cess, and recommend its use to all.

The proper plan for young farmers would be, when they purchase
a farm, to become acquainted with the properties of the soil by an-
alysis. They should understand analysis themselves, to some degree,
if not, for $20 they may have their soils analysed, instead of pro-
ceeding in the dark, wasting manure, seed and time, they will know
precisely the substance deficient, and by applying it, will frequently
produce great results at a small cost.

Next to lime, the substance most probably absent in all cultivated
soils, will be bone earth. By all the analysis recently made, bone
earth and potash are found in less quantities than any other sub-
stance, except perhaps lime. They are both indispensable to all
crops; I would therefore advise the frequent use of bone dust, lime
and ashes, upon all soils that have been long under cultivation.

It is the want of these three substances, particularly, that has render-
ed the soils of all our old States once so fertile, and almost inexhaus-
tible in the estimation of the first settlers, now barren wastes. The
old countries, too, may beheld up as examples; the island of Sicily
once the granary of Southern Europe, now imports its breadstuffs;
the soil of Italy, in the neighborhood of Rome, once affording food
for hundreds of thousands, is now sterile. Such will be the case in
the whole of Europe as well as in this country, if the present sys-
tem of arranging drains in all the large cities, to carry millions of
dollars worth of the most fertilizing and enriching manures into the

37S [Assembly

ocean, is not stopped. If we take from our soils annually, all its
productions, and return nothing to it, exhaustion will of course be
the consequence.

If you find your soil contains, on washing, any acid matter, or
that it produces sorrel in abundance, which indicates acid, an applica-
tion of caustic lime will be very beneficial, as it will immdeiately
combine with the acid and neutralize it, and thus at once remove itj
although at first it will probably injure the grass, or the crops you
may have on the soil, still the benefit will be very great. Sometimes
the. soil may contain copperas, which will render it unfit for agricul-
tural productions, although it may contain all the requisites of
growth; if such is found to be the case, an application of caustic
lime will decompose the sulphate, and render the land fit for tillage.

If you find, on the other hand, that your land contains an excess
of lime, you may if it be a clay soil, overcome the lime by an ap-
plication of sand; and if it be a sandy soil, an application of clay
will have the desired eflTect. If the sandy soil is excessively light,
and is carried about by the force of the wind, which not unfrequent-
ly is the case, peat or muck might be applied, with immense advan-
tage; it w^ould consolidate the soil, prevent the ill effects of the wind,
render it at once fertile, and if the muck should be applied in suffi-
cient quantity, permanently so.

If your soil contains too small a quantity of vegetable substance
to grow good crops, it may wuth all ease be supplied by the usual ma-
nures; if too large a quantity, the excess may be removed thus:
plow the land north and south for instance, then east and west, by so
doing you will cut the sods into squares, they must be drawn into
heaps and burnt; the vegetable matter contained in them is left* cal-
cined with the earth in the form of ashes, in which shape it must be
spread over the field; inorganic and saline matters will be by it
yielded to the seeds afterwards sown; an application of lime plowed
under, will exterminate by decomposition the roots of weeds, wild
grass, &c., not reached by the plow, and the whole field will become
remarkably fertile, and capable of yielding any vegetable production.

I had a field of this description on my farm, which for several years
"was a perfect eye sore to me, it abounded with superflous water, was
covered by a rank growth of wild grass and bogs, stones and roots were
abundant. It was supposed by all who saw it, that the field could not
be reclaimed. I determined to drain it, and for that purpose, formed
an irregular shaped space in the lowest portion of the field, to re-

No. 151.] 379

tain the water, by carting some hundreds of loads of muck from it to
a heap hard by; I then commenced ditching from it as the centre to
all parts of the field, the stones were made use of for that purpose;
and when completed there were under drains, built of stones in the
most approved manner, leading to all parts of the land, the field con-
taining about four acres; the advantages were, 1st. The ground was
perfectly drained, and yielded the first season after, potatoes, corn, and
buckwheat". 2d. A pond was formed 14 feet deep and 600 feet long
which is now stocked with trout, perch, carp, and gold fish. 3d.
The muck taken out, mixed with oyster shell lime, was worth the
entire cost of the improvement, as manure. In the spring I intend
to draw upon this field six hundred bushels of unslaked lime in the
manner following: I will deposit it in small heaps of five bushels
each throughout the field at reasonable distances apart, when the heaps
become sufficiently slaked to reduce the lime to powder, it shall be
spread equally over the land, and immediately plowed until it be-
comes thoroughly incorporated with the earth; this field will then
produce an abundant crop of any kind of grain that may be sovv'n
upon it, and will be permanently fertile, as the humus in such a soil
is very abundant. A few years since I placed a quantity of lime on
a corner of this same field, which was then cold and wet; I could
see no improvement in that portion over any other part of the field,
and came to the conclusion that generally speaking, lime was of no
service on a wet soil; still Mr. Wilkins was eminently successful on
such a soil, obtaining 56 bushels of rice per acre, where rice never
grew before ; circumstances and climate, might have had some effect.
Lime is apt to liberate gases, and other volatile substances contained
in a soil, therefore it would not be advisable to pursue a course of
liming for many years in succession, as you might destroy a good
soil by so doing. On ordinary tillable land, an application of three
hundred bushels per acre, would be sufficient to last 20 years. I
have heard farmers on the Hudson remark, that lime was valueless
for agricultural purposes, and injurious to their farms; the reason
was, that the. calcined magnesia of the lime stone remained for along
period of time after its application, in a caustic state, unfit to absorb
carbonic acid gas from the air, and in this state nothing can possibly
be more crisadvantageous to all growing vegetables and plants. After
remaining a long time in the soil, it finally absorbs the carbonic acid
gas of the atmosphere, when it becomes carbonate of magnesia, and
in this form is particularly valuable as forming a part of plants ; all
very fertile soils contain it.

380 [AsSEMBLt

You will find a composition consisting of one part salt, and two
lime, for almost every crop, a capital manure. I have used it suc-
cessfully upon wheat, rye, oats, potatoes and various other crops.
Where salt is used you will find no grubs or other injurious insects:
weeds will be killed by it. I have destroyed Canada thistles by cut-
ting them down in August, and applying lime and salt to the tops
of the principal stems. You may apply to some soils, in inland sit-
uations, 20 bushels of salt to the acre with marked success In Eng-
land the farmers using lime and salt together, usually after it is mix-
ed, let it lay in a heap for two or three months, covered with straw
or sods, before they use it; in order that by slow decomposition, mu-
riate of lime and soda may be formed together with alkali; the mu-
riate of lime is one of the most absorbing substances known; before
this decomposition takes place, it would not be well to use the com-
bination, as it may be hurtful. I have used salt and soot; salt and
Jersey blue sand; salt and muck; and salt with pond mud to great
advantage on the cereal grains. And I have injured apricots, apples,
cherries, plums and peaches by the use of salt around their roots in
too large quantities. Place a bushel of salt around a good sized
cherry tree, and the following year the, fruit will all taste salt.

Shells unburnt I think make an excellent manure, for the reason
that they contain carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime and animal
matter, together with soluble gelatine and aluminous, membranous or
cartilaginous residue, much of which is of course destroyed by burning;
they should be placed upon a stone floor and crushed by means of an
iron or granite garden roller, and when they become a palpable
powder, the dust should be sown in the drills with the seed. I have
used it to grer.t advantage in carrot and beet culture, for the reason
that it was sown with the seed, consequently all the volatile and va-
luable earthy matters were immediately decomposed, and being in close
contact with the seeds, were readily absorbed by the plants as they
grew. The contiguous rows of carrots, and beets, five in number,
were manured with oyster shell lime in a mild form, arid an equal
quantity used; those however sown with the pure oyster shells crush-
ed, produced much the finest roots ; in an equal number of rows of
potatoes, I observed the same difference, in favor of the shells un-
burnt. Any quantity of shells might be obtained in the city of New-
York, at a cheap rate. If placed whole in your borders for grapes,
they will be of great advantage to them, or in your barn yards un-
der the manure, they will decompose gradually, and enhance the va-
lue of the compost.

No. 151.] 381

Mr. Blaikie, in a letter to Sir John Sinclair, dated September 18,
1818, says, " oyster shells pounded or bruised (without having been
burned) were fii'st used upon JNIr. Coke's farm as a manure in the
year 1816. In the summer of that year, the experiment was tried up-
on a hungry, light, sandy soil, which had been cleaned for turnips.
The oyster shell dust or powder, was drilled, in the usual w-ay, upon
27 inch ridges, at the rate of forty bushels per acre, (without any
other manure,) was slighly covered with earth, and the turnip seed
sown upon it."

" Another part of the same field, quality of land equal, was ma-
nured with farm yard dung, at the rate of eight tons per acre, put
into the same sized ridges, and sown with turnip seed as before descri-
bed, no manure having been applied. The turnips proved a good crop
on both pieces; nor was there any perceptible difference in the bulk,
but the produce was not w^eighed, therefore no fair conclusion can
be formed; the manure used gave nourishment to the turnips, and
the lime excited the nutritive substance in the soil, which likewise
imparted nourishment to them."

In 1845, I was walking with a gentleman over his farm, and he
remarked to me, that a certain field containing about 25 acres, had
been manured frequently with stable manure, and to prove what he
said he turned up the soil in many places, showing that manure pre-
vailed in large quantities; still, said he, this field does not produce
me more than one ton of hay to the acre, and that well mixed with
weeds. I asked him when it had been limed, and his answer was,
never to his knowledge. I urgetl him to lime it at the rate of 200
bushels to the acre, which he did, and the result was, the following
year a very large burthen of hay, consisting of white clover and tim-
othy. White clover appears to be indigenous to all soils, if the pro-
per manure is present to induce its growth, It is a remarkable and
well attested fact, that white clover always comes in the first year af-
ter wild lands are cleared in our Western States. No matter how
remote they may be from civilization. I am convinced if our wes-
tern farmers could obtain shell lime, and apply it to their lands, now
rich in vegetable humus, they would obtain sixty bushels of wheat
per acre where they now raise but thirty, for the reason that they de-
pend upon the decay of their wood for the formation of the necessary
humus; which when formed, absorbs over seventy times its weight
of ammonia and slowly yields carbonic acid, which is absorbed and
decomposed by the leaves of the wheat, and likewise nitrogen,
which is mechanically conveyed to the roots. The eifect of lime

382 [Assembly

would be to decompose the matters rapidly, and render them imme-
diately fit for the elaboration of the wheat plantj consequently the
growth would be quick, the season short, and the yield doubled.

Its action would be most powerful on the organic matter, which
must be in immense masses in an undecomposed state in their rich
soils, and upon the obnoxious rooted fibrous plants, weeds, seeds and
innumerable insects, all of which would be dissolved and transformed
into valuable mould: many of their lands are sour, which evil would
likewise be at once corrected. The rich alluvial lands would be
made mellow by the fermentation which the lime would produce, and
all the inert matter would become nutritive.

The first effect of caustic lime is to decompose all animal matter
and vegetable substances, accelerating their power to afford nutri-
ment to growing plants, and neutralizing all the acids which have
combined with the humus. The same effect is produced upon poor
soils; the action is so powerful that it at once exhausts the land,
and is consequently prejudicial to it in a great degree. It is very in-
jurious to the health of laboring men, who are employed to spread
it; they should always work on the windward side of their wagons.
The feet of farm horses used to draw it upon the land in a caustic
state, should not come in contact with water; if they do, the flesh
will corrode, and the animal becomes incurably lame; the dust of the
lime should be kept from their bodies by means of summer blankets.
If by accident your men or horses become burnt by the lime, wash
the part with sour milk, and it will cause the irritation to disperse.
After the lime has been spread a week, it will have no eflfect upon
the animals or men working among it, as by that time it will be-
come carbonate of lime.

I have found by careful experiments, that lime in a caustic or
slaked condition, has no negative power, having often failed to grow
various plants and seeds in pots filled with lime. When well wa-
tered, I found they would start, and grow feebly for a few days, and
then die.

You may be assured that no two men will find lime equally use-
ful to their different soils; to some it will be permanently beneficial,
to others partially" so, and to others still, inconceivably detrimental,
for the reason that different soils contain different properties, and
different limes unlike qualities. You must first ascertain the proper-
ties of your land; you will then be enabled to judge whether it re-
quires lime or not, and if it does, investigate the constituent parts
of the lime before you use it.

No. 151.] 383

It is deeply to be regretted that chemists have not made their in-
vestigations more accurate respecting lime, and its mode of action,
so that the agriculturists might be enabled to judge with certainty its
power and its action upon certain kinds of soils. Much money that has
been uselessly expended, besides infinite labor thrown away, might
all have been saved to the farmer, had chemists devoted more time
and attention to this all important subject, and the results would not
have been, as they generally are now most contradictory j without
scientific analysis, not only of the soil, but the lime, we may err
greatly in its use, and cannot proceed too cautiously. Bear in mind
that lime actually in itself, contributes only in a limited degree to the
growth of plants, as it constitutes but a small portion of their bulk,
and that its use is mainly to operate upon the soil and its constitu-
ents, decomposing animal and vegetable substances, and rendering
them sufficiently soluble by the aid of water to furnish food for
plants.

I have used lime advantageously on a light sandy soil, in which
there was no vegetable substance for it to act upon; it appeared to ope-
rate mechanically, by combining all the fine particles of sand togeth-
er, giving them the consistence of soil, and attracting from the at-
mosphere moisture, all of which induced a fine growth of grass; thus
adding to it vegetable mould, rendering it tenacious, and sufficiently
fertile to favor the germination of a succeeding crop. It is a little sin-
gular, that if a small portion of a pasture field be limed, the cattle
kept in the field will invariably eat the grass growing upon it in
preference to other portions; the lime corrects the acidity, and there-
by produces rich palatable herbage, which is much enjoyed by stock.

By the General Report of Scotland, it appears that there, " in
the best cultivated counties, lime is now most generally laid on fine-
ly pulverized land, while under a fallow, or immediately after being
sown with turnips. In the latter case, the lime is uniformly mild;
in the former, quick-lime is used, as it is considered beneficial in de-
stroying weeds, and as having a powerful effect upon the fly. On
some of their lands, the effect of lime is still conspicuous after the
lapse of fifty years. But in whatever manner this most powerful
stimulant is applied, the soil should never be afterwards exhausted
by a succession of grain-bearing crops, a justly exploded practice,
which has reduced some naturally fertile tracts to a state of almost
irremediable sterilty."

384 [Assembly

Soils have been known in Scotland, which for a long term of
years, could only be made to yield poor crops of oats or rye, not-
withstanding the richest dung was spread on them; still no other
grains came to maturity; yet, after having been judiciously limed,
and properly cultivated, all species of cereals ripened perfectly upon
them. The same effect was noticed in England, especially in the
counties of Derbyshire, Somersetshire, and Herefordshire. After ap-
plying lime upon arable land, I think it should be plowed at least
four times, and harrowed as often, in order that the lime may be in-
timately mixed with the soil; its effect will then be the same as
yeast to bread, causing immediate fermentation, and consequently
rapid increase of vegetable growth. Another good effect obtained
by several plowings is, that the ground is immensely benefitted by
being exposed to atmospheric influences, absorbing every time it is
turned, large quantities of valuable gases, which in its solid unplow-
ed form, enter it slowly, besides becoming sufficiently pulverized to
enable the roots to extend themselves readily for food, which they
always take up at the extremities of their spongioles. In the use of
lime I am governed by the following rules.

1st. Never to use any stone lime containing magnesia.

2d. Never to use caustic lime upon dry, sandy upland.

3d. Never to use lime of any description upon undrained land.

4th. When applied after seeding, always to put it on in summer,
when the w^eather is dry, in a palpable powder, and plow it under
as often and as shallow as possible, mixing it thoroughly with the
surface soil.

5th. When caustic, plow it under at once, in order that it may
slake in the soil, instead of on the surface, by w^hich many of its
valuable properties are lost in the atmosphere.

6th. To place large quantities of caustic lime upon lands over-
grown with noxious weeds, coarse useless herbage, wild grass, and
obnoxious bogs: all of which it immediately decomposes, and con-
verts into valuable humus, readily soluble in water.

I trust gentlemen, that although I have said much in favor of
lime, you will not use it upon your lands without first discovering
whether they require lime or not, as lands have been, and may again
be materially injured, and I may say, almost destroyed by an injudi-
cious use of caustic lime. Every application reduces the organic

No. 151.] 385

remains in your soils. I met with a farmer in the north of England,
who informed me that he had absolutely destroyed an extensive farm
by using lime in excessive quantities; his first application being
large, produced wonderful results, with which he was so much pleas-
ed that he made another still larger, which to his surprise lessened
materially the crop. Not attributing the decrease to the lime, but
to the season; he made a third, and entirely destroyed the fertility
of his farm. He considered lime a manure alone, whereas it should
be known mainly as a stimulant, and must be used to promote the
fertility of a soil permanently. When once applied, it remains in
the land until removed by the crops; therefore, when found necessa-
ry, make a liberal contribution to the soil, and be satisfied with the
results.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 25

THE PROPERTIES OF MANURE.

By R. L. Pell, Pellham, N. Y.

There is not a subject of more vital importance to the country
than manure. Without it in some shape, the agricuUurist cannot by
any possibility succeed in his avocation. It never was intended by
the Deity that man should annually take from the soil its produc-
tions and make no return. Such has been the case in Virginia.
The tobacco grower has successively taken from his fields the tobacco
plant, root and branch. Mark the consequence. A curse has pur-
sued him — his fields have ceased to produce — he has become impo-
verished— and at this moment, vast tracts that have once been fer-
tile are now barren wastes.

If our farmers paid proper attention to their interests, there ts
scarcely one among us who has not in his immediate vicinity, or on
his very farm, almost every requisite to grow the cereal grains, and
instead of producing fifteen bushels of wheat to the acre, might ob-
tain sixty. We all have straw, hay, weeds, stalks, &c., which con-
sist of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, alkaline and earthy salts,
all indispensable manures, yet they are all sold from our premises,
except the weeds, which are permitted to grow, come to maturity,
sow their seeds and go to waste. If you would grow wheat crops
on your ground continuously, all that is necessary is to return the
straw, if to it you add the ingredients, small in quantity, taken away
by the grain, phosphates, &c. Thus you give to the land every che-
mical ingredient, from potash to chlorine, that the ensuing crop re-
quires, as the straw and grain contain, by analysis, precisely the
same chemical ingredients, and like produces like.

Let every farmer accumulate his weeds, straw, refuse stalks, leaves,
muck, swamp mud, sand, clay, night soil, charcoal dust, coal ashes,
the excrements of his horses, horned cattle, pigs and fowls, not ne-/
glecling the liquid manures in his yard, under cover, and when de-
composed and properly incorporated, he has a capital on which to
commence hi^; agricultural operations that will carry him through
every difl&culty. The liquids are, in nine cases out of ten, allowed

No. 151.] 387

to run over the yard, where it becomes putrid, loses its nitrogen,
which passes off in the shape of ammonia, its salts are carried away
by rain, and nearly all its valuable properties are evaporated by the
atmosphere. Thus the ammonia and alkaline salts, the most valu-
able portion of the manure, and without which neither plants nor
seeds can exist, are lost. It is the want of these substances that
causes our lands to produce miserable crops, and sometimes entire
sterility is the result.

A farmer should on no account sell his hay or straw, without re-
turning an equivalent in manure; if he does, his crops will decrease,
and finally his land will cease to produce. His constant study should
be to increase his manure heaps, by every means in lis power, and
to become acquainted with his soil chemically, which knowledge
may soon be acquired. If your soil requires potash, use ashes; soda,
lime and magnesia may be purchased — ammonia and hartshorn are
the same thing. Nitric, muriatic and sulphuric acids are extensively
sold in commerce. Phosphoric acid may likewise be purchased of
the apothecary. All these substances are indispensa le in a soil, to
produce either the cereal grains, cruciferous, or leguminous plants.
Buy them, mix them with 300 times their weight of mould, and
apply them to your plants; you will be astonished at the result. By
this means I was enabled to raise large crops and heavy grains, long
before the works of Sprengel, Johnston, Liebig, &c., were published.

Bear one thing in mind: all the manures you use to improve your
soils and to become useful to plants as food, cannot be of the least
service to them except in a liquid state; that is to say, if you present
your growing crops with boneS", fish, lime, potash, soda, muck or
compost from your stable yards, they are all dissolved by some pro-
cess of nature, before the plants can absorb them. That is the reason
plants grow so much more rapitily when liquid manure is used upon
them, than when a dry compos t ion is made use of.

Davy ineffectually tried the finest impalpable powder of dry char-
coal upon plants, in hopes they would imbibe it, but it was fruitless.
He found that no manure could be taken up by the roots of plants,
unless water was present. The early Egyptian philosophers falsely
asserted that water was the only food of plants. They probably
came to that conclusion by noticing the mage fertilizing properties
of the waters of the Nile, when it overflowed its banks.

Veitsays: "plants are nourished only by sucking in the nutritious
substance, in a fluid or gaseous form, out of the earth or air, by

^88 [AssEMBtr

means of their roots or leaves." Nourishing substrnces must there-
fore be soluble in water; and if a substance is thus insoluble, it must
first be dissolved by the agency of some other substance, and in its
new combination become soluble in water, before it is to be consi-
dered as nourishment oi* manurie.

When chemists speak of a rich soil, they mean one which contains
a large quantity of humus or organic remains.

Humus, which, according to Liebig, is the decayed fibre of wood,
and is characterized by Thaer as " a mould not properly an earth,
but a powdery substance, in a greater or less degree found in the
soil." The fruitfulness of the soil depends on its proportions, as
likewise it is the only thing in the soil that gives nutriment to plants:
it is the remains of vegetable and animal putrefaction. If dry, it is
black and powdery; if moist, it has a smooth fatty feeling, and it
is different according to the bodies out of which it is formed; but
it has certain general peculiarities or properties in which it is essen-
tially alike.

Humus is a form of organic power, a combination of carbon, hy-
drogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, and also in less quantities of sulphur,
phosphorus, and various salts; it gives nourishment to oiganism:
the more life there is, the more humus, the more life.

For examples in agriculture, we may look to the Chinese; they
are known to be the best agriculturists in the world, the best and
most scientific gardeners, and the best trainers of plants. Our in-
quiry would naturally be, what mamire do they use? Is it the ma-
nure from horses? No; they are seldom used by them in agricul-
ture. From stall fed cattle? No; the stall feeding of cattle is
unknown to them. Human ordure? Yes; and why? Because man
eats all varieties of food The excrement of man contains every
known requisite to the growth of plants.

Professor Liebig says, in respect to the quantity of nitrogen con-
tained in excrements, 100 parts of the urine of a healthy man, are
equal to 1300 parts of the fresh dung of a horse, and to 600 parts
of that of a cow. Hence it is evident, that it would be of much
importance to agriculture, if none of the human urine were lost.
The powerful effect of urine as a manure, is well known in Flanders;
but human excrements are considered invaluable by the Chinese, who
are the oldest agricultural people we know. Indeed, so much value

No. 151.] 389

is attached to their influence by these people, that laws of the State
forbid that any of them should be thrown away, and reservoirs are
placed in every house, in which they are collected with the greatest
care. No other manure is used for their corn fields.

The following estimate I found in Johnson's Farmers' Encyclo-
paedia, showing the waste of invaluable manures in large cities: He
says, by caiefully conducted experiments, and very accurate guagings,
it has been found, that the chief of London sewers convey daily into
the Thames, about 115,000 tons of mixed drainage, consisting, on
an average computation, of one part of solid and 25 parts absolutely
fluid matters. Allowing one part in 30 of this immense mass to be
composed of solid substances, then we have the large quantity of
more than 3,800 tons of solid manure, daily poured into the Thames
from London alone, consisting principally of excrements, soot, and
the debris of the London streets, which is chiefly carbonate of lime;
thus allowing 20 tons of this manure as a dressing for an acre of
ground, there is evidently a quantity of solid manure annually pour-
ed into the river, equal to fertilizing more than 50,000 acres of the
poorest cultivated land ! The quantity of food thus lost to the country
by this heedless waste of manure, is enormous, for only allowing one
crop of whe; t to be raised on these 50,000 acres, that would be equal
to the maintenance of 150,000 persons. London is only one instance
of this thoughtless waste of agricultural riches of the soil of Eng-
land. How is it in our own country, and even in our own city? Are
not the corporation of New-York now constructing sewers through
all the principal streets, leading directly to the Hudson, with a view
of carrying to that grea^: receptacle substances that iright, if saved
for agricultural purposes, help to support thousands?

The fertilizing liquid produced annually by our population of 400,
000, would amply manure 60,000 acres of M'orn out land, and make
it yield to the amount of $4,000,000, to say nothing about anthra-
cite coal ashes, soot, charcoal dust, and the plaster taken from the
walls of houses that are daily pulled down, which latter is a valua-
ble manure. I am informed that the Chinese will take down an old
wall and replace it with a new one, to obtain the old one as ma-
nure. All these substances, and many others, that nre daily wasted
in our cities, might be saved. In different paits of 1 urope, there is
a substance now in use to disinfect filth, and the product is called
animal black; it renders inodorous any substance to which it maybe
applied. There is now in this city an agent from some European
company, about arranging to disinfect cispools, and render the con-
tents portable and inoffensive. If such an arrangement can be made,

390 . fAsSEMBL?

our citizens will enjoy a much purer atmosphere than they do at pre-
sent, and increased health will be the consequence. When travel-
ling in Switzerland and Germany, I uniformly found all the best
farmers had large reservoirs under their barns, into which they daily
swept all the excrements of their cattle, which are always fed in
stalls. They then poured into them six times the bulk of the manure
in water; five reservoirs are employed by the wealthy farmers, each
large enough to contain all the manure made in a week; they are
each allowed to remain four weeks after being filled, to ripen, by
which time the whole becomes a uniform liquid mass; it is then
pumped into large vessels, carried upon carts drawn by three pair of
oxen, to the field, and distributed in a form capable of being taken
up at once by the plant.

A German agriculturist at Frankfort, informed me that all Ger-
man farmers had admitted from time immemorial, that blood of cat-
tle and human urine were the most powerful of all the fertilizers
known, and that, if no other substance was used upon land, it would
always produce wonderful results, as they contained, (as has since
been proved by analysis,) every ingredient requisite to produce
growth in all plants. It is usual in Germany to plow it under im-
mediately, to prevent waste by evaporation; before doing so, they
frequently add five bushels ot salt to the acre, which they find pro-
ductive of favorable results.

Professor Shubler, of Germany, tried the following experiment:
he found a piece of soil without manure, yielded three times the
quantity of seed sown, and five times the quantity of seed sown
when dressed with old herbage, grass, leaves, &c.

7 times when dressed with cow dung,

9 " " " " pigeon's dung,

10 " " " " horse dung,

12 " " " " human urine,

12 " " " " sheep dung,

14 " " " '* human manure and urine or bullock's
blood.

Thus you see, that of seven fertilizers, the liquid manures, urine
and blood, were found to be di'cidedly the most efficacious. Human
urine, in a fresh state, was found by Berzelius to contain the follow»
ing substances:

No. 151.] 391

Water,

Urea,

Sulphate of potassa,

Sulphate of soda,

Common salt,

Phosphate of soda.

Phosphate of ammonia,

Muriate of ammonia,

Lactate or acetate of ammonia.

Lactic or acetic acid,

Animal matter, soluble in alcohol,

Inseparable urea,

Earthy phosphate, (earth of bones,) with fluate of lime,

Uric acid.

Mucus of the bladder,

Sslica, (earth of flint.)

ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS.

By D». Henkt A= FiEtD.

The attention of this club has been called, at several of its lasf
meetings, to the subject of the improvement of soils. The impor"
tance of this subject requires no particular enforcement, for I think
it will be generally acknowledged, that while there are thousands of
acres of land lying in a state of neglected waste, and thousands of
acres more which have been exhausted by injudicious tillage, there is
scarcely to be found a spot of ground which has been brought to its
highest powers of productiveness, by tillage and manure. During
the discussions which have taken place at the former meetings of the
club, the value and preparation of manures have been ably consider-*
ed; almost every substance, whether of an animal, vegetable or mine--
ral nature, has been mentioned and recommended, besides a variety
of composts ^prhich have proved beneficial on our neighboring farms
and elsewhere. As, however, but little has been said about the pre-*
paration of the soil, by such a course of tillage that is absolutely ne-*
cessary to the proper use and subsequent benefits of manure, I shall,
upon this occasion, call your attention to this important auxiliary to
manures in the improvement of soils.

The conditions of unproductive lands are so variable that it is al^
most impossible to describe them ; they may be stony, covered with
weeds or bushes, cold, stiff and wet, or dry and arid. They may
have a superficial soil, under which is a subsoil, either almost as hard
as iron, or of such consistence as to prevent the percolation of wa-
ter, or the free extension of roots. No land should be attempted to
be improved, unless all its conditions are first ascertained, for by such
neglect, all the labor and manure may be a dead loss, discouraging
the operator from future effort, and deterring others who have been ob--
servers, from pursuing such a course as would be highly to their ad-
vantage.

Ko. 151.] 893

"We will suppose, for the sake of illustration, a farm to consist of
five fields. No. one was covered with stones; No. two overgrown with
bushes and w^eeds ; No. three cold and wet; No. four arid and dry}
No. five exhausted of the elements of fertility by severe cropping.

We would recommend the following plans for the improvement of
each of these fields.

No. one should have the surface stones removed and converted into
walls, buildings, drains, &c. I have seen a farm w^here thousands of
dollars worth of good land was in this manner reclaimed, and sub=»
sequenlly cultivated, while the stone used as above recommended, ad-
ded much to the value of the farm, by repairing dilapidated fences.
"Where the stones could not be hauled by oxen they were pitted.

No. two; such lands as these are generally wet, if so, they should
be thoroughly drained first, then the bushes should be cut off and a
strong plow used several times in the course of the season, by which
means the land is brought in a good state of tilth, and the roots are
mostly dragged out and destroyed. This land should be well limed
and manured, and a crop put in the same fall. Mr. Gouverneur Mor*
ris has by a plan somewhat similar to this, brought the most value*
less lands into an immediate state of fertility. The improvement of
such lands as these I consider of the first importance, not only to the
owner, but also to his surrounding neighbors, for they generally bar*
bor noxous reptiles and insects; are the nursery of weeds, and fre-*
quently cause a whole surrounding country to be unhealthy.

No. three; lands cold and wef; we would advise all such lands to
be immediately and thoroughly drained. The mode and extent of
draining of course depends upon circumstances. There may be an
obstructed water course running over a farm, which will during a
wet season, completely saturate the surrounding soil; now in a case
of this kind it may be only necessary to remove the obstruction, and
the difficulty is at once remedied.

Upon ray own farm several acres of potatoes were in this manner
destroyed during a wet season, but the land has been made produc"
tive of good crops of grain and grass since, by merely deepening a
neglected ditch. The cold, wet state may arise also from the exis-^
tence of springs under the surface; in this case no draining will an-"
swer without finding and cutting off the sources. A single drain
from a known spring, may be at times sufficient, but. if the oozing

394 [Assembly

comes from an extensive strata, then the whole affected land must be
drained, so as to effectually cut off every source. The land may also
be cold and wet from the nature of the subsoil. Sometimes there is
an impervious hardpan under the soil, at others, one of stiff clayey
soil, which stagnates the surface water. Besides draining, in this
case, the use of the subsoil plow will be highly advantageous. I
have used one of Ruggles, Nourse & Masons' subsoil plows, purchas-
ed of Mr. A. B. Allen of this city, and cannot speak too highly in
praise of its use. The land is first plowed with an ordinary plow,
and this follows in the same furrow, breaking up the subsoil without
bringing it to the surface; other lands may have a substratum of stone
under it, which prevents the water from passing off. I have seen
acres of land in this condition. Indeed most of the ground in the
vicinity of Union Place, in this city, is in this condition, and unless
there are regular sewers built along those streets, the cellars are par-
tially filled with water during every heavy rain. I doubt whether
such land could ever be improved for general crops economically. After
such lands are drained and subsoiled, they are fit for future cultiva-
tion and the application of manure.

No. four; Dry and arid lands, require a treatment directly opposite
to the latter. I have endeavored to cultivate a piece of such land as
this unsuccessfully, for several years, until I pursued the following
plan, which I would most highly recommend to any farmer having a
dry side hill, with a light soil, and so exposed to the rays of the sun
as that the growing crops would be burned and dried up by them, es-
pecially in a dry hot season. I commenced by the application of
plastic clayey muck, which was deposited in the latter part of sum-
mer, and spread and plowed in in the spring, after which peas were
sown broadcast and slightly harrowed in, so as to leave the surface
rather rough. The peas grew finely, sheltered the ground, and kept
it cool through the hot days of summer. In September the vines were
plowed in, the rye was sown, and the land seeded down with timo-
thy. The rye looked last fall very fine, the timothy was showing it-
self, and when we shall have sown the clover seed next spring, and
thus finish the operation, I believe it will be the most satisfactory
improvement we have ever made on our farm. I would suggest here,
that if muck is employed as an amendment to light sandy or gravel-
ly soils, it should not be used unless it is of thick clayey consistence,
and it should never be mixed with lime, which always, according to
my experience, makes it light and friable, and consequently destroys
its properties as an amendment. If muck cannot be easily obtained,
clay should be brought to the surface if possible, or if it cannot be

No. 151.] 395

raised economically, then head land, or any stiff soil should be ap'
plied. In my 'opinion, light sandy soils can never be so advanta-
geously cultivated, as when their properties are so altered by amend-
ments, as to enable them to retain the manures applied, and the
particles of soil brought in such a state of proximity as to properly
fix the plants, and enable the roots to perform their functions.

No. five; fields exhausted hy severe cropping. The soil must be
considered in a two-fold light, in reference to its importance to grow-
ing plants. First, as fixing them, and secondly, furnishing them their
daily food. The fact is, the soil is a great store house of vegetable
food, the quantity of which, however, varies in different localities;
sometimes it is so abundant that the yearly crops which feed from it,
do not exhaust it, but in other locations the quantity is so small,
that a few years is sufficient to exhaust so many of its composing
elements, as to make it incapable of producing similar crops for
ever afterwards, without those constituents or their substitutes are
again added. To ascertain exactly what has been lost, the best plan
undoubtedly would be to apply to the analytic chemist; he could
tell in what manner such soil differed from the most highly produc-
tive soil. But yet I cannot say I place so much importance upon
this mode of investigation as some have done, at least as it has ge-
nerally been proposed or employed, for as it has been before intima-
ted, the circumstances, condition and constituents of the soil may
differ so materially on the farm, or in the various fields, or even in
the same fields, that a single examination of the soil of a farm, or
even three or four analyses, would not amount to much; and then
again, if the exact composition of the soil were knowm, and the re-
medy for its improvement proposed, it is far from being certain that
the condition of the soil at the time would admit of its use with any
prospect of success. Suppose, for instance, a specimen of soil were
examined, and found to be wanting in azotized matters, and pou-
drette or guano were recommended as containing an abundance of
such elements; now if the land were dry and arid, such stimulating
manures would assist the scorching sun to destroy your crop in a
very dry season ; or if the ground were cold and wet, all the expense
of the manure and its application would be lost in a very wet sea-
son. Again, to take a more abstruse view of this subject, the value
of the application of such substances as chemistry would suggest,
depends very much upon the exact constituents of the soil at the
time of the application.

396 [Assembly

The soil is a great chemical laboratory, where unknown numbers
of chemical changes are constantly taking place, changes necessary
to the growth and perfection of plants. Chemical changes, however,
cannot take place without the elements to be acted upon, whatever
may be their affinity for each other, are in a favorable condition for
such changes; and to this fact I think can be attributed many fail-
ures of experiments which have been undertaken with the expecta-
tion of different results. We need practical analytic cherrists, who
are also practical Jarmers. I hope to see the time yet when we will
have physicians for the soil as we have physicians for the body, whose
duty it shall be to take farms under their special care, examine and
analyze the soil, ascertain its composition and condition, and direct
such tillage and manures as shall render those that are useless or ex-
hausted valuable and productive.

Allow me to conclude this imperfect paper by suggesting that un-
til we are so highly favored as to have such important aids as prac-
tical agricultural chemists, that we should be closer observers our-
selves in cultivating the soil, and to institute such experiments as
shall enable us to satisfy ourselves of the importance of any effort
for the improvement of our soils, before we involve ourselves in un-
necessary expenses, and mortify ourselves by failures in our under-
takings.

RESUSCITATION OF WORN OUT LANDS.

By Thomas Wharton.

To comply with a promise made, I give a slight sketch of my
success in using manures, raising corn, grain and clover on lands
that were completely exhausted of every productive quality, having
heen regularly skinned for upwards of 40 years, and reduced compa-
ratively to a barren sand bed, only producing five-fingered grass and
mullens. I commenced operations by deep plowing, and turning up
a perfectly new surface of yellow sandy loam, which my neighbors
assured me would yield no returns for my labor; I then procured a
quantity of crushed bones and dry wood ashes; these by properly
mixing and fermenting, by sprinkling water on every layer of ashes,
soon caused the desired heat; and to avoid escape of the ammonia,
used a few bushels of gypsum. Thus prepared, I harrow my land per-
fectly smooth, then with a marker of four teeth, set at the distance
of three feet three inches, I mark the rows, crossing in perfectly
straight lines and at right angles, then plant at each intersection four
or five kernels of corn previously steeped 12 hours in a solution of
nitre in chamber-ley and dried with plaster, followed by a handful
of the prepared bones spread thinly over and around the hills, finish-
ing by drawing mould over and covering the seeds about two inches
deep. As soon as the corn is well up, run the cultivator through, a
turn to each row. A man and steady horSe will do 5 acres per day.
In a week or ten days the cultivator is .run through crosswise, and
should any weeds escape, which may occur if the operator is not very
careful, let the hoe follow, and by the time the hoeing is finished
and the weather dry, let the cultivator take another turn and a se-
cond crossing before the corn is in the tassel. This last operation
will leave the land light and free from weeds as a garden; and my
produce was from 60 to 80 bushels of ears, with a growth of stalks
averaging 10 to 12 feet in height, (last year, 12 to 14 feet, see New
Haven report,) in a season when my neighbors were nearly burnt

, 398 [Assembly

up. In October, cut up the corn smooth, and in the early spring
plowed and seeded part with oats, and part barley and clover seed,
sowing soon as the oats, &c., were up, about two bushels of gypsum
per acre; both crops good, and the clover uncommonly well set.
You will observe the above process leaves the land perfectly level,
and so far from the want of hills exposing corn to be blown down
by high winds, I have for 14 years, observed that my flat culture stood
the wind much better than my neighbors on the hilling system, and
at the same time retained more moisture. From 30 years experi-
ence, I can fully recommend bones as a highly valuable manure for
light loamy lands, perhaps superior to poudrette, as their effects will
be felt at least 5 to 10 years. Had I the choice of manures, I should
use at planting, 25 bushels of bones, and at second cultivation or
hoeing, about half a gill of poudrette.

"Wishing you every success in your laudable undertaking to better
the agricultural interest, and for the welfare of each individual mem-
ber of your valuable society, believe me gentlemen, your friend and
well wisher.

IMPROVEMENT OF WORN OUT SOILS.

The following statement in reference to the improvement of worn
out soils, has been communicated by a gentleman engaged in agri-
cultural pursuits in Vermont. He says:

" As I have had a little experience in the way of improving worn
out soils, (for we have some farms even here in Vermont, that are J
"well nigh worn out,) I beg leave to make a few suggestions based
upon facts.

" In this district or section of country, we have a great variety of
soil. We have dry sandy soil that is very easily tilled, and is best
tor corn and rye. I have known some fields to be planted for ten
years in succession, and improve all the while, from the application
of a small quantity of lime, plaster and wood ashes to the hill, either
before or after weeding. This kind of soil will not retain manure
more than two years, and the best way is to apply a little every sea-
son. We finally found great difl^culty in getting grass seed to take
root, on account of the soil becoming very dry; we find that by sow-

No. 151.] 399

ing in the spring from 10 to 12 bushels of wood ashes per acre,
there is but little risk of a failure. Clover is the only grass grown
to any profit on fine soils here.

Muck and coarse manure lasts longer than fine in any soil. I find
great advantage from spreading my straw upon dry lands; the grass
and small grain is much improved by it. Muck is of little value on
"Wet land, straw and hot manures do the best. Muck is as well fitted
for use by exposure to the sun and frost as by apy other process;
unslacked lime will warm and make it sooner fit for use, but no bet-
ter when oh than if put on separate. Some soils contain already
too much lime. Traveling a few years since in Michigan, I noticed
that their best wheat lands where there was lime in the soil, the base
being sand and clay, cracked badly, and became so hard that it was
difficult to plow at all, and in many instances to destroy the grass
roots. This does not exactly accord with Mr. Watson's theory, that
300 bushels of lime per acre should be added to land that cracks
under heat.

" I find that all made or alluvial soils, after becoming somewhat
exhausted on the surface, are much improved by being turned up
much deeper, not by Lsing a subsoil plow, but with a large heavy
one, that will bring the bottom up and turn the top under. The
cheapest method of raising our interval lands, we find, is to plow in
a crop or tw'o of clover. Always allow a good part of the seed to
ripen before plowing; nothing better for land that is intended for
seeding down to giass, than to have it well filled with clover seed.

"Clover, on rich lands, should be sowm very thick; the stalks will
be small, and the quality greatly improved. On poor lands we can
hardly expect a crop without first furnishing an abundance of seed.

" The roots of clover when the stalk is dead, furnish a manure for
other grasses, and help to keep the land light and porous. In 1838,
'39, and '40, some of our best farmers thought to improve the qua-
lity of their hay by growing the finer grasses, and by so doing very
much lessened the value of their farms; attributing it to the want of
nutriment derived from the decay of the large roots of clover that run
down into the earth, and w^hen green throwing oflf, as is generally
allowed, nutriment imbibed from the atmosphere, while the finer
grasses only spread their roots near the surface, and of course the
soil below becomes stiff and hard.

400 [Assembly

" As to the matter of burning the turf of certain soils, no doubt
it will prove beneficial, especially it there is a rich subsoil under it
I am of the opinion, however, that our new lands would produce
much more and last much longer if the timber could be taken off
without being burned on the soil, as the mould upon the surface serves
for a manure for several years, and fire, I am confident, injures in-
stead of improving it, or the soil, as a general thing.

. " I once felled six acres of heavy timber on the richest portion of
my farm, and at a proper season set fire to it, and as we generally
term it, got a first rate burn, and if burning all off clean was a good
one, I had it. But you can imagine my surprise, when, after thor-
oughly fitting out and seeding it, I waited in vain for the harvest,
and never got half paid for putting in a crop on the six acres, until
I plowed it deep enough to bring up earth that had not been spoiled
by heat.

"A friend residing several years in the north part of South Amer-
ica, says: ' Upon the Island of Marajo, the soil is a mixture of clay,
sand and lime, and during the wet season, is completely submerged,
(meaning the prairies of course,) and in the dry season becomes hard
an I cracks to a great depth, say 20 or 30 feet deep, spreading on the
surface to such a width that animals and men are in danger of get-
ting in.'

^^Quere. Would burnt lime have any advantage over that existing
in the soil ? Some agree that it has.

" The grazing land here, says my friend, produces abundantly, and
like our western prairies, are burned over once a year in order to 1
furnish pasturage for the cattle." ^

ON THE USE OF MUCK TO IMPROVE THE SOIL.

Extracts from the remarks of Mr. Taylok, of Saratoga county ^ made
before the Farmers' Club.

I have experimented with muck, and respectfully dissent from the
opinion generally held as to the use of lime, for when it is placed in
close contact with barn yard manure, it causes too great an evolu-
tion of the ammonia. I have used four thousand loads of muck on
my farm J I added one bushel of lime to each load of muck, having

No. IBl.] 401

arranged the muck in ridges across the field, and then sprinkled the
tops of the ridges with lime; while it is still hot turn over the ridges;
the lime must be hot when put on; the whole benefit consists in its
dissolving vegetable matter in the muck, which thus soon becomes
good manure. #

In my field No. 1, a hill covered almost with sand which drifted
with the wind, I put on sixty loads of muck, subsoiled the ground,
turned the muck under fifteen inches, planted potatoes on the 5th and
7th of April last. I dug the crop early in June. I had a profit of
$380 for that crop over all expenses.

I collected all the bones in my vicinity and had them dissolved in
sulphuric acid, this I used for turneps, and obtained 1200 bushels.
The muck had become mixed with the soil, and apparently formed
an argillaceous soil, and prevented the land from blowing.

On field No. 2, I planted Mercer potatoes, and had 263 bushels
per acre, which I sold for seven shillings a bushel; this field had
the same treatment as the first. On a field of 24 acres, on which I
planted corn, and I obtained 63 bushels of shelled corn per acre.
The general average crop among my neighbors was about thirty
bushels per acre. I had used the following method: I made a com-
post on my barn floor, of 25 bushels of lime, 25 bushels of plaster,
25 bushels of salt, 50 bushels of hen dung, 150 pounds of nitrate of
soda, the same quantity of sulphate of magnesia, the same quantity
of sulphate of soda, and mixed the mass thoroughly. I took the
urme which was saved in my tanks, wet the mass with it, and turn-
ed it over every three days for some time. The evolution of ammo-
nia from this heap was great, so that one could hardly bear the
smell in the barn. Of this compost, I scattered moderate quantities
in the drills prepared for corn, and after planting the corn, I plowed
the earth over the compost and seed. The land thus treated, gave
me sixty-one per cent more than that not manured at all; and thirty
per cent more than lime used with muck, and lime only. My object
was to supply to the soil those fertilizing elements, which by analy-
sis, appear to be indispensable to plants. There is no doubt that it
is our duty to afford food to plants as to our animals. My land con-
tains but four per cent of humus. When there is plenty of muck,
then give lime. I made a bed of muck one foot thick, then barn
yard manure, then muck. The lime decomposes the muck, the gases
will be evolved, and unite with the other components of the heap,
but lime must not be put in contact with the barn yard manure.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 26

On the Cultivation of the Woad Plant, and its manufac-
ture as a substitute lor Indigo in dying.

By William Partridge.

The seeds are best sown in the month of March, or early in April,
if the season permits; but it requires a deep loamy soil, and is still
better with a clay bottom, such as is not subject to become dry too
quickly. It must never be flooded, but situated so as to drain its
surface, that it may not be poisoned by water stagnating on it. If
meadow land can be obtained, it will be doubly productive. A sea-
son of warm showers, not too dry or too wet, gives the most regular
crop, and produces the best woad.

Land cannot be too rich for woad; yet, when dung is used, the
weeds become troublesome, and the hoeing expensive. Some raisers
sow it as grain, and harrow it in, and afterwards hoe it as turnips^
leaving plants at a distance; others sow it in rows by a drill plow,
and some dibble it in, putting three seeds in a hole, and these holes
to be from twenty inches to two feet apart. Woad very often fails
in its crop from the land not being in condition, or from want of
knowing how to destroy the botts, snails, wire-worms, &c. To kill
these, strew lime, forty-eight bushels to the acre, and harrow it in,
which will destroy them all as soon as the first rain ialls.

The leaves of woad on good land and in a good season, grow very
large and long, and when ripe, show near their end, a brown circle,
when they must be gathered, or they will be injured. Woad is to
be gathered from twice to four times in a season.

Woad, when gathered, is carried to a mill and ground.

These mills grind and cut the leaves small, and then they are cast
into heaps, where they ferment and gain an adhesive consistence;
they are then formed into balls as compact as possible and placed on
hurdles, lying in a shed, one over the other, with room for air be-

i

No. 151.] 403

iween, to dry them to a degree proper for being fermented; but in
summer, these balls are apt to crack in drying, and become fly-
blown, when maggots will be generated that will eat or destroy all
that is useful to the dyer. When they are observed to crack, close
them again, and if the maggot has already generated, some fine flour
lime strewed over them will destroy them, and be of much service in
the fermentation. These balls if properly preserved, w^ll be very
heavy,' but if worm-eaten, they will be very Hght, and of but little
value. They are then to be replaced on the hurdles and turned, not
being suffered to touch each other until a month or more after the
whole that is intended for one fermenting couch is gathered in, ground
and balled.

The balls when dry, are very hard and compact, and require to be
broken with a mallet and put into a heap and watered to a due de-
gree, only sufficient to promote fermentation — too much moisture
would retard it. And here is a crisis necessary to be attended to.
When the couch has attained its due point, it is opened, spread and
turned, until regularly cooled, and then it is considered in condition
for sale; but dyers should never use new W'Oad, as its fermentation
in the vat is not so regular as old woad.

The grower of woad should erect a long shed in the centre of his
land, facing the south, the ground lying on a descent, so as to admit
the sun to the back part, and here the woad should be put down as
gathered and spread thin at one end, keeping children to turn it to-
wards the other end.

Good woad, such as the richest land produces, if properly prepa-
red, will be of a blackish green, and mouldy; and when small lumps
are pulled asunder, the fractures and fibres are brown; and the more
stringy they are, and the darker the external appearance, and green-
er the hue, the better the woad. The fibres only serve to show that
it has not suffered by putrefaction.

For the use of the dyer, the balls require a further preparation.
They are beaten with wooden mallets on a brick or stone floor, into
a gross powder, which is heaped up in the middle of the room to the
height of four feet, a space being left to pass around the sides.

The powder moistened with water, ferments, grows hot, and throws
out a thick and fcetid fume. It is shovelled backwards and forwards
and moistened every day for twelve days; after which-, it is stirred

404 [Assembly

less frequently without watering, and at length made into a heap for
the dyer.

The above is the usual mode followed in England, for making
"woad. In France and Germany, the woad is sold in dry balls from
the hurdles, and any subsequent preparation is made by the dyer at
his expense. Some fifteen years since, I bought some ten or more
tons of such balls, that had been sent from France and Germany,
but could not be sold for consumption. I hired a barn in Greenwich,
couched them, gained three tons in weight, and sold it at one hund-
red per cent, advance oti the cost of the ball,

I would caution our agriculturists from having anything to do
with woad, at least, at the present time; for great changes are going
on both in European and American dyeing that, if they ultimately suc-
ceed, will put a veto on its consumption. We have lately been sell-
ing English woad of prime quality at 50 per cent, less than it could
be imported at only four years since. Prussian blues are being sub-
stituted for woad and indigo, both in woolen dyeing, and in calicoes;
and a substitute for woad is being used in Europe to a considerable
extent, which I am not at liberty at present to make known. The
cost, however, is not one-twentieth that of woad. I do not believe
the blues made with the substitute are anything like as permanent as
when woad is use; and it is not improbable that it may be given up,
when the consumers become convinced of the fact.

CORN.

The following is an extract of a communication of Mr. Kerr, re-
lative to the cultivation of corn :

In the cultivation of corn, hilling is not a good plan; too much
of the rain is carried away from the roots of the plants, and the ma-
nure is often exposed to the action of the air, and its efficacy is lost;
more space is requisite between the plants. It is now more fashiona-
ble to plow the spaces between the plants with the mould-board off,
that the coulter of the plow may stir the soil, making good tilth;
leaving the soil permeable to moisture, &c. The objections to hilling
corn are: 1st, the removal of the roots from the air, and the earth
close to the plants is unbroken and covered up. 2d, rain and moist-

m. 151.] 405

lire tend to run off the hill instead of sinking into it. 3d, part of
the manure is turned up and exposed, and it applied to the corn in
the hill, further removed from the air and moisture by being buried
deeper. 4th, more labor and trouble are required in turning up the
hills, while the weeds are most likely only to be buried, and soon
appear again. 5th, more room is required between the rows, and
consequently a less yield per acre.

The advantages in stirring and loosening the earth in place of
billing it about Indian corn, are: 1st, The root is not buried deep-
er, and the earth all around the plant is in good tilth. 2d, dew,
rain and moisture are allowed freely to penetrate the soil and benefit
the plant. 3rd, the action of the manure, whether applied broad-
cast, or laid in with the seed, is hastened, without being directly ex-
posed. 4th, the trouble and labor are less, while the weeds are more
liable to be cut and destroyed, £s a plow armed with a coulter only,
is sufficient to stir and loosen the soil. 5th, a larger yield must fol-
low; and the plants being closer, the stirring of the earth is more
easily accomplished, and with more benefit to the crop.

MADDER.

Gen. James Tallmadge, in alluding to the cultivation of this valua-
ble drug in America, says:

It would form a very valuable staple, and keep at home some
hundreds of thousands of dollars, and by export, bring many home
from foreign nations. Madder and silk are of immense value to us,
and we must become producers of them both.

European books give us instructions as to the culture of madder;
but I have entirely too much confidence in American genius to be-
lieve that we shall ever require the numbers of women, and children,
and cattle, and the spading used in the old world, to bring that
valuable drug into market. We shall be able by deep ploughing,
and by using the subsoil plough, to till our soil to the requisite depth
(some twenty inches) and contrive to cultivate it as well and per-
haps better than they do in Holland and France. I have witnessed
the operations in the madder fields near Avignon in France, and
feel assured that we can excel them at it, not by their 'ways, but by

406 [AssESisLT

. methods of our own. Alluvial lands, which are test suited to mad-
der, lie in abundance along our rivers. These bottom lands cannot
be better employed than in the production of this indispensable dye —
once used as a red color only, it is now found to be of very great
value in fixing other colors. Chemistry has ascertained its various
uses. Berthollet's work on dyeing contains some views of this sub-
ject, that show its importance. And let me here quote French testi-
mony as to the present and future prospects of our country in the
exportation of cotton goods. The large amount already made here,
requiring, more or less, the use of madder, if we mean to rival Europe
in the manufacture, (and why not?) we must send them beautifully
dyed. Our infant manufacture of cotton prints was a failure, for
want of a proper knowledge of the use of madder.

I am unable to obtain a distinct account of the import of madder,
for it is duty free, and reported generally among drugs and dyes.
But as nearly as I can ascertain, our last years' importation wa&
about one million eight hundred thousand dollars.

The British import of madder in 1839 was about twenty million
pounds, in 1841 twenty -seven millions, 1842 twenty millions; British
duty two shillings a hundred pounds on ground madder, and sixpence
on raw madder. The price varies from 14 cents to 17 cents a pound,

A crop of madder is far more profitable than one of wheat — ten
acres of madder is worth 150 of wheat. This root requires weeding.
very much as beets do; and while the crop is growing you can take
your scythe and mow off the leaves, which make a fodder nearly
equal to lucerne. Indeed it must be mowed to give growth to the
root.

VALUABLE PEAS.

Dear Sir — I stated to you the other day, that there are or Were
two valuable varieties of the Pea in the Boston market, that I had
not seen in New-York; these are Knight's forty day pea, and the
green prolific.

As you requested, I will give a more particular account of them".
The seed of the first was sent about twenty years ago, by Mr. Knight,-
to the late Mr. Lowell, or Mr. John Price of Roxbury, as the pro-'
duct of many trials to obtain a rich and fruitful pea, combining, aisoy

No. 151.] 407

a quick maturity. As the name indicates, it had filled for the table
in forty days.

Eighteen years ago, I got some of this seed from the late Mr.
George Murdock, near Faneuil Hall, Boston, with whom it had been
left for sale by Mr. Lowell or Mr. Prince.* I sowed four rows of
about thirty feet length on the 10th of June. The ground was well
, prepared and open to the sun from East to Southwest. On the 4th
of July, r gathered sufficient for my own large family, and a quan-
tity for a celebration dinner on that day. Some of *the first and fair-
est pods I left for seed. My family was supplied from this patch till
early in August; I had besides a large surplus for sale. I pulled
up the vines, cleared and prepared the ground well, and sowed in
the same ground, the seed I had saved from ihe first crop. The se-
cond crop matured in about thirty days; I continued to gather from
it through September. The vines became injured by mildew, and
were less fruitful than the first.

The quality of this pea is hardly inferior to the marrowfat The
vines very tall; for the first crop, my sticks were not long enough.
In fruitfulness it far excels any other pea I ever saw. The pods are
large, well filled and hang in amazing abundance. In both cases, I
soaked the seed well, to swelling, in brook water.

The green prolific is a late, low bush pea — the pod flat, and of
a deep green, and can or could usually be had in the Boston market
till October. It is very rich, opens well, and commands at that sea-
son a high price. An early frost injured my crop. My garden was
on high land in Worcester county, Mass.

If this account be of no other service, it may induce attempts to
prolong the season for this favorite and delicious vegetable, by suc-
cessive crops and by introducing new varieties.

Respectfully yours,

FRANCIS WHITBY.
T. B. Wakeman, Esq.

408 fAsSEMBLT

PRESERVATION OF PEACH TREES.

The following valualle suggestions, for preserving peach trees
from the ravages of insects, are communicated by a practical farmer
in New-Jersey :

•

I think it was about the year 1804 or '5, that the grub began to
destroy the peach trees in New-Jersey. My father had at that time
thirty or forty acres in fine condition and young trees. They began
to fail, and in two or three years were either dead or of no value.
"We found that in proportion as the worms progressed around the
trees, the same were more or less decayed, and such has been my
uniform observation ever since. I have failed in raising as many
trees as would even supply my family with fruit, until within six or
seven years, and of late have only grown enough to test the cer-
tainty of my remedy. Of the many trees which I have examined, I
may say thousands, with the exception of one, I have found their
failure to be from the worm. I do not believe in the yellows as a
serious cause of failure in this part of New-Jersey. While I was
on a farm, I tried very many plans for saving my trees, but they all
failed. My belief is, that an insect, in the course of the summer,
deposits its eggs in the body or limbs of the tree, and that before
winter the eggs are hatched, and the insects find their way to the
bark of the root, about an inch below the surface of the ground. I
have found plenty of them singly, or in clusters, in crevices of the
bark, in October and November, and often, (if late in the season,)
■when they have pierced and entered the bark. About that locality,
and never above the surface of the ground, or far below, I have tried
many experiments, on scores of these worms, to find their bane, and
none have answered better than the corrosive sublimate. I have pre-
pared it as follows: common tar, two pounds; tallow, two pounds;
melt them together, and after they are cooled so much as to hold
suspended, add three ounces pulverised corrosive sublimate, and three
ounces pulverised common salts of nitre. Stir the preparation from
the time it begins to cool, until the powder is thoroughly diffused
through the entire mass. Then the earth must be removed from the
trees, down to the departure of the roots, and the surface well rubbed
with a cloth or brush, and all crevices and defects in the bark, freed
from the soil. The preparation must then be applied, a little warm-
ed, but not enough to allow the powder to separate from the mass.
Then with an old brush thoroughly cover every part and crevice of
the bark with the preparation, from the branching of the roots to
about two inches above the ground. Surround this surface with a

No. 151.] 409

single bandage made of old India rubber cloth, oil cloth, or any
cheap muslin well painted and dried for use, or any other covering
"which will certainly prevent the absorption of the corrosive by the
wet earth. Then tie a string around the bandage firmly, around the
upper end, above the ground, and replace the earth and pack it
around the tree as before. In the early part of next April, take off
the bandages, cleanse, and save them for use again. You will find
the preparation still on the bark, but no grubs alive, and if any are
found in newly dressed trees, they will be nothing more than the
skins of worms which had gained an entrance before the dressing
was applied. Ko grub can live under this dressing, if applied as is
here directed. The corrosive costs about eight shillings per pound,
which would be sufficient to protect a large orchard. The whole
expense of making the application, will, I think, not exceed two
cents a tree.

MODE OF PACKING APPLES FOR SHIPMENT.

We extract the following from a communication made to the In-
stitute, on the subject of preparing apples for shipment:

GENTLEMEN-^At your request, I give you my opinion and expe-
rience, with the means I have taken to procure good apples, for put-
ting up for shipment to Europe, or for sending on any other voyage.
About the autumn of 1836 or '37, I had some thirty or forty barrels
of apples to pick. I was then engaged clearing a piece of land in
New-Jersey for a farm, part of which was an orchard, which had
been set out about twenty years before; this had been neglected, and
was all the land that had been tilled, if we except four or five acres
more, which had been used as a potato patch. In the orchard, with
some other fruit trees, were some Newtown pippin trees, and all in
a shocking state of neglect. I set about to clear it up, and render
it productive. In March I had the trees scraped w^ith a dull hoe, to
which I had a short handle fixed, to make it more hsndy to scrape
off the outside dead bark; after this, having trimmed the boughs and
branches, I prepared a quantity of soft soap. "With this in a buckeit
and an old whitewash brush, I sent a man in the orchard to smear
all the stems of the fruit trees, and all the other trees which stood
by, knowing or thinking the little depredators I wished to be rid of,
might lurk under the bark of any tree that stood in the orchard or
near it, as well as in the fruit trees. It was a " bearing year " as
the farmers call it, and there was a great crop of apples, and I had

410 [Assemble

very few wormy ones. We picked the apples by hand, and did not
pour them from one basket to another without putting soft hay or
oat straw between them, while pouring them. We put straw on the
floor of the room in which they were stored; there was also straw
put on the bottom of each basket, and in the bottom of the cart we
carried them in; all this was done to keep them from bruising. After
they were housed we sorted them, rejecting all which had defects, and
if damp, wiping off the moisture. We next took each apple, and
rolled in coarse clean paper, any soft paper will do (the paper I
bought was common wrapping paper, straw paper will answer.) The
paper had this effect, it keeps the apples fiom rubbing against each
other, and keeps them at a certain degree of moisture, not allowing
them to evaporate or receive damp. In the bottom, and around the
sides of the barrels a small quantity of straw was placed, and the
apples laid in one at a time, and as close to each other as they possi-
bly could be, without jamming. When the barrel was filled, a little
more straw was put on the top, and the head of the barrel put in,
■with an inside lining hoop to prevent the head from being knocked
ia. There was besides a lining hoop, put in the bottom head of the
barrel before packing. The apples when packed in this way were
tight in the barrels, and could not be made to rattle by common
usage. They were sent to Sheffield in England, and on being un-
packed there were found sound to an apple.

Those apples which have a close tight skin will keep the best, for
the greatest length of time. Of this kind are the Newtown pippin,
Lady-apple, Russet, and the real Rhode Island Greening.

CURING HAY.

Pellham Farm^ July 18th, 1846.

1 state in as few words as possible, of my process for the benefit
of those fond of trying experiments, and desirous of getting in a
crop of hay at an expense of five shillings and sixpence per ton.

On Monday morning, the 6th of July last, at half past 4 o'clock,
I commenced cutting a thirty acre field of timothy grass, and Satur-
day evening the 12th at 7 o'clock, the contents of the field, seventy-
five tons, was stowed away in my barn for winter consumption, and
I can assure you, th^t it is in as perfect order, as the sample now be-
fore you, presenting to the eye the same green appearance, which it

No. 151.] 411

will retain for years if kept from light; with all its saccharine quali-
ties unimpaired.

I employed seven men and one boy, who alternately mowed, spread^
loaded the wagon, drew in, stowed away, &c.; immediately after the
grass was cut it was spread as thin as possible over the field, and
was turned once before noon. At one o'clock it was raked into
windrows and cocked; at two o'clock the wagon commenced draw-
ing into the barn, where it was packed, and salted with from half a
bushel to one bushel per ton. At evening, all the grass cut before
three o'clock was drawn in and stowed, retaining all the nutritious
qualities to form flesh, bone, muscle, and to promote growth in the
animal to be fed on it, having lost only 14 per cent of water, which
was partly replaced by salt. In fact, therefore, my hay is nearly as
heavy as it was when standing in the field. The salt draws out
the water, which passes off by evaporation, and takes possession
of the pores, adding to the weight of the hay, and curing it on the
same principle that it does beef or pork.

I am, very respectfully,

Your obedient servant,

R. L. PELL,

MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN.

Compiled by D. J, Browne, under the direction of the American Institute.

INDIAN CORN.— Synonymes.

Zea mays, of Botanists.

Maize, Indian cornt Britain and Anglo-America,
Mais, Ble d'Indie, Ble de Turquie. France.
Maiz, Trigo de Indias. Spain.
Grano d'India, Grano Turco, Grano Siciliano, Italy.
Maiz, Milho da India, Milho grande. Portugal and Brazil.
' Mais, Tiirkischer Korn. Germany.
Mays, Turksch Koorn. Holland.
Turkish Hvede. Sweden and Denmark,
Tureskoichljeb. Russia.

Derivations.

The generic name Zea is derived from the Greek zao, to live, from
the nutritive qualities of or some kind of corn formerly cultivated
in Greece or on the adjacent Archipelago. The word mays,
and all its derivatives, according to Clavigero, have been deri-
ved from the denomination of this vegetable in the Haitina lan-
guage, or that of Hispaniola; but by others, it is thought to come
from the Lettish and Livonic mayse, which signifies bread in those
languages. The European names Ble d'Indie, Trigo de Indias, etc.,
have been so called on account of this grain having first been
brought by Columbus from America, which was known at that time
by the name of the " Indies;" and those names signifying " Turkish

No. 151.] 413

corn," took their origin from the circumstance that the cultivation
of this plant spread from Turkey to the neighboring countries, and
consequently led some writers to believe that it first came from the
East.

Description.

The fruitful maize, in verdant vistas rear'd,

Its spire majestic, to the playful breeze,

Spreading its loosely-waving panicles, while low

The purple anthers bending o'er to kiss

The silken, tassel'd styles, delight the eye

Of watchful Ceres.

Traits of the Aborigines.

Maize or Indian corn, consists of several varieties, which are
thought to owe their distinctive characters to the accidental modifi-
cations of climate, soil, and culture, rather than to any original dif-
ferences. The plant is described by botanists, as a strong, reedy,
jointed stalk, provided with large alternate leaves, almost like flags,
springing from every joint. The top produces a bunch of male
flowers, of various colors, which is called the tassel. Each plant
bears likewise one or more spikes or ears, seldom so few as one, and
rarely more than four or five, the most usual number being three;
as many as seven have been seen occasionally on one stalk, at vari-
ous distances from the ground, and are closely enveloped by several
thin leaves, forming a sheath, which is called the husk. The ears
consist of a cylindrical substance of the nature of a pith, which is
called the coh, over the entire surface of which, the seeds are ranged,
and fixed in eight or more straight rows, each row having generally
as many as twenty or more seeds. The eyes or germs of the seeds are
in nearly radial lines from the centre of the cylinder; from these
eyes proceed individual filaments of a silky appearance, and of a
bright green color; the aggregate of these hang out from the point
of the husk, in a thick cluster, and in this state are called the silk.
It is the office of these filaments, which are the stigmata, to receive
the farina, which drops from the flowers on the top or tassel, and
without which the ears would produce no seed, a fact which has
been established by cutting off the top previous to the development
of its flowers, when the ears proved wholly barren. So soon as their
office has been thus performed, both the tassel and the silk dry up,
and put on a withered appearance.

The grains of maize are of different colors, the prevailing hue
being yellow of various shades, sometimes approaching 'to white, and

414 [Assembly

at other times deepening to red. Some are of a deep chocolate co-
lor, others greenish or olive colored, and even the same ears will
sometimes contain grains of different colors.

Geography and History.

Indian corn, when due regard is paid to the selection of varieties,
may be accounted as a sure crop in almost every portion of the ha-
bitable globe, between the forty-third degree of north latitude, and
a corresponding parallel south. Its principal culture is confined to
the United States, Mexico, the West Indies, and most of the States
of South America. It is also cultivated with success in Spain, Por-
tugal, Lombardy, and may be grown in southern Europe generally.
It is likewise found to thrive in India, China, Japan, Australia, the
Sandwich Islands, as well as in the groups of the Azores, the Ma-
deiras, Canaries, and numerous other ocean isles.

Roulin, Humboldt, Bonpland, and others, have noticed this plant
in its indigenous state in America, and hence have concluded that it
was first derived from this country. Mathioli, Ciega, Zeri, and Inca
Garcilasso, have also confirmed this opinion. Fuchs, on the contrary,
very early maintained that it came from the East. Michaud, Daru,
and Bonafous, state that it was known in Asia Minor, before the
discovery of America j and Crawford, in his " History of the Indian
Archipelago," tells us that maize was cultivated by the inhabitants of
these islands, under the name of djagoimg, long before that period.
In the " Natural History of China," composed by Li-Chi Tchin, to-
wards the middle of the XVIth century, a rude figure is given of
the Zea mays, under the title of la-chou-cha; and Rifaud, in his
" Voyage en Egypte, &c., from 1S05 to 1807," observes, that he
discovered this grain in a subterranean excavation, in a remarkably
good state of preservation. M. Virey, however, in the " Journal de
Pharmacie," refutes these statements, by showing that these authors
have mistaken the Indian millet (Sorghum vulgare) for maize, and
that the grain found by Rifaud, was the Sorghum bicolor, which,
according to Delile, is a native of Egypt. Regmir and Gregory at-
tempt to present fresh arguments in favor of the Eastern origin of
this plant. Among them is the name by which it has long been
known in Europe, Ble de Turquie; and varieties of it, they state,
have been brought from the Isle of France, or from China. Moreau
de J^nnes, on the contrary, has more recently maintained in a memoir
read before the Academy of Sciences at Paris, that its origin was in
America. The name Ble de Turquie, no more proves it to be of

No. 151.] 415

Turkish origin, than the name of the English horse hean, proves that
that plant originally grew wild in Britain. The general cultivation
of maize, in southern Europe, and the production of some new vari-
eties, proves nothing with regard to the origin of the species. Nor,
where it occurs in the East, there is no proof of its having been car-
ried there previously to the discovery of America.

In favor of the American origin of maize, is the fact that it was
found in a state of cultivation in most of the places where the first
navigators landed. Columbus discovered it on the Island of Cuba,
and other points, where he touched on his first voyage to America,
Vasco Nunez, in Guiana; Narvaez and Sottus, in Florida; and Gon-
galo Ximines, in New-Grenada; the latter of whom says: " The
principal food of the natives was Maiz and Cassave, which first
grows on stalks of the size of canes, bearing very large and weighty
spikes or ears, each generally yielding seven hundred grains, a bushel
of which, when planted in warm moist land, frequently produces 300
fold. The maize is distinguished into a coarser and a finer sort,
which last is called Moroche, the leaves and stalks affording whole-
some provender for horses, and the grains or kernels, bread for the
inhabitants, who make it several ways; for sometimes they boil the
corn in water, and at other times, parch it in the ashes, or grind it
into flour, which when kneaded into dough, they make into cakes,
biscuits, etc. Moreover, maize steeped in water, boiled, and after-
wards, fermented, makes a very strong liquor."

All the early historians, both of North and South America, give
the strongest testimony that this grain is of American origin, and
speak of it as having constituted a great part of the food of the In-
dians, from time immemorial.

Inca Gaicilasso de la Vega, in treating of the products of Peru,
says, " Of the fruits that grow above ground, the chief and princi-
pal, is that grain which the people of Mexico and Barlovento call
Mayz, and those of Peru, Caret, being the only bread they use. And
this is of two sorts, one called JlfwrwcAw, which is hard, and the other
Capia, which is tender and fine, and which is eaten as bread, either
boiled, baked, or parched, over the fire. The hard kind is that which
has been brought to Spain, but not the fine and tender sort." The
corn of the Incas, he says, was ground by women, between two broad
stones in the form of a half moon, from the flour of which, they
made a kind of hasty-pudding, called .Jlpi, a great dish among them,
esteemed as high feeding, but was not common at every meal. He

416 [Assembly

mentions another kind of bread, made of maize called Cara, upon-
which he was nourished for nine or ten years. This consisted of
three sorts, namely, Cancu, used only for sacrifice; Huminta, for
feasts and great entertainments; and Tanta, or bread of common use.
Boiled cara they called Muti, which is also the name of boiled corn.
The Virgins or Wives of the Sun, were employed in the evening in
kneading great quantities of dough, which they formed into small
round cakes that were eaten by the Indians only at the feasts of
Raymi and Citua; for, at other times, they never eat their maize
kneaded into bread, nor did they eat it at their meals, with the ex-
ception of two or three mouthfuls at the beginning. Their physi-
cians prescribed no other diet to their sick than what was made of
maize. They also made plasters or poultices of it, which they ap-
plied for the relief of aches, colics, and other pains. Of the flour
of maize, mixed with water, the Indians brewed their common beve-
rage, which, by a certain process, they were able to convert into an
excellent vinegar. Of the stalks, before the maize was ripe, they
made a kind of honey, and some, who loved to be drunk, lay their
corn steeping in water, until germination took place, and then, after
grinding, boiled it in the same water, drawed it off, and kept it
until stale. This was the strongest drink the Peruvians had, which
was called, in their language, Vinnapu, and by some of the neigh-
bouring tribes, Sora. From its intoxicating effects, its use was pro-
hibited by the Incas, who made it a penal offence with all who
drank to excess.

Francisco Severio Clavigero, in describing the grain of Mexico,
says, " The chief, the most useful, and most common was the maize,
called by the Indians Tluolli, of which there are several varieties,
differing in size, colour, weight, and taste. There is the large and
the small sort, the white, the yellow, the blue, and the black."

Captain John Smith, in his account of the Indians of Virginia,
says, " The greatest labour they take, is in planting their come, for
the country naturally is overgrowne with wood. To prepare the
ground, they bruise the barke of the trees neare the root, then doe
they scortch the roots with fire that they grow no more. The next
yeare with a crooked peece of wood they beat vp the weeds by the
rootes, and in that mould they plant their corne. Their manner is
this. They make a hole in the earth with a sticke, and into it they
put foure graines of wheate (maize), and two of beanes. These
holes they make foure foote one from another. Their women and
children do continually keepe it with weeding and when it is growne

1

No. !5l.] 417

imidclle high, they hill it about like a hop-yard. In Aprill they be-
gin to plant, but their chiefe plantations is in May, and so they
continue till the midst of lune. What they plant in Aprill, they
reape in August: for May in September; for lune in October.
Every stalke of their corne commonly beareth two eares, some three,
seldome any foure, many but one, and some none. Every eare
ordinarily hath betv/ixt 200 and 500 graines. The stalke being
greene hath a sweet iuice in it, somewhat like sugar-cane, which is
the cause that when they gather their corne greene, they sucke the
stalkes; for as we gather greene pease, so doe they their corner
which excelleth their old. ***** Their corne they rost in the
eare greene, and bruising it in morter of wood with a polt, lap it in
rowles in the leaues of their corne, and so boyle it for a daintie.
They also reserue that corne late planted that will not ripe, by roast-
ing it in hot ashes, the heat thereof drying it. In winter they es-
teeme it being boyled with beanes for a rare dish, they call Pausa-
rowmena. Their old wheat (maize) they first steepe a night in hot
water, in the morning pounding it in a morter. They vse a small
basket for their temmes (sieve), then pound againe the great, and so
separating by dashing their hand in the basket, receiue the flower
in a platter made of wood, scraped to that forme with burning and
shels. Tempering this flower with water, they make it either in
cakes covering them with ashes till they be baked, and then wash-
ing (hem in faire water, they drie presently with their owne heat:
or else boyle them in water, eating the broth with the bread
which they call Ponap. The groutes and peeces of the cornes re-
maining, by fanning in a platter or in the wind, away, the branne
they boyle 3 or 4 houres with water, which is an ordinary food they
call Vstatakamen. But some more thriftie then cleanly, doe burne the
core (cob) of the eare to powder, which they call Pungnoiigh^
min^lino: that in their meale. but it never tasted well in bread nor
broth."

Mr. Schoolcraft in his late Report, says, that it is conceded on all
bands, that this is a tropical, or at least, a southern plant. He re-
marks, that it was not known in Europe before the discovery of this
country, and that we learned the mode of cultivation from the Indians,
and not they from us. It was cultivated by the Iroquois in fields
sufficiently large to entitle them to the name of agriculturists. It
was undoubtedly highly prized by them, as an essential article of
support, as Mr. Schoolcraft states that the warriors of the Six Na-
tions were in the habit of undertaking journeys of thousands of miles

[Assembly, No. 151.] 27

418 [Assembly

in extent, carrying no other food than a little meal from parched
and pounded corn, relying on the forest for meat. One tablespoonful
of this meal, mixed with a little sugar and water, will sustain a
warrior for twenty-four hours, without meat.

In further proof of the American origin of maize, it may be sta-
ted, that it is still found in an indigenous state, from the Rocky
Mountains, in North America, to the humid forests of Paraguay;
•where, instead of having each grain naked, as is always the case
after long cultivation, they are completely covered with glumes or
husks. Although there has been much written upon the Eastern'
origin of this grain, it did not grow in that part of India watered
by the Indus, at the time of Alexander the Great's expedition, as it
is not mentioned by Nearchus, the commander of the fleet, among
the productions of that country. It is not noticed by Arrian, Dio-
dorus, or Columella; and even so late as the year 1471, Joan. Cuba,
in his " Ortus Sanitatis," a very curious medical work on plants,
trees, animals, stones, &c., does not make the least mention of it.
Neither has it ever been found in any ancient tumulus, sarcophagus,
or pyramid; nor has it ever been represented in any ancient painting,
sculpture, or w'ork of art, except in America! But in this country,
according to Garcilasso, the palace gardens of the Incas in Pcfu,
were ornamented with images of gold and silver, of all manner of
beasts, birds, trees, flowers, and fruit. Some of the trees appeared
in blossom, some with their fruit partially or fully grown, and in
others it appeared quite ripe, according to the several seasons of the
year. They also imitated the maize, with all its grains, spikes,
stalks, and leaves; and in one instance, in the " Garden of Gold
and Silver," there was an entire cornfield, of considerable size, re-
presented with the corn in its exact and natural shape.

The introduction of maize into Europe, probably dates back to
the time soon after Columbus discovered America; but little atten-
tion appears to have been paid there, either to its culture or use,
until toward the close of the last century. An amusing, and in
many respects an instructive work, was published some years since
by William Cobbett, upon the merits of Indian corn, whose sanguine
wishes upon the subject of its introduction as a field crop into Eng-
land, led him farther than most people have been inclined to accom-
pany him. A coteraporary writer reznarks, that "Cobbett was corn
mad at one time. He saw too soon by twenty years, and depended
on cultivation rather than importation. He wrote about Indian corn,
planted Indian corn, raised Indian corn, ate Indian corn, made paper
of Indian corn husks, and printed a book from the Indian corn pa-

No. 151.] 419

per." There is to be seen in this work a very minute and interest-
ing account of the various manipulations which must be attended to
by the maize grower before his grain is ready for sale, as well as
very particular directions for turning the produce to the best and most
profitable account in domestic economy.

The most important feature, perhaps, in the history of maize, is
its late introduction from the United States into Great Britain and
Ireland, as a cheap and nutritious article of human food. For this
patriotic and philanthropic act these two nations are highly indebted
to the simultaneous exertions of our friend and countryman, Henry
Coleman, Esq., who has been engaged for several years in making
an agricultural tour in Europe, and Dr. John S. Bartlett, late of the
British Army, the latter of whom addressed a letter on the subject,
in May, 1842, to Lord Ashburton, in which he arrives at the fol-
lowing deductions:

1st. That the laboring classes and the poor of Great Britain re-
quire a cheaper article of food than wheaten bread.

2d. That although wheat contains a larger portion of gluten or
the nutritive ingredient, bulk is necessary, not only to satisfy the
craving of hunger, but to promote digestion by the "stimulus of dis-
tension," which bulk alone can give.

3d. That the craving of hunger being removed or alleviated by the
quantity taken, the mind is more at ease; the mental irritability con-
sequent upon hunger is assuaged, and man goes to his labor with
cheerfulness and vivacity, becoming a more peaceful citizen and per-
haps a better man.

4th. That maize possesses a great superiority over rye, barley, oat-
meal, or potatoes — not that it contains a greater quantity of gluten,
but that its constituent parts are better proportioned, and consequent-
]y make a better article of food.

5th. That, admitted into England duty free, it would be a cheaper
article of food than any of those above named, besides being vastly
superior to them in nutritive and healthful properties.

6th. That it can be obtained in any quantities from all parts of
the United States, and particularly from the middle and southern
states, on the Atlantic sea-board, as New- York, New Jersey, Penn-
sylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, whose proximity

420 [Assembly

to the sea and ports of shipment, give them great advantages, by
saving inland conveyance. The v^'hole valley of the Mississippi also
* yields it in abundance.

7th. That the people of all parts of the United States are con-
sumers of British manufactures; for in spite of national asperities,
they adopt the habits, tastes, fashions, and dress of their English
ancestors. This, I think, is a natural feeling in the human breast,
for I never yet knew a son who was offended by being told that he
resembled his parent. The imported grain then would be paid for
in the products of British industry.

8th. That the rapidly increasing population and limited superficial
surface of the British Isles, will speedily render a foreign supply of
grain necessary, even in the most productive seasons — and conse-
quently a reduction of duties must ensue; it is therefore advanta-
geous to the agricultural interests, as land is becoming so valuable,
to reserve as much of the soil of England as possible for the culti-
vation of wheat and more valuable products; and nothing will tend
to promote this object more than the introduction of a copious sup-
ply of cheaper farinaceous food for the poor and laboring classes.

In closing the historical part of this memoir, it may not be unin-
teresting to allude to another countryman of ours, Elihu Burritt,
commonly called " The Learned Blacksmith," who is at present
engaged in making a pedestrian tour in various p^rts of Europe, and
giving the result of his observations in the " Christian Citizen,"
from which we make the following extract : —

I have just got out " An Olive Leaf, from the Housewives of
America, to the Housewives of Great Britain and Ireland, or Recipes
for making Various Articles of Food, of Indian Corn Meal," con-
taining all the recipes I received before leaving home from our kind
female friends in different parts of the Union — heaven bless them!
I have had 2,000 of these Olive Leaves struck off, and intended, in
the first place, to send a copy to every newspaper in the realm. I
shall have a thousand, all of which I shall put in the hands of those
I meet on the road. . I have resolved to make it a condition upoi>
which only I consent to be any man's guest, that his wife shall serve
up a johnny-cake for breakfast, or an Indian pudding for dinner. I
was invited yesterday to a tea party which comes off to-night, where
about thirty persons are to be present. I accepted the invitation
with the johnny-cake clause, which was readily agreed to by all par-

No. 151.] 421

ties. So to-night the virtues of corn meal will be tested by some of
the best livers in Birmingham.

Mythology.

The Indians of Peru and the adjacent country, who existed
before the empire of the Incas began, were at best but tamed ani-
mals, and often they were more brutish than the beasts of the
field. They possessed no right of property, no fixed laws, no reli-
gion nor goverhment; neither did they plow, sow, or ti!l the earth,
nor did they understand the art of weaving cotton or woolj but
dwell together in small hordes as they happened to meet in caves or
holes in the rpcks and mountains, subsisting on grass, herbs and
roots, wild fruits and the flesh of man, with no other clothing than
the leaves and bark of trees, and the skins of beasts. In short, they
were altogether savage.

As ever has been the case with most of the primitive tribes of the
human race, these Indians derived their original being from divers
objects, animate or inanimate, of which they entertained respect, ad-
miration, or awe. Some who lived near a great lake which supplied
them with a store of fish, called that the parent whence they emerged;
some esteemed the mighty Andes as their prime mother, who from
her deep caverns, first gave them birth; and others fancied them-
selves to be the descendants of the great bird, condor, in token of
which, on days of solemnity and festival, they M'ore its wings fast-
ened to their arms.

Every nation, province, tribe, and house among them, had its par-
ticular idol. For their opinion was, that one god would have enough
to do, to take care of its own province or family, and that its power
was so limited, that it could have no virtue or extent within the ju-
risdiction of another. Some adored whatever they saw in which an
excellence could be observed, whether good or bad. The tiger, the
jaguar, and the bear, they worshipped for their ferocity, and with
such humility, that they would not fly from them in case of danger,
but offered themselves to be devoured. The fox and the monkey
they adored for their craft; the stag, for his swiftness; the hawk, for
agility and courage; the eagle, for acuteness of sight; while other
nations were more considerate in their deities, and worshiped no-
thing except what afforded them benefit or advantage — as fountains
and cool springs, which furnished them with drink; rivers, that wa-
tered their pastures; the earth, which they called their mother, be-
cause it yielded them food } the air, because it gave them breath and

422 [Assembly

life; and fire, because it warmed them, and cooked their food. Some
also, made choice of sheep, cattle, or corn, and everything around
them, that served most for nourishment, as a god, and v^'orthy of di-
vine honor. The inhabitants near the coast, fbade the sea their god,
the name of which, interpreted in their language, signifies the " Mo-
ther Sea" The whale they deified on account of its prodigious size.
In the Province of Puerto Viejo, they had a high veneration for the
emerald; and near the Cordillera, they worshipped that mountain for
its stupendous height.

The sacrifices which they made to these deities, were often as bar-
barous as the gods were senseless; for, besides beasts, fruits, and corn,
they sacrificed and devoured alive men and women of all ages, whom
they had taken in war. But other Indians less cruel, and more mild
in their character, though they mingled blood with these rites, never
took away life, but drew it from the veins of an arm., a leg, or the
nostrils, according to the nature or solemnity of the sacrifice requir-
ed. Others offered sheep and lambs, conies, partridges, and various
kinds of fowl, herbs, fruits, and maize, so much esteemed among them,
according to the deity they adored.

These people, living and dying in the manner above described,
were at length reclaimed by Inca Manco Capac, who, probably, was
so'ne Indian of a more elevated understanding and prudence than or-
dinary, and who, by carrying a refined deportment among them, had
persuaded them that he and his wife. Mama Oello Hauco, proceeded
from the sun, and were come from heaven; and that his father, Pa-
chacamac (the soul of the universe, or the sustainer of all things,)
had sent them to instruct and bestow benefits on the rest Oi" mankind.
Manco Capac w'as the founder of the Incas, who were the native
kings of Peru, and who, according to tradition, reigned in dfrect li-
neage, until they were conquered by the Spaniards, for the space of
four hundred years. The origin of these kings, the majesty and
greatness of their empire, their conquests and policies in govern-
ment, both in peace and in war, together with the laws they institu-
ted for the good and benefit of their subjects, have been recorded by
one of their own descendants on the maternal side, Garcilasso, de la
Vega, surnvimed the Inca. Concerning the origin of these kings, he
says, that, when he was about seventeen years of age, being one day
present w^ith his kindred in the imperial city of Cuzco, who were
discoursing of their ancestors, it came into his mind to ask the most
elderly person amongst them, by interrupting him in his discourse,
the following questions: — " Inca and my uncle," said I, " How is it

No. 15L] 423

possible, since you have no writings, that you have been able to pre-
serve the memory of things past, and the origin of our kings? I
observe that the Spaniards and their kindred nations have their sa-
cred and profane histories, whereby they learn the time that their
own kings, and the princes of other countries, began their reigns;
when and how empires were changed and transferred; nay, so far
they go, as to tell us how many thousand years are past since God
created the heavens and the earth; all of which, and much more,
they have learned from their books; but as to yourselves — in what
manner can you retain the memory of your ancestors, or be informed
of the origin of the Tncas? As, for instance, who was the first of
them, or what was his name? Of what lineage, or in what manner
did he begin his reign? What nations did he conquer, and when
did he give a being to this great empire, and with what exploits did
our ancestors achieve their greatness?

" The Inca was much pleased to hear me make these inquiries, be-
cause he took great delight in recounting these matters, and turning
to me, said, ' Cousin, I most willingly comply with your request;
for it concerns you to hear them, and keep them in your heart.
Remember then, that in ages past, all this region or country you see
around us, was nothing but mountains and wild forests, and the peo-
ple in those times were like so many brutes, without any religion or
government, with no understanding of property or a single enjoy-
ment of them; neither did they sow, plow, nor clothe themselves, be-
cause they had no idea of tilling the earth, and knew not the art of
weaving either cotton or wool. They dwelt two by two, or three
and three together, as they chanced to meet, in caves, or holes in the
rocks and mountains. Their food was herbs or grass, roots of trees,
wild fruits, and human flesh; and all the covering they had, consisted
of the leaves or bark of trees, and the skins of beasts.

* And now, I pray that you listen with due attention, for I would
not be troubled to repeat what I am to say. Our Father, the Sun,
beholding these Indians as they existed in the state that I have just
related, took compassion on them, and sent a son and a daughter of
his own from heaven to earth, to instruct our people in his knowledge,
so that they might worship and adore him, and esteem him as their
God, giving them laws and precepts, unto which they might conform
their lives like men of reason and refinement of manners, that they
might live in houses and society, learn to till the earth, cultivate
trees, plants, and corn, feed their flocks, and enjoy them as rational
men, and not as brutes. With these orders and instructions, our Fa-
ther, the Sun, placed his two children by the Lake Titicaca, giving

iS4: [AsSEMBl.ir

them liberty to go wtich way they pleased, and that, in what place
soever they stopped to eat, or sleep, they should strike a little wedge
of gold into the ground, which was about half a yard long, and two
fingers thick, and where, with one stroke this wedge should sink into
the earth, there should be the place of their abode, and the court
unto which all people should come. Lastly, he ordered that when
they should have subjected these people to the rules of obedience,
they should maintain them with reason, justice, piety, clemency, and
gentlenesSj performing all the good offices of indulgent parents to-
wards the children they lovej and that in imitation of him, and by
his example who doeth good to all the world, by affording them light
to perform their work, and the actions of life; warming them when
they are cold; making their pastures and their seeds to grow, their
trees to fructify, and their flocks to increase; and watering their lands
with timely dews. And in order to manifest his earthly care, he saidy
every day I take a turn around the world to see and discover the
wants and necessities of all things, in order that, as their true fomen-
ter and parent, I may apply myself to their succour and redress.
Thus, after my example, and as my children, sent upon the earth, I
would have you imitate me, and to instil such doctrine into this peo-
ple as may convert them from beasts into men. And henceforth I
constitute and ordain you king and queen over this nation, that by
your instructions, reason, and government, they may be preservecf.
After our Father, the Sun, had thus declared his pleasure to these^
his two children, he despatched them from him; and, in taking their
journey northward from Titicaca, at every place where they came to
repose, they tried to strike their wedge into the ground, but to no
effect; but, at length they arrived at a little inn or place of rest, in
the valley of Cuzco, where they again struck their wedge of gold
into the earth; which received it with the greatest ease, and which
sucked it in, and they saw it no more. Then, said the Inca to his
sister and wife — in this valley, our Father, the Sun, hath command-
ded that we should stay, and make our abode, and in so doing we
shall obey his will; in pursuance thereof, it is necessary that we now
separate from each other, and take different ways that we may as-
semble and draw the people together in such manner as we may be
able to preach and propagate the doctrine among them, which has
been committed to us. Our Inca, accordingly, took his way north-
ward, and his wife to the southward, and to all the men and women,
whom they met in the wild forests and uncultivated places, they de-
clared to them that their Father, the Sun, had sent them to be teach-
ers and benefactors, and to deliver them from the savage life they
led to another, more agreeable to reason, justice, and humanity. And

Ko. 151.] 425

in further pursuance of the commands of our Father, the Sun, they
had come to gather these people •from the mountains and rudc^places^
to more convenient habitations, where they might live in human so-
ciety, and subsist upon such food as was appropriated to man, and
not to beasts. These, and similar declarations were announced to
such savages as they met in the mountains and deserts, vrho, in be-
holding the grace of their countenances, the jewels, and the gay at-
tire with which these two persons were adorned, and in listening to
the gentleness and sweetness of their words, acknowledged them to
be the true Children of the Sun, and such as were appointed to cause
their people to assemble into societies, and to administer such kinds
of food as were wholesome, and adapted to human sustenance.
They were struck with such admiration at the sight of their figure
and person, and allured with the promises they made them, that they
gave entire credence to their words, obeyed them as their princes,
and adored them as superior beings. And these poor wretches, re-
latmg these sayings one to another, the fame so increased, that great
numbers, both men and women, flocked together, and were willing
to follow to what place soever they should guide them.

* Thus great multitudes of people being assembled together, the
princes commanded that provision should be made of such fruits as
the earth produced for their sustenance, lest they should be scattered
abroad again in small numbers, to gain their food. Our Inca taught
some of his subjects these labors, which appertain unto men, as to
build houses, plough, sow the land with maize and divers sort of
seeds, that were useful or fit for food; to which end he instructed
them how to make plows and other implements necessary for the
purpose; he showed them also how to make aqueducts and reservoirs
for holding water, and various other arts tending to the more com-
modious well-being of human life. He employed others to gather
and tame the llamas and more gentle sorts of cattle into flocks, which
ran dispersed and wild through the mountains and woods, that gar-
ments might be made of their wool, and shoes of their skins. On
the other hand, Coya Mama Oello instructed the women the art of
spinning and weaving both cotton and wool, to make garments for
their husbands, their children, and themselves, with various other of-
fices appertaining to a house. In short, nothing was omitted that
would conduce to human welfare, which she did not teach her wo-
men, and the Inca his men.

' Being reduced in this manner, these Indians looked on themselves
as much bettered in their condition; and with signal acknowledgments

426 [Assembly

of the benefits received, travelled with joy and satisfaction through
the roclcs and woods, to communicate the happy tidings of the Child-
ren of the Sun, who, for the common good of all, appeared on the
earth, repeating the benefits they had received, and showing them
their new habiliments, and diet, and relating to them that they lived
in houses and in political society. This relation induced these wild
people to mingle with their civilized brethren, in order to learn and
obey; and thus, one calling and inviting the other, the fame spread
far and near, and their number increased to such a degree, that in
six or seven years, thelncahad composed an army sufficient for war;
and having taught them how to make bows and arrows, lances, and
such other weapons as we use to this day, they were^ not only capa-
ble of defending, but also to repulse an enemy, and to compel those
by force, who led a bestial life, to live in human sgciety.

* These were our first Incas and kings in the earlier ages of our
empire, from whom the succeeding princes, and w^e ourselves, are
descended; but how many years it maybe since our Father, the Sun,
sent his offspring among us, I am not able precisely to say, but I im-
agine that it may be about four hundred years.

* And thus having satisfied the request you made to me, at length,
dear cousin, allow rae to close by telling you, that in the course of
my narrative, in order that I might not incline you to sadness, I ab-
stained from venting tears from my eyes, which, notwithstanding,
drop in blood on my heart, caused by that inuard grief I feel, to see
our Incas, and their empire ruined and destroyed.' "

To this legend, many others of ancient date might be added, one
of which is, that the rays of the sun, after the univeriial deluge, first
fell on the island in Lake Titicaca, before they appeared in any
other place, and gave a sign and promise that from that spot the
first doctrines of the light of knowledge should emanate ,which pro-
mise was afterwards accomplished by those kings who preceded them,
and taught the world to throw off their turpitude, and live according
to the dictates of nature and of reason. By advantage of these and
other similar inventions, it was not difficult for the Incas to persuade
the rest of the Indians that they actually descended from the sun,
and to confirm their belief by the manifold benefits and advantages
■which their doctrine and religion brought with them. On the assu-
rance of these two fables, it is said, the Incas and all their subjects
did really esteem this island to be a sacred and holy piece of ground,
upon which, with that opinion, they erected a rich temple, all plated

No. 151.] 427

with gold, to be dedicated to their Father, the Sun; where all the
Indians of the provinces, subject to the Incas, generally assembled
once a year to offer gold, silver and precious stones, in thankful ac-
knowledgments of the great blessings they had received. And so
immense was the quantity of gold and silver which was amassed in
that island, besides what was cast and wrought into utensils for the
service of the temple, that the report of it made by the Incas is in-
credible, and is more to be admired than believed. Bias Valera, a
Spanish historian, in speaking of the riches of this temple, says,
that after all the vessels and ornaments were supplied, he wa*^ told
by the Indians of Copa-Cabano, there was such a superfluity of gold
and silver, after all was finished, that another such temple might have
been erected without the aid of any other materials! And that, so
soon as the Indians had news of the invasion of the Spaniards, and
were informed that their object was to despoil them of their trea-
sures, they demolished their temple, and threw all the fragments and
the immense wealth appertaining thereto into the great lake.

Those Incas, besides the riches they bestowed, and the encourage-
ment they gave for the adornment of this temple, did much to im-
prove the sterile land of this isle, so as to render it more fertile, and
fit to produce fruit; and, in gratitude to the place, on which they
believed their ancestors to have descended from heaven, they enno-
bled it by bringing it into the highest state of fertility and the best
of husbandry. To this end they levelled and cleared it of rocks and
stones, made gardens and covered them over with good earth and
manure brought from afar, and thereby made the ground capable of
producing maize, which, by reason of its elevation and its consequent
coldness of climate, would not grow in the country adjacent. This
grain, with flax and other seeds, they sowed in the gardens they had
made, which yielded*good increase, the fruits of which they sent as
sacred presents to the temple of the sun, and to the select virgins,
at Cuzco, with orders to distribute them in all other sacred places
throughout the dominions. One year they sent presents to Cuzco,
the next to another place, and the third year somewhere else, which
were held in high esteem, as sacred relics, sowing some in the gar-
dens belonging to the temples, and other public houses, and others
they divided among the people. A portion of the grain they cast
into the public granaries, and those of the sun and of the king, be-
lieving that some divine virtue was contained in it, and that it would
bless and increase the corn with which it was mixed, preserve it
from corruption, and render it more wholesome for human sustenance;
and that Indian who was so happy as to be able to get but one

428 [Assembly

grain of this maize, to throw into his he?p, was possessed with the
belief that he should never be in want for bread in the course of his
life.

During the high feast, Capacrayni, held in the first month, Raymi,
agreeing with our December, no stranger was suffered to lodge in
Cuzco, to which they again all assembled as soon as the fetival was
over, to receive cakes made of maize and the warm blood of a white
alpaca, by the Mamacunas, (select virgins,) and distributed by cer-
tain priests, who in carrying them about in dishes of gold, gave each
of the Indians one, saying as they delivered it, " If you do not re-
verence the Sun and Inca, this food will bear witness against you to
your ruin; but, if you worship them, then their bodies, by this
pledge, will be united to yours." After which, those that had eaten
of the- cakes, promised obedience, and thanked the Sun and Inca for
their food.

In the beginning of the month Hafuncuzqui, which corresponds to
our May, the Peruvians gathered their maize, and kept the feast
Aymorai. They returned home, singing from the fields, carrying
with them a large heap of maize, which they called Perua, wrap-
ping it up in rich garments. They continued their ceremonies for
three nights, imploring the perua to preserve their harvest of maize
from any damage that might chance to befall it, and also to cause
that to grow prosperously, which they should next plant. Lastly,
their sorcerers consulted their gods whether the perua could last till
the next year; and if they did not answer in the affirmative, they
carried it into the fields and burned, or parched it, with the view of
making a new perua, which they bore to their granaries in great
triumph, &nd mingled it with other corn.

The corn plant, or its fruit, also entered into the forms, the cere-
monies, and the mythology of many other tribes, w'hich, from the
limited length of this memoir, and the want of accurate information
on the subject, are necessarily omitted. The following allegory,
however, which was related to Mr. Schoolcraft by the Odjibwas, will
be read with interest by all who have a fondness for this branch of
literature.

" A young man went out into the woods to fast at that period of
life when youth is exchanged for manhood. He built a lodge of
boughs in a secluded place, and painted his lace of a sombre hue.
By day he amused himself in walking about, looking at the various

No. 151.] 429

shrubs and wild plants, and at night he lay down in his bower, which
being open, he could look up into the sky. He sought a gift from
the Master of Life, and he hoped it would be something lo benefit
his race. On the third day he became too weak to leave the lodge,
and as he lay gazing upwards, he saw a spirit come down in the
shape of a beautiful young man, dressed in green, and having green
plumes on his head, who told him to arise and wrestle w^ith him, as
this was the only way in which he could obtain his wishes. He did
so, and found his strength renewed by the effort. This visit and the
trial of wrestling were repeated for four days, the youth feeling at
each trial, that although his bodily strength declined, a moral and
supernatural energy was imparted, which promised him the final vic-
tory. On the third day his celestial visitor spoke to him. ' To-
morrow,' said he, ' will be the seventh day of your fast, and the last
time I shall wrestle with you. You will triumph over me and gain
your wishes. As soon as you have thrown me down, strip off my
clothes, and bury me in the spot, in soft fresh earth. When you
have done this, leave me, but come occasionally to visit the place to
keep the weeds from growing. Once or twice cover me with fresh
earth.' He then departed, but returned the next day, and, as he had
predicted, was thrown down. The young man punctually obeyed
his instructions in every, particular, and soon had the pleasure of see-
ing the green plumes of his sky visitor, shooting up through the
ground. He carefully weeded the earth and kept it fresh and soft,
and in due time was gratified by beholding the matured plant bend-
ing with its yellow fruit, and gracefully waving its green leaves and
yellow tassels in the wind. He then invited his parents to the spot,
to behold the new plant. ' It is Mondamin,' replied his father, ' it
is the spirit's grain.' They immediately prepared a feast, and invited
their friends to partake of it, and this is the origin of Indian corn."

Properties and Uses.

There is no species of the Cerealia, which manifests itself under
such varied forms, sizes, colors, and chemical ingredients, as maize.
While some persons have estimated it in value, equal, if not superior
to all other kinds of grain, others, on the contrary, have placed it
in the lowest station in the group to which it belongs. It has been
contended by some, that it contains no gluten, and little if any ready
formed saccharine matter, and hence, could possess but a very small
nutritive power, while others have observed that domestic animals,
which are fed on maize, very speedily become fat, with their flesh at
the same time, remarkably firmj that horses which consume it, are

430 [Assembly

enabled to perform their full portion of labor, are exceedingly hardy
and require but little care; and that the inhabitants of the countries
where it forms a large share of their food, arc, for the most part,
strong, healthy, and long lived. The investigations of vegetable
chemistry, however, have more recent'ly revealed to us many impor-
tant and interesting tacts on these points, yet our knowledge on the
subject is far from being complete.

According to Marrabelli's analysis of Zea mays, made twenty or
thirty years ago, it contains a saccharine matter of different degrees
of purity, from which alcohol, the oxalic and acetous acids, may be
obtained; a vegetable amylaceous substance; a glutinous substance;
muriate and nitrate of magnesia; carbonates of potash, lime, and of
magnesia; and iron.

According to the analysis of M. Payen, maize consists.of the fol-
lowing ingredients: One hundred parts by weight yielded.

Starch, 28.4

Nitrogenized matter, - 4.8

Fattymatter (oil), 35.6

Coloring matter, - - -- 0.2

Cellular tissue, 20.0

Dextrine, 2.0

Various salts, 7.2

Loss, 1.8

100.0

The proportion of oil is evidently overrated in this analysis, and
the error is attributed by Dr. Jackson to the solubility of the zeine
or gluten of the corn in ether, which Payen used to dissolve the oil.
The gluten being taken up by this process, was mistaken for oil and
credited in the analysis as such, when it should have been put under
the head of nitrogenized matter. It is not surprising,, he remarks,
that M. Dumas, in quoting tliis analysis, should observe that " indi-
viduals who eat corn for some time, present symptoms of an accumu-
lation of fat in their tissue, which will not appear astonishing, when
we consider that a bushel of corn would yield a quart (litre) of oil!"
If this doctrine were true, those Americans who derive a great part
of their subsistence from Indian corn, would be an excessively fat
people.

No. 151.] 431

According to the analysis recently made in England by Professor

Playfair, some specimens of corn of American growth, yielded, in
one hundred parts by weight, the following proportions:

Proteine, ■ - 7

Fatty matter, - 5

Starch,-- 76

Water, 12

100

By this analysis it would seem that maize contains less proteine or
nutritive matter, than Avheat, oats, or barley, but more than either
rice or potatoes. In fact it contains about three and a half times the
quantity of nutritive matter found in potatoes, and a much larger
proportion of starch, and less water. It also contains more fatty
matter than any of these products, which is a very important consi-
deration where the mere fattening of animals is taken into account.
Hence, as an article of food, either for man or animals, it is superior
to potatoes and rice, but inferior to wheat, oats, or barley. It is re-
lished by all animals that are not exclusively carniverous, and cer-
tainly is highly nutritious.

According to the researches of Dr. Charles T. Jackson, of Boston,
who stands preeminent as a chemist, Indian corn in general, is com-
posed of variable proportions of starch, dextrine, gum or mucilage,
sugar, gluten, oil, the phosphates of lime and magnesia, with a lit-
tle phosphoric acid, silica, potash, and oxide of iron. Some varie-
ties, however, are nearly or quite destitute of gluten, oil, or the salts
of iron.

Among the curious results of Dr. Jackson's experiments, he proved
that the relative proportions of phosphates in grain, depend on the
assimilating power of each species or variety; for an ear of corn
having been selected wbich had on it two different kinds, namely,
the Tuscarora and the sweet corn, more than double the amount
of phosphates were obtained from the latter than from the former,
notwithstanding the kernels came from the same ear, grew side by
side from the same sap, and were derived from the same soil. Hence
it may be inferred that a crop of sweet corn will sooner exhaust a
soil of its phosphates than any other variety, and if a soil be defi-
cient in these materials, more must be added to produce it in perfec-
tion. Some interesting facts were also noticed by him iii the varia-

432 [Assembly

ble proportions of phosphates in different varieties of the same spe-
cies of several kinds of grain, and a greater preponderance of them
was observed in Indian corn, than in the smaller grains, as barley,
oats, wheat, &c., a fact which seems to explain their peculiar pro-
perties as food for animals; for the more highly phosphatic grains
appear to be more likely to surcharge the system of adult animals
with bony matter, often producing concretions of phosphate of lime,
like those resulting from gout. It is conjectured that the stiffness
of the joints and lameness of the feet common in horses, which have
been fed too freely with maize, is caused by the preponderance of
the phosphates. Granting this to be true, young animals cannot fail
to derive more osseous matter from corn than from any other kind of
grain.

The horny or flinty portions of corn, when viewed in thin sections
under a good microscope, will be found to consist of a great num-
ber of six-sided cells, filled with a fixed oil, which has been success-
fully employed for the purposes of illumination. It is stated that a
distillery has been established in the vicinity of Lake Ontario, where
this oil is extracted, at the rate of sixteen gallons from one hundred
bushels of corn, leaving the remaining portion of the corn more val-
uable and in better condition for distillation than before the oil is
extracted. On this oil depends the popping qualities of corn. For,
when the kernels are heated to a temperature sufficiently high to de-
compose the oil, a sudden explosion takes place, and every cell is
ruptured by the expansion of gaseous matters arising from the de-
composition of the oil, and the formation of carburetted hydrogen
gas, such as is sometimes used in lighting large cities, the grain be-
ing completely evoluted and folded back, or turned inside out. This
property is remarkably strong in the pop corn, and is common in a
greater or less degree, in all kinds of corn that abound in oil; but
those varieties destitute of a horny covering, as the Tuscarora, and
white flour corn, will not pop under any circumstances whatever.

This change in corn, is one of considerable importance, so far as
regards facility of digestion; for, after the decomposition or extrac-
tion of this oil, it is more readily digested by man, though less fat-
tening to poultry, cattle, swine, &c.

One important use of the oil in corn, is undoubtedly to prevent
the rapid decomposition of the kernels, when sown in the soil, and
to retain a portion of pabulum or food, until needed by the young
plant, and is always the last portion of the grain taken up. It also

No. 151.] 433

serves to keep meal from souring, as it has been observed that a flint
corn meal will keep sweet for years, even when put up in large
quantities, without being kiln-dried; while the meal of Tuscarora
corn will become sour in a very short time.

The colors of Indian corn usually depend on that of the epider-
mis or hull, and sometimes on that of the oil. If the epidermis be
transparent, the color may depend either upon the oil, or the com-
bined particles of which the corn is composed; but if the hull be
opaque, the grain will present the same color. For example, the
yellow color of the golden Sioux is derived from the yellow color
of the oil; and the Rhode Island flint-corn on the colorless particles
of its starch and oil, which are distinctly seen through its transparent
hull; but red and blue corn owe their lively hues to the colors of
their epidermis, and not to the oil.

The proportions of oil in corn, as far as it has been examined ,
varies from an entire absence to eleven per cent., according to the
varieties employed.

When corn is hulled by means of potash ley, a portion of the
oil is converted into soap, and the epidermis becomes detached. The
caustic alkali also liberates ammonia from the mucilage around the
germ.

Oily corn makes a dry kind of bread, and is not sufficiently ad-
hesive to rise well without an admixture of rye, or other flour.

The oil of corn is easily convertible into animal fat by a slight
change of composition, and consequently serves an excellent purpose
for fattening poultry, cattle, and swine. Starch, also, is changed
into fat, as well as the carbonaceous substances of animals, and during
its slow combustion in the circulation, gives out a portion of the
heat of animal bodies; while, in its altered state, it goes to form a
part of the living frame. Dextrine and sugar act in a similar man-
ner, as a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

From the phosphates of grain, the substance of bone and the saline
matters of the brain, nerves, and other solid and fluid parts of the
body, are, in a great measure, derived.

The salts of iron go to the blood, and these constitute an essential
portion of it, whereby it is enabled, by successive alterations of its

[Assembly, No. 151.] 28

434 [Assembly

degree of oxidation during the circulation through the lungs, arteries,
extreme vessels and veins, to convey the oxygen to every part of the
body.

By soaking Indian corn, after it has been cut open, in a watery
solution of sulphate of copper, (blue vitriol,) the result will give a
decisive proof of the presence of phosphoric acid. The " chits," or
parts containing the germs, will be changed to a bluish-green,
beautifully defining the limits of the phosphates of lime and of
magnesia contained in the grain.

By soaking a kernel of corn split open longitudinally and thrown
into a solution of sulphydrate of ammonia, the chit is soon changed
to a dark olive-color, which arises from the change of the salts of
iron into a sulphuret of that metal.

By cutting open, in a similar manner, a kernel of maize, or any
other kind of grain, and dropping upon it a small quantity of the
tincture of iodine, a portion of its bulk will be immediately changed
to an intense blue, indicating the presence of starch, with here and
there a deep port-wine-colored speck, which will define the parts
composed of dextrine. If the oil is extracted from the transparent
part of the corn by alcohol, or ether, the tincture of iodine will in-
dicate the presence of starch in that part of the grain associated with
the gluten.

By these means, we may readily cause any grain to define the
extent and precise limits of each of its ingredients; and by the eye,
we can form a pretty correct estimate of their relative proportions
in different seeds.*

The varieties of Indian corn are very numerous, exhibiting every
grade of size, color, and conformation, between the shrubby reed
that grows on the shores of Lake Superior, to the gigantic stalks of
the Ohio valley, the tiny ears with flat, close-clinging grains of
Canada, the brilliant, rounded, little pearl, or the bright-red grains
and white cob of the eight-rowed haematite, to the swelling ears of
the big white, and yellow gourd-seed of the South. The principal
varieties cultivated in the United States, which may be distinguished
by the number of rows of grains on the cob, and the color, shape,
or size of the kernels, may be classified and described as follows: —

*See Jackson's Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of New Hampshire, pp.
255 et seq.

No. 151.] 435

Yellow Corn. — The colors of the varieties coming under this
head, as before observed, are dependent mainly on the shades of
the oil, as seen through the transparent epidermis or hull.

1. Golden Sioux or JYorthern Yellow Flint-Corn, derived from
the Sioux Indians, in Canada, having a large cob, rather short as to
length, with twelve rows of moderately-sized grains, abounding in
oil, and is regarded as one of the best varieties for fattening animals,
or for human food. By skilful tillage, 130 bushels have been raised
to an acre, weighing 9,216 lbs. in the ear. When dry, 75 lbs. of
ears gave a bushel when shelled. Several valuable hybrid varieties
have been produced between the Sioux and the King Philip, the
gourd-seed and the Sioux, &c.

2. King Philip or Eight-rowed Yellow Corn; so called after the
celebrated chief of the Wampanoags, of that name, from which tribe
the seed was originally obtained. The ears, which contain only
eight rows, are longer, the cob smaller, and the grains larger than
those of the golden Sioux, and it will yield about the same quantity
of oil. It is a hardy plant, much esteemed in New England as ,a
substantial article of food, where it has been cultivated from limes
anterior to the landing of the Pilgrims. From this variety, a num-
ber of superb kinds have been obtained, among which, are a
beautiful ten and twelved-rowed hybrid from which the golden Sioux,
and the well known Browne Corn, improved by my brother, Mr.
John Browne, of Long Island, in Lake Winnipissiogee. The latter
variety was produced by cultivating selected ears for a succession of
years, of the King Philip corn, with small but-ends, the second ripe,
in the field, and taken from stalks which bore more than two ears
each. The grains of this corn are large, the cob small, and the ears
usually from ten to thirteen inches in length, with only eight rows.
It ripens a little later than the golden Sioux, and is very prolific,
the greatest crop, per acre, that has yet been raised, being 336
bushels, weighing, in the ear, 9,520 lbs., or 70 lbs. to the bushel,
and 59 lbs., when shelled.

Canada Corn or Eight-rowed Yellow. — This corn, which is
smaller, earlier, and more solid than any of the precedmg, contains
more oil than any other variety, except the rice corn, and the pop
corn, properly so called. It is highly valued for fattening poultry,
swine, (Sec, and is grown by many, in gardens, for early boiling or roast-
ing, when green. Notwithstanding it is very prolific in ears, it is

436- [Assembly

seldom planted in fields, except in regions where the larger kinds
will not thrive.

4. Button Corn. A variety first brought into notice, in 1818, by
Mr. Salmon Button, of Cavendish, Vermont. The ears of corn from
which it was originally selected, on an averege, were from eight to
twelve inches long, and contained from twelve to eighteen rows.
The cob is larger, and sometimes grows to the length of fourteen or
fifteen inches, but the grain is so compact upon it, that two bushels
of sound ears have yielded five pecks of shelled corn, weighing 62
lbs. to the bushel. With proper management, an acre of ground
will produce from 100 to 120 bushels. As it abounds in oil, gives
a good yield, and ripens at least two weeks earlier than the Canada
corn, it has long been a favourite for culture at the North.

5. Southern Big Yellow Corn. — The cob of this variety is thick
and long, the grains much wider than deep, and where the rows
unite with each other, their sides fall off almost to a point. This
gives the outside ends of the grain a circular form, which imparts
to the ear an appearance somewhat resembling a fluted column.
The grain contains less oil and more starch than the northern flinty
kinds, yet its outward texture is somewhat solid, flinty, and firm.
It comes rather late into maturity, affords an abundant yield, and is
much used for fattening swine. Mixed with either of the white
gourd-seed varieties, the Yellow Gourd-Seed is produced, which is
often mistaken for an original form.

6. Southern Small Yellow Corn. — The ears of this sort are more
slender, as well as shorter, than the last named variety; the grains
are smaller, though of the same form, of a deeper yellow, more firm
and flinty, and contain an abundance of oil, which renders them more
valuable for the purposes of shipping, or for feeding to poultry and
swine. Although it is less productive than the big yellow, it ripens
earlier, and consequently is sooner out of the reach of the autumnal
frosts. Some valuable hybrids have been produced between this and
the big yellow, the Virginian white gourd-seed, and other large va-
rieties.

7. Peruvian Big Yellow Corn. — {Mais amarillo,) the grains of
which are large, rather heart-shaped, solid, opaque, and abound in
oil.

8. Peruvian Small Yellow Corn. — (Mais morocho,) with small
bright yellow, or reddish-brown grains.

No. 151.] 437

White Corn. — The varieties which constitute this division are ex-
ceedingly variable, both as regards their composition and size, as
well as in their yield and times of coming to maturity.

1. Rhode Island White Flint-Corn.' — The grains of this variety
are about the size and shape of the Tuscarora corn, but differ from
them in containing a transparent and colorless oil, which may easily
be seen through their clear, pellucid hulls. The farinaceous parts of
the grains are white, and as the quantity of the oil they contain is
large, the flour is more substantial as an article of food, and less
liable to ferment and become sour. In Rhode Island, where it pro-
duces an abundant yield, it is a favorite grain, and stands in high
repute.

2. Sotdhern Big White Flint-Corn; having a large thick cob,
with twelve rows of kernels, much resembling in shape and size,
those of the big yellow, and like that variety, is less productive than
the white Virginia gourd-seed. It contains more starch and less oil
than the northern flint-corn; but is much softer and a better food
for horses, though not so fattening to poultry and swine. When
ground into meal, it is apt to become sour, and consequently is unfit
to be shipped in that state, unless previously prepared by being kiln-
dried. From this variety originated the genuine White Flint-Corn^
employed for making the excellent hommony, so much in use in the
Middle and Southern States.

3. Southern Little White Flint^Corn. — The kernels of this variety
are considerably smaller than those of the preceding, and much re-
semble them in shape; but they are more firm and solid, contain
more oil, and consequently are more valuable for feeding poultry and
swine, and for human food. Although the cob is smaller in propor-
tion to the size of the ears, the yield, per acre, is less abundant, and
lience is but little grown.

4. Dufton White Flint-Corn; a variety not differing materially
from the yellow Dutton corn, except in the color of its oil.

5. Early Canadian White Flint-Corn; cultivated principally for
early boiling or roasting, while green.

6. Tuscarora Corn; a variety obtained from the Tuscarora Indians,
in the State of New York. The ears contain from twelve to six-
teen rows of grains, which are nearly as deep as they are broad, of

438 [Assembly

a whitish color on the exterior, and composed entirely within, of
pure white dextrine and starch, except the germs. As it contains
neither gluten nor oil, it may profitably be employed in the manu-
facture of starch. It is much softer and better food for horses than
the flinty kinds, and if used before it becomes sour, it may be con-
verted into an excellent bread.

7. White Flour Corn.^ — The ears of this variety contain twelve
rows of rather thick, roundish grains, which are filled with a
snowy white flour, composed principally of starch, but does not con-
tain either' gluten or oil. It is much used in some parts of the coun-
try, particularly in New Jersey, for grinding up with buck-wheat,
mixed in proportion of four or five to one of corn, in order to im-
prove the color and other qualities of the buckwheat flour. As it
possesses similar properties as the preceding variety, it may be pro-
fitably employed for the same purposes.

8. Virginia White Gourd-Seed Corn. — The ears of this corn,
which are not very long, neither is the cob so large as those of the
big white or yellow flint, contain from twent}--four to thirty-six rows
of very long, narrow grains, of so soft and open a texture, that they
will not bear transportation, by sea, unless they are previously kiln-
dried, or completely excluded from the moist air. These grains at
their exterior ends are almost flat, and grow so closefy together from
the cob to the surface, that they produce a greater yield than any
other variety, in proportion to the size of the ears. They contain
more starch and less gluten and oil than those of the flint kinds;
and from their softness, they serve as better food for horses, but are
less nourishing to poultry and swine. The color of this variety is
always white, unless it has been crossed with other kinds, which
may invariably be known by a small indenture in the ends of the
grains, when perfectly dried. The oily and glutinous part of the
Virginia gourd-seed always occur on the sides of its elongated grains,
while the starch projects quite through to their summits, and by con-
traction in drying, produces the pits or depressions peculiar to their
ends. This variety is later ripe, though more productive than any
other kind. Several valuable hybrids have been produced by its
cross fecundation with the yellow and white flinty sorts, among
which, are the Yellow Gourd-Seed, and the celebrated Burden and
Baden varieties, the latter of which has produced as many as ten
ears to a stalk.

No. 151.] 439

9. Early Sweet or Sugar Corn, sometimes called Pappoon Corn. —
This variety was introduced into Massachusetts, in 1779, by Captain
Richard Bagnal, of Plymouth, from the country bordering on the
Susquehannah, on his return from the expedition against the tribes
of the Six Nations, under the command of General Sullivan. There
are two kinds of this corn, one with the cob red and the other white.
The ears are short, and usually contain eight rows, the grains of
which, when mature, are of a light color, and become shrivelled
and appear as if they were unripe. It contains an unusually large
proportion of the phosphates, and a considerable quantity of sugar
and gum, though but little starch. It is extensively cultivated for
culinary purposes, and serves as a delicious food, either green or
dry.

HEMATITE or Blood-red Corn, and Varieties of Different
Shades. — The lively hues, peculiar to the red, blue, and purple corns,
generally depend on the shades of the epidermis of the grains, and
not the oil. The origin of these colors appears to be purely acci-
dental, as white and yellow varieties have been planted at remote
distances from any other kind, and have produced kernels of a bril-
liant red. The different shades of color in corn are supposed to be
caused by diiferent proportions of iron, or other metals, combined
• with oxygen and some acid principle, acted upon by the rays of
light.

1. Rice Corn, a variety with small ears, the grains of which are
of various shades of color, and often are of the size and shape of
rice. It contains more oil and less starch than any other kind; and
when ground, it cannot be made into bread alone, but is dry like
sar.d. From its oily nature and convenient size, this corn is pecu-
liarly adapted to feeding fowls.*

2. Pop or Parching Corn, sometimes called Valparaiso Corn, Zea
curugua, of botanists, and Mais amarillo de Cancha, of the inhabi-
tants of Peru. — The ears of this variety are small, the grains are
semi-transparent, square shaped, with elongated heads; having various
shades of color, and contain next to the rice corn, more oil and less
starch, than any other kind. Its flavor is pleasant, when parched,
for which purpose it is generally preferred. This variety is believed
to be the Cara of the Incas of Peru, which, when parched, they call
Cancha, signifying a neighborhood or street.

* See Dr. Jackson's Report, pp. 258 et 259.

440 [Assembly

PREPARATION AND DIRECTIONS FOR COOKING INDIAN

CORN.

Kiln-drying.

In order to prepare Indian corn for shipping, it should previously
undergo the process of kiln-drying, which is performed by parching
or drying it in a heated chamber, or in a cylinder of M'ire-work, or
sheet iron, exposed over a furnace or s*^ove, a sufficient length of
time to destroy its sprouting or germinating power. The tempera-
ture of the chamber in which it is dried, should not much exceed the
boiling point of water, or 212*^ F.; but the time required for ex-
posing the grain, should vary according to the openness or compact-
ness of its texture, its degree of moisture or dryness, and the scarcity
or abundance of the oil which it may contain. As a general rule,
it should be removed from the kiln as soon as the burnt or parched
odour is perceived, as it then begins to lose its substance or nutritive
power.

The varieties of corn that will best bear transportation by sea
without kiln-drying, are those which contain a large proportion of
oil, as the Golden Sioux, the King Philip or Northern Eight-rowed
Yellow, the Dutton, the Browne, the Rhode Island White-Flint, &c.;
but the flower or meal made from these sorts, is not so pleasant to
the taste of those unaccustomed to its use, as that made from the
soft farinaceous varieties of the South and West, which will be great-
ly improved, and preserved free from mustin^ss, by the process of
kiln-drying.

Grinding.

It has been truly said, that " no kind of grain is actually spoiled
by grinding too fine, except Indian corn," although wheat is some-
what injured. But good corn bread, hommony, mush, and various
other dishes cannot be made of flour ground too fine. For all ordi-
nary purposes, the common mill employed for grinding wheat, an-
swers equally well for grinding maize. When it is required to grind
the corn coarse, it is necessary only to elevate the uppermost stone
and increase its speed 5 or to depress the stone and diminish its velo-
city to grind it fine. In general, the grits, or larger parts of the
meal, should vary from one-fourth the size of a grain of mustard to
that of a grain of rice, according to the uses to which they are to
be applied. For very exact and special kinds of meal, the Kibbling-
mill is preferable, in many respects, as the size and uniformity of

No. 151.] 441

the grits can be regulated at pleasure by an indifferent hand; where«
as, in the common mill for grinding wheat, their, degree of fineness
or coarseness depends entirely on the judgment and skill of the mil-
ler, by regulating the position and velocity of the uppermost stone,
and a due attention to feeding in the grain.

A kibbling-mill consists of " a small iron cylinder, usually about
eight or nine inches wide, and six inches in diameter, tapering
slightly to one end, and fluted on the inside. Within this, a barrel
of the same form, but of a less size, and fluted on the outside, revolves
by the turning of a spindle on which it is fixed. The meal is ren-
dered finer or coarser in proportion as the working barrel is set
nearer to, or farther from, the small end. This mill is made entirely
of iron and steel, and is usually attached to a post. It is provided
with a hopper, and is worked by a crank fixed at one end of the
spindle, while a fly-wheel revolves at the other. It is used for beans,
peas, and other pulsej for malt and various kinds of grain, and is a
very useful and ingenious contrivance, but requires care in its ad-
justment and general management,"*

RECIPES.

The following recipes have been obtained from persons of skill
and experience in the preparation of maize for food, several of them
having been presented to the New-York Farmers' Club, with samples
of cooking, which were pronounced as excellent, and met the entire
approbation of all who tasted them.

To Boil Green Corn.

The proper state in which to eat green corn, is at the time that
the milk flows upon pressing the kernels with the thumb nail. It is
best when boiled in the ear with the husks on, the latter of which
should be stripped off when brought to the table. The ears should
then be covered with butter, with a little salt added, and the grains
eaten off" the cob. Over-refined people think this vulgar, and shave
them off close to the core, but in so doing they lose much of their
sweetness. — .American Agriculturist.

* Professor Johnton.

442 [ASSEMBLT

To Pop or Parch Corn.

Fill an iron pot'with sand, and set on the fire till the sand is \evy
hot. Two or three pounds of the grain are then thrown in, and well
mixed with the sand by stirring. Each grain bursts and throws out
a white substance of twice (four times) its bigness. The sand is
separated by a wire sieve, and returned into the pot to be again
heated, and repeat the operation with fresh grain. That which is
parched, is pounded to a powder in mortars. This being sifted will
keep long for use. An Indian %vill travel far, and subsist long, on a
small bag of it, taking only six or eight ounces of it per day, mixed
with water. — Dr. Franklin.

Modern Modes o^ Popping Corn.

Take a gill, a half pint, or more, of Valparaiso or Pop Corn, and
put in a frying pan, slightly buttered or rubbed with lard. Hold the
pan over a fire, so as const£ntly to stir or shake the corn within,
and in a few minutes each kernel will pop, or turn inside out, and
is ready for immediate use. May be eaten with, or without, a little
sugar or salt, added while hot in the pan.

A very ingenious contrivance has been invented within a few years
for parching corn, which, if rightly managed, surpasses every other
mode. It consists of a box made of wire gauze, with the apertures
not exceeding one-twentieth of an inch square, and is so constructed
that the corn can be put within it, without being burnt, and can be
held over a hot fire made either of wood or coal. The carbureted
hydrogen gas, produced within the box by the decomposition of the
oil in the corn, is prevented from explosion in a similar manner as
fire-damp in mines is prevented from explosion by the safety-lamp.

Succotash.

To about half a pound of salt pork, add three quarts of cold wa-
ter, and set it to boil. Now cut off three quarts of green corn from
the cobs; set the corn aside, aud put the cohs to boil with the pork,
as they will add much to the richness of the mixture. When the
pork has boiled, say half an hour, remove the cobs, and put in one
quart of freshly gathered green shelled beans; boil again for fifteen
minutes; then add the three quarts of corn, and let it boil another
fifteen minutes. Now turn the w^hole into a dish, add five or six
large spoonfuls of butter, season it with peppel* to your taste, and
with salt also, if the salt of the pork has not proved sufficient. If
the liquor has boiled away, it will be necessary to add a little more

A

No, 151.] 443

to it before taking it away from the fire, as this is an essential par
of the aifair. — Western Fanner and Gardener.

Succotash in Winter.

Take, when green, your corn, either on the cob or carefully shell-
ed, and your beans in the pod. Dip them in boiling water, and care-
fully dry them in the shade where there is a free circulation of air.
Pack them up in a box or bag, in which they should be kept in a
dry place; and succotash may be made from them as well in winter
as in summer. — Agriculturist.

Samp or Hulled Corn,

Take a pint, a quart, or more, of the grains of hard, ripe flint or
gourd-seed corn; soak them over night in a lessive or ley, and then
pound them in a large wooden mortar, with a wooden pestle; the
skin of each grain is by that means peeled off, and the farinaceous
part left whole, which, being boiled, swells into a white soft pulp,
and eaten with milk, or with butter and sugar, is delicious. — Dr.
Franklin.

Hommony.

Wash a pint of grits, (particles of flint-corn ground to one-fourth
the size of a grain of mustard, with the finer parts of the flour se-
parated by a sieve,) in two or three waters, taking care each time to
let them settle. When you pour oflf the water, the grits must be
well rubbed with the hands, in order to separate them from the finer
particles of flour. Then put them into a sauce-pan, with a pint of
water slightly salted, and let them boil slowly for nearly half an
hour, occasionally stirring the mixture as soon as it begins to boil.

Hommony may be boiled to any consistency that may be preferred,
from that of mush to the dryness of rice. — A. Barclay, Esq., H. B.
M. Consul at JYew York.

Indian Gruel.

Take one quart of boiling water and stir in two or three table-
spoonfuls of finely sifted Indian meal, previously mixed with a little
cold water. Add salt to your liking, and let the mixture boil for
fifteen or twenty minutes. A small quantity of pulverized crackers,
a few raisins, or a little sugar added, will render it more palatable
to the sick. — From a Lady.

444 [Assembly

Hasty -Pudding >

^Called mush by the Pennsylvaniansj suppawn in the State of New-
York; stir-a-bout in Ireland; polenta in Italy; and api by the ancient
Peruvians. Boil a quart, three pints, or two quarts of water, ac-
cording to the size of your family. Stir into a bowl of cold water,
five or six tablespoonfuls of fine Indian meal, and pour it into the
kettle of water as soon as it begins to boil. Stir the mixture well,
add salt to your taste, and let it boil down to a thick gruel. Then
sprinkle in, handful by handful, finely sifted Indian meal, stirring
briskly all the while with a wooden spatula or slice, until it is suffi-
ciently stiff to need a strong l-.and. It usually requires about half
of an hour to be thoroughly cooked. May be eaten with milk, but-
ter, sugar or molasses. — A Lady.

Fried Hasty-Pudding.

Cut the pudding when cold, into slices half of an inch thick, and
fry them brown on both sides, in a little butter or lard, and it serves
as an excellent substitute for potatoes or buck-wheat cakes. If made
of the meal of white or yellow flint-corn, a small quantity of wheat-
en or rye flour should be added to the mush while cooking, to pre-
vent its crumbling when fried. — Ibid,

Boiled Indian Puddings

Boil a quart of milk, and stir in Indian meal till it is nearly as
thick as you can stir it with a spoon; then add a teaspoonful of
salt, a cupful of molasses, a teaspoonful of ginger, or ground cinna-
mon, and cold milk enough to make a thin batter. Boil in a thick
bag four hours. Care should be taken that the water does not stop
boiling while the pudding is in. A. dish made in this way, with the
addition of a quart of chopped, sweet apples, and baked from four to
six hours, will be found delicious when served up hot and eaten with
sauce made of drawn-butter, nutmeg, and wine. — Jl Lady.

The Farmer's Own Pudding,

Take 3 lbs of northern yellow corn meal, 1 lb of beef suet, 1 lb
of dried currants, half a teaspoonful of salaaratus, and incorporate
the whole while dry, well together in a large dish. Then add and
continually stir, 1^ pints of molasses, and a sufficient quantity of
boiling hot water to reduce the mixture to the thickness of common
mush, and let it stand over night in a moderately warm place. The
next morning, tie up the whole in a wide-mouthed bag, taking care

No. 151.] 445

to leave room enough "within, to allow the pudding to swell, and in-
cessantly boil for four or five hours. This pudding may be eaten
while hot, with or w^ithout sauce, and will be sufficiently large to
feed twenty men. One-half or one-fourth of the quantity of ingre-
dients may be employed, and treated in the same manner as the
whole. — A Lady,

Baked Indian Pudding.

To 2 quarts of milk, add 1 quart of meal, a little salt and a cup-
ful of sugar. Prepare by heating the milk over the fire, stirring it
occasionally to prevent its burning ; when it nearly boils, remove
it, put in the salt and sugar, and scatter in the meal, stirring rapidly
to prevent its collecting into lumps ; put in nutmeg and turn into a
deep pan. Bake immediately or otherwise, as may be convenient, in
a hot oven, three hours. When it has baked an hour or more, pour
over the pudding from a gill to a half pint of milk; this will soften
the crust and form a delicious whey.

An inferior pudding may be made by substituting skimmed milk
and molasses, with allspice or ginger for seasoning. This is the
common Yankee pudding. Variations can be made by adding chop-
ped suet, apples, peaches, berries, or raisins. — Burritt.

Suffolk county, L. I. Indian Pudding.,

Heat 3 half pints of milk to boiling; mix your corn meal with a
half pint of cold milk, the meal having been previously sifted; and
pour the cold milk and meal into the boiling milk, stirring continu-
ously. When scalded take it off the fire and let it cool down to
blood warm. Then mix in 10 eggs, previously beaten, until they
will stand alone, a little salt, a quarter of a teaspoonful of ground nut-
meg, a quarter of a teaspoonful of cinnamon, a teaspoonful of allspice
or pimento; sweeten with sugar or molasses; stir in a pinch of
ground ginger, a pinch of grated dried lemon peel, a teaspoonful of
butter, and bake. Good either hot or cold. — From Professor Mapes.

Prescott Pudding.

Take a teacupful of fine Indian meal, and a pint of molasses well
mixed. Add, by constantly stirring, a quart of hot boiling milk, a
piece of butter of the size of an English walnut, 3 eggs, and a tea-
spoonful of salt. Pour the mixture into a buttered pan, and bake in
a moderately hot oven three hours. This pudding was much used in.
the family of the late Judge Prescott of Boston, in Massachusetts,,
from whose lady this recipe was obtained.

446 [Assembly

Corn Bread,

In stopping at Bement's American Hotel, in Albany, a few weeks
since, I do not know when 1 have relished any food better than I did
some excellent corn bread, which I found on his breakfast table. I
was so well pleased with the article, as well as with the general
character of his house, that I begged of him to furnish me with a
recipe for making it, which is as follows: —

Take 3 quarts of milk a little sour, 7 eggs, 2 ounces of butter, 1
teaspoonful of salaeratus, and mix \vith Indian meal, to the consis-
tency of a thick batter, and bake with a strong heat. The pans used
for baking are of tin, 8 inches in dic.meter, Ig inches deep, and a
little bevelled. The above is sufficient for seven or eight loaves.
— Anier. Agriculturist

Indian Bannock.

Take 1 quart of sifted roeal, 2 great spoonfuls of molasses, 2 tea-
spoonfuls of salt, a bit of shortning half as big as a hen's egg, stirred
together; make it pretty moist with scalding water; put it into a
well greased pan; smooth over the surface with a spoon, and bake it
brown on both sides before a quick fire. A little stewed pumpkin,
scalded with the meal, improves the taste. Bannock split and dip-
ped in butter makes very nice toast. — From a Lady.

Superior Corn Bread.

Take 1 quart of sour milk, add the beaten yolks of 8 eggs and a
handful of Indian meal, briskly stirring the mixture while adding
the meal. To this add a half teaspoonful of salaeratus, 2 tablespoon-
fuls of melted butter, and stir in alternately the beaten white of the
eggs, and a sufficient quantity of meal to form a smooth batter of
the consistency of hasty-pudding. Then turn the mixture into well
buttered tins, and bake in a brisk oven. The time required for bak-
ing, will depend upon the size and thickness of the bread. For
smaller parcels, one-half or one-fourth of the above named materials
may be used. — From Judson's Hotel, JV. Y.

Jl Rich Corn Bread.

I send you a receipt for making corn bread, such as is used at
every meal at my house. I have stopped at nearly all the fashion-
able hotels in the Union, and never have found anything that has
equalled it. It should be tried by every one who wishes to have a
superior bread.

No. 151.] 447

Take 1 egg well beaten, a half pint of thick cream, Indian meal
sufficient to form a thick batter, a small quantity of salt; add half a
teaspoonful of saleeratus dissolved in a small quantity of water; after
mixing thoroughly, put it into the pans or oven, and bake immedi-
ately.— Amer. Agriculturist.

Excellent Hommony Bread.

Break two eggs into a bowl and beat them from five to ten min-
utes. Add by continually stirring, a salt-spoon of table salt, 4 or 5
tablespoonfuls of hot hommony jeduced nearly to the consistency of
thick gruel, with hot milk, 1 large spoonful of butter, and a pint of
scalded Indian meal squeezed dry. Make up the mixture into small
loaves or round cakes, 1| inches thick, and bake in a brisk oven.
— From A. Barclay ^ Esq.

Epicure's Corn Bread.

Upon 2 quarts of sifted corn meal, pour just enough boiling wa-
ter to scald it thoroughly; if too much water is used it will be heavy.
Stir it thoroughly, and let it get cold; then rub in a piece of butter
as large as a hen's egg, together with 2 teaspoonfuls of fine salt;
beat 4 eggs thoroughly, which will be all the better if the whites
and yolks are beaten separately, and add them to the meal and mix
thoroughly. Next, add a pint of sour cream, butter-milk, or sour-
milk (which stand in the order of their value). Dissolve 2 teaspoon-
fuls of salaeratus in hot water and stir it in. Put it in buttered pans
and bake it.

In winter it may be mixed over night, and in that case, the eggs
and salaeratus should not be put in until morning. When ready for
the oven, the mixture ought to be about as thin as good mush, if not,
more cream should be added.

If you are not an epicure already, you will be in danger of be-
coming one, if you eat much of this corn cake, provided it is well
made. — Beecher's Western Farmer's and Gardener's Almanac.

Hoosicr Biscuit.

Add a teaspoonful of salt to a pint of new milk, warm from the
cow. Stir in flour until it becomes a stiff batter, add 2 great spoon-
fuls of lively brewer's yeast; put it in a warm place and let it rise
as much as it will. When well raised, stir in a teaspoonful of sa-
laeratus dissolved in hot water. Beat up 3 eggs, (2 -will answer,)

448 [AssEM

stir with the batter, and add flour until it becomes tolerably stiff
dough; knead it thoroughly, set it by the fire until it begins to rise,
then roll out, cut to biscuit form, put in pans, cover it over with
a thick cloth, set by the fire until it raises again, then bake in a
quick oven. If well made no direction will be needed for eating.
[This bread is thought to be improved by adding to the mixture
a small quantity of Indian meal.]

As all families are not provided with scales and weights, refer-
ing to ingredients generally used in cakes and pastry, we subjoin
a list of weights and measures:

Weight and Measure.

Wheat flour, 1 pound is 1 quart.

Indian meal, 1 pound 2 ounces is 1 quart.

Butter, when soft, 1 pound 1 ounce is 1 quart.

Loaf-sugar, broken, 1 pound is 1 quart.

White sugar, powdered, 1 pound 1 ounce is 1 quart.

Best brown sugar, 1 pound 2 ounces is 1 quart.

Eggs, average size, 10 eggs are 1 pound.

Liquid Measure.

Sixteen large tablespoonfuls, are half a pint.
Eight large tablespoonfuls, are one gill.
Four large tablespoonfuls, are half a gill.
A common sized tumbler, holds half a pint.
A common sized wine glass, holds half a gill.

Allowing for accidental diflferences in the quality, freshness, dry-
ness, and moisture of the articles, we believe this comparison between
weight and measure to be nearly correct. — Ibid.

Boston Broum Bread.

Take 1 quart of rye meal, 2 quarts of Indian, (if not fresh, scald
it,) half a teacupful of molasses, 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, 1 teaspoon-
ful of salseratus, 1 teacup of home brewed yeast, or half the quan-
tity of distillery yeast, make it as stiff as can be stirred with a spoon
with warm water, and let it rise from night till morning. Then put
it into a large deep pan, smooth the top with the hand dipped in cold
water, let it stand a few minutes, and then bake it in an oven five
or six hours. If put in late in the day, it may remain in the oven
over night. — Miss Beecher^s Domestic Receipt Book.

ORIGIN OF FLOWERS.

By R. L. Pell, Esq., of Pellham.

Origin of Flowers. — The rose, (Rosaceae,) of all flowers is the
most beautiful : perhaps there is no flower grown in our borders,
that is more distinguished for its form, fragrance and beauty. They
are natives of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. There are more
than one hundred distinct species, and above 2,300 named varieties;
the most valuable kind is, probably, the Rosa centifolia, which came
originally from Eastern Caucasus, and from which that most fragrant
essential oil, the Altar, is expressed; the whole family of roses re-
quire rich, well pulverized, free soil. Dig your hole two feet and a
half square and two feet deep; fill it half full of well decomposed
manure and charcoal dust, and incorporate the whole thoroughly
wuth surface soil, then set your plant, spread the roots fan shaped,
and fill in with surface soil, keeping the roots several inches above
the surrounding border; complete the operation, with the subsoil —
the same mode should be adopted with all the plants I may describe
hereafter.

.Azalea. — (Ericaceae,) are extremely pretty flowering plants, and are
natives of North America, Turkey and China. The Chinese varie-
ties require to be kept under glass, in our climate; they are easily
raised by seed, and hybridize readily. TJiey are classed by botanists,
among the Rhododendron tribe of plants. They eijoy a heath mould
or sandy loam, and should be kept shaded when the sun is very pow-
erful.

The Cactus. — (Cactaceae,) are natives of tropical regions. The
greatest variety are found on the dry arid plains of Mexico and Bra-
zil, where the natives are accustomed to tap them, and drink the li-
quid they contain; cattle likewise frequently bruise them with their
hoofs, and suck the moisture from them. Some of the; varieties grow

[Assembly, No. 151.] 29

450 [ASSEMEIT

fifty feet high, and branch out at the top like the candelabra j others
grow to the height of sixty feet, without a single limb. Gardeners
generally recommend they should be kept without water. I have
found to the contrary, that they enjoy moisture as much as any green
house plant I have, and they are daily watered with other plants.

Coreopsis. — (Derived from the Greek word koris, a bug.) — They
are beautiful plants, and were probably originated in Greece; they
flower very early in the season, are perennials, will stand our win-
ters, and grow in almost any common garden soil. You may propa-
gate them by dividing the root, or from seed.

Calceolaria. — ^(Schrophularinse,) are singular plants in one re-
spect, which is, that the shrubby kinds, wull unite freely W'ith the her-
baceous, by hybridizing. They came from Chili, South America j
bear beautiful purple and spotted flowers; may be grown in borders,
provided they are protected in winter; may be cultivated from cut-
tings and seed; require a muck soil with sand, and much moisture.

Camellia. — (Terustrsemiacese,) is a splendid evergreen shrub, from
China. It is now so well known in this country, that it scarcely
needs description; the variegata is an extremely beautiful variety, and
one of the most hardy — still they will not under any circumstances
stand our winter; they enjoy a sandy loam, mixed with muck and
rotten-leaf mould; the temperature of jTDur camellia house should
never fall below fifty degrees, if it does the buds will all fall off;
they may be propagated from cuttings.

Campanula. — (Campanulaceae,) are very pretty heibaceous plants,
and are natives of Asia, they are mostly perennials, and bear beauti-
ful deep blue flowers; pyramids may be formed with them, and they
will grow to a great size in good mould.

Calycanthus. — (Calycanthacea},) are deciduous shrubs, natives of
North America, and yield dark purple flowers remarkable for fra-
grance, they may be propagated by layers, and enjoy a deep loam soil.

Cape Jasmine. — (Rubiaceae,) are natives of the East and West
Indies, they bear large white flowers, and are exceedingly sweet; the
plant requires much warmth to bring it to perfection — they are usu-
ally propagated by cuttings, will strike readily in pure sand, under
glass: and enjoy a rich loam compost.

l?o. 151.] 451

The Adlumia. — (Fumariacae,) is a biennial climber, bearing pink
^oweis; it is a native of North America, and is grown from seeds,
which are usually sown in the fall. They produce flowers during
the whole summer and make a pretty cover for a trellis.

Jigapanthus. — (Hemerocallidacee,) or blue African lily, is a beau-
tiful bulbous rooted plant, much like the leek; it is a native of Afri-
ca, and enjoys a rich loamy soil well pulverized. It may be increas-
ed by dividing the roots.

Agave. — (Amaryllidacae) is a succulent plant, from South America;
in that country it flowers every ten years; in South Carolina every
fifty years; and with us once in a hundred years, — it is consequently
called the century plant; its flowers grow on the top, and resemble
a candelabra; they are often more than fifty feet high; when the plant
t^eases to flower it immediately dies. The South Americans distil
from it a drink, use the fibres of the leaves for thread, and the fe-
culent substance contained in the stem for soap.

Hydrangea. — (Saxifrageae,) is a native of this country, and requires
a rich soil ; its branches should be cut in, always after flowering, or
they will produce tufts at the ends, which are unsightly.

Dahlia. — (Compositae,) was dicovered in Mexico by Baron Hum-
boldt, in 1789, and sent by him to Madrid. In 1804, Lady Holland
introduced it from Madrid into England. Humboldt named it Dah-
lia in honor of the Swedish Professor, Dahl. They have been culti-
vated from seed, and by hybridizing, until the varieties have become
almost innumerable. There are now twelve distinct species known.
Last year my gardener succeeded in striking dahlias by planting the
recent green growth in small pots filled with charcoal dust; he did
not lose a single one out of a large number. The tubers should al-
ways be taken up in November, dried thoroughly, and phced upon a
shelf in your green house. In the spring every eye should be taken
off the main bulb, and planted separately in pots. On the first of
June they may be transferred to the flower borders.

Globe Amaranth. — (Amaranthacae,) supposed to be the Amaranth of
the poets, which was considered to be the emblem of immortality.
It was universally used at funeral ceremonies, in the days of Homer.
It was worn by the Thessalians at the funeral of Achilles, and is to
this day used in several parts of Europe, for the same purpose.
It is a tender annual, and must be raised in a hot bed; -still the flow-

452 [Assembly

ers are of great -durability, and on this account were considered the
emblem of immortality.

HearVs Ease, or Pansy. — Sprung from the wild Viola tricolor;
"when grown from seed the varieties that may be obtained defy cal-
culation, as they are innumerable; they may likewise be readily hy-
bridized, and the hybrids may be again cross bred with each other;
the roots may also be divided and planted out advantageously, but
the best varieties are propagated by cuttings taken from the extremi-
ties of the shoots and struck in pure white sand. They may like-
wise be raised by layers. Heaths are all from the Cape of Good
Hope; they are raised under glass from cuttings, struck in white
sand. I have found charcoal dust better for that purpose than sand;
they require much water, and if allowed to become dry and wither-
ed never recover.

Verbenas, Petunias, and Fuchsias are beautiful trailing plants,
■which strike readily from cuttings, and are easily raised from seed; they
will grow in any good garden soil, and may be considered the easi-
est of all plants for a lady to cultivate. When you wish to raise
hybrids, you must fertilize one plant with the pollen of another; the
anthers of the flower that is expected to yield the seed must be re-
moved before they burst. The pollen from the flower from which
you intend to form the hybrid, must be applied with a hair pencil to
the stigma of the flower which is to produce the seed; save that
seed pot, and you have effected your object.

Mesemhryanthemums are natives of the arid plains, near the
Cape of Good Hope. They are difficult to raise, and should be
grown in a rich loam soil, kept open with anthracite coal ashes.

Gallardia — (Compositse,) are very beautiful herbaceous plants, na-
tives of North America, and grow best in sand.

GeramMm.--(Geraniacese,){)roperly called Pelargoniums — orignat-
ed in southern Europe, they are a most beautiful tribe of plants, and
may be cultivated very readily at any season of the year under glass,
will in six weeks throw out a sufficient quantity of roots to enable
you to transplant into pots; to make them produce flowers well, they
should be frequently potted.

Gladiolus. — (Iridaceffi,) are bulbous plants, with long spikes of
beautiful showy bell-shaped flowers, and natives of the Cape of Good

No. 151.] 453 •

Hope; after the bulbs have flowered, and the leaves decay, they
should not be watered until potted the following season, and should
be kept in a dry place.

Glycine. — (Leguminosffi,) is a very valuable climber; it bears pea-
shaped flowers, is a native of China, and was introduced into Eng-
land in 1816, where it has been acclimated, so that it bears our cli-
mate pretty well; and is readily propagated from layers and cuttings;
the seeds seldom ripen in this region.

Clycyrrhiza. — (Leguminosae,) the liquorice plant, is a perennial,
bearing small blue flowers, and is a native of the South of Europe.
The liquorice is made by boiling the root; it requires a very rich
soil, but it is not worth growing except as a curiosity.

REMARKS ON THE ORIGIN OF FRUITv^.

By D. J. Browne, Author of the Sylva Americana, Etc.

The origin of most of our common edible fruits, as well as that of
our garden and field vegetables, is involved in great obscurity. The
varieties, or raCes, have been greatly multiplied, either from a prone-
ness to change from their original types, without any apparent cause.,
or from the influence of soil, climate, hybridization, and culture,,
which, in some instances, are more or less accidental or temporary.

The Orange,

All the varieties of the Orange {Citrus aurantium,) are believed to-
be derived from the same stock, although some are more acid, and
others more bitter in their flavor. It is supposed to have been origi-
nally a native of the warmest part of Asia, and has long since been
acclimated to the more temperate and tropical countries throughout
the globe. At present, it grows wild in Florida, Cuba, and other
parts of America, where it has been produced from stocks originally
introduced by the Spaniards from Europe. This wild fruit, in most
cases, is small and of a bitter sour, though in some instances it is
large and sweet. According to Galesio, who described forty princi-
pal kinds of orange, as cultivated in Italy, the Arabs, when they
penetrated India, discovered it there, and brought it to Europe by
two distinct routes, — the sweet ones through Persia to Syria, and
thence to the shores of Italy and the south of France, and the bitter
ones by Arabia, Egypt, and the North of Africa, to Portugal and
Spain.

The Wine Grape.

The Wine Grape of Europe ( Vitis vini/era,) is generally consider-
ed to have originated in Persia, whence it was introduced inta
Egypt, Greece, Sicily, and afterwards to France, Spain, and parts
of Europe. Its cultivation was probably among the earliest eflforts
of human industry j for we read that one of the first acts of Noah,

No. 15L] 465

after being saved from the deluge, was to plant a vineyard. This
species, however, has existed for ages, in a wild state, in the woods
and hedges of Provence, Languedoc, and Guienne, in France, where
it differs from the cultivated vine, in having smaller and more cottony
leaves, and very small fruit, rather austere than sweet. These wild
vines, which were called by the anc'ienis labrusca, are still known in the
south of France by the names of lambrusca and lambresquiero; but
whether these vines are. indigenous or have degenerated into their
present wildness from those originally brought from the East, we
have no means of knowing.

The vines originally brought to France from other countries, it is
said, were not superior in quality to many of our native grapes, but
have since been improved by cultivation, from which it may be in-
ferred that, when a portion of the industry will have been bestowed
upon our Catawba and Isabella, that has, for so many ages and by so
many nations, been devoted to the melioration of the European grape,
we shall no longer be indebted to the Old World for wine. Hence
the importance of producing new varieties of our native grapes from
seeds, by grafting, or innoculation, and if possible by hybridization,
and doubtless many valuable varieties would be the result.

The Almond.

The Almond {Amygdalus communis^ was formerly classified in
the same genus with the peach, of which it is regarded, by many, as
the parent, as trees have been found with almonds in a state of transi-
tion to peaches. Du Hamel states that the fruits of the peach-like-
leaved almond (Amandier-pecher) vary upon the same branch, from
ovate to obtuse in its shape, with the husk rather fleshy, to ovate,
compressed, accuminate, and the husk dry. And Mr. Knight, late
President of the London Hort. Society, considered the fruit called
Tuberes, by Pliny, as swollen almonds, having raised a similar one
himself, by dusting the stigma of the almond flower with the pollen
of the peach, which produced a tolerably good fruit.

The almond is indigenous to Syria and Northern Africa, and has
been naturalized in most of the temperate regions of the globe. In
a wild state, its fruit is sometines found with bitter kernels, and at
other times sweet.

The Peach.

It is not certain in what part of the globe the peach-tree {Persica
vulgaris,) was originally produced; for, although we have early ac-
counts of its being brought to Europe from Persia, it does not follow

466 "[Assembly

from thence, that it was one of the natural productions of that coun-
try. Pliny relates that it had been stated to possess venomous quali-
ties, and that its fruit was sent into Egypt, by the Kings of Persia,
by way of revenge, to poison the natives; but he treats this story as
a mere fable, and considers it the most harmless fruit in the world.
He expressly states that it was imported by the Romans from Persia;
but whether it was indigenous to that country, or sent thither from a
region still nearer the equator, we have no information.

The Nectarine.

Although the JVecfarine ( P. v. lavis,) is considered by some bot=
anists as a distinct species, there can be but little doubt of their be-
ing derived from the same type, as the fruits of the peach and that
of the nectarine have both been found growing on the same branch;
and even one instance is recorded, where the fruit had the smooth
surface ot the nectarine on one side, and the downy skin of the peach
on the other.

The Apricot.

The Jlpricot {Arraeniaca vulgaris,) is indigenous to Armenia, Cau-
casus, the Himalayas, China, and Japan. It is supposed, however, to
have originated in Armenia, but Regnier and Sickler assign it a
parallel between the Niger and Mount Atlas. Pallas considers it to
be a native of the whole of Caucasus; and Thunberg describes it as
a very large, spreading, branchy tree, in Japan.

The Plum.

It is the opinion of some authors that the common Domestic Ctdtu
vated Plum {Prujius domestical and all its varieties, as well as the
Bullace Plum, originated from the common sloe of Europe. On this
point, botanists do not agree.

The Apricot-like-plum (P. d. armenioidesj or drop d^ or,) is thought
to be a hybrid between the wild plum and the wild apricot.

The domestic cultivated plum is believed to be indigenous to the
south of Russia, Caucasus, the Himalayas, and to many parts of
Europe. Falkner makes it a native of Asia, and an introduction,
into Europe, of the Crusaders.

The CherrV.

The Common Garden Cherry {Cerasus vulgaris^ is regarded by
all ancient authors as of Asiatic origin; but whether it is truly in*

No. 151.] 457

digenous to any part of Europe, modern writers differ in opinion.
Pliny states that it did not exist in Italy till after the victory which
Lucullus won over Mithridates, King of Pontus, 68 years B. C. He
tells us that, " In 26 years after Lucullus planted the cherry-tree, in
Italy, other lands had cherries, even as far as Britain, beyond the
ocean." According to Abbe Rosier, Lucullus brought into Italy only
two superior varieties of cherry; the species which were the origia
of all those now in cultivation, being, before his time, indigen-
ous to Italy, and the forests of France, though their fruit was ne-
glected by the Romans. At present, however, the common cherry is
no where found in an apparestly wild state, in any part of Europe,
or America, except near human habitations.

The Pear.

The Common Pear {Pyrus communip,) is indigenous to Europe,
Western Asia, the Himalayas, and to China; but not to Africa nor
America. Professor De Candolle describes two forms of the wild
species, comparatively permanent, from which all of our cultivated
varieties have been derived. The earliest writers mention the pear
as growing abundantly in Syria, Egypt, and in Greece; and it ap-
pears to have been brought into Italy from these places about the
time that Sylla made himself master of the last named country, al-
though there is but little doubt that the Romans had several kinds of
this fruit long before his time.

Among the trees which Homer describes as forming the orchard of
Laertes, the father of Ulysses, we find the pear. Theophrastus speaks
of the productiveness of old pear-trees, the truth of which is verified
by the trees of the present day. Pliny describes the varieties in cul-
tivation in his time, as being exceedingly numerous, and says that a
fermented liquor was made of the expressed juice; and Virgil men-
tions some pears which he received from Cato. According to Pow-
nell, the pear was imported into Marseilles by the Phoceean colonists,
sometime during the middle ages.

The cultivated varieties of the common pear succeed both in the
temperate and transition zones of the two hemispheres; and it is re-
markable that this tree will perfect its fruit within the verge of the
tropics, when grown at a proper elevation above the sea, at about
the same period of the year as in Europe and the United States.

468 [Assembly

The Apple.

The Common Apple-Tree (Pyrus malus,) or some allied species,
grows spontaneously in almost every part of the northern hemisphere,
except in the torrid and frigid zones, and some of the islands in the
ocean. This tree, by itself, or conjointly with other species or races,
is the parent of innumerable varieties and subvarieties, generally
known by the name of " cultivated apples." Many of them are not
only derived from the wild apple, or crab, of Europe, but from the
crabs of Siberia and Astrachan. The fruit of trees raised from pips,
or seeds of the same apple, differs both from that of the parent tree,
and from each other; from which circumstance, and the intermixture
of different species or variety by hybridization, it is utterly impossi-
ble to trace the multitude of cultivated sorts to forms from which they
have been obtained.

In Britain, Ireland, and North America, the common apple-tree oc-
curs wild, in hedges, and on the margins of woods. It is cultivated
for its fruit, both in the temperate and transition zones of both he-
mispheres, even in the southern parts of India, on the Himalayas,
and in China and Japan. And it is a curious fact, that no plant is
ever seen in Guiana, without either leaf, flower or fruit, except the
common apple-tree, which never changes its original nature, but
blossoms and bears leaves and fruit at about the same time of the
year as with us.

That the common apple-tree is a native of the eastern part of the
world, there can be no doubt; but whether the fruit called " apples"
by the early writers in " Holy writ," was identical with the fruit at
present bearing that name, we have no certain means of knowing. Ap-
ples are mentioned by Theophrastus, Herodotus, and Columella; and
the Greeks, according to Pliny, called them Medica, after the country
whence they were first brought in ancient times; but others conjec-
ture that the term " Medica,'" was more probably applied to the cit-
ron and the peach, both of which are supposed to have been intro-
duced from Media into Greece. That the Epirotica, from Epirus,
were what we call apples, there can be no question; as they are de-
scribed by Pliny, as a fruit with a tender skin, that can easily be
pared off; and besides, he mentions " crabs" and "wildings," as be-
ing smaller, " and for their harsh sourness they have many a foul
■word, and shrewd curse given them." The cultivated apple, howev-
er, was not very abundant at Rome, in his time; for he states that
" there were some trees in the villas near the city, which yielded
more profit than a small farm, and which brought about the mven-

No. 151.] 459

tion of grafting," " There are apples," continues he, " that hare
ennobled the countries from which they came; and our best varieties
will honor their first grafters forever; such as took their names from
Matius, Cestius, Manlius and Claudius." He particularizes the
" quince-apples," that came from a quince grafted upon an apple-
stock, which smelled like a quince, and were called " Appianna,^^
after Appius, of the house of Claudius. It must be confessed how-
ever, that Pliny has related so many particulars as facts, concerning
the apple, (such as changing the fruit to the color of blood, by graft-
ing it on the mulberry; and the tree in the Tyburtines country,
" grafted and laden with all manner of fruits," which are regarded
by modern grafters as physiological impossibilities,) it would seem
that very little confidence could be placed in his statements of any
kind. But what reason have we to doubt the authority of a man,
■whose life was devoted to the benefit of mankind, and whose death
was caused by his perseverance in search of truth? Instances of
grafting trees of different families upon one another, are also men-
tioned by other old authors, and even our Evelyn, of more recent
times, states that he saw in Holland, a rose engrafted upon the
orange. Columella, a practical husbandman, who wrote some years
before Pliny, describes three methods of grafting, as handed down to
him, by whom he calls the " ancients," besides a fourth method of
his own, and a mode of inarching, or grafting by approach, " where-
by all sorts of grafts may be grafted upon all sorts of trees."

The art of grafting, as well as that of pruning, has been ascribed
to accidental origin. The occasional natural union or inarching of
the boughs of distinct trees in the forest, is thought to have first sug-
gested the first idea of grafting; and the more vigorous shooting of a
vine, after a goat had browsed upon it, is said to have given rise to
the practice of pruning.

The Quince.

The Quince, {^Cydonia vulgaris,) is supposed to have been origi-
nally, a native of Sidon, a city of ancient Crete, now the island of
Candia; but it is much more probable that it was only first brought
into notice in that city. It is considered at present, as indigenous
to the south of France, particularly on the borders of the Garonne,
and to Germany on the banks of the Danube.

It was known to the Greeks and the Romans, and both nations
held it in high estimation. Columella says: " Quinces not only yield
pleasure, but health." He speaks of three kinds: — th^ " Struthian,''

460 [Assembly

the " Must Quince," and the " Orange Quince." Pliny mentions
many kinds, some growing wild in Italy, and others in cultivation,
so large that they weighed the boughs on which they grew, down to
the ground. He also states that some were of a green, and others
of a golden color, the latter of which were called Chrysomela.
The only kind that was eaten raw, he states to have been raised by
grafting the large quince upon the stock of a small variety, called
Struthla,

The Gooseberry.

The common Gooseberry [Ribes grossularia,) occurs truly wild in
France, Germany, and Switzerland; and on the authority of Mr.
Royle, a species nearly allied to it, is found on the Himalayas, near
the most inaccessible sources of the Ganges. It has become natural-
ized both in Britain and in North America, where it grows in hedg-
es, near old w-alls, and sometimes in pastures and woods. According
to some, it is thought to be indigenous to the last named country, but
is known to botanists under various names.

The gooseberry does not appear to have been known to the an*
cients, and it is uncertain at what period it began to be cultivated
in gardens; the earliest notice of it appears to be by Mathiolus, in
his Commentaries published at Venice, in 1558, who states that it is
a wild fruit, which may be used medicinally.

The Currant.

The common Red Currant (^Ribes rubrtim,) or some allied specieS)
is found indigenous in many parts of Europe, in the north and west
of Asia, and in North America, in the region of the arctic circle.
There is no positive evidence that the ancients cultivated this fruit
any more than that they did the gooseberry; although it is probable,
that they were acquainted with both, and modern botanists have not
been able to identify them among the plants mentioned by the Greek
and Roman authors. On the authority of Joan, de Cuba, a Dutch
botanist, who wrote in 1471, a very curious medical treatise on plants,
animals, and stones, entitled " Ortus Sanitatis," the currant was acta*
ally described before his time by Isaac Benares, a Jew, as growing
wild on the snowy mountains of Syria. The fruit then, as now, was
regarded as styptic and refrigerating in its properties, and was employ*
ed in making rob or jellies.

No. 151.] 461

The Mulberrt.

The Black Mulberry {J\Iorus nigra,) is generally supposed to be a
native of Persia, where there are still masses of it found in a seeming-
ly wild state J and, although the date of its introduction into Eu-
rope is unknown, it is occasionally to be met with in Italy, appa-
rently wild. This tree, however, is so frequently confounded with
the white mulberry, by the earlier writers, as to render it next to an
impossibility to ascertain the countries of which it is truly indigen-
ous. It has been known from the earliest records of antiquity, being
mentioned in " Holy writ," in the second book of Samuel, and in
the Psalms. Ovid evidently points out the black mulberry as the
one introduced in the story of Pyramus and Thisbe; and Pliny seems
to allude to it, where he observes that there is no tree that has been
so much neglected by the wit of man, either in grafting or giving it
names; " an observation," as Mr. Loudon remarks, " which holds
good to the present day, respecting the black mulberry, as it has only
one trifling variety or rather variation, and no synonyme, whereas
there are numerous varieties of the Morus alba."

The Fig.

The common Fig-free (Ficus carica,) is indigenous to the west
of Asia, and the shores of the Mediterranean, both in Europe and in
Africa. In no country is it found at a great distance from the sea,
and rarely in very elevated situations. Hence its a;bundance in the
islands of the Grecian Archipelago, the Azores, Madeira, and the
Canary Isles, and on the adjacent continent.

According to the traditions of the Greeks, the origin of the fig
may be traced back to the remotest antiquity. It was probably
known to the people of the East before the cereal ia, and stood in the
same relation to the primitive inhabitants of society, as the banana
does to some of the present tribes of Africa, or the Indians of South
America. With little trouble of cultivation, it supplied their princi-
pal necessities; and afforded, not only an article of occasional luxury,
but of constant food, either in a fresh or in a dried state. As we
proceed to a more advanced stage of civilization, we still find the
fig an object of general attention. It is often mentioned both in the
Old and New Testament, in a manner to induce us to conclude that
it formed a principal part of the food of the Syrian nation.

The fig was a fruit much admired by the Romans, who brought it
from most of the countries they conquered, and had so increased the
varieties in Italy, by the commencement of the Christian era, that

462 [Assembly

Pliny has furnished us with a description of twenty-nine sorts. He
says, " figs are restorative, and the best food that can be taken by
those who are brought low by long sickness, and are on the recove-
ry." He adds, " that figs increase the strength of young people,
preserve the elderly in better health, and make them look younger,
and with fewer wrinkles."

The process of caprijlcation, which has been used from time im-
memorial, in the Levant, is described by Theophrastus, Plutarch,
Pliny, and other authors of antiquity, and more recently by Tourne-
fort; and though it is laughed at by many of the French physiolo-
gists of the present day, it is thought by many that it must be of
some important use. We think it too curious a circumstance, how-
ever, in a notice of this species, to be omitted, as it furnishes a con-
vincing proof of the reality of the sexes of plants. The operation
consists in inducing a certain species of insect of the gnat kind,
(Cynips,) which abounds on the wild fig, (Caprificus,) to enter the
fruit of the cultivated varieties, for the purpose of puncturing its
pericarp, in order to deposit its eggs, and thereby hasten its maturi-
ty. By this means the fertile flowers in the interior of the fruit be-
come fecundated by the farina of barren ones near the orifice; but,
without this operation, though the fruit may ripen, but few effective
seeds are produced. It is alleged by Bosc, that there is no other
object in this practice than that of hastening the maturity of the
crop; but others are of opinion, that, by insuring the fecundation of
the stigma, it tends to increase the size of the fruit, and by filling it
with mature seeds to render it more nourishing; as appears to be
the case with the Osage orange. *

LEATHER.

By Charles M. Leupp, New- York.

This great branch of domestic industry, ranking in value and ex-
tent with those of cotton, wool, and iron, claims a high position
among the manufactures of the State of New-York. Our commer-
cial metropolis imports and distributes a greater number of foreign
hides than any other city in the United States, and a larger number
of sole leather or heavy hides, than any other city in the world;
while our inexhaustible forests of hemlock, abundance of water
power and facilities of transportation, secure us advantages beyond
those of any other State in the union.

It is only within the last thirty years that New-York has become
the manufacturer of sole leather for other states and countries. Pre-
viously, and indeed subsequent to 1845, we were mainly supplied
with oak leather from the States of Pennsylvania, Delaware and Ma-
ryland; while Massachusetts 'and Vermont, furnished us with hem-
lock leather. Comparatively little leather of oak tannage is manu-
factured in this State, owing to the scarcity of oak bark, and its in-
ferior strength for tanning purposes. We still continue to receive
the principal part of our oak leather from the southern and western
States, where the oak tree is found growing in greater quantities
and strength.

In regard to hides. While our imports of foreign, chiefly from
South America, do not on an average exhibit much falling oiF, (the
average of the past ten years being 692,000 annually,) our domestic
hides have increased largely. The prairies of the west seem capable
of growing cattle almost as abundantly as the campagnas of South
America, and the tanneries of the western States, and north-western
part of the State of New-York, which formerly drew their supplies
of foreign hides from the city of New-York, are now almost exclu-
sively stocked with hides, the produce of the countries bordering on
the lakes. Canada, which in past years derived large supplies of
leather from this city and State, now receives only her stocks of for-

464 [Assembly

eign hides from here; while by duties which are in effect prohibito-
ry, and with the advantage of a draw-back of five per cent on for-
eign hides imported through the States, she is enabled to supply
herself with leather trom her own tanneries cheaper than we can
furnish it.

Since the removal of duties on leather in England, considerable
shipments of oak and hemlock leather have been made to that coun-
try; but owing to the fact of its being a new article, with the qual-
ity of which the consumers there were unacquainted, it met with but
partial favor and dull sale. The system of economy so rigidly car-
ried out there, demands that we should prepare our leather to suit
their wants and prejudices. Instead of being shaped in sides with
the head and offal attached, they prefer it in butts, in other words,
the hide so trimmed as to be free from head, shanks, and other less
valuable parts, which are used for different and inferior purposes.
Several parcels have been so prepared, and immediately met with
ready sale at remunerating prices, and extensive stocks are now in
process of tanning, especially adapted to the English market. Our
superior natural advantages in the cheapness of hides, bark, and fa-
cilities of tanning, render it certain that we shall supply that coun-
try with leather. The difference in the cost of bark alone, is as
five to thirty, and bark constitutes one third of the cost of tanning
in this country, and much more than that in Europe.

The opening of this business to us, in England, will act as a
powerful stimulus to our tanners to excel in their trade; for although
improvements in quality, and economy in the art of tanning have
been steadily advancing, we have not made that rapid progress
which ought to have resulted from our natural advantages. The
mass of consumers in this country prefer an inferior article at a low
price, rather than a good article at a high price; in other words,
they will wear out two pairs of poor shoes in preference to one pair
of good ones, notwithstanding the latter may be intrinsically the
most lasting and serviceable. In England, the reverse of this is the
case. There, consumers will wear the best and most durable, be-
cause they are in fact the cheapest.

The display of leather at the last Annual Fair, was unquestiona-
bly the best yet exhibited, and nearly all the articles shown, chal-
lenge competition with the like manufactures of any country in Eu-
rope. The French have heretofore excelled in the manufacture of
calf skins, mainly in one or two particulars, toughness and mellow-

No. 151.] 465

ness being the chief. Those exhibited at the fair, rival the French
skins in both these respects; and in fineness of finish, excel them.
Our bark tanned sheep skins are decidedly superior, both in beauty
and intrinsic excellence. In japaned leather, the Germans and
French still maintain their supremacy, but we are confident they
must speedily yield it.

We deem it proper before closing these remarks, to allude to two
specimens of band leather, each of like excellence, and both superi-
or in every particular to any used in Europe. Indeed we know of
applications from England for this very article, but owing to the
fact of there being a heavy duty on " articles of leather cut into
strips," which band leajjier is, we have not been able to introduce
it there to any extent. We anticipate however, that it will find a
market there before long, and to the mutual advantage of both
countries.

We annex a table, showing the quantity and value of sole leath-
er inspected in the city of New- York, from 1827 to 1846, inclusive.
The quantity is taken from the returns of the State Inspectors, and
the value is determined by estimating the weight and price, assum-
ing as a basis, the average weight and price realized by one of the
most extensive houses in that branch of business in the city of New
York.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 30

466

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EXTRACTS

From the Correspondence of the American In. titute.

Mr. Townsend of Long Island, speaking of the potato disease so
prevalent the past year, says:

" I have cultivated potatoes for sale in the market for thirteen years
past, generally the Mercer, on the same ground. There is no black
speck in them, nor do they degenerate. I attribute the disease to the
peculiar season. My early planted potatoes are all good; some of
my late ones have been bad. The long wet spell of weather last
spring followed by long continued heat, injured the crop. Those
which I saved from my early planting for seed, are as good as any
I ever had. Some of my neighbor's potatoes always have black spots
in them. I raise a thousand bushels a year, and they are always
in demand. My method is to plant where corn was the year before,
but I have planted the same ground for three years in succession.
At the time when complaint was loudest of the destructiveness of
the disease, my crop was as good as usual. The ground has all
had poudrette upon it for four years past. I use also long horse ma-
nure in the drills, putting the potatoes on the top of it. As soon as
the potato plants appear, I use a heavy bush dra wn by two horses,
and thus level the face of the field. I afterwards plow twice, once
from the potatoes, next towards them; I hoe them well, but hill up
very little. I always have changed my seed as much as, possible,
getting them from Maine, Vermont, &c. ; I plant of these some bush-
els for seed of the succeeding year. My Mercer is as good as the
Kidney, generally, and a greater crop."

DISEASE OF THE POTATOE.

In a communication made to. the Institute, by Mr. J. Lodge, of
Morrisania, he says : I have paid some attention to the many
complaints that have gone the rounds of the papers, relating to the

Ko. 151.] 469

disease in the potato, and truly it may be so called, as in all cases
where lands are not tilled properly to carry out the work nature re-
quires, disease will more or less follow; and here I beg leave to re-
mark, that ever since the Solanum tuberosum was introduced into
Europe, which is now only two hundred and forty-eight years, it
has been improving in quantity and quality, and invariably best
where most labor has been bestowed on the land. Our seasons vary,
sometimes very hot and dry, followed by heavy freshets and floods.
Lands thus drenched, and not drained by proper deepening and break-
ing through the hard pan, must suffer, and will inevitably cause curl
in the leaf, premature in its growth, and stop the progress of the
tuber, and in this tender state disease will follow. Some persons
will say, ' my land lies high and dry,' and therefore does not require
draining, but moisture. Then, I say, deepen your land, that it may
receive rain when it comes, and by continually working the crop
you will retain it.

This vegetable should be kept in constant cultivation until it is ma-
tured, or the crop will fall short. To do this work properly, turn
your potato land in the fall, again as early in spring as possible,
cross-plow with the subsoil or trench; manure broadcast, compost is
best, charcoal, animal and street manure, ashes, sea sand, lime, soot,
&c. ; add to this as much vegetable and barn yard manure, and put
fifty ox cart loads to the acre, and well attend your crops while
growing, and you may expect to receive a full reward and no dis-
ease. Some will say ' my land is worn out;' this is oft times a fact.
Then, again, I say, till and dress, for where the lands have been long-
est under cultivation, and most labor bestowed with good judgment,
there are the best- potatoes and best crops. If our wages are high,
and we cannot work quite so close as in Europe, we can take the
broad field culture, and the advantage of two hundred and forty-
eight years of experience with one or two yoke of cattle and sub-
soil plow, will equal any of our wishes.

I will refer our farmers to last summer's dry weather; where lands
were not tilled, it was as dry as though rain had not been upon it
for years, and when the plow was kept 'constantly at work, the mois-
ture was retained, the lungs, fibres and tubers fed, and a full crop
obtained. And here I do not wish to leave you, for all esculent
roots naturally require their soils tilled deep, to allow th? frost, sun,
wind, air and all other natural elements, with summer and winter
fallowing, to cause a wholesome, good and full crop; and by strict
adherence to labor and to nature, you may raise any -quantity a rea-

^0 [Assembly

sonable man may desire. And as crops of the above are invaluable
for all farming purposes, particularly in wintering cattle, you can
bring them out in spring to fill the pail, or bring down the scale.
Your yard will be filled with manure, ready for any crops you may
apply it to.

FEED FOR COWS.

An intelligent gentleman suggests the following: Sow your corn
broad cast, cut it when the ears begin to set, to be cured, and when
used, steamed; when properly steamed chop it up fine; mix with two
quarts of Indian meal to the bushel; give a little hay twice a week;
and, as cows like a change of food, give them once in a while, po-
tatoes cut up, (always cut them,) put a half pint of ground salt
upon a board for them to lick, once a week. Wash the cows all
over once a week; curry and brush them well three times a week;
keep them in dry airy situations, not exposed to sudden changes of
weather. If you wish to have the corn for fodder, you must take
great pains with it, for it is hard to cure. If you can afford it, have
a tight room, fill it with the cornstalks, and steam it with steam from
a boiler; that will cure it perfectly and make it a first rate feed for
cows, especially as regards their milk. A man who keeps many
cows may afford to steam the cornstalks.

It would be a profitable business for a person to sow corn broad-
cast, cut it just as the ear begins to set, carry directly to a dry cham-
ber, w^here layers of poles of sufficient strength to bear a layer of
cornstalks about two feet thick are laid over each other, so that the
several layers may be kept apart for steam to penetrate the mass
thoroughly; thus fill the chamber (say about 12 feet square.) The
steam boiler might cost an hundred dollars, and the expense of fuel
and attendance would be trifling; a man may thus cure a ton a day,
the stalks being brought to the chamber in proper sized bundles.

The boiler can be applied to the steaming of roots, hay, or any
other thing requiring steaming or boihng. After the cornstalks are
properly steamed, they must be spread to dry immediately, in some
convenient place out of the reach of the sun; when thoroughly dried,
then cut if up by the best cornstalk cutting machine; send it to mar-
ket packeu in flour barrels or other casks; these will be handy to
sell by retail, for persons keeping a single cow. The milk from
such feed will be pure and delicious. There can be no garlic or
onion in this feed.

No. 151.] 471

STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN GEORGIA AND SOUTH
CAROLINA.

The following condensed view of the state of agriculture in Geor-
gia and part of South Carolina, has been communicated by Dr. Whit-
ten, Hancock county.

On our upper table lands, w^e obtain an average of from fifteen
to twenty bushels of corn an acre. Along our creeks and water
courses we get thirty or forty. Our lands are generally poorly cul-
tivated, by a people who do not aim at a permanent settlement, but
are looking to removal to new lands. We have very little sod
among us. Corn, has heretofore been with us but a secondary crop;
cotton, tobacco and rice, have occupied our farmers. Ten years ago
I selected for a farm, a worn out, exhausted, red, washed place. By
cultivation I now get 25 bushels an acre off it. We are improving
our agriculture; we use much cotton seed for manure, about seven
bushels per acre, put in the drills or in hills. We have established
Farmer's Clubs in every county of Georgia. I have known ninety-
seven bushels of shelled corn raised on an acre, in my county, Han-
cock.

We are bringing much of our good forest lands into cultivation;
some of them give 35 bushels of corn per acre, others 25. We
place much reliance on green crops, oats particularly. Our native
crab grass, when in seed, we plow under, and find it to be very fer-
tilizing. Our corn is the gourd seed, and the gourd seed flint kinds;
we cultivate your early varieties of corn for the table. The pea,
called the cow pea, we plant in our corn fields. We plant the corn
in February or March, and in May, when the corn is well grown,
we plant this pea, and it climbs the corn stalk without injury to the
corn. Experiments have been made in subsoiling our land, and great
benefits experienced from the operation; one signal advantage is,
that it protects our crop from the damage of severe drought; we have
not tried plaster to any extent; we have green sand marls produced
from decomposed rocks; the green sand of Jersey is a secondary for-
mation. Attention is being drawn to our marls for manure; much
reliance is placed on ashes for corn and wheat. Clover grows excel-
lently with us, but is very liable to be destroyed by our heat or drought,
our crab grass will get ahead of it in our fields.

472 [AssEMSL?

DOMESTIC WINES.

From a communication on the subject of domestic wines, by the
Hon. Mr. Terrill, of Georgia.

" I have in Georgia, an acre and a half of Scuppernong grape
vines, a single vine has covered an acre, and if not disturbed, one
and a half acres. Vines are trained on frames. Mr. Ponce, a neigh-
bor, makes wine of these grapes, which resembles Champaigne. No
brandy is used in it; it is very pleasant wine. It is said that this
grape is named from a creek at Pamlico sound, where a vessel being
wrecked, seeds of this grape were washed on shore and there began
to grow. A method of making this wine, is pressing out the juice
and adding to it apple brandy, about ten per cent; add also a little
loaf sugar. We shake the vines so that the ripe grapes fall into
sheets spread to catch them. We make wine from a wild grape,
which is somewhat like the Muscadine, and of other wild grapes.
The odor of the Scuppernong grape is highly agreeable and power-
ful, filling large rooms. One gentleman is making very good brandy
from grapes, imported stock, as well as native. Some suppose that
our Warren grape was originally imported; it is named from War-
ren county, Georgia. I think it is a native grape. One of our dif-
ficulties with the Scuppernong, is the pruning of it. We must be
very careful ; it must be pruned in November, at the fall of its leaves,
otherwise it is injured much, if not fatally. The culture of the
Warren grape is extended all over our country; it ripens later than
the Isabella; we do not like the latter much, in Georgia."

Translations from Forein^n Periodicals.

By Henrt Meigs> Recording Secretary of the American Institute,

ARRACACHA.

This plant belongs to the umbelliferous family, and from its par^
tial resemblance to celery, the Spaniards of South America have
called it apio. It is probably originally from the Andes of New Gre-
nada, where it is much cultivated. From the temperate levels of
Cundinamarca, its culture has been extended beyond the equator,
being now established in the Andes of Popayan and Los Pastos. At
about the same period, the potato left the cool regions of Chili,
and being propogated from south to north, following the Incas in
their conquests, fixed at Quito in Peru, before it penetrated New-
Grenada,

And it is a curious fact in the history of the food of man, to see
in South America, maize (Indian corn) cultivated by small numbers
of people at first, and also other important articles of human food;
afterwards attain so advanced a civilization. Thus the arracacha cul-
tivated by the Muyscasj the potato, propagated by the Incas; cocoa,
by the Mexicans.

Behold now the the maize (Indian corn), the potato and the cocoa
forming the basis of the nourishment of America and Europe. [Co^
coa is almost indispensable to Spain.] The arracacha has not yet en-
tered into our culture.

Monsieur Goudot had observed its cultivation during twenty years
he resided in New Grenada. The arracacha is planted by cuttings
of the root, each having a part of the sprouts. The roots must be
dug up just before the flowering season, and they are of an irregu-
lar figure, weighing from 5 to 7| pounds each. The weight of a
good crop, at Ibague, was about twenty tons per acre. It is not
quite so nutritious as the potato, for although in equal weight, it
contains the same proportion of starch and albumen as the potato,
yet it has more humidity.

474 [Assembly

POTATO ONIONS.

On the culture of onions in Russia, from the imperial Economi-
cal Society of St Petersburgh, by Mons. Sailtet.

The weekly Journal of Mussehl, reports the method of cultivating
onions adopted in Russia, which consists in cutting the onion into
four parts, leaving the quarters united at the root, and the onion
having been first hung up and dried in smoke. For want of fresh onions,
the smoke dried, still full of sap were quartered down to the roots,
and being planted, each produced four fine onions, each of which had
its seed stalk. It seems this mode is unknown out of Russia. The
onion thus treated is not that from seed, it is the potato-onion.

Baron Foelkersahm, a member of the society, thinks it his duty
to state, that he has on his estate, followed this method for thirty
years, and has constantly had abundant crops.

LIGHT AND VEGETATION.

Effects of Light and Shade upon Vegetation, by A. Poiteau.

Vegetables are invested with their colors by chemical combinations
favored by light and warmth. Red is produced by the direct rays
of the sun on fruit — leaves are tinged when they begin to decay.
The green color of leaves and bark is caused by light. Carbonic
acid is the principal nourishment of plants. It is composed of oxygen
and carbon — it exists in a gaseous condition in water, earth and
atmospheric air; vegetables are very fond of it, they inspire it, with
water through their roots, through the pores of tender bark, and
throuo-h their leaves, with the humidity of the air. But as they can
be nourished only by carbon, they are obliged to decompose the car-
bonic acid in order to acquire the carbon and to reject the oxygen.
Those plants which have the deepest green color, decompose the car-
bonic acids best.

It is by means of light that they thus decompose the carbonic
acid — for when plants are placed in obscurity, they only disengage
it, but do not decompose it, thus rendering the air about them un-
healthy for man. It is believed the violet ray decomposes it less than
the white light.

No. 151.] 475

Shade is necessary for all plants in their infancy, or when the}
are diseased, or when they have suffered violence by removal.

. Seeds germinate best in obscurity, and are best when shaded for a
few days after. The clouds furnish shade often, but art uses means
to give shade to them. Seeds that must be sown on the surface or
with little earth over them, grow best if shaded for a time.

Shade is necessary for such flowering plants as are desired to pro-
long their flowering and freshness. Shade is important to all plants
in slips, it is almost indispensable in order that they may root well;
plants in light, purify the air by absorbing carbonic acid and disen-
gaging the oxygen, and they corrupt the air at night by suffering
carbonic acid to escape without being decomposed.

ROSE GARDEN.

From Annales De La Societe Rot/ale D^ Horticulture Be Paris.

It is now nearly three thousand years since the rose was first call-
ed the Queen of Flower^ s. I fear not to say that, none of the ancients,
not even the Greeks or the Romans, knew truly the merits of this
delicious production of nature. Even w-e, until within the last fifty
years, were very far from knowing the value of Roses. At a late
date we had but quite a small number of Roses, of little variety in
form and color, in our gardens. There was not among them any to
be seen of those varied shapes and splendid colors which have re-
cently been produced by an intelligent and careful culture. And
those beautiful flowers were transient — the bloom of only a single
season, so that we were entirely deprived of them for the greatest
part of the year. There was but one rose, which was vulgarly called
the Rose of Four Seasons, which occasionally gave its flowers in the
Autumn, but that was very precarious. Now, however, the whole
face of things is changed. Roses have been multiplied in kinds and
colors by planting their seeds repeatedly, and by a more knowing
cultivation; exhibiting now more perfect and diversified varieties of
an infinite variety of shades of color, of perfume, and blooming at
all seasons of the year. The ancients called their Rose Gardens,
Rosaria.

Monsieur Loiseleur Deslongchamps, who visited the Rosaria of Paris
and its environs, says, that he had examined that of M. Victor Ver-

476 [AsSEIvlBLV

dler, who has been nineteen jears engaged in the culture of RoseSj
and has now annually from twelve to fifteen thousand Eglantine
(sweet briar) stocks grafted with all the most precious kinds of roses,
among them many raised from seed. He has 1500 varieties of roses.

The garden of Mons. Gau'hier contains 75,000 Eglantines en-
grafted with roses, of which 6,000 are choice. These eglantine
stocks are about forty inches high, with the roses engrafted on their
tops, and the ground is every where covered with strawberries, chiefly
the Alpine. Among the roses are those fine kinds from the Isle of
Bourbon.

Mons. Jacques, chief gardener of the king, at Neuilly, has plant-
ed a great many rose seeds and obtained many very fine varieties.
He sowed the seeds of the rose of Bengal, from which we now have
roses called of the Isle of Bourbon. He plants rose seeds every year.

PRESERVING VEGETABLES.

Monsieur Masson, Gardener of the Royal Society, presented cab-
bages leaves dryed and prepared for keeping by a process of his in-
vention. These will keep perfectly good on the longest voyages, and
when cooked, almost resume their fresh condition, and will be of
great value as anti-scorbutic. Also radishes, turnips, spinach, chic»
cory, sorrel and some other plants, treated in the same way.

MUSHROOMS.

rrom the transactions of the Royal Horticultural Society of Paris.
Report hy the President, Viscount Hericart de Thury, on the cul*
ture of Mushrooms.

An important branch of our Horticulture is the cultivation of the
mushroom. Great increase in their production has taken place in a
few years. They were formerly cultivated in beds in the open air,
but the frequent changes of weather and temperature being unfavor-
able to their growth, some gardeners undertook to grow them in cel-
lars where the temperature was more uniform. They were complete-
ly successful. At the beginning of this century a gardene: by the
name of Chambry, having remarked that good mushrooms grew in

No. 151.] 477

an old quarry gallery, tried the culture in it with great success. The
abundant crops soon went by his name, Charnbry mushrooms.

This mode being followed by others, there are now sold in the
market three millions of small baskets ot mushrooms. The quarries
of Irry, of Grand and of Petit Montrouge, furnish the best and the
greatest quantity. These mushrooms are sent into the country in
large quantities. Mons. Noaillon distinguished himself at the late
Horticultural exhibition by bringing to it daily fresh baskets of very
fine mushrooms.

At the late exhibition there were exhibited almost seventeen hun-
dred choice vegetables, and fruits and flowers of different kinds.

METHOD OF PRESERVING APPLE TREES FROM IN-
JURIOUS INSECTS.

From the Revue Horticole of Paris.

Having devoted myself for three consecutive years to searching for
the causes vrhich destroy so large a number of our Elms and cider
apples-trees — and after having operated by a process of my own,
upon more than twelve hundred of these afflicted trees, of all ages
and sizes, I believe that I have attained results so satisfactory that
the Academy of Sciences should permit me to communicate the follow-
ing observations: (I am engaged in a more extensive memoir on this
subject.)

The diseased trees in question, owe their deplorable condition to
the interception of the descending sap by the larva of the insect,
Scolytus destructor, sub armatus et multistriatus, accompanied with
the cossus ligniperda foi the Elms, and those of the Scolytus pruiniy
accompanied with the Calidiura for the. cider apple-trees. Of those
of the Hylesinus crenatus for the Ash-tree, Fraxinus Excelsior, &c.,
all tending to disorganize completely the inner barks of the trees,
until death takes places.

The Scolytus and Cossus attack the Elms in large towns and cities
where we readily believe their are causes predisposing to this injury.
But they also attack the Elms in the country, where they are in the
very best condition to flourish. This disease which has struck so
many Elms and which threatens almost to exterminate them from our

478 [Assembly

plantations, In a short period of time, is due almost entirely to the
propagation of the larvffi of the Scolytus, which have so greatly in-
creased within the last twelve or fifteen years, that it would be diflS-
cult to find to-day wnthin the circuit of Paris, or even in the entire
department of the Seine, a single tree which has not been attacked.
The larvae of the Cossus deeply wound the ligneous parts of the tree,
without too much endangering its life.

The simple taking off in parallel strips, longitudinally, the old
bark, down to the young bark, (where the seat of the evil is) (you
must not go down to the Liber,) from all the large branches as well
as the trunks of the Elms, Apples, Ashes, &c., making from two to
six strips according to the size of the trunk or branch, is sufficient to
completely purge the tree of the larvffi which infest it and will re-
generate, not only the infested , bark of these branches, but all the
bark. Experience has proved to me that trees, especially Elms, en-
tirely deprived of their old bark, can sustain the greatest cold and
drought without any unguent — that of Saint Fiacre or any other
whatever. This is an economical and certain method; the old bark
is worth, something for fuel or may be used mixed with oak bark for
tanning. "•

I make the incisions on the large branches as high up as possible
towards the sources of the descending sap. This decortication or
taking off the old barks, perfectly destroys the larvse of insects, and
also remarkably augment the production of wood in the stationary
trees that are stunted, (rabougris,) such as elms and oaks. Now,
admitting that in Paris the l6ngest elms of seventy and eighty years of
age and the middle sized ones of thirty or forty years old, produce
annually, the first a woody circle of from one to two millimetres
thick, and the latter from two to five, the trunks of such trees strip-
ped entirely of their old bark, formed the first woody circles of
from four to five millimetres thick, and the latter from six to eight
millimetres. This remarkable increase I observed to continue in the
same proportions the followihg years. This process will restore fe-
cundity to old fruit trees.

This operation is not new, but it has fortunately been much ex-
tended. Knight says that apple-trees which he had partially barked,
not injuring the tender inner bark or wood, had gained a diameter in
two years more than in twenty years before.

No. 151.] 479

ON THE CULTURE OF THE GARBANZO OR CHICK PEA.
From the Transactions of the Royal Horticultural Society of Paris.

The Garbanzo is the chick pea of Italy, and the southern pro-
vinces of France. It is the cicer sativum of Tournefort, and the cicer
arietinum of Linnseus, who classes it among the Diadelphia Decandria.

The garbanzo is like the other plants of the same genus — a feeble
plant, having but little root, but its branches are numerous. The
color of it varies according to its species; there are vv^hite, reddish,
and gray ones, and the color of the pea is the same as that of the
plants. Each pod contains but one pea, or at most two. The pea
is pointed on one side, and resembles a sheep's head. The best sort
of garbanzos is described in Castile, in this way — they say that it has
the countenance of a wrinkled old woman, the broad shoulders of a
porter, and the beak of a parrot.

We ought to say that the garbanzo ought not to be white, but
whitish; it ought to be light, tender, and large. They put one in
the mouth to try the quality of them, if it softens quickly, they say
it is good. Many kinds of it are cultivated in Spain, Portugal, and
Italy. It has been introduced into the South of France. This pea
is not very fond of hot climates. The best in Spain grow in the dis-
tricts north of Fuente Lanco, Mendrida and others. I speak from
experience. We sow them just as we do other peas in the field or
garden.

The stalks of this pea, when dry, are good forage for cattle. It
is best to give to them in their stables to save the manure.

It is particularly good for sheep, lambs and horses. It is regard-
ed in Spain as a very valuable crop.

FARMERS' CLUB.

January 20, 1846.
POTATOES.

Nathaniel Sands, Esq., of New Windsor, Orange county — ^I will
state my experience in raising potatoes. I have found that in plant-
ing them as early as possible I have good crops. The tops perished
in August. I let the potatoes lie in their hills till September, and
had perfectly sound ones. I have seen some disposed to decay, up-
on which I put lime, and these were saved from further rot. A
neighbor of mine had a pond, from which he let the water flow upon
his potato field in dry weather. For ten years past he has had al-
ways sound potatoes. They are of a fine quality. To prove the
efficacy of this watering of his potatoes, he had another field which
was left dry, and there his potatoes rotted. There are many fields
which may be selected for potato planting, so situated as to admit
of such watering.

Mr. Wakeman. — From the examination which I have made of
this subject, early planting cannot be altogether relied upon. Some
late planted crops were good, while the early ones were rotted. A
good crop seems to demand all the benefits of a favorable season.

Mr. Sands. — In 1843 I first noticed this disease. I took pains
to procure tubers from sound crops. I planted them very early; they
grew well and kept sound. Those which I planted in April were
good. Those I planted on the 25th of May proved nearly all dis-
eased. By my mode, we seldom now have a diseased potato, and ge-
nerally speaking, those planted late prove to be good.

The tops of my potatoes totally died in August, but the potatoes
kept well in their hill till dug in September. What I call late plant-
ing is late in June. I do not let my planted potatoes be in immedi-

No. 151.] 481

ate contact with the manure in the hills; I find that when the rain
comes and soaks through the soil and manure, the potatoes do better
than when in close contact with the manure.

Mr. Haff. — One word on a mode of planting potatoes for very
early crop. I cut off the crown of the potato, (where the most eyes
are) about one quarter the potato; these I put in boxes at this time
of the year, with earth about as deep as we commonly plant them.
I eat the other parts of my potatoes. These crowns put out roots;
begin to vegetate, and as soon as I can set them out in the open
air, I do so, and have potatoes from them for my table by the mid-
dle of June, nearly one month earlier than common.

Electricity to Vegetation.

The following is extracted from Martin's General Magazine for
1755, p. 116. — By John Tracers, of Osceola Point.

" As it is our professed design to improve every discovery for the
public good as far as we are able; and as electricity is now well
known to be somewhat more than a matter of mere curiosit}', inas-
much as it has been applied successfully to the cure of many dis-
orders of the rheumatic and paralytic kind, and to remove obstruc-
tions and pains occasioned thereby: also it is known to promote
vegetation in plants, and doubtless may be found of use in many
other cases if it v/ere applied in a proper manner; I mean so that
it might be applied constantly or perpetually, and not momentarily
and irregularly, as in the com.mon way ot using it, for if such sur-
prising effects are produced from its sudden, and as it were, single
action, what may we expect from continuous action or influence of
such a powerful agent, that is to say from a perpetual electrification
of animal and vegetable substances.

" In order to assist in such an undertaking we here propose a ma-
chine," &c.

Then follows a plate representing a fruit and flower garden with
an electrical apparatus, which consists of a shaft working vertically
by the application of a small stream of water on two glass cylin-
ders with cushions to be adjusted properly, and communicating wires
to the fruit and flower garden, which is a large insulated wooden
frame.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 31

482 [AsSEMBtT

Judge Livingston. — Presented Isabella Grapes which he has pre-
served by enclosing them in air tight glass jars. They were tailed
by the members and pronounced very good.

Alexander Walsh, of Lansingburgh. — A letter from him was read
stating the propriety of trying as a substitute for potato, the South
American Arracacha, a root partaking of the nature of carrot and po-
tato.

Mr» Meigs — Put the following questions relative to the

Culture and Manufacture of Flax,
to Mr. Billings from Missouri.

1st. What kind of soil shall I choose? and what manure?

Where there is most lime. On our best Prairie land w^e add
twenty bushels of lime to an acre; the lime should be first slaked-
Use also good well decomposed manure.

2d. When and how often and how deep shall I plow it ?

Plow as soon as the crop is off the field in the fall; plow deep,
and if necessary use the subsoil plow, so as to plow twelve inches
deep. Then in the spring plow four or five inches deep.

3d. When and how shall I sow the seed — broad cast or in drills;
and how many bushels to each acre?

As soon as the land is plowed in the spring; harrow it lightly,
and sow two and a half, to three bushels of seed; then harrow well.

4th. How shall I keep the crop clean?

The crops keep clean of weeds by the close thick growth of flax.

5th. How shall I gather the flax, and at what time?

Cut the flax with a cradle having a scythe from eighteen to twen-
ty-two inches in length. Cut as soon as the blossoms of the flax
begin to fall.

6th. How shall I secure the crop when gathered? what quantity
in a bundle?

No. 151.] 483

Let the flax lie on the ground until it wilts. In fair weather it
may lie there thirty-six hours. Wet weather must be avoided at this
time, if possible. Bind up as much flax as a whisp of flax will
bind in one bundle. Shock it on the field so as to prevent wet from
getting into it. Do not stack it. Leave it in the shocks for five or
six days. When the weather is favorable, and it is about as dry as
you would have your hay or oats, then house it.

7th. How long can I keep it before it is sent to market?

Fifty years! The flax is improved by keeping it a year. The
gluten which is in it, then dissolves more readily when you come to
rot it.

8th. Is it worth my while to rot it on my own farm?

No; you cannot make so good a profit by doing it.

9th. Is it worth my while to have a machine for dressing the crop?

If you can raise two hundred acres of flax, then you can afford to
rot and dress it. One hundred acres will not pay a suflEicient profit.

10th. W^hat is an average crop of flax in the United States per
acre?

About two hundred pounds to the acre if you let it all go to seed,
but four hundred pounds if you gather it in the blossom. Ireland av-
erages five hundred and fifty pounds an acre on one hundred thou-
sand acres.

11th. Do you know how much it will cost to raise it per acre?

Twelve dollars an acre when housed.

12th. What is the cost of dressing it? How much can one of
your dressing machines prepare in a day?

Three cents a pound from the stack to the bale press.

One of my dressing machines with seven men, will dress in one
day, six hundred pounds of flax, and so much less tow is made by it
that it saves twenty per cent of the flax by my operation. And the
same process answers for hemp. Flax when rotted' in water, heated

484 ' [Assembly

to ninety degiees, Fahrenheit, is done in three or four days. In
raising flax, a part of the field should be sowed thin for the seed.
Common Flemish and French dressed flax imported into England for
forty years past, brings them from four to eight hundred dollars a
ton. The difference of value is owing to the difference of qualities,
which are assorted.

Mr. Wakeman. — Can flax and hemp be grown for a series of years
on the same ground, or is rotation necessary?

Mr. Billings. — I have known hemp to grow on the same field
perfectly well for twenty years in succession. The hemp crop is
from seven hundred to nine hundred pounds an acre. I add lime to
land for flax crop, but not for hemp. When flax is not allowed to
go to seed, it does not exhaust the soil half as much. It exhausts
about as much as the wheat crop. Our corn and wheat in Missouri
certainly exhaust our soil. We have already found the necessity of
deep plowing and subsoiling the land. It is better and cheaper by
four to one, to cradle flax than to pull it by hand in the old way.
We do not consider the rotting and dressing flax an unhealthy bu-
siness.

Dr. Underbill, of Croton Point. — It is exceedingly important to
establish the culture and manufacture of flax in our country. For
the last twenty-five years Ireland has used the water rotting process;
they pulled their flax before it went to seed. They have depended
on the United States for their seed, for the last half century. We
supplied almost all their flax seed for sowing. Dew-rotting is apt
to weaken the fibre and render it less fine. They used to put their
flax into still water where it rotted in from seventeen to thirty days.
Dew-rotting requires some three months. Some lay the flax on the
snow and let it remain until spring. A very bad plan. The flax is
liable to great damage from cattle getting among it — it is very un-
equally rotted and liable to become dirty — it loses its softness and
fineness of fibre. The operation of cradling flax is an important
one — you get rid of the roots of the plant which are injurious in the
dressing of the flax. I believe it would be profitable to raise flax,
cut in blossom, and water rot it on the farm, at least until Billings'
new plan can be found convenient to the farmer. Cotton is now
whitening the ocean in the form of sails; cotton is displacing linen
in many ways. Our country is fast being filled with people — we
must have profitable employment for all hands. We have climates
for Tea, Coffee, Grapes, Plantains, Bananas, Yams and every good

No. 151.] 485

thing, independent of the whole world. We must bring our country
to that natural position to which it is entitled.

Mr. Billings. — We have exported hemp to Dundee.

Edwin Williams. — We raise about fifty thousand tons of hemp
per annum.

Dr. Underbill. — In 1844 our western country raised forty-five mil-
lion pounds of it. They made the bagging and ropes for about two
million and a half bales of cotton. Two vessels left New-Orleans for
England last year, loaded with American hemp. The culture of
hemp is increasing among us.

Edwin Williams. — In 1844 our import of cotton bagging was but
one million six hundred thousand square yards. Maqy important ar-
ticles of our trade are not well noted or distinguished from masses,
in our tables of import.

Imports of Flax and Tow into Great Britain in 1842.
1,145,759 cwts. or 57,287,19 tons, at $10, $11,457,590

Value of Linens Exported.

Yards,--. 69,232,682,- ^£2,217,373

Linen Yarn, lbs. 29,490,987, 1,025,551

Total, - - - - je3,24 2,924

Equal to, $15,566,035

Linens Imported into the United States

For the year ending June 30, 1844, $4,592,826

Sail Duck,- ---- - = --- 350,317

$4,943,143
Exported, -- - - 152,898

Home consumption, - - - $4,790,245

486 [Assembly

Flax Seed Exported.

Bushels. Value.

1830, 115,762, ]80,973

1831, 120,702, 216,376

1832, 57,537, 123,036

1833, 117,292, 228,300

1834, 187,468, 281,990

1835, 228,F63, 451,886

1836, 123,926, 250,182

1837, 33,147, 50,553

1838, 35,651, 55,954

1839, 66,781, 161,896

1840, 76,970, 120,000

1841, 32,243, 50,781

1842, 18,354, 34,991

1844, 15,006, 23,749

1845, 50,000, 81,918

Imports of Flax into the United States.

Cwts.

1830, 5,850, $39,055

1831, 463, 6,472

1832, 1,837, 16,194

1833, -996, 8,656

We find no later returns of imported flax.

Flax and hemp raised in 1839 in the United States by the census
of 1840, 95,251 tons.

Great Britain.

The bounties on the exportation of linen and several other articles
ceased in 1830. In 1829 they amounted to ^£300,000, or nearly
$3,000,000.

Of 936,411 cwt. of flax and tow imported into Great Britain in
1831, there were brought from

Russia, 623,256cwt.

Holland, - 128,231

Prussia, - 101,729

France, 55,324

Italy, M15

Australia, &c, 15,275

No, 151.] 487

Of 2,759,103 bushels of flax seed imported in 1831 into Great
Britain, there were brought from

Russia, ....-_-... 2,210,702

Prussia, ----- 172,099

Un ited States, - 106,294

Italy, - - 105,448

Egypt, 98,847

Holland, &c., - 63,738

The duty was Is. per quarter, or 3 cents per bushel, and the price
in December, 1833, varied from 45s. to 54s. per quarter, or $1.35
to $1.62 per bushel. It is now admitted free of duty.

The quantity of linens exported from Ireland to Great Britain and
foreign countries in 1825, was 55,113,265 yards.

Scotlaiid.

During the year ending May 31, 1831, there were imported into
Dundee, 15,010 tons of flax, and 3,082 tons hemp, and there were
shipped

366,8 17 pieces, or 50,000,000 yards Linen.

85,522 " 3,500,000 " Sail Cloth.

About-- - 4,000,000 " Bagging.

In all about 57,500,000 yards. In the year ending May 31, 1833,
the imports of flax amounted to 18,777 tons, besides 3,380 tons of
hemp. The shipments of linen, sail cloth, &c., have increased in a
corresponding ratio, and were valued in the same year, at about
jE 1,600,000, or about 7| millions of dollars.

It appears, therefore, that the shipments of linens from this single
port of Dundee are quite as great as those from all Ireland; and while
the manufacture has been very slowly progressive in the latter, it has
increased in Dundee even more rapidly than the cotton manufacture
h-as increased in Manchester.

The same authority, Mr. McCuUoch, estimates the entire value of
the linen manufacture of Great Britain and Ireland at .£7,500,000, or
36 millions of dollars. One-third part of this is estimated as the
value of raw material, and 25 per cent for profit, superintendence,
wear and tear of machinery, coal, &c., leaving ^63, 125,000, or $15,-

488 [ASSEMFLT

600,000 to be divided as wages among those employed in the manu-
facture, estimated at 172,000 persons, earning j£18, or $S6 per an-
num each. The consumption of foreign linens in Great Britain is
quite inconsiderable, not exceeding jG20,000.

Judge Van Wyck. — I fear the culture of flax will not repay the
farmer, if it is conducted as it has hitherto been done, for fifty years
past. Too much labor, too much cost in getting it prepared and
sent to a proper market. The price of seven and a half cents to
twelve and a half cents a pound will not remunerate the producer.
The most which can ordinarily be raised- — if for the lint only, is
about four hundred pounds the acre — if raised for seed only, two
hundred pounds. The capital employed, consisting of land, in our
part of the country worth one hundred dollars per acre. Animals^
and tools $50; labor and dressing, and getting to market — altogether
say $200. While the price averaging but ten cents a pound,
will not remunerate the farmer. Perhaps on rich western lands it would
pay, but not in our quarter, where grazing and raising of bread
stuffs is far more profitable. Grain crops cost us nothing like the la^
bor and expense of flax. Flax must be raised, puffed, housed,
rotted, dressed and go to market with much delay and expense.
You cannot persuade our farmers to raise flax, unless you show it to
be profitable; and they know what is for their best intfrest to pro-
duce. England had to abandon the culture of flax in favor of grain
and cattle, although the government gave bounties by way of en-
couraging the flax culture. It will never do in the Northern States,
unless some revolution is effected in the culture, dressing, &c. If by
machinery the difficulties can be overcome, then it may answer.

Dr. Underbill. — It is not intended to recommend the culture of
flax after the old method, but on rich soil. When cut in the flow-
er by a cradle, instead of hand pulling, &c., this is an entirely new
plan. We speak of the culture for the United States; and in the
rich soils of the country west, Arkansas, &c. The crop of flax does
not when cut in the flower, impoverish land half as much as when
allowed to go to seed, and gives a double crop of the flax, and so
much finer is the fibre, that it is worth fourteen or sixteen cents a
pound. The machinery of Mr. Billings' can dress the flax for three
cents a pound! and by cradling, rotting and dressing in the manner
Billings does it, almost 20 per cent more of flax is made than wa»
made by the clumsy old method. And the quality of the fibre far
superior; silky and beautiful. Hemp is peculiarly fitted for the rich

No. 151.] 489

lands of the west. I exhibit to the club a specimen of the Agate
hemp from Yucatan. Dr. Ferine brought this article into notice.

This hemp is the strongest in the world for ship's cables. But
common hemp is becoming very interesting as a crop in our country.
Forty-five millions of pounds were raised here in 1844. A pamph-
let issued by a distinguished citizen of Kentucky greatly contributed
to this most valuable result. Hemp is now cradled when green.

Judge Van Wyck — It is admitted in Europe that flax although
pulled when in the flort^er, yet exhausts land more than grain cropsj
but when it goes to seed it becomes a scourge to the soil. Not so
with hemp, of which twenty crops in succession can be produced on
the same land, with but little manuring, and the last crop be perhaps
a better one than the first.

Chairman. — One cause of the neglected culture of flax is cotton
so agreeable and useful for apparel for the greater part of the year.
As to hemp, there is no doubt as to our capacity to raise it. I do
not think that hemp is so great an exhauster of the soil as flax.

It is a difficult thing to fix dyes in linen; the colors, notwith-'
standing the use of the known mordants, are apt to wash out of
linen.

Mr. Wakeman. — Linen may be made a substitute for cotton to a
certain extent. We now import linen to as great an amount, or
rather more than we did forty years ago, but not so much in propor-'
tion to population. We can raise, say 448 pounds of flax per acre,
Ireland raises upwards of 500. If ten cents a pound be the price, it
is worth more than cotton raised upon an acre. Every thing in our
country has been against linen. The duties began at 5 per cent on
sheetings, &c., then went up to 12^. In 1812, they went up to 37^
per cent. A great many manufactories of flax were commenced,
and were operating extensively. The double duty and the war caus-
ed that. After the war the duty was 15 per cent, while upon cotton
it was from 80 to 100 per cent. On woolens it was 2b per cent.
In 1828, linen was 15 per cent; hats, boots, &c., were at 30 per
cent.

Our people must have proper inducement to go into the linen bu^
siness, or they will never do it.

490 [Assembly

Flax is manufactured in Europe, into handkerchiefs, worth 3,500
per cent advance on its first cost.

Judge Van Wyck, — And cotton at 5,000 per cent.

Abstract of British Laws respecting bounties on Linen,

[J2d XXIX. George IT. and X George 77/ ]

British or Irish Linen, made of hemp or flax, of the breadth of 25
inches or more, for every yard which shall be exported to Africa,
America, Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar, Malta, Island of Minorca, or
the East Indies, there shall be paid a bounty

Under the value of 5d. per yard of, - \d.

Of the value of 5d. and under 6d, 1

Of the value of 6d. and not exceeding Is. 6d, 1|

Checked or striped, not exceeding Is 6d., and not under the

value of 7d. per yard. - ^

Diapers, huchabacks, sheetings and other species of linen, up-
wards of one yard English in breadth, not exceeding Is.
6d. per square yard in value, the square yard, 1\

Sailcloth and canvass, fit for, or made into sails, the ell, 2

Which said bounty shall be paid upon demand to the exporter of
such linens, or the seller thereof for exportation, by the collector of
the port from whence the same shall be exported. The exporter or
seller for exportation, shall, before he receive such bounty, produce a
certificate verifying the shipment thereof, and shall likewise give se-
curity to the collector of the port, in the penalty of double the value
of the goods intended to be exported, and <£I00, that such linens or
any part thereof, shall not be re-landed or brought on shore again
in Great Britain or Ireland.

Mr. Bergen, of Gowanus. — I have seen much flax raised. I do
not think it is now a profitable crop. After the farmer has raised
his flax, and even spun it into thread, he can buy his cotton thread
cheaper than he can get his thread wove into linen. Flax is no
greater exhauster of the soil than many other crops. He constantly
looks for the greatest profit. Now, sir, it is said that if machinery
shall be introduced, the profit will be got. It may be so; but how
are we to get it? There are many ways proposed for the encour-
agement of flax and hemp culture and manufacture.

No. 161.] 491

Chairman. — I am for encouraging^ every profitable operation. No
doubt exists as to the profit of raising flax on the rich lands of the
west.

Mr. Wakeman. — "With flax at 9 cents a pound, why cannot we
manufacture linen? Linen keeps up in price, while cotton fabrics
have fallen 75 per cent. Before long, probably we shall prepare flax
for 1| cents instead of 3 cents a pound, and improve in machinery.
We ought not, at all events, to depend on foreign nations for that, or
for any other necessary of life. There is no land in Europe equal
to ours for the production of flax and hemp, viz: the rich alluvial
soil of the west.

Dr. Underbill. — We have much to do if we undertake to supply
our own domestic wants, for we import now some millions. We use
now cotton thread. The linen thread is much the best and strongest
and we cannot do without linen towels.

Mr. Fleet. — We have had a specimen of manufactured linen from
the household of Dr. Crispell, of Ulster county. He does it all in
the old way, and the articles are very excellent. I agree that flax
is peculiarly adapted to the rich soils of the western country.

Judge Van Wyck. — Flax is now admitted free.

Mr. Abbott. — In Ireland they pull flax after the leaves begin to
turn yellow at the bottom of the stem and at\er the flower is off,
but before the seed has been matured.

Statistics of Flax Cultivation and Manufacture in Ireland.

Before the year 1825, the linen manufactured in Ireland, was
made of yarn spun by hand. In 1829, some Irish capitalists at Bel-
fast, embarked in the flax spinning trade, and built factories, which
were soon followed by others in different parts of the north of Ire-
land. By the report of the Factory Inspectors, in 1830, it appears
that the number of flax spinning mills then in Ireland, was 40; work-
ed by 1,980 horse power — employing 9,017 persons. Since then
it has increased to 62 — worked by 2,860 horse power — givino- em-
ployment to 13,600 persons; and adding the subsequent processes
of manufacture, the number of persons supported by the Irish linen
trade, cannot be estimated at less than from 500,000 to 600,000 in
all.

492 [Assembly

The following table of linen exported from Ireland, taken from
official returns, will show the increase of trade at various periods:

Year. Yards.

1710, - 1,688,574

1750, - 11,200,771

1775, 21,502,000

1800, J. 35,676,908

1820, ^- 43,613,218

1825, 55,113,265

1835, ---- 60,916,592

Since 1835 the exports have increased in about the same ratio.

The continental nations engaged in the linen manufacture, still re-
tained the hand spinning, but began to import very largely of the
British and Irish mill spun yarns. In 1842 the French Chamber of
Deputies increased so greatly the duties on these imports, that cer-
tain capitalists in that country were enabled to import machinery
from England, to erect mills, and to realize, until the present day,
very large profits on this trade. A large number of factories conse*
quently sprung up in France, Belgium and Switzerland. The result
has been, that the consumption of Irish linen has been kept down on
the Continent, by the tax thus levied on the consmners.

The capabilities of Ireland for the manufacture of the finer quali-
ties of goods, in this branch of industry, is shown in the speech of
Sir Robert Peel, on the tariff. Before the removal of the duty, the
manufacture of Irish cambric sold, as compared with French, was
100 to 1,0J0 dozens. In the next four years, from 1830 to 1834,
the Irish manufacture was in the proportion of 300 to 1,000 dozens;
from 1834 to 1838, as 900 to 1,000; from 1838 to 1842, as 4,000
to 1,000, and from 1842 to 1846, 16,000 to 1,000. All this was
for the supply of the home market, as the demand had been suffi-
cient to keep the manufactures employed without looking further for
a vent for their goods.

The flax manufactured in the United Kingdom, divides itself into
two sections — the one consisting of yarns exported to the linen ma-
nufacturing countries of the Continent, where they are wrought into
cloth; the other comprising the yarn made into linens of all fabrics
in Ireland, at Dundee, at Barnsley, &c.; bleached and exported to
the markets of the world. In spinning the yarn to supply these two

No. 151] 493

great branches, there are now at wort, in all, 414 factories, worked
by 11,965 horse power, and employing 48,070 persons, involving a
capital fully ^£11,000,000 to ^£12,000,000 sterling.

The quantity of flax consumed in these mills may be estimated in
round numbers at from 100,000 to 110,000 tons per annum. Of this
quantity, 60,000 to 80,000 tons are imported from Russia, Holland,
Belgium, and other foreign countries, and the remainder principally
grown in Ireland.

Coal as a Manure.

Roswell L. Colt, requests the consideration of the Club to the
question whether the ashes of anthracite and bituminous coal are
useful as a manure?

Dr. Underbill. It is important to decide, for the quantity of the
ashes is great and greatly increasing, I have tried experiments
with the ashes and found little benefit, except on my tomatoes, plant-
ed in a sandy, gravelly soil; on these the benefit was very striking;
on other plants I noticed but little effect.

Mr. Meigs. Analysis shows that the ashes of the anthracite coal,
is composed of some fifty-three per cent of silex, (flint,) and thirty-
six of alumina, (clay,) some magnesia, iron manganese. On a clay
soil, the silex would be useful; on a sandy soil, the clay would be
so. Pure beach sand is well applied to clay soil; the benefit is
chiefly mechanical. The particles form that degree of looseness in
soil which permits the more delicate roots to penetrate. A very
small portion of this silex (flint) is chemically developed in the ex-
ternal coverings of the stems of wheat, &c. This wonderful coat of
flint, surpassing in its delicate formation all human conception, is
necessary to defend the interior of the plant, and sand should be put
upon and mixed with certain stiff clay soils, and clay upon the sandy
soils.

Dr. Field. I have considered the coal ashes to be very worthy of
notice. They have been neglected. They contain no article that
is not useful, acting chemically as well as mechanically in the growth
of plants. They are good absorbents of the gases from the air,
and in kindling these coal fires, a large quantity of wood is neces-
sary, the ashes of which, mixed as they are wnth the residuum of coal,
are fertilizing. Thomas Addis Emmett, of New-York, uses coal
ashes with great benefit to his soil, which is heavy wet, requiring
drainage. He has a highly cultivated garden in which the ashes
are used.

494

[Assembly

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No. 151.] 495

Dr. Underbill — The silex in soils is chemically dissolved by potash.
The union of the two, form silicate of potash; very important to
the growth of plants.

Dr. Field — Some time ago, I examined some muck in which I did
not discover the presence of any lime.

Chairman — The most essential ingredient in soil is calcareous earth j
no plant prospers without it.

Mr. Fleet — I think that coal ashes are useful mechanically. Mr.
Colman recently remarked, that large tracts of land in Russia, in
•which the least possible trace of lime is present, are nevertheless fer-
tile. That those tracts, after resting two or three years, are found
again restored to their fertility. Tn Lincolnshire, England, where
the soil is three inches deep and lying on chalk, much is found to be
due to carbonate of lime for fertility. Colman thinks that the be-
nefit of lime is merely mechanical, except where there is oxide of
iron, and that is properly neutralized by lime. But after all our the-
ory on the subject, facts alone should guide us in actual practice.

Chairman — In our limestone districts, lime is known to be of ben-
efit and is always used as a manure. On argillaceous soils, lime is
productive of fine effects. The marl of New-Jersey when applied to
the sandy soils, produces the happiest results. Without lime, many
lands become sour, producing little grass and much sorrel. Many
farmers put too much lime on their land, and others not enough. In
all these cases, we must judge by the results of the majority of cases,
for all rules have exceptions, which however only prove their general
truth. As to the Russian tracts, and the reasoning, they are very
differently situated, perhaps, and we have no certainty w^hatever that
■what is true of them would be so in this far distant region. Why
do our farmers prefer a limestone country? New comers in the west
seek for such land.

Dr. Underbill — I have used much alluvial matter on my farm.
These alluvial deposits vary much in quality. Some contain coppe-
ras (sulphate of iron,) and the fertilizing effects of these alluvials
are not perceived for the first year, unless lime be mixed with them.
When that is done, we have formed at the same time, real gypsum,
(plaster,) which is a good manure. The presence of lime in the
alluvial, at least prevents the injurious effects of the copperas. Some
of the alluvials, perhaps, contain no copperas or any other acid

496 [Assembly

which requires lime to neutralize it. Shell lime is abundantly bet-
ter than stone lime. I have put on my farm in one year, five thou-
sand bushels of stone lime, upon sandy soil, without any great advan-
tage, except where I had before put on alluvial matter. I have
composted the alluvial by one stratum 6 inches thick, lime two inches
thick, and so on to 6 or eight feet high; after some time I mix all
the strata well together, pulverize the mass, and thus I make an ex-
cellent manure. Draw out the alluvial matter, let it have the winter's
frost. It will be friable next year, and be good manure if you stir
it well into your soil by plowing, &c. The copperas in it dissolves
in the rains, and leaves the soil good, and on a hoed, and plowed crop,
such as corn and potatoes, it shows well the first year, without lime.
But if you add lime to the alluvial, you can make it good for manure
in a short time.

I have put on my farm, over thirteen thousand loads of alluvial
without lime, and after a little time, it has proved good for all my
plants and trees. Our Boston friends must wait a year after their al-
luvials are put on their farms, before they will reap the full benefit
of it. .

Dr. Field — There are material diflferences in the qualities of muck.
Our farmers ought to know what these differences are. Where run-
ning streams are passing through deposits of muck, the salts origin-
ally in the muck are necessarily dissolved and carried away by the
water. Alluvial is different, it contains the remains of reptiles and
other animals — much ^nimal matter- — and the presence of phosphate
of lime, proves that of the remains of animals.

In composting muck, I make a layer of it one foot thick, cover
that with two inches depth of stable manure, and over that one inch
of lime. Do this in the fall or winter, leave it until spring, then
mix the mass thoroughly. I have put upon an acre two hundred and
fifty loads of forty bushels each, of this compost, with signal success
to the after crops.

Dr. Underbill — On one vineyard of five acres, I have put 6,000
horse-cart loads of muck, at about £0 bushels the load.

Dr. Field — 'Last year I put gypsum and muck in my barnyard, to
mix with the stable manure. In these composts, much depends on
the play of chemical affinities; the gases are absorbed by some of
the ingredients to a great amount, and thus retained for use as fertili-

No. 151.] 497

zers. Farmers ought to try experiments on the small scale first, then
go on the large plan, when all is certain of success.

Mr, Sheafe — ■! have used stone lime on my farm as a top dressing
on meadow land, with beneficial results; but shell lime is much to be
preferred. I am now engaged in experiments with lime and muck in
combination. I have let the stone lime be air slacked in the fall,
then spread with the shovel over the land, about in the proportion in
which gypsum is commonly applied. My farm is on a limestone
basis.

Diseased potatoes.

Mr. Hancock presented the recent observations of Prof. Liebig, on
the method of preparing for keeping and for use^ diseased potatoes,
as follows:

The researches I have undertaken upon the sound and diseased po-
tatoes of the present year, have disclosed to me the remarkable fact
that they contain in the sap, a considerable quantity of vegetable
casin (cheese) precipitable by acids. This constituent I did not ob-
serve in my previous researches. It thus appears that from the influ-
ence of the weather, or generally speaking, from atmospheric causes,
a part of the albumen which prevails in the potato, has become con-
verted into vegetable casin. The great instability of this latter sub-
stance is well known; hence the facility with which the potato con-
taining it undergoes putrefaction. Any injury to health from the use
of these potatoes, is out of the question; and nowhere in Germany,
has such an effect been observed. In the diseased potato, no solanin
can be discovered. It may be of some use to call attention to the
fact, that diseased potatoes may easily and at little expense, be pre-
served for a length of time, and afterw^ards employed in various ways,
by cutting them into slices of about a quarter of an inch, and im-
mersing them in water, contaming from 2 to 3 per cent of sulphuric
acid. After 23 or 36 hours the acid liquor may be drawn off, and
all remains of it washed away by steeping in successive portions of
fresh water. Treated in this manner, the potatoes are easily dried.
The pieces are white, and of little weight, and can be ground to flour,
and baked into bread along with the flour of wheat. I think it pro-
bable that the diseased potatoes, after being sliced and kept for some
time in contact with weak sulphuric acid, so as to be penetrated by
the acid, may be preserved in that state in pits. But further experi-
ments are necessary to determine this. It is certain, however, that
the dilute sulphuric acid stops the progress of putrefaction.

[Assembly, No. 151.] 32

498 [AssEsm.?

March 3, 1846.
ANALYSIS OF COAL.

Mr. Wakeman — ^I present an analysis made by Dr. Chilton, of
the ashes of anthracite coal. We have desired that analyses should be
made of the ashes of the various coals now so generally used as fuel,
in order to ascertain what value ought to be attached to them as
manures or as useful to soils. The quantity of the ashes being great,
we would, if they are valuable as applied to our soils, have it known,
that they may not as many other articles of immense value to the
farmer, be wasted. The following is Professor Chilton's analysis of
Lackawana coal, viz.:

Silica, 4500

Lime, - -- 6.25

Alumina, - 42.50

Oxide of Iron, - - 5.25

Magnesia, &,c., — --- 1.00

100.00

Analysis of the Ashes of Lehigh Coal.

Silica, 54.51

Lime, -- — 3.63

Alumina, 38.00

Oxide of Iron, 3.45

Magnesia, &c., --- 2.25

101.84

Col. Clark — -The analyses of coals exhibit some various results
even in the same coal beds. They are generally, however, nearly
uniform in their constituent parts.

Roswell L. Colt — I am told that Professor Liebig says azote that
is in various grains, forming their nutriment is, for

Wheat, 2.17

Rye, 2 04

Oats, - 1.96

Beans, - 5. 11

Kidney Beans, - - 4.03

Peas, 3.40

Barley, 1.76

No. 151.] 499

And one writer estimates,

Indian Corn, at - - 1.50

Buckwheat, -- 1.40

Millet, 1.20

Rice, only -- - .80

Now I feel entirely confident that our Indian corn, in nutritive
qualities, far exceeds in value for fattening stock even wheat. Can
you tell me where I can find an analysis of this favorite grain ? If
it has not been made, the American Institute ought to have this
question determined, of what per cent, of nutritive matter is found
in three or four most common kinds of Indian corn.

I am glad to find that you intend to let us know the salts found in
white ash and red ash anthracite coal.

I am taking out 1,000 loads of black muck, say half peat —
Part I mixed with wood ashes.
Part with anthracite ashes,
Part with unslaked lime,
Part do do and wood ashes,

Part with soda ash.
Part with lime and salt

I will let you know which does best; any or either will I am sure
do well.

Professor Mapes — Mr. Colt assumes the popular error relative to
azote. Liebig is said to have maintained that azote is an element
of vegetable nutrition. This is not so. There is no nutrition in it.
The only nutritives are starch and sugar. In the proportions of the
gases constituting them, there is but a small difference in the quanti-
ty of the oxygen and hydrogen between the starch and the sugar.
Starch contains no water of crystallization; sugar does. Distillers
mix corn (sea maize) and rye in the mash-tub. By stirring, the rye
sooner yields its starch and sugar than the corn, and thus the swill
is found to contain nutriment for animals. But if they, the corn and
rye, were separately distilled, the swill would not sustain an animal,
for it would be destitute of both starch and sugar. Starch, when
roasted, forms the British gum used in manufacture of cloth of cot-
ton, &c. In fermentation, when slow, the oxygen, hydrogen, and
carbon of starch, in that form, or in that of sugar, which it assumes,

600 [Assembly

differs only in one proportional part in form of sugar. Alcohol is
the same thing, only the proportional parts are different. In vegeta-
bles the lignine, cellular structure, &c., only serve to divide the starch
or saccharine in the vegetable into minute portions. This natural
division is necessary for us who live on them — for otherwise they
would be too much concentrated — we might eat without mastication,
but our teeth would drop out from mere inactivity. Nor could we
exist in good health without the lignine, &c. Barley is made to
start its growth, (by distillers,) and as soon as it has developed in a
light degree its growth, it is sugared, the growth is then stopped by
drying it. Afterwards in using it, the sugar is dissolved' — and after
this, and then distillation, the swill will not feed a pig ! Starch ex-
ists in globules, and when moistened, swells and becomes sugar.
And this saccharine process is going on in the processes of vegeta-
tion.

Pruning.

Dr. Underbill — The pruning of fruit trees has been wonderfully
neglected in our country. I hardly ever take a ride but I see whole
orchards in which the branches grow like a forest, one limb riding
another, chafing in every storm, and so thick a growth as to exJude
the light; limbs covered with moss, a very delightful resort for worms
and insects, which can abide most comfortably there until the
ensuing year! and then invade the leaf, the fruit and the tree! Moss
roses are beautiful, but moss on the fruit trees a great injury.

Fruit trees, if old, still must be pruned; but the young onc^ ought
to be, or the fruit will be poor, knotty and of little value.

The best time for pruning is the spring, when the leaves are out,
and even the blossoms; but this doctrine is against almost universal
practice. I have pruned in winter, because I had then spare time.
Cover the cut limb with some composition to exclude wet, &,c. Tar
mixed with French w^hiting and a little common sublimate, makes a
good compost for the purpose. The sublimate prevents the insects
from meddling with it; the tar, however, will keep them off without
the sublimate. Grafting wax, made of rosin, bee's wax and a little
tallow, is good, but is more costly. This care prevents the tree from
becoming hollow, causes the trunk to heal and grow over well.
When you would prune off a limb of three, four, or five inches di-
ameter, observe the bulge next the body of the tree; cut off the limb
just outside of that bulge. Cut off the lower' limbs so they may not
interfere with the horns of cattle passing through the orchard, wheii

No. 151.] 501

ploughing. In making fine fruit we want more root and less top! A
tree so pruned is more healthy, lives longer. A man who understands
the matter, can tell in a forest, by the limbs, where the roots are!
The roots of the lower limbs lie nearest the surface of the ground,
and these always suffer first in a drought. You will see it in apple,
pear, plum, &c., the fruit on the lower limbs always suffer most from
a drought. It is a curious sight in many of our neglected orchards,
to see the suckers on the limbs, filling the whole tree with a mass of
thick brush. These trees cannot have proper fruit. One cannot get
into them to clear off worm nests; and a man that will not clear off
these c.terpillar nests I don't want to know. If he was the only
man in the world it would not be quite so bad, but he provides an
invading army of worms for all his neighbors. I destroyed on my
trees last year about twenty thousand nests of worms. I have de-
stroyed all for twelve years past; still my neighbors are plentifully
supplied with them. Their butterflies come in thousands to my farm,
as they fly for miles from their locality; they are very beautiful in-
sects, but I object to their peopling my orchards with catterpillars.
The culture of all good fruit i; valuable near this great city; more
valuable than other crops. The worms kill off one-half of our fruits,
sometimes two-thirds. We must prune well, scrape off the moss
and all the loose bark with a dull hoe or an iron, then wash the tree
well with a solution of pot-ash, one pound to six gallons of water,
or with soft soap so that it may even run down the branch to the
ground, and then dose the vermin. The larvae of insects are destroy-
ed by these washings. Plough the orchard well; hoe well about the
roots of the trees. I have never suffered from the canker worm while
some of my neighbors had their orchards destroyed by them. Some
of those orchards had not been ploughed for twenty years. Plough
them every year, or at least every other year, or dig up the ground
well around them. Orchards require manuring. I have tried many
kinds of manure. The dung of the horse is best for apple trees, per-
haps owing to the phosphorus contained in it. The bark of trees
growing vigorously often becomes too tight, especially about the
body of the tree. In such cases I cut incisions through it on the north
side, not down to the wood, but through the hardest part of the bark.
This relieves the tree. If this be neglected I have seen trees choked
to death by that tightness of the bark. Make these incisions in May
or June. Do this on apple, pear, cherry, plum and apricot trees. It
should be done every two years at least. Some persons seeing the
trees dead, said it was caused by blight; some said by lightning;
but they were literally choked to death.

602 [Assembly

Mr. Tirrell — How do you apply the horse dung?

Dr. Underhill — I plough it eight or nine inches deep all over the
orchard; do not place it nearer to the tree than one foot; let it be
spread from six to ten feet diameter around the tree are in old orchards
spread over the whole ground; as roots, all over. The small roots
which take in nourishment are at the extremities of the roots.

Judge Van Wyck — "What do you say as to tilling orchards?

Dr. Underhill — They should be tilled. Grow corn or potatoes
where the trees are young, or turnips when old. I sow buckwheat in
them and plough it in. But I never want to see wheat or rye, oats
or meadow grass in an orchard; for unless the roots of the trees are
kept clear for some distance, the grain crop in June or July, when
there is any drought, depriving the trees of their necessary supply of
moisture, the fruit will become gnarly.

Mr. Allen — Presented some fine large apples, the produce of trees
on the farm of W. Mills, of Long Island, which had once been
worm-eaten and mossy, but had undergone reformation.

Chairman — The walls of the sap vessels in trees easily close up,
so that in old orchards we see almost uniformly hollow trees still
bearing their fruit. If these trees had been properly pruned the
trunks would have been of solid wood to a large size and old age.

Judge Van Wyck — One writer on this subject says that winter
and summer are both proper seasons for pruning, because then the
sap is not running. Prune off all scraggy crooked limbs, prune out
the top so as to let in the sun's rays. As to peach trees do not
prune them. My idea of pruning has long been in accordance with
Dr. Underhill's plan. I should like to hear something from him, on
the plum tree; there is often found upon it a blister, which is a dis-
ease. Would you amputate the limb?

Dr. Underhill — ^The Judge is right as to the peach tree. South
of our highlands, plums are almost all destroyed. I know but one
remedy. Make a hog pen of your plum orchard. The hogs will eat up
and destroy the fallen fruit, insects and all; let the hogs be there all
the plum season; they will rub against the trees and do them good.
In that way you can have as good plums as in any part of the world.
Some recommend paving the ground — then birds pick up the fallen
insects. These insects do not fly far.

No. 161.] 503

Mr. Maine — I am cultivating dwarf plum trees. I have a high
close form around them — pave the ground and prune the trees im-
mediately after the fall of the leaves.

Mr. Wakeman— It is with great pleasure and hoping for much
good to grow out of it, that I now offer to the Club the following
resolutions, the object of which is, the utmost extension and diffusion
through our country of the finest of our fruits. If the exchange of
fruit grafts contemplated by these resolutions shall happily be made,
we shall at no distant period have the high satisfaction of an almost
universal enjoyment by our fellow citizens, of the finest fruits. I
trust and hope earnestly that the exchange of grafts may be far and
wide, and that every farmer's club now in existence, and that shall
be created hereafter, will consider themselves bound to carry into
full execution so noble a practical good thing.

Resolved, That the production of choice fruit may be greatly in-
<creased by the interchange of grafts, cuttings, &c, and that mem-
bers of this Club be requested to bring supplies of grafts and cuttings
t)f the most valuable fruit trees to the future meetings of this Club,
•with the characteristics of each, until the season for grafting, and the
setting out of cuttings is past

Resolved, That it be recommended to all the Farmers Clubs in
our country, to use their endeavors to promote an extensive exchange
of grafts and cuttings, and to avail themselves of the present season
for laying the foundation for an extended production of the best fruits
throughout our country.

Resolved, That one copy of the proceedings of the National Con-
vention of farmers, gardeners and silk culturists be sent to all the
Farmers Clubs formed in our country, and that such clubs as have
been, or may hereafter be formed, be requested to forward to the New-
York Farmers Club of the American Institute, copies of their pro-
ceedings, to be preserved by the Recording Secretary with the re-
cords of the Club,

Clubs not supplied with the proceedings above alluded to are re-
■quested to give notice to the Secretarjr of the American Institute,
New-York.

504 [ASSEMBLT

April 21st, 1846.
INTRODUCTION OF INDIAN CORN INTO GREAT BRITAIN.

We find that the introduction of this great American staple as an
article of food is exciting considerable attention. The distress aris-
ing from the failure of the potato crops, the principal article of sus-
tenance of the laboring classes, has rendered a substitute necessary.
In point of cheapness and nutritiA^e qualities, the preference has been
given to the Indian Corn,

Too much praise cannot be awarded to Mr. Cowdin for the deep
interest he has taken in this subject. Invitations were lately extend-
ed by him to a large number of gentlemen to an entertainment, for
the purpose of bringing under their notice bread made in a variety of
ways from Indian Corn or Maize. After a few prefatory remarks
by the chairman, in which he argued the expediency of introducing
that article as tending to increase and strengthen the intercourse be-
tween the two nations, Mr. Cowdin rose and stated " he had been in-
fluenced in giving the invitations, not with the view of any pleasure
that would arise from the party itself, but from the important bear-
ing the subject he had to bring before them might have on the busi-
ness relations of the two countries. He spoke of the extent of the
United States, embracing every variety of soil and climate, accom-
panying his remarks on its productions with complete statistics. To
convince them that Indian corn meal was well adapted not only for
the use of the poor and middle classes, but also for the opulent, sev-
eral loaves were cut and distributed among the gentlemen. The
corn meal of which they were composed cost 2| cents per pound,
while wheat flour cost 4 cts per pound, giving about two loaves of
corn bread to one of wheat. The company afterwards partook of a
pudding composed of corn meal, suet and molasses. The bread was
pronounced good — the pudding excellent.

The following is an extract from a letter of later date, received
from Mr. Cowdin, addressed to T. B. Wakeman, Esq., and read be-
fore the Farmers' Club at their last meeting, wherein alluding to thi»
subject, he says:

" I am, and have for some time, been devoting my leisure time,
in endeavoring to introduce into this community, the great universal
staple of America, * Indian Corn,' about which the people here know
nothing, and I am pleased to say, have succeeded in removing the
deep rooted prejudice which existed, by frequent exhibitions of corn
bread in every variety of form. It may now be said to be fairly and

No. 151.] 505

permanently introduced into the charitable institutions and prisons of
this city, which will give it a character and confidence throughout
the United Kingdom of Great Britain, and consequently throughout
the old world, which will open new markets for that great and val-
uable staple^ I rejoice in this, as it will benefit that noble and hon-
orable class of citizens of our beloved country, the farmers, and by
no possibility injure any other branch of industry.

" The south have their great and valuable staple tor the manufac-
turer. Cotton: but for capability of production is restricted to latitude
and longitude; not so with corn — it may be raised throughout the
length and breadth of our land with great facility and comparative
trifling expense."

At his request the following analysis of Indian Corn has been
made by Dr. R. D. Thompson, of Glasgow, one of the most distin-
guished chemists of the present day:

Nitrogen Albu- Equiv»

per cent. men. alent.

Bean meal, 4.61 28.81 100

Brown Bread, (Prussian,) 2.68 16.49 174

Maize, 1.98 12.37 232

Lothian Flour, 1.96 12.30 234

Barley, - --1.96 12.25 235

Indian Rice, 1.43 8.94 310

He says it appears that 100 lbs. of Beans are equal in nutritive
power to 174 of Prussian Brown Bread, and to 232 of Maize. It
is interesting, however, to observe the elevated position occupied by
Indian Corn in the table — even above that of Scotch Flour.

Dr. Gardner — -An analysis made by Dana, of Lowell, Massachu-
setts, is, I see, identical with this of Professor R. D. Thompson.
Few kinds of wheat contain more albumen (the flesh-making element,)
than corn does, which also contains the fattening elements. Corn is
as valuable for flesh-making as wheat or oats, and beans contain what
is called caseinc' — the cheese principle.

Mr. Carter — In Virginia I saw their mode of managing corn.
When the grain is in the milk, they cut the stalk off near the ground.
They leave four hills of corn standing and round these they set up
the cut corn-stalks, with all the ears on. The cut ends resting on the
ground. And they say that the grain then ripens better than if left
on the original root. They had before this method, tried to dry their

[AsSEMBLt

corn-stalks for fodder in their Tobacco Houses, which is done by
heating stones and placing them in the houses. But this mode did
not succeed with the corn-stalks as well as the stacking above men-
tioned.

Mr. Hyde — Experience has proved this plan of cutting the stalk
while the grain is in the milk, is a good one. I have tried it in
Missouri, to save my corn from the frost, and I found the grain and
fodder both better for it. The fodder was worth double that done in
the old way.

Dr. Gardner — In the Farmers' Dictionary, I refer to Boussingault's
analysis of Indian corn, he states that as food for man, it is 108 to
100 of the best wheat, and as 108 to 107 of common wheat.

April 27, 1846.

Prof. James J. Mapes in the Chair.

Judge Van Wyck — 'I hoped that some gentleman would speak on
the other subject of the day — ^the Keeping of Cattle, especially
Cows. It is a subject of much volume. I will add now a few re-
marks upon it, which escaped me at the last Club. The subject of the
Cow is very interesting; an animal of immense value; of such kind
habits that a child can drive it, or can milk it. What a source of
nourishment for the human race! The care of this animal — in the
preparation of the lands to sustain it — the all-essential thing being
perfect order in system — for habit in man, in animals — even in vege-
tables, form those essentials which cannot be overlooked. For even
the grasses for the feed have peculiar habits on particular lands, and
the farmer must exercise his best judgment in all that relates to this
matter. No creature is more dependent than the cow upon the pecu-
liar state of the farm she lives on, the kind and character of its cul-
tivation; its grasses; its roots, and its adaption in all respects to her
habits and taste. She is either small or large; a little or a great
milker, according to all these circumstances. Double quantities of
rich milk, or poor accx)rding to pasture and treatment. Care must
be taken of her not only in the winter, but in the summer also.

Dr. Field-— This subject has been much discussed : it is important.
1 have paid much attention to it. I have found, during summer,
that it was hard to change the food often. From feeding on clover.

No. 151.] 507

or oats cut green, and putting them suddenly upon green corn'Stalkalj
I found them becoming thin. I would soil them in this method*
Select a piece of land neither wet nor dry; make it very rich; it
cannot be made too much so. In September, sow rye; double seed
it; it comes early in spring; then oata and the common field peas 5
they will be a heavy growth; then clover; and after the rye is off,
plant corn broad-cast; cut the stalks while they are green and ten-
der, before it has its tassel; cut it when it is about two feet high*
You can have two, or even three crops of such corn in a season.
Plant corn and cut in succession. Thus, you can plant the rye in
September, oats early in spring, then your corn crops. If this green
feed should cause the diarrhoea, give the cows dry feed for a while.
You can keep up your green crops in this way during the whole
season from snow to snow ! Four of my cows stabled in winter, and
soiled in summer, after this plan, have yielded about three hundred
dollars worth of milk, sold to certain hotels in summer, for two and
a half cents a quart, and for four cents in winter. I had supposed
that a great part of the feed went to produce animal heat. Two
cows, which gave each only five quarts daily, gave eleven quarts
each after being stabled and well fed there. My cows so managed
all increased their milk, while those of my neighbors generally were
dry; so great is the benefit of a warm stable, that by putting them
into a warm cellar, they increased their milk eight quarts in about
one week, and I attribute that increase to warmth alone. There is
another thing of very great importance. Instead of a vast quantity
of acres, take no more than you can put one hundred loads of good
manure upon per acre! And every farmer has the means within his
command. He can have muck; he can take the rich soil from head-
lands and put it in his barn-yard to mix with dung and urine, and
all other things. Then the headland soil will absorb the rich fluid
manure. Let those who want to know the effects of good manure
well managed, go and see the farm of Gen. Johnson, the President
of this Club. There they will see the rich results of his knowledge
and care. I have 60 loads of manure by the means of a few pigs,
and proper care of the litter, &c.

Mr. Carter — 1 observed in our Orange County, famed for butter
and fine meats, that it was not climate nor soil, but it was care and
attention that does it. Abundant cattle make rich pastures, and rich
pastures fine cattle; and the well fed fat cattle go well through a
hard winter; and not too many cattle upon a farm. One is well paid
for proper care of cattle.

508 [Assembly

Judge Van Wyck — ^I suggest whether the expense of soiling, all
things considered, does not overbalance the profit. It might do per-
haps on a small farm, but on 200 or 250 acres, as the price of labor
is now and has always been, I think that the profit would be coun-
terbalanced by the expense. It is true that more manure is collected
on land, but that which is dropped on the pasture is not lost, it sinks
into the soil and becomes mixed with the grass, and especially the
surplus or decayed parts that fall away.

Dr. Field — One of the greatest detriments to farmers, is prejudice,
prejudice I may say, stereotyped all over the land. Soiling, however
valuable, is not yet appreciated. I advise others to imitate the ve*
nerable General Johnson' — the farmer for profit — of 150 acres of
land — he only cultivated about one-third — but that is a perfect cul-
ture. He lets out the rest of his farm.

Mr. Wakeman — Gouverneur Morris, on his large farm has used
the corn-stalks — planted broad cast, and if I recollect right, he re-
marked, that the saving by it was one half. Soiling is best near
cities where lands are high priced.

Mr. Blyde — All depends on the value of the land. There is no
question at all, that near this city, soiling is best, it will enrich the
land, while in grazing, the manure is chiefly lost, and it is not diffi-
cult to show what the loss is compared with soiling. As to the
headlands they can be used to great advantage, and so can peat muck,
in the barn yard. I have tried the latter, and it is a fine absorbent
of the liquid manure. With the change from one kind of feed to
another, the cattle feel the change.

Dr. Field — Green feed produces sometimes diarrhoea, and dry feed
stops it. But cattle can become habituated to green feed. A milk-
man buys cow^s, feeds and milks them, until they run down to five or
seven quarts a day — then suspends milking them, and fattens them
for beef

I present a

list of feed for cows, viz:

1 part grain.

2 "

meal.

2 "

water — twice

daily.

2 "

Indian meal.

1 "

ship stuff.

1 "

oil meal.

2 small arm fulls of

hay.

Swill,

one barrel.

Hay once a day,

No. 151.] 609

when a cow gives six or seven quarts of milk a day, and is fat.
Then they change sometimes — milk two years or three.

Mr. Wakeman — I have found it best to feed hay, Indian meal and
ship stuff. One cow gave me milk for two, and another for three
years. I feed twice as much ship stuff as meal. Much depends on
the kind of cow. The English rule is, not to take a cow from rich
land and pasture where she was raised, to poor land and pasture.

As to Indian corn, the qualities of it vary much in the different sec-
tions of the United States. The bread made from southern corn is
dry and very palatable; that from northern corn is more moist and
heavy. The quality of bread made from any corn depends as much
on the modes of cooking it as upon the kind of corn used. I think
that the success of the experiment of introducing the use of Indian
corn into England, will depend upon these circumstances of quality
and cooking.

Col. Edward Clark — Our northern corn seems to contain more si-
licious matter in its composition, than our southern corn. It re-
quires much longer immersion in water before it is sufficiently soft-
ened. Our flint corn has its name from its hardness. Our southern
corn is easily pounded or ground, and is much moi'e easily cooked.
When cooked with milk, or with a portion of lard in it, it is excel-
lent food.

Judge Van Wyck — Indian corn helps the soil on which it grows
for succeeding crops of grain. It is an excellent crop to precede one
of wheat. The soil for corn must be rich — for it is a common say-
ing corn is a gross feeder! and the cultivation necessary in a crop of
it has the effect of leaving the soil in fine condition for wheat or any
other grain. Corn is one of the strongest and best foods for man,
and still more so for many animals. It has more of the Jlesh making
properties in it than any kind of wheat. Oats and corn ground to-
gether form a feed which fattens animals more rapidly than any feed
given to them. I believe that the southern corn, for some purposes,
is preferable to the northern. It makes a lighter bread, and is more
easy to cook. But the Northern is a stronger food thr.n the southern.
The stalks of corn fed to cows give the best milk, and more of it
than any hay. This effect is probably due to the large amount of
saccharine contained in the stalks; sugar is made from their juices.
The roots of corn extend far and great care ought to be taken not
to injure them in plowing or other cultivation.

Sl§ [Assembly

Mr. Houghton, of Rahway, New Jersey — Our northern corn, if
judged by its price in market, is to be preferred to any other, for it
brings always two cents per bushel more than any other corn.

Col. Clark — Our northern corn weighs six pounds per bushel more
than the southern corn.

Mr. Wakeman — Our northern hard corn is oily, and what is term-
ed pop corn, owes its peculiar property to its oily nature. I read the
following remarks from an intelligent writer, " Of the grain stuffs,
rice and corn differ in this, that the former contains the least fatty
matter, and corn the most, and ranging between these extremes, we
have wheat, oats, rye, barley, &c., all different, and yet are capable
of being applied to the conditions best suited to them. It is on ac-
count of the fatty nature of Indian corn, that it is such a strong
kind of food, and that persons unaccustomed to it cannot at first en-
dure it. The nations which feed chiefly on rice, are not near so ro-
bust as those which use Indian corn, as the blacks at the south mostly
do. Persons unaccustomed to this kind of food, therefore, will do
best to commence with the white Indian meal, in preference to the
yellow, as it is not so rich. This preference has already occurred in
England, where the article is new. There is only one more obser-
vation which I wish to make. As Indian corn meal contains so
much fat in it, if kept too long it is liable to become rancid, and it
is then more or less unfit for use. In the shipments made to the
West Indies, the meal is commonly kiln-dried, to obviate as much as
possible, this tendency to rancidity. For reasons just detailed, the
white corn meal will keep rather better; and from its being lighter
and milder, it is as much preferred for use in warm climates, as the
yellow for similar inducements is in cold.

Mr. Hyde — The discussion of this question here, ought to be care-
fully conducted, for it may have some influence on public opinion
abroad. There are two kinds of southern gourd seed corn, one white
and the other yellow. Our western corn is a flat grain, and is both
■white and yellow. Our northern white and yellow corn have more
gluten and less starch than the southern corn; so has the corn of the
western country. The differences of quality are almost as distin-
guished as the latitudes in which they are produced. I have raised
the Canada corn in Missouri, and its growth was there so rapid, that
it was fit for eating by the first day of July. The white corn of
Rhode Island, has more starch than most northern corn. Jersey corn
has more yet, and makes better bread. Our western corn has yet

No. 161.] 511

more starch. Our Tuscarora corn has most starch of any corn. And
I have known persons find it quite difficult on examining fine bolted
meal from the Tuscarora corn, to distinguish it from wheat flour.
Our sweet corn has little if any starch; it is only good to eat when
green, it is then very sweet and delicious. The Canada corn is in-
sipid; Rhode Island corn is somewhat so. The sweet corn grows all
over our country, without alteration in its peculiar properties.

Mr. Meigs — I have planted almost all the varieties of Indian corn.
When Lewis and Clark returned from their visit to Oregon, they
brought with them a small corn, which had been from time imme-
morial, cultivated by the Mandan nation of Indians, and I have for
years cultivated that corn in my garden, and have distributed its seed
for years. The plant attained about three feet of height and the ears
of green corn, were usually fit to eat on the fourth of July.

Mr. Hyde — We can raise Indian corn in our country for twenty
cents a bushel. We can have from thirty to fifty bushels per acre with
a very moderate amount of labor when compared with other grain.
Our wheat may average some twenty or twenty-two bushels per acre,
so that we can easily have twice as much corn as of wheat on an
acre. In our western world, corn is raised by the plow alone; the
hoe is almost entirely unused by our people, and it is not necessary
to use it. Corn pounded in a mortar coarsely, or ground coarsely in
an iron mill, and judiciously cooked, is universally esteemed. I
should like to hear something from my learned friend, Mr. D. J.
Browne, on the subject of corn

Mr. Browne — My friend calls me up, and I will here exhibit a
diagram of original experiments made by Dr. Jackson, of Boston,
shewing cut sections of corn and other grains, on which in order to
show the starch and phosphates contained in them, in their respec-
tive proportions, Dr. Jackson had poured a solution of phosphate of
copper, and on others a tincture of iodine. The first shows by its
green tint, the presence and quantity of the phosphates, by the latter
the blue tint denotes the presence and proportions of, and by the
dark red tint, the portions of dextrine starch contained in the grains-
Mr. B. here performed the experiments in presence of the club.

I exhibit here the pop corn and the rice corn; the grains of the
latter of the size, and nearly the figure of grains of rice. This rice
corn, has of all the least portion of starch. In these grains the oil
is the cause of the peculiar effect of heat in turning the grain inside

512 [Assembly

out, called " popping it," from the slight explosion which results from
the decomposition of the oil of the grain. In order to produce this
result in the best manner, have a box of wire gauze of small meshes,
holding about two quarts; put in the popcorn and expose it to heat,
often turning it about, and very soon every grain will explode and
be turned inside out. The gases cannot burn, nor can the corn be
hurt by the fire, for it acts on the same principle with Sir Humphrey
Davy's Safety lamp. A light house on Lake Erie, has used oil made
from corn for burning. Some sixteen gallons of the oil have been
obtained from one hundred bushels of corn, and it is believed the oil
is of a superior quality.

Prof. Mapes — Mr. Ellsworth, late of the patent office, exhibited
this corn oil; it appeared to be very good.

Mr. Browne — The various applications of Indian corn are very
valuable in rural economy. Those kinds which yield the most starch
are best for bread. Those which contain the largest portion of oil
are best calculated for feeding poultry.

I here present Indian corn from Peru, to this club. (It was di,stri-
buted among the members.)

Prof. Mapes — Corn is supposed sometimes not to flourish for w-ant
of the presence of phosphates in the soil. Now' to supply such defi-
ciency, bone du&t is well adapted, for bone dust contains eighty-five
per cent of phosphate of lime, and fifteen per cent of gelatine. The
fish called Moss Bunker, used for manure, is valuable principally on
account of the super phosphate of lime in its bones. It is this che-
mical element to which its fertilizing power is due.

Mr. Wakeman — I request some one to inform me what is the dif-
ficulty in relation to corn meal when ground to fine flour? Why is
the flavor changed?

Mr. Mapes — WTien ground very fine, it suffers a change on expo-
sure to the air. It is oxygenated. It is on the same principle that
the juice of an apple, after a little exposure to air is oxygenated, and
changes its character and taste. If the flour could be bolted in va-
cuo, it would not be changed. And the juice of the apple when
first expressed, resembles Champagne, but on a little exposure to air
becomes cider. Take fresh apple juice and churn it so that the air
becomes intimately mixed wnth it, and it becomes cider; so it is with

No. 151.] 513

powdered sugar, it loses much by the operation; when dissolved in
water, it renders the water turbid; not so in the loaf. Dissolve loaf
sugar and churn it, and it becomes like molasses. Fine Indian corn
meal, therefore, although salaeratus be used, will not make light bread,
and the taste of the salaeratus will prevail in it. By much stirring
the starch of vegetables becomes sugar.

Mr, DePeyster — ^Presented a quantity of Egyptian corn from his
farm. This grain is larger than that which I first planted. It yields
sixty bushels per acre. It can be eaten without grinding or cooking
if necessary. It is the corn which our Saviour gathered, and for
which Joseph went to Egypt.

GRAIN.

Judge Van Wyck. — This club commenced the discussion of the
subject of Indian corn by the method of cooking it, intending to
teach our friends in England. Now let us look into the modes of
raising the grain. It is now becoming essential to increase the corn
crops of our country, which are already worth twice as much
again as our w'heat crops. We exported latterly about one million of
dollars worth of Indian corn, and about six millions of wheat. This
shows the great consumption of corn by our men and animals; for
in 1845 our Indian corn crop was 418 millions of bushels, worth 35
cents a bushel, and our wheat crop 106 millions of bushels, worth 65
cents a bushel. If we obtain a market for our corn in Europe, we
shall have to plant more corn. France gives a crop of 198 millions
of bushel of wheat — raising about 13 1 bushels on an acre. Our corn
crop is on the general average of our country, about 25 bushels on an
acre. But in Madison county of this State, 170 bushels of shelled
corn has been produced on an acre, the greatest on record — this
planted in drills, as most of the extraordinary crops were.

Chairman. — This will shew our Southern friends how short of
product, their cultivation is, compared with our Northern. Col.
Skinner gave in his Farmers' Magazine many years ago, amounts of
corn crops of 160 bushels of shelled corn to an acre.

Judge Van Wyck. — A beast consumes far more corn than a man.
Our farmers need not fear the want of a market for corn; it is a
much more valuable crop than wheat. Wheat takes ten months to
grow! corn but four or five months! and leaves the soil in better con-
dition for culture. It cleans the land, wheat is good for that, but

[Assembly, No. 151.] 33

514 [ASSEMBLT

corn is still better. Americans better understand the culture of corn
than any other people. The corn grown in Europe is but in small
quantities; England will have to take her supplies from us chiefly.
The best mode of culture owAit to be better known amonff us. The
best soil is rich sandy loam, in which the roots of corn can readily
extend themselves, for they seek to penetrate not only deep but far
horizontally. The soil should be very mellow, that the corn may ac-
quire large stalks and of course large ears, for the size of the stalks
and the ears will be proportioned to each other; as to manures, sod
is excellent for corn. Put upon the sod barn yard unfermented ma-
nure, then plow the field, turning the manure and sod completely.
The sod and manure together will make a rich soil for the growth
of corn.

Put some manure also in the hills. Take one bushel of lime and
plaster, mix with five bushels of ashes, of this put a table spoonful,
in each hill of corn. By this method one farmer got 108 bushels
of shelled corn per acre and this planted in the hill, and 110, 115,
and 130 have been got. The last was by putting twenty-five loads,
after plowing (wagon) on an acre. This was done in our Broome
county; we are yet unacquainted with the proper use of guano: it
gives excellent corn crops in South America; we ought to try expe-
riments with it. There is, however, a probability that the supply of
guano will before long be exhausted, the price will become too high.
Corn stalks make an excellent manure for corn; there seems to me to
be (if I may so express myself) something homogeneous m manures.
It is so of grass, which forms one of the most perfect manures for
grass crops; and there is analogy also in the growth of animals,
which do best on parent milk. I have seen the experiment tried of
feeding animals on other milk than the purest. They do not thrive
so well as upon parent milk.

Col. Skinner — Read extracts from letters from Maryland and De-
laware, on the corn question. The ii telligent writers speak of the
necessity of preparing corn for exportation by kiln drying as indis-
pensable. Without that process corn is very liable to become heat-
ed and musty, so as to be unfit for food for either man or beast. The
kiln dried corn meal from the Brandywine mills, &c. made from the
yellow corn, has almost monopolized the West India trade. The
yellow is preferable to the white corn for this purpose. This pro-
cess is indispensable if we export corn to Europe. James Candy
says that from fifty years experience he has learned the necessity of
this process with corn intended for exportation.

Na 151.] 515

Corn ought not to be shelled until it is wanted for grinding. The
prejudice against corn in England has in a great measure arisen
from the frequent examples of heated musty corn received there, not
being fit for animals to eat. We should kiln dry it, brand it appro-
priately, and then send it abroad. Many countries can furnish wheat
much cheaper than we do, but cannot furnish corn so. I see a no-
tice in a newspaper, that wheat from Tbraila in Wallachia, with all
the expense of shipment (about one hundred per cent) still sold for
fifty cents a bushel!

Chairman. — Spain has an admirable soil and climate for Indian
corn. I have seen it grow there finer than any where else. The
climate is a blessed one, the most so of any in the world. France
is troubled with severe hail storms; Spain not at all. I often found
the corn from our country when it rcdched its destination, ruined by
heating on the voyage. It had become musty and of little or no
value. Kiln drying is absolutely necessary to preserve it for expor-
tation. We must learn and practice the best mode of kiln drying
it

INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETATION.

July 14, 1846.
Jonathan L. Hyde in the Chair.

Dr. Underbill. — Before I enter on this discussion I wish to correct
an error in some printed reports of my remarks at the last meeting.
I spoke of the good effects of peeling off carefully, (not injuring the
sap beneath,) the rough or diseased bark, or instead, shaving off
the bark with a drawing knife till nearly through the old bark, w^hen
new will be formed, that this process w^as favorable to the growth
and fruiting of barren trees. I did not speak of it as a means of
destroying insects particularly.

This subject of insects is a wide field, and it is one of immense

importance. I present here for your examination, branches of quince
and pear trees, showing the destruction caused by the sting of some
insect a few feet below the outward ends of the branches. You per-
ceive that the wood is turned black and hard like ebony or black
walnut. I also present some quinces, nearly covered with an orange
colored moss or excresence, the interior of the quince, as you see, full
of worms. I caused my quince trees to be whitewashed, body and

516 [AssEi^T

limbs, and now I have not one-tenth of this mischief that I had be-
fore, and a neighbor who did not whitewash his quinces suffers now
as I have heretofore.

Lime is used to destroy snails, which are very troublesome in Eng-
land and sometimes here in very damp weather, in low grounds. A
few years since they came on my quince trees, I sifted lime over
them and the snails were all dissolved by the lime, or nearly so.
This has been a wet season, but I have no more snails. The blight
in fruit trees has been ascribed to other causes than insects. Put I
am decidedly of opinion that blight in pear trees is due to msects.
This blight has been talked of these twenty years, and until very re-
cently, without any suspicion that it was caused by insects. The
plum tree is affected, especially the Damascene plum. I observe some
limbs are killed, similar to the pear and quince We have long suf-
fered from a class of insects that sting the apple, pear and cherry,
and destroying much of the fruit at an early period of their growth.
We have an insect among us which has been named the East Windy
for ten years past, supposed to have curled up the peach leaf and
caused it to drop; but a new leaf succeeds. I have this year exam-
ined the diseased peach leaf, with a glass, and found that these leaves
all had in them great numbers of insects. The nits may have been
deposited here by beetles which were exceedingly numerous at the
time the disease appeared. At evening the air about the orchard
was darkened by the immense number of these beetles on the wing.
The oak leaf is also attacked by them. All this is not the East
Wind. Formerly some few leaves used to be attacked, now scarce
a leaf escapes. This is working an evil in our fruit trees, for al-
though they have new leaves, yet are they enfeebled by it, and the
fruit loses its good character. The damage to the peach is not all
owing to the worm at its root. And our noble pippin is now assail-
ed by a similar insect, its leaves are all stung. Proper investigation
of this subject may lead us to very valuable results. Vineyards suf-
ftr least from insects. When catterpillars attack small vines in
your yards and eat off the clusters, the best way is to have a sponge
on the end of a pole, dipped in spirits of turpentine, the least touch
of which makes the catterpillar fall. My vineyard has not suffered
from them.

The injury to the leaves of the pear trees from the sting of in-
sects appears to be commencing. I have heretofore stated my suc-
cess in destroying rose bugs in my vineyard, by plowing late in the
fall, in cold weather, thus turning out the larvae to be killed by cold.

No. 15L] 51?

Evening is the time for insect jubilees. Nineteen-twentieths of
the beetle tribe, and many other insects commit their depredations
then. In ancient times fires were made on the highlands north of
Egypt to destroy the armies of locusts. This being supposed a fool-
ish practice, was discontinued, and Egypt again suffered the loss of
her crops. Fires made in evening have a happy effect; insects rush
into it drawn by the light I know a man whose pippin orchard
was alniost destroyed for two years by canker worms; he made eve-
ning fires in the orchard, which destroyed the millers which pio-
duced the worm, and then had good fruit, I suggest the making
fires, with proper care, in orchards as soon as insects appear, in eve-
nings. And I add plow the ground well, late in fall in cold weather;
it will turn out millions of larvae to perish by cold. Some say turn
in hogs! that has done well; they eat up the fallen fruit and insects
in them.

There is a prodigious increase this year of the insects that sting
the leaves of the apple, very similar to the peach.

•
Apple trees should be well scraped in winter; millions of eggs

and larvae under the rough bark will be killed by it. Leave cater-
pillars undisturbed and each produces a miller or butterfly to lay
more eggs. The nests of these caterpillars are easily destroyed, and
by so doing you confer a blessing on all your neighbors as well as
on yourself.

When I see (as I have) a man setting down, looking in despair
at the worm nests in his trees, I feel as if I should be glad to give
him a galvanic shock! co arouse him to his duty to his neighbor and
himself. He might just as properly sit still and see his neighbors'
cattle, or his own, breaking into his corn fiekl, without making an
effort to turn them out. Last year I destroyed some twenty thousand
of these worms' nest in ray orchards. In my neighborhood are wild
cherry trees, which are full of these nests, so that when I get a new
supply on my place I owe it to this neighbor as well as to negligent
farmers.

All our agricultural societies and clubs ought to take up this in-
sect question. There is a curious excrescence on our wild sweet briar,
made by some insect longed within. The English white hawthorn
is attacked; here is a branch with the young haws upon it, ruined,
you see, probably by the same insect which stings the quince tree.
I believe I have discovered the larvae of this insect, but am not yet
positive of it.

618 [ASSEMBLT

Mr. Meigs. — Some plants are not liable to the attacks of insects;
the Ailanthus seems to be one, and a very singular fact is stated re-
lative to the Lycopersicon — the tomato — that when legions of lo-
custs devour all plants, poisonous and all — night shade, crows' foot,
&c., there has always been one solitary exception, and that is the
tomato. This fact was especially not ced in Estreraadura in Spain.
I venture to hint that such plants as are avoided by the insects might
possibly be planted around pieces of ground, so as to afford protec-
tion to others. I say this, because in seeking for an unknown result^
it is safe to try theories or conjectures.

Col. Skinner. — You are aware of the importance of the article
turpentine, of the fact that the long leafed pine which produces
it, is disappearing, leaving no young growth to supply its place.
And this is also attributed to an insect working at its root. Great
numbers of noble pines of three feet in diameter and 150 feet high^
stand, some of them stretching their naked arms abroad, others pros-
trate on the ground, and no successors of their kind.

•
Man meets with vast power in insect life. What ravages are
those of the little ant. In some countries it is probable that no written
documents or records can long escape their ravages. They devour all.
Whole forests have been killed by beetles! In some forests of South
Carolina ninety trees out of one hundred have been killed by a smalE
black winged bug !

The ornithologist, Wilson, justly complains of the destruction of
birds, more particularly of the wood peckers, red headed and ivory
billed, whose services in destroying insects are of such great impor-
tance. I refer to James Rennie's Essay on Insects j it is very inte-
resting.

Dr. Underbill. — I must again urge the exceeding usefulness of
birds in destroying noxious insects. A cat bird will destroy for her-^
self and for her young, hundreds in a day.

Our crows must be preserved. On my place I have a rookery of
many thousands; they are many of them in my orchards all winter.
In summer they follow my plows all day long, feasting on grubs
and worms and beetles. I save one hundred dollars for every one I
lose by my crows. Young corn is easily protected from them. I
stretch cotton twine around and across my fields and the crows never
put foot in them; they suspect a trap. During very snowy winters-^

No. 151.] 519

when deprived of food, they trim my cedar trees beautifully. They
nip off with perfect regularity, three or four inches of the tender ex-
tremities of the branches in their efforts to get the cedar berry, leav-
ing the form of the tree very handsome, and the trees all grow the
better for their pruning. If I had the power, not a solitary crow
should ever be killed.

Samuel Allen. — Sometime since in Ohio I stopped to inquire into
the cause of the destruction of a neighboring forest. I was told that
an army of worms or insects which traveled on the ground, from
tree to tree, had done it. That a kettle was placed in such a man-
ner as to catch some of them in their journey, and that a basket full
of them was caught in it.

Dr. Field. — My orchards are affected in the same way as Dr. Un-
derbill's. No allusion has been made to the mode of destroying in-
sects on trees by syringes. Great service can be done that way,
even by pure water; but I advise the use of a decoction of tobacco
or of soot mixed with sufficient molasses to make it adhere to the
leaves. Dr. Underbill's mode of scraping off rough bark is good.
I have examined the rough bark and lound immense numbers of lar-
vae of insects in it. If we had as proper an antipathy to them as
we have to snakes, we should soon destroy them.

Judge Van Wyck. — The insects and their larvae are many of them
so minute and their form so changing that it is hardly possible to ex-
terminate them. We can only lessen their numbers. I examined
some apple trees in Jersey lately, and found the leaves curled up,
and on opening them, out flew small flies of slender forms like wasps.
I do not know whether this is a new enemy of the apple. After heavy
dew or rain sprinkle lime, fresh slaked, in moderate quantity, not
enough to burn grain, and the insects on it will be destroyed or dri-
ven away. It has been effectually tried on strips of grain; some
limed, others next to them not. The limed parts all free of insects,
the others nearly destroyed by them. This is one of the many valu-
able properties of lime, which seems to have been placed e^ery where
by the Deity for good purposes. It is the alkali of the lime which
does this service. Where lime is not at hand, ashes will do nearly
as well, owing to its alkali. Potash is also good. Scouring trees
well is an excellent practice.

Dr. Field. — We need accurate information, and I move the adop-
tion of the following resolution:

520 [Assembly

Resolved, That the memhers of this Club, and farmers and garde-
ners generally, be requested to collect, preserve and send to the
American Institute, specimens of such insects as are destructive to
vegetables, and such remarks in relation to them as they think pro-
per. And also that the Institute be requested to offer a liberal pre-
mium for the best preparation of Entomology, for the benefit of the
Club.

Mr. Abraham Wakeman. — Twine drawn around and across a corn
field is almost a sure preventive of the attacks of crows and black birds,
the latter partaking of the sagacity of the crow. But thus the insect
tribes have a feast. Farmers have long tried to kill the insects in
corn by dropping alkalies at the roots, and this also increases the crop
of corn. On examination you will find some stalks of corn, when
about three feet high, having in them, at a little distance from the
root a wire worm, which destroys the inside of the stalk. The law
of Connecticut, giving a black bounty of ten cents per head for kill-
ing crows, has caused men to visit the rookeries of these useful birds
■with their muskets, and kill hundreds of them. Man kills the birds,
and the noxious insects then multiply their destructive forces. In the
northern and some other countries you will find numerous large dead
pines, which are said to be victims of insects at the root; no young
pines growing in their places.

My 21st, 1846.
J. L. Hyde in the Chair.

Mr. Meigs. — It may be proper to notice insects useful to man, in
this description, and also the efforts made elsewhere at other times,
to correct the evil of injurous insects.

Humboldt says, that the cochineal produced in South America an
income of five hundred thousand pounds sterling a year. We know
the value of the bee.

Leuwenhock says, that one pair of Hessian flies can produce in
three months, seven hundred thousand. Kirby says that some insects
produce incredible numbers of offsprings. The white ant, (Termes
fatales) lays in one year over two hundred millions of eggs.

In 1788, England was greatly alarmed by the presence of the Hes-
sian fly. They supposed it had been imported from the United States,

No. 151.] 521

in cargoes of wheat. The Privy Council sat, day by day. anxiously
debating upon this calamity. Expresses were sent to the offices of
the customs to examine wheat cargoes; despatches were written to
the Ambassadors, to France, Austria, Prussia, and America, for in-
formation. The documents collected on this subject by the Privy
Council, filled two hundred printed pages, octavo. And no precise
information of any great utility was obtained.

The most important treatise of modern times, on insects, are those
of Donovan, who has given not only those of Europe and America,
but the Oriental insects, also; Latriellie's work. Rev. Mr. Kirby's
and Leach's are valuable. The theories of Fabricius have become
unfashionable, and Linnaeus has been reinstated on this subject of
Entomology.

Dr. Underbill. — The grasshoppers are sometimes very destructive
of vegetation, especially in a dry time. This I have noticed on
Long Island. Previous to their appearance, a large white grub is
noticed in great numbers, which sometimes eats off the roots of grass
in meadows so entirely that the surface of the meadow may be rolled
up like a carpet. This occurs early in June. Soon afterwards, the
grasshoppers appear and the white grubs disappear. The best reme-
dy for this evil of grasshoppers, is the Long Island one — turkies.
They collect as many turkies as they require, turn them out, and the
land is soon cleared; the quantities consumed by the turkies is as-
tonishing, and what are not eaten are frightened away. But the
most effectual mode with which I am acquainted, is the plowing late
in fall, turning out to the frost the insects in the soil. I did so with
the rose-bugs, and I froze them almost all, and millions of larvae of
other insects with them. Among them the black grub, that enemy of
our corn crops. And in the spring, I put on the land 50 or 60 bushels
an acre of fresh slaked lime; shell lime is best. A good dressing of
unleached ashes is very good to destroy the striped yellow bugs which
injure the cucumber and watermelon vines. The number of useful
insects, and some of them are eminently so, is but small. Bees and
some others, convey the fructifying pollen to flowers which require
it. The great body of insects are obnoxious.

The reason why our western country is not much injured by in-
sects, is, the rapid', strong growth of plants in a virgin soil. Birds,
too, are more abundant. Here, the martins, swallows and wrens are
very useful in destroying insects; and when plants or trees are not
of a vigorous, healthy growth, insects pounce on them as their prey.
We ought to court the habitation of birds about "our houses. The

6j23 [AsSEMBLt

plant louse is very prevalent this year. It is in countless millionsj
and seems to increase in number by propagation as great as the ant.
After a little time they have wings, and you may hear the noise of
their alighting upon the leaves, like sand thrown upon them.

I observed both the black and the green plant louse on the same
plant, but they did not seem to associate. We ought to clean out
these insects at their first appearance. I now believe that this plant
louse is the insect which is doing so much mischief to our apple-
trees and peach-trees. They attack the tender growth of the grape
vine leaves also.

The best mode to destroy them is, to take pains early, pull off the
leaves on which they are, and wash the trees; use a syringe with a
solution of whale oil soap in water, or potash. When they have
got their wings, you can do nothing with them.

Mr. Meigs, — How is the egg of this insect preserved over win-
ter?

Mr. Cozzens. — The eggs are deposited in crevices of the bark of
trees. This insect is an aphis, and passes through four mutations in
the year; at each change it lays eggs, and it cohabits with its male
in only one of its conditions.

Mr. Hamilton. — Their eggs are not always deposited in crevices
of bark, for my young seedlings have them on. Some say it is ho-
ney. That the ant will carry the aphis up a tree, mix in among
them and never disturb them. This year I remarked immense num-
bers of the aphis and ants in the apple nursery. I have used tobac-
co solution into which I dipped a long-handled brush and with it
sprinkled my plants and trees. I have used up two barrels of the
solution mixed with soapsuds, and with great benefit. The ants and
the aphis have both disappeared together.

The black aphis prefers the cherry-tree, but it is found on the
dock plant. What is called the American Blight appearing on ap-
ple-trees, is a white, woolly-looking louse, and is very destructive of
young trees. Sulphuric acid mixed, three-quarters of an ounce with
seven and a half ounces of water, makes a good sprinkle for them.
The white grub is a destroyer of young seedling trees. Tn Europe,
it is said that the American blight was imported there; we say here,
that it was brought from Europe in young trees. The accusation is
mutual.

No. 151.] 623

M. M. Noah. — The following suggestions published by him Wer<f
read to the club.

" We would suggest to the Farmers' Club at their next meeting,
that they give information what ornamental and forest trees can be
planted in cities that worms will not attack. There are such trees^
and no others ought to be planted in cities and large towns. Some
of the most beautiful trees in the Park and Battery are entirely
stripped of their leaves by worms, and it is during certain periods of
the summei, a complete nuisance to pass under them. Will Judge
Meigs, Colonel Clark, Doctor Gardener, Professor Mapes, and other
members, give the desired information? "

Mr. J. Cozzens.— The following communication from him, was
read:

SUPPOSED CAUSE OF THE FREQUENT BURNING OF
BARNS BY LIGHTNING.

Jfew-Yorkj August 1st, 1846.

Dear Sir:- — Having noticed that more barns were struck by
lightning at this season of the year than at any other time; that is,
after they are filled with new hay, I would wish to call the attention
of those who are the most interested, to make inquiries as to the
particular cause, and also, to report to the club, if convenient. I
have thrown together my ideas on this subject, in this paper, which
1 wish you (if you think it worth while,) to re; d before the club.
It is well known that by these accidents, caused by lightning, the
farmer often loses his whole crop of hay, and other crops, which
may be stored contiguous to it; his barns, and sometimes his most
Valuable animals; for I believe it to be a fact, that more barns are
burned by lightning just after they are filled with new hay, than after
the hay has become seasoned, or when it has become purely dry, or
when the barns are empty.

At this season of the year, and about the time the hay is housed,
there are more thunder storms than at any other season, (if we ex-
cept this year, 1846, so far as the first day of August.) Hay, when
first stored, has always more or less moisture in it; it has also an
essential oil; it is also always more or less hot from the field, and
when put in the barn in large quantities, its juices and moisture are
undergoing decomposition; and the compound is giving out gases
which are forming new compounds; these ascend from the barn, and
like all other exhalations, reach some height in the air, so that when

524 [Assembly

the clouds which pass over, are plus, and the earth about the barns
is minus, the fluid, oleous gas, and vapor, may act as a conductor,
and attract the electric fluid, and carry it directly to the heated hay
in the barn.

1 have thought a great deal on this subject, and am well persua-
ded that there are more of these buildings destroyed by lightning
when filled with new hay, than at any other time. May not the
above assigned reasons be the cause?

Hay, when first housed, becomes heated; then the mSisture evapo-
rates; this exhalation (process,) may carry off the electric fluid, and
leave the barn and its surrounding locality with a less quantity of
electric fluid than is required to keep up an equilibrium.

It is my belief that all exhalations from the earth carry up the
fluid, and where they are greater in one place than in another, the
clouds become charged with different quantities of the electric fluid,
and sometimes discharge into each other; say cloud No. 1, is charged
400 — cloud No. 2 is charged 800 — they meet by different currents
of wind, and discharge into each othei'. The quantities are equal —
600 in each — in all, 1200, which is carried over a barn that is but
200; the clouds are discharged into the barn, and all becomes equal,
1400. Now, if there was not something to make the barn minus,
it would not be struck. But suppose the barn to be plus, say 2800,
the fluid would pass from the barn to the cloud, which may not be,
or is not the cause, in my opinion.

Evaporation carries off the electric fluid, so that the most power-
ful electrical machines have been made by taking advantage of this
process. Exhalations carry off the fluid in the same way; hence the
accumulation of it in clouds, and the distributing of it in thunder-
storms, which take place w^hen a charged cloud is driven by the wind
over any locality which has a less quantity of the fluid than itself.
Now, how to prevent the electric fluid from doing this mischief to
barns, is the great object.

Suppose inquiries were made of those who were the sufferers, or
their neighbors, if they had lightning-rods to their barns, or in the
locality? — how far off? — if in good repair? — how many? — at what
distance (in feet?) — (for if it is said that the ligiitning-rod will not
work, act or operate, for more than 40 feet, or thereabouts, around
its station,) as to their height? — if any barn or house was struck
"which had a steeple standing near it; if so, was there a rod to the

No. 151.] 525

steeple? — was the steeple 100 feet high, or of what height? — and
every thing else that might give information on this subject — were
there any tall trees near it? — was the barn struck at that part which
contained the hay, the straw containing the grain, or the threshed
straw? — had the hay been stacked? — and what quantity of salt used
to a supposed ton? — was the hay housed damper than it should have
been? — was the hay well cured? — and what kind of hay? — clover,
timothy, or any other products of the farm?

I am pretty certain that if hay was salted when housed, it would
be beneficial in stopping the partial decomposition j and of course,
there would not be so large a quantity of moisture carried off in such
a hurry, as there would be without; and of course not so great a
quantity of the essential oil of the plants, nor of the electric fluid; the
process of drying in the barn would go on slower, and would not
exhaust the electric fluid so as to make the locality negative; for it
is known that two bodies having equal quantities of the fluid, whe-
ther the quantities are great or small, have no operation or action ou
each other.

To Henry Meigs, Esq., Recording Secretary of the Ainer. Inst.

D'Jay Brown asked for the reading of the report on Gurneyism,
in the report of the Commissioner of Patents, which was read.

Roswell L. Colt. — I am glad you have taken up the subject of
insects, and the many depredators upon our fruit and forest trees; for
peaches, I think I have discovered, (or rather, I should say, have suc-
cessfully practiced on the discoveries of others,) by applying as a
preventive, first, and curative next — gas coal tar to the roots of
peach trees, and for three inches above ground. When I set out
young trees, before planting, I apply the warm coal tar with a brush,
of course, and see that there are no worms there at work; for old
trees, we examine them in May, pick out the worms, apply the tar,
and healthier trees you cannot find in this State; all that is said
against coal tar to the contrary notwithstanding. It is true, I wash
my peach trees, and all my fruit trees in March, with soapsuds made
of 1 pint whale oil soap, to 15 of water; this kills all caterpillars,
lice, and leaf depredators, and I feel a pride in saying, that not a
caterpillar nest can be found on my premises.

We had, a fortnight since, a new kind of caterpillar, of the com-
mon size, and instead of being gray, or slate color, it was a hairy
caterpillar, perfectly black, and depredated upon, nothing but the

626 [Assembly

English elin. Whale oil soapsuds, applied through a green-house
syringe, kills them all; as it does the lady-bug, so destructive to ro-
ses, cherries and grapes. I told my gardener to bring to you some
of the black elm caterpillars, but they died, and he did not think
them then worth carrying.

A communication on a preventive of worm in peach-trees was
read. It says:

I have, within the last six or seven years used the corrosive su-
blimate in two or three different ways, applied to my peach-tree
roots in the latter part of October, and have never found a grub on
any one of my trees in the spring, or any part of the year thereaf-
ter. The remedy must be well applied, and early enough to prevent
the little worms making their entrance at all, for, if they wound the
bark, however slightly, the tree will be injured, but they will be
killed by my remedy without delay, even when they are entirely
imbedded in the bark.

The earth must be first removed from the trees, down to the de-
parture of tlie roots, and the surface well rubbed with a cloth or
brush, and all crevices and defects in the bark freed from the soil.
The preparation which follows, must then be applied, a little warm-
ed or softened, but not so much as to permit the powder to separate
from the mass. Then take an old, stiff paint brush, and thoroughly
cover every part and crevice of the bark with the preparation, from
the branching of the roots to about two inches above the ground.
Then surround this surface with a single bandage, made of old India
rubber cloth, oil cloth, or any cheap muslin well paintea and dried
for use, or any other covering which will certainly prevent the ab-
sorption of the corrosive sublimate by the wet earth. Then tie a
string round the bandage firmly at the upper end, above the ground,
and replace the earth, and pack it around the tree as before. In the
early part of the next April, take off the bandages, cleanse and
save them for use again.

You will find the preparation still on the bark, but no grubs alive;
and if any are found in newly dressed trees, there will be nothing
more than the skins of. worms which had gained an entrance before
the dressing was applied. No grub can live under this dressing, if
applied as is here directed. I have made my preparation without
any weight or measure, but think the following is about right, but it
may in large orchards be used, no doubt, with a less proportion of
the corrosive, but for this I will not vouch. I have usually added

No. 151.] 527

nitre, but do not consider it very important, as the corrosive is, no
doubt, the active poison.

Take common tar, 2 lbs. ; tallow, also 2 lbs. ; melt them together,
and after they are cooled so much as to hold suspended, add the
following:

Pulverized corrosive sublimate, 3 oz.
do common salt of nitre, 3 oz.

Have the preparation well stirred from the time it begins to cool
until the powder is thoroughly diffused through the entire mass, and
well cooled.

The corrosive costs only about eight cents per pound, and would
be sufficient to protect a large orchard. The whole expense of ma-
king the application, will, I think, not exceed two cents a tree. I
hope, through the influence of the American Institute, the plan
may be fully tested in other hands, and be of public utility. You
are at liberty to use any part of the above hasty details, if you think
with me, that the plan will bear the test of scrutiny, but as I have a
strong aversion to having my name before the public, you will please
withhold the same in any publication you may make.

TURNEPS.

Dr. Underbill. — Perhaps a repetition of our doctrine on this sub-
ject may be proper; all have not heard it. It is an important crop
in England, but its value is not yet felt here. England enjoys a
climate peculiarly adapted to its culture. The moistness of that cli-
mate, is perhaps the main reason of its great success there, and the
great returns of the crop. We here so often suffer from drought at
the season of planting, that three out of four, or four out of five of
our seasons are unfavorable for turneps, except in certain grounds.
We often sow it among corn. It is protected by the corn, and when
that is cut off low, the turneps mature, thus giving a corn and a tur-
nep crop together. Great disappointments occur here in our turnep
crops from drought. In England it has an immense value as feed
for sheep and cattle. The ruta baga and yellow Aberdeen turneps
are best to fatten cattle, and sheep fed on them lose that muttony
taste so unpleasant, and gain a delicious flavor. The influence on
mutton is similar to the cresses eaten by canvass-backed ducks, ren-
dering their flesh so fine. Grouse and partridge are- bitter and un-

528 [Assembly

pleasant to the taste when budding, until they have fed on their fa-
vorite food.

The turnep yields a heavier crop than any other vegetable in
England. It almost always precedes the wheat crop. The mild
winters of England enable sheep to feed on them in the ground —
they eat them out of the ground. They are placed within an im-
movable iron fence upon a patch, and when that is eaten, moved to
another. Dropping their dung on the patch, they enrich the soil.
The following year an extraordinary crop of wheat grows on these
fields.

Mr. Meigs. — You recollect that in a late return to the British
Parliament of the value of English agriculture for the year, it is es-
timated in all its value, at the great sum of three thousand millions
of dollars! — of which nearly one half was ascribed directly and in-
directly to the turnep crops.

Dr. Underbill. — The cattle, and sheep particularly, require food
that is not too concentrated. The same kind of turnep is not so
likely to succeed here. We must have those that run their roots
deep into the soil, such as the ruta baga, the yellow Aberdeen, or
Dale's Hybrid. We must plant these early; they will keep all win-
ter; they are more solid and more nourishing. I recommend the
sowing of the yellow Aberdeen and Dale's Hybrid, now. The red
top turnep grows large and must be first fed to stock, for it will not
keep well.

Although it is perhaps not in order, I beg leave again to speak of
the cultivation of the carrot. Enough has not been said of this
highly valuable root. This root bears drought well; it runs down
deep; it should be planted early; no insect touches it; it is far more
nutritious than the turnep, and I do not know any vegetable except
ca:ava, that fattens stock so fast and well as the carrot. Cows fed
on it, yield a rich, yellow milk; the cheese from it needs no other
coloring; the butter is rich in flavor and color. I am so convinced
of its value, that I mean to have, next year, a thousand where I now
have one carrot on rny farm. We can feed our cattle with it all
winter, only giving them hay enough to form their cuds, without
which they cannot live. Begin to feed about two quarts of carrots
at a meal, and gradually increase the allowance, but do not exceed a
half bushel.

No. 151.] 529

The average crop of the carrot is greater than that of turnep ; 600
bushels is a good crop, but by great cultivation, one thousand, and
even twelve hundred bushels have been raised on one acre. The seed
must be sowed in April, not later than the 1st of May. Carrots
must be dried carefully, and so put in cool, dry places, free of frost
and damp. It has been recommended to sow carrots with flax; pull-
ins: the flax loosens the soil, and then the carrots mature. The flax
and carrot seed are harrowed in together.

I repeat, plant turneps on the moist alluvial grounds, on banks of
creeks, in valleys. When turneps, as with other vegetables, grow
luxuriantly, they are not hurt by insects. The turnep flea, or rather
fly, destroys thousands of acres sometimes, in a short period of
drought. This fly attacks only the leaf, some others and worms at-
tack the bottom. Some persons have followed the plan of feeding
these insects by means of bran or ship-stuff which have small por-
tions of their flour attacked. They sow this over a turnep field and
the fly feeds on this flour instead of the turnep leaf. One person ga-
thered the fine dry dust on the road, and sowed it while the dew was
on the leaf; the fly would not then touch the dusted leaves. This
dust remains on until the next shower, and if that does not come in
four or five days, the fly no longer assails the crop. Another person
sows dry unleached ashes thinly over the field; perhaps guano or
poudrette would be better still, giving offensive taste and smell to the
plants.

When turneps do not thrive, worms are apt to assail them, but not
when the soil is rich and growth luxuriant. Turneps are a very valu-
able crop when the hay crop is bad. In Westchester last year we
supplied by turneps half the crop of hay which was lacking; and
this city requires much hay, which our farmers can spare and make
it up in turneps at home. And the culture of the root crops in a ro-
tation seems to favor those chemical principles indispensable to soil.

The parsnep is a very valuable root. Some have objected to feed-
ing turneps to cows, because it gives a turnep taste to the milk; but
if you feed them to the cow either just before or after milking, there
will be no such taste to the milk. I should be disposed to try guano
or poudrette on the turnep crop, if the weather was moist, but in
drought they would be of no earthly use. I lost a crop, however,
last year, by giving it an over dose of guano. Perhaps we can hard-
ly use it as they do in moist England. The best way to plant them
is in drills, plough two or three times, harrow as often and you may

[Assembly, No. 151.] 34

630 [Assembly

sow them broad cast, but they must be thoroughly weeded for a fine
crop.

Mr. Hyde — If the turnep were a sure crop here it would be very
good, but it is very common for it to fail. Farmers have the impres-
sion that it depends on an adequate supply of rain, about the time
of sowing. The hostile insect is a very small one, which on your ap-
proach suddenly disappears by (apparently) jumping. It has cut oflf
whole crops in a very short time. I have tried the ashes over the
leaves without success. I have sifted soot over them with better ef-
fect.

J. D. Williamson-*— A gentleman on Long Island, permitted me to
examine corn planted by him on barren sand. It was so planted as
to form his name. A wager had been accepted by him as to raising
corn on such land, by any method whatever. He made holes in the
sand at one, two and three inches distant from the seed in different
hills; he filled these holes with guano and covered them with the
sand. In hoeing he did not disturb these holes. He planted corn o»
the neighboring land at the time. The corn so treated with guano
is nine feet three inches high, while the other crop is two or three
feet high only. This gentleman is from Peru, and says this is their
mode of using guano on their sandy soils. I did not see any differ-
ence in the growth of the hills which had the holes one or three in-
ches distant from the plants. The guano was some of that imported
by Mr. Collins, and he obtained it at the Atlantic Dock, Brooklyn.

Chairman — Our regular subject is in order, — the " making of
Domestic Wines, and Roots for Cattle."

Dr. Underbill, of Croton Point — It may be useful to repeat, and
it is too important not to be thoroughly understood, that the Carrot
and Sugar Beet are particularly adapted to the dry climate of our
country. This beet, perfectly cultivated, acquires an enormous size;
is very nutritious, exceedingly fattening to cattle, and yields more
vegetable matter than any other, not excepting the turnep; is pre-
ferable to Mangel Wurtzel, but its saccharine is not quite so much
concentrated as that in the Carrot. I hope that our Agriculturists
will try them both effectually . A crop of these is absolutely certain!
drought or no drought! No insect injures either of them. I have
had sugar beets on my farm which weighed twelve or thirteen pounds
each. In France, cattle are fattened on them, (although they have been
subjected to the process of extracting the sugar from them,) to an im-

Kb. 151.] 531

mense extent. Some have failed here from not having had the right
good seed. This beet is of a yellow color. On a rich damp soil, there
has been raised from one acre, one thousand to twelve hundred bush-
els of them. It is proper to have both Carrots and this Beet, for
the Beet not keeping so long as the carrot must be fed to cattle first,
then use the Carrot w^hich keeps until late in the next Spring. It is
believed that the carrot may be left in the ground all winter with-
out injury to it; that in this respect it is like the parsnep, keeps as
well as that does. These roots are excellent for soiling purposes,
and are very fattening for cattle and horses.

These roots must be well separated in cultivation. I plant carrots
In rows, one foot apart, and the carrots in the rows four or five in-
ches apart. I plant the sugar beets in rows eighteen inches apart,
and the beets in the rows from eight to twelve inches apart These
must, of course, be well weeded and tilled.

Mr. Ransom — The Sugar Beet strikes its root very deep. Oxen,
Cows and Sheep prefer Ruta Baga to it, w^hich keeps long. It is
chopped up and mixed with some Indian meal for their feed, and
they fatten rapidly upon it. I did not discover the peculiar value of
the Sugar Beet for cattle. I maintain that potatoes, cooked with
some Indian meal, fatten stock excellently. Apples with twice their
quantity of cooked potatoes are also very good for fattening cattle.

Dr. Underbill — Indian meal is good we all know. It would an-
swer well even with some chips in it. Ruta Baga tends too much to
tops; its yield per acre bears no comparison with the beet and car-
rot, and it is besides much damaged by insects; but it keeps longer
than the sugar beet.

Mr. Lathrop — I have kept the sugar beets, in a dry cellar, until
the month of August of the next year.

Hon. Mr. Terrill,of Georgia — On the subject of Domestic Wines,
I will make a few remarks. I have, in Georgia, an acre and a half
of Scuppernong Grape vines. A single vine has covered an acre,
and if not disturbed, one and a half acres. Vines are trained on
frames. Mr. Ponce, a neighbor, makes wine of these grapes, which
resembles champagne. No brandy is used in it — it is a very plea-
sant wine. It is said that this grape is named from a Creek at
Pamlico Sound, where a vessel being wrecked, seeds of this grape
were washed on shore, and there began to grow. A method of mak-
ing this wine, is pressing out the juice and adding to it apple brandy

532 [ASSEMBI.T

— about ten per cent — add also a little loaf sugar. We shake the
vines so that the ripe grapes fall into sheets spread to catch them.
We make wine from a wild grape, which is something like the Mus-
cadine, and of other wild grapes. The odour of the Scuppernong
grape is highly agreeable and powerful, filling large rooms. One
gentleman is making very good brandy from grapes, imported as well
as native. Some suppose that our Warren grape was originally im-
ported: it is named from Warren county, Georgia. I think it is a
native grape.

Dr. Underbill — W^e have heard of Herbemont's Madeira.

Mr. Terrill — ^It was a good wine: he is deceased. One of ouir
difficulties with the Scuppernong, is the pruning of it. We must be
very careful. It must be pruned in November at the fall of its leaves j
otherwise it is injured much, if not fatally. The culture of the
Warren grape is extended all over our country. It ripens rather
later than the Isabella. We do not like the latter much in Georgia.

Charles Henry Hall — Wine, if properly made, should be without
the addition of brandy. When its processes, its fermentation, are
made as they should be, it is only necessary that they should be pre-
served in proper situations, as in the caves made for that purpose in
Europe, where the temperature is right for their preservation. Some
of these caves are formed in the sides of hills and holes are made
from the surface of the ground to the caves to give exit to the gases
formed. I call upon our learned friend Dr. Underbill for informa-
tion; he raises grapes on the large scale, a production of great
importance.

Dr. Underbill — Nearly all, if not all fruits, contain the vinous
principle. When the must of grapes or other fruit is warmed to about
one hundred and five degrees of Fahrenheit, then the alcohol contained
in them comes over, and such is the nature of this chemical process
that afterwards adding the brandy or alcohol to the wine is unavail-
ing; no chemical combination restores it to its original condition.
German chemists attribute the vinous principle to the saccharine
matter contained in the fruits. Since I commenced my vineyard the
doctrines of Temperance have gained great extension. My great ob-
ject in the introduction of grapes and wine into our country, was to
displace, if possible, the use of ardent spirits; and wine is indeed in-
dispensable for many medical purposes, as is well understood by all
physicians.

Ko. 151.] 533

Mi^ch wine is made in the United States from native grapes. The
celebrated Swiss establishment at Vevay, in Ohio, which commenced
with imported vines, hes long since found that those would not be
reconciled to the climate, soil, &c., and have replaced them by na-
tive grapes — Isabella, Catawba, and several others.

Thousands of gallons of wine from native grapes are made in In-
diana and in Ohio. Our wines from native grapes appear to require
the addition of sugar to enable them to pass safely through the try-
ing changes of our climate, summer especially. And the want of
proper cellars for keeping these domestic wines is felt. Most of our
grapes require a pound of sugar to the gallon of wine. The Scup-
pernong wine of North Carolina is well known as a very good one.
The late Mr. Herbemont crossed the native Bland grape with the
French Miller's Burgundy, from which he made excellent wine of the
quality of Madeira.

Kentucky, Illinois and several of the States make more or less
wine from our native grapes. We rarely find a gallon of wine
which has not added to it a tenth or fifteenth part of brandy. In
time our various soil, climate, situation, &c., will furnish us with
great varieties of wine.

Charles Henry Hall — I have had some experience both in raising
grapes, making wine, and also in a moderate dealing, occasionally,
in wines; and I have personally examined the vineyards, and the wine
making of Europe, and the caves and warehouses in which it is indis-
pensable to preserve wines. Our learned friend, Dr. Underbill, is gener-
ally correct. I must state, however, that the process of fermentation in
wines, so far from requiring 105 degrees of heat, by Fahrenheit's
thermometer — goes on at GS"^. Grapes contain tannin as well as
the vinous principle. Nor is it necessary for the grapes to be ripe to
make some wines. You can have good wine from the juice of green
grapes. From Canada to Texas, grape vines grow, some attaining
the tops of our lofty trees. Scuppernong grape is somewhat trouble-
some to manage for wine, tor the berries ripen in succession, and
fall off from the branches. Dr. Underbill can make good wine if
he pleases to follow the method indicated. We have good wines
from the grapes of the north of France, where they frequently do not
ripen. In the making of wine — when the grapes are mashed and
going through the fermentation, a saccarometer (hygrometer) is
tried — and the degree must be eleven, for good w^ine. Your "must,"
Dr., would probably show eight or nine. Wine ' is made with as

634 l^AssEmmJi

mach facility, nearly, es cider. On the surface of tBe wine, in the
large wine vats used in Europe the pommace rises, and is skimmed
off. When the wine has become clean, it is put into casks. A se-
cond fermentation takes place. I have made wine here from the Isa-
bella grape, and by adding to the grape juice three quarters of a
pound of sugar, per gallon, I obtained a wine much like hock. By
adding one pound of sugar per gallon, I obtained a good fair wine.
By adding one ])ound and a half of sugar per gallon, I got a fine
sweet wine, which, when tasted, by gentlemen experienced in the
qualities of w^ine, not knowing whence this wine came, was pronoun-
ced by them a foreign article of a delicious flavor, with fine bouquet.
This wane I made from ripe grapes.

Dr. Underbill- — I remember that wine — it was very fine. The
process of fermentation occurs at the temperature of sixty-five de-
grees of Fahrenheit, and alcohol comes over at about one hundred
and five degrees.

Charles Henry Hall — -Our object here is to elicit facts from among
our own citizens, and to find out how to make our own wines, and
of what qualities. The scuppernong is somewhat diflftcult to man-
age in making wine of it, but excellent wine is made of that grape.

The hock made from the Isabella grape is a fine wine-— whole-
some— subacid.

Dr. Adlum did not succeed in his wine making. There is no wine
imported here which has not brandy in it. When the makers of
wine for export to England or to this country, are asked, why do you
put brandy in it? the answer is you have hot mouths, and we must
gratify them. Medoc wine is rendered of its peculiar properties by
depriving it of the tannin and the color. Europe keeps at home all
its poorest ill made whines — much like our poor cider. The Mon-
tellade wine is one of the most wholesome made. Spain and Portu-
gal drink much wine, but there is not a drunken person to be found
there.

Professor Dewey — Wine contains alcohol, but in its condition then:
it is very different from that which is separated from the combination.
There is 1^ per cent of alcohol in ^nall beer — 4 to 5 per cent, in
cider — 22 to 25 per cent, in Madeira. I am pleased to know from
Alderman Hall that wine needs no admixture of brandy. It has been
generally supposed to be necessary to cause the wine to keep welly

No. 151.] sas

and I deem it an interesting fact that fine wine made by him, with-
out brandy, received the approbation of gentlemen of much taste and
judgment in wines.

Dr. Trisk made use of currants wuth sugar, and was one of the
first persons to say that good wine could be made and kept without-
the addition of brandy. His wine was sent from north to south,
without injury, although free from brandy.

Dr. Underbill begged leave to correct an erroneous impression
which had arisen from his remarks. He said that it was not his in-
tention to assert that 105^ would produce a fermentation in wine, for
this takes place at 60^ or 65*^ to 70^, and is caused by the sugar and
mucilage. All substances which contain sugar, would, by fermenta-
tion, produce the vinous principle, and when heat is applied over
105° alcohol is produced. But alcohol cannot be obtained without
the occurrence of a species of decomposition, resulting from the heat
applied (105° to 110°.) These, he said, are the views of the Ger-
man chemists, and as far as his own experience went, he had not
found cause to contradict their statements, as it is impbssihle to re-
produce the perfect wine hy again mixing in the alcohol that has been
separated by distillation.

Charles Henry Hall — The Hygeometer is an instrument used in
making wine. For example, when the " must" stood at 9° on the
instrument, (specific gravity 1,067) it was found too weak to make
good wine, consequently refined sugar was added, until the instru-
ment marked 11°, (specific gravity 1,083,) the liquor fermented well,
became clear, was of good body, and excellent. By adding more
sugar, a sweeter wine was made, resembling Muscat, and by many
thought to be as good. The wines made by Mr. Hall, at Harlem,
W'cre made according to, M. Cha^jtal's directions, and were those
tasted by Dr. Underbill.

Dr. Underbill said he considered it very desirable to preserve the
grape during the winter. He read a letter from Mr. James Weir, of
248 Grand-street, stating that a friend of his obtained some kegs con-
taining the ground cork, in which grapes had been imported, kiln-dried
it, and packed some grapes of his own raising in it, which kept well un-
til the following July. Dr. U. stated that he had succeeded in preserv-
ing grapes in kiln-dried wheaten bran, — that in preserving them, as
well as fruits generally, they should be kept in a place as cold as
may be without freezing. This temperature, therefore, should not be

636 [Assembly

lower than 32®, nor above 35*^, if possible; he said that carrots
and parsnips may be preserved during the winter in the ground.

Mr. Van Wyck said that he had successfully tried saw-dust for pre-
serving grapes, and he believed that vegetables might be treated as
stated by Dr. Underbill, but he thought it best and more safe to house
them, as leaving them in the ground is a hazardous experiment.

Mr. Hall remarked that the Spaniards export more grapes than al-
most all the world besides. He said they preserve them by packing
in oak saw-dust and hermetically sealing the vessel in which they are
put. As to the opinion that carrots and parsnips can be kept good
in the ground through winter, he begged leave to differ. Carrots, he
contended, cannot be thus preserved, but parsnips may be, although
a bad practice. Housing he considered the safest plan, or they may
be packed down in sand.

No. 151.] 537

A CONTRAST BETWEEN THE AMERICAN AND EUROPE-
AN SYSTEMS OF VINEYARDS.

Brinkleyville Vineyard, Halifax Co., JV*. C,

Mr. Starr — Some individuals not thoroughly acquainted with the
true and successful vineyard operations in this country, might sup-
pose that in the above heading, the word parallel should have been
used instead of contrast, and one reason of my supposing this, is
drawn from the tenor of a certain conversation of members of the
American Institute, as detailed in the " Farmer and Mechanic" on
the vineyard business in our country. According to my recollection,
from reading said conversation, all but Dr. Underbill, (who is pre-
sumed to be most practically and thoroughly acquainted with the vine-
yard subject) seemed to lean to the opinion that the propogation and
culture of foreign kinds of vines, might do in our country. But the
opinion of the Doctor was directly the reverse; or, as I understood
his expressions on the subject, he coincides with me; who, after about
17 years of careful experience, and all available information, con-
clude that foreign vines, and foreign modes of vine culture, and wine
making, will not succeed as a profitable and permanent business in
our country; but that a system of vineyards, American throughoutj
imtramelled with foreign rules, can and will succeed to free us from
foreign dependence for annual millions worth of wine, and I add, for
•wines not as good, or as unequivocally healthful and medicinal as
made here from native grapes of our own mode of culture and pro-
cess of wine making.

The first voyagers to North America, specially noticed the abun-
dance of fine grapes every where seen, and compared them with the
clusters of " Eschol/' but the after settlers of the country failed to
realize this special agricultural advantage, and mainly failed, it may
be said, through servile regard to foreign vineyards. And in regard
to seeing the main cause of the long ill success of American vine-
yards, it may be asked, ' Has any foreigner ever succeeded here in a
vineyard?' The answer is wo^ owe. And although special inducements
have been held out thereto, as in the State of Alabama, plantations
have been given by legislative enactments to foreign vintners on con=
dition of cultivating a small portion of" land, say an acre, in grapes.
But foreign vines and the like, spoiled the experiment. So no Amer-
ican has succeeded m trying to make a vineyard profitable managed
in a foreign way, while with American vines and modes of culture
and wine making, all desired success has been the result. As instan=

538 [Assembly

ces of this we may name the late Mr. Adkim, of Georgetown, D. C;
Mr. Herbemont, of Cohimbia, S. C,j Mr. N. Longworth, near Cin-
cinnati, Ohio (who it is said made 200 barrels of wine in one season,)
and Dr. Underbill, perhaps the most extensive vintner in the North-
ern States. As one honored as an agriculturist with membership in
the " American Institute," and perhaps the most successful vintner in
the Southern States, it will not, I trust, be deemed presumptuous or
vain in me, to add a few facts of my experience on trial of the two
systems of vine culture contrasted. So long as I tried the foreign
system, disappointment only ensued as to any satisfactory or profita-
ble result.

But whenever I got my American system under way, my vintages
rapidly increased, till as a sort of extra plantation crop,! have made
the past season 40 barrels of wine; every gallon of which, from past
experience, I calculate to be good and saleable. And besides this re-
sult of ray last vintage, I have sold considerable quantities of grapes
which were carried away; and also entertained hundreds of visitors,
paying entrance fees into my vineyards, of which one hundred white
persons entered in one day, besides carriage drivers and servants.
Again, my most select native vines, have been vended annually in
various parts of the Union; and so far as heard from, desired success
has attended their culture. I am most credibly informed that my
Halifax grape, carried to France, ranks among the best there culti-
vated. I will not omit to say here, that intelligent foreigners visit-
ing my vineyards, declare, as to their knowledge, the Scuppernong
grape in particular, to be equal to any, and superior to most in East-
ern vineyards as to size and flavor, (a berry 3| inches round not un-
common, and one found here 4 inches in circumference,) and it is
certain that none foreign, unless, perhaps the celebrated Hamburgh
in England, can compare with the Scuppernong vine in extent and
productiveness. It is conceded an undoubted fact here, that a single
Scuppernong vine in the lower part of this State (the native region
of this grape) will spread over scafl^olding nearly a quarter of an
acre, and besides a plenty of its most delicious fruit to the owner and
neighbors, yields its five barrels of wine annually. A quarter acre
ot twelve vines, cultivated in best style, I knew to yield 500 gallons
a vintage, or equal to 2000 gallons per acre, while 800 gallons is an
uncommon yield in Europe. The concurrent testimony of the best
judges of wines, is, that the genuine well made Scuppernong, vies
with any foreign and is found to be most medicinal in the practice
of all families in which it is kept for that purpose. Were it not" for
the outlandish prejudice in favor of foreign wines, the American scup-

No. 151.] 539

pernong itself, might be made ere long to supply half the United
States with the best of wine at a very moderate price, and the com-
paratively low price which it oears, is one cause of prejudice against
it. Those that go for the name and credit of having foreign Ma-
deira at three dollars, say, per gallon, eschew the better American
at one dollar.

But, to return from this digression, and as a further evidence of
the productiveness of American vines, after a hundred visitors at a
time had partaken plentifully, in the compass of about a quarter of
an acre, the grapes abstracted therefrom could not be missed. But
apparently the same unvaried sheet of fruit, hung on the canopy
above. There is a great contrast in the method of plucking grapes,
here and in the east. There they have to stoop to gather them, and
here benches and other facilities to stand on in order to reach the
grapes are required. The kinds that diversified the entertainment
just named, were the Scuppernong, Weller's Halifax, Norton's Vir-
ginia, Seedling, Cunningham, and Fragrant, (the last named as well
as Scuppernong grapes, diffusing a delightful perfume throughout the
premises,) together with a few Isabellas and Catawbas that had sur-
vived the rot, their usual calamity in the South.

Although my communication (for your excellent periodical,) is now
much longer than I intended when commencing it; yet I venture to
add a very few brief rules as to my mode of making wine with su-
gar as the keeping ingredient. I say keeping ingredient, for what-
ever are the pretences to the contrary, for sinister or other purposes,
I learn from the most reliable sources, that there is scarcely an ex-
ception to the fact, that some ingredient is added for the safe keeping
of wine in eastern vineyards, although not generally to the juice used
by the inhabitants as cider was formerly used here In Europe, bran-
dy made of soured wines, is generally added as their keeping ingre-
dient. A foreigner of undoubted veracity, who had visited the Isl-
and of Madeira, informed me that there they put in their wines
brandy made from oranges. Oranges in Madeira, are as plentiful it
appears, as apples are in America. From most reliable information,
they add one-third wine brandy to Port-wine before its exportation.
^ It may be here remarked as a very important fact to counteract the
mere theorizing on American wine making, that although far more
wine juice per acre is yielded, it is less saccharine in quality in Ame-
rica than Europe; therefore needing more here than there, an ingre-
dient of some kind to be added plentifully enough not only to give
zest and strength, but in our hot climate, to guard against the acetous

540 [Assembly

acid in the first fermentation. I have indeed made wine without
any ingredient added, which kept well; when the grapes were not
only very ripe, but shrunk by drying. But the quantity of wine is
very insignificant for the quantity of grapes; and therefore, for this
and other reasons, this mode of wine making is not at all advisable
for a living vineyard business. And the wine thus made, is quite as
intoxicating when intemperately used, as that made with keeping
ingredients, as the alcoholic principle is generated by fermentation in
all that is properly called wine.

I now proceed to give the following brief rules for the benefit of
vintners generally.

1. As to gathering the grapes. I have the Scuppernong berries,
as they ripen in succession (for near two months), shaken down with
a forked stick from the canopies above, into a large sheet below.
Other grapes I have picked off in clusters by hand.

2. As to mashing the grapes, I do this with a machine of two
wooden rollers placed on a frame and tub or vat, and turned by hand
at diverse ends. (This machine was invented by Mr. Herbemont,
and described in his treatise on wine making.)

3. As to keeping ingredient, and guarding against undue fermen-
tation. I strain the juice as running from the press through several
folds of a woollen blanket, and then add sugar, from two to three
pounds per gallon, and mix it thoroughly. I then put the prepared
juice into a cask fumigated with a sulphur match. I will simply
add a remark, that if I wish a highly colored wine of dark grapes, I
ferment a few hours the mashed mass, before the last named process.

S. WELLER.

SOILING CATTLE, &c.

Chairman^— Our regular subject is soiling of cattle, first, and kitch-
en garden, next.

Judge Van Wyck-— As I described the grazing system at the last
meeting, the field remains covered with the litter and the manure of
the cattle, and I know of no better condition of the pasture for a

No. 151.] 541

succeeding crop of grass. Here is the fact of like to like verified.
The old grass and the manure formed from grass and hay remains,
to furnish the means for new grass and hay. Here is the exemplifi-
cation of the great rule, of returning to the soil that which you have
aken from it. Cows, especially, do not like confinement, as requir-
ed by the soiling plan. They love a quiet pasture, shade, drink from
the natural streams, facility of brushing off flies among the bushes,
and rubbing against trees. Soiling may be necessary near a city,
"where land is dear and farms contracted; but in this country, it can-
not be necessary to confine our cattle for many years yet to comej
our farms generally afford room and range for them.

Judge Van Wyck — In grazing, the grass and litter protects the
surface of the soil from sun in the summer, and drenching rains and
severe winds and frosts of winter, a great benefit to it. I have tried
carrots as food for my cows, and on them one cow yielded five pounds
of butter a week, of a fine yellow color, rich and fine like Orange
county butter, and this in winter. We may talk as we please to our
farmers, but they will pursue the course which is most profitable.

Mr. Lodge — Give to ruminating animals roots morning and even-
ing, and hay or an equivalent between their meals. Carrots are ex-
cellent food for them, and can be raised in great quantities. I have
raised four hundred bushels of carrots en one-quarter of an acre of
land. When the crop is growing thin out and feed the young car-
rots to the stock. I have raised the Belgian white carrots, which
in England have grown in some instances to the weight of fourteen
pounds each. Here they can be made to average two or three pounds
each, say two pounds; that would be over forty thousand pounds per
acre. In their culture, till the land deep; it must be manured well
the year before, for fresh manure is apt to canker the young carrots.
Pass the cultivator through the rows every ten days, hand hoe the
field every three weeks, thin out until at last the carrots stand nearly
a foot apart in the rows, which should be about two feet apart. Par-
snips are very good for sows with young, and parsnips stand the
hardest winter in the ground.

Go spiritedly into the root crops. Horses and cows do not much
like parsnips.

Chairman — Feed stock as you will, the great heat of July and
August will make them fall off in their flesh, even when fed in the
richest fields of clover.

542 [Assembly

Mr. Lodge — Carrot is an excellent change of food for cattle, even
during the summer. And I have exhibited carrots here on the first
day of June. The carrot is an object of great interest to our coun-
try.

Judge Van Wyck — No soiling plan can give us such milk as we
obtain from cows on the open pasture. I never visit the country
without perceiving both by taste and smell, the wide difference be-
tween the milk of stalled or soiled cows, and the pure delicious milk
of the country pastures.

Mr. Lodge — I offer the following method for fattening hogs. Put
the ground corn or grain in a vat or barrel; let it remain until it
begins to turn sour; give it to the hogs with sufficient water, and it
will fatten them faster than any way that I know of.

Professor Mapes — This receipt of Mr. Lodge's is a good one.
Mr. Wilson of Brooklyn, has tried it on the large ox. He has used
the swill from a distillery fed with shorts, which mixture he suffers
to become a little sour before he gives it to the ox. This feed di-
gests easily.

Mr. Wakeman asks Mr. Lodge, what proportion of the cobs should
be ground up with the corn?

Mr. Lodge — It is common to begin feeding hogs with corn and
the cob ground fine; and as he goes on to fatten, to diminish the pro-
portion of the cobs; to let the feed sour a little in vats or barrels.

Judge Van Wyck — Is there a great difference in breeds of cows
as to their milk?

Mr. Lodge — Alderney and Devons give the best milk.

Mr. Wakeman — There is a great difference in the milk of cows of
the same breed, and withihe same treatment, almost double the quan-
tity of milk, equally good.

Mr. Lodge — So there is — but I prefer good quality in milk to
quantity. I have known cows whose one gallon of milk was to be
preferred to the six quarts of another.

Judge Van Wyck — But we have as fine milkers as ever were
known, whose breeds were unknown.

No. 151.] 543

March 16th, 1847.
MANURES.

Messieurs Biarnois, freres, presented to the club a jar of the French
guano, prepared by a company in Paris, who have a capital of six
millions of francs employed in its manufacture. Messrs. Biarnois are
agents in America, and their office is at 113 William-street. They
will give samples for experiment, and can sell the article at thirty
dollars per ton. The value of this fertilizer consists in the use of
an antiseptic, which combines with the ammonia, and prevents its
evaporation, and plants readily decompose the compound as they re-
quire it; while the natural guano, for want of the antiseptic, loses
its ammonia too rapidly; so that this French guano amends the soil
for a length ol time.

M. D. N. Demarest, of Woodbridge, N. J., presented grafts of
the orange blush apple, which ripens in August.

GRAPES.

Dr. Underbill said, the interest in the cultivation of the grape ra-
pidly increases, and in a few years it will be very extensively raised.
The taste of the grape is natural to man! In sacred writ it is pre-
sented as the emblem of all that is most excellent; the more we be-
come familiarized with it, the better we like it. I have seen late
publications shewing how to cultivate the grape in America; these
may do well for Germany, but not for us; a vineyard cannot be made
here as it is there. Cuttings will not answer for us; we must plant
our vineyards with vines two, three or four years old, from the slip.
The more dry the soil is, the better for the vines. When your vine-
yard is planted with vines well rooted, the loss is not five per cent.
We have a grape called the Alexander; it has a thick skin, and not
fit for the table; it cannot be placed at the head of our list of native
grapes, as one writer has done. The York Madeira is a fine grape
for the table and for wine; but it is a shy bearer; small berries, and
few of them half the size of the Isabellas. It is not the synonime of
the Alexander, as stated in a late work.

It is said that the black Hamburgh and the sweet water grapes
succeed in the open air in our Southern States. I do not believe
they will generally ripen; both the heat of summer and cold of win-
ter, are too much for them, except under glass. 'Our Isabella and

544 [Assembly

Catawlba grapes do well from here to the Gulf of Mexico. We have
one hundred and forty grapes, among them the Beaver Dam, Bland,
Norton's seedling, &c., and by proper culture, many of these may be
rendered good. The Scuppernong will not do here; the Isabella
and Catawba grape have already found their way to Europe, and are
there highly approved. Germans and others admire these grapes
here. The Isabella can be raised in every climate where Indian corn
can. It demands proper cultivation. The crop of grapes is more
certain than that of any other fruit. The vineyard should be prepa-
red by deep ploughing and thorough work. As to the whole process
of planting a vineyard, I will, with pleasure, inform any one who
will apply to me before the first of May, at my house. No. 326
Broadway.

Mr. D'J. Brown. — Does not Mr. Longworth, of Cincinnati, plant
his vineyards with cuttings? Is it not done in Pennsylvania?

Dr. Underbill. — That plan will succeed in damp soils; but the
grapes to be good, must be grown on dry soils. An experienced
German tells us that our grapes have more saccharine in them than
the generality of German grapes. The plan of watering grape vine-
yards made by planting slips, is too troublesome, and will not suc-
ceed.

Mr. Manice — Will watering answer?

Dr. Underbill — Perhaps so, if they are watered to a great degree.
Germans here have tried watering them, and failed of success; the
heat in summer is too great. The ground of the vineyard should be
ploughed deep, so as to turn the rich surface soil to the bottom, for
the benefit of the roots of the vines. In Germany they sometimes
sell their wine for three shillings a gallon, and yet take great pains
in planting their vineyards. My great object in the culture of the
grape is, to produce the fruit for table use; that is more profitable
than the wine at one dollar a gallon.

Mr. Fleet, of Long Island. — Does deep ploughing between the
vines, injure them; would subsoil ing do so?

Dr. Underbill. — It would hurt the roots.

Mr. Fleet. — We do so on Long Island.

A Member. — What is the northern limit for the grape vine in
America?

Wo. 151.] 545

Dr. Underbill. — Isabella can be grown on hill-sides in Vermont,
where the rocks gather the heat of the sun by day and retain it
through the night; thus keeping off frost. And perhaps this method
might answer in parts of Canada.

Mr. Samuel Allen. — What would be the effect of putting pulver-
ized charcoal on the surface of the ground about the vines?

Dr. Underbill, — ^Increased heat; black always has that effect
The ammonia from the rain and snows may be absorbed, and perhaps
the carbon might sink into the soil in form of carbonic acid, and do
good. But the heat of our summers would generally cause too great
dryness.

We are now in the season of grape vine pruning; all this month
will do. Spur pruning is generally done in this city, but this will
not do for the open vineyard; there we must cut away the old wood
and bring in the new. The less fruit we obtain by close pruning,
the more sugar and more sure ripening of the fruit. Our Isabella is
constantly improving by culture, and will for fifty years to come go
on to improve by careful management, which is not lost upon this
grape. In France, the bleeding of the vine by pruning is bad; their
vines are more feeble; but it is not so in Germany or here. When
the vines have put out leaves, in May, they will not bleed, if
pruned,

Mr. Pell read the following:

There is probably no plant more numerous in all countries, than
the grape vine. From the remotest antiquity in all ages it has been
considered the symbol of happiness and type of alundance. It be-
longs to Linnseus's first order, and fifth class. Pentandria Mono-
gynia, the varieties are almost innumerable, and differ not only in
size, but taste, shape, color and aroma; soil and climate change at
once its nature and the relative proportion of ingredients composing
it, which is proved by the fact that no kind of grape succeeds the
same in all climates. If, for instance, you were to bring a vine
from the Cape of Good Hope, and plant it in our latitude, it might
possibly, if it did not die the first year, bear a crop; but it would be
very inferior as I have proved. On the other hand, if one of our
vines were removed to the Cape, the fruit would be much improved;
fo|; the reason that no plant is benefitted by, or enjoys more the solar
influence, than the grapevine; and in proportion as it receives that
heat, the saccharine matter predominates. On this, saccharine you

[Assembly, No. 151.] 35

646 [ASSEIKM.;!

must depend for the quality of your wine, the best of which is made'
between the thirty-third and fifty -first degrees of latitude. Cologne^
in Germany, is the city farthest north, and the island of Cyprus the
most southern limit of the best wine regions.

Wine made from grapes grown in the vicinity of the northern Ime,,
has a very small quantity of saccharine, and is consequently unplea-
sant; for example, the Moselle. Those grown in the immediate vi-
cinity of the southern boundary, contain a very large proportion of
sugar, and are deficient in the acid; consequently, the wine made
from them is sweet and sickish, such as the Malaga. They are mostly
dried in the sun and exported as raisins.

The most delightful wines are those made from grapes grown in
the centre between the boundaries, as at Oporto and Bordeaux.
England, to be sure, has the same latitude in the southern portion of
it as some good wine districts, and would grow fine grapes were it
not for the humid clouds that always overhang it, causing mustiness
and mould; plainly showing that without the rays of the glorious
sun, you cannot grow fine grapes; therefore, let your aim be so to
plant as to reflect the rays of the sun constantly upon your
vine, root as well as branch. Side-hills having a southern ex-
posure, will be found the best. Copy after those who have devoted
the lives of generations to the cultivation of the vine; the inhabi-
tants of the country contiguous to the Rhine, the Appenines and
Hungary. You will there find terraces on steep side-hills, sustained
by walls, one above the other, hundreds of feet in extent, presenting
the most magnificent appearance that the eye of man ever beheld;
staircases of splendid grapes, on all varieties of soil, rich, dry, loamy,
calcareous, sandy, gravelly and even stony, no matter w^hat its na-
ture may be as long as it is dry. Nature does not abhor a vacuum
more than the vine does a wet soil. If you desire vines of great
luxuriance, and bearers of immense quantities of grapes, feed the
roots with bone earth, feathers, hair, charcoal dust and human or-
dure; but they will not make wine. If the latter be your object,
plant them in a loam, sandy, or calcareous soil, moderately enriched,
kept well pulverized, and annually dressed with their own leaves and
tendrils.

In Italy, and other hot climates, the vines are encouraged to the
tops of the highest trees, from which they are carried to others plant-
ed in rows for the purpose, and thus hang in the most luxuriant fes-
toons imaginable, loaded with splendid grapes. The object is to

No. 151.] 547

shade them, and thus shield them from too much heat. The French
grow them as we do corn, in hills, and cut them close to the ground
•when they trim, having two objects to accomplish; the one to ob-
tain fire-wood, and the other, to expose them to the reflection of the
sun's rays upon the earth.

In Spain, the vines are trained along the ground. I was reading
some book the other day, in which it was stated that the " same
climate, soil, and mode of culture often produce wines of very diffe-
rent qualities. Situation and aspect alone, all other circumstances
being the same, make a very great difference. The same vineyard,
according as its different parts, have a northern or southern aspect,
will produce wines of opposite characters; as also will the same hill
at its summit, middle and bottom. In cold countries, the southern
slope of a rising groxmd is the most favorable situation, and in warm
climates, the last is found to be generally the best." This accounts
for the vast varieties of wines; the same vineyard may produce
wines having distinct properties.

In some parts of France, the wine growers imagine that vines
should not be matured at all, as they say it affects the flavor of the
grape. In Alto Douro, the port wine district of Portugal, there ex-
ists a law forbidding the use of manure on grape vines. In this
country, unfortunately, too little attention has been paid to the culti-
vation of this most important of all fruits; there is no other in ex-
istence capable of making wine, for the reason that it contains in
a larger proportion than any other fruit, tartaric acid; which, com-
bining with potash, forms bitartrate of potash, usually known by the
name of tartar, which is always held in solution in the juice of
grapes; if you taste grapes when half ripe, this tartar predominates
to a great degree, and has a disagreeable flavor; as the fruit ripens,
the saccharine increases and overcomes it. Gooseberries and cur-
rants contain acetic, citric and malic acids, which, being soluble even
in water, remain in the liquid made from those fruits, and are injuri-
ous to many constitutions; therefore, it cannot properly be denomi-
nated wine. Dry wines are so called when the saccharine matter
and fermenting matter decompose each other by their combined ac-
tion, and sweetness cannot be perceived; these wines are considered
the best, such as port, Burgundy, &c.

Sweet wines are those in which saccharine predominates to such
a degree as to render it impossible for the ferment to decompose it.
Wine is called brisk, when the fermentation is stopped by being bot-
tled, before the carbonic acid has escaped; when -confined, the fer-

548 [Assembly

mentation continues, and is eventually absorbed by the wine in a
condensed state; when the cork is withdrawn it escapes from the
bottle with a report. The manufacturer, by judicious management,
can make dry, sweet and brisk wine from the same juice. Bouquet
of wines is the aromatic odour which is perceived when fine wines are
exposed to the air after being bottled.

The aroma is a principle derived from the fruit. America will yet
become the vineyard of the world. We have every species of cli-
mate, and soils capable of producing grapes equal to any grown.
Our whole country is overrun with vines which appear to be indi-
genous, and some of them yield berries of immense size, and every
shade of color. In Louisiana, Ohio, and Florida, much fine wine is
made from native grapes. Then we have the Scuppernong, Catawba
and Isabella, from all of which, most delicious wine has been ex-
pressed.

In South America, vineyards are very numerous, and in the vici-
nity of Buenos Ayres, exceedingly productive, and produce red, dry,
white, brisk and sweet wine. In Peru, delicious grapes of very
large size are grown. Many of the native grapes found growing
wild in our woods at the North, are much larger than any foreigo
grapes I ever saw abroad, and only require careful cultivation to ena-
ble us to obtain fine varieties already acclimated.

"We shall become a wine making people; and that day is not far
distant; as we are weekly adding to our population foreigners, who
have always been accustomed to a national beverage expressed from
the grape, and without which, so strong is habit, they cannot exist
Let them commence its culture, and demonstrate its advantage, and I
assure you our enterprising countrymen will not long let them enjoy
a monopoly. Until that happy day arrives, you may depend upon it,
no human exertion can arrest the progress of the habitual drunkard.
Let one-third of the enormous sums annually expended by philan-
thropic persons and communities for the purpose of coercing and
constraining their fellow man to give up, against his will and incli-
nation, the use of ardent spirits, be appropriated to the encourage-
ment of the vine-grower, and take my word for it, the rising gene-
ration will be a temperate people.

During a long absence abroad, I never saw in vine-growing dis-
tricts, a drunken man, and it was because all those countries have a
national and cheap beverage, made chiefly from the juice of the

No. 151.] 645

grape, of which they may partake ad libitum, without producing the
baneful effects of our ordinary liquors.

There is not a man among us who cannot make his own wine; it
is only necessary to pick the grapes, express the juice, and place the
liquor in a clean barrel, let it ferment freely, and bung it up tight.
It you would preserve your grapes for dessert, place them in some
porous vessel and cover them with the sand, after having sealed the
stem with sealing wax, or put them in a tin hermetically sealed box,
and exhaust the air.

JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE.

The following communication was made from Hon. Sidney Wel-
LER, M. C, from N. C:

It may not be too presumptous in me as a member of the Ameri-
can Institute to request the conversational members to take up the
subject of the Jerusalem Artichoke, and particularly to throw all
the light that can be had on the question: " Whether my position
is feasible that the Jerusalem Artichoke can be made a substitute
for the Irish potato."

I venture to announce the above named vegetable, very important
to our agricultural interest, in at least three respects, viz:

1st. As a substitute for the Irish potato, which it is no longer
safe to cultivate on account of its destructive disease.

2nd. As the most profitable crop that can be made for fattening
and store feeding swine.

3rd. As a most important auxiliary renovator of the soil where
grown.

In glancing over the " Patent Office Report of 1845," my eye,
Mr. Editor, met some extracts therein of my communications on
vineyards, improvement of the soil, asd the artichoke, (pages 321,
•362, and 932.)

550 [AsSEMBtT

As may be seen by turning to the first cited page of said report,
I set forth there, " some striking advantages in the culture of the
common kind of artichoke," and stated I was about to try the cul-
ture of the Tennessee kind, new in this region, and said to be of ex-
traordinary product. I did so, with these also some others for seed,
that came from the State of Georgia, which I learned were also the
Jerusalem; and I found the two last named identical, or of like quali-
ties, and of wonderful yield. By reading the cited extract in said
report, and being reminded I had promised to communicate to the
farming public the result of my experiment with this kind of arti*-
choke, and for the sake of method, I choose to write under the divi-
sions named.

But ere pursuing them directly, I will describe the Jerusalem, and
my manner of their culture, and gathering. The tubers of this sort
are long and smooth, and thus unlike the common, which are oval
and rough; though the former are not so large as the latter. The
Jerusalem are not remarkable for size, (looking like small sweet po-
tatoes,) but for multitudes, as the product is so good as to fill the
ground in every direction where planted. My rales of product per
acre on different lots, as nigh as I could ascertain by detached pla-
ces dug, were from eight to twelve hundred bushels per acre. I
planted rows of the common and Jerusalem, side by side, to test the
comparative yield, dug twenty feet in a row of each kind. The pro-
duct was, six quarts of the common, and a bushel and a half and
six quarts of the Jerusalem; indicating that in drills three feet apart
and stocks a foot in the drill, the product of the common would be
short of 150 bushels per acre, and the Jerusalem upwards of 1,200
bushels. The former, at a critical time of growth, were injured by
a dry spell, causing some of their leaves to fade; but all the leaves
of the latter continued green through the season. I consider the
most eligible distance to plant the Jerusalem is about 4 feet drills,
and small pieces of the tubers put twelve inches or more in the
drills, and the ground to be kept clean and loose till the plants shade
it well, which they soon do. Less work is necessary for artichokes
than corn.

My practice of gathering the Jerusalem artichoke is to plow flush
the ground, and small hands to follow the plow to pick up all the
tubers made visible, while the balance left, (one half perhaps) was
left to be rooted for by swine. But designing brevity, I must at
once proceed to the heads before named. And

No. 151.] 551

1st. In favor of tlie substitution of the said artichoke for the Irish
potatoe, it may be asserted that the latter grows well wherever the
former does. And it may be, ere long, that Ireland itself will sub-
stitute, as sustenance for its millions, the Jerusalem artichoke for its
no longer reliable potato. The prodigious and certain yield will
compensate sufficiently for the comparatively less mealy and nutri-
tious quality than the potato. And improved modes of cooking may
soon obviate these comparative defects of the artichoke. I see it stat-
ed in a letter published in the Albany Cultivator, written by the distin-
guished agricultural tourist, Solon Robinson, that he much relished
a dish of sauce made of the Jerusalem artichokes cooked as turneps
or Irish potatoes, or boiled (often with meat) and mashed up, as com-
tnon in Tennessee and other Western States.

A century ago, or so, the afterwards called Irish potato was cul-
tivated as a curiosity only in gardens, and not deemed a good eata-
ble vegetable. But in time it became the principal food of millions
of the human race. And I add, with sadness, that more subsequent-
ly its dire disease has disappointed millions of their daily food.
But:

2dly. The Jerusalem artichoke is the most 'profitable of crops for
feeding swine. I venture to assert that on soils where fifty bushels
of corn can be made per acre, 1,000 of these artichokes can, which
will go fourfold, at least, further than said corn towards fattening or
store feeding swine. And I learn that, from repeated experiments
ascertained, one-fifth of the corn usual for fattening hogs suffices
with the help of said artichokes, and how little comparative trouble
with either fattening or store feeding hogs when turned into a lot of
artichokes to root for them at leisure, or perhaps all winter as well
as spring and fall in southern climes. But:

3dly. Said artichoke is a great renovator of the soil where culti-
vated. The growth of the tops is so luxuriant (12 to 15 feet high
and very branching) that incorporated into the earth, its litter can-
not but enrich the soil more than the culture of the plants exhausts.
And suppose its tops soiled, or cut off measurably in the season of
growth, (and thus excellent summer food for milch cows, without injur-
ing the yield of the plant, as I have tried,) or cut before hard frosts for
catties' winter food, and still their eventual benefit for manure is real-
ized. Various are the ways of using the tops to improve land, but
the most direct improvement, I consider, is to press them down into

662 [ASSIHBLY

the deep drill or furrows, into which you have prcA'iously planted a
mew lot of pieces of the tubers, all then well covered with the plow„
The litter of any plant is found to be the best manure for that plant.
But to conclude, these hastily written, and therefore somewhat de-
sultory remarks, on the excellent vegetable in question, are most re-
spectfully submitted.

Addresses, A. Chandler's, 310

American Institute, March 1, 1828, 264

M. Dickerson's, 276

Geo. Folsom's, 302

Henry Meigs', 296,308

H. C. Westervelt's, 284

Agriculture in Georgia and South Carolina, 471

Analysis of Bean Meal, Maize, Flour, &c., . c 505

" Coal, 498

Apples, 139

Mode of packing for shipment, 409

Apple Trees, preservinjr from injurious insects, 477

Arracacha, * 473

Arrowroot, Georgia, 135

Artichoke, Jerusalem, * 549

Ashes, character and composition of, 494

Ayrshire Cows, 125

Bell's Farm, report on 86

Bill authorising the American Institute to establish an Agricul-
tural School, XV

Bridgeraan's Horticultural Report,. 103

Browne on the history of Indian Corn, 412

" origin of Fruits, 454

Butter, 137

Cattle, keeping of, 470, 506

" soiling of, 541

Chandler's closing address at the 19lh Fair, 310

Cheese, imitation English, 138

Coal, analysis of, .«*.....• « ; « 498

554 [Assembly

" as a manure, , 493

Cocoons and Reeled Silk, 143

Colt's improved stock, 124

Communications from contributors, 324

Composition and character of ashes, 494

Contrast between American and European systems of vineyards, 537

Convention of Farmers, Gardeners and Silk Culturists, 210

Correspondence of the American Institute, extracts from, .... 468

Cows, feed for, 470, 508

Cultivation of Corn, 133, 134, 404

" Grapes and manufacture of domestic wine, 145, 324

« the Garbanzo or Chick Pea, 479

« " Woad Plant, by Wm. Partridge, 402

Culture and manufacture of Hemp, . 482

Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, 71

" Arts and Manufactures, 148

« Science, 204

Dickerson's opening address, 276

Disease of the Potatoe, 468, 497

Domestic Wines, 144, 262, 472, 531

East Brooklyn Ox, 128

Electricity to Vegetation, 481

Extract from the correspondence of the Institute, 463

Fan Mill, 201

Farmer's Club, 480

" petition to the New-York Legislature, ........ 249, 273

Farming by Gouverneur Morris, 132

Fat Oxen, 127, 128

Feed for Cows, 470, 508

Field, on improvement of Soils, 392

" Soiling Cattle, 364

Flax and Flax seed exported, 485

" Cultivation and manufacture in Ireland, 491

Flowers, origin of, 449

Garbanzo, or Chick Pea, 479

Gas Works, report on, 198

No. 15L] 655

Gay's Wooden BrUge, report on, . . 200

Georgia Arrow Root, 135

Grain, 513

Grapes, mode of culture, 324, 472, 531, 543

Harvey's report on the progress of Machinery, 162

Hemp, manufacture of, 201, 245

Hops, profit of cultivation, 135

Horticultural Report, by T. Bridgeraan, 103

Improvement of Soil, by H. A. Field, 392

Indian Corn, culture of, 87, 94, 102, 133, 134, 404

" history of, by D. J. Browne, . . . . , 412

" introduction of, into Great Britain, 504

" mode of cooking, ,. 441

" " grinding, 440

" " kiln drying, 440

Insects injurious to vegetation, , , 515

Johnson's Farm, report on, 96

" field of corn, report on, 102

Keeping of Cattle, 506

Kidd, on the culture of Grapes, , 145

Leather, manufactures of, by C. M, Leupp, 463

" Sole, inspected in New-York, from 1827 to 1846, . , . 466

Liebig, on diseased potatoes, 497

Light and Vegetation, 474

Lightning, supposed causes of burning of barns by, 523

Lime and its uses, by R. L. Pell, 371

Linens imported into the United States, 485

List of Piemiums awarded at the 19th Fair, 20

Longworth on the culture of Grapes, 324

Machinery, progress of, 1 62

Madder, 405

Manhattan Gas Co. , report on, 198

Matched Horses, 129

Marine Camels, report on, ,,>,., 196

Manure, » ' 543

656 [Assembly

" properties of, 386

Meigs's address at the 19th Fair, 296

" to the blind, 308

Memorial of Convention of Farmers, Gardeners and Silk Cul-

turists, or Washington's Department of Agriculture, 224

Mushrooms, 476

New England Silk Convention, 253

Ox, East Brooklyn, " 128

Packing apples for shipment, 409

Partridge, on the cultivation of the Woad Plant, ... 402

Peas, 406

Pell, on curing Hay, 410

" Lime and its uses, 371

" Soiling, 331

" the origin of Flowers, . > 449

" properties of manure, , 386

Potato, culture of, .... 134

" disease of, 468, 497

" onions, 474

Poultry, 130

Premiums awarded at the 19th Fair, 1846, 20

" from 1835 to 1846, 13

Preservation of Peach trees, 408

" Vegetables, 47®

Proceedings of National Convention of Farmers, Gardeners and

Silk Culturisls, 209

Properties of manures, 386

Pruning, by R. T. Underbill, 500

Quinces, cultivation of, „ , 140

Receipts and expenditures American Institute, February, 1846,

to February, l847, 2

Receipts and expenditures American Institute, 1839 to 1847 .. 12

Report of the Amei ican Institute for the year 1816, 1

" " Committee of the Assembly on an Agricultu-
ral School. viii

No. 151.] 657

Report of the managers of the 19th Annual Fair, 14

" " Bishop's Railroad Bridge, 193

" " Browne's Trees of America, 204

" " Cotton,Woollen, Silk and Linen Manufacture, 148

" " Farming animals,. 71

" " Farm of Bell & Morris, 86

** " " Jeremiah Johnson, ....>..... 96

« " « D.S.Mills, 83

" " " Gouverneur Morris, 88

" " " S. B.Townsend, 94

" " " th Corporation city of N. Y., 98

« " " W. J. Townsend, 93

« " Field Crops 83

« " Garden of H. Smith, 91

" " Gay's model Wooden Bridge, 200

, " « Horticulture, 103

" " Johnson's Field of Corn, 102

" " Manhattan Gas Works, 198

" " Newell's Parautoptic Bank Lock, . . , 202

" " Ploughing and Spading, , 80

" " Progress of Machinery, 162

" " Rider's Iron Railroad Bridge, 193

« *' Roads and Bridges, 193

" " Ruschenberger's elements of Geology, 205

" « " " Ornithology,... 208

" " Russ' Pavement, 193

« " Taylor's Marine Camels, 196

" " establishment of a Botanic Garden in Florida, 229

" " Trinity Church Organ, 190

" " Washington's Department of Agriculture,. . . 222

Resuscitation of worn out soils, , 397

Rider's Iron Railroad Bridge, report on, , 193

Roots for Cattle, by R. T. Underbill, 369

Rose Garden, 475

Russ Pavement, mode of constructing, 194

{(

report on, c 193

Saxony Sheep, ]28

Shepherd Dog, 130

558 [Assembly

Silk and Cocoons, 143

" Convention, New England, 210

" " New York, 253

Soiling, 331, 364, 541

Soils, improvement of, 392

'' resuscitation of, 397

Starch, 135

Statement of exhibitions at 19th Fair, 124

Taylor, on the use of Muck to improve the soil, 400

Trees of America, report on, Browne's, , . . , , 204

Trinity Church Organ, report on, 190

Turnips, 527

Underhill, on Pruning, , ,,,.. 500

" Roots for Cattle, 369

Unrotted Hemp, manufacture of, 201

Use of Muck to improve the soil, 400

Vineyards, contrast between American and European, 537

Weller, on Vineyards, 537

Westervelt's address at the 19th Fair, 284

Wharton, on the resuscitation of worn out soils, 357

Wine, domestic, , 144, 324, 472, 537

'' manufacture of, by N. Longworth, 324

Working Oxen, I263 127

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